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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #66786 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/66786)
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-The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Text-Book of Horseshoeing, by Anton
-Lungwitz
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
-will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
-using this eBook.
-
-Title: A Text-Book of Horseshoeing
-       for Horseshoers and Veterinarians
-
-Author: Anton Lungwitz
-
-Translator: John William Adams
-
-Release Date: November 21, 2021 [eBook #66786]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-Produced by: Richard Hulse and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
-             https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
-             generously made available by The Internet Archive/American
-             Libraries.)
-
-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A TEXT-BOOK OF HORSESHOEING ***
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber’s Notes:
-
-  Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_
-    in the original text.
-  Equal signs “=” before and after a word or phrase indicate =bold=
-    in the original text.
-  Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals.
-  Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs.
-  Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.
-
-
-
-
-                            A TEXT-BOOK
-                                OF
-                           HORSESHOEING
-
-                                FOR
-                  _Horseshoers and Veterinarians_
-
-                                BY
-                            A. LUNGWITZ
-
-      FORMER MEMBER OF THE ROYAL SAXON VETERINARY COMMISSION,
-    LATE INSTRUCTOR IN THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF HORSESHOEING,
-             AND DIRECTOR OF THE SHOEING SCHOOL OF THE
-           ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE IN DRESDEN, GERMANY
-
-                                AND
-                           JOHN W. ADAMS
-
-               PROFESSOR OF SURGERY AND OBSTETRICS,
-         AND LECTURER ON SHOEING IN THE VETERINARY SCHOOL,
-                    UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA
-
-                        _ELEVENTH EDITION_
-
-         _WITH TWO HUNDRED AND TWENTY-NINE ILLUSTRATIONS_
-
-                       PHILADELPHIA & LONDON
-                     J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
-
-           Copyright, 1897, by J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY.
-           Copyright, 1904, by J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY.
-           Copyright, 1913, by J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY.
-
-
-
-
-PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
-
-
-The inauguration of the law requiring horseshoers to be examined
-emphasizes the need of a brief and easily understood text-book on
-theoretical and practical horseshoeing. At the request of the _Royal
-Veterinary Commission_, in charge of the Royal Veterinary School in
-Dresden, and many interested individuals, I have attempted to meet
-this need by condensing within the narrowest possible limits all that
-is essential to the horseshoer in the practice of his profession.
-The subject-matter has been cast into a logically arranged course of
-instruction; all that is superfluous and is found only in exhaustive
-treatises on shoeing has been omitted.
-
-In order to make this elementary text-book more easy to understand,
-numerous instructive illustrations have been incorporated, which were
-taken partly from “Der Fuss des Pferdes,” by Leisering & Hartmann,
-fifth edition, Dresden, 1882; partly from the journal _Der Hufschmied_,
-and partly from drawings made specially for this work.
-
-With the desire that this little book may find many friends and supply
-them with valuable information, it is herewith given to the public.
-
-                                            A. LUNGWITZ.
-    DRESDEN, September, 1884.
-
-
-
-
-TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE.
-
-
-During the past nine years in which it has been my privilege to teach
-horseshoeing to students of veterinary medicine in the University of
-Pennsylvania, and to classes of horseshoers under the auspices of the
-Master Horseshoers’ National Protective Association of America, I
-have been forcibly impressed with the urgent need of a text-book of
-horseshoeing that is adapted to the needs of beginners. In my opinion,
-such a work must present a detailed description of the anatomy and
-physiology of the legs below the middle of the cannons, and must
-emphasize in unmistakable terms the definite relations which exist
-between certain well-defined forms of the hoof and certain well-defined
-standing positions of the limb. Only on this sure foundation can a
-thoroughly scientific system of shoeing be based. Furthermore, the
-teachings must be eminently practical, logically arranged, as brief as
-is consistent with clearness, easy of comprehension by persons who are
-unfamiliar with technical language, profusely illustrated, and moderate
-in price.
-
-Through the kindness of my respected friend and former teacher,
-Professor A. Lungwitz, one of the highest authorities in all matters
-pertaining to shoeing, and for many years a teacher in and the Director
-of what I believe to be the best school of shoeing in the world, I am
-enabled to present to the public this translation of his text-book
-for students of shoeing. Written to meet requirements identical with
-those existing today in the United States, and in scope and arrangement
-exactly suited to both student and teacher, I am confident that it will
-meet the favor that it merits.
-
-                                            THE TRANSLATOR.
-    PHILADELPHIA, 1904.
-
-
-
-
-PREFACE TO THE ELEVENTH EDITION.
-
-
-Since the publication in 1904 of a translation of the tenth edition of
-_Der Lehrmeister im Hufbeschlag_, Prof. Anton Lungwitz, the author,
-having reached the age of retirement has withdrawn from the activities
-of the _Royal Saxon Shoeing School_, and has expressed a desire that
-the translator assume entire responsibility for future editions.
-
-To note the progress of farriery during the past ten years many
-chapters have been revised, necessitating resetting, and sixty-nine new
-illustrations have been added and many redrawn. It has seemed desirable
-to discuss the effect of weight in the shoe in altering the flight of
-the foot; to consider rubber pads so widely used in the United States,
-and to direct attention to many innovations of more or less value, that
-have appeared during recent years.
-
-In preparing this edition I have had the cordial co-operation of the
-publishers, to whom I hereby express deepest gratitude. I wish also to
-record my appreciation for the many suggestions and other aid given me
-by Mr. Franz Enge, Chief Farrier of the shoeing shop of the Veterinary
-Hospital, University of Pennsylvania.
-
-                                          JOHN W. ADAMS.
-    UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, April, 1913.
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS.
-
-
-                                                               PAGE
-
-    INTRODUCTION                                                 13
-        The Object of Shoeing                                    13
-
-                                PART I.
-
-                              CHAPTER I.
-                    THE GROSS ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.
-
-       BONES OF THE HEAD—BONES OF THE TRUNK                      17
-       THE SPINAL COLUMN—BONES OF THE THORAX                  17-19
-       BONES OF THE PELVIS—BONES OF THE LIMBS                 19-21
-       JOINTS—MUSCLES—TENDON SHEATHS                          21-24
-
-                               THE FOOT.
-    =A. The Bones of the Foot=                                   24
-          The Cannon—The Long Pastern—The Sesamoid
-              Bones—The Short Pastern—The Pedal Bone—
-              The Navicular Bone                              24-28
-    =B. The Articulations of the Foot=                           28
-          I. THE FETLOCK-JOINT                                   28
-                 The Suspensory Ligament                         29
-                 The Inferior Sesamoid Ligament                  30
-         II. THE CORONARY JOINT                                  31
-        III. THE PEDAL ARTICULATION (COFFIN JOINT)               31
-    =C. The Locomotory Organs of the Foot=                       32
-          The Anterior Extensor Tendon of the Phalanges—
-               The Perforatus Tendon—The Perforans Tendon     32-35
-       =Mucous Bursæ and Tendon Sheaths=                         35
-       =Altering the Relative Tension of the Flexor Tendons
-            and Suspensory Ligament of the Fetlock-Joint=        36
-    =D. The Elastic Parts of the Foot=                           38
-          The Lateral Cartilages—The Plantar Cushion         39, 40
-    =E. The Blood-Vessels and Nerves=                            41
-          The Arteries of the Foot—The Veins of the Foot—
-              The Nerves of the Foot                          41-44
-    =F. The Protective Organs of the Foot=                       44
-          (_a_) THE HAIR-SKIN                                    44
-              1. The Epidermis                                   45
-              2. The Dermis                                      45
-              3. The Subcutaneous Tissue                         45
-          (_b_) THE HOOF-SKIN, OR PODODERM                   45, 46
-              1. The Perioplic Band                              47
-              2. The Coronary Band                               47
-              3. The Fleshy Wall                                 48
-                     The Fleshy Leaves
-                        (Podophyllous Tissue)                48, 49
-              4. The Velvety Tissue of the Sole                  49
-              5. The Velvety Tissue of the Frog                  49
-          (_c_) THE HORN CAPSULE OR HOOF                      50-53
-              The Wall                                        50-53
-              The Bars                                       51, 52
-                   The Layers of the Wall:
-                      1. The Periople.
-                      2. The Middle or Protective Layer.
-                      3. The Leafy Layer (Keraphyllous Layer) 53-55
-              The Sole                                       55, 56
-              The Frog                                       57, 58
-              The Minute Structure of the Horn                   58
-              Hard and Soft Horn                                 59
-
-                              CHAPTER II.
-             THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB.
-    =A.   Standing Positions of the Limbs=                       62
-          (_a_) THE POSITIONS OF A FORE-LIMB VIEWED
-                FROM IN FRONT AND IN PROFILE                  62-67
-          (_b_) THE POSITIONS OF A HIND LIMB VIEWED
-                FROM BEHIND AND IN PROFILE                    67-69
-    =B.   Forms of Feet, viewed from in Front,
-                from Behind, and in Profile=                  69-72
-    =C.   Lines of Flight of Hoofs in Motion=                 72-75
-    =D.   Influence of Weight upon Lines,
-                     of Flight of Hoofs=                     75, 76
-    =E.   Forms of Hoofs=                                        77
-              The Hoof of the Regular Position—The Hoof of
-                the Base-Wide Position—The Hoof of the
-                Base-Narrow Position—Forms of Hind Hoofs—
-                The Wide and the Narrow Hoof—The
-                Characteristics of Healthy Hoofs              77-82
-    =F.   Growth of the Hoof and Wear of the
-                    Hoof and Shoe=                            82-86
-    =G.   Physiological Movements of the Hoof=                86-89
-
-                               PART II.
-
-                             CHAPTER III.
-                        SHOEING HEALTHY HOOFS.
-    =A.   Examination of a Horse Preliminary
-                  to Shoeing=                                    90
-    =B.   Raising and holding the Feet of the Horse
-                  to be Shod=                                    92
-    =C.   Removing the Old Shoes=                                97
-    =D.   Preparing the Hoof for the Shoe=                       98
-    =E.   Preparing the Hoof for going Barefoot=                102
-    =F.   Making Shoes=      103
-              The Podometer—Making Front Shoes—Making
-                Hind Shoes—General Characteristics of
-                Shoes—A Shoe with Heel-Calks—A Shoe
-                with Toe- and Heel-Calks—Special
-                Characteristics of Shoes                    103-116
-    =G.   Choosing the Shoe=                                    116
-    =H.   Shaping and Fitting Shoes—General
-                    Considerations=                             117
-          =Shaping and Fitting Shoes—Special
-                    Considerations=                             120
-          =Fitting Shoes to Saddlers and Hunters=               122
-          =Fitting Shoes to Runners=                            123
-          =Fitting Shoes to Trotters and Pacers=                124
-          =Fitting Shoes to Heavy Draft-Horses=                 125
-    =I.   Nailing the Shoe, Horseshoe-Nails=                    128
-    =K.   Machine Shoes=                                        132
-    =L.   Rubber Pads=                                          135
-
-                              CHAPTER IV.
-               SHOEING HORSES THAT FORGE AND INTERFERE.
-    =A.   Forging—Cross-firing=                            138, 140
-    =B.   Interfering=                                          142
-
-                              CHAPTER V.
-                            WINTER SHOEING.
-    1. ICE-NAILS (FROST-NAILS)                                  146
-    2. SHARP TOE- AND HEEL-CALKS                                146
-    3. SCREW-CALKS                                         148, 155
-    4. PEG HEEL-CALKS                                           150
-    5. PEG TOE-CALKS                                            152
-    6. REMOVABLE HEEL-CALKS, THAT DO NOT REQUIRE
-            SHARPENING                                          154
-
-                              CHAPTER VI.
-                             HOOF NURTURE.
-    =A.   Care of Unshod Hoofs=                                 157
-    =B.   Care of Shod Hoofs=                                   159
-          Greasing and Soaking the Hoof                         159
-
-                               PART III.
-
-                             CHAPTER VII.
-               GENERAL REMARKS CONCERNING THE SHOEING OF
-                   DEFECTIVE HOOFS AND LAME HORSES.
-    GENERAL REMARKS                                         161-165
-    CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES OF THE HOOF                      165
-
-                             CHAPTER VIII.
-            INFLAMMATIONS OF THE PODODERM (PODODERMATITIS).
-    1. NAILING                                                  166
-    2. STREET-NAIL                                              170
-    3. CALK-WOUNDS OF THE CORONET                               173
-    4. CORNS                                                    174
-    5. INFLAMMATION OF THE HEELS                                176
-    6. LAMINITIS (FOUNDER)                                      177
-    7. KERAPHYLLOCELE (HORN TUMOR)                              181
-
-                              CHAPTER IX.
-                         DEFECTS OF THE HOOF.
-    =A. Changes of Form=                                        182
-          1. THE FLAT AND THE FULL HOOF                         182
-          2. THE UPRIGHT OR STUMPY HOOF                         184
-          3. THE CONTRACTED HOOF                                185
-              (_a_) The Contraction of Wide Hoofs               189
-              (_b_) Contraction of the Sole                     189
-          4. THE WRY HOOF                                       190
-          5. THE CROOKED HOOF                                   192
-          6. OSSIFICATION OF THE LATERAL CARTILAGE
-                 (SIDE-BONE)                                    194
-    =B. Disturbances of Continuity of Hoof=                     195
-          1. CRACKS                                             195
-          2. CLEFTS                                             203
-          3. LOOSE WALL                                         204
-          4. HOLLOW WALL                                        205
-          5. THRUSH OF THE FROG                                 206
-
-                              CHAPTER X.
-                    SHOEING MULES, ASSES, AND OXEN.
-    1. THE SHOEING OF MULES AND ASSES                           207
-    2. THE SHOEING OF OXEN                                      207
-
-
-
-
-INTRODUCTION.
-
-
-Horseshoeing is an industry which requires, in equal degree, knowledge
-and skill.
-
-The word “horseshoeing” embraces various acts, especially preparing
-the iron sole, the horseshoe; forming it and fitting it to the hoof,
-whose ground-surface has been previously dressed in accordance with the
-direction of the limb, and fastening it to the hoof by means of nails.
-
-Owing to the complicated structure of the hoof, success in the practice
-of horseshoeing requires a knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of
-the horse’s body in general and of the foot in particular.
-
-The object of shoeing is,—
-
-    1. To protect the hoof from excessive wear, and thus
-       render the horse continuously serviceable upon our
-       hard roads.
-
-    2. To prevent slipping and falling during the winter
-       season.
-
-    3. To so far remove the disadvantages of faulty
-       positions of the limbs that horses may render
-       good service, and, in some cases,
-
-    4. To cure or improve diseased or defective hoofs
-       or feet.
-
-Horseshoeing, though apparently simple, involves many difficulties,
-owing to the fact that the hoof is not an unchanging body, but
-varies much with respect to form, growth, quality, and elasticity.
-Furthermore, there are such great differences in the character of
-ground-surfaces and in the nature of horses’ work that shoeing which
-is not performed with great ability and care induces disease and makes
-horses lame.
-
-In view of these facts, a thorough training of the young horseshoer
-in the principles and practice of his trade is not only greatly to be
-desired, but is really essential to success; unreasoning work does
-as much harm in this as in any other vocation. _A good common-school
-education is necessary_ (more will do no harm). Further requisites
-are a _healthy body_, not too tall, _liking for the work, aptness_,
-an active, _reasoning mind, fearlessness, dexterity, a good eye for
-proportion_, and, finally, _careful selection of a master-instructor_.
-Theoretically educated, practically experienced and approved masters,
-in whose shops all kinds of horses are shod, are to be preferred.
-
-During his term of apprenticeship the young apprentice should _learn
-to make drawings of horseshoes, of tools of the trade_, and of hoofs
-of various forms, and should also make _one or more model shoes as an
-indication of his ability_. After completing his time he should seek a
-position in a first-class shop, either at home or abroad. A visit to
-foreign lands will widen one’s mental horizon and make him a broader,
-abler man in every respect. Later, opportunity will be given to some
-(in Germany) to join the cavalry, and thus acquire a good education
-in shoeing under the patronage of the government. Finally, a course
-of instruction in a school of horseshoeing will convert an already
-practical and intelligent horseshoer into a thoughtful, capable, expert
-workman.
-
-The scope of horseshoeing is by no means so narrow and insignificant
-as it may appear, and since a knowledge of the anatomy and physiology
-of the horse’s body in general, and of the foot in particular, is
-necessary, it is evident that the schools of horseshoeing in which
-one can get the best instruction are those in which there is not only
-a regularly graded course of instruction, with demonstrations upon
-dissected material and upon living horses, but also an abundance of
-daily work at the forge and on the floor in the shoeing of horses. =A
-course of four to six weeks is not sufficient.=
-
-Furthermore, it should be borne in mind that schools of horseshoeing
-are not for the purpose of instructing young men in all matters which
-pertain to the trade, but only in the making of shoes, the critical
-examination and management of hoofs, and the rational and skilful
-performance of shoeing. For this reason it is not advisable for young
-men to attend a school of horseshoeing until they have at least
-completed their apprenticeship.
-
-
-
-
-HORSESHOEING.
-
-
-
-
-PART I.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER I. THE GROSS ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.
-
-
-The supporting structure of the horse’s body is the =bony framework= or
-skeleton (Fig. 1, page 18). We distinguish in the skeleton the bones of
-the head, trunk, and limbs.
-
-The =bones of the head= are numerous and, excepting the lower jaw, are
-solidly united with one another. In general, we distinguish in the head
-only the upper and lower jaws (1 and 1′). Both form various cavities;
-for example, the cranial cavity, in which the brain lies, the orbital
-cavities (eye-sockets), the nasal passages, and the mouth. Besides, the
-teeth are set in the jaws.
-
-The =trunk= comprises the bones of the spinal column, thorax, and
-pelvis.
-
-The _spinal_ or _vertebral column_ (2 to 6), which bears the head at
-its anterior end, is the chief support, of the entire skeleton. It
-consists of from fifty-two to fifty-four single and irregular bones
-called vertebræ, placed in the upper part of the median vertical plane
-of the body. Each vertebra, with the exception of those of the tail
-(coccygeal or caudal vertebræ), is traversed by a large opening called
-the vertebral foramen. The vertebræ are placed end to end in a row,
-and through them runs a continuous large canal called the _vertebral_
-or _spinal canal_, in which lies the spinal cord. The horse has seven
-cervical, eighteen dorsal, six lumbar, five sacral, and sixteen to
-eighteen caudal vertebræ. The sacral vertebræ are grown together to
-form one piece called the sacrum.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 1.
-
-SKELETON OF THE HORSE.—1, bones of the head; 1′, lower jaw; 2, cervical
-vertebræ; 3, dorsal vertebræ; 4, lumbar vertebræ; 5, sacral vertebræ
-(sacrum); 6, coccygeal vertebræ; 7, ribs; 8, sternum (breast-bone);
-9, pelvis; 9′, ilium; 9″, ischium; 10, scapula (shoulder-blade); 11,
-humerus; 12, radius; 13, ulna; 14, carpus (knee); 15, large metacarpal
-bone (cannon); 16, rudimentary metacarpal bones (splint-bones); 17, os
-suffraginis (long pastern); 18, os coronæ (short pastern); 19, os pedis
-(hoof-bone); 20, sesamoid bones; 21, femur; 22, patella (knee-pan,
-stifle); 23, tibia; 24, fibula; 25, tarsus, or hock; 26, large
-metatarsal bone (cannon); 27, rudimentary metatarsals (splint-bones);
-28, os suffraginis (long pastern); 29, os coronæ (short pastern); 30,
-os pedis (hoof-bone, “coffin bone”); 31, sesamoid bones.]
-
-The _thorax_ is formed by the ribs and the breast-bone or sternum.
-The horse has eighteen ribs on each side (7), and all articulate with
-the dorsal vertebræ. The first eight pairs unite by their lower ends
-directly to the sternum or breast-bone, and are therefore called _true
-ribs_, while the last ten pairs are only indirectly attached to the
-sternum, and are consequently called _false ribs_. The sternum (8) lies
-between the forelegs, and helps to form the floor of the chest cavity.
-The space enclosed by the bones of the thorax is called the thoracic,
-pulmonary, or chest cavity, and contains the heart and lungs. The
-_bones of the pelvis_ form a complete circle or girdle. The upper part,
-called the ilium (9′), articulates on its inner side with the sacrum
-(5), while its outer side is prolonged to form a prominent angle, which
-is the support of the hip, and is called the “point of the hip.” The
-posterior part of the pelvis is called the ischium (9″), and that part
-lying between the ilium and the ischium and forming part of the floor
-of the pelvis is called the pubis.
-
-The space between the thorax and the pelvis, bounded above by the
-lumbar vertebræ and shut in below and on the sides by the skin and
-muscular walls of the belly (abdomen), is called the _abdominal
-cavity_. This cavity opens directly into the pelvic cavity, and
-contains the stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, and
-a part of the generative organs. The thoracic and abdominal cavities
-are separated by a muscular partition, the _diaphragm_.
-
-The =bones of the limbs= may be likened to columns, upon which the body
-rests; they articulate with one another at various angles, are tubular
-in structure, and strong.
-
-The bones of the =fore-limbs= _do not articulate directly with the
-bones of the trunk_, but are attached to the body by means of the skin
-and muscles. From above to below we distinguish the following bones:
-
-1. The _scapula_, or shoulder-blade (10), a flat, triangular bone,
-prolonged at its upper border by a flat, very elastic cartilage, called
-the scapular cartilage. At its lower end the scapula articulates with—
-
-2. The upper end of the _humerus_ (11), forming the _shoulder-joint_
-(scapulo-humeral articulation). The humerus articulates at its lower
-end with—
-
-3. The _radius_ (12) and the _ulna_ (13), to form the _elbow joint_.
-These two bones are the basis of the _forearm_. The ulna, smaller and
-weaker than the radius, lies behind and projects above it to form the
-point of the elbow. The lower end of the radius articulates with—
-
-4. The _carpus_, or _knee_ (14), which comprises seven small, cubical
-bones disposed in two horizontal rows, one above the other. The upper
-row comprises four bones and the lower row three. The lower row rests
-upon—
-
-5. The large metacarpal or _cannon bone_, and the two rudimentary
-metacarpal or _splint-bones_. The lower end of the radius, the upper
-ends of the metacarpal bones, and the small carpal bones together form
-the carpal or _knee-joint_ (wrist of man). Of the metacarpals, the
-middle one is the largest, longest, strongest, and most important, and
-is called the _large metacarpal_, _cannon_, or _shin-bone_ (15). It
-articulates at its lower end with the os suffraginis, or long pastern
-(17), and with the two small sesamoid bones (20). On each side of
-the upper part of its posterior surface lie the two long, slender
-splint-bones (16). The inner splint-bone is sometimes affected with
-bony thickenings (exostoses) called “splints.”
-
-6. The bones of the _phalanges_ (all bones below the cannon) will be
-fully described in another place.
-
-The bones of the =hind limbs= articulate _directly_ with the pelvis at
-the hip-joint. They are stronger than the bones of the anterior limbs.
-We distinguish the following bones in the hind legs:
-
-1. The highest bone in the hind limb is the _femur_ (21). It is the
-strongest bone in the entire body. It lies in an oblique direction
-downward and forward, and at its lower end articulates with—
-
-2. The _patella_ (22), the _tibia_ (23), and the _fibula_ (24), to form
-the _stifle-joint_ (knee of man). The patella plays over the anterior
-surface of the lower end of the femur. The fibula is small, and lies
-against the upper and outer side of the tibia. The latter at its lower
-end articulates with—
-
-3. The bones of the tarsus, or _hock_ (25), which are six small,
-irregular bones disposed in three rows, one above another. The _os
-calcis_, or _heel-bone_, and the _astragalus_ are in the uppermost
-row, and are the most important. The former projects above the true
-hock-joint from behind, to form a long lever, the upper end of which
-is called the “point of the hock,” and the latter articulates with the
-tibia. The tarsal (hock) bones articulate below with—
-
-4. The _metatarsal bones_ (26 and 27), which are longer, and the cannon
-narrower from side to side, than the corresponding metacarpal bones,
-but are otherwise similar.
-
-5. The _phalanges_ of a hind limb (28 to 31) are also narrower than
-those of a fore-limb, but are nearly alike in other respects.
-
-All the horse’s bones present small, but more or less distinct openings
-(nutrient foramina) for the passage of blood-vessels and nerves.
-Many bones possess roughened elevations and depressions, to which
-ligaments, tendons, or muscles are attached. With the exception of
-the os pedis, all bones are enveloped in a sort of “bone-skin” called
-=periosteum=. The bones unite among themselves to form either _movable_
-or _immovable unions_. A movable union between two or more bones is
-termed a “joint,” or =articulation=. The articulating ends of the
-bones, presenting on one side a convex surface (head or condyle) and on
-the other a corresponding concave surface (glenoid or cotyloid cavity),
-are covered with elastic _articular cartilage_. The bones are bound
-together by means of =ligaments=, which are tough, fibrous, cord-like,
-or sheet-like structures. Ligaments are either (1) _capsular_ or (2)
-_funicular_ (cord-like). Every articulation in the limbs possesses a
-capsular ligament, and all, except the shoulder-joint, have several
-funicular (cord-like) ligaments. The capsular ligaments are lined
-upon their inner face with a delicate membrane (synovial membrane)
-which secretes the _synovia_, or “joint-water,” whose function is to
-lubricate the joint and prevent friction; they enclose the joint in
-a sort of air-tight cuff or sack. The funicular ligaments are very
-strong and often large, and are the chief means of union of the
-bones. The immovable articulations are termed _sutures_; they are
-found principally in the head. The mixed joints are found between the
-bodies of the vertebræ, each two of which are united by an elastic
-fibro-cartilage which, in the form of a pad, lies between them, and by
-its elasticity allows of very slight movement, though the spinal column
-as a whole can execute manifold and wide movements, as shown by the
-neck and tail.
-
-Joints which permit motion in all directions are known as =free
-joints=; such are the shoulder- and hip-joints (ball-and-socket
-joints). Those which admit of motion in but two directions (flexion
-and extension), and often to a very limited extent, are called
-=hinge-joints=,—_e.g._, the elbow, hock, and fetlock. The joints
-between the long and short pasterns and between the latter and the
-pedal bone are imperfect hinge-joints, because they allow of some other
-movements besides flexion and extension. The articulation between
-the first and second cervical vertebræ (atlas and axis) is called a
-=pivot-joint=.
-
-The skeleton represents a framework which closely approaches the
-external form of the body, and by reason of its hardness and stiffness
-furnishes a firm foundation for all other parts of the body. By
-reason of the great variety of position and direction of the bones,
-and of the fact that changes of position of each single part of this
-complicated system of levers may result in the greatest variety of
-bodily movements, we can readily understand how the horse is enabled
-to move from place to place. Of course, the bones have no power of
-themselves to move, but this power is possessed by other organs that
-are attached to the bones. These organs are the =muscles=, and, owing
-to their ability to contract and shorten themselves, and afterwards to
-relax and allow themselves to be stretched out, they furnish the motive
-power that is communicated to and moves the bones.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 2.
-
-OUTER MUSCLES OF THE HORSE.—1, cervical trapezius; 2, dorsal trapezius;
-3, mastoido-humeralis; 4, great dorsal muscle; 5, long abductor of
-the arm; 6, long extensor of the forearm; 7, large extensor of the
-forearm; 8, short extensor of the forearm; 9, sterno-trochinus (deep
-pectoral); 10, sterno-aponeuroticus; 11, great serratus; 12, common
-extensor of the metacarpus; 13, common extensor of the toe (anterior
-extensor); 14, common extensor of the long pastern (lateral extensor);
-15, oblique extensor of the metacarpus; 16, external flexor of the
-metacarpus; 17, internal flexor of the metacarpus; 18, oblique
-flexor of the metacarpus; 19, fascia lata; 20, superficial gluteus
-(anterior portion); 21, middle gluteus; 22, superficial gluteus
-(posterior portion); 23 and 24, femoral biceps; 25, semitendinosus; 26,
-semimembranosus; 27, anterior extensor of the toe; 28, lateral extensor
-of the toe; 29, perforans muscle (deep flexor of toe); 30, oblique
-flexor of the phalanges; 31, perforatus tendon (superficial flexor of
-phalanges); 32, Achilles tendon (ham-string).]
-
-The muscles of the body massed together are the red flesh which
-we observe in every slaughtered animal. They are not, however, so
-shapeless as they appear while in this condition; on the contrary, they
-present well-arranged muscular layers of variable size, thickness,
-length, and position. (See Fig. 2.) The muscles clothe the skeleton
-externally, give the body its peculiar form, and, by their special
-power of contraction, change the relative positions of the bones and
-thus make it possible for the animal to move. For this reason, the
-muscles are called the =active=, and the bones the =passive=, organs
-of motion. By carefully examining a muscle it will be found to consist
-of actual, minute, reddish, _muscular fibres_. As a rule, muscles
-terminate in more or less strong, glistening, fibrous cords called
-=tendons=, or fibrous sheets termed aponeuroses, by which they are
-attached to the bones. In the limbs are muscles terminating in very
-long tendons, which act as draw-lines upon the distant bones of the
-foot (long and short pasterns and pedal bone) and set them in motion.
-Such long tendons are enclosed in sheaths of thin, membranous tissue,
-known as _tendon sheaths_. The inner surface of such a sheath is in
-direct contact with the surface of the tendon, and secretes a thin
-slippery fluid (synovia) which lubricates the tendon and facilitates
-its gliding within the sheath.
-
-As long as the bones, articulations, muscles, and tendons of the limbs
-remain healthy, just so long will the legs maintain their natural
-direction and position. Frequently, however, this normal condition of
-the limbs is gradually altered by disease of the bones, joints, and
-tendons, and defects in the form and action of the lower parts of the
-limbs arise that often require attention in shoeing.
-
-
-THE FOOT.
-
-
-A. The Bones of the Foot.
-
-Since the horse is useful to man only by reason of his movements, his
-foot deserves the most careful attention. The horseshoer should be
-familiar with all its parts. Fig. 3 shows the osseous framework of
-the foot, consisting of the lower end of the cannon bone (_A_), the
-long pastern (_B_), the two sesamoid bones (_C_), the short pastern
-(_D_), and the pedal bone (_E_). The lower end of the cannon, or large
-metacarpal bone (_A_) exhibits two convex articular surfaces (condyles)
-separated by a median ridge running from before to behind, and all
-covered by articular cartilage. On both the external and the internal
-aspects of the lower end of the cannon are small uneven depressions in
-which ligaments take their attachment.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
-
-The condyles of the cannon articulate with the os suffraginis (long
-pastern) and the two sesamoids (Figs. 3, _C_, and 4, _B_) in such a
-manner that in the forefeet the cannon makes an angle with the long
-pastern of from one hundred and thirty-five to one hundred and forty
-degrees, and in the hind feet of from one hundred and forty to one
-hundred and forty-five degrees.
-
-The =long pastern= (first phalanx) (Fig. 4, _A_) is about one-third the
-length of the cannon; its upper and thicker end presents two condyloid
-cavities (_a_) (glenoid cavities), separated by a median groove, which
-exactly fit the condyles and ridge at the lower end of the cannon.
-The lower end of the long pastern is smaller than the upper, and is
-provided with two condyles, between which is a shallow groove (_e_).
-The anterior face of the bone is smooth, rounded from side to side, and
-blends into the lateral borders. The posterior face is flatter, and
-shows a clearly marked triangle to which ligaments attach.
-
-The two =sesamoid bones= (Fig. 4, _B_) are small, and somewhat
-pyramidal in shape, and, lying against the posterior part of the
-condyles of the cannon bone, increase the articular surfaces at the
-upper end of the long pastern.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 4.
-
-Os suffraginis with both sesamoid bones in position, as in Fig. 3. _A_,
-os suffraginis; _B_, sesamoid bones; _a_, upper joint-surface of long
-pastern; _b_, joint-surface of sesamoid bones; _c_, roughened surface
-at upper end; _d_, roughened surface at lower end, both for attachment
-of ligaments; _e_, lower joint-surface.]
-
-The =short pastern= (second phalanx) (Figs. 5 and 6) lies under the
-first phalanx and above the os pedis; it is somewhat cubical in
-shape. Its upper articular surface (Fig. 5, _a_) presents two glenoid
-cavities to correspond with the condyles of the first phalanx. The
-lower articular surface (Fig. 5, _d_) resembles the lower end of the
-first phalanx. The upper posterior border of this bone is prominent and
-prolonged transversely (Fig. 6, _a_), to serve as a _supporting ledge_
-for the first phalanx, as a point of attachment for the perforatus
-tendon, and as a gliding surface for the perforans tendon.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 5.
-
-Short pastern (os coronæ) viewed in front and in profile: _a_, upper
-joint-surface; _b_, anterior surface; _c_, lateral surface; _d_, lower
-joint-surface.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 6.
-
-Short pastern seen from behind: _a_, smooth surface over which the
-perforans tendon glides; _b_, lower joint-surface.]
-
-The lowest bone of the limb is the =third phalanx= or =os pedis= (Fig.
-7). In form it is similar to the hoof. The _anterior or wall-surface_
-(_a_) is rough, like pumice stone. Above and in front is the _pyramidal
-eminence_ to which the tendon of the anterior extensor of the phalanges
-attaches. Behind, the bone extends backward to form the _inner_ and
-_outer branches_ (_c, c_) or wings of the os pedis. The _upper_,
-articular surface (_b_) slopes backward and downward. The _lower_,
-solar or plantar surface (Fig. 8, _a_) is slightly concave, and
-presents posteriorly a half-moon-shaped excavation, with a roughened
-border called the _semilunar crest (c)_, to which the perforans tendon
-attaches; just above this crest are two small holes (_e_) known as the
-_plantar foramina_, through which the plantar arteries pass into the
-bone. The surfaces of wall and sole come together in a sharp edge,
-which is circular in its course. It is easy to tell whether a pedal
-bone is from a fore or a hind limb; the os pedis of a hind leg has
-a steeper and more pointed toe, and a more strongly concaved solar
-surface than the same bone of a fore-leg. Not only is the outline of
-the sharp inferior border of the os pedis of a _front foot more rounded
-at the toe_, but when placed on a flat surface the _toe does not touch_
-by reason of being turned slightly upward, much as a shoe designed to
-give a “rolling motion.” The os pedis of a _hind foot is narrower from
-side to side_ (pointed), and _does not turn up at the toe_.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 7.
-
-Os pedis seen in profile and in front; _a_, anterior face with
-pyramidal eminence above; _b_, joint-surface; _c_, wings or branches
-of hoof-bone; _d_, notch which, by the attachment of the lateral
-cartilage, is converted into a foramen and leads to _e_, the preplantar
-fissure.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 8.
-
-Lower surface of hoof-bone; _a_, anterior portion covered by the
-velvety tissue of the sole; _b_, wing of the os pedis; _c_, semilunar
-crest, to which the perforans tendon attaches; _d_, plantar fissure
-leading to _e_, plantar foramen.]
-
-The right and left hoof-bones are also, as a rule, easily distinguished
-by variations in the surfaces of wall and sole. The shape of the os
-pedis corresponds to the form of the horny box or hoof, and therefore a
-knowledge of this bone is absolutely necessary.
-
-The =navicular bone= (os naviculare, nut-bone, Figs. 9 and 10) is
-an accessory or sesamoid bone to the os pedis. It is a small bone,
-transversely elongated and situated behind and below the os pedis and
-between the wings of the latter. It adds to the articular surface of
-the pedal joint. Its under surface is smooth, and acts as a gliding
-surface for the perforans tendon, which is quite wide at this point.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 10.
-
-Fig. 9 represents the upper surface of the navicular bone; Fig. 10 the
-lower surface of the same: _a_, anterior border; _b_, slight elevation
-in middle of under surface.]
-
-The long axes of the three phalanges (os suffraginis, os coronæ, and os
-pedis) should unite to form a straight line, when viewed either from
-in front or from one side; that is, the direction of each of these
-three bones should be the same as the common direction of the three
-considered as a whole.
-
-    In young colts both the long and short pasterns are
-    in three parts and the pedal bone in two parts, all
-    of which unite later in life to form their respective
-    single bones.
-
-    In mules and asses the os pedis is comparatively
-    small and narrow. In cattle all three phalanges are
-    double, and split hoofs cover the divided os pedis.
-
-
-B. The Articulations of the Foot.
-
-There are three articulations in the foot—namely, the fetlock,
-coronary, and pedal joints. All are hinge-joints, the fetlock being a
-perfect hinge-joint, and the other two imperfect hinge-joints. Each
-has a _capsular ligament_, and also several _funicular_ or cord-like
-_ligaments_ which are placed at the sides of (lateral ligaments), or
-behind (on the side of flexion) the joints.
-
-I. The =fetlock= or =metacarpo-phalangeal articulation= is formed by
-the condyles at the lower end of the cannon bone and the glenoid
-cavities formed by the union of the articular surfaces of the sesamoids
-and the upper end of the first phalanx. The following ligaments are
-about this joint:
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
-
-1. _Two lateral ligaments_, an external and an internal (Fig. 11, _a_).
-
-2. _Two lateral sesamoid ligaments_ (_f_).
-
-3. An _intersesamoid ligament_ (Fig. 12, _b_), a thick, fibrous mass,
-binding the sesamoid bones almost immovably together, extending above
-them and presenting on its posterior face a smooth groove, in which
-glide the flexor tendons of the phalanges (perforans and perforatus).
-
-4. The _suspensory ligament_ of the fetlock (Figs. 11, _c_, 12, _c_,
-and 13, _c_, pages 29 and 30). This may also be called the superior
-sesamoid ligament. It is a long and very powerful brace, originating
-on the lower row of carpal bones (bones of the hock in the hind leg)
-and on the upper end of the cannon between the heads of the two
-splint-bones, and dividing at the lower third of the cannon into two
-branches (_c_), which are attached one to each sesamoid bone. Below
-these bones these two branches are prolonged obliquely downward and
-forward on opposite sides of the long pastern to pass into the borders
-of the anterior extensor tendon of the toe at about the middle of the
-long pastern (Fig. 14, _b′_, page 32).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 13.
-
-Fig. 11 shows a side view, and Figs. 12 and 13 a posterior view of the
-phalangeal bones, with their articular ligaments. The lettering is the
-same in all three figures: _a_, lateral ligament of fetlock-joint; _b_,
-intersesamoid ligament; _c_, suspensory ligament of the fetlock; _d_,
-median branch of inferior sesamoid ligament; _d′_, lateral branches
-of inferior sesamoid ligament; _e_, deep inferior sesamoid ligament;
-_f_, lateral sesamoid ligaments; _g_, inferior coronary ligaments; _h_,
-superior coronary ligaments; _h′_, median coronary ligaments; _i_,
-lateral pedal ligament; _k_, lateral coronary ligament and suspensory
-ligament of the navicular bone; _l_, interosseous ligament.]
-
-5. The _inferior sesamoid ligament_ (Figs. 11, _d′_, 12, _d_, _d′_,
-and 13, _d′_, _E_). This originates at the lowest part of the sesamoid
-bones and intersesamoid ligament, and consists of _three parts_ or
-branches. The _median branch_ (_d_) is the longest and strongest, and
-takes its lower attachment in the middle of the fibro-cartilaginous lip
-found on the upper border of the posterior face of the second phalanx.
-The _two lateral branches_ (_d′_) approach each other as they descend,
-and terminate on the sides of the roughened triangle on the posterior
-face of the first phalanx.
-
-6. The _deep inferior sesamoid ligament_ (Fig. 13, _e_) is quite short,
-and consists of a number of distinct, thin fibrous bands lying directly
-against the bone and entirely covered by the median and lateral
-inferior sesamoid ligaments. These fibrous bands cross one another in
-passing from the sesamoids to the first phalanx.
-
-II. The =coronary joint= is the simplest of the three articulations of
-the foot. The long pastern furnishes two condyles and the short pastern
-two glenoid cavities. Besides a capsular ligament there are—
-
-1. _Two lateral coronary ligaments_ (_k_) and,
-
-2. _Six posterior coronary ligaments_,—namely, _two superior_ coronary
-ligaments (_h_), _two median_ coronary ligaments (_h′_), and _two
-inferior_ coronary ligaments (_g_).
-
-III. The =pedal articulation= (“coffin” joint) is an imperfect
-hinge-joint, and is formed by the condyles at the lower end of the
-short pastern and the two glenoid cavities in the united upper surfaces
-of the pedal and navicular bones. Besides the _capsular ligament_
-(Figs. 12 and 13, _l_), which binds all three bones together, there are
-the following accessory ligaments:
-
-1. _Two strong lateral ligaments_, an external and an internal (Fig.
-11, _i_), whose posterior borders are lost in the lateral cartilages
-which cover them.
-
-2. _Two lateral suspensory ligaments of the navicular bone_ (_k_).
-They begin on the posterior border and ends of the navicular bone,
-and terminate on the lower part of the anterior surface of the os
-suffraginis, where they are lost in the lateral ligaments of the
-coronary articulation.
-
-3. The _lateral ligaments_ of the lateral _cartilages_, _navicular
-bone_, and _os pedis_. They are short, and unite the navicular bone
-with the os pedis and lateral cartilages.
-
-Of the three phalangeal articulations, the pedal is the only one that
-permits of any lateral movement; hence it is an imperfect hinge-joint.
-
-
-C. The Locomotory Organs of the Foot.
-
-Though the muscles are the organs which produce motion, the horseshoer
-need concern himself only with the tendons of those muscles which
-extend and flex the phalanges. These tendons are either =extensors= or
-=flexors=. The extensors lie on the _anterior face_ and the flexors on
-the _posterior face_ of the phalanges.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 14.
-
-Right forefoot viewed from in front and from the external side: _a_,
-anterior extensor tendon of the toe; _b_, suspensory ligament of the
-fetlock; _b′_, branch of the same passing forward and uniting with the
-extensor tendon of the toe; _c_, extensor tendon of the os suffraginis
-(absent in the hind leg), called the lateral extensor.]
-
-The _anterior extensor of the phalanges_ (Fig. 14, _a_) extends
-the long and short pasterns and the hoof-bone; it is broad, and
-made somewhat broader by receiving the branches of the suspensory
-ligament (_b′_) that come from the sesamoid bones. It takes a firm
-attachment on the pyramidal eminence of the os pedis. In the forefeet
-the long pastern has a special extensor tendon (_c_), which is known
-as the _lateral extensor_. When the muscles to which these tendons
-are attached act,—that is, when they draw themselves together, or
-_contract_, as we term this action,—the foot is carried forward
-(extended).
-
-There are _two flexor tendons_ of the phalanges,—namely, the
-_superficial_ (perforatus tendon) and the _deep_ (perforans tendon).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 15.
-
-Right forefoot seen from behind: _a_, lower end of the perforans
-tendon, cut through and hanging down, so that its anterior surface is
-visible; _a′_, lower expanded end (plantar aponeurosis) of this tendon,
-which attaches itself to the semilunar crest of the os pedis; _a″_,
-shallow groove which receives the slight elevation on the under surface
-of the navicular bone; _a‴_, piece of the perforans tendon enclosed
-by the ring formed by the perforatus tendon; _b_, perforatus tendon
-bent over backward so that its anterior surface is visible; _b′_, ring
-of the perforatus tendon; _b″_, terminal branches of the same; the
-perforans tendon passes through the space between these two branches;
-_c_, navicular bone; _d_, suspensory ligament of the same; _e_, smooth
-surface on the os coronæ over which the perforans tendon glides; _f_,
-the smooth groove (sesamoid groove) on the posterior surface of the
-intersesamoid ligament for the gliding of the perforans tendon; _g_,
-body of the suspensory ligament of the fetlock; _g′_, terminal branches
-of the same, attaching to the sesamoid bones.]
-
-1. The _superficial flexor_ or _perforatus tendon_ (Figs. 15, _b_,
-and 16, _a_, _b_) lies behind, immediately under the skin, and covers
-the deep flexor or perforans tendon. At the gliding surface between
-the sesamoid bones (Fig. 15, _f_) it broadens, and forms a ring or
-tube (Fig. 15, _b′_) through which the perforans tendon (_a‴_) passes,
-while a short distance farther down it bifurcates, or divides into two
-branches (Figs. 15, _b″_, and 16, _b_), which terminate, one on either
-side, partly on the inferior lateral borders of the first phalanx
-and partly on the fibro-cartilage of the second phalanx. It acts
-simultaneously on the long and short pasterns.
-
-2. The _deep flexor_ or _perforans tendon_ (Figs. 15, _a_, and 16,
-_c_) is cylindrical and stronger than the perforatus tendon; above
-the fetlock-joint it lies between the perforatus and the suspensory
-ligament of the fetlock. At the sesamoid bones it passes through the
-ring formed by the perforatus tendon (Fig. 15, _b′_), then becomes
-broad and double-edged, passes between the two terminal branches of the
-perforatus, glides over the fibro-cartilage of the second phalanx and
-over the inferior surface of the navicular bone, and finally ends on
-the semilunar crest of the third phalanx. In common with the perforatus
-tendon it flexes the foot.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 16.
-
-Right forefoot seen from behind and a little from the external side:
-_a_, perforatus tendon; _b_, terminal branches of the same; _c_,
-perforans tendon; _d_, annular ligament which attaches to the sesamoid
-bones: _d′_, the “x” ligament, which attaches by four branches to the
-os suffraginis; _d″_, an upper branch of the same (the lower branches
-are not shown in the figure); _e_, reinforcing sheath of the perforans
-tendon, covering the under surface of the latter and attached by
-its branches at _e′_ to the lower end of the os suffraginis; _f_,
-suspensory ligament of the fetlock.]
-
-If at a point a few inches above the fetlock a limb be cut through
-from behind, the knife will pass successively through the following
-structures: skin, perforatus tendon, perforans tendon, suspensory
-ligament, cannon bone, lateral extensor tendon, anterior extensor
-tendon, and, lastly, the skin on the anterior surface of the limb. The
-flexor tendons are frequently thickened and shortened by inflammation
-due to injury, and as a result the foot is pulled backward and the hoof
-gradually becomes more nearly upright,—_i.e._, stubby, steep-toed.
-A knowledge of the normal condition of the tendons is, therefore,
-absolutely necessary to the horseshoer. Both flexor tendons are
-embraced and held in place by ligaments and fascia passing out from
-the phalanges (Figs. 16, _d′_, and 24, _e_, _f_). The extensor and
-flexor tendons essentially contribute to the strong union of the
-phalangeal bones, and especially to the support and stability of the
-fetlock-joint. The gliding of the tendons is made easy by the secretion
-of a lubricating fluid, called synovia, from the inner surface of the
-sheaths which surround them. In thin-skinned well-bred horses with
-sound limbs one can not only distinctly feel the tendons through the
-skin, but can see their outline. _When the tendons and bones are free
-from all inflammatory thickenings, and the tendon sheaths are not
-visibly distended, we say that the leg is “clean.”_
-
-
-Mucous Bursæ and Tendon Sheaths.
-
-Accessory to the tendons, there are in the foot roundish, membranous
-sacs (mucous bursæ) and membranous tubes (tendon sheaths). Both contain
-a liquid resembling synovia (“joint-water”), which facilitates the
-gliding of the tendons. These bursæ and sheaths are often distended to
-form soft tumors, known as hygromata (“wind-puffs,” “wind-galls”).
-
-(_a_) =Mucous Bursæ.=—They lie beneath tendons at those places where
-the tendons pass over bony prominences.
-
-1. The mucous bursa of the anterior extensor tendon of the toe is about
-the size of a walnut, and lies between the tendon and the capsular
-ligament of the fetlock-joint (Figs. 17, _g_, and 18, _e_).
-
-2. The mucous bursa of the extensor tendon of the long pastern (lateral
-extensor) is somewhat smaller, and lies, likewise, beneath the tendon,
-between it and the capsular ligament of the fetlock-joint (Fig. 17,
-_h_).
-
-3. The mucous bursa of the navicular region lies between the under
-surface (gliding surface) of the navicular bone and the flexor pedis
-perforans tendon (deep flexor). Its width equals the length of the
-navicular bone, and it extends upward and downward beyond the bone.
-Above, it is separated from the sheath of the perforans tendon (“great
-sesamoid sheath”) by a membranous partition; below, it passes to the
-attachment of the perforans tendon to the semilunar crest of the os
-pedis.
-
-(_b_) There is but one tendon sheath in the foot—the sheath common to
-the two flexor tendons (great sesamoid sheath). It encloses the flexor
-tendons from the middle third of the cannon down to the middle of the
-short pastern, and is intimately united with the flexor pedis perforans
-tendon (Fig. 17, _f_, _f′_, _f″_, _f‴_. Fig. 18, _d_, _d′_, _d″_, _d‴_).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 17.
-
-Right forefoot seen from the external side; _f_, _f′_, _f″_, _f‴_,
-great sesamoid sheath (tendon sheath); _g_, mucous bursa beneath
-anterior extensor tendon of the toe; _h_, mucous bursa beneath extensor
-tendon of long pastern; _i_, synovial distension of the fetlock-joint;
-7, suspensory ligament; 9, cannon bone; 10, outer sesamoid bone; 12,
-fetlock-joint; 13, lateral cartilage; 14, suspensory ligament of the
-lateral cartilage. (Ellenberger in Leisering’s Atlas and Veterinary
-Anatomy, Sisson, Saunders.)]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 18.
-
-Right forefoot seen from the inner side; _d_, _d′_, _d″_, _d‴_, great
-sesamoid sheath; _e_, mucous bursa beneath anterior extensor tendon of
-the toe; _f_, synovial distension of fetlock-joint; 10, inner sesamoid
-bone; 11, “x” ligament; 14, fetlock-joint; 15, lateral cartilage; 16,
-suspensory ligament of lateral cartilage (Ellenberger in Leisering’s
-Atlas and Veterinary Anatomy, Sisson, Saunders.)]
-
-Altering the Relative Tension of the Flexor Tendons and Suspensory
-Ligament of the Fetlock-Joint.
-
-The body-weight imposed at the fetlock-joint is supported, in large
-part, by the suspensory ligament; somewhat less weight is borne by the
-perforans tendon, and a still smaller amount by the perforatus. The
-coronary joint is supported chiefly by the perforatus, assisted by
-the perforans. The pedal joint is pressed forward and upward by the
-perforans tendon passing in a curve beneath the navicular bone. Each of
-these three structures bears its normal proportion of the body-weight
-when the three phalanges, as viewed from the side, form a continuous
-straight line from the fetlock-joint to the ground. In such a case the
-obliquity of the long pastern will be the same as that of the toe (see
-Foot-Axis, p. 70).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 19.
-
-Right forefoot viewed from the external side: _A_, os coronæ; _B_, os
-pedis; _C_, external lateral cartilage; _a_, lateral pedal ligament;
-_b_, ligament uniting the lateral cartilage with the os coronæ; _c_,
-aponeurosis joining lateral cartilage and os pedis.]
-
-_Raising the toe_ by means of a tip, a full shoe with thinned branches
-or a toe-calk, _or paring away the quarters_ will tilt the os pedis
-backward, break the foot-axis backward in the pedal joint and to a less
-extent in the coronary joint, and increase the tension of the perforans
-tendon considerably and of the perforatus slightly. These tendons
-tightening behind the fetlock-joint force it forward, causing the long
-pastern to stand steeper, and taking some strain from the suspensory
-ligament. Hence, _the perforans tendon is under greatest tension, and
-the suspensory ligament under least tension, when the foot-axis is
-broken strongly backward_.
-
-_Shortening the toe, or raising the quarters_ by heel-calks or
-thickened branches, will tilt the os pedis forward, break the foot-axis
-forward in the pedal joint, and will _greatly lessen the tension of the
-perforans tendon_. The aggregate tension of perforans and perforatus
-tendons being diminished, the fetlock sinks downward and backward,
-the long pastern assumes a more nearly horizontal direction, and the
-tension of the suspensory ligament is increased. Thus, _the perforans
-tendon is under least tension, and the suspensory ligament under
-greatest strain, when the foot-axis is broken strongly forward_.
-
-
-D. The Elastic Parts of the Foot.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 20.
-
-Os pedis and inner face of one lateral cartilage; _a_, toe of os pedis;
-_a′_, pyramidal eminence to which the extensor tendon attaches; _a″_,
-wing of pedal bone; _b_, lateral cartilage; _C_, points of attachment
-of suspensory ligament of lateral cartilage; _d_, point of insertion
-of ligament to the short pastern; _e_, point of insertion of ligaments
-from navicular bone.]
-
-All bodies which under pressure or traction change their form, but
-return again to their original shape as soon as the pressure or
-traction ceases, are called _elastic_ or _springy_. Nearly all parts of
-the horse’s foot, except the bones, possess more or less elasticity.
-The _lateral cartilages_ and the _plantar cushion_ are elastic to a
-high degree, but the _coronary band_, the _laminæ_, the _articular
-cartilage_, and the horny box or _hoof_ are less elastic. This property
-or characteristic is possessed by the respective parts of the foot in
-accordance with their function, location, and structure.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 21.
-
-Plantar cushion seen from below: _a_, base or bulb of the plantar
-cushion; _b_, summit; _c_, median lacuna or cleft in which lies the
-“frog-stay” of the horny frog.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 22.
-
-Plantar cushion seen from above: _a_, base (bulbs) of same; _b_,
-summit; _c_, suspensory ligament of plantar cushion; _d_, place at
-which the elastic ligament connecting the os suffraginis and the
-lateral cartilage unites with the plantar cushion.]
-
-The =two lateral cartilages= (Figs. 19, _C_ and 20, _b_) are irregular,
-quadrangular plates, attached to the wings of the os pedis, and
-extending so far upward and backward that one can feel them yield
-to pressure on the skin above the coronet, and can thus test their
-elasticity. The perforans tendon and the plantar cushion lie between
-the lateral cartilages, and on the sides and behind are partially
-enclosed by them. The internal concave surface of the lateral cartilage
-(Fig. 20) is attached to the plantar cushion, the os pedis, and the
-navicular bone, and, like the external, slightly convex surface, is
-covered with many blood-vessels (veins) Fig. 25, _B_.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 23.
-
-Section lengthwise through middle of the plantar cushion: _a_, glome
-(bulb) of heels; _b_, apex or point of fleshy frog; _c_, fibro fatty
-tissue of plantar cushion; _d_, median cleft which receives the
-frog-stay of the horny frog.]
-
-The =plantar cushion= (Figs. 21, 22, 23) is composed almost entirely
-of yellow elastic and white fibrous tissues, with adipose (fat) cells
-distributed throughout their substance. It is similar in form to the
-horny frog, and lies between it and the perforans tendon (Fig. 24,
-_a_). The bulbs are formed by the posterior thicker portion which lies
-between the lateral cartilages and is divided into two parts by the
-cleft or median lacuna (Figs. 21, _a_, and 23, _d_). The summit is
-attached to the plantar face of the os pedis in front of the semilunar
-crest, and the bulbs are attached to the lateral cartilages. It is
-covered inferiorly by the velvety tissue of the frog (pododerm).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 24.
-
-Right forefoot viewed from below, behind, and the external side. This
-figure shows clearly the position of the plantar cushion. The external
-lateral cartilage and the tissues covering the plantar cushion and
-under surface of the os pedis (velvety tissue of the sole and fleshy
-frog) have been removed: _a_, fleshy frog or plantar cushion; _a′_,
-bulbs of plantar cushion; the remaining visible parts belong to the
-so-called “fleshy frog;” _a″_, groove (median lacuna) in the lower
-surface of the fleshy frog, in which lies the frog-stay of the horny
-frog; _b_, suspensory ligament of the plantar cushion passing out of
-the bulbs; _b′_, small elastic cords passing to the lateral cartilage;
-_c_, elastic ligament coming from the lateral cartilage and uniting
-with the suspensory ligament of the plantar cushion; _d_, small
-tendinous cord beginning in the skin behind the fetlock-joint and
-ending on the os suffraginis in common with _b_ and _c_; _e_, tendinous
-reinforcing sheath of the perforans tendon; _f_, reinforcing stay of
-the perforatus tendon; _g_, perforatus tendon; _h_, perforans tendon;
-_i_, suspensory ligament of the fetlock; _k_, plantar surface of the os
-pedis, to which the plantar cushion is joined by fibrous bands.]
-
-
-E. The Blood-Vessels and Nerves.
-
-Vessels which carry blood from the heart to the tissues are called
-=arteries=, while those which return the blood to the heart from the
-tissues are called =veins=. Arteries and veins are connected by very
-small, thread-like vessels called _capillaries_, which originate in the
-smallest arteries and are so minute that they can not be seen without
-the aid of a microscope. The capillaries penetrate the soft tissues in
-every direction, and finally unite to form small veins. For our purpose
-we need consider only the arteries and veins.
-
-The =arteries= carrying blood from the heart ramify and subdivide in
-all parts of the body, and thus reach the foot. They are thick-walled,
-very elastic tubes, =without valves=, and carry =bright-red= blood,
-which flows in spurts, as can be seen when an artery is cut. If a
-finger be pressed lightly over an artery lying near the surface, the
-blood-wave can be felt as a light stroke (pulse). The character of
-the pulse is important, because in inflammations of the pododerm or
-horn-producing membrane of the foot we can ascertain by feeling that
-the pulse is stronger than usual in the large arteries carrying blood
-to the inflamed foot.
-
-On either side of the phalanges below the fetlock-joint there lies an
-artery called the _digital artery_ (Fig. 25, _a_). The pulse can be
-felt in it as it passes over the fetlock at _A_, Fig. 25. It gives off
-the following collateral (side) branches: 1. The _artery of the first
-phalanx_ (perpendicular artery), with anterior and posterior branches.
-2. The _artery of the plantar cushion_, which supplies with blood the
-plantar cushion, the velvety tissue of the sole and frog, the bar
-portion of the coronary band, and the sensitive laminæ of the bars. 3.
-The _coronary artery_, which carries blood to the coronary band, os
-coronæ, ligaments of the coronary and pedal joints, flexor tendons, and
-skin.
-
-The terminal branches of the digital arteries are the _preplantar_ and
-_plantar ungual arteries_. The preplantar artery passes through the
-notch in the wing of the os pedis, then along the preplantar fissure,
-splitting up into many branches, which spread over and penetrate the
-porous surface of the os pedis. The plantar artery courses along the
-plantar fissure, enters the plantar foramen, and passes into the
-semilunar sinus of the os pedis, where it unites with the terminal
-branch of the opposite digital artery, forming the _semilunar arch_.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 25.
-
-Side view of forefoot, showing blood-vessels and nerves: _a_, digital
-artery; _b_, anterior artery of the os suffraginis; _d_, anterior
-coronary artery, or circumflex artery of the coronet; _e_′, preplantar
-ungual artery; _f′_, inferior communicating arteries passing out from
-the semilunar artery of the os pedis, through minute holes just above
-the lower border of the bone; they unite to form (_f″_) the circumflex
-artery of the toe; _A_, digital vein; _B_, superficial venous plexus of
-coronary band and lateral cartilage; _C_, podophyllous venous plexus;
-_G_, circumflex vein of the toe; 1, plantar nerve; 2, anterior digital
-branch of same; 3, posterior digital branch of same; 4, small cutaneous
-branches of same.]
-
-After the arterial or pure blood passes through the capillaries it
-is collected by the =veins=, to be returned to the heart; then it is
-driven to the lungs for purification, and is again returned to the
-heart, from whence it is pumped through the arteries to all parts of
-the body.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 26.
-
-Foot viewed from below and behind: _a_, digital arteries; _c_, arteries
-of the plantar cushion; _f‴_, small branches of the semilunar artery
-of the os pedis, which ramify in the velvety tissue of the sole; _A_,
-digital vein; _B_, venous plexus of the heels or bulbs; _D_, solar
-venous plexus; _G_, circumflex vein of the toe; 3, posterior digital
-branch of the plantar nerve; 4, cutaneous branches of the same.]
-
-The veins are more numerous than the arteries; they have thinner walls,
-and the larger ones are provided with =valves= that prevent the impure
-blood from flowing backward. The veins carry impure or =dark-red= blood
-towards the heart, and if one is opened the dark blood flows in a
-steady stream; it does not spurt. The great number of veinlets in the
-lower parts of the foot form a complex net-work (plexus) of vessels
-which are in such manifold and close union with one another that
-checking the flow of blood in one part does not seriously interfere
-with the flowing of the blood towards the larger veins. The following
-are the most important of these net-works of veins or venous plexuses:
-(1) the _solar venous plexus_ (Fig. 26, _D_); (2) the _podophyllous
-venous plexus_ (Fig. 25, _C_); (3) _superficial coronary venous
-plexus_ (Fig. 25, _B_); (4) _bulbar venous plexus_ (Fig. 26, _B_). All
-these plexuses of small veins contribute to form the _digital veins_
-(Figs. 25 and 26, _A_).
-
-=Nerves= are roundish white cords which come from the brain and spinal
-cord; they generally accompany arteries. They divide and subdivide
-into smaller and smaller branches till they become invisible to the
-naked eye and are lost in the tissues. The nerves that are found in the
-foot come from the spinal cord, and because the largest nerves of the
-foot accompany the digital arteries they are called _digital nerves_
-(Fig. 25, 1). The branches ramify throughout all parts of the foot
-except the horny box and the hair. Nerves, according to their use or
-function, are classed as _motor_ and _sensory_. The motor nerves end in
-muscles which they stimulate to action and control. The sensory nerves
-terminate in the skin and in the soft tissues just under the horny box
-or hoof (pododerm), and render these parts sensitive; that is, they
-convey certain feelings, as, for example, the pain caused by bruising,
-pricking, or close-nailing, to the brain and consciousness.
-
-
-F. The Protective Organs of the Foot.
-
-The protective organs are the skin and the horny box or hoof.
-
-The _external skin_, or _hide_, covers the entire body; in the feet it
-covers the bones, tendons, and ligaments, even passing in under the
-hoof and directly covering the os pedis. This portion of the skin,
-enclosed by the hoof and therefore invisible, is called the _pododerm_
-or foot-skin. In Germany it is called the _hoof-skin_ (huflederhaut),
-because it is a continuation of the outer visible skin, and because
-it secretes the hoof,—that is, the hoof is produced by it. That part
-of the skin which is covered with hair is known as the external or
-_hair-skin_.
-
-(_a_) =The hair-skin= (Fig. 27, _a_) consists of _three_ superposed
-_layers_,—(1) the _external_ superficial layer, or _epidermis_; (2) the
-_middle_ layer, _derm_ or leather-skin (so-called because leather is
-made from it); (3) the _internal_ layer, or _subcutaneous connective
-tissue_.
-
-1. The _external layer_, or _epidermis_, is composed merely of single
-flattened, horn-like cells (scales) lying side by side and over one
-another, and uniting to form one entire structure,—a thin, horn-like
-layer, without blood-vessels or nerves. It extends over the entire
-surface of the body, and protects the underlying, very sensitive middle
-layer from external influences. The oldest cell-layers lie on the outer
-surface, and are being continuously brushed off in patches or scales,
-while new ones are constantly being formed on the outer surface of the
-middle layer.
-
-2. The _middle layer_, _leather-skin_ or _dermis_, is composed of
-solid, fibrous, and elastic tissues, and contains many blood-vessels,
-small nerves, sweat-and oil-glands, and hair follicles from which the
-hair grows. The hair upon the posterior surface of the fetlock-joint is
-usually long and coarse, forming a tuft known as the “foot-lock,” which
-encloses a horny spur, called the ergot. Common-bred horses have, as
-a rule, larger and coarser footlocks than thoroughbreds. The derm or
-leather-skin, which produces the hair and epiderm, is the thickest and
-most important layer of the skin.
-
-3. _The inner layer, or subcutaneous tissue_, unites the middle layer
-with the muscles, tendons, ligaments, bones, or other structures. It is
-that loose fibrous mesh or net-work through which the butcher cuts in
-removing the hide from the carcass.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 27.
-
-Foot from which the horny capsule or hoof, has been removed by
-prolonged soaking: _a_, skin; on the left the hair has been rubbed
-away; _b_, perioplic band; _c_, coronary cushion; _d_, podophyllous
-tissue (fleshy leaves); at the lower border of the figure can be seen
-the minute thread-like processes or villi which grow down from the
-lower end of each fleshy leaf.]
-
-(_b_) =The hoof-skin= (Figs. 27 and 28, _b_, _c_, _d_), or pododerm,
-is completely enclosed by the hoof. Although it is only an extension of
-the derm or middle layer of the hair-skin, it differs from the latter
-in structure and relations.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 28.
-
-Foot from which the near half of the horny wall and a greater part
-of the so-called fleshy wall have been removed, in order to show the
-relation of the lateral cartilage to adjacent structures: _a_, vertical
-section of the skin prolonged downward through the pododerm (foot-skin)
-to show clearly that the latter is but a continuation of the former;
-_a′_, hairless place on the skin; _b_, perioplic band; _b′_, line
-indicating the upper border of the same; _b″_, surface of section of
-the periople, or perioplic horn-band; _c_, coronary cushion; _c′_,
-(left) line which marks the upper border of the coronary cushion;
-_c″_, section of wall at the toe; _d_, podophyllous tissue (sensitive
-laminæ); _e_, horny sole; _f_, white line; _g_, horny frog; _h_, fleshy
-frog; _i_, lateral cartilage.]
-
-In order to study the pododerm we should not wrench the hoof off with
-violence, but should allow the foot to partially decompose by leaving
-it for six to eight days at ordinary room temperature; it can then
-be removed without injuring the pododerm. After the hoof has been
-removed the entire pododerm presents a more or less dark-red color
-(flesh-color), which is due to the great number of blood-vessels that
-it contains. For this reason different parts of the pododerm have
-received the prefix “fleshy,” as for example, fleshy wall, fleshy sole,
-fleshy frog, etc. The pododerm is what the uninformed horseshoer calls
-the “quick.” I will here remark that the three layers of the external
-or hair-skin are represented in the foot; however, the epidermis is
-in an entirely different form,—namely, the horny box or hoof. The
-internal layer or subcutaneous tissue of the hair-skin is absent in
-those parts of the foot where the pododerm covers the os pedis. There
-remains, therefore, only the middle layer, derm, or _pododerm, which
-secretes the hoof_, and which is the prolongation and representative
-of the middle layer of the hair-skin. The pododerm is distinguished
-from the derm of the hair-skin chiefly by the absence of hairs, oil-
-and sweat-glands, and the presence on its outer surface of fleshy,
-sensitive laminæ and small thread-like projections called villi.
-
-The pododerm consists of five different parts: the _perioplic band_,
-the _coronary band_, the _sensitive laminæ_ (podophyllous tissue), the
-_velvety tissue of the sole_, and the _velvety tissue of the fleshy
-frog_.
-
-1. The _perioplic band_ (Fig. 28, _b_) is a narrow ridge, about
-one-fifth to one-fourth of an inch wide, lying between the hair-skin
-and the coronary band. Somewhat broader at the toe than on the sides,
-it broadens out near the bulbs of the heels, over which it passes to
-end in the velvety tissue of the fleshy frog. It is separated from
-the coronary band by a narrow depression called the _coronary furrow_
-(Moeller). The surface of the perioplic band glistens faintly, and is
-thickly studded with numerous thread-like projections called villi,
-which are from one-twenty-fourth to one-twelfth of an inch in length.
-=The perioplic band secretes the soft horn of the perioplic ring and
-the perioplic or varnish-like outer layer of the wall.=
-
-2. The _coronary band_ (Fig. 27, _c_) lies between the perioplic band
-and the sensitive laminæ or fleshy leaves. It presents a prominent
-convex band or cushion about three-fourths of an inch wide, which
-extends entirely around the foot from one bulb of the heel to the
-other. In front it directly covers the anterior extensor tendon of the
-toe, and at the sides the lateral surfaces of the os coronæ and the
-upper part of the lateral cartilages, while farther back towards the
-heels the lateral cartilages project considerably above both coronary
-and perioplic bands. The coronary band is more convex (rounded) in
-front than on the sides of the foot, and is flattened in the region
-of the bulbs of the heels. Its surface is thickly covered with villi,
-which are longer and stronger than those of the perioplic band. At the
-bulbs of the heels the coronary band turns forward and inward along the
-fleshy frog nearly to its summit. This portion of the coronary band
-is from one-third to one-half an inch wide, and is called the _bar
-portion of the coronary band_. It is also covered with villi, which are
-directly continuous with those of the fleshy frog. =The coronary band
-secretes the principal part (middle layer) of the horny wall of the
-hoof, including the bar portion (bars) of the wall.=
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 29.
-
-Plantar surface of a foot deprived of its horny capsule by prolonged
-maceration: _a_, laminæ of the bars; _b_, velvety tissue of the sole;
-_c_, velvety tissue of the frog; _d_, median cleft of the fleshy
-frog, into which the velvety tissue dips; _e_, bulbar portion of the
-perioplic band, which passes insensibly into the velvety tissue of the
-fleshy frog.]
-
-3. _The fleshy wall_, or _podophyllous tissue_ (Figs. 27, 28, _d_,
-and 29, _a_), is all that portion of the pododerm on which there are
-fleshy leaves. This leafy tissue covers the anterior surface of the
-os pedis and the lower portion of the external surface of the lateral
-cartilages. At the bulbs of the heels it turns inward at a sharp angle
-and extends forward and inward, between the bar portion of the coronary
-band and the posterior part of the velvety tissue of the sole, nearly
-to the middle of the solar surface of the foot, to form the _laminæ
-of the bars_ (Fig. 29, _a_). The fleshy wall and fleshy bars are not
-covered with villi, but with numerous prominent, parallel, _fleshy
-leaves_ placed close together, each of which runs in a straight line
-downward and forward from the coronary band to the lower border of the
-os pedis. Between the fleshy leaves are deep furrows in which, in a
-foot which has not been deprived of its horny capsule, lie the horny or
-insensitive leaves of the wall. The fleshy leaves (podophyllous laminæ)
-are related to one another somewhat as the leaves of a book; their
-posterior borders are attached to the body or basement membrane of the
-fleshy wall, while their anterior borders and sides are free. At their
-upper ends immediately below the coronary band the leaves are quite
-narrow, but they gradually increase in width down to the middle, and
-thereafter maintain that breadth to the lower border of the os pedis,
-where they terminate in free, fleshy villi, which differ in no respect
-from those of the fleshy sole. The number and length of the fleshy
-leaves vary; in a medium-sized foot there are about five hundred, while
-in a large foot there may be as many as six hundred. On the anterior
-surface of the os pedis the leaves are thickest and longest; on the
-sides and quarters they gradually decrease in length, while in the bar
-region they are the shortest and gradually disappear near the anterior
-ends of the bars. The width of the leaves decreases as they become
-shorter. Viewed with the naked eye the leaves appear flat and smooth,
-but under the microscope one can see on both sides of a fleshy leaf
-numerous small, fleshy leaflets parallel to one another and extending
-lengthwise with the larger leaf. The large ones are called _principal
-leaves_, and the small ones are known as _collateral leaves_, or simply
-as _leaflets_.
-
-    =The fleshy leaves (podophyllous tissue) secrete
-    the horny leaves (keraphyllous tissue) and serve to
-    bind the horny wall to the pododerm. The strength
-    of this union is due largely to the dovetailing of
-    the horny leaves and their leaflets with the fleshy
-    leaves and their leaflets.=
-
-4. _The fleshy sole_ or _velvety tissue of the sole_ (Fig. 29, _b_) is
-that part of the pododerm which covers all the under surface of the
-foot except the plantar cushion, the bar laminæ, and the bar portion of
-the coronary band. It is sometimes slate-colored or studded with black
-spots, but is usually dark-red. It is thickly set with villi, which are
-especially long and strong[1] near its periphery. =The fleshy sole=
-covers the solar plexus, or net-work of veins, and =secretes the horny
-sole=.
-
-[1] In order to see the length, thickness, and abundance of the villi
-of the pododerm, place the foot deprived of its hoof in a clear glass
-jar and cover it with water, renewing the latter until it is no longer
-tinged with blood.
-
-5. _The velvety tissue of the frog_ (Fig. 29, _c_) covers the lower
-surface of the plantar cushion, and in the region of the bulbs (_e_)
-passes insensibly into the perioplic band. In comparison with the
-fleshy sole, it has much finer and shorter villi and contains fewer
-blood-vessels. =It secretes the soft, horny frog.=
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 30.
-
-Side view of hoof recently removed: _a_, the perioplic horn-band; it
-is swollen from prolonged maceration in water; the upper border shows
-adhering hairs; the inner surface (perioplic groove) presents many
-minute openings; _a′_, the perioplic horn-band broadens in passing over
-the bulb or glome of the heel, and is finally lost in the horny frog;
-_a″_, section of wall removed. That part of hoof on the right of _b_ is
-called the toe; between _b_ and _c_ is the side wall or “mamma,” and
-between _c_ and _d_ the “quarter;” _e_, projecting horny frog; _f_,
-coronary groove with numerous minute openings; _g_, keraphyllous layer
-of the wall (horny leaves).]
-
-(_c_) =The horn capsule= or =hoof= (Fig. 30) is the entire mass made up
-of the horn-cells secreted from the whole surface of the pododerm, and
-next to the shoe is the organ with which the horseshoer has most to do.
-The horn capsule or hoof is nothing more than a very thick epidermis
-that protects the horse’s foot, just as a well-fitting shoe protects
-the human foot. The hoof of a sound foot is so firmly united with the
-underlying pododerm that only an extraordinary force can separate them.
-In its normal condition the hoof exactly fits the soft structures
-within it; hence it is evident that local or general contraction of the
-hoof must produce pressure on the blood-vessels and nerve-endings of
-the pododerm, disturb the circulation of the blood and the nutrition of
-the foot, and cause pain.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 31.
-
-Plantar surface of right fore-hoof: _a_, _a_, bearing-surface of the
-toe; _a_, _b_, bearing-surface of the side walls or mammæ; _b, c_,
-bearing-surface of the quarters; _d_, buttress, or angle formed by wall
-and bar; _e_, bar; _f_, sole; _f′_, branches of the sole; _g_, white
-line; it passes between the sole and bars and ends at _g′_; _h_, horny
-frog; _i_, branches of the frog; _k_, heels, bulbs, or glomes of the
-hoof; _l_, median lacuna of horny frog. Between the bars and the horny
-frog lie the lateral lacunæ of the frog.]
-
-The hoof is divided into three principal parts, which are solidly
-united in the healthy foot,—namely, the =wall=, the =sole=, and the
-=frog=. That part of the hoof which is almost wholly visible when
-the foot is on the ground (Fig. 30, _b_, _c_), and which protects
-the foot in front and upon the sides, is known as the =wall=. In
-position, course, direction, and arrangement of its parts it simulates
-the different parts of the pododerm from which it is developed. It
-extends from the edge of the hair just above the coronary band to the
-ground; backward it gradually decreases in height (length), passes
-around the bulbs of the heels, and turns forward and inward (Fig. 32,
-_d_, _e_, and 34, _a_, _b_) to form the =bars=, which are finally
-lost in the edge of the sole near the summit of the frog. It thus
-forms at each heel an angle (Fig. 31, _d_, and 32, _d_) known as a
-buttress, which encloses a branch of the horny sole. Externally the
-wall is smooth, covered with the varnish-like periople, and presents
-indistinct ring-like markings (Fig. 30). Its inner surface, on the
-contrary, presents a great number of horn-leaves which are spoken of
-collectively as the _keraphyllous tissue_ (Figs. 32, _g_, and 35,
-_f_). The upper or =coronary border= of the wall is thin and flexible,
-and on its inner aspect is the =coronary groove=, into which fits the
-=coronary band= (Fig. 30, _f_). The lower border of the wall, called
-the “=bearing-edge=” or _plantar border_ (Fig. 31, _a_), is the one to
-which the horseshoe is fastened. By dividing a hoof from before to
-behind along its median line, _outer_ and _inner_ halves or _walls_ are
-produced, and by dividing the entire lower circumference of the wall
-into five equal parts or sections, a =toe=, two =side walls or mammæ=,
-and two =quarters= will be exhibited (Figs. 32 and 33). In order to
-designate these regions of the hoof still more accurately, they are
-spoken of as outer and inner toes, quarters, and heels.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 32.
-
-Wall and bars seen from below: _a_, toe; _b_, side wall, or mamma; _c_,
-quarter; _d_, buttress; _e_, bar; _g_, horn-leaves; _h_, space occupied
-by the frog.]
-
-_The direction_ (slant) _and length of the wall_ vary in one and the
-same hoof, as well as between fore and hind hoofs. The portion of the
-wall of fore-hoofs is the most slanting,—that is, forms the most acute
-angle with the surface of the ground,—and is also the longest. Towards
-the quarters the wall gradually becomes very nearly vertical; in almost
-all hoofs the posterior part of the quarters slants downward and inward
-towards the median vertical antero-posterior plane of the foot. At the
-same time the wall, in passing back from the toe to the heel, becomes
-gradually shorter in such a manner that the heights of the toe, side
-walls, and quarters are related to one another about as 3: 2: 1 in
-front hoofs and as 4: 3: 2 in hind hoofs. The outer wall is, as a rule,
-somewhat more slanting than the inner. Viewing a foot in profile, the
-toe and heel should be parallel; that is, the line from the hair to the
-ground at the toe should be parallel to the line from the hair to the
-ground at the buttress. =All deviations of the wall from a straight
-line= (outward or inward bendings) =are to be regarded as faults or
-defects=.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 33.
-
-A hoof in profile; _a_, toe (one half); _b_, side wall; _c_, quarter.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 34.
-
-Vertical section through the middle of a hoof, with horny frog removed,
-to show the position of the bar: _a_, _b_, marks the line at which the
-wall bends forward and inward towards the median line of the foot to
-become the bar. Bar runs forward and passes imperceptibly into the sole
-_c_; _a_, _a′_, the light shading shows the part of the bar that was in
-contact with the horny frog.]
-
-The _thickness of the wall_ is also variable. In front hoofs the wall
-is thickest at the toe, and becomes gradually thinner towards the
-quarters, while in hind hoofs, there is very little difference in
-the thickness of the wall of the toe, sides, and quarters. _The more
-slanting half of the hoof is always the thicker_; thus, for example,
-the outer wall of a base-wide foot is always longer and more oblique
-than the inner wall, and is also thicker. According to Mayer, the
-thickness of the wall at the toe varies from three- to five-eighths of
-an inch, and at the quarters from two to three-eighths of an inch.
-These measurements are dependent upon the size and breeding of the
-horse.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 35.
-
-The outer wall of the hoof has been removed by cutting vertically
-through the middle of the toe, down to the upper surface of the sole,
-then horizontally backward into the quarter, and, finally, upward
-through the quarter: _a_, perioplic horn-band; _b_, coronary groove; it
-turns inward and forward at _c_ to form the upper border of the bar;
-_d_, surface of section of the wall at the toe; _d′_, at the quarter;
-_e_, surface of horizontal section of the wall near its lower border;
-_f_, keraphyllous layer of the wall; at _f′_ it turns forward and
-inward to cover the bar; _f″_, horny leaves standing free and passing
-insensibly into the white horn of the middle layer or true wall; _g_,
-horny sole; _h_, white line; _i_, small horn-spur in middle of toe;
-_k_, part of horny frog which is in intimate union with the upper edge
-of the bar; _l_, frog-stay of horny frog; it divides the trough-like
-depression of the upper surface of the frog into _m_, the two upper
-channels of the frog.]
-
-The horn wall is composed of _three superposed layers_. These from
-without to within are: (1) the =periople=, secreted by the perioplic
-band. It is very thin, glistening, and varnish-like in appearance, and
-covers the entire outer surface of the wall, except where it has been
-removed by the rasp, and prevents rapid evaporation of moisture from
-the horn. (2) The middle or =protective layer= (Fig. 35, _d_) is the
-thickest, strongest, and most important of the three layers; it forms
-the principal mass of the wall, and is developed or secreted by the
-coronary band, which fits into the coronary groove. There are in the
-coronary groove a great number of small, funnel-shaped openings into
-which project the horn-producing villi or papillæ of the coronary band.
-(3) The =inner layer= or =keraphyllous layer= (Fig. 35, _f_) consists
-of prominent, parallel horn-leaves lying side by side over the entire
-inner surface of the middle layer of the wall, and continuing beyond
-the buttresses to the ends of the bars (Fig. 35, _f′_). This layer of
-horn-leaves (keraphyllous layer) has in a general way about the same
-shape and arrangement as the layer of fleshy leaves (podophyllous
-layer) which secretes it; for the horn-leaves fit in with the fleshy
-leaves in such a way that every fleshy leaf is embraced by two
-horn-leaves, and every horn-leaf by two fleshy leaves (Fig. 36). The
-keraphyllous layer and the horn of the inmost part of the middle or
-protective layer are always white, even in pigmented (colored) hoofs.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 36.
-
-Cross-section of keraphyllous and podophyllous laminæ (horny and fleshy
-leaves): _a_, inmost part of the solid wall; the horn-tubes approach
-very close to the horny leaves; _b_, body of the podophyllous membrane;
-_c_, horny portion of a horn-leaf directly continuous with the middle
-or principal layer of the wall; _c′_, a rudimentary horn-leaf that does
-not reach the body of the podophyllous membrane; _c″_, cross-section
-of horny leaves from the sides of which branch many secondary leaves
-(leaflets) composed of soft (young) horn-cells. These soft cellular
-horn-leaflets dovetail with the podophyllous or fleshy leaflets;
-_d_, podophyllous laminæ extending from the body of the podophyllous
-membrane; _d′_, podophyllous laminæ which have branched in their course
-to the wall, and thus given rise to _c′_, rudimentary horn-leaves;
-_d″_, cross-section of podophyllous leaflets extending from the
-sides of the podophyllous leaves; each two such leaflets secrete a
-keraphyllous leaflet between them; _e_, injected arterial vessels.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 37.
-
-Vertical section of the horny sole magnified: _a_, funnel-shaped
-openings which contain the horn-producing villi of the fleshy sole;
-they are of various sizes; _b_, horn-tubes; _c_, intertubular horn.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 38.
-
-Horny frog, with the posterior portion of the perioplic horn-band and
-the periople which covers the quarters removed from the hoof as one
-piece by maceration: _a_, trough-shaped depression of upper surface,
-which is divided posteriorly into the two upper channels of the frog by
-_b_, the frog-stay; _c_, part of the frog that is joined to the bar and
-forms the lateral wall of the depression (channels) on upper surface
-of frog; _d_, lateral surface of horny frog which, in its upper part,
-adheres to the bar, but below, at _d′_, lies free; _e_, point or summit
-of the frog; _f_, perioplic horn-band; _f′_, periople of the quarters.]
-
-The =horn sole= (Fig. 31, _f_, and Fig. 35, _g_) is secreted by the
-velvety tissue of the sole. A sole from which the loose flakes of
-old horn have been removed is about as thick as the wall. It covers
-the under surface of the foot, and presents upon its upper surface a
-convexity which exactly fits into the concavity on the under surface
-of the os pedis. This upper surface is thickly covered by a multitude
-of minute funnel-shaped openings for the reception of the villi of the
-velvety tissue of the sole (Fig. 37). The lower surface of the sole
-is more or less concave, rough, uneven, and often covered by loose
-scales of dead horn. Behind, the sole presents a triangular opening
-whose borders lie partly in contact with the horny frog and partly
-with the bars. This opening or re-entering angle divides the sole into
-a _body_ (Fig. 31, _f_) and two wings or _branches_ (Fig. 31, _f′_).
-The outer border of the sole unites through the medium of the =white
-line= with the lower part of the inner surface of the wall,—that is,
-with the keraphyllous layer of the wall. This =white line= (Figs. 31,
-_g_, and 35, _h_), of so much importance to the horseshoer, is formed
-by the horn-leaves, and by those short plugs of tubular horn which
-are secreted by the villi that are always found at the lower ends of
-the fleshy leaves. The white line may be said to exist wherever the
-horn-leaves can be discerned upon the plantar surface of the hoof.
-It not only passes around the circumference of the sole from heel
-to heel, but may be followed forward from the buttresses along the
-bars almost to the summit of the frog. The horn of the white line is
-soft, unpigmented (white), and possesses so very little resistance
-(strength) that it is often found crumbling or even absent in places.
-The visible part of the white line is usually of a grayish-black color,
-owing to the working in from below of dirt and liquid manure, and to
-staining by rust from the nails. =The white line is very important,
-since it serves as the point from which we judge of the thickness of
-the wall, and because the horseshoe nail should penetrate it.=
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 39.
-
-A horny frog cut vertically and lengthwise through its middle: _a_,
-upper surface; _b_, frog-stay; _c_, median lacuna of frog, which at
-_c′_, is overlaid with superposed layers of horn.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 40.
-
-Longitudinal section of the wall magnified. The dark stripes parallel
-and close together are horn-tubes; the lighter surface between the
-tubes represents the intertubular horn. Notice that the horn-tubes are
-of various diameters. The space between _a_ and _b_ represents the
-small tubes of the outer, darker horn of the principal (middle) layer
-of the wall; the space between _b_ and _c_ the lighter, inner horn of
-the wall; _c_, _d_, the horn separating the wall proper from the horny
-leaves; _d_, _e_, the horny leaves (keraphyllous tissue), on which can
-be seen fine, parallel, vertical stripes; in the horn-leaf at _f_,
-_f′_, are seen fissures passing obliquely upward and outward towards
-the wall.]
-
-=The Frog= (Figs. 31, _h_, 35, _k_, _l_, 38 and 39), secreted by the
-velvety tissue covering the plantar cushion and presenting almost the
-same form as the latter, lies as a wedge between the bars and between
-the edges of the sole just in front of the bars, with both of which
-structures it is intimately united. Its horn is _quite soft_ and _very
-elastic_. The median lacuna or cleft of the frog (Fig. 31, _l_)
-divides it into two branches (Fig. 31, _i_), which pass backward and
-outward into the horny bulbs (Fig. 31, _k_). In front of the median
-lacuna the two branches unite to form the _body_ of the frog (Fig. 31,
-_h_), which ends in a point, designated the _point_, apex, or summit of
-the frog. On the upper surface of the frog, directly over the median
-cleft of the lower surface, there is a small projection called the
-frog-stay (Figs. 35, _l_, 38 and 39, _b_), which fits into the median
-cleft of the plantar cushion. Besides, the upper surface of the frog
-shows many minute openings, similar to but smaller than those of the
-sole and coronary groove, for the reception of villi. In unshod hoofs
-the frog, sole, bars, and bearing-edge of the wall are on a level; that
-is, the plantar surface of such hoofs is perfectly flat.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 41.
-
-Cross-section of the wall, magnified: _a_, horn-tubes; _b_,
-intertubular horn.]
-
-The _minute structure of the horn_ can scarcely be considered in detail
-in an elementary treatise such as this is. However, a few of the most
-important facts are as follows:
-
-If we carefully examine a transverse section of the horn of the wall
-(Fig. 41), sole, or frog, we will see with the naked eye, though much
-better with a magnifying glass, many minute points quite close to one
-another, and greatly resembling the small openings which we have seen
-in the coronary groove of the wall and on the upper surface of the
-horny sole and frog. If, now, we examine a longitudinal section of the
-wall (Fig. 40) or sole, we will see a number of fine, dark stripes
-which are straight, parallel, quite close to one another, of different
-widths, and which are separated by bands of lighter horn also of
-different widths. A thin section or slice of the wall taken at right
-angles to the direction of these dark lines (Fig. 41) shows us that the
-minute points that are visible to the naked eye, when held up to the
-light or moderately magnified, prove to be small openings (Fig. 41,
-_a_). Since these openings, shown in Fig. 41, represent the dark lines
-shown in Fig. 40, because an opening is found wherever there is a dark
-line, _we must regard all dark lines seen in longitudinal sections of
-wall, sole, and frog as hollow cylinders or tubes_, though they are not
-always hollow, but are often filled with loosely adjusted, crumbling,
-broken down horn-cells. The dark edges of the openings (_a_) consist of
-thick layers of horn-cells (tube-walls). The entire structure is called
-a =horn-tube=, and the lighter-colored masses of horn (Fig. 41, _b_)
-between the tubes are known as =intertubular horn=.
-
-    =With the exception of the horny leaves of the wall
-    and bars, all the horn of the hoof is composed of
-    horn-tubes and intertubular horn.=
-
-The horn-tubes of the wall, sole, and frog always run downward and
-forward parallel to the direction of the wall at the toe,—that is,
-in a direction parallel with the inclination of the hoof as a whole.
-Although the wall, sole, and frog differ from one another considerably
-with respect to the size and number of the horn-tubes, the quality
-of the intertubular horn, and the thickness and strength of the
-horn-cells, these differences are only of subordinate interest or
-importance to the horseshoer; but he who desires to learn more of this
-matter is referred to the work of Leisering & Hartmann, “Der Fuss des
-Pferdes in Rücksicht auf Bau, Verrichtungen und Hufbeschlag,” eighth
-edition, Dresden, 1893. This book also treats of the variations in the
-quality of hoofs, which is very important for the practical horseshoer
-to know. It, furthermore, considers the solidity and strength of the
-horn of the different parts of the hoof.
-
-With respect to solidity, two kinds of horn are distinguished,—namely,
-=hard= and =soft horn=. The periople, the white line, and the frog are
-soft horn structures; the middle layer of the wall and the sole are
-hard or solid horn. The wall, however, is somewhat harder and more
-tenacious than the sole, for the latter passes off in more or less
-large flakes (exfoliates) or crumbles away on its lower surface, at
-least in shod feet, while no such spontaneous shortening occurs in the
-wall.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 42.
-
-Vertical section through middle of a forefoot, the skin and pododerm
-being in red. (In the figure the direction of both long and short
-pasterns, _B_ and _D_, is too nearly vertical—too steep). _A_,
-metacarpal bone (cannon); _B_, os suffraginis (long pastern);
-_C_, inner sesamoid bone (to render it visible a portion of the
-intersesamoid ligament was removed); _D_, os coronæ (short pastern);
-_E_, os pedis (foot-bone); _F_, navicular bone; _a_, extensor tendon;
-_b_, suspensory ligament of the fetlock; _b′_, superficial inferior
-sesamoid ligament; _c_, perforatus tendon or flexor of the os coronæ;
-_c′_, ring passing forward from this tendon and encircling the
-perforans tendon; _d_, perforans tendon; _e_, capsular ligament of
-fetlock-joint; _f_, capsular ligament of coronary joint; _g_, _g′_,
-capsular ligament of pedal joint; _h_, synovial sheath of the perforans
-tendon; _i_, plantar cushion and fleshy frog; _i′_, bulbs or glomes
-of plantar cushion; _i″_, indicates the lowest point reached by the
-plantar cushion, which in the figure is hidden below by the frog-stay
-of the horny frog; _k_, coronary band (red); _l_, podophyllous tissue
-(red); _m_, velvety tissue of the sole (red); _n_, velvety tissue of
-fleshy frog (red); _o_, wall; _p_, sole; _q_, frog; _q′_, the inner
-half of the frog-stay which reposes in the median lacuna of the fleshy
-frog; _s_, hair-skin (red).]
-
-Soft horn differs from hard horn in that its horn-cells never become
-hard and horn-like. It is very elastic, absorbs water quickly, and as
-readily dries out and becomes very hard and brittle and easily fissured
-and chapped. With respect to _quality_, we distinguish good and bad
-horn; the former is fine and tenacious (tough), the latter coarse and
-either soft and crumbling or hard and brittle. If not dried out, all
-horn is elastic, though soft horn is more elastic than hard. All horn
-is a _poor conductor of heat_.
-
-The relative positions of the various parts of the foot are shown in
-Fig. 42.
-
-Fig. 43 represents the exterior of a well-formed foot.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 43.
-
-Right forefoot viewed from the side: _A_, lower end of the cannon; _B_,
-fetlock-joint; _C_, long pastern; _D_, coronet; _E_, hoof; _F_, heel;
-_F′_ inner heel; _G_, foot-lock covering the ergot.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER II.
-
-THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION TO THE ENTIRE LIMB.
-
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 44.
-
-Normal (regular) position of fore-limbs.]
-
-As there are well-formed and badly formed bodies, so there are
-well-formed and badly formed limbs and hoofs. The form of the hoof
-depends upon the position of the limb. A straight limb of normal
-direction possesses, as a rule, a regular hoof, while an oblique or
-crooked limb is accompanied by an irregular or oblique hoof. Hence,
-it is necessary, before discussing the various forms of the hoof, to
-consider briefly the various positions that may be assumed by the
-limbs. In this discussion we shall deal with the =living= horse.
-
-
-A. Standing Positions of the Limbs.
-
-The position of a limb depends upon the varying lengths of its
-component bones and the angles at which they meet one another. To judge
-the standing position of a fore-limb one must stand _in front_ of the
-horse; to judge a hind limb, stand _behind_ the horse; the backward
-or forward deviations of both front and hind limbs are judged by
-standing at the side. But a horse does not always move as his standing
-position would lead one to suspect; standing and moving are different.
-Therefore, in order to arrive at a proper judgment, one must observe
-the limbs both at rest and in motion.
-
-(_a_) =The position of a limb viewed from in front= is normal or
-straight (Fig. 44) when it stands vertical or perpendicular. A
-plumb-line dropped from the point of the shoulder (middle of the
-scapulo-humeral articulation) should pass down the middle line of the
-limb, dividing it into inner and outer halves of equal width, and
-meeting the ground at the middle of the toe.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 45. Base-wide]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 46. Toe-wide]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 47. Toe-narrow (“pigeon-toed”)]
-
-In the _base-wide standing position_ (Fig. 45) the plumb-line falls to
-the inner side of the limb; the limb extends obliquely downward and
-outward. To this class belong also the _knee-narrow_ (knock-kneed)
-_position_, in which the knees are too close together, while the feet
-stand wide apart, and the _toe-wide position_ (splay-footed, Fig. 46)
-in which the toes point obliquely forward and outward. In base-wide
-positions either the entire limb extends downward and outward or the
-foot alone is turned outward.
-
-The _base-narrow position_ is frequently observed in horses with
-very wide breasts. The limbs run downward and inward, a plumb-line
-dropped from the point of the shoulder falling to the outer side of
-the leg and foot. A special form of the base-narrow position is the
-_toe-narrow_ or _pigeon-toed position_ (Fig. 47). In some instances the
-legs are straight and perpendicular down to the fetlock, while from
-there to the ground the phalanges incline obliquely inward. Another
-form is the _knee-wide_ or _bandy-legged position_, in which the knees
-are placed too far apart, while the cannons and phalanges incline
-downward and inward.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 48. Normal (regular) fore-limb in profile.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 49. Normal (regular) hind-limb in profile.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 50. Camped in front.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 51. Calf-kneed.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 52. Acute-angled foot (low-jointed).]
-
-=The position of a fore-limb viewed in profile= is regular or normal
-(Fig. 48) when a perpendicular line dropped from the tuberosity of
-the acromian spine (point of union of the upper and middle thirds of
-the scapula or shoulder-blade) divides the leg from the elbow to the
-fetlock into anterior and posterior halves of equal width, and touches
-the ground immediately back of the bulbs of the heel. A perpendicular
-line dropped from the point of union of the middle and lower thirds of
-the scapula (shoulder-blade) will cut the humerus into halves, and meet
-the ground between the toe and the heel.[2] The _foot-axis_ (line of
-direction of the three phalanges) and the wall at the toe form an angle
-of from forty-five to fifty degrees with the horizontal ground-surface.
-
-[2] =In station of rest=, the normal position of a fore-leg, as seen
-from the side, is somewhat different. The _station of rest_ is the
-position that is maintained with the least possible muscular effort.
-With gradual muscular relaxation the head and neck sink to a point
-somewhat below the line of the back, the top of the shoulder-blade
-sinks a little, and the shoulder and elbow joints move forward till
-the centre of the elbow joint is directly above the ground-surface of
-the hoof. Therefore, when a horse _at rest_ stands firmly on all four
-feet, _the fore-leg_ viewed from the side, _has a normal_ (regular)
-_direction, when a perpendicular line dropped from the tuberosity of
-the acromian spine passes through the middle of the elbow joint and
-meets the ground near the middle of the hoof_.
-
-From this normal or regular standing position, there are _deviations
-forward_ as well as _backward_.
-
-=Forward Deviations.=—“_Standing in front_” or “_camped in front_”
-(Fig. 50) is that position in which the entire leg from the body to
-the ground is placed too far forward. _Sheep-kneed_ (Fig. 51) is that
-position in which the forward deviation is from the knee downward,
-the knee being placed too far under the body. “_Weak-jointed_,”
-“_low-jointed_,” or “_acute-angled_” (Fig. 52) is that position in
-which the limbs are perpendicular and straight down as far as the
-fetlock-joint, but the feet are placed too far in front.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 53. Standing under.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 54. Knee-sprung.]
-
-=Backward Deviations.=—_Standing under in front_ (Fig. 53) is that
-deviation in which the entire leg from the elbow down is placed back
-of the perpendicular line and, therefore, too far under the body.
-When this deviation affects only the cannon bone, the horse stands
-bent forward at the knees,—a condition known as “_goat-kneed_,”
-“_buck-kneed_,” “_over in the knees_,” or, more commonly,
-“_knee-sprung_” (Fig. 54). When the backward deviation is only from the
-fetlock down, the animal is said to stand _upright_ or “_straight in
-the fetlock_.”
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 55. Normal (regular) position viewed from behind.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 56. Base-wide (cow-hocked).]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 57. Base-narrow.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 58. Base-narrow position of hind limbs
-(bandy-legged).]
-
-(_b_) =A hind leg viewed from behind= is said to be _regular_ or
-_straight_ (Fig. 55) when a perpendicular line dropped from the
-tuberosity of the ischium (see Fig. 1, 9″) divides the entire limb into
-inner and outer halves of equal width and touches the ground opposite
-the median lacuna of the frog. =Seen from the side=, this line just
-touches the point of the hock and, passing down at some distance from
-the flexor tendons, meets the ground considerably back of the heels.
-A perpendicular line dropped from the hip-joint should pass through
-the foot, meeting the ground half-way between the point of the toe and
-the heel (Fig. 49). There are base-wide, base-narrow, toe-wide, and
-toe-narrow deviations in the hind limbs as in the fore-limbs.
-
-The hind limbs are _base-wide_ when they, either as a whole or in part,
-deviate outward from the normal. The “_cow-hocked_“ position (Fig. 56)
-is an example of the base-wide; in this case the points of the hocks
-are too close and turn towards each other, while the feet are widely
-separated and the toes turned outward. _Base-narrow_ is that position
-of the hind legs in which either the entire leg deviates to the inner
-side of the perpendicular (Fig. 57), or the leg is about perpendicular
-down as far as the hock, but below this joint runs downward and inward
-(Fig. 58). In this latter case the hocks may be too far apart, the leg
-is bent outward at the hock and the animal is termed “_bandy-legged_,”
-“_bow-legged_.”
-
-=Viewing a hind limb from the side=, it may be observed to deviate
-either forward or backward from the normal. Among forward deviations
-is the so-called “_sabre-leg_“ or “_sickle-hock_“ (Fig. 59), in which
-the hock-joint is too much flexed, the foot placed too far forward
-under the body, and the fetlock too slanting. In the position known as
-“_camped behind_” (Fig. 60) the leg is behind the body and the pastern
-is too upright, too nearly vertical.
-
-It is possible for each limb of the same horse to assume a different
-direction. It more often happens that if the fore-limbs are base-wide
-the hind limbs are base-narrow, or _vice_ _versa_. While there are some
-other deviations that differ somewhat from those already described,
-they are of less importance to the horseshoer.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 59. Sabre-legged or sickle-hocked.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 60. Camped behind.]
-
-
-B. Forms of Feet. Viewed from in Front, from Behind, and in Profile.
-
-In all the various positions of the limbs we find the feet in one of
-the following _three forms_, or very closely approaching one of them.
-By means of a proper knowledge of these three forms, the judging of the
-form, flight of the foot in travelling, and preparation of the hoof
-for the shoe, as well as the choice of the length of the shoe, are
-regulated, facilitated, and simplified.
-
-Whether a horse’s feet be observed from _in front_ or from _behind_,
-their form corresponds to, or at least resembles, either that of the
-=regular= position (Figs. 61 and 62), the =base-wide= or toe-wide
-position (Figs. 63 and 64), or the =base-narrow= or toe-narrow position
-(Figs. 65 and 66).
-
-By the _direction_ of the =foot-axis=—that is, an imaginary line
-passing through the long axis of the three phalangeal bones (Figs. 61,
-65, 67, 68 and 69)—we determine whether or not the hoof and pastern
-stand in proper mutual relation.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 61.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 62.
-
-A pair of front feet of regular position viewed from in front and from
-behind.]
-
-In the regular standing position (Figs. 61 and 62) the foot-axis runs
-straight downward and forward, in the base-wide position (Figs. 63 and
-64) it runs obliquely downward and outward, and in the base-narrow
-position (Figs. 65 and 66) it runs obliquely downward and inward.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 63.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 64.
-
-A pair of feet of the base-wide (toe-wide) position seen from in front
-and from behind.]
-
-_Viewing the foot from the side_, we distinguish the =regular=
-(normal) position (Fig. 68), and designate all forward deviations as
-=acute-angled= (long toe and low heel, Fig. 67), and all deviations
-backward from the regular position as =upright= (short toe and high
-heel, Fig. 69), steep-toed, or stumpy.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 65.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 66.
-
-A pair of feet of the base-narrow (toe-narrow) position seen from in
-front and from behind.]
-
-When the body-weight is uniformly distributed over all four limbs, the
-foot-axis should be _straight_ (Figs. 67 and 69), not “broken” (bent);
-=the long pastern, wall at the toe, and foot-axis should have the same
-slant=.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 67. An acute-angled hoof.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 68. A normal-angled hoof.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 69. An upright (“stumpy”) hoof.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 70. The “bear-foot.”]
-
-A peculiar form of foot is the so-called _bear-foot_ (Fig. 70), in
-which the foot-axis, viewed from the side, is broken strongly forward
-at the coronet. The wall at the toe stands much steeper than the long
-pastern and is more or less convex; in other words, a low-jointed,
-sloping pastern is attached to an upright hoof. Such a foot is
-sometimes improperly called a “club-foot.”
-
-
-C. Lines of Flight of Hoofs in Motion.
-
-If we observe horses moving unrestrained over level ground, we will
-notice differences in the carriage of the feet. =Viewed from in front,
-or from behind=, in the _regular standing position_ of the limbs the
-hoofs are carried forward in a _straight direction_, that is, in a
-line parallel with the median line of the body (Fig. 71). The toes
-likewise point straight forward; the hoofs alight properly (flat) on
-the ground. If the horse stands _base-wide_, the hoof is carried in a
-circle; from its position, which is behind and well out from the median
-line, the hoof passes first forward and inward until it is close to
-the supporting leg, and then outward to the ground (Fig. 72), where
-the shock is received principally upon the outer toe. The toes point
-either directly forward, as in the regular standing position (Fig. 72),
-or forward and outward as in the toe-wide position (Fig. 73). In the
-toe-wide position the hoof in its flight may cross the median line.
-
-Exactly the reverse is true of the horse that stands _base-narrow_;
-in this case the hoof is moved in a circle whose convexity is
-outward,—that is, the hoof from its position behind, and close to the
-median line, is carried forward and outward and then inward to the
-ground (Figs. 74 and 75).
-
-=Viewed from the side=, the line of flight of a hoof is determined
-largely by the obliquity (slant) of the foot-axis.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 71]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 72.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 73.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 74.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 75.]
-
-1. With a straight foot-axis of _normal slant_ (45°-50°, Fig. 76, _A_),
-the hoof follows the arc of a circle and reaches its highest point when
-directly above the supporting hoof, _i.e._, when half-way in the stride.
-
-2. With a straight, but _acute-angled_ foot-axis (less than 45°, Fig.
-76, _B_), the hoof rises rapidly, reaches its highest point before
-it has completed the first half of the stride, _i.e._, before it has
-passed the supporting hoof, and descending gradually in a long curve
-alights easily on the ground.
-
-3. With a straight, but upright foot-axis (55° or more, Fig. 76, _C_),
-the hoof rises slowly, reaches its highest point in front of the
-supporting hoof, from which point it descends rapidly. The gait is
-“choppy,” and in the saddle-horse unpleasant for the rider. _The length
-and the height of the stride are greatest in acute-angled feet; least
-in upright feet._ Furthermore, length and height of stride are in a
-measure dependent on breeding, training, condition of the legs (whether
-stiffened by use or disease), length of the hoof and the weight of the
-shoe.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 76.
-
-Flight of the hoof as seen from the side: _A_, flight of a regular
-hoof; _B_, flight of an acute-angled hoof; _C_, flight of an upright
-hoof.]
-
-Many deviations in the line of flight of hoofs and in the manner in
-which they are set to the ground occur; for example, horses heavily
-burdened or pulling heavy loads, and, therefore, not having free use
-of their limbs, project their limbs irregularly and meet the ground
-first with the toe; however, careful observation will detect the
-presence of one or the other of these lines of flight of the foot.
-Irregular carriage of the feet renders a horse unsuitable for general
-purposes only when it is very pronounced, in which case certain
-troublesome conditions, such as interfering and disease of joints, are
-of frequent occurrence.
-
-
-D. The Influence of Weight in the Shoe or Otherwise Attached to the
-Hoof, in Altering the Flight of the Hoof.
-
-There is nothing mysterious in the effect of weight upon the flight
-of the feet. On the contrary, the lines of flight are determined (as
-shown in pages 72-74, Figs. 71-76), _first_, by the relation of the
-transverse axes of the hinge-joints of the leg and foot to the line of
-progression (median line); _second_, by the length and obliquity of the
-hoof and pastern; _third_, by the height and length of stride which is
-natural to each individual.
-
-_Weight induces higher action and a longer stride._ Inertia increases
-with the weight. A heavy shoe cannot be snatched from the ground as
-quickly as a light one, but when moving forward at a given velocity its
-greater momentum (momentum = mass (wt) × velocity: m = wt × v) carries
-the foot farther forward then does the lighter shoe. Thus, the heavier
-shoe, or weight attached to the hoof, lengthens the stride at both
-ends. The farther from the centre of rotation of the scapula the weight
-is placed, _i.e._, the nearer to the toe it is placed, the greater the
-muscular effort required to start it and to stop it.
-
-_Height of action_, though largely the result of breeding, temperament,
-and the exhilaration that accompanies perfect health and entire
-absence of muscular fatigue, is to a certain extent influenced by the
-_inclination of the pastern and toe to the cannon_. _The acute-angled
-foot_, in the folding of the leg during the first half of the stride,
-moves through a longer arc of a circle whose centre is the fetlock
-joint than does the normal or the upright foot; rises more rapidly
-and to a higher point. (See Fig. 76, _B_.) When the momentum of a foot
-moving rapidly and abruptly upward is increased by weight the result is
-extreme and even exaggerated flexion of all joints of the leg, and by
-allowing the hoof to grow long the flexion is still further increased.
-In the show ring, harness horses with fair natural action may be made
-to “climb” by shoes weighing from thirty to sixty ounces upon hoofs
-an inch or more longer than normal. The leverage of a heavy shoe on
-a long hoof is excessive, fatiguing and most injurious to ligament,
-tendon and muscle. The action, while high, is _labored_, _pounding_ and
-_altogether inelegant_.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 77.
-
-A 40 oz. right front shoe (hoof-surface) to increase knee-action in a
-high acting harness horse. For show-purposes only.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 78.
-
-The same seen from the ground-surface in profile: _a_, bevel from inner
-border of the web to outer border; _b_, ends of the branches of full
-thickness from outer to inner border.]
-
-In the training of trotters weight is often used _to increase the
-length of the stride_, or to cause a _higher folding of a front foot_,
-in order to prevent “scalping“ or “speedy-cut.“ As soon as the new gait
-becomes a fixed habit the weight should be gradually lessened. _Weight
-is carried with less fatigue at a trot_ then at a pace, or at a gallop.
-It therefore steadies a trotter that is inclined to pace, or “break”
-into a run. The increased momentum of the weighted hoof makes for
-rhythm of movement, and increases the difficulty of skipping, dwelling,
-or mixing gaits.
-
-In the _base-wide_ (toe-wide) and _base-narrow_ (toe-narrow) _standing
-positions_, the flight of the hoofs, as seen from in front or behind,
-is not straight forward, _i.e._, parallel to the line of progression
-of the body, but in _arcs of circles_. (See Figs. 72-75, p. 73.) In
-these cases, increasing the weight of the hoofs, by increasing the
-momentum, must of necessity increase the tendency of the hoofs to move
-off at a tangent to the curves which they describe. In other words,
-_weight increases the centrifugal force_ of a body moving in a curve.
-The _outward swing_ of the hoofs of a base-narrow horse (paddling), and
-the _inward swing_ of a base-wide horse (interfering), are made _more
-pronounced by adding weight to any part of the hoof_. _The centrifugal
-force is greatest_ in base-wide feet when the weight is on the medial,
-or inner side of the hoof; in base-narrow feet when it is on the
-lateral or outer side.
-
-A side weight, or side weight shoe is often of service in a cross
-firing pacer. This animal usually stands base-narrow (toe-narrow)
-behind, and in motion his hind hoofs describe a curve at first forward
-and outward and then inward till contact is made with the diagonal hoof
-or leg. The added weight (placed on the outer side) by increasing the
-centrifugal force carries the hoof just enough farther from the centre
-around which the hoof swings to prevent contact. (See cross-firing, p.
-138.)
-
-Finally, it must not be forgotten that _weight is always weight_; that
-it _cuts speed_ and _devours endurance_.
-
-
-E. Forms of Hoofs.
-
-_A front hoof of the regular standing position_ (Fig. 79). The inner
-and outer walls differ but little in direction and thickness. The outer
-wall is a little thicker and somewhat more slanting than the inner (see
-Figs. 61 and 62), and its outer circumference describes a larger arc of
-a circle,—that is, is more curved, as can be seen both at its plantar
-border and at the coronet. The length of the quarter in relation to the
-length or height of the side wall and toe is about as 1: 2: 3. The toe
-forms an angle with the ground of forty-five to fifty degrees (see Fig.
-68). The direction of the wall at the toe, viewed from the side, should
-be parallel with the direction of the long pastern.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 79.
-
-Right fore-hoof of the regular position: _a_, side wall; _b_, quarter;
-_c_, beginning of the bar; _d_, buttress; _e_, middle of the bar;
-_f_, body of the sole; _f′_, branches of sole; _g_, white line; _g′_,
-apparent end of the bar; _h_, body of the frog; _i_, branch of the
-frog; _k_, bulbs (glomes) of the heel; _l_, middle cleft of frog; _m_,
-lateral cleft of frog.]
-
-_A hoof of the base-wide position_ (Fig. 80) _is always awry_, because
-the outer wall is naturally somewhat longer and decidedly more slanting
-then the inner (see Figs. 63 and 64). The plantar border of the outer
-wall describes a large arc, whose sharpest curvature is where the side
-wall passes into the quarter. The plantar border of the inner wall is
-straighter (less curved); the outer half of the ground-surface (sole)
-of the hoof is, therefore, wider than the inner. So long as the hoof
-is healthy, both branches of the frog are equally developed. The
-wryness of the hoof depends upon the direction of the limb; therefore,
-a base-wide hoof should be regarded as a _normally wry hoof_, to
-distinguish it from hoofs which are wry from disease.
-
-_A hoof of the toe-wide position_ (Fig. 81) is distinguished from the
-preceding by the bending or curvature of the plantar border of the
-outer toe and inner quarter being often decidedly less pronounced than
-on the inner toe and outer quarter; therefore, two short curves and two
-long curves lie opposite each other; in other words, the inner toe and
-outer quarter, lying opposite each other, are sharply curved, while the
-outer toe and inner quarter, lying opposite each other, are much less
-sharply bent or curved. The toes are turned out. The feet are not set
-down flat upon the ground, but meet it with the outer toe.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 80. Right fore-hoof of the base-wide position.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 81. Right fore-hoof of the toe-wide position.]
-
-_A hoof of the base-narrow position is normally wry_, but never so
-pronounced as a hoof of the base-wide position. The inner wall is
-but little, more oblique than the outer, the difference being most
-noticeable at the quarters (Figs. 65 and 66). The curve of the plantar
-border of the wall is similar to that of a regular hoof, except that
-the inner side wall and quarter are a little more sharply curved in a
-base-narrow hoof. Occasionally the outer quarter is somewhat drawn in
-under the foot.
-
-This form of hoof is most distinctly marked in animals that stand
-toe-narrow or are bandy-legged.
-
-As to the _forms of the hind hoofs_, what has been said concerning the
-influence of position of the limbs upon the shape of the front feet
-will apply equally well to them. The hind hoof (Fig. 82) is not round
-at the toe, but somewhat pointed or oval. It greatest width is between
-the middle and posterior thirds of the sole. It usually has a strongly
-concave sole and a somewhat steeper toe than the fore-hoof; viewed from
-the side, the angle of the toe with the ground in the regular standing
-position is from fifty to fifty-five degrees.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 82.
-
-Right hind hoof of the regular position: _a_, side wall; _b_, beginning
-of the quarter; _c_, beginning of the bar; _d_, buttress; _e_, middle
-of bar; _f_, body of the sole; _f′_, branch of sole; _g_, white line
-of the toe; _g′_, white line of the bar; _h_, body of the frog; _i_,
-branch of the frog; _k_, bulbs of heel; _l_, middle cleft of frog; _m_,
-lateral cleft of frog.]
-
-Finally, we also distinguish _wide_ and _narrow_ hoofs; they are
-not dependent upon the position of the limbs, but upon the race and
-breeding of the animal.
-
-_The wide hoof_ (Fig. 83) is almost round upon its plantar surface.
-Its wall runs quite oblique to the ground. The sole is but moderately
-concave, and the frog is strong and well developed. _The narrow hoof_
-(Fig. 84) is rather elliptical, with steep side walls, strongly concaved
-sole, and small, undeveloped frog. The horn of the narrow hoof is fine
-and tough; of the wide hoof, usually coarse. The wide hoof may readily
-become flat. Narrow hoofs are either the result of breeding or premature
-shoeing.
-
-In enumerating the preceding forms of the hoof we have by no means
-referred to all the forms in which the hoof may be found; on the
-contrary, hoofs vary in shape and quality to such an extent that among
-a hundred horses no two hoofs can be found which are exactly alike. In
-fact, the same variety exists as in the faces of people, and we know
-that we can recall in succession even many more faces without finding
-two that are exactly alike. This explains the manifold differences in
-horse’s shoes with respect to size, form and other qualities.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 83. Wide fore-hoof.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 84. Narrow fore-hoof.]
-
-Suppose now a hoof is before us; it is first necessary to know whether
-or not it is =healthy=. Unfortunately, a perfectly healthy hoof is
-not so easy to find as one may think. We recognize a sound hoof by
-the following marks: Seen from in front or from the side, the course
-of the wall from the coronet to the ground, in the direction of the
-horn-tubes, is straight,—that is, bent neither in nor out. A straight
-edge, placed upon the wall in the direction of the horn-tubes, touches
-at every point. The wall must show neither longitudinal nor transverse
-cracks or fissures. If there be rings, their position and course are
-important. Rings which pass around the entire circumference of the
-wall parallel to the coronet indicate nothing more than disturbances
-of nutrition of the hoof; _but the hoof cannot pass for sound_
-when the rings have any other position and direction than the one
-mentioned, or if the rings upon any part of the wall are more marked
-than elsewhere, even though they may be parallel to the coronary band.
-Marked ring-building upon the hoofs of horses which have regular
-feeding, grooming, and work indicates a weak hoof. Viewed from the
-ground-surface and from behind, the bulbs of the heels should be well
-rounded, strongly developed, and not displaced. The concave sole should
-show no separation along the white line. The frog should be strong,
-well developed, and have symmetrical branches and a broad, shallow, dry
-median lacuna. The lateral lacunæ of the frog should be clean and not
-too narrow. The bars should pass in a straight direction forward and
-inward towards the point of the frog. Any bending outward of the bars
-towards the branches of the sole indicates the beginning of a narrowing
-of the space occupied by the frog,—that is, contraction of the heels.
-The horn of the branches of the sole in the buttresses and in their
-proximity should show no red staining. The lateral cartilages should be
-elastic. No part of the foot should be weakened at the cost of other
-parts. By firm union of all strong parts the strength and vigor of the
-hoof is in no sense disturbed. _If one desires to ascertain the exact
-form and state of health of the hoof, it must never be inspected and
-judged alone, but in connection with the entire limb._
-
-
-F. Growth of the Hoof and Wear of the Hoof and Shoe.
-
-All parts of the horn of the hoof grow downward and forward, the
-material for this growth being furnished by the remarkably large
-quantity of blood which flows to the pododerm. The growth of the hoof
-is regulated by the nerves.
-
-As a rule, the hoof grows =uniformly=,—that is, one section of the wall
-grows just as rapidly as another. A visible indication of growth is the
-increase in height and width of the hoof from colthood to maturity.
-
-The _rapidity of growth_ of the wall varies, amounting in a month to
-from one-sixth to one-half of an inch. The average monthly growth in
-both shod and unshod horses of both sexes is, according to my own
-experiments, one-third of an inch. Hind hoofs grow faster than front
-hoofs, and unshod faster than shod. The hoofs of stallions grow more
-slowly than those of mares and geldings.
-
-Abundant =exercise=, proper grooming (flexibility and moistness of
-the horn), regular dressing of the wall, and =running barefoot= from
-time to time =favor growth=; while little or no exercise, dryness, and
-excessive length of the hoof hinder growth.
-
-The time required for the horn to grow from the coronet to the ground
-is, therefore, equally variable, and is, moreover, dependent upon the
-height (length of toe) of the hoof. At the toe the horn grows down in
-from eleven to thirteen months, at the mammæ or sides in from six to
-eight months, and at the quarters in from three to five months. The
-time required for the renewal of the entire hoof we term the _period of
-hoof renewal_. If, for example, we know exactly the rapidity of horn
-growth in a given case, we can estimate without difficulty the length
-of the “period of hoof renewal,” as well for the entire hoof as for
-each individual section of the wall. The duration of many diseases of
-the hoof (cracks, clefts, partial bendings of the wall, contractions,
-etc.) can be foretold with relative certainty only by knowing the
-period of hoof renewal.
-
-_Irregular growth_ sometimes takes place. The chief cause of this is
-usually an improper distribution of the body-weight over the hoof,—that
-is, an unbalanced foot. Wry hoofs of faulty positions of the limbs are
-often exposed to this evil; a faulty preparation of the hoof (dressing)
-for the shoe, as well as neglect of the colt’s hoofs, is in the
-majority of cases directly responsible for this condition.
-
-If in the shortening of the wall a part is from ignorance left too
-long, or one-half of the hoof shortened too much in relation to the
-other half, the foot will be unbalanced. The horse will then touch the
-ground first with the section of wall which has been left too high,
-and will continue to do so until this long section has been reduced to
-its proper level (length) by the increased wear which will take place
-at this point. In unshod hoofs this levelling process takes place
-rapidly; such, however, is not the case in shod hoofs, for here the
-shoe prevents rapid wear, and, indeed this levelling process is often
-rendered impossible through the welding of high steel calks to the
-shoe. If this fault in trimming be repeated at the next and subsequent
-shoeings, and if the faulty relation of the ground-surface of the hoof
-to the direction of the foot-axis remain during several months, the
-portion of wall left too high will grow more rapidly, the walls will
-lose their natural straight direction and become bent. If, for example,
-the outer wall has been left too long during a considerable period of
-time, a crooked hoof results (Fig. 85) in which the rings are placed
-closer together upon the low (concave) side than upon the high (convex)
-side. If for a long time the toe is excessively long, it will become
-bent; or if this fault affects excessively high quarters they will
-contract either just under the coronary band or will curl forward and
-inward at their lower borders. These examples are sufficient to show
-both the importance of the manner in which a horse places his foot to
-the ground and its influence upon the loading, growth, and form of the
-hoof.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 85.
-
-Crooked (right) fore-hoof.]
-
-
-Wear of the Shoe and of the Hoof upon the Shoe.
-
-The wear of the shoe is caused much less by the weight of the animal’s
-body than by the rubbing which takes place between the shoe and the
-earth whenever the foot is placed to the ground and lifted.
-
-The wear of the shoe which occurs when the foot is placed on the ground
-is termed “=grounding wear=,” and that which occurs while the foot is
-being lifted from the ground is termed “=swinging-off wear=.“ When a
-horse travels normally, both kinds of wear are nearly alike, but are
-very distinct when the paces are abnormal, especially when there is
-faulty direction of the limbs. While in the majority of horses whose
-limbs have been stiffened by age and overwork both kinds of wear are
-most marked at the toe of the shoe, we see relatively fewer cases of
-“grounding wear” at the ends of the branches (as in laminitis); on the
-contrary, we =always= notice “swinging-off wear” at the toe of the
-shoe. It is worthy of notice that length of stride has much to do with
-the wear. We observe that with shortening of the stride both kinds of
-wear occur at the toe of the shoe, and this is rapidly worn away, as
-is the case with horses which are fretful and prance under the rider,
-draw heavy loads, or from any other cause, as disease or infirmity, are
-obliged to shorten their steps. With increase of length of stride the
-wear of the shoe becomes more uniform.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 86.
-
-A normal-angled foot with straight foot-axis. The shoe shows uniform
-wear.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 87.
-
-An upright foot with foot-axis broken forward by reason of too high
-quarters. The shoe shows “grounding“ wear at ends of branches, and
-“swinging-off“ wear at toe.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 88.
-
-A hoof with foot-axis broken backward by reason of surplus horn at the
-toe. The shoe shows excessive “grounding“ and “swinging-off” wear at
-the toe.]
-
-The _position_ and _form of the shoe_ have a marked influence upon its
-wear; =at the place where the shoe is too far under the hoof= either
-as a result of shifting or of having been nailed on crooked, or where
-the outer branch has not the necessary width, or does not form a
-sufficiently large curve, =the wear will be increased=.
-
-Also the relative length of side walls, or of toe and heels, influences
-rapidity of wear of the shoe. If through ignorance or carelessness one
-side wall be left too long, the branch beneath will meet the ground
-before other parts of the shoe and will wear faster (see Figs. 87, 88
-and 89).
-
-_The wear of the hoof upon the shoe_ occurs as a result of the
-movements of the quarters. Visible indications of this are the brightly
-polished, often sunken places upon the bearing-surface of the ends
-of the branches, showing that scouring occurs between the horn and
-the iron. Shoes which show brightly polished places in their anterior
-halves have been loose. The wear of the quarters upon the shoe is not
-always uniform, but is usually greater on the inner than on the outer
-quarter, especially in base-wide feet. The degree of this wear of the
-hoof may be from nothing to one-fourth of an inch or more from one
-shoeing to the next. Finally, we should remember that this usually
-invisible scouring away of the hoof gradually causes the nails at the
-quarters to become loose, and that this is more clearly marked in the
-front than in the hind hoofs.
-
-
-G. Physiological Movements of the Hoof. (Mechanism of the Hoof.)
-
-These movements comprise all those changes of position within and of
-the hoof which are brought about by alternately weighting and relieving
-the foot, and which are manifest as changes of form of the hoof. The
-following changes in form of the hoof are most marked at the time
-that the hoof bears greatest weight,—that is, _simultaneous_ with the
-greatest descent of the fetlock-joint.
-
-    1. A lateral expansion over the entire region of the
-       quarters, occurring simultaneously at the coronary
-       and plantar borders. This expansion is small, and in
-       general varies between one-fiftieth and one-twelfth
-       of an inch.
-
-    2. A narrowing of the anterior half of the hoof
-       measured at the coronary border.
-
-    3. A decrease in height of the hoof, with a slight
-       sinking of the heels.
-
-    4. A flattening (sinking) of the sole, especially in
-       its branches.
-
-These changes of form are much more pronounced in the half of the hoof
-that bears the greater weight.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 89.
-
-Transverse vertical section through the middle of a right fore shod
-hoof of base-wide form, viewed from behind. The outer wall having been
-insufficiently lowered has caused increased wear of the underlying
-branch of the shoe: _a_, wear of inner branch (beneath the relatively
-short wall); _b_, greater wear of outer branch beneath the relatively
-long wall; _c_, the horn between the dotted line and the shoe
-represents the surplus length of this outer wall.]
-
-A hoof while supporting the body-weight has a different form, and
-the tissues enclosed within it a different position, than when not
-bearing weight. Since loading and unloading of the foot are continually
-alternating, the relations of internal pressure even in the standing
-animal are continuously changing, so that, strictly speaking, the hoof
-is never at rest.
-
-The changes in form take place in the following order: the body-weight
-falls from above upon the os coronæ, os pedis, and navicular bone, and
-at the moment that the foot is placed upon the ground is transmitted
-through the sensitive laminæ and horny laminæ to the wall. At the
-instant that the fetlock reaches its lowest point the os pedis bears
-the greatest weight. Under the body-weight the latter yields, and with
-the navicular bone sinks downward and backward. At the same time the
-upper posterior portion of the os coronæ (Fig. 90, _A_) passes backward
-and downward between the lateral cartilages (_a_), which project above
-the upper border of the wall, and presses the perforans tendon down
-upon the plantar cushion. The plantar cushion being compressed from
-above, and being unable to expand downward, is correspondingly squeezed
-out towards the sides and crowded against the lateral cartilages, and
-they, yielding, press against and push before them the wall at the
-quarters. The resistance of the earth acts upon the plantar surface
-of the hoof, and especially upon the frog, and it, widening, crowds
-the bars apart, and in this manner contributes to the expansion of the
-quarters, especially at their plantar border (see Fig. 90). The horny
-sole under the descent and pressure of the os pedis sinks a little—that
-is, the arch of the sole becomes somewhat flattened. All these changes
-are much more marked upon _sound unshod_ hoofs, because in them the
-resistance of the earth upon the sole and frog is pronounced and
-complete. These changes in form are more marked in front feet than in
-hind. In defective and diseased hoofs it may happen that at the moment
-of greatest weight-bearing, instead of an expansion a contraction may
-occur at the plantar border of the quarters.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 90.
-
-Vertical, transverse section of a foot seen from behind: _A_, os
-coronæ; _B_, os navicularis; _C_, os pedis; _a_, lateral cartilage;
-_b_, anterior portion of fleshy frog; _c_, section of perforans tendon;
-_d_, suspensory ligament of the navicular bone; _l_, wall; _m_, sole;
-_n_, white line; _o_, frog.]
-
-Three highly elastic organs there are which play the chief part in
-these movements,—namely, the lateral cartilages, the plantar cushion,
-and the horny frog. Besides these structures, indeed, all the remaining
-parts of the horn capsule, especially its coronary border, possess more
-or less elasticity, and contribute to the above-mentioned changes of
-form.
-
-In order to maintain the elastic tissues of the foot in their proper
-activity, regular and _abundant exercise_, with protection against
-drying out of the hoof, are absolutely necessary, because the movements
-of the different structures within the foot and the changes of form
-that occur at each step are indispensable in preserving the health of
-the hoof. Long-continued rest in the stable, drying out of the hoof,
-and shoeing decrease or alter the physiological movements of the foot,
-and these lead under certain conditions to foot diseases, with which
-the majority of horse owners are entirely unacquainted.
-
-As an outward, visible indication of the mobility of the quarters upon
-the shoe we may point to the conspicuous, brightly polished, and often
-sunken spots, or grooves, upon the ends of the branches. They are
-produced partly by an in-and-out motion of the walls at the quarters,
-and partly by a forward and backward gliding of the quarters upon the
-shoe.
-
-_The benefits of these physiological movements_ within the hoof are
-manifold:
-
-    1. Through them shock is dispersed and the body
-       protected from the evil consequences of concussion
-       or shock.
-
-    2. These movements increase the elasticity of the
-       entire limb, and in this way contribute much to
-       a light and elegant gait.
-
-    3. They maintain a lively circulation of blood in the
-       vessels of the pododerm, and this insures a rapid
-       growth of horn.
-
-Since it is a generally accepted fact that shoeing interferes with
-the physiological movements of the hoof, alters them, indeed, almost
-suppresses them, and that all these movements are spontaneous and
-natural only in sound _unshod_ hoofs, we are justified in regarding
-shoeing as a _necessary evil_. However, it is indispensable if we
-wish to render horses serviceable upon hard artificial roads. If, in
-shoeing, consideration be given to the structure and functions of the
-hoof, and particularly to the hoof-surface of the shoe, the ends of the
-branches being provided with a smooth, level bearing-surface, which
-allows free play to the elastic horn capsule, in so far as this is not
-hindered by the nails we need have no fear of subsequent disease of the
-hoofs, provided the horse is used with reason and receives proper care.
-
-
-
-
-PART II.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER III.
-
-SHOEING HEALTHY HOOFS.
-
-
-A. Examination of a Horse Preliminary to Shoeing.
-
-An examination should be made while the animal is =at rest=, and
-afterwards while =in motion=. The object of the examination is to gain
-accurate knowledge of the direction and movements of the limbs, of the
-form and character of the feet and hoofs, of the manner in which the
-foot reaches and leaves the ground, of the form, length, position, and
-wear of the shoe, and distribution of the nail-holes, in order that
-at the next and subsequent shoeings all ascertained peculiarities of
-hoof-form may be kept in mind and all discovered faults of shoeing
-corrected.
-
-The examination is best conducted in the following order: The horse
-should first be led at a walk in a straight line from the observer over
-as level a surface as possible, then turned about and brought back,
-that the examiner may notice the direction of the limbs and the manner
-in which the hoofs are moved and set to the ground. While the animal
-is moving away the observer notices particularly the hind limbs, and
-as it comes towards him he examines the fore-limbs. Then a few steps
-at a trot will not only show whether or not the animal is lame, but
-will often remove all doubt in those cases in which, while the animal
-was walking, the examiner was unable to make up his mind as to which
-was the predominating position of the limb. The problem presented is,
-therefore, to determine whether or not the direction of the limbs,
-the lines of flight of the hoofs, and the manner in which they are
-set down and picked up are regular. If there are deviations from the
-normal they will fall either into the base-wide and toe-wide group
-or into the base-narrow and toe-narrow group. When clear upon these
-points the horse is allowed to stand quietly, and the observer, placing
-himself in front, examines the foot more closely, fixes the direction
-of the foot-axis clearly in his mind, marks also the form and character
-of the hoofs and the position of the coronets, as far as these parts
-can be inspected from in front. At the same time each hoof should be
-closely inspected to determine whether the slant of both quarters
-corresponds to the direction of the long pastern, and whether the
-course of the wall from the coronet to the plantar border is straight
-or bent in or out (contraction, fulness). Walls curved from above to
-below always indicate an unnatural height of some section of the wall
-and a displacement of the base of support of the foot. In order to
-gain accurate and complete knowledge of the position of the limbs,
-the flight of the hoofs, and the manner of setting the foot to the
-ground, the horse must frequently be moved back and forth many times,
-especially when the standing position is somewhat irregular and the
-hoofs are of different shapes.
-
-At this point begins the examination of the position of the limbs, and
-the form of the feet and hoofs, in profile. After casting a glance over
-the entire body, so as to gain an idea of the animal’s weight, height,
-and length, the attention is turned to the position and direction of
-the limbs and hoofs. The eye should particularly note whether the form
-of the hoof corresponds to the position of the limb, and, furthermore,
-whether the slant of the pastern is the same as that of the wall at the
-toe,—that is, whether the foot-axis is straight or broken; also whether
-the toes and quarters are parallel, for the toe is sometimes bulging
-(convex) or hollowed out (concave) between the coronet and plantar
-border, and the quarters are frequently contracted and drawn or shoved
-under the foot (weak quarters). If the wall present rings the observer
-should note their position with reference to one another and to the
-coronet, and also their extent, and, furthermore, should determine
-whether or not they cross one another (thrush of the frog). At the same
-time he should notice the length of the shoes.
-
-Next, the feet should be raised and the examiner should notice the
-width of the hoof, the arching of the sole, the character of the frog,
-the position of the bulbs of the heel, as well as the presence of any
-cracks or clefts in the wall. Then the old shoes should be examined as
-to their age, form, the distribution and direction of their nail-holes
-(“punching”), position, and wear. With respect to the form of the
-old shoe, one should observe whether or not it corresponds to the
-form of the hoof. The same careful examination should be made of the
-number and distribution of the nail-holes. As regards the position
-of the shoe, one must first ascertain whether it completely covers
-the bearing-surface of the wall, and whether the shoe extends beyond
-the wall at any point and has caused interfering or given rise to
-irregular wear. Finally, the wear of the shoe should be observed, and
-the following points borne in mind: _One-sided wear, uneven setting
-down of the feet, and an unnatural course of the wall are often found
-together_, especially when uneven wearing of the shoe has existed for
-a long time,—that is, during several shoeings. As a rule, in such a
-case the more worn branch of the shoe is too near the centre of the
-foot, and the opposite branch too far from the centre (too “full”); in
-other words, the base of support (shoe) has been shifted too far in the
-direction of the less worn branch. Moreover, increased wear of a part
-of a shoe is an indication that the section of the wall above it is too
-high (too long) (Fig. 89), or that the wall upon the opposite side of
-the foot is too low (short). The twisting movement of many hind feet
-should, from physiological reasons, not be hindered by shoeing.
-
-
-B. Raising and Holding the Feet of the Horse to be Shod.
-
-This can always be done without much trouble if the horse has been
-accustomed to it from early colthood. Certain rules governing the
-manner of taking hold of the feet, and of afterwards manipulating them,
-are of value.
-
-A shoer should =never grasp a foot suddenly=, or with both hands. The
-horse should first be prepared for this act. First see that the horse
-stands in such a position that he can bear his weight comfortably upon
-three legs. This is well worth noticing, and if the horse does not
-voluntarily assume such an easy position, move him gently until his
-feet are well under his body.
-
-If the shoer, for example, wishes to raise the left fore foot for
-inspection, he stands on the left side facing the animal, speaks
-quietly to him, places the palm of the right hand flat upon the
-animal’s shoulder, and, at the same time, with the left hand strokes
-the limb downward to the cannon and seizes the cannon _from in front_.
-With the right hand he now gently presses the horse towards the
-opposite side, and the foot becoming loose as the weight is shifted
-upon the other leg, he lifts it from the ground. The right hand now
-grasps the pastern from the inside followed by the left hand upon the
-inside and the right hand on the outside; then, turning partly to the
-right, the holder supports the horse’s leg upon his left leg, in which
-position he should always stand as quietly and firmly as possible. If,
-now, the shoer desires to have both hands free to work upon the hoof,
-he grasps the toe with the left hand in such a manner that the toe
-rests firmly in the palm while the four fingers are closely applied to
-the wall of the toe, takes a half step toward the rear, passes the hoof
-behind his left knee into his right hand which has been passed backward
-between his knees to receive it, and drawing the hoof forward outward
-and upward supports it firmly on his two knees,—the legs just above the
-knees being applied tightly against the pastern. The forefoot should
-not be raised higher than the knee (carpus), nor the hind foot higher
-than the hock, nor either foot be drawn too far backward. The correct
-standing position of the shoer or floorman while holding a front foot
-is shown in Fig. 91. Shortness of stature (5′-5′.6″) is desirable in a
-floorman.
-
-In lifting the _left hind foot_ the animal should be gently stroked
-back as far as the angle of the hip, against which the left hand is
-placed for support, while the right hand strokes the limb down to the
-middle of the cannon, which it grasps _from behind_. While the left
-hand presses the animal’s weight over towards the right side, the right
-hand loosens the foot and carries it forward and outward from the body
-so that the limb is bent at the hock. The holder then turns his body
-towards the right, brings his left leg against the anterior surface of
-the fetlock-joint, and carries the foot backward, at which time his
-left arm passes over the horse’s croup and above and to the inner side
-of the hock. Finally, both hands encompass the long pastern.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 91. Proper position for holding a front foot.]
-
-If the right feet are to be raised, the process is simply reversed.
-
-In raising the feet no unnecessary pain should be inflicted by
-pinching, squeezing, or lifting a limb too high. The wise shoer avoids
-all unnecessary clamor and disturbance; quiet, rapid, painless methods
-avail much more. In dealing with _young_ horses the feet should not be
-kept lifted too long; let them down from time to time. In _old_ and
-_stiff_ horses the feet should not be lifted too high, especially in
-the beginning of the shoeing.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 92. The Martin horse rack (modified).]
-
-_Vicious_ horses must often be severely handled. Watch the play of the
-ears and eyes continually, and immediately punish every exhibition of
-temper either by jerking the halter or bridle vigorously, or by loud
-commands. If this does not avail, then if soft ground is at hand make
-the horse back as rapidly as possible for some time over this soft
-surface; it is very disagreeable and tiresome to him. To raise a hind
-foot we may knot a strong, broad, soft, plaited band (side-line) into
-the tail, loop it about the fetlock of the hind foot, and hold the
-end. This often renders valuable service. The holder seizes the band
-close to the fetlock, draws the foot forward under the body, and then
-holds it as above described. The use of such a band compels the horse
-to carry a part of his own weight, and at the same time hinders him
-from kicking. Before attempting to place this rope or band about the
-fetlock, the front foot on the same side should be raised.
-
-The various sorts of twitches are objectionable, and their use should
-not be allowed unless some painful hoof operation is to be done. The
-application of the tourniquet, or “Spanish windlass,” to the hind leg
-is equally objectionable.
-
-Those horses which resist our attempts to shoe them we do not
-immediately cast or place in the stocks, but first have a quiet,
-trustworthy man hold them by the bridle-reins and attempt by gentle
-words and soft caresses to win their attention and confidence.
-
-_Ticklish_ horses must be taken hold of boldly, for light touches of
-the hand are to such animals much more unpleasant than energetic, rough
-handling. Many ticklish horses allow their feet to be raised when they
-are grasped suddenly without any preparatory movements.
-
-
-C. Removing the Old Shoes.
-
-If a horse’s hoofs are healthy, all the shoes may be taken off at the
-same time, but there are certain diseases of the hoof in which this
-should not be done.
-
-The rule to follow in removing every shoe is to _draw it cautiously_,
-not wrench it away with violence. Hoofs which are dirty should first
-be cleansed, preferably with a stiff brush. Next, the clinches should
-be _carefully_ lifted by means of a rather dull clinch cutter (Fig.
-93), _without injuring the horn_ of the wall. In order, now, that the
-nails may be removed singly, the shoe must be slightly lifted. This may
-be done in one of two ways. The shoer may use a pair of pincers (Fig.
-94), with broad bills which will encompass the branch of the shoe and
-come well together underneath it. The handles of the pincers are then
-moved _in the direction of the branches_ of the shoe. The second method
-consists in raising the branches of the shoe by driving the nail-cutter
-from behind between the shoe and hoof and using it as a lever or pry to
-loosen the shoe.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 93. Clinch cutter and punch.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 94. Pincers.]
-
-Violent and excessive twisting of the hoof and straining of ligaments
-may easily occur, but the smith should guard against them by supporting
-the hoof with the left hand or with the leg just above the knee, while
-loosening the shoe.
-
-
-D. Preparing the Hoof for the Shoe.
-
-This preparation is usually termed paring, trimming, or dressing. It is
-a most important step in the process of shoeing, and its object is to
-shorten the hoof, which has grown too long under the projection of the
-shoe, and prepare it to receive the new shoe. The instruments needed
-for this work are the rasp and the hoof-knife (Fig. 95); upon large and
-hard hoofs a pair of sharp nippers (Fig. 96), or a sharp =hewing knife,
-with broad handle and perfectly flat, smooth sides=, may be used, since
-these instruments will considerably facilitate and hasten the work.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 95. German hoof set with detachable hook blades.
-(W. M. Kunde, Dresden): _a_, _a_, hoof blades; _b_, pus searcher; _c_,
-scalpel.]
-
-After the shoer has carefully examined the hoofs in the manner
-described upon pages 90, 91, and 92, and has fixed in mind the relation
-of the height of the hoofs to the size and weight of the body, he
-cleanses the hoof and removes all stubs of old nails. At the same time
-he should be asking himself _if_, _where_, and _how much_ horn is to be
-removed. In all cases all loosely attached fragments of horn are to be
-removed, for example, chips of horn produced by repeated bending and
-stretching of the lower border of the wall. The sole is then freed from
-all flakes of dead horn. The shoer then runs the rasp around the outer
-border of the wall and breaks it off to the depth to which he thinks it
-should be shortened, and then =cuts the wall down to its union with the
-sole, so that at least one-eighth of an inch of the edge of the sole
-lies in the same level as the bearing-surface of the wall=. Finally,
-the wall, white line, and outer margin of the sole, forming the
-“bearing-surface,” must be rasped until they are perfectly horizontal,
-except that at the toe of fore-hoofs this bearing-surface may be rasped
-slightly upward (rolled toe).
-
-In dressing the hoof the =branches= of the frog should always be left
-prominent enough to project beyond the bearing-surface of the quarters
-about the thickness of an ordinary flat shoe. If it be weakened by
-paring, it is deprived of its activity, shrinks, and the hoof becomes
-narrow to a corresponding degree. The frog should, therefore, be
-_trimmed_ only when it is really _too prominent_. However, loose and
-diseased particles of horn may be trimmed away when it is affected with
-thrush.
-
-[Illustration: FIG 96. Nippers.]
-
-The _bars_ should be spared and never =shortened= except when too long.
-Their union with the wall at the quarters must in no case be weakened,
-and never cut through (opening up the heels). They should be left as
-high as the wall at the quarters, or only a little less, while the
-branches of the sole should lie about one-eighth of an inch lower.
-
-The _buttress_ (angle formed by the union of wall and bar) requires
-special attention. In healthy unshod hoofs the bars run backward and
-outward in a straight line from the anterior third of the frog. In shod
-hoofs, however, it happens that the buttresses gradually lengthen, curl
-inward, and press upon the branches of the frog, causing the latter to
-shrink. In such cases the indication is to remove these prolongations
-of horn from the buttresses so as to restore to the bars their normal
-direction.
-
-=The sharp edge of the plantar border of the wall should be broken
-away with a rasp until the relative thickness of the wall equals its
-absolute thickness.= (Fig. 97). However, in healthy hoofs, that is,
-in those whose _walls are straight from the coronet to the ground_,
-the outer surface of the wall should =never= _be rasped_. The only
-exceptions to this rule are those cases in which there is an outward
-bending of the lower edge of the wall, most frequent on the inner side
-wall and quarter.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 97. Longitudinal (vertical) section of the wall at
-the toe: _a c_ is the absolute, and _a b_ the relative thickness of the
-wall. With _a_ as the centre, and the line _a c_ as a radius, a circle
-is drawn; the corner of horn in front of this circle and indicated by
-dotted lines is to be removed with the rasp.]
-
-With respect to the inclination of the ground-surface of the hoof to
-the direction of the foot-axis, as viewed from in front, the following
-facts are established:
-
-In the _regular_ standing position of the limbs (seen from in front)
-the plantar surface of a hoof is at right angles to the foot-axis, and
-the outer and inner walls are of equal heights.
-
-In the _base-wide_ position of the limbs the plantar hoof-surface is
-more or less inclined to the foot-axis, usually to a very small degree,
-and the outer wall is somewhat higher (longer) and more slanting than
-the inner.
-
-In the _base-narrow_ position of the limbs the plantar hoof-surface is
-more or less inclined to the direction of the foot-axis, usually quite
-considerably, and the inner wall is somewhat higher than the outer.
-
-The foot is observed from the side in order to determine the proper
-relation of the length of the toe to the height of the quarters.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 98. An untrimmed hoof with an excess of horn (_a_)
-at the toe which breaks the foot-axis backward.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 99. An untrimmed hoof with an excess of horn (_b_)
-at the heels, which breaks the foot-axis forward.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 100. Hoof dressed and foot-axis straightened
-by removing excess of horn below dotted lines in the two preceding
-illustrations.]
-
-In this also the foot-axis is our guide. If this axis is as it should
-be, the wall at the toe and the long pastern will have the =same slant=
-(Figs. 67, 68 and 69). If the hoof has become too long under the
-protection of the shoe, this will be shown by the foot-axis being no
-longer a straight line, but broken backward at the coronet (Fig. 98);
-that is, the hoof in comparison with the fetlock will be too slanting.
-By shortening the toe more than the quarters this faulty relation will
-be corrected (Fig. 100) and the foot restored to its proper slant. If
-the quarters are too long (too high) in comparison with the length of
-the toe, the foot-axis will be broken forward at the coronet (Fig. 99),
-and the hoof will be too upright. By shortening the quarters more than
-the toe the foot-axis may be made straight. =The plantar surface of the
-hoof is therefore correct (balanced) when the horse places the foot
-flat upon the ground in travelling=, and when the lines bounding the
-hoof, viewed from in front, from behind, and in profile, correspond to
-the direction of the three phalanges (foot-axis).
-
-Finally, this fact should be emphasized, that in changing from flat
-shoes to those with calks, or the reverse, the hoofs must first be
-dressed in accordance, so that the foot axes will remain straight, and
-the feet be set always flat to the ground when the new shoes are on.
-Each hoof, when ready for the new shoe, should be let down and the
-horse allowed to stand upon it while it is again carefully examined
-and closely compared with the opposite hoof. Only after such close
-inspection has proved the dressing to be faultless can the hoof be
-considered as properly prepared and ready for the shoe. _The two front
-hoofs and the two hind hoofs, when the legs are in the same position,
-should not only be of equal size, but also in proper relation to the
-size and weight of the body_.
-
-
-E. Preparing the Hoof for going Barefoot.
-
-This becomes necessary when the nature of the ground and the kind of
-service required of the horse render shoeing unnecessary. However,
-to go barefoot the hoof must have =plenty of horn=. After removing
-the shoes the =frog should be pared down nearly to the level of the
-wall=, and the sharp outer edge of the wall well =rounded off= with the
-rasp, in some cases as far as the white line, otherwise large pieces
-of the wall will readily break away. Hoofs with very slanting walls
-must be more strongly rounded off than upright hoofs. Going barefoot
-strengthens the hoofs. From time to time the condition of these
-shoeless hoofs should be ascertained by inspection, and any growing
-fault in shape or direction of the horn immediately corrected. It quite
-frequently happens that the sharp edge of the wall must be repeatedly
-rounded, especially on very oblique walls (outer half of base-wide
-hoofs), and the quarters may require frequent shortening, because they
-are not always worn away as fast as the horn at the toe.
-
-
-F. Making Shoes.[3]
-
-Besides good, tough iron for the shoe, we need an anvil with a round
-horn and a small hole at one end, a round-headed turning-hammer, a
-round sledge, a stamping hammer, a pritchel of good steel, and, if
-a fullered shoe is to be made, a round fuller. Bodily activity and,
-above all else, a good eye for measurement are not only desirable, but
-necessary. A shoe should be made thoughtfully, but yet quickly enough
-to make the most of the heat.
-
-[3] On a shoe we distinguish an _outer_ and an _inner branch_. The
-anterior portion, formed by the union of the two branches, is called
-the _toe_. The upper surface, upon which the hoof rests, is called the
-_hoof-surface_, and the under surface, which is in contact with the
-ground, the _ground-surface_. That portion of the hoof-surface which is
-in direct contact with the lower border of the wall, the white line,
-and a narrow margin of the sole is termed the _bearing-surface_, and
-when necessary “concaving” (seating) extends from this to the inner
-border of the shoe. On the ground-surface is seen the “fullering” or
-“crease.”
-
-=The iron= of which horseshoes are made is derived from the natural
-iron ore. Iron used for technical purposes is not chemically pure.
-Pure iron is rather too soft, and is therefore mixed with different
-substances, mostly with “carbon,” the most important ingredient of our
-fuel. Of course, the iron contains a very small quantity of carbon (0.5
-to 5 per cent.). When iron contains more than 2.2 per cent. of carbon
-it is hard, brittle, and more easily melted, and is known as crude
-iron, or raw iron, because it is derived from the raw product,—black
-ore. The melted crude iron is called _cast iron_. Iron is ductile when
-it contains less than 2.2 per cent. of carbon, and is then called
-forge iron, or _wrought iron_. Wrought iron is fusible only at a high
-temperature. Only weldable iron containing less than 1.6 per cent. of
-carbon is suitable for general use. Of this iron we distinguish two
-sorts,—steel and wrought iron. A larger percentage of carbon is found
-in steel than in wrought iron. Steel is hard, can be tempered, and may
-be called tempered wrought iron. In order to temper or harden steel,
-bring it to a cherry-red heat, and then cool it suddenly by dipping it
-in cold water or wet sand. The tempered steel can again be softened as
-desired by heating and slowly cooling. By heating to a high temperature
-in a forge wrought iron will become doughy, and may then be intimately
-united (welded) with another piece at the same temperature by pressure
-or hammering. This property is called weld-ability; it is of great
-importance in making horseshoes. The heating of iron until it reaches
-the welding stage is called getting a “heat.” The act of welding
-wrought iron with steel is called “steeling.”
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 101. Fuller.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 102. Hammer-punch.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 103. Pritchel.]
-
-Regarding =the tools=, the following hints are sufficient:
-
-The _anvil_ should have a level, smooth, flat steel face.
-
-Likewise, the round head and flat face of both _turning-hammer_ and
-_sledge_ should be smooth.
-
-On the _fullering-hammer_ (Fig. 101) the left side is flat, the right
-side convex, and the cutting edge has slightly rounded corners.
-
-The _hardy_, _fullering-hammer_, and _cold chisel_ should be flawless
-on the edge.
-
-The _punch_ (Fig. 102), used to make the nail-holes in the shoe, has
-a dull point, which should correspond in size with the head of the
-horseshoe-nail and have slightly rounded corners.
-
-The _pritchel_ (Fig. 103) should not taper to a point, but should end
-in a rectangular surface whose length is twice its width, in order to
-punch iron through the shoe under the blow of the hammer.
-
-
-Making the Shoe.
-
-To make a flat shoe, take the length of the hoof from the point of
-the toe to the buttress and the greatest width of the hoof; these two
-measurements, when added together, give the length of the bar for the
-shoe. The bar should be of such width and thickness as will require the
-least amount of working. For a bar-shoe or a shoe with heel-calks the
-bar must be correspondingly longer.
-
-Should we wish to preserve the exact outline of the plantar border of
-the wall, we may advantageously use such a _podometer_ as is shown in
-Fig. 104. This consists of a perforated sheet-iron plate one-sixteenth
-to one-twelfth of an inch thick. This is laid upon the hoof, and the
-outline of the wall marked upon it with chalk.
-
-If necessary, the hoof may be set on a piece of smooth, stiff wrapping
-paper or card-board, and the outline of the wall closely traced with a
-lead pencil.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 104. Podometer.]
-
-To make a =front shoe= (Figs. 107 and 108), heat the bar white-hot
-just beyond its middle, place the head of the sledge hammer across
-one end of the face of the anvil, hold the unheated end of the bar
-on the head of the sledge,—the heated end resting on the face of the
-anvil, and bend the bar into a half-circle with the round head of the
-turning-hammer. (The outer branch of all shoes is made first; in making
-pairs the right shoe is made first.) The extreme end of the heated
-bar is drawn out to the desired width and thickness with the sledge.
-The bent branch is then placed obliquely across the heel of the horn
-of the anvil, is turned over toward the right till it rests upon an
-edge, and is then bevelled diamond-shaped from the toe to the end of
-the branch. [The edge in contact with the horn is the inner edge of
-the right branch (outer branch) of the right shoe; the edge beaten
-down by the hammer is the outer edge of the outer branch.] The branch
-is then flattened on the anvil because in the bending the outer edge
-has been stretched and thinned, while the iron of the inner edge has
-been crowded together (back-set) and thickened. In flattening, the shoe
-should be left a trifle thinner on the inner edge. The branch is again
-placed over the horn, and gone over lightly with the flat head of the
-turning-hammer and brought to a proper shape. It is now to be concaved
-with or without the help of the sledge, or the concaving may be
-omitted. The concaving should end about three-fourths of an inch from
-the end of the branch. Now turn the branch and fuller it, or fuller
-it first and concave afterwards. The fuller should be set in about
-one-twelfth of an inch from the edge for small shoes, somewhat more for
-large shoes, and led from the end of the branch towards the toe, twice
-being necessary to make the fullering of sufficient depth. Next, stamp
-the holes, punch them through with the pritchel, run over the surfaces,
-go over the outer edge of the shoe upon the horn, and, finally, hammer
-the bearing-surface smooth and horizontal. The left branch is made in
-the same way, except that it is turned to the left and the fullering
-carried from the toe to the heel. =Any ordinary shoe can and should be
-completed in the rough in two heats.= One pair of shoes requires from
-eight to fifteen minutes.
-
-The =hind shoe= (Fig. 116) is made in like manner, but the branches are
-not bent in a circle but given that form shown in Fig. 106. Concaving
-is not necessary; it is sufficient merely to round the inner edge of
-the web.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 105. The curvature of a branch of a front shoe.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 106. The curvature of a branch of a hind shoe.]
-
-Since in bending the shoe, and especially the toe of a hind shoe, the
-inner edge is crowded together (back-set) and thickened to the same
-extent that the outer edge is stretched and thinned, we must remember
-to do away with these inequalities of thickness and strain by hammering
-the shoe smooth.
-
-
-Peculiarities of the Shoe.
-
-They are dependent upon the structure, direction, and position of the
-leg and hoof, as well as upon the horse’s service and the nature of the
-ground. Since the shoe is an artificial base of support, and since a
-proper surface of support is of the greatest importance in preserving
-the soundness of the feet and legs, careful attention must be given to
-this matter. Naturally shoes designed for the various forms of hoofs
-must present equally great and equally numerous differences of form, as
-well as other peculiarities.
-
-=General Properties.= 1. =Form.=—A form corresponding to the shape of
-the hoof is indispensable in every shoe. Front and hind and right and
-left shoes should be sharply defined and easily distinguishable. _Front
-shoes_ must, above all else, be circular _round cut the toe_. _Hind
-shoes_, on the contrary, should be _round pointed at the toe_, yet not
-too much so, but as in Fig. 116.
-
-2. =Width.=—All shoes should be wider webbed (more covered) at the toe
-than at the ends of the branches. The medium width should be about
-twice the thickness of the wall.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 107. Right front shoe, ground-surface.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 108. Right front shoe, hoof-surface: _a_,
-bearing-surface; _b_, concaving, or “seating.”]
-
-3. =Thickness.=—Each shoe should, in general terms, be so thick that
-it need not be renewed under four weeks. Lungwitz found that the
-average required thickness is about seven-sixteenths of an inch. Of
-course, this thickness must be diminished or increased according to the
-rapidity of wear of the shoe. _Shoes without calks should be of uniform
-thickness_, unless there are special reasons for making them otherwise.
-
-4. =Length.=—For draft-horses they should be long enough to reach the
-bulbs of the heel, otherwise shorter, though in other respects they may
-differ (see “special properties”), but should in all cases completely
-cover the bearing-surface of the hoof.
-
-5. =Surfaces.=—That part of the hoof-surface of the shoe which is in
-contact with the hoof (bearing-surface of the shoe, Fig. 109, _a_)
-should be horizontal and wide enough to cover the wall, the white line,
-and from a twelfth to an eighth of an inch of the outer edge of the
-sole. Shoes for large hoofs require a broader bearing-surface than
-those for small hoofs. The concaving, or “seating” (Fig. 109, _b_),
-should be made deeper or shallower, according to the nature of the
-sole. _Shoes for hoofs with strongly arched_ (very concave) _soles, do
-not require any concaving_ (hind hoofs, narrow fore-hoofs). _The object
-of concaving is to prevent pressure of the shoe upon the horny sole
-except at its margin._
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 109. Transverse section of a branch of a front
-shoe: _a_, bearing-surface; _b_, concaving; _c_, fullering, or
-“crease”; _d_, nail-hole.]
-
-The ground-surface of the shoe should be flat and _perfectly
-horizontal_, except at the toe, which may be turned upward (rolled toe,
-“rolling motion”).
-
-6. =Borders.=—The _outer border_ should usually be moderately
-_base-narrow_,—that is, the circumference of the ground-surface of the
-shoe should be less than the circumference of its hoof-surface; in
-other words, the entire outer border of the shoe should be bevelled
-under the foot. Shoes made base-narrow are not so easily loosened, and
-materially assist in preventing interfering. The _inner border_ should
-be moderately rounded.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 110. (_a_) correct and (_b_) incorrect fullering.]
-
-7. =The “Fullering”= (Fig. 109, _c_).—In depth it should be about
-two-thirds the thickness of the shoe, of uniform width, and “clean.” A
-fullering is not absolutely necessary, but it makes the shoe lighter
-in proportion to its size, facilitates a uniform placing of the
-nail-holes, renders the ground-surface somewhat rough, and, because it
-is rather difficult to make, increases the workman’s skill.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 111. Swiss military shoe, hoof-surface.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 112. Swiss military shoe, ground-surface.]
-
-8. =Nail-Holes= (Fig. 109, _d_).—=The importance of the nail-holes=,
-as regards their _character_, _number_, _distribution_, _depth_, and
-_direction_, =cannot be over-estimated=, because by the nails which
-are driven through them the stability of the shoe upon the hoof should
-be maintained without injuring the sensitive structures, splitting the
-horny wall, or immoderately interfering with the elasticity of the
-foot. Each nail-hole should taper uniformly from the ground to the
-hoof-surface (funnel-shaped). For a medium-weight shoe six nail-holes
-are sufficient, while for all heavy shoes, especially those with
-toe- and heel-calks, eight are indicated; however, it should by no
-means be said that every nail-hole should contain a nail. Hind shoes
-usually require one more nail-hole than front shoes, yet seldom more
-than eight. In front shoes the nail-holes should be placed in the
-anterior half of the shoe (Figs. 107 and 108), while in hind shoes
-they are to be placed in the anterior two-thirds of the shoe (Fig.
-116), and in both cases so distributed that the toe shall be without
-nail-holes, except in those shoes in which it may be desirable to
-omit the nail-holes in an entire branch (Fig. 153). =The depth of
-the nail-holes=—that is, their distance from the outer edge of the
-shoe—will depend always upon the thickness of the wall, and =should
-equal the absolute= (real) =thickness of the wall= (Fig. 97). It is
-evident, therefore, that all nail-holes should not be placed at the
-same depth (for thickness of the wall, see p. 53).
-
-The =direction= in which the nail-holes should pass through the shoe
-depends upon the obliquity of the wall. The nail-holes around the toe,
-as a rule, should incline somewhat inward, the holes at the sides less
-so, while those at the quarters should be punched straight,—that is,
-should pass perpendicularly through the shoe.
-
-Both front and hind shoes for army horses in time of war and manœuvres
-should be so punched that one or two nails may be placed in the
-posterior half of the shoe (Figs. 111 and 112).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 113. Form of clips: _a_, correct; _b_, indifferent;
-_c_, faulty.]
-
-9. =Clips= (Fig. 113) are _half-circular, leaf-like ears_ drawn upward
-from the outer edge of the shoe. They should be strong and without flaw
-at the base, and somewhat =higher and thicker= upon hind than upon
-front shoes. Their height on flat shoes should equal the thickness
-of the shoe, while on shoes with leather soles, or with toe- and
-heel-calks they should be somewhat higher.
-
-According to their position we distinguish toe- and side-clips. They
-secure the shoe against shifting; therefore, as a rule, every shoe
-should have a toe-clip. A side-clip should always be drawn up on that
-branch of the shoe which first meets the ground in locomotion.
-
-=A Shoe with Heel-Calks.=—All shoes with heel-calks designed for
-healthy hoofs should be so made and applied that they will disturb the
-normal setting down of the foot as little as possible, that the wear of
-the shoe will take place uniformly, and slipping be diminished. The toe
-of the shoe must, therefore, be left somewhat thicker than the branches
-just in front of the heel-calks. Moreover, every front shoe with
-heel-calks must be relatively long, and be provided with considerable
-rolling motion at the toe; that is, the shoe should be turned up at the
-toe, the bending beginning near the inner edge of the web. The three-
-or four-cornered, somewhat conical heel-calks with rounded corners
-should not be higher than the thickness of the shoe. With reference to
-the direction of the ends of the branches, we should see to it that
-they do not rise excessively, but that they assume as near as possible
-a horizontal direction in passing back to the heels (see Fig. 115).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 114. Shoe without calks, with perfectly
-level hoof- and ground-surfaces, and with roll at the toe (flat,
-rolling motion shoe).]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 115. Shoe with heel-calks for a front hoof.]
-
-=A Shoe with Toe- and Heel-Calks.=—Such a shoe should be of uniform
-thickness from end to end, and should have a toe-calk and two
-heel-calks that are somewhat stronger and longer than the heel-calks
-of a shoe which has no toe-calk. If to a shoe of uniform thickness, on
-which the heel-calks are somewhat higher than those already described,
-a piece of steel (Fig. 116, _b_) of the height of the heel-calks is
-welded at the toe, we have a shoe with toe- and heel-calks. The toe-calk
-should never he higher than the heel-calks. There are three principal
-kinds of toe-calks,—namely:
-
-1. _The Sharp Toe-Calk._—A bar of toe-steel of proper width and
-thickness for the toe-calk is thrust with the shoe into the fire. When
-the end of the bar is cherry-red in color it is withdrawn, laid across
-the straight hardy, and cut nearly through at a point a calk-length
-from the end. Bar and shoe are then brought to a welding heat, the
-calk quickly and securely welded across the toe of the shoe, the bar
-wrenched away, the calk gone over again with the hammer, when it is
-immediately beaten out to a sharp edge from the anterior face, either
-over the far edge of the anvil, or in a foot-vise. The posterior face
-of a sharp toe-calk should be perpendicular to the ground-surface of
-the shoe. Machine-made toe-calks, sharp, half-sharp and blunt, provided
-with a sharp spud at one or both ends, are in general use. Their use
-requires two heats, and the sharp calk is blunted in the welding.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 116. Right hind shoe with toe- and heel-calks: _a_,
-heel-calks; _b_, toe-calk; _c_, greatest width of the base of support
-(_i.e._, contact with the ground) of this shoe when _without_ toe- and
-heel-calks; _d_, the greatest, and _e_, the least width of the base of
-support of this shoe with calks.]
-
-2. _The Blunt Toe-Calk._—It is a rather long rectangular piece of
-toe-steel, straight, or curved to conform to the toe of the shoe.
-The shoe-surface and the ground-surface of the calk are of equal
-dimensions. It should be welded on in one heat.
-
-3. _The Half-Sharp Toe-Calk_ (Coffin-Lid Toe-Calk).—It resembles the
-blunt calk, except that the surface of the calk that is applied to the
-shoe is somewhat broader and longer than the surface that comes in
-contact with the ground. It is welded on in one heat. The first and
-third kinds are most suitable for winter.
-
-Since heel-and toe-calks raise the hoof far from the ground and
-prevent all pressure upon the frog, they diminish the elasticity of
-the hoof and injure it. They are injurious also to the joints, because
-they furnish a base of support which is essentially smaller than that
-afforded by a flat shoe (Fig. 116). However, they are indispensable for
-heavy draft purposes on _slippery_ roads and in winter. Upon all other
-roads and in summer they are superfluous, at least upon front hoofs,
-especially as they do not wholly prevent slipping.
-
-=Special Properties.=—The many different forms of hoofs require a great
-variety of shoes. Following are the special peculiarities of each of
-the chief classes of shoes.
-
-1. _Shoe for a Regular Hoof._—Outer edge: moderately base-narrow
-(bevelled under) all around. Distribution and direction of the
-nail-holes: regular. Length: longer than the hoof by the thickness of
-the shoe (see Figs. 121 and 122).
-
-2. _Shoe for an Acute-Angled Hoof._—Outer edge: strongly base-narrow
-around the toe, but gradually becoming perpendicular towards the ends
-of the branches. Punching: regular, except that the nail-holes at the
-toe must incline inward somewhat more than usual. Length: rather longer
-than the preceding shoe (see Fig. 123).
-
-3. _Shoe for an Upright_ (stumpy) _Hoof_.—Outer edge: perpendicular
-at the toe; but if the hoof is very steep, then base-wide at the
-toe,—_i.e._, bevelled downward and outward. Punching: last nail should
-be placed just beyond the middle of the shoe. Direction of the holes:
-perpendicular. Length: short; at most, one-eighth of an inch longer
-than the hoof. In the case of a “bear-foot” (see Fig. 70) the shoe
-should be long.
-
-4. _Shoe for a Base-Wide Hoof._—Outer edge; the outer branch should be
-moderately base-narrow,—_i.e._, bevelled downward and inward, the inner
-branch perpendicular. Punching: upon the outer branch the holes should
-extend well back, while upon the inner branch they are to be crowded
-forward towards the toe (see Fig. 117). Length will depend upon the
-obliquity of the hoof as seen in profile (see 1, 2, and 3).
-
-5. _Shoe for a Base-Narrow Hoof._—Outer edge: the outer branch either
-perpendicular or base-wide, the inner branch strongly base-narrow.
-Punching: the nail-holes in the outer branch should be crowded towards
-the toe and, under certain conditions, punched deeper than the wall is
-thick, on account of the greater width of this branch; in the inner
-branch the nail-holes are to be distributed back to the quarter and
-punched light (see Fig. 118). Length will depend upon the obliquity of
-the hoof. The outer branch should be about one-fourth of an inch longer
-than the inner.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 117. A right front shoe for a base-wide (toe-wide)
-hoof. The inner branch should be about one-fourth of an inch longer
-than the outer.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 118. A right front shoe for a base-narrow
-(toe-narrow) hoof. The outer branch is wider and one-fourth of an inch
-longer than the inner.]
-
-6. _Shoe for a Wide Hoof._—Somewhat wider webbed (more covered) than
-usual. Outer edge: bevelled under the foot all around (base-narrow).
-Punching: nail-holes carried back into the posterior half of the shoe
-(see Fig. 119). Length will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof.
-
-7. _Shoe for a Narrow Hoof._—Outer edge: moderately bevelled under the
-foot at the toe (base-narrow), elsewhere perpendicular. Distribution of
-the nail-holes: regular. Direction of the nail-holes: perpendicular and
-towards the quarters, inclining somewhat outward. The holes about the
-toe incline somewhat inward. Length will depend upon the obliquity of
-the hoof. Concaving unnecessary (see Fig. 120).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 119. Flat shoe for a round hoof (right front).]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 120. A left front shoe for a narrow hoof. The
-concaving is unnecessary.]
-
-The forms of shoes described in paragraphs 2 to 7 differ from that
-described in paragraph 1, but are necessary in order to lessen the
-injurious consequences of irregular loading (unbalancing) of the feet,
-and of unfavorable bases of support of the body-weight.
-
-
-G. Choosing the Shoe.
-
-The choice of the shoe for a given horse is not at all difficult after
-we have carefully considered his weight, the nature of his work, his
-standing position, gait, the form of his hoofs, and quality of the
-horn, bearing in mind the general and peculiar properties of shoes.
-As a rule, we choose a shoe that is longer than the hoof, because the
-latter grows and carries the shoe forward with it, and because the
-quarters gradually become lowered by rubbing and wearing away upon
-the branches of the shoe. The =length= of the shoe is of especial
-importance. For horses employed for slow, heavy draft purposes the
-shoe supplied with heel-and toe-calks should extend backward far
-enough to support the bulbs of the heels. On the contrary, horses used
-at a trot or gallop, as coach-and saddle-horses, require shorter shoes
-(see Fig. 124).
-
-The _weight_ of the shoe should be so adjusted to the demands of the
-horse’s work, the condition of the legs (whether used up with work
-or not), and the nature of the ground that the shoeing will last _at
-least a month_. Hard roads and a heavy, clumsy gait require strong,
-durable shoes, which, under some conditions, are to be rendered still
-more durable by welding in steel. For moderate service upon soft roads
-we should use light shoes. Running horses require unusually thin and
-narrow shoes of steel (see Figs. 125-128).
-
-
-H. Shaping and Fitting Shoes. General Considerations.
-
-This is one of the most important parts of horseshoeing. Its object is
-to so fashion or shape the shoe which has been chosen for a particular
-hoof that its circumference will exactly correspond to the lower
-circumference of the previously prepared hoof, and its bearing-surface
-will fit air-tight to the bearing-surface of the hoof. At this time all
-defects in the surfaces of hoof and shoe and in the nail-holes must be
-remedied, the clips drawn up, and the shoe made to fit perfectly. The
-bearing-surface of the shoe, especially at the ends of the branches,
-must be kept =horizontal=[4] and smooth, and its width regulated by
-the width of the bearing-surface of the hoof (see page 99). Perfectly
-_uniform heating_ is absolutely indispensable in shaping the shoe,
-because an irregularly heated shoe twists or becomes distorted at the
-warm places. Every shoe should be straight, and when held before the
-eye one branch should exactly cover the other. A flat shoe laid upon
-a level surface should touch at all parts of its ground-surface; the
-only exception to this is the shoe with a rolled toe (rolling motion),
-in which the toe is turned upward. A shoe is termed “_trough-shaped_”
-when only the inner edge of the web rests upon the flat surface. It is
-faulty, disturbs the stability of the foot, and shifts the weight of
-the body too much upon the quarters.
-
-[4] The horizontal bearing-surface is in accordance with nature,
-because the changes of form of the hoof which take place at the plantar
-border of the wall, on burdening and unburdening the foot, should not
-be interfered with. A horizontal bearing-surface best fulfils this
-requirement.
-
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 121.
-
-Shod fore-hoof viewed in profile to show the “roll” at the toe.]
-
-To front shoes we give a =rolled toe= (Fig. 121, rolling motion), by
-which we mean a more or less pronounced upward turn of the toe of the
-shoe. Ordinarily, the toe begins to turn up at the middle of the web,
-and should be elevated about one-half the thickness of the iron. The
-rolled toe corresponds to the natural wear of front hoofs, facilitates
-the “breaking over” of the feet, and insures a uniform wear of the
-shoe (see Fig. 86). The shoe is made moderately hot and placed on the
-foot with the toe-clip against the wall exactly in front of the point
-of the frog. The scorched horn should be repeatedly removed with the
-rasp until a perfect-fitting bed has been made upon the bearing-surface
-of the hoof. From the bearing-surface of the shoe to the inner border
-of the web the iron must be free from the sole around its entire
-circumference. The horn sole should not be burnt, because the velvety
-tissue of the sole lies immediately above it. In the region of the
-nail-holes the outer borders of shoe and wall should correspond. =The
-nail-holes must under all conditions cover the white line.= From the
-last nail-hale back to the ends of the branches, for hoofs of the
-regular standing position of the limbs, the shoe should gradually widen
-until it projects at each quarter from a sixteenth to an eighth of
-an inch beyond the edge of the wall. The posterior half of the shoe
-should, therefore, be somewhat wider than the hoof. The effect of
-this will be to prolong the usefulness of the shoes. With respect to
-the _width of the branches_, an exception arises in the case of _hind
-shoes_, in which the inner branch, with few exceptions, should closely
-follow the border of the wall; this will prevent interfering and
-tearing off the shoe by the opposite foot.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 122. Left fore-hoof of normal position shod.]
-
-Between the ends of the branches and the frog there should be enough
-room, with few exceptions, to pass a foot-pick.
-
-In order to judge of the width of a shoe which has been fitted to
-the hoof, it is of advantage to seize the hoof in the left hand and,
-extending it towards the ground, to observe from behind and above the
-outer border of the shoe and the surfaces of the wall.
-
-_Furthermore, the most important rule is that the shoe should always
-have the form of the foot, so long as the form of the hoof remains
-unaltered. In all hoofs that have already undergone change of form we
-must strive to give the shoe that form which the hoof had before it
-underwent change._ Such treatment will not only do the hoof no injury,
-but, on the contrary, is of advantage to it, as it is well known that
-in time the hoof will acquire the form of the shoe.
-
-
-Shaping and Fitting Shoes. Special Considerations.
-
-(_a_) _A shoe for a hoof of the regular form fits properly_ when the
-outer border of the shoe in the region of the nail-holes closely
-follows the outer edge of the wall, but from the last nail-hole to
-the end of each branch extends beyond the wall from a sixteenth to an
-eighth of an inch, the shoe is straight, lies firmly and air-tight
-upon the bearing-surface of the hoof, the nail-holes fall exactly upon
-the white line, and there is sufficient space between the frog and the
-branches of the shoe for the passage of a foot-pick. The branches must
-be of equal length.
-
-While in fitting a shoe to a hoof of regular form we need pay attention
-only to the form of the hoof, _it is very different when we come to
-shape and fit shoes to hoofs of irregular forms_. _In these cases we
-must consider not only the form of the hoof, but the position of the
-limbs and the distribution of weight in the hoof_, because =where the
-most weight falls the surface of support of the foot must be widened,
-and where least weight falls= (=on the opposite side=) =the surface of
-support must be narrowed=. In this manner the improper distribution of
-weight within the hoof (an unbalanced foot) is regulated,—that is, is
-evenly distributed over the surface of support. The manner in which
-this is accomplished in the various forms of hoofs is as follows:
-
-(_b_) _An acute-angled hoof_ requires the shoe described in paragraph
-2, page 114. The branches must be long, because more of the weight
-falls in the posterior half of the foot, and long branches extend the
-surface of support backward, while the surface of support in front is
-to be diminished by making the toe of the shoe base-narrow, either
-by turning it up or by bevelling it in under the foot. A shoe for an
-acute-angled hoof fits when it is otherwise related to the hoof as is
-described in paragraph _a_, above.
-
-(_c_) _An upright or stumpy hoof_ presents exactly reverse conditions
-with respect to the distribution of weight within the hoof, and
-is treated in an exactly opposite manner. The surface of support
-should be increased at the toe and diminished at the quarters. This
-is accomplished by a shoe possessing the peculiarities described in
-paragraph 3, page 114, whose nail-holes are directed either straight or
-slightly outward.
-
-(_d_) _A base-wide hoof_ requires the surface of support to be widened
-upon the inner side of the foot and narrowed upon the outer side,
-because the inner half of the foot hears the more weight. A shoe having
-the peculiarities described in paragraph 4, page 114, accomplishes this
-end.
-
-(_e_) _The base-narrow hoof_ is just the reverse of the preceding, and
-requires a shoe whose peculiarities are described in paragraph 5, page
-114. While in the normal standing position of the limbs, viewed from in
-front, the ends of the branches of the shoe should be equally distant
-from the middle of the median lacuna of the frog, this is not so in
-the base-wide and base-narrow positions. In the base-wide position
-the outer and in the base-narrow position the inner branch should be
-somewhat farther from the median lacuna than the branch of the opposite
-side.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 123.
-
-The three principal forms of hoofs shod with flat shoes.]
-
-(_f_) _The wide hoof_ has too large a surface of support, and,
-therefore, the shoe designed for it should possess the peculiarities
-enumerated in paragraph 6, page 115.
-
-(_g_) _The narrow hoof_ has already too narrow a base of support,
-and must not be made smaller; therefore, the shoe should not have a
-base-narrow but a perpendicular outer border, as described in paragraph
-7, page 115.
-
-
-Shoeing Saddlers and Hunters.
-
-_The shoes for saddlers_ (Park Hacks) should be light, short, and
-fitted snug to prevent forging, interfering and pulling of the
-shoes. The hoof-surface should cover the wall, white line and at
-least one-fourth of an inch of the margin of the sole. An average
-width of one inch is desirable. Both front and hind shoes should be
-fullered and concaved on the ground-surface (convex iron). =The Front
-Shoe=:—_Length_, should not project beyond the buttress more than
-one-eighth of an inch. _Width_, an inch at the middle on the branches,
-somewhat more at the toe, and less at the ends of the branches.
-_Bevelling_, outer border, base-narrow all around. The ends of the
-branches, and the heel-calks, in case they are used, are bevelled
-strongly downward and forward under the foot. The toe is rolled from
-the inner edge of the web, and provided with a strong central clip. Six
-nails are sufficient (see Fig. 124).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 124.
-
-A right front shoe with forging calks; suitable for a saddle-horse, or
-hunter (convex iron).]
-
-=The Hind Shoe=:—_Length_, the shoe may project from one-fourth to
-three-eighths of an inch behind the buttresses. The toe should be well
-rounded and somewhat blunt so that the horn of the toe will project
-beyond the shoe an amount equal to one-half the thickness of the
-wall. _Width_, somewhat less than the front shoe. The branches are of
-equal thickness, and should carry heel-calks whose height equals the
-thickness of the shoe. To guard against interfering the inside calk may
-be omitted and the inner branch thickened, fitted snug and bevelled
-strongly base-narrow. Clips are to be placed at inner and outer toes.
-Seven nails are sufficient.
-
-_The shoes for hunters_ do not differ materially from those suitable
-for Park Hacks. The hunter’s shoes are somewhat lighter, and to guard
-against injury to the feet by over-reaching and interfering, and
-against the shoes being pulled by stiff mire and by treading, the shoes
-must represent merely a prolongation of the hoofs, _i.e._, must be no
-longer and no wider than the hoofs themselves. =The front shoe= of
-narrow, convex iron is rolled at the toe and has a central toe-clip.
-Forging heel-calks are advisable.
-
-=The hind shoe= is set back at the toe, carries inner and outer toe
-clips, an outer heel-calk and an inner interfering branch. Seven nails.
-
-
-Shoeing Runners.
-
-Racing plates are intended solely to prevent excessive wear and
-breaking away of the wall, and to insure a secure foothold upon the
-ground. The shoes are made as light as possible, but they must not be
-so narrow and thin that they will bend or break. They are therefore
-made of steel, wide enough to cover the bearing-surface of the wall,
-white line, and an eighth of an inch of the sole. The ground-surface
-is divided into two sharp edge’s by a deep, clean, fullering continued
-entirely around the shoe. heel-calks are of no advantage. Front and
-hind shoes carry six nails. The last nails are well back in the
-quarters to prevent the spreading or bending of the light shoe. Front
-shoes are provided with central toe-clips; hind shoes carry inner and
-outer toe-clips and are set slightly under at the toe (see Figs. 125,
-126, 127, 128). An _average weight_ running plate for a medium-sized
-hoof is _three to four ounces_.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 125. A fore running plate, hoof-surface.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 126. A fore running plate, ground-surface.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 127. A hind running plate, hoof-surface.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 128. A hind running plate, ground-surface.]
-
-
-Shoeing Trotters and Pacers.
-
-The shoes worn while the trotter or pacer is in training are somewhat
-heavier than those worn while racing. Training shoes will average 40
-ounces to the set, while trotting and pacing plates weigh from 16 to
-28 ounces to the set. Of the six fastest trotters during the last year
-(1912) the average weight of the front shoes was 6⅚ ounces, of the
-hind shoes 4 ounces. Of the seven swiftest pacers of the same year the
-front shoes averaged 5½ ounces, and the hind shoes 3⅝ ounces. In short,
-_extreme speed at running, pacing or trotting demands as light a shoe
-as can be made, which will at the same time furnish a bearing for wall,
-white line and a narrow rim of the sole_.
-
-In style of shoes there is no marked difference between trotters
-and pacers—except in the hind shoes of pacers that cross-fire (see
-“cross-firing,” p. 140). Open shoes predominate. Bar-shoes are used,
-not to give frog pressure, but to stiffen and prevent spreading of
-the shoe, when after a few days’ wear it becomes thin at the toe. The
-average trotting and pacing plate is so thin that it would be weakened
-by fullering, so most of them are stamped (punched). Six nails are
-sufficient. Clips are seldom needed.
-
-Pacers usually require a low circular grab or “rim” at the toe. This is
-set flush with the outer border, is about one-eighth of an inch high
-and is brazed on. Trotting plates are usually without toe-calks, though
-many are fullered across the toe (corrugated) to furnish a grip upon
-the ground.
-
-On both trotting and pacing shoes the heel-calks should be low and
-sharp and should run straight forward so as not to retard the forward
-glide of the foot as it is set to earth heel first. The heel-calk
-serves chiefly to prevent the lateral twist of the foot as the horse
-takes the sharp turns of the track.
-
-Freak shoes, toe-weights, side-weights, excessive length of hoof or
-toe, and other unscientific appliances and methods of shoeing speed
-horses are being gradually eliminated, and today the fastest are
-dressed and shod in accordance with the principles enunciated in this
-book.
-
-
-Fitting Shoes to Heavy Draft-Horses.
-
-What has been previously said concerning shoeing holds good here;
-however, the conditions of shoeing are somewhat different in heavy
-horses, and particularly with respect to hoofs which, without being
-clearly diseased, have been injured by shoeing. The entire operation
-requires more circumspection, because it is more difficult. In many
-cases one will find that the width that has been advised for the
-outer branch of the shoe at the quarter is not sufficient. Indeed,
-if a horse has wry feet, and there is unequal distribution of weight
-within the hoof, and we attempt in shoeing it to follow to the letter
-the directions given on preceding pages, we would be apt to favor the
-perpetuation of the defect. In such cases the slant of the wall at the
-quarters is of the greatest practical value to us in estimating the
-proper width for the shoe at this point.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 129. Left hind shoe with a broad, base-wide outer
-branch for draft-horses that stand markedly base-narrow (close behind).]
-
-When uniform setting down of the hoof and uniform wear of the shoe are
-desired, every point in the coronary band in the posterior half of the
-foot must receive support by the shoe. This applies particularly to the
-outer halves of hoofs that are extremely base-narrow. If, for example,
-the coronet of the outer quarter projects beyond the plantar border
-of the quarter, the outer branch of the shoe from the last nail-hole
-back must be kept so wide (full) that an imaginary perpendicular line
-dropped from the coronary band will just touch the outer border of the
-shoe. The inner branch, on the contrary, should follow the edge of the
-wall as closely as possible. Furthermore, the new shoe should be given
-more curve,—that is, made wider and fitted more full where the old shoe
-shows greatest wear. _The principal thought should be to set the shoe,
-which should always be regarded as the base of support of the hoof,
-farther towards the more strongly worn side._ Such a practice renders
-superfluous the wide-spread and popular custom of bending outward the
-outer quarter and heel-calk of hind shoes. From the manner in which a
-horse travels and the wear of the old shoe, we estimate the distance
-that the branches of the shoe should be set from the middle line of
-the hoof. If in following out this plan the bearing-surface of the
-outer quarter of the wall is not completely covered, the quarter will
-be pinched and squeezed inward; this should be prevented by a broader
-branch punched so deeply that the holes will fall upon the white line
-(Fig. 129).
-
-When the shoer has satisfied himself that the shoe fulfils every
-requirement and fits perfectly, it is to be cooled, the holes opened
-with an oiled pritchel, and the shoe brightened with a file. In filing,
-all sharp edges should be removed. If a shoe is to be filed upon the
-outer border, to give it a neater appearance, the filing should be done
-_lengthways of the shoe_, and _not crossways_; of course, the shoe must
-not be bent by being improperly clamped in the vise.
-
-It indicates much greater skill in making and fitting shoes when they
-look clean and finished with little or no filing.
-
-    In the preceding remarks I have insisted upon a
-    horizontal bearing-surface for all shoes, with the
-    single exception of shoes provided with the rolled
-    toe (rolling motion). As far as I can judge from the
-    literature of shoeing, and from what I have seen
-    with my own eyes in many countries, this is the most
-    wide-spread practice. In Germany, on the other hand,
-    there is another method, followed in the military
-    shoeing shops, _which consists in placing the
-    bearing-surface of the shoe as nearly as possible
-    at right angles to the slant of the wall_.
-    According to this method the bearing-surface of
-    the shoe, depending upon the direction of the wall
-    (viewed from in front, from behind, and from the
-    side), should incline more or less, now backward,
-    now inward, now horizontal, and now outward. Shoes
-    for wide hoofs are given a bearing-surface which
-    inclines inward, while for narrow hoofs the shoes
-    have a horizontal bearing-surface. Shoes for wry
-    hoofs have a bearing-surface which inclines downward
-    and inward for the slanting wall, and for the steeper
-    wall a horizontal bearing-surface, which towards the
-    end of the branch may incline slightly downward and
-    outward. Besides, the bearing-surface of the ends of
-    the branches, viewed from the side, has a backward
-    and downward inclination. This method is practicable
-    =only in part=.
-
-
-I. Nailing the Shoe.
-
-This is that act of horseshoeing by which the shoe is fastened to the
-hoof by special nails called hoof-nails or horseshoe-nails, which are
-driven through the shoe and horny wall.
-
-At present there are hand-made and machine-made horseshoe-nails. Both
-kinds should be made of the best wrought iron. The nails must be
-slender, wedge-shaped, and twice as wide as they are thick. Thickness
-and length must be in proper relation to each other. We should never
-choose a nail which is longer than is absolutely necessary to hold the
-shoe; six to eight sizes are sufficient for all purposes.
-
-The rough nails (hand-made), before being used, must undergo a special
-shaping to prepare them to pass through the wall easily and in the
-desired direction. This preparation is called _shaping and bevelling_.
-In doing this we should see to it that the nails are made smooth, and
-even, but are not hammered harder than is absolutely necessary, because
-the lighter one can hammer the nails the better they will be.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 130. Hand-made horseshoe-nails, natural size, for
-fullered shoes (1, not bevelled).]
-
-Furthermore, we must give the nail that form which will insure its
-passing through the horn _straight_ and _not in a curve_; with this
-object in view, the nail is to be slightly curved so that the side
-which is turned towards the frog in driving (inside) will be a little
-concave, the opposite side convex (Figs. 130, 3, and 131, No. 10),
-since it is known that a straight nail always passes through the horn
-in a curve, and not only does not long remain tight, but is quite
-likely to _press upon and injure the soft tissues_ of the foot. (See
-also, Nailing.)
-
-At the point of the nail the _bevel_ is to be so placed that it will
-form a short one-sided wedge with the slanting side directed =from
-within to without= (Figs. 130, 3, and 131, _d_). A short bevel is
-suitable for nails that are to be driven low, while a long bevel makes
-it possible to drive them high. _The bevel should never form a hook;
-it must always be straight, should be sharp but not thin, and under no
-conditions incomplete_ (defective).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 131. Machine-made horseshoe-nails (natural size)
-with a low, wide head for a fullered shoe. The last nail is shown from
-one border; the others from the inner face: _a_, head; _b_, neck; _c_,
-shank; _d_, bevel; _e_, point; _f_, inner face; _g_, outer face.]
-
-Machine-made nails, smooth, polished, bevelled, and ready for use, are,
-for many reasons, to be preferred to hand-made nails, though the latter
-are rather tougher (see Fig. 131).
-
-Before the shoe is nailed on it should be cooled and again carefully
-examined by a competent shoer, who should then place it upon the
-hoof, where it should be critically observed to see whether it really
-fulfils every requirement of a properly-fitting shoe. Afterwards, the
-least fault or defect must be remedied, and then the work of _nailing_
-it begins. By nailing, the shoe is firmly and durably fastened to the
-hoof, in doing which the horn of the wall is spared so far as possible,
-the elasticity of the hoof borne always in mind, and wounding of the
-pododerm entirely avoided. =The nails must in all cases penetrate the
-white line= and pass through the wall in such a straight direction
-that they will appear neither too high nor too low upon its outer
-surface. In the first case there is considerable danger of pricking or
-close-nailing, and in the latter the nail-holes will tear out easily
-when the nails are being clinched.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 132.
-
-Driving hammer.]
-
-In driving a nail, it should be held in the fingers as long as possible
-in the direction in which it is desired that it shall pass through
-the horn. A nail should be driven cautiously, with attention to its
-_sinking and sound_, and yet with enough force so that at each stroke
-it will penetrate from one-fifth to one-fourth of an inch. The power
-required at each stroke will depend upon the hardness of the horn and
-the size of the nail. Fearless driving and timorous tapping should not
-be allowed.
-
-Nails, which at a depth of five-eighths of an inch are still going
-soft, or which bend and give a dull sound, or cause pain, should be
-immediately withdrawn.
-
-According to the size of the horse and his hoofs the nails should be
-driven from five-eighths to an inch and five-eighths high, and as
-_even_ as possible. As soon as a nail is driven its point should be
-=immediately= bent down towards the shoe in order to prevent injuries.
-The heads of all the nails should then be gone over with a hammer and
-driven down solidly into the nail-holes, the hoof being meanwhile
-supported in the left hand. Pincers are then held under the bent nails
-and they are more sharply bent by _light_ blows upon the nail-heads.
-The points of the nails are now nipped off near the hoof, the horn
-which has been thrown out just below the clinches by bending the nails
-down is removed with rasp or gouge, and the ends of the nails bent down
-still more, but not quite flush with the wall. This operation is called
-“clinching.” A clinching-block or a pair of ordinary blacksmith’s
-pincers is then placed under the end of the nail, now called a clinch,
-and by light blows (in doing this the nail must not bend within the
-wall) upon the head the clinch is turned closer to the surface of the
-wall; finally, with the front edge of the nail-hammer the clinch is
-hammered down flush with the wall. On the inner half of the wall the
-clinches should not be felt on stroking the wall with the fingers. The
-small amount of horn that projects beyond the shoe around the toe may
-be carefully rasped away in the direction in which the wall slants, but
-_never higher than the clinches_; finally, the sharp lower edge of the
-wall is to be removed by carrying the corner of the rasp around between
-the shoe and the horn.
-
-A clinch is sufficiently long when it equals the width of the nail at
-that point.
-
-It is of advantage to use a shoeing-bock or foot-stool in clinching
-the nails on the front hoofs. The hind hoofs may be clinched in the
-hands. Then the horse should be led out and again moved in order to
-see whether or not the new shoeing has actually accomplished what was
-desired. Finally, the entire hoof should be given a thin layer of
-hoof-salve.
-
-
-K. Horseshoes More or Less Deficient in the Desirable Qualities
-Described on Pages 107-116.
-
-
-Machine Shoes.
-
-1. _Machine Shoes of Wrought Iron._—They are half-finished and
-finished. Though machine shoes with few exceptions show no distinction
-between front and hind, or left and right, with correct punching for
-these different feet, but usually present one form in different sizes,
-yet, unfortunately, they are in high favor with horseshoers, because
-they may be used for both summer and winter and for bar-shoes.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 133.
-
-A machine-made (drop-forged) front shoe, ground-surface.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 134. A machine-made toe-weight front shoe for a
-harness horse, showing ground-surface. Punching good.]
-
-For these reasons we cannot approve of machine shoes.
-
-2. _Finished Cast Shoes._—They are of four kinds,—ordinary cast shoes,
-cast shoes with rope buffer, cast shoes with fiber buffer, and cast
-shoes fenestrated to hold a rubber buffer. Ordinary cast shoes of
-correct form and proper punching designed by Grossbauer, of Vienna, are
-sold by Hannes’ Sons, of that city.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 135.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 136.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 137.
-
-Machine-made (drop-forged) multi-calk fore shoe. _A_, ground-surface;
-_B_, hoof-surface; _C_, profile.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 138.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 139.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 140.
-
-Machine-made (drop-forged) multi-calk hind shoe. _A_, ground-surface;
-_B_, hoof-surface; _C_, profile.]
-
-_Rope Shoes._—These shoes have a groove on the ground-surface, in
-which rests a tarred rope, which greatly diminishes slipping on smooth
-pavement. For this reason alone they are extensively used in the large
-cities of Germany. Since the open rope shoe, when half worn out, will
-warp, the bar rope shoe is more satisfactory and more extensively used
-(Figs. 141-144).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 141. Bar rope shoe with bar bent forward.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 142. The same with bar bent backward.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 143. The same with beak-formed bar.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 144. An open rope shoe.]
-
-Before fitting the shoe the rope must be removed. After the nails are
-driven it is laid in the groove and hammered into place. Rope shoes can
-seldom be fitted properly to hoofs other than those which are healthy
-and of regular shape.
-
-_Fiber Shoes._—These have a groove on the ground-surface into which
-layers of linen fiber belting have been tightly pressed. The fiber
-cannot be removed, and therefore the shoes cannot be heated, but
-must be fitted cold. The nail-holes are placed between the fiber and
-the outer border of the shoe, and are punched too light. The bearing
-surface of the shoe is unsupported, so that when the shoe is half worn
-out, it warps. There is no distinction between rights and lefts.
-
-_Rubber shoes_ have all the defects of fiber shoes, and one more.
-The hoof-surface is covered with canvas, which under normal and
-acute-angled hoofs wears through under the quarters and leads to
-loosening of the last nails.
-
-
-L. Rubber Pads.
-
-The increasing use of asphalt, tarvia and other hard, smooth and
-slippery materials for surfacing city streets and country highways has
-not only made travelling in flat and even in calked shoes precarious,
-but has aggravated all those injuries produced by concussion.
-
-To prevent slipping and the injurious effects of concussion a great
-many shoes have been devised, in which are incorporated such materials
-as hemp rope, linen fibre, papier maché, cork, wood, bast, felt and
-rubber, but all fail in greater or lesser degree to meet practical
-requirements.
-
-Rubber, though the most expensive of these materials, is the most
-resilient and takes the best grip on smooth pavement. A pad of rubber,
-wide enough to cover the branches of the frog alone, or the branches of
-the frog and the buttresses of the hoof, firmly cemented to a leather
-sole, constitutes the modern rubber pad (Figs. 145, 146, 147).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 145. A light driving pad, gummed and stitched to a
-leather sole; seen from the ground-surface and in profile. Used with a
-seven-to ten-ounce short shoe. _a_, stitching; _b_, rubber bar under
-buttress and frog; _c_, leather sole.]
-
-The frog- and buttress-pad used with a short shoe is to be preferred to
-the earlier frog pad which takes a full shoe.
-
-_The advantages of rubber pads are_:
-
-1. They prevent slipping upon asphalt and other smooth, dry surfaces.
-
-2. They diminish concussion, and are valuable in the prevention and
-treatment of sore heels, dry and moist corns, bruised sole, and
-incipient side-bone.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 146. Air-cushion pad, seen from ground surface and
-in profile. Suitable for light harness horses.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 147. A heavy bar-pad suitable for heavy harness and
-draft-horses on pavement. The short shoe may carry a toe-calk of medium
-height.]
-
-3. They give frog pressure, develop the frog and tend to prevent
-contraction of the quarters and those lesions which may follow
-contraction, as corns, cracks of bars and quarters, laminitis of the
-quarters and thrush.
-
-_A rubber pad should not be used_:
-
-1. In contraction of one or both quarters, when the frog is too much
-shrunken to bear upon the pad.
-
-2. In lameness from well developed side-bones.
-
-3. In navicular bursitis (“navicular disease”).
-
-4. In thrush, or canker of frog or sole.
-
-Rubber pads, light, medium and heavy, are made in all sizes and are
-suitable for all classes of horses, from the light roadster to the
-heavy draft type. The short shoe with which they are used reaches
-the middle of the quarters. The pad surface (upper surface) of the
-ends of the branches should be bevelled to conform to the pad, and to
-hold it firmly against the frog and buttresses. The thickness of the
-shoe should equal two-thirds the thickness of the pad, so that when
-fitted one-third of the thickness of the pad shall project below the
-ground-surface of the shoe. The shoe should be provided with a strong
-toe-clip. With the heavy, thick pad of a draft-horse a low toe-calk may
-be used, but heel-calks should never be put on a short shoe. Pads are
-seldom necessary on the hind feet.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER IV.
-
-SHOEING HORSES THAT FORGE AND INTERFERE.
-
-
-A. Forging.
-
-Forging is that defect of the horse’s gait by reason of which, at a
-trot, he strikes the ends of the branches or the under surface of the
-front shoe with the toe of the hind shoe or hoof of the same side.
-Forging in a pacer is termed “cross-firing” and consists in striking
-the inner quarter, or the under surface of the inner branch of a front
-shoe with the toe of the diagonal hind shoe or hoof.
-
-Forging is unpleasant to hear and dangerous to the horse. It is liable
-to wound the heels of the forefeet, damages the toes or the coronet of
-the hind hoofs, and often pulls off the front shoes.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 148. Right front shoe with concave ground-surface
-(“convex iron”) to prevent “forging.”]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 149. Right hind shoe with lateral toe-clips to
-prevent “clicking” and the various injuries due to forging.]
-
-_Causes._—1. Faulty conformation; for example, horses that stand
-considerably higher at the croup than at the withers; horses with
-long legs and short bodies; horses that “stand under” in front and
-behind. 2. Using horses on heavy ground, unskilful driving, allowing
-a long-necked, heavy-headed horse to carry his head too low; riding
-without holding a horse to his work by feeling his mouth and pressing
-the knees against his sides. 3. Fatigue frequently leads to forging,
-even in horses that are well built and properly shod. It may also occur
-in the act of vaulting over an obstacle. 4. Poor shoeing, especially
-too long toes upon the front and hind hoofs, and too long front shoes.
-
-The aim of the shoer should be to facilitate the quick and easy
-“breaking over” of the =front foot=, so that it may get away before
-it is overtaken by the hind foot. The toe of the front hoof should be
-fairly short and rolled; the quarters spared. The front shoe should be
-light, rolled at the toe and =no longer and no wider= than the hoof.
-The ends of the branches of a flat shoe, and also the heel-calks, in
-case they are needed to elevate a heel that is too low, should be
-bevelled from the hoof-surface of the shoe downward and forward under
-the foot. Such short heel-calks, bevelled to prevent forging, are
-called “forging calks.” If the horse continues to forge between the
-branches and against the ground-surface of the shoe, concaving this
-surface will prove advantageous (convex iron). The form of the front
-shoes of horses that forge should represent merely a prolongation of
-the hoof.
-
-The “breaking over” of the =hind foot= should be delayed by sparing
-the toe and lowering the quarters, but not sufficiently to break the
-foot-axis too far backward. The hind shoe is to be squared at the toe
-and the lower edge of the shoe in the region of the toe well rounded;
-instead of a toe-clip, two side-clips are to be drawn up and the shoe
-so fitted that at least three-fourths of the thickness of the wall of
-the toe, with the edge well rounded, will extend forward beyond the
-shoe. Should the toe of the hoof be short it may be raised either by a
-low toe-calk set one-fourth of an inch back from the edge of the shoe,
-or by thinning the shoe from the toe to the ends of the branches. The
-branches of a flat hind shoe should extend somewhat farther back of
-the buttresses than under normal conditions, to trail upon the ground
-just before the hoof alights, and acting as a brake, to bring the hoof
-to earth (Fig. 150).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 150. Hind shoe with swelled toe to slow the
-breaking over. Often efficient when the hoof is too short at the toe:
-_a_, long branches to trail and bring the foot to earth; _b_, outer toe
-clip; _c_, toe squared and set under to prevent injury to front hoof,
-and to deaden the sound of forging.]
-
-“Cross-firing” is most apt to occur and is most dangerous at extreme
-speed. Then, when the inner branch of the hind shoe strikes the inner
-heel, quarter or shoe of the diagonal front foot, both feet are in the
-air,—the fore foot is approaching the middle of its stride, while the
-offending hind foot is in the last third of its flight. The standing
-position that favors cross-firing is the base-wide (toe-wide) in front,
-and the base-narrow (toe-narrow) behind. With this direction of limbs
-the flight of the fore feet is forward and inward during the first
-half of their stride, while the flight of the hind feet is forward and
-inward during the second half of their stride (see Figs. 72, 73, 75).
-
-The problem is, therefore, so to pare and shoe a base-wide fore foot
-that it will break over nearer the centre of the toe and thus execute
-less of an inward swing during the first half of its stride, and to so
-pare and shoe a base-narrow hind foot that it will break over nearer
-the centre of the toe and thus execute less of an inward swing during
-the second half of its stride. Neither a toe-wide nor a toe-narrow
-foot can be made to break over the exact centre of the toe, and yet it
-is possible by dressing the hoof and by shoeing to shift the breaking
-over point nearer to the centre of the toe, and by doing so, to alter
-slightly the lines of flight of the feet.
-
-Dressing and shoeing the front foot: =The hoof= should be relatively
-low from the middle of the toe around to and including the _outer_
-buttress. If the inner half of the wall is deficient in length it must
-be raised above the outer half by applying a shoe which is thinner in
-its outer than in its inner branch. The inner toe should be left long.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 151.
-
-Left hind hoof of a toe-narrow pacer, shod to prevent cross-firing:
-_a_, dotted line indicating outer border of the hoof; _b_, long bent
-outer branch; _c_, short, thin inner branch; _d_, inner wall extending
-beyond the shoe; _f_, line from which inner branch is feather-edged.
-The shoe is of even thickness from _b_ to _f_ at inner toe; but from
-latter point to _c_ diminishes to a feather edge.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 152.
-
-Front view of hoof and shoe depicted in Fig. 151: _a_, outer branch
-fitted very full and bevelled base-wide; _b_, inner branch diminishing
-in thickness from inner toe _c_, to its termination at the inner
-quarter. Designed to favor “breaking over” near centre of the toe, and
-to widen the gait.]
-
-=The shoe= should be light, without heel-calks, but may carry a low,
-curved grab (“grab,” is a low, straight or curved, toe-or heel-calk on
-a racing plate) running from the second inner toe nail to the centre
-of the toe. _The inner branch_ is to be fitted flush with the wall
-from the centre of the toe back to the quarter, back of which point
-it gradually extends beyond the wall, _i.e._, is fitted full; and
-terminates well back of the buttress. _This inner branch_ should be
-from one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch longer than the outer
-branch. _The long inner branch, full at the quarter, is desirable, but
-must be covered by a quarter-boot, which a cross-firer should always
-wear._
-
-_The outer branch_ should be fitted snug and terminate at the buttress.
-From the centre of the toe to the end of the branch the ground-surface
-should be bevelled from the inner edge of the web to a knife-edge at
-the outer border.
-
-Dressing and shoeing the hind foot: =The hoof= should be relatively
-low from the centre of the toe around to and including the _inner_
-buttress. If the outer half of the hoof is deficient in length, it must
-be raised above the inner half by applying a shoe with a thin inner
-branch. The inner branch may terminate in a knife-edge midway between
-toe and heel (Figs. 151 and 152).
-
-_The inner branch_ is to be fitted snug from the centre of the toe to
-its end, and its ground-surface should be bevelled from the inner edge
-of the web to a knife-edge at the outer border.
-
-_The outer branch_ is to be fitted very full from the outside toe to
-the end. This branch should extend well behind the buttress, and in
-well-marked base-narrow hoofs should be turned outward in order to
-support the overhanging coronet of the quarter. The outer border should
-be bevelled base-wide, and the nail-holes punched coarse, _i.e._, far
-in from the outer border (Figs. 151 and 152). The outer branch may
-carry a small heel-calk.
-
-
-B. Interfering.
-
-A horse “interferes” when a hoof in motion strikes the opposite
-supporting leg. Interfering is apt to produce injuries, either of the
-coronary band of the inner half of the foot or of the fetlock-joint, or
-(in fore-limbs) of the cannon, even as high up as the knee. Lameness
-frequently accompanies such injuries.
-
-_The causes of interfering_ lie either in the _shoeing_ (of the foot
-that strikes, as well as of the foot which is struck), in the _position
-of the limbs_, or in the _use_ of the animal. Horses that have the
-correct standing position do not interfere when they are properly shod;
-base-wide horses interfere sometimes; horses base-narrow down to the
-fetlock and toe-wide below that point interfere very frequently. Traces
-of unequal length, weariness, and shoeing at too long intervals favor
-interfering.
-
-In attempting to lessen or remove interfering, the horse must be most
-carefully examined with respect to the position of his limbs, his gait,
-and his shoeing, in the manner described on pages 90 to 92.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 153.
-
-A right front shoe with nailless and narrow inner branch for a
-base-wide hoof. Suitable for horses that strike anywhere from inner toe
-back to the quarter.]
-
-If the cause is found to be the twisted position of a shoe, too wide
-hoofs, raised clinches, etc., nothing need be done further than to
-correct the shoeing; but if a faulty position of the limbs is the
-cause, we must ascertain the exact part of the hoof that does the
-striking, diminish the size of the hoof at that point, regulate the
-entire plantar surface of the hoof, make the shoe straight along
-the region that strikes,—that is, without curve,—and so fit it to
-the foot that one-third of the thickness of the wall will extend
-beyond the shoe. Where interfering is so pronounced as to produce
-serious injuries, we use a shoe with no nails in the inner branch
-(“dropped-crease” shoe) (Figs. 153, 156, 157).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 154.
-
-Left hind shoe with interfering branch (ground-surface), for
-base-narrow standing position.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 155. The same (hoof-surface).]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 156.
-
-Left hind interfering shoe without nail-holes in inner branch
-(“dropped-crease” shoe): _a_, side-clip.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 157.
-
-Right hind shoe for toe-cutters. The dotted lines indicate the distance
-that the wall projects beyond the shoe: _a_, side-clip.]
-
-The so-called _interfering shoes_ (Figs. 154 and 155) are worthy
-of recommendation only for hoofs of the base-narrow position. The
-interfering branch, whose greater thickness raises the inner wall,
-which is often too low, is to be so shaped and directed that the hoof
-will project somewhat beyond it. _This interfering branch must be
-made and shaped in accordance with each individual case._ The holes
-in the interfering branch should be punched somewhat finer (nearer
-the edge) than usual. Interfering shoes in which the nail-holes, with
-the exception of the inner toe nail-hole, are placed in the outer
-branch, are called “_dropped-crease interfering shoes_” (Fig. 156).
-Such shoes are not recommended for hind hoofs that are decidedly
-toe-wide (toe-cutters); in such cases better results will be obtained
-by using a shoe, either with or without heel-calks, whose inner branch
-is straight and without nails along the striking region, and is fitted
-wide (full) at the quarter. The inner branch should be from one-fourth
-to three-eighths of an inch longer than the outer. The inner heel-calk
-should be higher than the outer, and the end of the outer branch should
-be as base-narrow as it can be made (fitted close) (Fig. 157). In order
-to prevent shifting of an interfering shoe, a side-clip should be drawn
-up on the outer branch (_a_).
-
-There is no manner of shoeing that will prevent interfering which is
-caused by improper harnessing, crooked hitching, or weariness. The
-simpler and the _lighter_ the shoes the less will horses interfere.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER V.
-
-WINTER SHOEING.
-
-
-All shoes whose ground-surface is provided with contrivances to prevent
-slipping upon snow and ice are called winter shoes.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 158. An ice-nail, frost-nail.]
-
-These various contrivances are produced by several processes called
-“methods of sharpening.” All methods may be gathered into two
-groups,—namely, _practical_ sharp-shoeing and _impractical_. Only the
-first will be considered.
-
-The durability of sharpened shoes depends partly upon whether they
-are made of steel or iron, and partly upon the nature of the ground
-in winter. If the ground is continuously covered with a thick layer
-of snow, whatever method of sharpening is followed, the shoes =stay
-sharp=; if, however, the winter is open, changeable, with more bare ice
-than snow, no method of sharpening, whatever it may be, will last long;
-the shoes will =not stay sharp=.
-
-For these reasons no method of sharpening which fulfils all conditions
-satisfactorily has yet been discovered.
-
-The simplest and at the same time the least durable method of
-sharpening is: 1. That by means of =ice-nails= or =frost-nails= (Fig.
-158). One or two nails are drawn from each branch of the shoe and
-replaced with ice-nails.
-
-2. =Sharp Toe- and Heel-Calks.=—The outer calk is split and a small
-steel wedge welded in. It is then laid upon the edge of the anvil,
-indented and sharpened from within to without in such a manner that
-the calk shall be thin from the branch to the ground, and the outer
-surface shall be in the same vertical plane as the outer edge. If a
-calk is narrow from its base to its end, and at the same time without
-flaw, it does not need a sharp cutting edge. The inner calk should
-never be sharpened except the ground be very slippery. The cutting edge
-of this inner calk stands at right angles to the length of the branch,
-and its outer corner should then be rounded to prevent its injuring the
-opposite foot (Figs. 159, 160).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 159.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 160.
-
-Outer and inner heel-calks sharpened.]
-
-For horses used for heavy draft purposes a toe-calk is welded to the
-shoe and sharpened. For this purpose we use only steel (toe-steel),
-which is easily welded to the shoe and remains firm. Toe-calks and
-steeled heel-calks are tempered, in order, as much as possible, to
-lengthen their period of durability. This method of sharpening is the
-oldest and most wide-spread, and is employed on the shoes of all horses
-of which we require more than light service.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 161.
-
-Left fore-hoof sharp-shod: _a_, toe-calk bevelled from in front;
-_b_, outer heel-calk directed lengthwise with the branch; _c_, inner
-heel-calk, half sharp and directed transversely to direction of the
-branch.]
-
-Hoofs are easily damaged or even ruined by frequently repeated
-sharpening of the shoes, because every time this is done the shoes must
-be removed and replaced.
-
-3. =Shoeing with Screw Heel-Calks.=—Any ordinary flat shoe not too thin
-and narrow at the ends of the branches can be changed to a shoe with
-screw heel-calks by punching holes in the ends of the branches and
-cutting a thread in them.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 162.
-
-Ground-surface of the end of a branch of shoe, showing (_a_) hole and
-counter-sinking for a screw-calk (one-half natural size).]
-
-The screw heel-calk holes are made either by punching or boring. The
-punching is done by means of an almost cylindrical hammer-punch,
-afterwards finishing the holes by driving through them a round punch
-which tapers from the middle towards both ends. On the ground-surface
-of the shoe the hole is moderately counter-sunk (Fig. 162, _a_), so
-that after the thread has been cut and the calk screwed into place the
-shoulder of the latter will rest on the counter-sinking.
-
-At present nearly all screw-calks are made by machinery, either of iron
-or toe-steel. The former is too soft and therefore not sufficiently
-durable; the latter, however, is quite durable when the calk is
-properly hardened (tempered) by heating to a cherry-red, sticking
-the head of the calk as far as the tap into a bed of moist sand, and
-allowing it to slowly cool.
-
-The chief requirements of a good screw-calk are, further, a =clean,
-deep=, but not too coarse =thread=, and but _one size of thread and tap
-for all calks_, so that every calk will fit in every shoe. A calk whose
-tap measures one half-inch (12.7 millimetres) (Whitworth) in diameter
-is sufficient for the heaviest shoes. The tap which is used to cut
-the thread in the holes for the screw-calks must be about ¹/₁₂₅ of an
-inch thicker than the head of the calk. In the German army the calks
-have a tap fifteen thirty-seconds of an inch in diameter. The coachman
-should be given four calks (sharp and blunt) for each shoe, and a
-small screw-calk key for placing and removing them. Screw toe-calks
-are also used, yet they require special security to prevent their
-becoming loose. Experimentation with the screw toe-calks, though not
-yet entirely satisfactory, cannot be said to have ended.
-
-The advantages of shoes provided with good screw heel-calks are so
-manifold that they deserve marked preference over shoes sharpened
-by the ordinary methods. The common objections urged against
-screw-calks,—namely, that they loosen and are lost, or break off, are
-not worthy of serious consideration, since these evils are merely the
-result of unskilful workmanship and poor material. _Shoes with screw
-heel-calks are the best shoes for winter, especially for horses that
-have to work hard and continuously._
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 163. Sharp screw-calks with Whitworth thread
-(half-inch, natural size).]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 164. Whitworth tap (half-inch, half natural size).]
-
-Balling with snow is prevented by using shoes narrow in the web and
-concave upon the ground-surface (convex iron), and thoroughly oiling
-the sole and frog. Sole-pads of felt, leather, or straw serve the
-same purpose. Balling with snow is _best_ prevented by a rubber
-sole-and-frog pad, or by a “stopping” of a patent hoof cement known in
-Germany as “huflederkitt.”
-
-4. =Shoeing with Peg-Calks.=—The calks are merely stuck into the
-calk-holes, hence their name. Round and square peg-calks are used, but
-the former are better than the latter.
-
-The inventor of round peg-calks is Judson, an American. The shoes
-differ in no respect from the ordinary flat shoes. It is necessary that
-the tap of the calk have a moderately conical form, and exactly fit
-into the calk-hole of the shoe. The taper of the calk-tap is correct
-if for every ten thirty-seconds of an inch in length it increases or
-diminishes one-thirty-second of an inch in diameter (equal to one inch
-in every ten inches of length).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 165. Sharp peg-calk (cog): _a_, the tap; _b_, the
-head.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 166. Blunt peg-calk: _a_, the tap; _b_, the head.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 167. Lower part of the reamer.]
-
-Although the calk-holes may be punched in a hot shoe, yet boring and
-reaming them is much better, because by this method a more perfect fit
-can be secured. For this purpose we require a drill (a spiral drill is
-the best) whose diameter is exactly the same as that of the small end
-of the calk-tap (Figs. 165, _c_, and 166, _c_). After the shoe has been
-fitted to the hoof, the provisional holes are drilled and afterwards
-reamed out from the ground-surface of the shoe with the reamer shown in
-Fig. 167. Since the tap of the reamer corresponds exactly in size to
-the tap of the calk, it is evident that the latter must exactly fit and
-be tight. The wire edge that is raised around the hole is removed with
-a file, and the edge then smoothed by introducing the reamer a second
-time. The calks are made of rolled round steel, which has the thickness
-of the tap-end of the calk. For this purpose we require a calk-mould or
-matrix, in which one or more holes have been finished with a reamer.
-A piece of rod steel is heated at the end for a distance nearly twice
-the length of the calk, is swaged, thrust into the matrix, then broken
-off, and back-set. This will give a blunt peg-calk. If a sharp calk is
-desired, the upper part of the head of the calk is sharpened in the
-ordinary manner, although this is accomplished most easily by using a
-pair of tongs with short jaws that are hollowed upon the inside for
-seizing the tap of the calk.
-
-Before the shoes are nailed on, the normal punch should be oiled and
-driven into the calk-holes, and the calks passed into the holes to see
-that they fit perfectly.
-
-The calks are driven into place =after= the shoes are nailed to the
-hoofs. A light blow is sufficient to fasten a calk, yet a necessary
-precaution is first to remove every trace of oil from the calks and
-calk-holes. The first calk driven into place must be held with the hand
-while the second is being driven, otherwise it will either spring from
-the calk-hole or be loosened so that it will soon afterwards be lost.
-
-To remove such a calk we strike its head from different sides with a
-hammer, stone, or other hard object until it becomes loose, when a
-rather hard blow upon the shoe causes it to spring out. Calks which
-have worn down are seized by a pair of sharp nippers and loosened by
-blows upon the shoe. Since a calk which is firm soon rusts and is then
-very difficult to remove, it is recommended that all calks be removed
-every night.
-
-The =advantages= of peg-calks over screw-calks are: 1. They do not
-break off. 2. They are easier to make and simpler to use. 3. They are
-=cheaper=.
-
-=Disadvantages.=—1. Peg-calks are sometimes lost, even when properly
-made and most carefully introduced. This evil happens much less
-frequently when the calks are put in by the maker (horseshoer) than
-when they are stuck in by the coachman, attendant, rider, or other
-person. When calks are lost on the way from the shop, it is usually due
-to some fault in the calk-holes or in the calks, although when the feet
-are balled with snow the calks are easily lost, because they do not
-then touch the ground.
-
-2. The removal of the calks often involves many difficulties, since
-they are apt to rust into place if not removed daily, and when worn
-down so far that they cannot be grasped with the pincers are almost
-impossible to remove. By hammering upon the calks and shoe many horses
-are rendered not only restive, but sensitive in the feet.
-
-3. If horses are used without the calks, a wire edge forms around the
-hole on the bottom of the shoe, which interferes with the placing of
-the calk and lessens its security.
-
-The =hollow peg-calk= (Fig. 168), made by Branscheid & Philippi, of
-Remscheid, has considerable merit. It holds exceedingly well, and is
-very durable. It is furnished in three sizes,—Nos. 12, 13, and 14,—of
-twenty-seven, thirty-one, and thirty-four millimetres length, and
-twelve, thirteen, and fourteen millimetres diameter at the end of the
-tap.
-
-A punch is furnished which, when driven up to its head in the holes of
-the heated shoe, insures a proper width and shape of the hole and an
-accurately fitting calk.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 168. Hollow-spring peg-calk, No. 12.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 169. Peg-puller.]
-
-The calks may be removed by an extractor (Fig. 169) having at one end
-a thread which is screwed into a corresponding thread on the inside
-of the hollow calk, when by a few hammer blows on the shoe the calk
-loosens. To prevent the calk becoming choked with dirt, a piece of cork
-is thrust into the hollow. It may be easily removed by means of the
-corkscrew at the other end of the extractor.
-
-5. =Shoeing with Peg Toe-Calks.=—These are an invention of considerable
-worth, especially for heavy draft in hilly country. They render better
-service on hind than on front shoes.
-
-Peg toe-calks with a single tap are simpler and preferable to those
-with two taps. Every known contrivance to prevent the occasional loss
-of the peg toe-calk is impractical.
-
-The shoe for a peg toe-calk should be of good tough material and
-without a flaw. The toe of the shoe should be about one-twelfth to
-one-tenth of an inch thicker than the branches.
-
-The hole for the peg toe-calk, whatsoever its shape may be, must be
-smooth and uniform, with clean, true corners. Semi-circular holes
-should present the convex side towards the toe.
-
-Before punching, draw up the toe-clip. A punch-plate with a good-sized
-hole, and a tap which will fit into the square hole in the anvil will
-facilitate the work. The punch-plate when in position should be flush
-with the front edge of the anvil. Place the toe of the shoe, hoof
-surface upward, over the hole of the punch-plate, and drive a hole with
-a punch-hammer which is perceptibly thinner than the model punch. Now
-turn the shoe over, punch back from the ground-surface, and then file
-away the wire edge which the punch has raised on the ground-surface.
-Next, take a hand-punch, the end of which should just enter the hole,
-punch through from the ground-surface, and correct any bulging by
-dressing lightly over the horn of the anvil. Finally, use the model
-punch to give the hole the exact size and smoothness.
-
-Should the hole in the toe of the shoe enlarge in time, as sometimes
-occurs, then back-set when necessary on removing the shoe. Backsetting
-is easiest with the half-round hole, because the curved side, being
-turned forward, runs approximately parallel to the outer border of the
-toe of the shoe.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 170. Cross-section of different forms of peg
-toe-calk taps.]
-
-A good serviceable peg toe-calk must possess the following
-characteristics:
-
-    1. The tap must be of such shape as not to turn;
-       therefore, not round.
-
-    2. The tap must be cone-shaped, and diminish in
-       diameter about one-thirty-second of an inch for each
-       one-fourth of an inch of its length from base to
-       apex. If the tap has less taper it will enlarge the
-       hole in the shoe till the head of the calk comes into
-       contact with the shoe, when the calk will loosen and
-       drop out.
-
-    3. The tap must be full-formed and smooth.
-
-    4. It must fit air-tight in the toe, and a single
-       hammer-blow should be sufficient to fix it securely.
-
-    5. The =head= of the toe-calk =must not rest
-       on the shoe=; a space of one-sixteenth of an inch
-       should intervene.
-
-While a shoer of average mechanical ability can make a faultless peg
-toe-calk, it is not profitable to do so while good machine-made calks
-are to be had very cheap.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 171. Chisel toe-calk. (Doring.) No. 1 from the firm
-of Branscheid & Philippi, of Remscheid.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 172. Shovel toe-calk.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 173. Peg toe-calk shoeing after Fisher-Renker, of
-Dresden.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 174. Peg-calk (shovel-calk) after
-Kunze-Klotzsche-Königswald, of Dresden.]
-
-The best forms in use are the quadrangular heads, with oval, half-round
-(Figs. 171 and 172), and with two taps (Figs. 173 and 174).
-
-In several European countries the peg toe-calks with half-round tap and
-with two round taps are in use. To make good peg toe-calk shoes and fit
-the calks properly requires =more than ordinary knowledge and skill=.
-Poor work does much harm. Therefore, work carefully and get well paid
-for it.
-
-6. =Removable Heel-Calks that do not Require Sharpening.=—The
-undeniable fact that all chisel-shaped or pyramid-shaped sharp calks
-become dull in time, and must then either be sharpened or replaced
-by new calks, renders shoeing not only costly, but injurious to the
-hoofs and annoying to the owner. This drawback is most pronounced in
-large cities, where the snow never lies long upon the streets, and the
-horse just sharp-shod is soon obliged to travel upon bare pavements.
-Attempts have been made to lessen this annoyance by the use of calks
-that do _not require sharpening_, and yet which will prevent slipping
-even after they have been used for a long time upon bare pavements.
-It cannot be denied that such calks have considerable value, and,
-except when the ground is covered with ice, many of these calks render
-excellent service. Just as the ordinary sharp calks are satisfactory
-and very durable outside of the large cities, so now for the first
-time a few of these recently invented sharp calks seem to be worthy of
-recommendation for city use. The following are the best:
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 175. Screw-calk with H-formed cross-section.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 176. Screw-calk with +-formed cross-section.]
-
-    1. Screw-calks and peg-calks with H-shaped
-       cross-section (Fig. 175).
-
-    2. Screw-calks with +-shaped cross-section (Fig. 176).
-
-    3. Screw- and peg-calks with O-shaped cross-section (Fig. 176).
-
-    4. Screw- and peg-calks with S-shaped cross-section.
-
-    5. Angle-calks (Fig. 177).
-
-    6. Screw- and peg-calks with rubber foot-pad.
-
-    7. Screw-calks with Y star-shaped cross-section (Fig. 178).
-
-    8. Hollow wedge-calks (Fig. 179).
-
-    9. Perforated screw-calks (Fig. 180).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 177. Corner calk.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 178. Star calk.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 179. Hollow calk.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 180. Perforated calk.]
-
-There is no doubt that the grip that these calks take upon the ground
-and their durability depend upon the diameter and the arrangement of
-their surfaces of friction. From all experiments made thus far it is
-shown that those calks which have narrow and comparatively few surfaces
-of friction are the least durable.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 181. Universal screw-calk key with tap.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 182. Felber’s hand-vise to secure the hoof from
-twisting while changing the screw-calks.]
-
-To introduce and remove the calks we use a calk key or wrench. For the
-shop, the ordinary fork key (Fig. 181), the jaws of which are tempered,
-is recommended. It fits all calks.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VI.
-
-HOOF NURTURE.
-
-
-Hoof nurture comprises all those measures which are employed to keep
-hoofs healthy, elastic, and serviceable.
-
-
-A. Care of Unshod Hoofs.
-
-The care of the hoofs of colts is of special importance. _Abundant
-exercise_ upon dry ground which is not too stony is most beneficial.
-Such exercise will cause the hoofs to wear gradually, and it will only
-be necessary from time to time to observe whether the wear is taking
-place uniformly, and if not, to correct the uneven wear with the rasp.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 183.
-
-Twisted left front long pastern of colt, viewed from the upper
-articular surface. The lower end has been twisted toward the left: _a_,
-transverse axis of lower articular surface; _b_, transverse axis of the
-upper articular surface.]
-
-If colts are reared in the stable, the horn continuing to grow down
-does not undergo sufficient wear, and changes in form of the hoof,
-and even permanent distortions of the bones of the foot gradually
-occur. The wall becomes too long and bends or sometimes separates from
-the sole and keraphyllous layer. Weak quarters bend (curl) inward
-and encroach upon the space occupied by the frog (contracted feet of
-colts). The toe becomes too long, and this gives rise to too steep a
-position of the pastern and causes an insecure and diffident gait;
-therefore the hoofs must be shortened from time to time. The in-curved
-quarters should be removed with the hoof-knife, and the outer edge
-of the plantar border of the wall well rounded with the rasp. In the
-base-wide and base-narrow standing positions the outer and inner walls
-respectively become relatively long and induce the colt to assume a
-still more abnormal position. The young and pliant pasterns may thus
-become permanently twisted and distorted (see Figs. 183 and 184). In a
-hoof that is becoming awry, restoring to the wall its proper level with
-relation to the position of the limb will not only be invaluable in
-ultimately producing a good hoof, but will improve the faulty position
-of the limb. In exceptional cases, where the plantar border of some
-section of the wall gives evidence of too rapid wear, the application
-of a tip or of a half-shoe may be of benefit. Furthermore, we should
-attempt to secure greater cleanliness by frequently and thoroughly
-washing the hoofs and bedding with plenty of good straw.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 184.
-
-Left front long pastern of a colt showing compression shortening of
-outer half: _a_, transverse axis of upper articulation; _b_, transverse
-axis of coronary joint, not parallel to upper axis.]
-
-Too early shoeing of young horses is very injurious; it hinders the
-development of the hoofs, and, furthermore, young horses when shod are
-frequently seriously overworked and prematurely ruined. Moderate work
-in the fields does not injure young horses, but for such service they
-do not require shoes.
-
-The unshod hoofs of older horses should be periodically rounded with a
-rasp and the length of the walls regulated when, by reason of a lack of
-exercise, proper wear has not taken place.
-
-
-B. Care of Shod Hoofs.
-
-Shod hoofs are exposed to many more injuries than are unshod hoofs,
-because shoeing itself, although absolutely necessary to render horses
-continuously serviceable upon hard streets, is injurious to the hoof,
-since it to a greater or less extent prevents the physiological
-movements of the different parts of the foot, interferes with the
-circulation of the blood in the foot, slows the growth of the horn, and
-brings about a gradual shrinking of the entire hoof.
-
-In addition, there are the injurious consequences of stabulation. These
-are _prevention of free movement_, _uncleanliness_ due to bad floors
-and filthy bedding,—as, for example, peat moss and soiled straw,—and
-_dryness_.
-
-Continuous standing always contributes to contraction of the hoofs,
-and this evil is greatly favored by dryness, which more particularly
-affects the front hoofs. The hind hoofs receive sufficient moisture
-from the animal’s manure. Poor floors, particularly those that are
-uneven, tire the limbs. Accumulation of manure and the _careless_ use
-of stationary sole-pads induce thrush of the frog.
-
-The object of hoof nurture is to lessen or entirely remove all these
-injurious consequences of shoeing and stabulation. It comprises,
-therefore, not only the proper shortening of the hoofs every five to
-six weeks, but careful attention to _cleanliness and moisture_. Both
-are insured by dry straw and daily picking out and washing the hoofs.
-Such measures will prevent thrush in the hind feet. If front hoofs
-are washed once a day, sufficient moisture will penetrate the horn to
-give it that degree of suppleness (elasticity) which is possessed by
-an unshod hoof, and which contributes to a proper expansion of the
-hoof when the body-weight is placed upon it. _In order to prevent a
-hoof from again drying out_, the entire hoof should receive a thorough
-application of an oil or ointment (hoof-salve). _The object of greasing
-the horn is to prevent evaporation of the moisture that has penetrated
-the horn._ Specially compounded hoof-salves are not necessary. Melted
-horse-grease, pork-fat, or any other fat that is not rancid is
-sufficient. Cosmoline is an excellent hoof-salve.
-
-_Abundant_ but not excessive _exercise_ is more necessary than
-anything else to the preservation of the health of the hoof. It aids
-the circulation of blood within the foot, and, therefore, the growth
-of the horn. Horses which perform hard, regular work have, as a rule,
-better hoofs than those which stand the greater part of the time in the
-stable. Poulticing hoofs with clay, bran, linseed-meal, or white-rock,
-or standing them in water is unnecessary if they have had proper care,
-but will sometimes be of benefit when the hoofs have been neglected,
-and especially so for front hoofs. The latter are more exposed to
-drying influences, and the shoes prevent the moistening process by
-keeping the hoofs partially or completely removed from contact with the
-earth. _Oiling alone is not sufficient to soften horn_, but must always
-be preceded by permeation of the horn with water. =Oiling without first
-cleansing the hoof is useless, because this soon produces a greasy
-crust underneath which the horn is crisp and brittle.=
-
-The surest sign of cleanliness of a hoof is the appearance of the
-natural color of the horn, the latter appearing translucent even after
-the hoof-ointment has been applied; therefore, blackened hoof-ointments
-should not be used. When hoofs are exposed to too much moisture (muddy
-roads, melting snow, etc.) an addition of wax or common yellow rosin to
-the hoof-ointment is recommended to prevent too great softening of the
-horn. _No hoof-ointment has any direct influence upon the growth of the
-horn._
-
-Inasmuch as it is a fact that the very best shoeing injures the hoof,
-it is advisable to allow horses to go barefoot whenever it is possible.
-This applies especially to horses that from any cause are thrown out
-of service, presupposing, of course, that the nature of the hoofs will
-allow them to go barefoot.
-
-
-
-
-PART III.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VII.
-
-GENERAL REMARKS CONCERNING THE SHOEING OF DEFECTIVE HOOFS AND LAME
-HORSES.
-
-
-The boundary between health and disease of the hoof is difficult to
-determine, especially when we have to deal with minor defects of
-structure or shape of the hoof. Ordinarily, we first consider a hoof
-diseased when it causes lameness. However, we know that diseases of the
-hoof may exist without lameness. Therefore, a hoof should be regarded
-as diseased or defective when the nature of the horn, the form of the
-hoof, or the parts enclosed by it, deviate from what we consider as
-normal or healthy (see page 81), whether the service of the animal is
-influenced by it or not.
-
-Front hoofs become diseased or defective more readily than hind
-hoofs, because they bear greater weight, have more slanting walls,
-and are more exposed to drying influences. =All normally wry hoofs
-and acute-angled hoofs become more readily diseased than regular and
-upright (stumpy) hoofs.=
-
-The _indications_ of the various diseases of the hoof are discussed
-in the following chapters. We shall in this chapter undertake only
-a brief general discussion of _inflammation of the pododerm_. This
-inflammation, known as =pododermatitis=, always manifests itself by
-_lameness_ and, under closer examination of the foot, by _increased
-warmth_, _pain_, and _stronger pulsation of the digital_ and _plantar
-arteries_. The pain produces either a _timid, shortened_ (sore) _gait_,
-or well-marked _lameness_, especially upon _hard_ ground. Increased
-sensitiveness of the pododerm is detected by compression of the hoof
-with the pincers (hoof-testers), or with greater certainty by lightly
-tapping the hoof. The increased warmth of a part or of the entire
-hoof is detected by feeling with the hand. Intense pain and greatly
-increased warmth, with a moderate, diffuse swelling of the soft parts
-between the hoof and fetlock-joint, indicate suppuration within the
-hoof.
-
-_The examination_ of horses lame in the feet must always be cautious
-and searching, and should begin with the moving and judging of the
-horse as already described on page 90. The faults detected in the hoof
-or in the shoeing, the pain and increased warmth of the hoof, will not
-leave us in doubt as to whether the animal is lame in the hoof or not.
-However, should there be a doubt, we must carefully examine all the
-joints and tendons of the foot and, if necessary, of the limb above,
-and observe the animal’s manner of travelling at a walk and at a trot,
-on soft and on hard ground, in a straight line and in a circle.
-
-The =removal of the shoe= should be performed with =greatest caution=.
-Under certain conditions the second shoe should not be removed until
-the first has been replaced. The same caution must be observed in
-paring the hoof, which is to be regarded as a part of the examination
-of the hoof. The paring of a hoof for this purpose often differs
-somewhat from the preparation of a sound hoof for the shoe, and while
-it is necessary because it frequently furnishes the first trustworthy
-indication of the trouble, it must be done with circumspection and
-intelligence.
-
-The _causes_ of diseases of the hoof are very numerous, for many
-external influences act injuriously upon the hoof. In addition to
-too great dryness, want of care (neglected shoeing), and premature,
-unreasonable, cruel use of the horse, should be mentioned particularly
-_injudicious dressing of the hoof and direct and indirect faults in
-the shoeing_. The pododerm, shut in between the hard os pedis and the
-stiff, unyielding horn capsule, is frequently exposed to bruising
-and other injuries, from which arise most of the defects of the hoof
-itself. All these things lead, under certain conditions, to lameness.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 185. Bar-shoe for right foot.]
-
-_Treatment._—First of all, the discovered causes should be removed,
-or, if this is not possible, as is frequently the case, they should be
-ameliorated. Very often the lameness may be removed by proper shoeing,
-a change in the animal’s work, and better care of the hoof. When there
-is intense inflammation within the foot, the shoe should be removed
-for a few days. When the inflammation is moderate and confined to a
-small area, it is usually sufficient to alter the shoeing by regulating
-unnatural relations of height in the different parts of the wall, and
-by removing all superfluous horn from the wall and sole (to a less
-degree from the frog), partly for the purpose of rendering the horn
-capsule more yielding, and partly to make the poultices which are used
-more effective. The shoe is then to be so applied that the diseased
-region will be _relieved of the body-weight_, and will remain free
-from all pressure from the shoe. This can be done partly by making
-the underlying branch of the shoe somewhat wider and longer than the
-other, and partly by cutting down the bearing-edge of the wall where
-this is possible without weakening it too much, otherwise by concaving
-or beating down the upper surface of the shoe. By reason of the fact
-that the posterior half of the hoof is the seat of most diseases of
-the hoof, it is to be recommended that the nail-holes in shoes used
-in these diseases be placed as far as possible in the anterior half
-of the shoe, and in some special cases distributed evenly around the
-toe. Among shoes suitable for diseased hoofs the bar-shoe (Fig. 185)
-holds the first place, because it renders superfluous many other shoes
-specially designed for various diseases of the hoof. It is made like
-an ordinary flat shoe, except that it requires a somewhat longer piece
-of iron; the ends of the branches are bent inward over a dull corner
-of the anvil, bevelled, laid one over the other, and welded together
-to form the bar. The width and thickness of the bar should be the same
-as of the rest of the shoe, and its frog-surface should be slightly
-concave.
-
-The _bar-shoe is valuable, because_ it protects from pressure diseased
-sections of the wall which have been laid free, allows part of the
-body-weight to be borne by the frog, and restores normal activity to
-the disturbed physiological movements of the foot. By using it we can
-either gain a more extensive bearing-surface for the hoof, or can make
-it easier for the surface that bears the weight to do the work. If on
-account of _weakness_ of the bearing-surface of the hoof, or from any
-other cause, we wish to distribute the body-weight over the entire
-plantar surface of the foot with the exception of the painful region,
-we add a _leather sole_ to the bar-shoe.
-
-In this case it is necessary to place holes in the ends of the branches
-of the shoe, so that we may rivet the leather firmly to the shoe with
-small nails. The shoe should be made somewhat wider than the hoof,
-and the clips somewhat higher than usual. After fitting the shoe the
-grooves for the clips are cut in the leather, the latter is riveted
-to the shoe, and all leather projecting beyond the outer edge of the
-shoe is trimmed away. The lacunæ of the frog and other concavities of
-the sole are then thickly smeared with wood-tar and afterwards filled
-up with oakum to such a degree that the packing will bear some of
-the body-weight when the shoe and leather sole are in position. This
-packing is of great importance, because it prevents the filtering in
-from behind of sand and slime, preserves the toughness and pliability
-of the horn, breaks shock, and produces a gradual expansion of the
-posterior half of the hoof. Before nailing the shoe to the foot the
-leather sole should be soaked in water.
-
-
-Classification of Diseases of the Hoof.
-
-
-INFLAMMATIONS OF THE PODODERM.
-
-1, Nailing (pricking and close-nailing); 2, street-nail; 3,
-calk-wounds; 4, corns (bruised sole); 5, bruised heels; 6, laminitis
-(founder); 7, keraphyllocele (tumor of horny leaves).
-
-
-DEFECTS OF THE HORN CAPSULE AND LATERAL CARTILAGES.
-
-(_a_) Changes of form: 1, flat hoof and full hoof (dropped sole); 2,
-upright hoof (stumpy or stubby hoof); 3, contracted hoof; 4, wry hoof;
-5, crooked hoof; 6, ossification of the lateral cartilage (side-bone).
-
-(_b_) Disturbances of continuity of the horn capsule: 1, cracks; 2,
-clefts; 3, loose wall; 4, hollow wall; 5, thrush.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VIII.
-
-INFLAMMATIONS OF THE PODODERM (PODODERMATITIS).
-
-
-1. Nailing.
-
-Wounds of the velvety tissue of the sole or of the podophyllous tissue
-of the wall, caused by nails which have been driven into the hoof for
-the purpose of fastening the shoe, are usually termed “nailing.”
-
-We distinguish _direct_ and _indirect_ nailing; the former is noticed
-_immediately_, the latter _later_.
-
-In =direct= nailing the nail passes directly into the pododerm (velvety
-tissue of the sole, podophyllous tissue); the wound produced may vary
-from a simple puncture of the pododerm to chipping of the border of the
-os pedis, and is =always accompanied by bleeding=, even though it may
-not always be noticed.
-
-In =indirect= nailing the nail does not pass entirely through the horn
-capsule, but very close to the sensitive tissues, and crowds the soft
-horn inward against them. This inward bulging presses upon the pododerm
-and causes inflammation and lameness, which may not manifest themselves
-for several days.
-
-_Symptoms._—The first symptom of direct nailing is =instant pain=
-indicated by flinching or a jerking of the limb, showing that the nail
-has taken a wrong course, and then a more or less profuse hemorrhage.
-Usually the blood flows from the nail-hole, or the nail when withdrawn
-may merely show a bloodstain at its point; however, internal bleeding
-may occur without any external manifestations. The symptoms of indirect
-nailing are entirely different. In this case _pain does not arise
-immediately_, but later, sometimes as soon as the horse attempts to
-bear his weight upon the shod foot. In the latter case, on holding up
-the opposite foot the animal sways backward and throws his weight
-upon the holder, or becomes restless. As a rule, the consequences
-of indirect nailing are first manifested after two or three days,
-infrequently from the eighth to the fourteenth day, as inflammation
-within the hoof and lameness, at which time a careful examination
-will usually reveal increased warmth of the hoof, pain upon pressure
-with the hoof-testers and on tapping the hoof lightly, some swelling
-of the entire foot, increased pulsation of the digital arteries, and
-unwillingness of the animal to place all or perhaps any of its weight
-upon the foot.
-
-_Suspicion of nailing_ should be entertained if the shoeing be recent,
-the hoof appear too small in relation to the body-weight, the walls
-have been thinned by rasping or have been broken away, or if the nails
-have been driven too high or very irregularly.
-
-_Causes._—The most common causes are mistakes in shoeing. In the
-majority of cases the cause is a disregard of the rule that the =nails
-should penetrate the white line= (see pages 118, 119 and 130, heavy
-type). 1, using badly-punched shoes; 2, excessive paring and shortening
-of the hoof; 3, weakening of the lower border of the wall by excessive
-rasping away of the outside (Fig. 187, _c_); 4, mistakes in fitting
-the shoe, especially applying shoes that are too narrow, letting the
-toe-clips too deep into the horn, by which the nail-holes near the toe,
-instead of falling upon the white line, are carried back upon the edge
-of the sole, or using shoes in which the nail-holes are too wide or
-improperly directed; 5, using nails that are split, incomplete, badly
-formed and bevelled, and too large; 6, starting nails too deep or with
-the bevel on the outside, or drawing them too tight. As occasional
-causes may be mentioned: 7, old nail-stubs in the horn; 8, walls
-that are very thin or broken away; 9, a soft, crumbling wall, which
-alters the sound and feeling of the nail as it is driven, and makes it
-difficult to judge of its course; 10, restlessness of the animal while
-being shod.
-
-_Examination._—Press with the hoof-testers upon the sole and clinches;
-tap lightly upon the clinches. If these acts cause pain, there can be
-little doubt that the nail is responsible for the damage. Remove the
-shoe by drawing each nail separately and carefully. Examine the nails
-with reference to their direction and size, as well as to staining
-with blood, blood-serum, or pus. Immediately after removing the shoe,
-look for the point of entrance of each nail into the hoof, and if a
-nail-hole be found upon the edge of the sole (Fig. 187, _b_) instead
-of in the white line, it is highly probable that the nail which passed
-in at that place pressed upon the sensitive tissues of the foot. Every
-nail-hole should then be searched by passing a clean new nail into it
-and pressing its point towards the soft tissues at various depths; any
-indication of pain caused by this act is pretty sure proof of nailing.
-It stands to reason that the character of the nail-holes in the shoe
-should be closely examined.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 186.
-
-Cross-section of a shod hoof, the hoof-skin or pododerm being in red:
-_a_, indirect nailing where backsetting has been overdone and has bent
-the nail; _b_, nail properly placed and of correct shape.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 187.
-
-Front hoof deficient in horn: _a_, right position of the nail-holes in
-the white line; _b_, faulty position inside of the white line; _c_,
-wall weakened by excessive rasping.]
-
-_Treatment._—When the foot has sustained an ordinary simple prick with
-a nail, the latter should be left out and the hole well filled with
-wax. As a rule, no serious results follow. In severe direct nailing
-the entire shoeing should be most carefully examined, and only after
-everything is found to be right, and the shoe fits in such a manner
-that the nails can only penetrate the wall from the white line, can it
-be regarded as correct. The offending nail-hole is then to be closed
-with wax. According to the intensity of the wound we may expect a more
-or less pronounced inflammation of the pododerm, and this is to be
-combated by resting the animal and cooling the foot.
-
-If the wound is clean and recent, enlarging the opening in the horn by
-cutting and boring can have no reasonable object; the wound by such an
-act will not be made smaller, but larger.
-
-Frequently, however, the wound is not observed or suspected until the
-pain has become very intense (indirect nailing, nail-pressure); in
-such cases the offending nail when withdrawn is apt to be covered with
-pus or a dark, thin, ill-smelling liquid. In such a case the liquid,
-whatever its nature may be, must be given free escape. In order to
-accomplish this it is entirely sufficient to cut away a section of
-the wall from the nail-hole outward, not greater than the width of
-the little finger, and then to assist in the discharge of the pus
-by placing the foot in a warm bath; it is entirely wrong, in fact,
-reprehensible, to remove all horn of the wall and sole which has been
-loosened from the soft parts by the suppurative process. After the
-escape of the inflammatory fluids, the wall and sole will form the
-best-fitting and most suitable protective dressing for the diseased
-region until it has secreted new horn. If, after removal of the nail
-and pus, the pain does not diminish, warm disinfecting baths of one to
-two parts of creolin, or the same amount of lysol, to one hundred parts
-of water at a temperature of about 90° F. will be of especial benefit;
-they will not only soften the horn, but by their moisture and warmth
-will directly diminish the pain and have a healing influence upon the
-suppurating surfaces. The warm baths must actually _be warm and be kept
-warm_. Antiseptic solutions at room temperature are much less efficient.
-
-If the pain has not been very pronounced, or if it has been greatly
-alleviated by two or three warm baths, then, as a rule, it is
-sufficient to put a few drops of creolin upon the inflamed surface, and
-to close the opening with oakum (carbolized oakum or carbolized cotton
-is better).
-
-The horse which has been nailed will be again perfectly serviceable
-after a few days if shod with a shoe which does =not press= upon the
-inflamed region. _The shoe does not press when it rests only upon the
-bearing-edge of the wall, when the white line and the edge of the sole
-are entirely free of the shoe, and no nails are driven in the immediate
-vicinity of the wound._
-
-    Even though, as we have seen, nailing in the great
-    majority of cases is not particularly serious to
-    the horse and owner, yet we should never forget
-    that tetanus (lockjaw), a disease which is nearly
-    always fatal to horses, may follow. Nailing, however
-    insignificant it may seem, may under conditions lead
-    to the death of the horse.
-
-
-2. Street-Nail.
-
-The _condition_ caused by accidental injury of the sensitive structures
-covered by the horny sole, such as the velvety tissue of the sole and
-frog, plantar cushion, perforans tendon, navicular bone, os pedis, or
-the pedal articulation, by sharp objects, especially nails, is called
-“penetrating street-nail,” or simply “street-nail.” The resistance of
-the ground to the weight of the body drives these penetrating objects
-through the sole or frog into the foot.
-
-Hind hoofs are more often affected than fore-hoofs. A favorite point of
-entrance is the lateral lacuna of the frog. Street-nail is favored by
-excessive thinning of the sole and frog.
-
-_Symptoms._—The symptoms are, as a rule, sudden pain followed by
-lameness. The first assistance is usually sought in the shoeing shop.
-If the cause of lameness be found to be a penetrating nail, piece of
-glass, or other pointed foreign body, it must be _carefully drawn out_,
-in doing which we should remove the _entire object_, not allowing
-pieces to break off and remain in the wound. Since it is always
-important to know in what direction and how deep the foreign body has
-penetrated, in order to be able to estimate the gravity of the wound,
-it is advisable in all cases to preserve the penetrating body, that it
-may be shown to the veterinarian, in case his services are required.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 188. Shod hind foot, with splint dressing.]
-
-In slight injuries to the velvety tissue of the sole or frog,
-accompanied with moderate pain, it is of no benefit to enlarge the
-opening, though the horn of the sole or frog should be thinned for
-the space of an inch or more around the wound, followed by cooling
-applications. Deep, penetrating wounds accompanied with intense pain
-require the attention of a veterinarian.
-
-Often some form of dressing is necessary, and this is usually held in
-place by a special shoe. For slight injuries, such _splint-dressings_
-as are shown in Figs. 188 and 189 are sufficient. Whether such a
-dressing be applied to the front or hind feet, the shoe should be _well
-concaved_ upon the hoof-surface. The dressing is held in place by thin
-splints of tough wood, which are firmly wedged between the shoe and
-hoof.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 189. A practical “splint shoe” for hospital use.]
-
-In those rare cases in which it is necessary to maintain continuous
-pressure upon the seat of the wound, and to protect the entire
-plantar surface of the hoof, a _covered shoe_ (Figs. 190 and 191) is
-recommended. This shoe is provided with a sheet-iron cover, having at
-the toe a spur which fits into a corresponding hole in the toe of the
-shoe, and fastened at the heels by means of screw heel-calks.
-
-
-3. Calk-Wounds of the Coronet.
-
-All tread-wounds of the coronet, caused by the calks of the opposite
-shoe, by the shoes of other horses, or by forging, are known as calk
-wounds, or simply as “calking.” The injury itself is either a bruise
-or a bruised wound, followed by inflammation of the coronary cushion
-and an interruption in the formation of horn at that point. It occurs
-most often in winter from sharp calks, especially on the hind feet. The
-common seat of the injury is the coronet of the toe and inner side of
-the foot.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 190.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 191.
-
-Shoe with cover-plate for street-nail treatment; suitable where
-pressure-dressing is desired: _a_, hole in the bottom of the toe-calk
-for reception of spur, _b_, of cover-plate; _c_, holes for reception of
-screw-calks, _d_, which fasten the cover-plate to the shoe.]
-
-The inflammation terminates either in resolution—that is, passes
-gradually away, leaving the tissues apparently normal—or in
-suppuration. The perioplic horn-band, which is usually loosened from
-the perioplic band by the injury, does not again unite. For this
-reason, and because of the interruption in the formation of horn at the
-seat of injury, there results a transverse depression or cleft in the
-wall.
-
-The shoeing has to deal only with the lameness that may be present as
-a result of the calking. The section of the wall containing the lesion
-should be shortened, so that it will not press upon the shoe. Serious
-calk-wounds, as a rule, require treatment by a veterinarian.
-
-
-4. Corns (Bruised Sole).
-
-The expression “corns” is applied to nearly all bruises of the pododerm
-of the posterior half of the foot, with the exception of the frog,
-which are apparent to the eye as yellowish, reddish, or bluish-red
-discolorations of the horn of the sole and white line.
-
-The surface of the pododerm (fleshy leaves and villi) is chiefly
-involved, and almost without exception there is rupture of small
-blood-vessels and an outpouring of blood between the pododerm
-and the horn. The blood penetrates the horn-tubes and causes the
-above-mentioned staining. By subsequent growth of horn these stained
-patches are carried downward, and are finally uncovered and brought to
-sight in paring the hoof.
-
-The seat of corns is either on the fleshy leaves of the quarters, or on
-the velvety tissue of the sole in the angle between the wall and the
-bar, or on the fleshy leaves of the bars. Thus we distinguish _corns of
-the wall, sole, and bars_.
-
-Corns affect chiefly the front hoofs, and more often the inner half
-than the outer. Unshod feet are seldom affected.
-
-According to the intensity of the lesions we distinguish:
-
-1. _Dry Corns._—The red-stained horn is dry, and there is seldom
-lameness.
-
-2. _Suppurating Corns._—They are the result of intense bruising
-followed by inflammation. The pus is either thin and dark grayish
-in color, denoting a superficial inflammation of the pododerm, or
-yellowish and thick, denoting a deep inflammation of the pododerm. In
-the latter case a veterinarian should be called. Lameness is usually
-pronounced.
-
-3. _Chronic Corns._—In this case there is vivid discoloration of horn
-in all possible hues. The horn is either soft, moist, and lardy, or
-crumbling, cracked, and at times bloody. The inner surface of the
-horn capsule has lost its normal character, and is covered with horny
-swellings or nodules (Fig. 192, _a_). Sometimes the wing of the os
-pedis on that side has become morbidly enlarged and loosened. A short,
-cautious gait alternates with well-marked lameness; the latter appears
-whenever the shoe presses too firmly on the corn, or when the hoof
-becomes too dry.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 192.
-
-Inner aspect of a quarter of a hoof, showing changes in the horn-leaves
-due to chronic corns: _a_, horny tumor resulting from the disease.]
-
-_The causes_, aside from the form and quality of the hoofs and the
-position of the limbs, lie in injudicious dressing of the hoof and
-in faulty shoes. Too much trimming of wide and flat hoofs, excessive
-weakening of the quarters, sole, bars, and frog of all other hoofs,
-while the toe is usually left too long, are the usual causes.
-Shortening one quarter too much in relation to the other, so that the
-foot is unbalanced and the lower side overloaded, is a frequent cause.
-Hollowing the sole and bars excessively and unnecessary thinning of the
-branches of the sole in the search for corns are also causes.
-
-Among faulty shoes we may mention those not level on the hoof-surface,
-trough-shaped, too short in the branches, shoes which do not completely
-cover the bearing-surface of the hoof, or whose bearing-surface at
-the ends of the branches is directed downward and inward so that the
-quarters are squeezed together when the weight is put on the foot.
-Insufficient concaving of the shoe is often an exciting cause of corns
-in flat feet and in those with dropped soles. A well-formed shoe
-which does not rest firmly upon the hoof, or which has been shifted
-as a result of careless nailing, may as readily cause bruising of the
-quarters as neglected shoeing. The latter causes, as a rule, corns of
-the sole. It is very rarely that corns are caused by stones fastened
-between the frog and branches of the shoe or in unshod hoofs by pebbles
-becoming wedged in the white line.
-
-_Dryness_ is particularly injurious to the hoofs, and is in the highest
-degree favorable to the production of corns. It renders the hoof stiff
-and inelastic, and first manifests itself by a short, cautious (sore)
-gait when the horse is first put to work.
-
-_Treatment._—First, removal of the causes, by restoring the proper form
-to the hoof through shortening a toe which is too long (especially apt
-to be the case in acute-angled hoofs), cutting down quarters which are
-too high, and carefully removing all dead horn from the branches of the
-sole, especially in acute-angled hoofs.
-
-Deeply digging out a small area of blood-stained horn is injurious.
-It is much better to thin the horn of the entire branch of the sole
-uniformly, in doing which we should avoid wounding the velvety tissue
-of the sole or drawing blood.
-
-The proper shoe is the =bar-shoe=, except when both cartilages are
-ossified. The pressure should not be taken from the quarters unless
-they are sore.
-
-When there is a _suppurating corn_, the shoe should be left off several
-days. A _chronic corn_ should be protected continuously from pressure
-by the shoe. This is accomplished by using a bar-shoe with leather
-sole. _A three-quarter shoe is not sufficient to properly protect a
-hoof affected with a chronic corn, if the animal must perform exacting
-labor on hard roads._
-
-The care of the hoof consists in keeping it cool, moderately moist, and
-pliant.
-
-
-5. Inflammation of the Heels.
-
-Inflammation of the bulbs of the plantar cushion (heels) is usually
-caused by such external influences as bruising. It occurs in both shod
-and unshod feet. The symptoms are: increased warmth, pain and swelling,
-sometimes infiltration of the tissues with blood, accompanied by a
-short, cautious gait, or, if only one foot is affected, by well-marked
-lameness.
-
-The _most frequent causes_ are: going barefoot upon hard (frozen),
-uneven ground; shoeing hoofs having low heels with flat shoes that are
-too short; sometimes too much frog pressure by the bar of a bar-shoe;
-forging and grabbing.
-
-The treatment first indicated is a cooling application in the form of
-an ice-poultice, or a soaking in cold water. Later, astringent (drying)
-applications are of benefit, especially if the perioplic horn-ring
-has partially loosened from the bulbs of the heels; for example, a
-weak solution in water of sulphate of copper (1 to 20), followed by
-the application of a shoe with heel-calks, which is quite long in the
-branches and _which must not press upon the wall of the quarters_.
-
-
-6. Laminitis (Founder).
-
-By this name we designate a peculiar inflammation of the pododerm at
-the toe. It arises suddenly in well-nourished and apparently healthy
-horses, following excessive work or long-continued rest in the stable,
-and frequently leads to a decided change of form of the hoof.
-
-The disease is always accompanied with intense pain. It most often
-affects both front feet, more rarely all four feet, or only one foot.
-In the first case the two front feet are planted far in advance of
-the body, and the hind feet well forward under the belly. When all
-four feet are affected, travelling is exceedingly difficult, often
-impossible; in this case there is nearly always a high fever over the
-entire body.
-
-The seat of the disease is in the fleshy leaves about the toe, more
-rarely upon the side walls and quarters. Depending upon the intensity
-of the inflammation, the fleshy leaves are more or less loosened
-from the horny leaves, as a result of which there is a change of
-position of the os pedis, with a simultaneous sinking of the coronet
-at the toe. This produces a change of form of the hoof. The quarters
-become higher. Rings form upon the wall, and their course is quite
-characteristic of the disease. At the toe these rings are quite close
-to one another, but as they pass back towards the quarters they
-gradually separate from one another and recede from the coronary band
-(Figs. 193, 194, and 195).
-
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 193.
-
-Vertical longitudinal section of a foot altered by chronic laminitis:
-_a_, hollow wall at toe thrust forward; _b_, leafy layer much thickened
-and crumbling (“seedy-toe”); _c_, dotted line showing limit to which
-the toe may be rasped away in shoeing; _d_, dropped sole; _e_, atrophy
-of lower sharp edge of os pedis; _g_, dotted line indicating the height
-of the perioplic band; _h_, foot axis.]
-
-The wall at the toe is sunken just under the coronet; its lower part,
-on the contrary, is thrust forward. _Later, the white line becomes
-pathologically widened._ The horn of the white line is dry, crumbling,
-and easily broken down, so that a break in continuity (crack) is apt to
-occur between the wall and sole, and lead to the formation of a _hollow
-wall_ (“seedy-toe”). Where the inflammation is moderate and is not
-repeated, healing usually takes place and the horn grows down regularly
-and in normal direction from the coronet. However, a rather brittle
-condition of the horn remains permanently. If, on the contrary, the
-inflammation was very severe or repeated several times, the horny sole
-becomes flat just in front of the point of the frog as a result of the
-sinking of the os pedis, or it may even drop below the level of the
-wall (full hoof, dropped sole). Indeed, it even happens at times that
-the toe of the os pedis perforates the horny sole just in front of the
-point of the frog. The wall at the toe, which was previously but little
-altered in form, is now thrust prominently forward.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 194. Foundered foot (chronic laminitis), before
-dressing.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 195.
-
-Foundered foot, dressed and shod. The dotted lines indicate its form
-before being dressed,—_i.e._, as shown in Fig. 194.]
-
-The inflammation of the pododerm may under certain conditions and by
-skilful veterinary treatment be removed, so that the characteristic
-changes of form and quality of the hoof will not occur. But if this is
-not accomplished, as is often the case, the disease will be obstinate,
-and permanent morbid changes of the horn capsule take place.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 196.
-
-A hoof altered by chronic laminitis; shod with an open flat shoe: _a_,
-wall at the toe does not bear on the shoe; _b_, clip at the end of the
-branch to oppose the tendency of the shoe to slip forward when half
-worn out.]
-
-A horse in such a condition can be used, but the gait will be short
-and stiff. The hoofs are shuffled forward and set heels first to the
-ground, a manner of travelling that rapidly wears away the branches of
-the shoe.
-
-In dressing a foundered hoof the outer circumference of the sole is
-the guide. The thick projecting wall at the toe may be removed with
-the rasp without injuring the foot. The sole should be spared, but the
-quarters should be lowered to improve the setting of the foot to the
-ground.
-
-The choice of the shoe will depend upon the shape and nature of the
-sole. If this is still concave, an ordinary shoe may be used. If,
-however, the sole is flat or dropped, it must be protected by an open
-shoe with a broad web, or with a bar-shoe (Fig. 197), which is of
-especial value when the bearing-edge of the wall is weak or broken away.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 197.
-
-A well-covered (wide-webbed) bar-shoe, with two lateral toe-clips and
-an end-clip, for a foundered foot.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 198. An open shoe for a foundered foot with a
-dropped sole.]
-
-As long as there is pain on pressure about the toe there should be no
-toe-clip, but two side-clips. The wall between these clips should be
-lowered a tenth to an eighth of an inch to prevent pressure of the shoe
-upon the sensitive tissues of the toe (Fig. 195). The nails should be
-as small as possible and placed well back towards the quarters. No nail
-should be driven in the wall at the toe when there is separation of
-sole and wall at the toe (hollow wall, seedy-toe).
-
-The shoes of horses affected with founder often work forward as a
-result of the animals travelling upon their heels. To prevent this
-evil, clips may be raised at the ends of the branches of an open shoe,
-or one clip in the middle of the bar, in case a bar-shoe is used (Fig.
-197).
-
-
-7. Keraphyllocele (Horn Tumor).
-
-A keraphyllocele is a more or less sharply bounded horn tumor
-projecting from the inner surface of the wall.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 199.
-
-A section of wall at the toe showing a Keraphyllocele (horn-leaf
-tumor): _a_, coronary border; _b_, plantar border; _c_, body of tumor;
-_d_, base of tumor presenting funnel-shaped opening discharging pus.]
-
-Its occurrence is rare. Its favorite seat is at the toe. It rarely
-causes lameness. It can only be diagnosed with certainty when it
-extends downward to the lower border of the wall. In this case there
-may be seen a half-moon-shaped thickening of the white line which
-rounds inward upon the edge of the sole, and is of a waxen color.
-Frequently the horn at this place crumbles away, leaving a more or less
-dark-colored cavity from which there sometimes escapes a small quantity
-of dark-grayish pus.
-
-_Causes._—Chronic inflammation of the podophyllous tissue, resulting
-from compression or bruising. Keraphyllocele frequently follows a
-complete toe-crack of long duration, or a deep calk-wound at the
-coronet.
-
-_Prognosis._—Unfavorable, whether there is lameness or not. If there
-is no lameness it is very apt to arise later, and if lameness is
-already present it can only be removed by an operation, which should be
-performed by a veterinarian. A return of the lameness following hard
-work at a trot upon hard roads is always to be feared.
-
-_Shoeing._—An ordinary shoe well concaved underneath the inflamed
-region, which should be relieved of all pressure.[5]
-
-[5] Should lameness persist, it will be necessary to remove a strip of
-the wall from the plantar border to the coronet in order to remove the
-horn tumor. The fleshy leaves which have secreted the tumor must be
-extirpated and the surface of the os pedis well scraped, or the growth
-will return.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER IX.
-
-DEFECTS OF THE HOOF.
-
-
-A. Changes of Form.
-
-1. THE FLAT AND THE FULL HOOF (DROPPED SOLE).
-
-(_a_) _Flat Hoof._—A flat hoof is one whose toe and side walls are
-_inclined very obliquely_ to the ground-surface, and whose sole is _on
-a level_ with the bearing-surface of the wall.
-
-It exists most often in horses bred in low-lying, marshy countries.
-
-Frequently the frog is well developed, and projects considerably beyond
-the level of the wall. The branches of the sole sink perceptibly under
-the weight of the body, much more than in better-formed hoofs.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 200.
-
-Cross-section of a shod flat foot: _a_, sufficiently high
-bearing-edge of wall, and a horizontal bearing-surface on the shoe;
-_b_, insufficient height of bearing-edge of wall, and therefore a
-corresponding downward and inward inclination of the bearing-surface of
-the shoe.]
-
-_Preparing the Hoof for the Shoe._—The rule is to =spare= the plantar
-surface of the foot. After removing from the sole what little loose
-horn there may be, level the usually deficient bearing-surface of the
-wall with the rasp. The outer border of the wall, especially at the
-toe, should be rounded off rather more strongly than usual, because the
-toe requires and will bear considerable shortening. Outward bendings of
-the lower border of the wall should be removed as far as it is
-practicable to do so.
-
-The shoe, which should be rather wider in the web and thicker than
-usual, should have its bearing-surface shaped to correspond to the
-bearing-surface of the wall; that is, if the bearing-surface of the
-wall is below the margin of the sole (the sole of the foot being
-uppermost), then the bearing-surface of the shoe should incline
-downward and inward (Fig. 200, _b_). The bearing-surface of the
-branches, however, must always remain horizontal. The shoe always
-requires deep concaving, especially along the inner branch of the sole.
-If the quarters are weak, the walls defective, or there are corns,
-cracks, loose walls, or other diseases of the hoof, a =bar-shoe= should
-be selected.
-
-(_b_) _Full Hoof_ (Dropped Sole).—A full hoof is one whose sole instead
-of being concave is convex,—that is, bulges beyond the bearing-surface
-of the wall. It either arises gradually from a flat hoof or is the
-result of laminitis (founder). In full hoofs the lower surface of the
-os pedis is of the same shape as the horny sole.
-
-_The preparation of a full hoof_ for the shoe consists merely in
-removing all loose horn. In case the dropping of the sole is very
-pronounced, the bearing-surface of the wall should be built up
-artificially with Defay’s hoof cement. The shoe should be light, but
-broad in the web, and furnished with a more or less deep concaving,
-which extends from the inner edge of the web to the outer edge of the
-shoe, and corresponds in shape to the bulging of the sole. By reason of
-the deficiency of the wall, the =bar-shoe= deserves the preference over
-an open shoe. It is frequently necessary to apply toe- and heel-calks
-to remove the hoof from contact with the ground. The nails should he
-thinner and longer than usual, and a more secure position of the shoe
-may be secured without injury to the hoof by drawing up two side-clips.
-
-Flat and full hoofs are =incurable=. Shoeing is of benefit only in
-rendering such horses serviceable. Soles that are soft and sensitive
-should he smeared with crude turpentine or pine-tar, though unusual
-sensitiveness calls for a leather sole. Horses with full hoofs
-should not be driven faster than a walk over hard roads. During
-long-continued spells of wet weather softening of these hoofs should
-be prevented by smearing the soles with a hoof-ointment containing
-resin.
-
-
-2. THE UPRIGHT OR STUMPY HOOF.
-
-The upright or stumpy hoof is that form in which the quarters, with
-relation to the toe, are too long (too high). The wall at the toe
-stands very steep, in some cases perpendicular, and is strongly worn
-away by standing and travelling.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 201. Upright or stumpy hoof, shod with a “tip.”]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 202. Beaked shoe for stilt-foot.]
-
-_Causes._—1. The upright hoof is peculiar to the “standing under”
-position (Fig. 53, page 66) and to the so-called bear-foot (Fig. 70,
-page 72).
-
-2. It arises also as a result of all those alterations in the direction
-of the limbs which tend to remove the quarters from contact with the
-ground (contraction of the flexor tendons, spavin,—Fig. 202).
-
-3. It may arise gradually from neglect of the hoofs of horses running
-barefoot.
-
-4. It may arise from excessive shortening of the toe in relation to the
-quarters.
-
-_Shoeing._—The forms of hoofs mentioned in class 1 should be left
-as they are. The hoofs that fall under class 2 should be dressed
-and shod until a more natural setting down of the foot is secured.
-This is brought about by sparing the quarters, and applying a shoe
-with thickened branches or with heel-calks. Where the service of the
-animal is exacting and upon hard streets, the toes, especially of
-the hind shoes, may be made more durable by welding in steel plates.
-Besides, the shoe should be moderately _base-wide_ around the toe,—that
-is, should be bevelled downward and outward, should have a _strong
-toe-clip_, and should be _quite concave at the toe_ and _rolled_.
-(Figs. 203 and 204). Should the hoof tip forward whenever the weight is
-thrown upon the limb, a shoe with a spur projecting from the centre of
-the toe, and turning back and pressing upon the wall just underneath
-the coronary band, will be of service (Fig. 202).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 203.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 204. Shoe for stumpy hoofs, viewed from
-ground-surface, hoof-surface, and in profile.]
-
-Only those upright hoofs which are the result of the causes mentioned
-in 3 and 4 are to be dressed as ordinary hoofs, and if the service
-required is not too exacting they should be shod with tips (Fig. 201),
-or with shoes with thinned branches.
-
-
-3. THE CONTRACTED HOOF.
-
-_A hoof which has deviated from its normal form in such a manner that
-its posterior half, either in part or as a whole, is too narrow, is
-a contracted hoof._ The walls of the quarters assume an abnormally
-oblique direction downward and inward towards the median line of the
-hoof.
-
-When contraction affects only one quarter, it is called _unilateral
-contraction_, or abnormal wryness (Fig. 211).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 205.
-
-A fore-hoof with bilateral contraction of the quarters: _a_, spur of
-horn prolonged from the buttress, which compresses the frog; _b_,
-narrow median lacuna of the frog.]
-
-The buttresses are usually very much prolonged and press upon the frog
-and cause it to shrink. The bars no longer run in the natural straight
-direction from the point of the frog backward and outward, but describe
-a circle passing outward, backward, and inward.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 206.
-
-_A_, Defay’s shoe for expanding the quarters of a hoof; _a_, clip
-apposed to the buttress; _b_, slot sawed at the toe to weaken the shoe;
-_B_, screw for expanding the Defay’s shoe.]
-
-Contraction affects front feet, especially those of the _acute-angled_
-form, more often than hind feet. In order to determine whether or not a
-hoof is too narrow, we should always examine the frog and its lateral
-lacunæ. If the frog is small and narrow, and the lateral lacunæ very
-narrow and deep, there can be no doubt but that the hoof is too narrow
-(contracted).
-
-_The causes_, aside from too little exercise, are chiefly errors in
-shoeing, such as weakening the posterior half of the hoof, leaving
-too long a toe, either neglecting to remove the spurs of horn which
-grow from the buttresses and press upon the frog, or removing them
-incompletely, and using shoes whose branches are either _too wide
-apart_ or are inclined downward and inward, so that under the weight of
-the body _the heels are squeezed together_ and contraction is favored.
-
-_Prevention and Treatment._—First, it should be borne in mind _that
-whatever exercises moderate pressure upon the sole, frog, and bars
-tends to expand the hoof_. The action and value of the various shoes,
-frog-, and sole-pads, are measured by this rule. For this reason a
-shoe with heel-calks is never advisable if an open flat shoe without
-other means of relief can be used. Furthermore, since contraction is
-the parent of nearly all diseases of the hoof (corns, quarter-cracks,
-bar-cracks, thrush of the frog), we should use the greatest care to
-=prevent= it by dressing the hoof as described on pages 98 to 103,
-using flat shoes with a =horizontal bearing-surface for the quarters=,
-giving =abundant exercise, preventing drying out of the horn=, and
-allowing the animal to go barefoot whenever possible. _Where the
-contraction is but slight_ the foregoing rules will be found sufficient.
-
-_In very pronounced contraction, where the hoof is not acute-angled,
-an expansive shoe_ with clips raised at the ends of the branches to
-press against the buttresses may prove very advantageous; but under
-no conditions should violence be used in expanding the heels with the
-expanding-screw. This is an act of extreme delicacy, and should be
-performed only by experienced veterinarians.
-
-_In very pronounced contraction of one or both quarters of hoofs of
-every degree of obliquity_ we may obtain a continuous expansive action
-by the use of one of the numerous V-shaped springs, of which the
-_Chadwick spring_ is the best (Fig. 207 and 208). After levelling the
-wall and thinning the branches of the sole, the points of the spring
-are set against the =buttresses=, the apex of the spring moved to
-and fro till the points have bored well into the horn, when the apex
-is laid against the sole at the toe, the sole filled with tar and
-oakum and covered by a leather sole, and a bar-shoe applied. If the
-contraction be less pronounced, or if the frog be much shrunken we may
-place a Chadwick spring beneath a rubber bar-pad with a short shoe. The
-spring may be stiffened from shoeing to shoeing, first by introducing
-the ferrule at the apex of the spring and later by shifting the ferrule
-toward the shoulder (Figs. 207, _b_, and 208, _b_).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 207.
-
-The Chadwick spring for expanding contracted quarters: _a_, apex of
-spring; _b_, ferrule to stiffen the spring; _c_, point which is buried
-in a buttress of the hoof.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 208.
-
-A fore-hoof showing a Chadwick spring in proper position: _a_, Chadwick
-spring; _b_, ferrule to stiffen spring as desired; _c_, uncompressed
-spring before it has been engaged against the buttresses; _d_,
-buttresses in which points of spring are buried.]
-
-For contracted hoofs of the _acute-angled form_ we use the bar-shoe,
-and if there are other diseases of the hoof present, or if we wish a
-more rapid and continuous expansive action, we use also a leather sole
-with foot-packing with or without a buttress spring. A foul frog should
-be properly cleansed, and then disinfected with pine-tar thinned with
-alcohol or crude wood-vinegar (pyroligneous acid).
-
-Further curative measures are: turning the horse out without shoes
-(expensive and seldom practicable); applying tips; using shoes the
-bearing-surface of whose branches inclines downward and outward
-(unilateral contraction requires but one branch to be so constructed);
-hoof-pads of rubber (Figs. 145, 146, and 147), straw, rope, cork,
-hoof cement, etc. Special forms of contraction are distinguished, and
-are as follows:
-
-(_a_) _The Contraction of Wide Hoofs._—This contraction is manifest
-as a concavity or groove in the wall just below the coronet, usually
-at the quarters, though sometimes extending entirely around the foot
-parallel to the coronary band (Fig. 209). Pain is produced in the
-contracted area by lightly tapping the horn, but not by moderate
-pressure with the hoof-testers.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 209.
-
-Wide fore-hoof with “coronary contraction”: (_a_) broad shallow groove
-in each quarter, and disappearing toward the toe.]
-
-Green horses with wide hoofs, just from the pasture, are particularly
-liable to this form of contraction. As a rule, the lameness does not
-disappear completely until the wall has assumed its natural, straight
-direction by growing down properly from the coronary band.
-
-In dressing the hoof and applying the _bar-shoe_, care must be taken
-that the lower border of the wall underneath the painful area is
-lowered so much that it will not receive direct pressure from the shoe.
-
-(_b_) _Contraction of the Sole._—This is accompanied by an unnatural
-direction of the wall. Instead of the wall being straight from the
-coronet to the shoe, it describes a curve whose convexity is outward
-(keg-shaped, claw-shaped when seen from the side) (Fig. 210). The hoof
-seems constricted (tied in) at the coronet and at its plantar border,
-the sole is abnormally concave (arched), and the plantar surface of
-the hoof is considerably shortened from toe to heel. It happens in
-both shod and unshod horses, with otherwise strong hoofs, but is quite
-rare. It is occasionally associated with navicular bursitis (“navicular
-disease”).
-
-_Causes._—Principally dryness, too little exercise, and shoes without
-horizontal bearing-surface.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 210.
-
-A fore-hoof with a contracted sole, properly shod: _a_, toe convex
-in profile; _b_, shoe fitted full all around, and “bearing-surface”
-inclining outward; _c_, outer border bevelled base-wide.]
-
-The treatment is correspondingly simple: The shoes should be flat,
-fitted full all around to coax the wall out at every point, and the
-outer border bevelled base-wide, so as to furnish a base of support
-that is wider and longer than the hoof. In moderate contraction of the
-sole, the bearing-surface of the shoe should be perfectly horizontal,
-but if the contraction be very pronounced, the entire bearing-surface
-should incline downward and outward (even at the toe). No toe-or
-side-clip should be used. The shoe should be reset every two weeks; the
-sole kept so thin by paring that it will spring under thumb pressure,
-and kept moist by washing, tubbing or “stopping,” and the animal given
-moderate exercise daily.
-
-_In all forms of contraction of the hoof abundant exercise and the
-maintenance of the natural pliancy of the horn by daily moistening
-(washing) with water are absolutely necessary for successful treatment._
-
-
-4. THE WRY HOOF.
-
-If one side wall and quarter is steep, and the other very slanting
-or oblique, we term such a hoof a “wry hoof.” Such a hoof divided
-in the middle line presents two very _dissimilar_ halves. There are
-three classes of wry hoofs: 1, normal wry hoofs (see Figs. 63-66);
-2, pathological wry hoofs, or hoofs contracted in one quarter (see
-contracted hoofs); 3, wry hoofs which are the result of improper
-shortening of the wall and of neglect in horses running barefoot.
-
-Only the second and third classes of wry hoofs require especial
-attention. First, the more oblique wall must be cut down, and the steep
-wall spared,—a procedure which differs essentially from that employed
-in treating the first class, but is, nevertheless, entirely warranted,
-because these second and third kinds of wry hoofs do not correspond to
-the direction of the limb.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 211.
-
-A wry right front foot of the base-wide class, viewed from behind. The
-bar-shoe is fitted full along the contracted inner quarter, and snug
-on the outside. The inner branch of the frog rests upon the bar of the
-shoe; the outer branch is free. The inner quarter from the last nail
-back to the frog is free of the shoe.]
-
-In order to take weight from the steep wall, we use with advantage
-a _bar-shoe_, which should be longer and wider than the hoof on its
-contracted side. In other words, enlarge the base of support by making
-the branch of the shoe broader. If an entire side wall and quarter
-is contracted the branch of the shoe beneath must be broad, the
-border bevelled base-wide, and the branch punched so deeply that the
-nail-holes will fall upon the white line.
-
-In old work-horses any sort of shoe may be used, though a flat shoe
-serves the purpose best. If a hoof is wry from faulty paring, and we
-cannot at once completely restore the proper relative slant of the two
-walls by paring alone, we may use a shoe with a thicker branch for the
-half of the hoof which is too low (too steep).
-
-In colts such wry hoofs can often be cured only by shoeing. The shoe
-employed for this purpose is so made that the branch underneath the
-steep (contracted) wall is quite thick, but gradually thins away around
-the toe to the end of the other branch. In strongly marked cases the
-thin branch may end at the middle of the side wall (a three-quarter
-shoe). This method of shoeing shifts the body-weight upon the slanting
-wall and restores the foot to its proper shape in from two to four
-shoeings.
-
-_Causes._—Unequal distribution of the weight in the inner and outer
-halves of the foot, in conjunction with excessive cutting down or
-wear of the steeper wall. All faults in shoeing which tend to produce
-contraction of the heels aid in the formation of a wry foot, especially
-when these faults directly affect the steep wall. Neglect of the colt’s
-hoofs during the first years of life frequently lays the basis for wry
-foot in later years. All wry feet are more susceptible to disease than
-others.
-
-The amount or degree of wryness varies considerably. In a moderately
-developed case the steep wall (usually the inner) will be drawn in
-at the plantar border of the quarter, presenting a convex surface
-between this border and the coronet, and the adjacent branch of the
-frog will be more or less shrunken. In extreme cases the slanting wall
-(usually the outer) will also be involved and bent in the opposite
-direction,—_i.e._, will be concave (dished) between coronet and lower
-border (crooked hoof).
-
-_Prognosis._—When the degree of wryness corresponds to the slant of the
-foot-axis and the old shoe shows nearly uniform wear, the defect is not
-directly injurious. In very pronounced “wryness,” however, with thin,
-bent walls, a number of associated lesions, such as corns and cracks,
-may be present and render the animal unfit for service upon paved or
-macadam roads.
-
-
-5. THE CROOKED HOOF.
-
-A crooked hoof (Fig. 212) is one whose walls (viewed from in front or
-behind) do not pass in a straight, natural direction from the coronet
-to the ground, but are bent in such a manner that the bearing-surface
-of the wall in relation to the foot-axis lies either too far out or in.
-
-It may occur on any foot, but is seldom strongly marked.
-
-_Causes._—The causes are either long-continued leaving of one-half of
-the wall too high, or the use of shoes shaped for normal feet upon
-hoofs of the base-wide position.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 212.
-
-A crooked right fore-hoof of the base-wide position: _a_, convex wall,
-too high; _b_, concave wall, too low; _c d_ shows how much of the outer
-wall must be removed with the hoof-knife; _f_, superfluous horn to be
-removed gradually with the rasp; _c e_ and _g h_ indicate the position
-of the shoe with relation to the hoof.]
-
-The principal part of the treatment is the proper dressing of the hoof.
-The wall which is bent out at the middle and drawn in at the plantar
-border is, as a rule, too high and too near the centre of the foot
-(too narrow); the opposite wall, on the contrary, is too low and too
-far from the centre of the foot (too wide). This explains the manner
-in which the hoof should be cut down and rasped. The shoe must be laid
-out as far as possible towards the side which is too high and narrow.
-A straight edge placed against the high wall touches it only at its
-middle. The distance of this line from the lower edge of the wall shows
-us how far the surface of support—namely, the shoe—should be set out
-beyond the horn. If the straight edge be placed against the opposite
-wall, it will touch only at the coronet and at the plantar border,
-showing that the wall is concave. The distance of the middle of this
-wall from the straight edge shows us how much too wide this half of
-the wall is at its plantar border, and how much of the outer surface
-of the wall at its plantar border should be removed with the rasp.
-The restoration of a crooked hoof to its normal form requires several
-shoeings.
-
-
-6. OSSIFICATION OF THE LATERAL CARTILAGE (SIDE-BONE).
-
-The ossification of a lateral cartilage (Fig. 213) consists in a change
-of the cartilage into bone. Heavy horses are more frequently affected
-than lighter ones. It most often involves the outer cartilages of the
-forefeet, seldom both cartilages. Side-bones always interfere with the
-physiological movements of the foot, and may, indeed, entirely suppress
-them.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 213.
-
-A left fore os pedis viewed in profile, showing ossification of the
-external lateral cartilage: _a_, dotted line shows normal line of
-union of cartilage with wing of os pedis; _b_, ossified portion (“side
-bone”). The unossified cartilage has been removed by maceration.]
-
-The disease can only be diagnosed with certainty after the upper part
-of the cartilage has ossified. The coronet is then rather prominent
-(bulging), and feels hard. The gait is short, and cautious, and
-well-marked lameness often follows severe work. As _causes_, may
-be mentioned predisposition in heavy lymphatic horses, and violent
-concussion or shock due to fast work upon hard roads. The disease is
-_incurable_.
-
-A special method of shoeing is only necessary when the outer cartilage
-is ossified and the quarter upon that side is contracted. After
-removing the old shoe, whose outer branch is, as a rule, more worn away
-than the inner, the outer wall will always be found too high, due to
-the fact that there has been little or no expansion and contraction
-in this quarter and, therefore, little or no wear of the horn against
-the shoe. The hoof is therefore wry,—on the outside too high, and on
-the inside too low. This shows us how the foot should be dressed so
-as to obtain a proper base of support and a uniform wear of the shoe.
-The most suitable shoe is a _flat shoe_, whose outer branch must be
-wider than the inner. It is so applied that the inner branch follows
-the edge of the wall closely, while the outer branch must be full
-and at the quarter must extend beyond the wall far enough to touch a
-perpendicular line dropped from the coronet (Fig. 215). The shoe must,
-therefore, be punched deep (coarse) on the outer branch and fine on
-the inner. A side-clip must be placed on the outer branch, because in
-time the outer half of the hoof will again be too high. _Bar-shoes and
-rubber pads are injurious when both cartilages are ossified_, but may
-be used when there is partial ossification of _but one cartilage_,
-especially if corns are present.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 214. Right fore-hoof whose form has changed as a
-result of ossification of the external lateral cartilage.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 215. Shoe with broad outer branch, for the hoof
-shown in the preceding cut.]
-
-
-B. Disturbances of Continuity of the Hoof.
-
-
-1. CRACKS.
-
-Interruptions of continuity of the wall extending in the direction of
-the horn-tubes are known as cracks or seams. They have, according to
-their location, degree, and extent, not only various names, but also a
-varying significance.
-
-_Occurrence._—On the inner side of front hoofs, especially of horses
-that stand base-wide; on hind hoofs, usually at the toe.
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 216._
-
-Hoof exhibiting a coronary crack, a plantar or low crack, and a
-complete deep crack, the latter with a nail ready to be clinched.]
-
-_Classification._—According to location we distinguish toe-cracks,
-side-cracks, quarter-cracks, and bar-cracks. Those cracks which affect
-only the upper border of the hoof are called _coronary cracks_; those
-which are limited to the lower border of the hoof are sometimes
-designated _low cracks_ (plantar cracks); while those which are
-continuous from one border to the other are called _complete cracks_.
-If the crack passes through the entire thickness of the wall to the
-sensitive tissues underneath, it is called a _deep_ or _penetrating
-crack_, in contradistinction to the _superficial crack_ (Fig. 216).
-
-_Causes._—There are many. Besides wounds of the coronet, everything
-that impairs the elasticity of the horn, weakens the hoof, and causes
-an overloading of one-half of the hoof. Furthermore, great dryness and
-excessive work on hard streets.
-
-_Prognosis._—This will depend upon the age, kind, and location of the
-crack. A _low crack is without significance_ unless it is the remnant
-of an old coronary crack which has grown down. _Coronary cracks_, on
-the contrary, _are more serious_ because of the lameness which often
-accompanies them, and especially on account of the long duration of the
-healing process.
-
-The borders of the crack =never= grow together, and healing can only
-take place through healthy, unbroken horn growing down from the
-coronary band.
-
-(_a_) _Treatment of Coronary and Bar-Cracks._—If practicable, allow the
-affected horse to go barefoot; otherwise, the use of the =bar-shoe=
-for _all cracks_ is advised, because it will continuously protect the
-diseased section of wall from pressure by the shoe. If there are
-present still other diseases of the hoof (corns, contraction, flat or
-full hoof), the addition of a leather sole with packing will be most
-beneficial, not only in favoring the healing of the crack, but also in
-improving the form of the hoof and in favoring the cure of the other
-lesions. In all coronary cracks it is of advantage to assist healing
-by fastening or immobilizing the borders of the crack by one of the
-following methods:
-
-1. By rivets (nails), which pass across the crack through holes
-previously drilled in the horn (Fig. 217).
-
-2. By clamps or hooks, which by means of special pincers are forced
-into pockets previously burnt into the horn on opposite sides of the
-crack (Fig. 219, B).
-
-3. By a thin iron plate placed across the crack and secured by small
-screws, such as are used in wood (Figs. 220, 221).
-
-4. By means of a bandage to last one shoeing.
-
-=Toe-crack= occurs most often in draught horses and most frequently
-in the hind feet. In shod hoofs it starts at the coronary border, and
-unless proper treatment is instituted soon reaches the plantar border.
-Long toes and low quarters and excessive dryness of the horn are
-predisposing causes. The exciting cause is usually forward pressure
-of the upper end of the short pastern against the thin upper edge of
-the wall of the toe. In the last part of the phase of contact of hoof
-with ground the pasterns are upright, or may even incline downward
-and backward (foot-axis broken strongly backward), the short pastern
-presses the coronary band firmly against the upper thin edge of the
-toe, when if brittle through dryness it is unable to stretch and tears
-asunder. Thus, under the effort of starting a heavy load, when a horse
-with all four legs flexed has risen upon the points of his toes, a
-short quick slip followed by a catch, will frequently start a crack at
-the coronet.
-
-The hoof should be so dressed and shod that the foot-axis shall be
-straight when seen from the side. In hind feet it is admissible to
-break the foot-axis slightly forward. Therefore, shorten the toe and
-spare the quarters. If the latter are deficient in length, raise them
-by swelling the branches or by low heel-calks.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 217.
-
-Toe-crack immobilized by lateral toe-clips: _a_, bearing-surface left
-free from pressure; _b_, heads of the rivets (nails) driven through
-holes previously drilled.]
-
-The shoe may be open, or a bar-shoe, or a short shoe with a rubber
-frog- and buttress-pad. Whatever expands the quarters closes a
-toe-crack. The Defay’s shoe (Fig. 206), or the Chadwick spring beneath
-a rubber pad, or beneath a bar-shoe with leather sole, if the frog
-be much shrunken, will be of service. The shoe should fit air-tight,
-except for an inch or so on both sides of the crack. Two lateral
-toe-clips (Fig. 217) are drawn up, and the wall between these clips is
-cut down from a twelfth to an eighth of an inch.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 218.
-
-Spiral drill for boring the hole into which a round wire nail is driven
-to fasten a toe-crack: (_a_) three sided point of drill (similar to the
-point of a stilet of a cæcal trocar).]
-
-After the shoe has been nailed on tight the toe-crack should be
-immobilized. The best method is by buried nails. Slots are burned or
-cut on opposite sides at a distance of an inch from the crack. With a
-spiral drill (see Fig. 218) bore a hole from a slot at right angles to
-the crack. Make a similar hole on the opposite side. Make the holes
-continuous by introducing a straight hot wire. The rivet may be an
-ordinary round wire nail which has been softened by bringing it to a
-yellow heat and allowing it to cool slowly. It is driven through and
-the ends firmly clinched. Such a nail is easily placed, need not press
-upon fleshy leaves, can not be stripped off or lost, and holds fast.
-The horse should stand on the foot while the rivet is being clinched.
-Two are sufficient for a complete crack (Fig. 217).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 219.
-
-_A_, Vachette burning iron for making the two slots to receive the
-ends of the hook; _b_, shoulder; _B_, Vachette hook; _C_, pincers for
-forcing the hook into the wall.]
-
-A more rapid, though less efficient method of immobilizing a toe-or a
-quarter-crack is by the use of the Vachette hook. A special apparatus
-is required (see Fig. 219). The burning iron (Fig. 219, _A_) is brought
-to a yellow heat, its end applied to the wall so that the two ears are
-on opposite sides and equidistant from the crack, when it is pressed
-firmly till the shoulder (Fig. 219, _b_) touches the surface of the
-wall. A Vachette hook, the distance between the points of which equals
-the distance between the ears of the firing iron, is seized by the
-special pincers (_C_), pressed into the slots burned to receive it, and
-is then driven into the horn by compressing the pincers. At the toe
-these hooks are frequently stripped off by the heels of the opposite
-shoe (in hind feet). Free application of hoof ointment, and maceration
-of the horn by melting snow or mud tends to loosen them so that they
-often drop out.
-
-An efficient method of fastening either a toe-or a quarter-crack
-is by using a metal plate one-sixteenth (¹/₁₆″) of an inch thick,
-provided with four to eight holes for the reception of screws four- to
-five-sixteenths of an inch long. The plate is heated, bent to conform
-to the curvature of the wall and pressed against the horn till it
-burns a bed for itself, when it is screwed fast. It will not loosen
-(see Fig. 220, _b_). In every complete crack of the wall the growing
-down of coherent horn is favored by thinning the horn for an inch on
-both sides of the crack directly over the coronary band (see Fig. 221,
-_a_), so that any gliding movement between the sides of the crack below
-can not be transmitted through the thinned area to the crack in the
-velvety tissue of the coronary band. Cutting a “V” at the coronet acts
-similarly, but is less efficient.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 220.
-
-Hoof with coronary quarter-crack, shod with a bar-shoe. The part of the
-quarter relieved of pressure _a_, is indicated by the dotted lines;
-_b_, iron plate secured by small wood screws ⁴/₁₆-⁵/₁₆ of an inch in
-length.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 221.
-
-Hoof with complete quarter-crack, shod with a bar-shoe: _a_, area
-thinned almost to the pododerm; _b_, ¹/₁₆ inch metal plate secured by
-screw ⁵/₁₆ of an inch long; _c_, quarter relieved of pressure from
-bottom of crack to a perpendicular dropped from top of crack.]
-
-=Quarter-crack= is usually associated with contraction of the heels. It
-occurs on the inner quarter of base-wide (toe-wide) hoofs, and rarely
-in the outer quarter of base-narrow hoofs. For quarter-cracks we use a
-bar-shoe and determine the extent of the wall to be laid free in the
-following manner: We imagine the crack to be prolonged in the direction
-of the horn-tubes to the plantar border, and drop a perpendicular line
-from the upper end of the crack to the plantar border. That part of the
-plantar border lying between these two points is then to be lowered
-sufficiently to prevent pressure from the shoe until the next shoeing
-(Figs. 220, _a_, and 221, _c_).
-
-This method should be followed even when the perpendicular line falls
-behind the buttress.
-
-The crack may be immobilized by the metal plate, or by narrow ticking
-bandage or adhesive tape wound a half dozen times around the hoof, in
-conjunction with a bar-shoe, Chadwick spring, leather sole and tar and
-oakum sole-packing.
-
-In dressing the hoof, the side containing the crack should be spared,
-the opposite side lowered, the object being to shift the weight and
-consequent expansion into the sound quarter. When the affected quarter
-is deficient in length the branch of the shoe beneath should be made
-thicker, even to the extent of causing it to ground in advance of the
-opposite branch.
-
-Next to shoeing, rubber hoof-pads render good service, because through
-them a part of the body-weight is distributed over the sole and frog.
-They assist in widening the hoof, and lessen shock when the foot is set
-to the ground. These are all matters which favor the growing down of
-unbroken horn.
-
-When the crack gaps widely, and the frog is small and deep in the foot
-_a shoe with bar-clips_ (Defay’s shoe), or a Chadwick spring, with
-bar-shoe and leather sole may be used. It is not impossible, indeed,
-to obtain a cure by using an ordinary open flat shoe, though much will
-depend upon the other lesions that may be present, the nature of the
-hoof, and the service required of the animal.
-
-If the edges of the crack are irregular and overlapping, they should be
-carefully thinned away. Thinning the horn on both sides of the crack
-over the coronary band, preventing drying out of the horn, and frequent
-applications of carbolized oil to the coronet favor growth of undivided
-horn and guard against a renewal of the crack.
-
-If in the beginning of the disease there is inflammation and lameness,
-cooling poultices should be used for several days. When there is no
-lameness, the horse may be used for slow draft purposes. _Coach-and
-saddle-horses should be kept from fast work until sound horn has grown
-down at least one-half of an inch from the coronet._
-
-_Bar-cracks_ are usually the result of changes of position of the
-quarters, and are just as frequently brought about by contraction as
-by leaving the quarters too high. We see them almost entirely upon the
-fore-hoofs. They seldom occur alone, but are usually accompanied by
-corns. When the crack extends to the pododerm there is a superficial
-inflammation of the pododerm and lameness. When treatment is not
-promptly begun the inflammation extends to the deeper layers of the
-pododerm, or, indeed, even to the plantar cushion, and gives rise to
-swelling of the bulb of the heel upon that side and to a well-marked
-lameness, which requires treatment by a competent veterinarian.
-
-Ordinarily a bar-crack is only found by a close examination of the
-hoof after the shoe has been removed. In paring the hoof the crack
-usually appears as a dark streak, sometimes as a bloody fissure; not
-infrequently grayish hoof-pus is discovered in the depths of the crack.
-
-The treatment must be directed towards favoring the growth of a
-continuous (unbroken) bar. This is accomplished by completely removing
-the edges of the crack, paring the horn of the vicinity very thin, and
-preventing the least pressure upon the wall of this quarter by the
-shoe, by lowering this quarter with the rasp and applying a =bar-shoe=
-with leather sole.
-
-Following the removal of the edges of the crack there often appears,
-especially in stumpy hoofs, a deep groove; if the bottom of this groove
-is moist, we should pack it with oakum wet with a five per cent.
-solution of creolin or carbolic acid, and cover the oakum with wax
-(grafting-wax). The cracks will return if the exciting causes cannot be
-completely removed.
-
-(_b_) _Treatment of Low Cracks (Plantar Cracks)._—These cracks,
-occurring principally upon the hoofs of unshod horses, are the result
-of excessive stretching and bending of the lower border of the wall.
-Insufficient rounding of the wall with the rasp is largely responsible
-for them. An exciting cause in shod horses is the use of too large
-nails in shoes that are punched too fine.
-
-Every coronary crack becomes in time a low or plantar crack, and this
-has an important bearing upon the prognosis, because a renewal of the
-coronary crack will be followed by a low crack.
-
-In order to remove these cracks it is sufficient merely to shoe the
-horse. Upon shod horses they may be prevented by using properly punched
-shoes and thin nails. The lower border of the wall near the crack
-should be relieved of pressure by cutting out a half-moon-shaped piece
-of horn. To prevent the crack from extending farther upward we may burn
-a transverse slot at the upper end of the crack, in as far as the leafy
-layer of the wall, or cut such a slot with a small hoof-knife.
-
-
-2. CLEFTS.
-
-An interruption of continuity of the wall, at right angles to the
-direction of the horn-tubes, is called a _cleft_.
-
-Clefts may occur at any part of the wall; yet they occur most often
-upon the inner toe and inner side, as a result of injury from sharp,
-improperly placed heel-calks (see page 173). However, suppurating
-corns, or other suppurative processes situated at the coronet or which
-find their point of escape at the coronet, may from time to time lead
-to separations of continuity and the formation of horn-clefts.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 222. Hoof with clefts of the toe and side wall.]
-
-Horn-clefts, though the result of lesions which are often very
-injurious and interfere with the use of the horse, are of themselves
-not an evil which can be abolished or healed by shoeing, although, in
-many cases, proper shoeing would have prevented them. A horn-cleft is
-not a matter for consideration by the shoer until it has grown down so
-far that it comes within the region of the nails.
-
-In order not to disfigure the hoof unnecessarily, the horn below the
-cleft should be kept in place as long as possible by shortening the
-wall at that point, to remove shoe-pressure, and by driving no nails
-into it. If, however, the horn is loose and about to come away, it
-should be removed and the defect filled with Defay’s patent horn-cement.
-
-
-3. LOOSE WALL.
-
-Separation of the wall from the sole _in the white line_ is called
-loose wall (Fig. 223, _a_).
-
-_Occurrence._—Frequent on the fore-hoofs of shod and unshod horses,
-and oftener upon the inner than upon the outer side. More rare on hind
-hoofs. Common-bred horses with wide and flat feet are predisposed to
-this trouble.
-
-We distinguish _superficial_ and _deep loose wall_; only the latter
-requires the shoer’s attention, because it leads to lameness.
-
-_Causes._—Walls which are very oblique (slanting); outward bendings of
-the plantar border of the wall; burning the horn with hot shoes;
-dryness; neglected shoeing; excessive softening of the horn with
-poultices, particularly of cow-dung; carelessness in preparing the
-bearing-surfaces of hoof and shoe in shoeing; uneven fitting of the
-shoe.
-
-_Treatment._—It aims to remove the lameness and to favor growth of
-coherent horn. In the first place the removal of the exciting causes,
-followed by proper shortening of the wall. We should apply a shoe whose
-bearing-surface _inclines slightly downward and inward_, is perfectly
-smooth, and wide enough to cover the wall, white line, and outer border
-of the sole; the iron should be only moderately warm. Where there is
-lameness we use a leather sole with packing, or a =bar-shoe=. The loose
-wall should be freed from shoe-pressure only when it does not extend
-far along the white line. When the separation is extensive the loose
-wall should not be lowered. The crack should be filled with wood-tar,
-crude turpentine, or soft grafting-wax.
-
-If a loose wall occur upon the foot of a horse while running barefoot,
-all separated horn should be removed; if, on account of the nature of
-the ground, this seems to be impracticable, the hoof must be shod.
-
-_Care of the Hoof._—Shoe at least every four to five weeks. Preserve
-the pliancy and toughness of the horn by judicious moistening.
-
-
-4. HOLLOW WALL.
-
-A _hollow wall is one in which a separation has occurred between the
-middle layer of the wall and the keraphyllous layer_. This crack or
-separation always extends in the direction of the layers of the wall
-(Fig. 223, _b_).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 223. An imaginary transverse vertical section of a
-hoof showing (_a_) loose wall and (_b_) hollow wall.]
-
-_Occurrence._—Quite rare.
-
-We should suspect a hollow wall when a part of the wall _rounds out
-prominently beyond the rest_, and gives forth a hollow (resonant) sound
-when struck. The white line presents a crack, yet we should hesitate to
-form a conclusion as to the extent of the separation from the extent of
-the crack along the white line, since the latter may be considerably
-smaller. The separation extends higher up the wall than in the case of
-loose wall, frequently to the coronet. The cavity is usually filled
-with crumbling, disintegrated horn.
-
-Hollow wall is not often accompanied by pain. Lameness may arise,
-however, if the hollow section of wall assists in bearing the
-body-weight, and if the animal does fast work upon paved streets.
-
-_Causes._—Mechanical influences resulting in chronic inflammation of
-fleshy leaves.
-
-_Treatment._—A cure is possible, but requires considerable time. In
-shoeing, which should always aim to _relieve pressure_ from the hollow
-section of wall, we cleanse the cavity and fill it with oakum and tar,
-crude turpentine, or wax. Where the separation is very extensive we use
-a _bar-shoe_.
-
-The time required for complete cure of hollow and loose walls will
-depend upon the height of the separation (see growth of the hoof, page
-82).
-
-
-5. THRUSH OF THE FROG.
-
-When the horny frog is ragged and fissured, and an ill-smelling,
-dark-colored liquid collects in the lacunæ of the frog, it is affected
-with thrush. When thrush exists uninterruptedly for several months the
-perioplic band is irritated and forms rings of periople which assume an
-irregular course and cross the rings of the middle layer of the wall
-(Fig. 224).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 224. Hoof with irregular superficial rings
-resulting from thrush of the frog.]
-
-The _causes_: uncleanliness, =too little exercise= in fresh air,
-excessive paring of the frog, and the use of shoes with calks by which
-the frog is permanently removed from the ground.
-
-The _consequences_ are, besides contraction of the hoof, soreness in
-travelling, a shortening of the step, and, occasionally, well-marked
-lameness.
-
-_Treatment._—Removal of all greasy horn from the frog, and of the
-prominent overgrown angles of the buttresses (see page 100), thorough
-washing of the frog once or twice daily with a 5 per cent. creolin or
-carbolic solution, =abundant exercise=, and shoes without calks.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER X.
-
-SHOEING MULES, ASSES, AND OXEN.
-
-
-1. The shoeing of mules and asses is, as in the case of horses, a
-necessity if these animals are to be used for draft or saddle purposes
-on hard streets. The structure and characteristics of the hoofs of
-these animals are quite similar to those of the horse, differing
-chiefly in the form and thickness of the wall. The mule hoof is long
-and narrow and round at the toe, the sole is well arched, and the side
-walls are rather steep (Fig. 225). In the ass the narrowness of hoof
-is still more pronounced, the wall is relatively =thick=, the frog is
-particularly well developed in its branches, and therefore the hoof is
-relatively wide in the region of the quarters. The horn of both mule
-and ass is tough.
-
-The shoes differ from those of the horse in no other respect than that
-they should be lighter and narrower. Four nail-holes are sufficient for
-an ass’ shoe, and five to six for a mule’s.
-
-On account of the hardness and toughness of the walls, we use nails
-that are short but strong in the shank; nails with weak shanks are apt
-to bend in driving.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 225. A mule’s hoof. (Plantar surface).]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 226. A shod ox-claw.]
-
-2. _The shoeing of oxen_ is essentially different from that of horses,
-because the foot of the ox is cloven (split), the long pastern, short
-pastern, and hoof-bone are double, so that, instead of one hoof or
-claw, there are two upon each foot, distinguished as outer and inner.
-Each claw consists of wall, sole, and bulbs; the frog is absent. The
-wall is considerably thinner than that of the horse’s hoof, the sole is
-thin, and the bulbs are low. For these reasons the shoe designed for a
-claw must be thin, but wide.
-
-The holes must be punched fine and the nails be quite short and strong.
-On each shoe a long tongue should be made on the inner edge near the
-toe, and so directed that it can be turned upward and outward to
-embrace the toe of the claw. A small clip raised on the outer toe of
-each shoe will increase its stability. In some parts of Saxony the
-shoes are so made that the tongue of each shoe begins in the rear
-third of its inner edge and runs forward, upward, and outward, closely
-embracing the wall of the toe. The smaller clip is drawn up on the
-outer edge of the shoe close to the toe. These shoes are more difficult
-to make, but when applied sit more firmly and remain fast longer than
-all others. Machine-made ox shoes (Fig. 227) have no clip at the inner
-toe, and are frequently pulled and lost. For this reason they are
-inferior to hand-made shoes. An undivided shoe (the so-called “closed
-claw-shoe”) is unsuitable for oxen, because it deprives both claws of
-their natural, free movements. However, such a shoe is of advantage
-for heavy draft over hard and very rough roads, because it lessens the
-liability of the fetlock and coronary joints and the cleft of the claws
-to strains.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 227.
-
-Pair of machine-made ox shoes, viewed from the ground-surface and in
-profile; _a_, toe-calk; _b_, heel-calks.]
-
-Great difficulty is often encountered in holding the feet during the
-operation of shoeing. It is necessary to fasten the head securely
-against a tree, post, or wall. A front foot may be raised and held
-by passing a slip-noose in the end of a rope or side-line around the
-fetlock and carrying the line over the withers to the opposite side,
-where it is held by an assistant. A hind limb may be controlled by
-passing a round pole in front of the hock of the leg to be raised,
-and, with a man at each end of the pole, carrying the limb backward
-and upward, in which position it is held; or the limb may be bent and
-controlled by tightening a twitch or tourniquet upon the leg just above
-the hock (Fig. 228). Oxen that continue to resist may sometimes be
-quieted by light blows of a short stick upon the base of the horns. In
-parts of the country where many oxen are shod stocks are in common use.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 228. Hind foot raised by means of a round pole.]
-
-Very satisfactory stocks have been designed by Gutenaecker, of Munich
-(Fig. 229). The four corner-posts (_a_, _a_, _b_, _b_) are eight
-inches square and eight feet long, of which three feet four inches
-are solidly implanted in the ground. They are united by side- and
-cross-bars (_c_, _c_, _d_). In front of the corner-posts (_a_, _a_)
-and in the middle line stands a head-post (_e_) of the same dimensions
-as the corner-posts, provided with a slot four inches wide and twenty
-inches long beginning three feet from the ground. In this slot is
-a pulley-wheel (_i_), and below it a windlass (_k_) for winding up
-the rope which is tied around the base of the animal’s horns. The
-corner-posts are provided with a slot (_n_) three inches wide and
-three inches deep, within which are placed two movable side-bars (_o_,
-_p_), which can be set at desired heights and fastened by iron pins.
-Between the front and rear corner-posts of the right-hand side is an
-eight-sided roller with a ratchet and click at one end, and having on
-one of the sides six iron hooks, to which a girth is attached. On the
-opposite side of the stocks, at the same height, is a stationary bar
-(_f_) with six hooks (_g_, _g_) on the outer side. The belly girth is
-six feet long, six inches wide, and terminates at both ends in several
-strong cords two feet four inches long with iron rings at their ends.
-Between the front corner-posts are a neck-yoke (_h_) and a breast-bar
-which slide in the slots (_m_) and may be fixed at desired heights
-by iron pins. On the rear face of each rear corner-post is an iron
-bracket (_s_) one foot and a half long, with a ring (_t_) six inches in
-diameter, through which passes a round pole padded in the middle and
-kept in place by two iron pins. Above each bracket is a hook (_u_) to
-which the end of the breeching attaches.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 229.
-
-Gutenäcker’s stocks for oxen: _a_, front corner-posts; _b_, rear
-corner-posts; _c_, _d_, connecting bars; _e_, head-post; _f_, bar
-for holding belly girth; _g_, hooks for girth; _h_, neck-yoke; _i_,
-pulley-wheel; _k_, windlass with ratchet and click; _m_, slot for
-neck-yoke and breast-bar; _n_, slot for movable side-bars; _o_, _p_,
-side-bars; _r_, hook for fetlock strap; _s_, iron bracket; _t_, iron
-ring for rear cross pole; _u_, hooks for breeching.]
-
-Before an animal is brought into the stocks the neck-yoke is raised,
-the breast-bar lowered, and the girth left hanging from the hooks on
-the stationary bar. The ox is then led into the stocks and the rope
-which is tied around the base of the horns is carried over the pulley
-(_i_), fastened to the hook on the roller (_k_), and wound up till the
-head is tight against the head-post. The yoke and breast-bar are then
-placed in position and fastened, the breeching hung on the hooks (_u_),
-and the belly girth attached to the hooks on the roller, so that, if
-need be, it can be shortened till it bears the animal’s entire weight.
-
-To control a front foot a slip-noose is placed about the fetlock and
-the limb is raised and lashed to the side-bar, the rope passing finally
-to the hook (_r_). To control a hind foot a slip-noose is placed
-about the fetlock, the foot carried upward and backward over the rear
-cross-bar, and, with the front surface of the fetlock-joint resting
-against the padding of the bar, the limb is firmly secured by wrapping
-the line several times about the limb and bar.
-
-When no stocks are at hand, we may use an ordinary farm wagon or a
-truck wagon. Tie the ox with his head forward between the front and
-hind wheels. Fasten the large end of a binding pole to the spokes of
-the front wheel and let it rest on the hub. Swing the pole close to the
-ox and induce him to step over it with one hind leg, then raise the
-rear end of the pole, and with it the leg and so much of the animal’s
-hind quarters that the inner hind leg standing close to the wagon rests
-but lightly upon the ground. The binding pole may then be slung with
-a rope from the rack of the wagon or other stationary object and the
-outer limb held in the usual manner. By following this method a shoer
-with one assistant can easily and safely control the most refractory
-oxen.
-
-
-
-
-INDEX
-
-
-    Apprentice, 14
-    Arteries, 41
-    Articulations, 21
-
-    Balanced hoof, 101
-    Balling with snow, 149
-    Bar-shoe, uses of, 164
-    Bare foot, preparing the hoof, 102
-    Bars, 51
-      dressing, 99
-    Base-narrow position, 63, 68
-    Base-wide position, 63, 68
-    Beaked shoe, 184
-    Bear-foot, 72
-    Bearing-surface of shoes, 117, 127
-    Blood-vessels, 41
-    Bow-legged position, 64
-    Buttress, 100
-
-    Calf-kneed, 66
-    Calk-wound, 173
-    Camped behind, 68
-      in front, 66
-    Cannon bone, 20, 21
-    Carpus, 20
-    Cartilages, lateral, 39
-    Cast iron, 103
-      shoes, 132
-    Chadwick spring, 187
-    Clefts, 203
-    Clinch cutter, 97
-    Clinching, 131
-    Clips, 111
-    Close-nailing, burning, 166
-    Contracted hoof, 185
-      sole, 190
-    Corn, chronic, 175
-      dry, 174
-      suppurating, 174
-    Corns, 174
-      treatment, 176
-    Coronary band, 47
-      joint, 31
-      ligaments, 31
-    Cover-plate shoe, 173
-    Cow-hocked, 68
-    Cracks, 195
-      coronary and bar, 196, 202
-      plantar, 202
-    Crest, semilunar, 27
-    Crooked hoof, 192
-    Cross-firing, 140
-
-    Defay’s shoe, 187
-    Diseases of hoof, 165
-    Dressing the hoof, 98
-    Driving the shoe, 130
-    Drop-forged shoes, 132
-    Dropped sole, 178, 182, 183
-
-    Elastic parts of foot, 38
-    Examination before shoeing, 90
-
-    Feet, forms of, 69
-    Femur, 20
-    Fetlock, ligaments of, 29
-      joint, 28
-    Fiber shoes, 134
-    Fibula, 20
-    Flat hoof, 182
-    Fleshy frog, 49
-      sole, 49
-      wall, 48
-    Flight of hoofs, 72, 75
-    Foot, articulations of, 28
-      bones of, 24
-    Foot-axis, 70
-      relation to sole, 100
-      straight and broken, 101
-    Forging, 138
-    Founder, 177
-      dressing hoof, 179
-      shoeing, 180
-    Frog, 57
-      dressing, 99
-    Front shoe, making, 105
-    Frost-nails, 146
-    Full hoof, 183
-    Fullering, 109
-      hammer, 104
-
-    Gathered nail, 170
-
-    Hair-skin, 44
-    Head, bones of, 17
-    Heavy draught horses, shoeing, 125
-    Heel-calks, 112
-      always sharp, 154
-    Heels, inflammation of, 176
-    Hind shoe, making, 107
-    Hock, 21
-    Hollow wall, 205
-    Hoof, 50
-      benefits of movements within, 89
-      crooked, 84
-      growth of, 82
-      healthy, 81
-      irregular growth, 83
-      knife, 98
-      ointments, 159, 160
-      physiological movements of, 86
-      wear against shoe, 86
-      wear of, 82
-    Hoof-skin, 45
-    Hoofs, care of unshod, 157
-    Hoofs, forms of, 77, 80
-      of colts, care of, 157
-    Horn, minute structure of, 58
-      qualities of, 59
-      tumor, 181
-    Horseshoeing, object of, 13
-      schools, 15
-    Horseshoer, requisites of, 14
-    Humerus, 19
-    Hunters, shoeing, 123
-
-    Interfering, 142
-    Iron for horseshoes, 103
-
-    Joints, free, hinge, and pivot, 22
-
-    Keraphyllocele, 181
-    Knee-sprung, 67
-
-    Laminitis, 177
-    Leather sole, 164
-    Ligaments, 21
-    Limbs, standing positions, 62
-    Loose wall, 204
-    Low-jointed, 66
-
-    Mucous bursæ, 35
-    Mule shoes, 207
-    Muscles, 22
-
-    Nail-holes, 110
-    Nailing, 166
-      causes of, 167
-      examination and treatment, 167, 168
-    Nails, 128
-    Navicular bone, 28
-    Nerves, 44
-    Nippers, 99
-    Normal position, 62, 64, 67, 69
-
-    Os pedis, 26
-    Ox shoes, 208
-    Oxen, securing feet, 209
-
-    Pacers, shoeing, 124
-    Pads, rubber, 135
-    Pastern, long, 25
-      short, 26
-    Patella, 20
-    Pedal joint, 31
-      ligaments, 31
-    Peg-calks, 150
-    Peg toe-calks, 152
-    Pelvis, 19
-    Periople, 53
-    Perioplic band, 47
-    Periosteum, 21
-    Pigeon-toed position, 64
-    Pincers, 97
-    Plantar cushion, 40
-    Pododerm, 45
-    Pododermatitis, symptoms of, 161
-      treatment of, 163
-    Podophyllous tissue, 48
-    Podometer, 105
-    Pricking, direct nailing, 166
-    Pritchel, 105
-    Protective organs of foot, 44
-    Punch, 105
-
-    Quarter-crack, 200
-    Quarters, contraction of, 186
-
-    Radius, 20
-    Raising feet in shoeing, 92
-    Removing shoes, 97
-    Rolled toe, 118
-    Rope shoes, 133
-    Rubber shoes, 134
-    Runners, 123
-
-    Saddle-horses, shoeing, 122
-    Scapula, 19
-    Screw heel-calks, 148
-    Seedy-toe, 178
-    Sesamoid bones, 25
-      ligaments, 29-31
-    Sharp toe- and heel-calks, 146
-    Shod hoofs, care of, 159
-    Shoe, choosing the, 116
-      for acute-angled hoof, 114, 120
-      for base-narrow hoof, 114, 121
-      for base-wide hoof, 114, 121
-      for narrow hoof, 115, 121
-      for regular hoof, 114, 120
-      for stumpy hoof, 114, 120
-      for wide hoof, 115, 121
-      parts of, 103
-      wear of, 84
-      weight of, 116
-    Shoeing defective hoofs, 161
-    Shoes, fitting, 118
-      general properties, 107
-      machine, 132
-      making, 103, 105
-      nailing, 128
-      removing old, 97
-      shaping and fitting, 117, 120
-      special properties, 114
-    Sickle-hock, 68
-    Side-bone, 194
-    Sole, 55
-      contraction of, 189
-    Spinal column, 17
-    Splint-bones, 20
-      shoe, 172
-    Standing under, 66
-    Station of rest, 65
-    Steel, 103
-    Stocks, for horses, 95
-      for oxen, 209
-    Stifle-joint, 20
-    Stilt-foot, 184
-    Street-nail, 170
-    Stride, height of, 75
-      length of, 75
-    Stumpy hoof, 184
-    Suspensory ligament, 29
-      altering tension of, 36-38
-    Synovia, 21
-
-    Tendon, anterior extensor, 32
-      deep flexor, 33
-      lateral extensor, 32
-      sheaths, 35
-      superficial flexor, 33
-    Tendons, 24
-    Tension of tendon, altering, 36
-    Thorax, 18
-    Thrush, 206
-    Tibia, 20
-    Toe- and heel-calks, 112
-    Toe-calk, blunt, 113
-      half-sharp, 113
-      sharp, 112
-    Toe-crack, 197
-    Tools for making shoes, 104
-    Tread, 173
-    Trotters, shoeing, 124
-    Trunk, 17
-    Tubbing and stopping, 159
-
-    Ulna, 20
-
-    Vachette hook, 199
-    Veins, 43
-    Velvety frog, 49
-      sole, 49
-
-    Wall, 51
-      dressing, 99
-      height of, 52
-      leafy layer, 53
-      protective layer, 53
-      slant of, 52
-      thickness of, 53
-    Weight, influence of, 75
-    Weights, side and toe, 77
-    White line, 56
-    Wide hoofs, contraction of, 189
-    Wry hoof, 193
-
-*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A TEXT-BOOK OF HORSESHOEING ***
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-
-<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Text-Book of Horseshoeing, by Anton Lungwitz</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
-at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
-are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
-country where you are located before using this eBook.
-</div>
-
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: A Text-Book of Horseshoeing</p>
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0;'>for Horseshoers and Veterinarians</p>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Anton Lungwitz</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Translator: John William Adams</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: November 21, 2021 [eBook #66786]</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Richard Hulse and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)</div>
-
-<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A TEXT-BOOK OF HORSESHOEING ***</div>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<h1>A TEXT-BOOK OF<br /> HORSESHOEING</h1>
-
-<p class="f200"><span class="fontsize_50">FOR</span><br />
-<i>Horseshoers and<br /> Veterinarians</i></p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<p class="f150"><span class="fontsize_50">BY</span><br />A. LUNGWITZ</p>
-
-<p class="center">FORMER MEMBER OF THE ROYAL SAXON VETERINARY COMMISSION,<br />
-LATE INSTRUCTOR IN THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF HORSESHOEING,<br />
-AND DIRECTOR OF THE SHOEING SCHOOL OF THE ROYAL<br />
-VETERINARY COLLEGE IN DRESDEN, GERMANY</p>
-
-<p class="f150"><span class="fontsize_50">AND</span><br />JOHN W. ADAMS</p>
-
-<p class="center">PROFESSOR OF SURGERY AND OBSTETRICS, AND<br />
-LECTURER ON SHOEING IN THE VETERINARY SCHOOL,<br />
-UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA</p>
-
-<p class="center space-above2"><i>ELEVENTH EDITION</i></p>
-
-<p class="center space-below2"><i>WITH TWO HUNDRED AND TWENTY-NINE ILLUSTRATIONS</i></p>
-
-<p class="center">PHILADELPHIA &amp; LONDON</p>
-<p class="center space-below2"><big>J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY</big></p>
-
-<p class="center">Copyright, 1897, by <span class="smcap">J. B. Lippincott Company</span>.    <br />
-Copyright, 1904, by <span class="smcap">J. B. Lippincott Company</span>.<br />
-Copyright, 1913, by <span class="smcap">J. B. Lippincott Company</span>.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span></p>
-<h2 class="nobreak">PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.</h2>
-</div>
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p>The inauguration of the law requiring horseshoers to be examined
-emphasizes the need of a brief and easily understood text-book on
-theoretical and practical horseshoeing. At the request of the <i>Royal
-Veterinary Commission</i>, in charge of the Royal Veterinary School
-in Dresden, and many interested individuals, I have attempted to meet
-this need by condensing within the narrowest possible limits all that
-is essential to the horseshoer in the practice of his profession.
-The subject-matter has been cast into a logically arranged course of
-instruction; all that is superfluous and is found only in exhaustive
-treatises on shoeing has been omitted.</p>
-
-<p>In order to make this elementary text-book more easy to understand,
-numerous instructive illustrations have been incorporated, which were
-taken partly from “Der Fuss des Pferdes,” by Leisering &amp; Hartmann,
-fifth edition, Dresden, 1882; partly from the journal <i>Der
-Hufschmied</i>, and partly from drawings made specially for this work.</p>
-
-<p>With the desire that this little book may find many friends and supply
-them with valuable information, it is herewith given to the public.</p>
-
-<p class="author"><span class="smcap">A. Lungwitz.</span></p>
-<p><span class="smcap">Dresden</span>, September, 1884.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span></p>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span></p>
-<h2 class="nobreak">TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE.</h2>
-</div>
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p>During the past nine years in which it has been my privilege to teach
-horseshoeing to students of veterinary medicine in the University of
-Pennsylvania, and to classes of horseshoers under the auspices of the
-Master Horseshoers’ National Protective Association of America, I
-have been forcibly impressed with the urgent need of a text-book of
-horseshoeing that is adapted to the needs of beginners. In my opinion,
-such a work must present a detailed description of the anatomy and
-physiology of the legs below the middle of the cannons, and must
-emphasize in unmistakable terms the definite relations which exist
-between certain well-defined forms of the hoof and certain well-defined
-standing positions of the limb. Only on this sure foundation can a
-thoroughly scientific system of shoeing be based. Furthermore, the
-teachings must be eminently practical, logically arranged, as brief as
-is consistent with clearness, easy of comprehension by persons who are
-unfamiliar with technical language, profusely illustrated, and moderate
-in price.</p>
-
-<p>Through the kindness of my respected friend and former teacher,
-Professor A. Lungwitz, one of the highest authorities in all matters
-pertaining to shoeing, and for many years a teacher in and the Director
-of what I believe to be the best school of shoeing in the world, I am
-enabled to present to the public this translation of his text-book
-for students of shoeing. Written to meet requirements identical with
-those existing today in the United States, and in scope and arrangement
-exactly suited to both student and teacher, I am confident that it will
-meet the favor that it merits.</p>
-
-<p class="author"><span class="smcap">The Translator.</span></p>
-<p><span class="smcap">Philadelphia</span>, 1904.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span></p>
-<h2 class="nobreak">PREFACE TO THE ELEVENTH EDITION.</h2>
-</div>
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p>Since the publication in 1904 of a translation of the tenth edition
-of <i>Der Lehrmeister im Hufbeschlag</i>, Prof. Anton Lungwitz, the
-author, having reached the age of retirement has withdrawn from the
-activities of the <i>Royal Saxon Shoeing School</i>, and has expressed
-a desire that the translator assume entire responsibility for future
-editions.</p>
-
-<p>To note the progress of farriery during the past ten years many
-chapters have been revised, necessitating resetting, and sixty-nine new
-illustrations have been added and many redrawn. It has seemed desirable
-to discuss the effect of weight in the shoe in altering the flight of
-the foot; to consider rubber pads so widely used in the United States,
-and to direct attention to many innovations of more or less value, that
-have appeared during recent years.</p>
-
-<p>In preparing this edition I have had the cordial co-operation of the
-publishers, to whom I hereby express deepest gratitude. I wish also to
-record my appreciation for the many suggestions and other aid given me
-by Mr. Franz Enge, Chief Farrier of the shoeing shop of the Veterinary
-Hospital, University of Pennsylvania.</p>
-
-<p class="author"><span class="smcap">John W. Adams.</span></p>
-<p><span class="smcap">University of Pennsylvania</span>, April, 1913.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span></p>
-<h2 class="nobreak u">CONTENTS.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="TOC" cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdr" colspan="3"><small>PAGE</small></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">The Object of Shoeing</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#INTRO">13</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_space-above2 fontsize_150 bb" colspan="3"><b>PART I.</b></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_space-above2" colspan="3"><b>CHAPTER I.</b><br />
-                     THE GROSS ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Bones of the Head—Bones of the Trunk</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_1">17</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Spinal Column—Bones of the Thorax</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_2">17-19</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Bones of the Pelvis—Bones of the Limbs</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_3">19-21</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Joints—Muscles—Tendon Sheaths</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_4">21-24</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_space-above2" colspan="3"><b>THE FOOT.</b></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>A.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>The Bones of the Foot</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_A_1">24</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2"><p class="neg-indent">The Cannon—The Long Pastern—The Sesamoid Bones—The
-                             Short Pastern—The Pedal Bone— The Navicular Bone</p></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_A_2">24-28</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>B.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>The Articulations of the Foot</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_B">28</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp;&nbsp;I. <span class="smcap">The Fetlock-Joint</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_B_I">28</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws4">The Suspensory Ligament</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_B_I_1">29</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws4">The Inferior Sesamoid Ligament</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_B_I_2">30</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp;II. <span class="smcap">The Coronary Joint</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_B_II">31</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2">III. <span class="smcap">The Pedal Articulation (Coffin Joint)</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_B_III">31</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>C.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>The Locomotory Organs of the Foot</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_C">32</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2"><p class="neg-indent">The Anterior Extensor Tendon of the Phalanges—
-                                   The Perforatus Tendon—The Perforans Tendon</p></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_C_1">32-35</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Mucous Bursæ and Tendon Sheaths</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_C_2">35</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Altering the Relative Tension of the Flexor Tendons</td>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws4">and Suspensory Ligament of the Fetlock-Joint</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_C_3">36</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>D.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>The Elastic Parts of the Foot</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_D">38</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">The Lateral Cartilages—The Plantar Cushion</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_D_1">39,&nbsp;40</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>E.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>The Blood-Vessels and Nerves</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_E">41</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2"><p class="neg-indent">The Arteries of the Foot—The Veins
-                           of the Foot—The Nerves of the Foot</p></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_E_1">41-44</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>F.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>The Protective Organs of the Foot</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_F">44</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">The Hair-Skin</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_F_A">44</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">1. The Epidermis</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_F_A_1">45</a>
-                      <span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">2. The Dermis</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_F_A_2">45</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">3. The Subcutaneous Tissue</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_F_A_3">45</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">(<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap">The Hoof-Skin, or Pododerm</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_F_B">45,&nbsp;46</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">1. The Perioplic Band</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_F_B_1">47</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">2. The Coronary Band</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_F_B_2">47</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">3. The Fleshy Wall</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_F_B_3">48</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws7">The Fleshy Leaves (Podophyllous Tissue)</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_F_B_3_A">48, 49</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">4. The Velvety Tissue of the Sole</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_F_B_4">49</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">5. The Velvety Tissue of the Frog</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_F_B_5">49</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">(<i>c</i>) <span class="smcap">The Horn Capsule or Hoof</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_F_C">50-53</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">The Wall</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_F_C_1">50-53</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">The Bars</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_F_C_1">51, 52</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">The Layers of the Wall:</td>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws6">1. The Periople.</td>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws6">2. The Middle or Protective Layer.</td>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws6">3. The Leafy Layer (Keraphyllous Layer)</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_F_C_1">53-55</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">The Sole</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_F_C_3">55, 56</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">The Frog</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_F_C_4">57, 58</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">The Minute Structure of the Horn</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_F_C_5">58</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Hard and Soft Horn</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_F_C_6">59</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_space-above2" colspan="3"><b>CHAPTER II.</b><br />
-                     THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION<br /> TO THE ENTIRE LIMB.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>A.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Standing Positions of the Limbs</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#II_A">62</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">The Positions of a Fore-Limb viewed
-                         from in Front and in Profile</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#II_A_A">62-67</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">(<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap">The Positions of a Hind Limb viewed
-                        from Behind and in Profile</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#II_A_B">67-69</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>B.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Forms of Feet, viewed from in Front, from Behind, and in Profile</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#II_B">69-72</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>C.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Lines of Flight of Hoofs in Motion</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#II_C">72-75</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>D.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Influence of Weight upon Lines, of Flight of Hoofs</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#II_D">75, 76</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>E.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Forms of Hoofs</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#II_E">77</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2"><p class="neg-indent">The Hoof of the Regular Position—The Hoof
-              of the Base-Wide Position—The Hoof of the Base-Narrow Position—Forms of Hind
-              Hoofs— The Wide and the Narrow Hoof—The Characteristics of Healthy Hoofs</p></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#II_E">77-82</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>F.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Growth of the Hoof and Wear of the Hoof and Shoe</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#II_F">82-86</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>G.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Physiological Movements of the Hoof</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#II_G">86-89</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_space-above2 fontsize_150 bb" colspan="3"><b>PART II.</b></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_space-above2" colspan="3"><b>CHAPTER III.</b><br />
-                     SHOEING HEALTHY HOOFS.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>A.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Examination of a Horse Preliminary to Shoeing</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#III_A">90</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>B.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Raising and holding the Feet of the Horse to be Shod</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#III_B">92</a>
-                 <span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>C.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Removing the Old Shoes</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#III_C">97</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>D.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Preparing the Hoof for the Shoe</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#III_D">98</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>E.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Preparing the Hoof for going Barefoot</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#III_E">102</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>F.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Making Shoes</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#III_F">103</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2"><p class="neg-indent">The Podometer—Making Front
-                    Shoes—Making Hind Shoes—General Characteristics of Shoes—
-                    A Shoe with Heel-Calks—A Shoe with Toe- and Heel-Calks—
-                    Special Characteristics of Shoes</p></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_104">103-116</a></td>
-
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>G.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Choosing the Shoe</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#III_G">116</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>H.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Shaping and Fitting Shoes—General Considerations</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#III_H">117</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Shaping and Fitting Shoes—Special Considerations</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#III_H_1">120</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Fitting Shoes to Saddlers and Hunters</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#III_H_2">122</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Fitting Shoes to Runners</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#III_H_3">123</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Fitting Shoes to Trotters and Pacers</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#III_H_4">124</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Fitting Shoes to Heavy Draft-Horses</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#III_H_5">125</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>I.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Nailing the Shoe, Horseshoe-Nails</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#III_I">128</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>K.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Machine Shoes</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#III_K">132</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>L.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Rubber Pads</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#III_L">135</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_space-above2" colspan="3"><b>CHAPTER IV.</b><br />
-                     SHOEING HORSES THAT FORGE AND INTERFERE.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>A.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Forging—Cross-firing</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IV_A">138,&nbsp;140</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>B.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Interfering</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IV_B">142</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_space-above2" colspan="3"><b>CHAPTER V.</b><br />
-                     WINTER SHOEING.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">1. <span class="smcap">Ice-Nails (Frost Nails)</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#V_1">146</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">2. <span class="smcap">Sharp Toe- and Heel-Calks</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#V_2">146</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">3. <span class="smcap">Screw-Calks</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#V_3">148,</a>&nbsp;<a href="#V_6">155</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">4. <span class="smcap">Peg Heel-Calks</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#V_4">150</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">5. <span class="smcap">Peg Toe-Calks</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#V_5">152</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">6. <span class="smcap">Removable Heel-Calks, that do not require Sharpening</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#V_6">154</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_space-above2" colspan="3"><b>CHAPTER VI.</b><br />
-                     HOOF NURTURE.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>A.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Care of Unshod Hoofs</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#VI_A">157</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>B.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Care of Shod Hoofs</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#VI_B">159</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2">Greasing and Soaking the Hoof</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#VI_B_A">159</a>
-                    <span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_space-above2 fontsize_150 bb" colspan="3"><b>PART III.</b></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_space-above2" colspan="3"><b>CHAPTER VII.</b><br />
-                     GENERAL REMARKS CONCERNING THE SHOEING<br />
-                     OF DEFECTIVE HOOFS AND LAME HORSES.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">General Remarks</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#VII_A">161-165</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Classification of Diseases of the Hoof</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#VII_B">165</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_space-above2" colspan="3"><b>CHAPTER VIII.</b><br />
-                     INFLAMMATIONS OF THE PODODERM<br /> (PODODERMATITIS).</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">1.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Nailing</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#VIII_1">166</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">2.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Street-Nail</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#VIII_2">170</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">3.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Calk-Wounds of the Coronet</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#VIII_3">173</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">4.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Corns</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#VIII_4">174</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">5.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Inflammation of the Heels</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#VIII_5">176</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">6.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Laminitis (Founder)</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#VIII_6">177</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">7.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Keraphyllocele (Horn Tumor)</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#VIII_7">181</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_space-above2" colspan="3"><b>CHAPTER IX.</b><br />
-                     DEFECTS OF THE HOOF.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>A.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Changes of Form</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IX_A">182</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2">1. <span class="smcap">The Flat and the Full Hoof</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IX_A_1">182</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2">2. <span class="smcap">The Upright or Stumpy Hoof</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IX_A_2">184</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2">3. <span class="smcap">The Contracted Hoof</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IX_A_3">185</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws4">(<i>a</i>) The Contraction of Wide Hoofs</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IX_A_3_A">189</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws4">(<i>b</i>) Contraction of the Sole</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IX_A_3_B">189</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2">4. <span class="smcap">The Wry Hoof</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IX_A_4">190</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2">5. <span class="smcap">The Crooked Hoof</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IX_A_5">192</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2">6. <span class="smcap">Ossification of the Lateral Cartilage (Side-Bone)</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IX_A_6">194</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><b>B.</b></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><b>Disturbances of Continuity of Hoof</b></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IX_B">195</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2">1. <span class="smcap">Cracks</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IX_B_1">195</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2">2. <span class="smcap">Clefts</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IX_B_2">203</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2">3. <span class="smcap">Loose Wall</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IX_B_3">204</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2">4. <span class="smcap">Hollow Wall</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IX_B_4">205</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2">5. <span class="smcap">Thrush of the Frog</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IX_B_5">206</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_space-above2" colspan="3"><b>CHAPTER X.</b><br />
-                     SHOEING MULES, ASSES,<br /> AND OXEN.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2">1. <span class="smcap">The Shoeing of Mules and Asses</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#X_1">207</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws2">2. <span class="smcap">The Shoeing of Oxen</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#X_2">207</a></td>
-   </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span></p>
-<h2 class="nobreak">INTRODUCTION.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>Horseshoeing is an industry which requires, in equal degree, knowledge
-and skill.</p>
-
-<p>The word “horseshoeing” embraces various acts, especially preparing
-the iron sole, the horseshoe; forming it and fitting it to the hoof,
-whose ground-surface has been previously dressed in accordance with the
-direction of the limb, and fastening it to the hoof by means of nails.</p>
-
-<p>Owing to the complicated structure of the hoof, success in the practice
-of horseshoeing requires a knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of
-the horse’s body in general and of the foot in particular.</p>
-
-<p id="INTRO">The object of shoeing is,—</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>1. To protect the hoof from excessive wear, and thus render the
-horse continuously serviceable upon our hard roads.</p>
-
-<p>2. To prevent slipping and falling during the winter season.</p>
-
-<p>3. To so far remove the disadvantages of faulty positions of the
-limbs that horses may render good service, and, in some cases,</p>
-
-<p>4. To cure or improve diseased or defective hoofs or feet.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Horseshoeing, though apparently simple, involves many difficulties,
-owing to the fact that the hoof is not an unchanging body, but
-varies much with respect to form, growth, quality, and elasticity.
-Furthermore, there are such great differences in the character of
-ground-surfaces and in the nature of horses’ work that shoeing which
-is not performed with great ability and care induces disease and makes
-horses lame.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span></p>
-
-<p>In view of these facts, a thorough training of the young horseshoer
-in the principles and practice of his trade is not only greatly to be
-desired, but is really essential to success; unreasoning work does as
-much harm in this as in any other vocation. <i>A good common-school
-education is necessary</i> (more will do no harm). Further requisites
-are a <i>healthy body</i>, not too tall, <i>liking for the work,
-aptness</i>, an active, <i>reasoning mind, fearlessness, dexterity, a
-good eye for proportion</i>, and, finally, <i>careful selection of a
-master-instructor</i>. Theoretically educated, practically experienced
-and approved masters, in whose shops all kinds of horses are shod, are
-to be preferred.</p>
-
-<p>During his term of apprenticeship the young apprentice should <i>learn
-to make drawings of horseshoes, of tools of the trade</i>, and of hoofs
-of various forms, and should also make <i>one or more model shoes as an
-indication of his ability</i>. After completing his time he should seek
-a position in a first-class shop, either at home or abroad. A visit to
-foreign lands will widen one’s mental horizon and make him a broader,
-abler man in every respect. Later, opportunity will be given to some
-(in Germany) to join the cavalry, and thus acquire a good education
-in shoeing under the patronage of the government. Finally, a course
-of instruction in a school of horseshoeing will convert an already
-practical and intelligent horseshoer into a thoughtful, capable, expert
-workman.</p>
-
-<p>The scope of horseshoeing is by no means so narrow and insignificant
-as it may appear, and since a knowledge of the anatomy and physiology
-of the horse’s body in general, and of the foot in particular, is
-necessary, it is evident that the schools of horseshoeing in which one
-can get the best instruction are those in which there is not only a
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span>
-regularly graded course of instruction, with demonstrations upon
-dissected material and upon living horses, but also an abundance of
-daily work at the forge and on the floor in the shoeing of horses. <big><b>A
-course of four to six weeks is not sufficient.</b></big></p>
-
-<p>Furthermore, it should be borne in mind that schools of horseshoeing
-are not for the purpose of instructing young men in all matters which
-pertain to the trade, but only in the making of shoes, the critical
-examination and management of hoofs, and the rational and skilful
-performance of shoeing. For this reason it is not advisable for young
-men to attend a school of horseshoeing until they have at least
-completed their apprenticeship.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span></p>
-
-<p class="f150"><b>HORSESHOEING.</b></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="PART_I">PART I.</h2>
-</div>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h3 class="nobreak">CHAPTER I.<br />
-<span class="h_subtitle">THE GROSS ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<p>The supporting structure of the horse’s body is the <b>bony
-framework</b> or skeleton (<a href="#FIG_1">Fig. 1</a>, page 18).
-We distinguish in the skeleton the bones of the head, trunk, and limbs.</p>
-
-<p id="I_1">The <b>bones of the head</b> are numerous and, excepting the lower
-jaw, are solidly united with one another. In general, we distinguish in
-the head only the upper and lower jaws (1 and 1′). Both form various
-cavities; for example, the cranial cavity, in which the brain lies,
-the orbital cavities (eye-sockets), the nasal passages, and the mouth.
-Besides, the teeth are set in the jaws.</p>
-
-<p>The <b>trunk</b> comprises the bones of the spinal column, thorax,
-and pelvis.</p>
-
-<p id="I_2" class="space-below2">The <i>spinal</i> or <i>vertebral column</i>
-(2 to 6), which bears the head at its anterior end, is the chief support,
-of the entire skeleton. It consists of from fifty-two to fifty-four
-single and irregular bones called vertebræ, placed in the upper part
-of the median vertical plane of the body. Each vertebra, with the
-exception of those of the tail (coccygeal or caudal vertebræ), is
-traversed by a large opening called the vertebral foramen. The vertebræ
-are placed end to end in a row, and through them runs a continuous
-large canal called the <i>vertebral</i> or <i>spinal canal</i>, in
-which lies the spinal cord. The horse has seven cervical, eighteen
-dorsal, six lumbar, five sacral, and sixteen <span class="pagenum"
-id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> to eighteen caudal vertebræ. The sacral
-vertebræ are grown together to form one piece called the sacrum.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_1" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_018.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="492" />
-  <p class="blockquot"><span class="smcap">Skeleton of the
-      Horse.</span>—1, bones of the head; 1′, lower jaw; 2,
-      cervical vertebræ; 3, dorsal vertebræ; 4, lumbar vertebræ;
-      5, sacral vertebræ (sacrum); 6, coccygeal vertebræ; 7,
-      ribs; 8, sternum (breast-bone); 9, pelvis; 9′, ilium;
-      9″, ischium; 10, scapula (shoulder-blade); 11, humerus;
-      12, radius; 13, ulna; 14, carpus (knee); 15, large
-      metacarpal bone (cannon); 16, rudimentary metacarpal bones
-      (splint-bones); 17, os suffraginis (long pastern); 18,
-      os coronæ (short pastern); 19, os pedis (hoof-bone); 20,
-      sesamoid bones; 21, femur; 22, patella (knee-pan, stifle);
-      23, tibia; 24, fibula; 25, tarsus, or hock; 26, large
-      metatarsal bone (cannon); 27, rudimentary metatarsals
-      (splint-bones); 28, os suffraginis (long pastern); 29, os
-      coronæ (short pastern); 30, os pedis (hoof-bone, “coffin
-      bone”); 31, sesamoid bones.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>thorax</i> is formed by the ribs and the breast-bone or sternum.
-The horse has eighteen ribs on each side (7), and all articulate with
-the dorsal vertebræ. The first eight pairs unite by their lower ends
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span>
-directly to the sternum or breast-bone, and are therefore called
-<i>true ribs</i>, while the last ten pairs are only indirectly attached
-to the sternum, and are consequently called <i>false ribs</i>. The
-sternum (8) lies between the forelegs, and helps to form the floor of
-the chest cavity. The space enclosed by the bones of the thorax is
-called the thoracic, pulmonary, or chest cavity, and contains the heart
-and lungs. The <i>bones of the pelvis</i> form a complete circle or
-girdle. The upper part, called the ilium (9′), articulates on its
-inner side with the sacrum (5), while its outer side is prolonged to
-form a prominent angle, which is the support of the hip, and is called
-the “point of the hip.” The posterior part of the pelvis is called the
-ischium (9″), and that part lying between the ilium and the
-ischium and forming part of the floor of the pelvis is called the pubis.</p>
-
-<p id="I_3">The space between the thorax and the pelvis, bounded above by
-the lumbar vertebræ and shut in below and on the sides by the skin and
-muscular walls of the belly (abdomen), is called the <i>abdominal
-cavity</i>. This cavity opens directly into the pelvic cavity, and
-contains the stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, and
-a part of the generative organs. The thoracic and abdominal cavities
-are separated by a muscular partition, the <i>diaphragm</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The <b>bones of the limbs</b> may be likened to columns, upon which the
-body rests; they articulate with one another at various angles, are
-tubular in structure, and strong.</p>
-
-<p>The bones of the <b>fore-limbs</b> <i>do not articulate directly with
-the bones of the trunk</i>, but are attached to the body by means of the
-skin and muscles. From above to below we distinguish the following bones:</p>
-
-<p>1. The <i>scapula</i>, or shoulder-blade (10), a flat, triangular bone,
-prolonged at its upper border by a flat, very elastic cartilage, called
-the scapular cartilage. At its lower end the scapula articulates with—</p>
-
-<p>2. The upper end of the <i>humerus</i> (11), forming the
-<i>shoulder-joint</i> (scapulo-humeral articulation). The humerus
-articulates at its lower end with—
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span></p>
-
-<p>3. The <i>radius</i> (12) and the <i>ulna</i> (13), to form
-the <i>elbow joint</i>. These two bones are the basis of the
-<i>forearm</i>. The ulna, smaller and weaker than the radius, lies
-behind and projects above it to form the point of the elbow. The lower
-end of the radius articulates with—</p>
-
-<p>4. The <i>carpus</i>, or <i>knee</i> (14), which comprises seven small,
-cubical bones disposed in two horizontal rows, one above the other. The
-upper row comprises four bones and the lower row three. The lower row
-rests upon—</p>
-
-<p>5. The large metacarpal or <i>cannon bone</i>, and the two rudimentary
-metacarpal or <i>splint-bones</i>. The lower end of the radius,
-the upper ends of the metacarpal bones, and the small carpal bones
-together form the carpal or <i>knee-joint</i> (wrist of man). Of
-the metacarpals, the middle one is the largest, longest, strongest,
-and most important, and is called the <i>large metacarpal</i>,
-<i>cannon</i>, or <i>shin-bone</i> (15). It articulates at its lower
-end with the os suffraginis, or long pastern (17), and with the
-two small sesamoid bones (20). On each side of the upper part of
-its posterior surface lie the two long, slender splint-bones (16).
-The inner splint-bone is sometimes affected with bony thickenings
-(exostoses) called “splints.”</p>
-
-<p>6. The bones of the <i>phalanges</i> (all bones below the cannon) will
-be fully described in another place.</p>
-
-<p>The bones of the <b>hind limbs</b> articulate <i>directly</i> with
-the pelvis at the hip-joint. They are stronger than the bones of the
-anterior limbs. We distinguish the following bones in the hind legs:</p>
-
-<p>1. The highest bone in the hind limb is the <i>femur</i> (21). It is
-the strongest bone in the entire body. It lies in an oblique direction
-downward and forward, and at its lower end articulates with—</p>
-
-<p>2. The <i>patella</i> (22), the <i>tibia</i> (23), and the
-<i>fibula</i> (24), to form the <i>stifle-joint</i> (knee of man). The
-patella plays over the anterior surface of the lower end of the femur.
-The fibula is small, and lies against the upper and outer side of the
-tibia. The latter at its lower end articulates with—
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span></p>
-
-<p>3. The bones of the tarsus, or <i>hock</i> (25), which are six small,
-irregular bones disposed in three rows, one above another. The <i>os
-calcis</i>, or <i>heel-bone</i>, and the <i>astragalus</i> are in the
-uppermost row, and are the most important. The former projects above
-the true hock-joint from behind, to form a long lever, the upper end
-of which is called the “point of the hock,” and the latter articulates
-with the tibia. The tarsal (hock) bones articulate below with—</p>
-
-<p>4. The <i>metatarsal bones</i> (26 and 27), which are longer, and the
-cannon narrower from side to side, than the corresponding metacarpal
-bones, but are otherwise similar.</p>
-
-<p>5. The <i>phalanges</i> of a hind limb (28 to 31) are also narrower
-than those of a fore-limb, but are nearly alike in other respects.</p>
-
-<p id="I_4">All the horse’s bones present small, but more or less distinct
-openings (nutrient foramina) for the passage of blood-vessels and
-nerves. Many bones possess roughened elevations and depressions, to
-which ligaments, tendons, or muscles are attached. With the exception
-of the os pedis, all bones are enveloped in a sort of “bone-skin”
-called <b>periosteum</b>. The bones unite among themselves to form
-either <i>movable</i> or <i>immovable unions</i>. A movable union
-between two or more bones is termed a “joint,” or <b>articulation</b>.
-The articulating ends of the bones, presenting on one side a convex
-surface (head or condyle) and on the other a corresponding concave
-surface (glenoid or cotyloid cavity), are covered with elastic
-<i>articular cartilage</i>. The bones are bound together by means
-of <b>ligaments</b>, which are tough, fibrous, cord-like, or
-sheet-like structures. Ligaments are either (1) <i>capsular</i> or (2)
-<i>funicular</i> (cord-like). Every articulation in the limbs possesses
-a capsular ligament, and all, except the shoulder-joint, have several
-funicular (cord-like) ligaments. The capsular ligaments are lined upon
-their inner face with a delicate membrane (synovial membrane) which
-secretes the <i>synovia</i>, or “joint-water,” whose function is to
-lubricate the joint and prevent friction; they enclose the joint in a
-sort of air-tight cuff or sack. The funicular ligaments are very strong
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span>
-and often large, and are the chief means of union of the bones. The
-immovable articulations are termed <i>sutures</i>; they are found
-principally in the head. The mixed joints are found between the
-bodies of the vertebræ, each two of which are united by an elastic
-fibro-cartilage which, in the form of a pad, lies between them, and by
-its elasticity allows of very slight movement, though the spinal column
-as a whole can execute manifold and wide movements, as shown by the
-neck and tail.</p>
-
-<p>Joints which permit motion in all directions are known as <b>free
-joints</b>; such are the shoulder- and hip-joints (ball-and-socket
-joints). Those which admit of motion in but two directions (flexion
-and extension), and often to a very limited extent, are called
-<b>hinge-joints</b>,—<i>e.g.</i>, the elbow, hock, and fetlock. The
-joints between the long and short pasterns and between the latter and
-the pedal bone are imperfect hinge-joints, because they allow of some
-other movements besides flexion and extension. The articulation between
-the first and second cervical vertebræ (atlas and axis) is called a
-<b>pivot-joint</b>.</p>
-
-<p>The skeleton represents a framework which closely approaches the
-external form of the body, and by reason of its hardness and stiffness
-furnishes a firm foundation for all other parts of the body. By reason
-of the great variety of position and direction of the bones, and of the
-fact that changes of position of each single part of this complicated
-system of levers may result in the greatest variety of bodily
-movements, we can readily understand how the horse is enabled to move
-from place to place. Of course, the bones have no power of themselves
-to move, but this power is possessed by other organs that are attached
-to the bones. These organs are the <b>muscles</b>, and, owing to their
-ability to contract and shorten themselves, and afterwards to relax and
-allow themselves to be stretched out, they furnish the motive power
-that is communicated to and moves the bones.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span></p>
-
-<div id="FIG_2" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_023.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="556" />
-     <p class="blockquot"><span class="smcap">Outer Muscles
-     of the Horse.</span>—1, cervical trapezius; 2, dorsal
-     trapezius; 3, mastoido-humeralis; 4, great dorsal
-     muscle; 5, long abductor of the arm; 6, long extensor
-     of the forearm; 7, large extensor of the forearm; 8,
-     short extensor of the forearm; 9, sterno-trochinus (deep
-     pectoral); 10, sterno-aponeuroticus; 11, great serratus;
-     12, common extensor of the metacarpus; 13, common extensor
-     of the toe (anterior extensor); 14, common extensor of the
-     long pastern (lateral extensor); 15, oblique extensor of
-     the metacarpus; 16, external flexor of the metacarpus; 17,
-     internal flexor of the metacarpus; 18, oblique flexor of
-     the metacarpus; 19, fascia lata; 20, superficial gluteus
-     (anterior portion); 21, middle gluteus; 22, superficial
-     gluteus (posterior portion); 23 and 24, femoral biceps; 25,
-     semitendinosus; 26, semimembranosus; 27, anterior extensor
-     of the toe; 28, lateral extensor of the toe; 29, perforans
-     muscle (deep flexor of toe); 30, oblique flexor of the
-     phalanges; 31, perforatus tendon (superficial flexor of
-     phalanges); 32, Achilles tendon (ham-string).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The muscles of the body massed together are the red flesh which
-we observe in every slaughtered animal. They are not, however, so
-shapeless as they appear while in this condition; on the contrary, they
-present well-arranged muscular layers of variable size, thickness,
-length, and position. (<a href="#FIG_2">See Fig. 2</a>.) The muscles clothe the skeleton
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span>
-externally, give the body its peculiar form, and, by their special
-power of contraction, change the relative positions of the bones and
-thus make it possible for the animal to move. For this reason, the
-muscles are called the <b>active</b>, and the bones the <b>passive</b>,
-organs of motion. By carefully examining a muscle it will be found to
-consist of actual, minute, reddish, <i>muscular fibres</i>. As a rule,
-muscles terminate in more or less strong, glistening, fibrous cords
-called <b>tendons</b>, or fibrous sheets termed aponeuroses, by which
-they are attached to the bones. In the limbs are muscles terminating
-in very long tendons, which act as draw-lines upon the distant bones
-of the foot (long and short pasterns and pedal bone) and set them in
-motion. Such long tendons are enclosed in sheaths of thin, membranous
-tissue, known as <i>tendon sheaths</i>. The inner surface of such
-a sheath is in direct contact with the surface of the tendon, and
-secretes a thin slippery fluid (synovia) which lubricates the tendon
-and facilitates its gliding within the sheath.</p>
-
-<p>As long as the bones, articulations, muscles, and tendons of the limbs
-remain healthy, just so long will the legs maintain their natural
-direction and position. Frequently, however, this normal condition of
-the limbs is gradually altered by disease of the bones, joints, and
-tendons, and defects in the form and action of the lower parts of the
-limbs arise that often require attention in shoeing.</p>
-
-<p class="f150"><b>THE FOOT.</b></p>
-
-<h4 id="I_A_1">A. The Bones of the Foot.</h4>
-
-<p>Since the horse is useful to man only by reason of his movements, his
-foot deserves the most careful attention. The horseshoer should be
-familiar with all its parts. <a href="#FIG_3">Fig. 3</a> shows the osseous framework
-of the foot, consisting of the lower end of the cannon bone (<i>A</i>), the
-long pastern (<i>B</i>), the two sesamoid bones (<i>C</i>), the short
-pastern (<i>D</i>), and the pedal bone (<i>E</i>). The lower end of
-the cannon, or large metacarpal bone (<i>A</i>) exhibits two convex
-articular surfaces (condyles) separated by a median ridge running from
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span>
-before to behind, and all covered by articular cartilage. On both the
-external and the internal aspects of the lower end of the cannon are
-small uneven depressions in which ligaments take their attachment.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_3" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_025.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="519" />
-</div>
-
-<p id="I_A_2">The condyles of the cannon articulate with the os suffraginis (long
-pastern) and the two sesamoids (<a href="#FIG_3">Figs. 3, <i>C</i></a>, and
-<a href="#FIG_4">4, <i>B</i></a>) in such a manner that in the forefeet
-the cannon makes an angle with the long pastern of from one hundred and
-thirty-five to one hundred and forty degrees, and in the hind feet of
-from one hundred and forty to one hundred and forty-five degrees.</p>
-
-<p>The <b>long pastern</b> (first phalanx) (<a href="#FIG_4">Fig. 4, <i>A</i></a>)
-is about one-third the length of the cannon; its upper and thicker end presents
-two condyloid cavities (<i>a</i>) (glenoid cavities), separated by a
-median groove, which exactly fit the condyles and ridge at the lower
-end of the cannon. The lower end of the long pastern is smaller than
-the upper, and is provided with two condyles, between which is a
-shallow groove (<i>e</i>). The anterior face of the bone is smooth,
-rounded from side to side, and blends into the lateral borders. The
-posterior face is flatter, and shows a clearly marked triangle to which
-ligaments attach.</p>
-
-<p>The two <b>sesamoid bones</b> (<a href="#FIG_4">Fig. 4, <i>B</i></a>) are small,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span>
-and somewhat pyramidal in shape, and, lying against the posterior part of
-the condyles of the cannon bone, increase the articular surfaces at the
-upper end of the long pastern.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_4" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_026a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="378" />
-   <p class="blockquot">Os suffraginis with both sesamoid
-    bones in position, as in <a href="#FIG_3">Fig. 3. <i>A</i></a>, os suffraginis;
-    <i>B</i>, sesamoid bones; <i>a</i>, upper joint-surface
-    of long pastern; <i>b</i>, joint-surface of sesamoid
-    bones; <i>c</i>, roughened surface at upper end; <i>d</i>,
-    roughened surface at lower end, both for attachment of
-    ligaments; <i>e</i>, lower joint-surface.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <b>short pastern</b> (second phalanx) (<a href="#FIG_5">Figs. 5</a>
-and <a href="#FIG_6">6</a>) lies under the first phalanx and above the
-os pedis; it is somewhat cubical in shape. Its upper articular surface
-(<a href="#FIG_5">Fig. 5, <i>a</i></a>) presents two glenoid cavities to correspond
-with the condyles of the first phalanx. The lower articular surface
-(<a href="#FIG_5">Fig. 5, <i>d</i></a>) resembles the lower end of the first phalanx.
-The upper posterior border of this bone is prominent and prolonged transversely
-(<a href="#FIG_6">Fig. 6, <i>a</i></a>), to serve as a <i>supporting ledge</i>
-for the first phalanx, as a point of attachment for the perforatus tendon,
-and as a gliding surface for the perforans tendon.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_5" class="f150">Fig. 5.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_026b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="172" />
-   <p class="center">Short pastern (os coronæ)<br />
-                     viewed in front and in profile:<br />
-                    <i>a</i>, upper joint-surface;<br />
-                    <i>b</i>, anterior surface;<br />
-                    <i>c</i>, lateral surface;<br />
-                    <i>d</i>, lower joint-surface.</p>
-  </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_6" class="f150">Fig. 6.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_026c.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="225" />
-   <p class="center">Short pastern seen from behind:<br />
-                     <i>a</i>, smooth surface over<br />
-                     which the perforans tendon glides;<br />
-                     <i>b</i>, lower joint-surface.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The lowest bone of the limb is the <b>third phalanx</b> or <b>os
-pedis</b> (<a href="#FIG_7">Fig. 7</a>). In form it is similar to the hoof. The <i>anterior
-or wall-surface</i> (<i>a</i>) is rough, like pumice stone. Above and
-in front is the <i>pyramidal eminence</i> to which the tendon of the
-anterior extensor of the phalanges attaches. Behind, the bone extends
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span>
-backward to form the <i>inner</i> and <i>outer branches</i> (<i>c,
-c</i>) or wings of the os pedis. The <i>upper</i>, articular surface
-(<i>b</i>) slopes backward and downward. The <i>lower</i>, solar or
-plantar surface (<a href="#FIG_8">Fig. 8, <i>a</i></a>) is slightly concave, and presents
-posteriorly a half-moon-shaped excavation, with a roughened border
-called the <i>semilunar crest (c)</i>, to which the perforans tendon
-attaches; just above this crest are two small holes (<i>e</i>) known as
-the <i>plantar foramina</i>, through which the plantar arteries pass
-into the bone. The surfaces of wall and sole come together in a sharp
-edge, which is circular in its course. It is easy to tell whether a
-pedal bone is from a fore or a hind limb; the os pedis of a hind leg
-has a steeper and more pointed toe, and a more strongly concaved solar
-surface than the same bone of a fore-leg. Not only is the outline of the
-sharp inferior border of the os pedis of a <i>front foot more rounded
-at the toe</i>, but when placed on a flat surface the <i>toe does not
-touch</i> by reason of being turned slightly upward, much as a shoe
-designed to give a “rolling motion.” The os pedis of a <i>hind foot is
-narrower from side to side</i> (pointed), and <i>does not turn up at
-the toe</i>.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_7" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150 space-above2"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_027a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="309" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Os pedis seen in profile and in front;
-     <i>a</i>, anterior face with pyramidal eminence above;
-     <i>b</i>, joint-surface; <i>c</i>, wings or branches of
-     hoof-bone; <i>d</i>, notch which, by the attachment of the
-     lateral cartilage, is converted into a foramen and leads to
-     <i>e</i>, the preplantar fissure.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div id="FIG_8" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150 space-above2"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_027b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="315" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Lower surface of hoof-bone; <i>a</i>,
-     anterior portion covered by the velvety tissue of the sole;
-     <i>b</i>, wing of the os pedis; <i>c</i>, semilunar crest,
-     to which the perforans tendon attaches; <i>d</i>, plantar
-     fissure leading to <i>e</i>, plantar foramen.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span>
-The right and left hoof-bones are also, as a rule, easily distinguished
-by variations in the surfaces of wall and sole. The shape of the os
-pedis corresponds to the form of the horny box or hoof, and therefore a
-knowledge of this bone is absolutely necessary.</p>
-
-<p>The <b>navicular bone</b> (os naviculare, nut-bone,
-<a href="#FIG_9">Figs. 9</a> and <a href="#FIG_10">10</a>)
-is an accessory or sesamoid bone to the os pedis. It is a small bone,
-transversely elongated and situated behind and below the os pedis and
-between the wings of the latter. It adds to the articular surface of
-the pedal joint. Its under surface is smooth, and acts as a gliding
-surface for the perforans tendon, which is quite wide at this point.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_9" class="f150">Fig. 9.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_028a.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="101" />
-  </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_10" class="f150">Fig. 10.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_028b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="105" />
-   </div>
-     <p class="blockquot">Fig. 9 represents the upper surface of
-     the navicular bone; Fig. 10 the lower surface of the same:
-     <i>a</i>, anterior border; <i>b</i>, slight elevation in
-     middle of under surface.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The long axes of the three phalanges (os suffraginis, os coronæ, and os
-pedis) should unite to form a straight line, when viewed either from
-in front or from one side; that is, the direction of each of these
-three bones should be the same as the common direction of the three
-considered as a whole.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>In young colts both the long and short pasterns are in three parts
-and the pedal bone in two parts, all of which unite later in life to
-form their respective single bones.</p>
-
-<p>In mules and asses the os pedis is comparatively small and narrow.
-In cattle all three phalanges are double, and split hoofs cover the
-divided os pedis.</p>
-</div>
-
-<h4 id="I_B">B. The Articulations of the Foot.</h4>
-
-<p>There are three articulations in the foot—namely, the fetlock,
-coronary, and pedal joints. All are hinge-joints, the fetlock being a
-perfect hinge-joint, and the other two imperfect hinge-joints. Each
-has a <i>capsular ligament</i>, and also several <i>funicular</i> or
-cord-like <i>ligaments</i> which are placed at the sides of (lateral
-ligaments), or behind (on the side of flexion) the joints.</p>
-
-<p id="I_B_I">I. The <b>fetlock</b> or <b>metacarpo-phalangeal articulation</b>
-is formed by the condyles at the lower end of the cannon bone and the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span>
-glenoid cavities formed by the union of the articular surfaces of
-the sesamoids and the upper end of the first phalanx. The following
-ligaments are about this joint:</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_11" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_029.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="411" />
-  <p class="blockquot"></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>1. <i>Two lateral ligaments</i>, an external and an internal
-(<a href="#FIG_11">Fig. 11, <i>a</i></a>).</p>
-
-<p>2. <i>Two lateral sesamoid ligaments</i> (<i>f</i>).</p>
-
-<p>3. An <i>intersesamoid ligament</i> (<a href="#FIG_12">Fig. 12, <i>b</i></a>),
-a thick, fibrous mass, binding the sesamoid bones almost immovably together,
-extending above them and presenting on its posterior face a smooth
-groove, in which glide the flexor tendons of the phalanges (perforans
-and perforatus).</p>
-
-<p id="I_B_I_1">4. The <i>suspensory ligament</i> of the fetlock (<a href="#FIG_11">Figs. 11,
-<i>c</i></a>, <a href="#FIG_12">12, <i>c</i></a>, and <a href="#FIG_13">13, <i>c</i></a>,
-pages 29 and 30). This may also be called the superior sesamoid
-ligament. It is a long and very powerful brace, originating on the
-lower row of carpal bones (bones of the hock in the hind leg) and on
-the upper end of the cannon between the heads of the two splint-bones,
-and dividing at the lower third of the cannon into two branches
-(<i>c</i>), which are attached one to each sesamoid bone. Below these
-bones these two branches are prolonged obliquely downward and forward
-on opposite sides of the long pastern to pass into the borders of the
-anterior extensor tendon of the toe at about the middle of the long
-pastern (<a href="#FIG_14">Fig. 14, <i>b′</i></a>, page 32).
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_12" class="f150">Fig. 12.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_030a.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="556" />
-  </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_13" class="f150">Fig. 13.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_030b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="554" />
-   </div>
-     <p class="blockquot"><a href="#FIG_11">Fig. 11</a> shows a side view,
-     and Figs. 12 and 13 a posterior view of the phalangeal bones, with
-     their articular ligaments. The lettering is the same in all
-     three figures: <i>a</i>, lateral ligament of fetlock-joint;
-     <i>b</i>, intersesamoid ligament; <i>c</i>, suspensory
-     ligament of the fetlock; <i>d</i>, median branch of
-     inferior sesamoid ligament; <i>d′</i>, lateral branches
-     of inferior sesamoid ligament; <i>e</i>, deep inferior
-     sesamoid ligament; <i>f</i>, lateral sesamoid ligaments;
-     <i>g</i>, inferior coronary ligaments; <i>h</i>, superior
-     coronary ligaments; <i>h′</i>, median coronary ligaments;
-     <i>i</i>, lateral pedal ligament; <i>k</i>, lateral
-     coronary ligament and suspensory ligament of the navicular
-     bone; <i>l</i>, interosseous ligament.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p id="I_B_I_2">5. The <i>inferior sesamoid ligament</i> (<a href="#FIG_11">Figs. 11, <i>d′</i></a>,
-<a href="#FIG_12">12, <i>d</i>, <i>d′</i></a>, and <a href="#FIG_13">13, <i>d′</i>, <i>E</i></a>).
-This originates at the lowest part of the sesamoid bones and intersesamoid ligament, and
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span>
-consists of <i>three parts</i> or branches. The <i>median branch</i>
-(<i>d</i>) is the longest and strongest, and takes its lower attachment
-in the middle of the fibro-cartilaginous lip found on the upper border
-of the posterior face of the second phalanx. The <i>two lateral
-branches</i> (<i>d′</i>) approach each other as they descend, and
-terminate on the sides of the roughened triangle on the posterior face
-of the first phalanx.</p>
-
-<p>6. The <i>deep inferior sesamoid ligament</i> (<a href="#FIG_13">Fig. 13, <i>e</i></a>)
-is quite short, and consists of a number of distinct, thin fibrous bands
-lying directly against the bone and entirely covered by the median and
-lateral inferior sesamoid ligaments. These fibrous bands cross one
-another in passing from the sesamoids to the first phalanx.</p>
-
-<p id="I_B_II">II. The <b>coronary joint</b> is the simplest of the three
-articulations of the foot. The long pastern furnishes two condyles and
-the short pastern two glenoid cavities. Besides a capsular ligament
-there are—</p>
-
-<p>1. <i>Two lateral coronary ligaments</i> (<i>k</i>) and,</p>
-
-<p>2. <i>Six posterior coronary ligaments</i>,—namely, <i>two
-superior</i> coronary ligaments (<i>h</i>), <i>two median</i> coronary
-ligaments (<i>h′</i>), and <i>two inferior</i> coronary ligaments
-(<i>g</i>).</p>
-
-<p id="I_B_III">III. The <b>pedal articulation</b> (“coffin” joint)
-is an imperfect hinge-joint, and is formed by the condyles at the
-lower end of the short pastern and the two glenoid cavities in the
-united upper surfaces of the pedal and navicular bones. Besides the
-<i>capsular ligament</i> (<a href="#FIG_12">Figs. 12</a> and <a href="#FIG_13">13, <i>l</i></a>),
-which binds all three bones together, there are the following accessory ligaments:</p>
-
-<p>1. <i>Two strong lateral ligaments</i>, an external and an internal
-(<a href="#FIG_11">Fig. 11, <i>i</i></a>), whose posterior borders are
-lost in the lateral cartilages which cover them.</p>
-
-<p>2. <i>Two lateral suspensory ligaments of the navicular bone</i>
-(<i>k</i>). They begin on the posterior border and ends of the
-navicular bone, and terminate on the lower part of the anterior surface
-of the os suffraginis, where they are lost in the lateral ligaments of
-the coronary articulation.</p>
-
-<p>3. The <i>lateral ligaments</i> of the lateral <i>cartilages</i>,
-<i>navicular bone</i>, and <i>os pedis</i>. They are short, and unite
-the navicular bone with the os pedis and lateral cartilages.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span></p>
-
-<p>Of the three phalangeal articulations, the pedal is the only one that
-permits of any lateral movement; hence it is an imperfect hinge-joint.</p>
-
-<h4 id="I_C">C. The Locomotory Organs of the Foot.</h4>
-
-<p>Though the muscles are the organs which produce motion, the
-horseshoer need concern himself only with the tendons of those
-muscles which extend and flex the phalanges. These tendons are
-either <b>extensors</b> or <b>flexors</b>. The extensors lie on the
-<i>anterior face</i> and the flexors on the <i>posterior face</i> of
-the phalanges.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_14" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_032.jpg" alt="" width="350" height="522" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Right forefoot viewed from in front
-     and from the external side: <i>a</i>, anterior extensor
-     tendon of the toe; <i>b</i>, suspensory ligament of the
-     fetlock; <i>b′</i>, branch of the same passing forward and
-     uniting with the extensor tendon of the toe; <i>c</i>,
-     extensor tendon of the os suffraginis (absent in the hind
-     leg), called the lateral extensor.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p id="I_C_1">The <i>anterior extensor of the phalanges</i> (<a href="#FIG_14">Fig. 14, <i>a</i></a>)
-extends the long and short pasterns and the hoof-bone; it is broad,
-and made somewhat broader by receiving the branches of the suspensory
-ligament (<i>b′</i>) that come from the sesamoid bones. It takes a firm
-attachment on the pyramidal eminence of the os pedis. In the forefeet
-the long pastern has a special extensor tendon (<i>c</i>), which is
-known as the <i>lateral extensor</i>. When the muscles to which these
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span>
-tendons are attached act,—that is, when they draw themselves together,
-or <i>contract</i>, as we term this action,—the foot is carried forward
-(extended).</p>
-
-<p>There are <i>two flexor tendons</i> of the phalanges,—namely, the
-<i>superficial</i> (perforatus tendon) and the <i>deep</i> (perforans
-tendon).</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_15" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_033.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="725" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Right forefoot seen from behind:
-     <i>a</i>, lower end of the perforans tendon, cut through
-     and hanging down, so that its anterior surface is visible;
-     <i>a′</i>, lower expanded end (plantar aponeurosis) of
-     this tendon, which attaches itself to the semilunar crest
-     of the os pedis; <i>a″</i>, shallow groove which receives
-     the slight elevation on the under surface of the navicular
-     bone; <i>a‴</i>, piece of the perforans tendon enclosed
-     by the ring formed by the perforatus tendon; <i>b</i>,
-     perforatus tendon bent over backward so that its anterior
-     surface is visible; <i>b′</i>, ring of the perforatus
-     tendon; <i>b″</i>, terminal branches of the same; the
-     perforans tendon passes through the space between these two
-     branches; <i>c</i>, navicular bone; <i>d</i>, suspensory
-     ligament of the same; <i>e</i>, smooth surface on the os
-     coronæ over which the perforans tendon glides; <i>f</i>,
-     the smooth groove (sesamoid groove) on the posterior
-     surface of the intersesamoid ligament for the gliding of
-     the perforans tendon; <i>g</i>, body of the suspensory
-     ligament of the fetlock; <i>g′</i>, terminal branches of
-     the same, attaching to the sesamoid bones.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>1. The <i>superficial flexor</i> or <i>perforatus tendon</i> (<a href="#FIG_15">Figs. 15, <i>b</i></a>,
-and <a href="#FIG_16">16, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i></a>) lies behind, immediately under the skin,
-and covers the deep flexor or perforans tendon. At the gliding surface
-between the sesamoid bones (<a href="#FIG_15">Fig. 15, <i>f</i></a>) it broadens,
-and forms a ring or tube (<a href="#FIG_15">Fig. 15, <i>b′</i></a>) through which
-the perforans tendon (<i>a‴</i>) passes, while a short distance farther down it bifurcates,
-or divides into two branches (<a href="#FIG_15">Figs. 15, <i>b″</i></a>, and
-<a href="#FIG_16">16, <i>b</i></a>), which terminate, one on either
-side, partly on the inferior lateral borders of the first phalanx
-and partly on the fibro-cartilage of the second phalanx. It acts
-simultaneously on the long and short pasterns.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span></p>
-
-<p>2. The <i>deep flexor</i> or <i>perforans tendon</i> (<a href="#FIG_15">Figs. 15,
-<i>a</i></a>, and <a href="#FIG_16">16, <i>c</i></a>) is cylindrical and stronger
-than the perforatus tendon; above the fetlock-joint it lies between the
-perforatus and the suspensory ligament of the fetlock. At the sesamoid
-bones it passes through the ring formed by the perforatus tendon
-(<a href="#FIG_15">Fig. 15, <i>b′</i></a>), then becomes broad and double-edged,
-passes between the two terminal branches of the perforatus, glides over the
-fibro-cartilage of the second phalanx and over the inferior surface
-of the navicular bone, and finally ends on the semilunar crest of the
-third phalanx. In common with the perforatus tendon it flexes the foot.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_16" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_034.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="732" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Right forefoot seen from behind and
-     a little from the external side: <i>a</i>, perforatus
-     tendon; <i>b</i>, terminal branches of the same; <i>c</i>,
-     perforans tendon; <i>d</i>, annular ligament which attaches
-     to the sesamoid bones: <i>d′</i>, the “x” ligament, which
-     attaches by four branches to the os suffraginis; <i>d″</i>,
-     an upper branch of the same (the lower branches are not
-     shown in the figure); <i>e</i>, reinforcing sheath of the
-     perforans tendon, covering the under surface of the latter
-     and attached by its branches at <i>e′</i> to the lower end
-     of the os suffraginis; <i>f</i>, suspensory ligament of the
-     fetlock.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>If at a point a few inches above the fetlock a limb be cut through
-from behind, the knife will pass successively through the following
-structures: skin, perforatus tendon, perforans tendon, suspensory
-ligament, cannon bone, lateral extensor tendon, anterior extensor
-tendon, and, lastly, the skin on the anterior surface of the limb. The
-flexor tendons are frequently thickened and shortened by inflammation
-due to injury, and as a result the foot is pulled backward and the
-hoof gradually becomes more nearly upright,—<i>i.e.</i>, stubby,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span>
-steep-toed. A knowledge of the normal condition of the tendons is,
-therefore, absolutely necessary to the horseshoer. Both flexor tendons
-are embraced and held in place by ligaments and fascia passing out from
-the phalanges (<a href="#FIG_16">Figs. 16, <i>d′</i></a>,
-and <a href="#FIG_24">24, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i></a>). The
-extensor and flexor tendons essentially contribute to the strong union
-of the phalangeal bones, and especially to the support and stability
-of the fetlock-joint. The gliding of the tendons is made easy by the
-secretion of a lubricating fluid, called synovia, from the inner
-surface of the sheaths which surround them. In thin-skinned well-bred
-horses with sound limbs one can not only distinctly feel the tendons
-through the skin, but can see their outline. <i>When the tendons and
-bones are free from all inflammatory thickenings, and the tendon
-sheaths are not visibly distended, we say that the leg is “clean.”</i></p>
-
-<p id="I_C_2" class="center"><b>Mucous Bursæ and Tendon Sheaths.</b></p>
-
-<p>Accessory to the tendons, there are in the foot roundish, membranous
-sacs (mucous bursæ) and membranous tubes (tendon sheaths). Both contain
-a liquid resembling synovia (“joint-water”), which facilitates the
-gliding of the tendons. These bursæ and sheaths are often distended to
-form soft tumors, known as hygromata (“wind-puffs,” “wind-galls”).</p>
-
-<p>(<i>a</i>) <b>Mucous Bursæ.</b>—They lie beneath tendons at those
-places where the tendons pass over bony prominences.</p>
-
-<p>1. The mucous bursa of the anterior extensor tendon of the toe is about
-the size of a walnut, and lies between the tendon and the capsular
-ligament of the fetlock-joint (<a href="#FIG_17">Figs. 17, <i>g</i></a>,
-and <a href="#FIG_18">18, <i>e</i></a>).</p>
-
-<p>2. The mucous bursa of the extensor tendon of the long pastern (lateral
-extensor) is somewhat smaller, and lies, likewise, beneath the tendon,
-between it and the capsular ligament of the fetlock-joint (<a href="#FIG_17">Fig. 17,
-<i>h</i></a>).</p>
-
-<p>3. The mucous bursa of the navicular region lies between the under
-surface (gliding surface) of the navicular bone and the flexor pedis
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span>
-perforans tendon (deep flexor). Its width equals the length of the
-navicular bone, and it extends upward and downward beyond the bone.
-Above, it is separated from the sheath of the perforans tendon (“great
-sesamoid sheath”) by a membranous partition; below, it passes to the
-attachment of the perforans tendon to the semilunar crest of the os pedis.</p>
-
-<p>(<i>b</i>) There is but one tendon sheath in the foot—the sheath
-common to the two flexor tendons (great sesamoid sheath). It encloses
-the flexor tendons from the middle third of the cannon down to the
-middle of the short pastern, and is intimately united with the flexor
-pedis perforans tendon (<a href="#FIG_17">Fig. 17, <i>f</i>, <i>f′</i>, <i>f″</i>,
-<i>f‴</i></a>. <a href="#FIG_18">Fig. 18, <i>d</i>, <i>d′</i>, <i>d″</i>, <i>d‴</i></a>).</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_17" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_036a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="403" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Right forefoot seen from the external
-     side; <i>f</i>, <i>f′</i>, <i>f″</i>, <i>f‴</i>, great
-     sesamoid sheath (tendon sheath); <i>g</i>, mucous bursa
-     beneath anterior extensor tendon of the toe; <i>h</i>,
-     mucous bursa beneath extensor tendon of long pastern;
-     <i>i</i>, synovial distension of the fetlock-joint; 7,
-     suspensory ligament; 9, cannon bone; 10, outer sesamoid
-     bone; 12, fetlock-joint; 13, lateral cartilage; 14,
-     suspensory ligament of the lateral cartilage. (Ellenberger
-     in Leisering’s Atlas and Veterinary Anatomy, Sisson,
-     Saunders.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<div id="FIG_18" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_036b.jpg" alt="" width="350" height="400" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Right forefoot seen from the inner
-     side; <i>d</i>, <i>d′</i>, <i>d″</i>, <i>d‴</i>, great
-     sesamoid sheath; <i>e</i>, mucous bursa beneath anterior
-     extensor tendon of the toe; <i>f</i>, synovial distension
-     of fetlock-joint; 10, inner sesamoid bone; 11, “x”
-     ligament; 14, fetlock-joint; 15, lateral cartilage; 16,
-     suspensory ligament of lateral cartilage (Ellenberger
-     in Leisering’s Atlas and Veterinary Anatomy, Sisson,
-     Saunders.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p  id="I_C_3" class="center space-above2"><b>Altering the Relative
-Tension of the Flexor Tendons<br /> and Suspensory Ligament of the
-Fetlock-Joint.</b></p>
-
-<p>The body-weight imposed at the fetlock-joint is supported, in large
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span>
-part, by the suspensory ligament; somewhat less weight is borne by the
-perforans tendon, and a still smaller amount by the perforatus. The
-coronary joint is supported chiefly by the perforatus, assisted by
-the perforans. The pedal joint is pressed forward and upward by the
-perforans tendon passing in a curve beneath the navicular bone. Each of
-these three structures bears its normal proportion of the body-weight
-when the three phalanges, as viewed from the side, form a continuous
-straight line from the fetlock-joint to the ground. In such a case the
-obliquity of the long pastern will be the same as that of the toe
-(<a href="#Page_70">see Foot-Axis, p. 70</a>).</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_19" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_037.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="336" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Right forefoot viewed from the
-     external side: <i>A</i>, os coronæ; <i>B</i>, os pedis;
-     <i>C</i>, external lateral cartilage; <i>a</i>, lateral
-     pedal ligament; <i>b</i>, ligament uniting the lateral
-     cartilage with the os coronæ; <i>c</i>, aponeurosis joining
-     lateral cartilage and os pedis.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>Raising the toe</i> by means of a tip, a full shoe with thinned
-branches or a toe-calk, <i>or paring away the quarters</i> will tilt
-the os pedis backward, break the foot-axis backward in the pedal joint
-and to a less extent in the coronary joint, and increase the tension of
-the perforans tendon considerably and of the perforatus slightly. These
-tendons tightening behind the fetlock-joint force it forward, causing
-the long pastern to stand steeper, and taking some strain from the
-suspensory ligament. Hence, <i>the perforans tendon is under greatest
-tension, and the suspensory ligament under least tension, when the
-foot-axis is broken strongly backward</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="space-below2"><i>Shortening the toe, or raising the
-quarters</i> by heel-calks or thickened branches, will tilt the os
-pedis forward, break the foot-axis forward in the pedal joint, and
-will <i>greatly lessen the tension of the perforans tendon</i>.
-The aggregate tension of perforans and <span class="pagenum"
-id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> perforatus tendons being diminished, the
-fetlock sinks downward and backward, the long pastern assumes a more
-nearly horizontal direction, and the tension of the suspensory ligament
-is increased. Thus, <i>the perforans tendon is under least tension, and
-the suspensory ligament under greatest strain, when the foot-axis is
-broken strongly forward</i>.</p>
-
-<h4 id="I_D">D. The Elastic Parts of the Foot.</h4>
-
-<div id="FIG_20" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_038.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="315" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Os pedis and inner face of one lateral
-     cartilage; <i>a</i>, toe of os pedis; <i>a′</i>, pyramidal
-     eminence to which the extensor tendon attaches; <i>a″</i>,
-     wing of pedal bone; <i>b</i>, lateral cartilage; <i>C</i>,
-     points of attachment of suspensory ligament of lateral
-     cartilage; <i>d</i>, point of insertion of ligament to the
-     short pastern; <i>e</i>, point of insertion of ligaments
-     from navicular bone.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>All bodies which under pressure or traction change their form, but
-return again to their original shape as soon as the pressure or
-traction ceases, are called <i>elastic</i> or <i>springy</i>. Nearly
-all parts of the horse’s foot, except the bones, possess more or
-less elasticity. The <i>lateral cartilages</i> and the <i>plantar
-cushion</i> are elastic to a high degree, but the <i>coronary band</i>,
-the <i>laminæ</i>, the <i>articular cartilage</i>, and the horny box
-or <i>hoof</i> are less elastic. This property or characteristic is
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span>
-possessed by the respective parts of the foot in accordance with their
-function, location, and structure.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_21" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_039a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="312" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Plantar cushion seen from below:
-     <i>a</i>, base or bulb of the plantar cushion; <i>b</i>,
-     summit; <i>c</i>, median lacuna or cleft in which lies the
-     “frog-stay” of the horny frog.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div id="FIG_22" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_039b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="313" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Plantar cushion seen from above:
-     <i>a</i>, base (bulbs) of same; <i>b</i>, summit; <i>c</i>,
-     suspensory ligament of plantar cushion; <i>d</i>, place at
-     which the elastic ligament connecting the os suffraginis
-     and the lateral cartilage unites with the plantar cushion.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p id="I_D_1">The <b>two lateral cartilages</b> (<a href="#FIG_19">Figs. 19, <i>C</i></a>
-and <a href="#FIG_20">20, <i>b</i></a>) are irregular, quadrangular
-plates, attached to the wings of the os pedis, and extending so far
-upward and backward that one can feel them yield to pressure on the
-skin above the coronet, and can thus test their elasticity. The
-perforans tendon and the plantar cushion lie between the lateral
-cartilages, and on the sides and behind are partially enclosed by them.
-The internal concave surface of the lateral cartilage (<a href="#FIG_20">Fig. 20</a>)
-is attached to the plantar cushion, the os pedis, and the navicular bone,
-and, like the external, slightly convex surface, is covered with many
-blood-vessels (veins) <a href="#FIG_25">Fig. 25, <i>B</i></a>.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_23" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_039c.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="173" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Section lengthwise through middle
-     of the plantar cushion: <i>a</i>, glome (bulb) of heels;
-     <i>b</i>, apex or point of fleshy frog; <i>c</i>, fibro
-     fatty tissue of plantar cushion; <i>d</i>, median cleft
-     which receives the frog-stay of the horny frog.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="space-above2"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span>
-The <b>plantar cushion</b> (<a href="#FIG_21">Figs. 21</a>,
-<a href="#FIG_22">22</a>, <a href="#FIG_23">23</a>) is composed almost
-entirely of yellow elastic and white fibrous tissues, with adipose
-(fat) cells distributed throughout their substance. It is similar in
-form to the horny frog, and lies between it and the perforans tendon
-(<a href="#FIG_24">Fig. 24, <i>a</i></a>). The bulbs are formed by the posterior
-thicker portion which lies between the lateral cartilages and is divided into
-two parts by the cleft or median lacuna (<a href="#FIG_21">Figs. 21, <i>a</i></a>,
-and <a href="#FIG_23">23, <i>d</i></a>). The summit is attached to the
-plantar face of the os pedis in front of the semilunar crest, and the
-bulbs are attached to the lateral cartilages. It is covered inferiorly
-by the velvety tissue of the frog (pododerm).</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_24" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_040.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="638" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Right forefoot viewed from below,
-     behind, and the external side. This figure shows clearly
-     the position of the plantar cushion. The external lateral
-     cartilage and the tissues covering the plantar cushion and
-     under surface of the os pedis (velvety tissue of the sole
-     and fleshy frog) have been removed: <i>a</i>, fleshy frog
-     or plantar cushion; <i>a′</i>, bulbs of plantar cushion;
-     the remaining visible parts belong to the so-called “fleshy
-     frog;” <i>a″</i>, groove (median lacuna) in the lower
-     surface of the fleshy frog, in which lies the frog-stay
-     of the horny frog; <i>b</i>, suspensory ligament of the
-     plantar cushion passing out of the bulbs; <i>b′</i>, small
-     elastic cords passing to the lateral cartilage; <i>c</i>,
-     elastic ligament coming from the lateral cartilage and
-     uniting with the suspensory ligament of the plantar
-     cushion; <i>d</i>, small tendinous cord beginning in
-     the skin behind the fetlock-joint and ending on the os
-     suffraginis in common with <i>b</i> and <i>c</i>; <i>e</i>,
-     tendinous reinforcing sheath of the perforans tendon;
-     <i>f</i>, reinforcing stay of the perforatus tendon;
-     <i>g</i>, perforatus tendon; <i>h</i>, perforans tendon;
-     <i>i</i>, suspensory ligament of the fetlock; <i>k</i>,
-     plantar surface of the os pedis, to which the plantar
-     cushion is joined by fibrous bands.</p>
-</div>
-<p class="space-below2"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span></p>
-
-<h4 id="I_E">E. The Blood-Vessels and Nerves.</h4>
-
-<p>Vessels which carry blood from the heart to the tissues are called
-<b>arteries</b>, while those which return the blood to the heart from
-the tissues are called <b>veins</b>. Arteries and veins are connected
-by very small, thread-like vessels called <i>capillaries</i>, which
-originate in the smallest arteries and are so minute that they can not
-be seen without the aid of a microscope. The capillaries penetrate the
-soft tissues in every direction, and finally unite to form small veins.
-For our purpose we need consider only the arteries and veins.</p>
-
-<p id="I_E_1">The <b>arteries</b> carrying blood from the heart ramify and
-subdivide in all parts of the body, and thus reach the foot. They are
-thick-walled, very elastic tubes, <b>without valves</b>, and carry
-<b>bright-red</b> blood, which flows in spurts, as can be seen when
-an artery is cut. If a finger be pressed lightly over an artery lying
-near the surface, the blood-wave can be felt as a light stroke (pulse).
-The character of the pulse is important, because in inflammations of
-the pododerm or horn-producing membrane of the foot we can ascertain
-by feeling that the pulse is stronger than usual in the large arteries
-carrying blood to the inflamed foot.</p>
-
-<p>On either side of the phalanges below the fetlock-joint there lies an
-artery called the <i>digital artery</i> (<a href="#FIG_25">Fig. 25, <i>a</i></a>).
-The pulse can be felt in it as it passes over the fetlock at <a href="#FIG_25"><i>A</i>, Fig. 25</a>.
-It gives off the following collateral (side) branches: 1. The <i>artery
-of the first phalanx</i> (perpendicular artery), with anterior and
-posterior branches. 2. The <i>artery of the plantar cushion</i>, which
-supplies with blood the plantar cushion, the velvety tissue of the
-sole and frog, the bar portion of the coronary band, and the sensitive
-laminæ of the bars. 3. The <i>coronary artery</i>, which carries blood
-to the coronary band, os coronæ, ligaments of the coronary and pedal
-joints, flexor tendons, and skin.</p>
-
-<p>The terminal branches of the digital arteries are the <i>preplantar</i>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span>
-and <i>plantar ungual arteries</i>. The preplantar artery passes
-through the notch in the wing of the os pedis, then along the
-preplantar fissure, splitting up into many branches, which spread
-over and penetrate the porous surface of the os pedis. The plantar
-artery courses along the plantar fissure, enters the plantar foramen,
-and passes into the semilunar sinus of the os pedis, where it unites
-with the terminal branch of the opposite digital artery, forming the
-<i>semilunar arch</i>.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_25" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_042.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="445" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Side view of forefoot, showing
-     blood-vessels and nerves: <i>a</i>, digital artery;
-     <i>b</i>, anterior artery of the os suffraginis; <i>d</i>,
-     anterior coronary artery, or circumflex artery of the
-     coronet; <i>e</i>′, preplantar ungual artery; <i>f′</i>,
-     inferior communicating arteries passing out from the
-     semilunar artery of the os pedis, through minute holes just
-     above the lower border of the bone; they unite to form
-     (<i>f″</i>) the circumflex artery of the toe; <i>A</i>,
-     digital vein; <i>B</i>, superficial venous plexus of
-     coronary band and lateral cartilage; <i>C</i>, podophyllous
-     venous plexus; <i>G</i>, circumflex vein of the toe; 1,
-     plantar nerve; 2, anterior digital branch of same; 3,
-     posterior digital branch of same; 4, small cutaneous
-     branches of same.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span>
-After the arterial or pure blood passes through the capillaries it is
-collected by the <b>veins</b>, to be returned to the heart; then it
-is driven to the lungs for purification, and is again returned to the
-heart, from whence it is pumped through the arteries to all parts of
-the body.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_26" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_043.jpg" alt="" width="350" height="563" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Foot viewed from below and behind:
-     <i>a</i>, digital arteries; <i>c</i>, arteries of the
-     plantar cushion; <i>f‴</i>, small branches of the semilunar
-     artery of the os pedis, which ramify in the velvety tissue
-     of the sole; <i>A</i>, digital vein; <i>B</i>, venous
-     plexus of the heels or bulbs; <i>D</i>, solar venous
-     plexus; <i>G</i>, circumflex vein of the toe; 3, posterior
-     digital branch of the plantar nerve; 4, cutaneous branches
-     of the same.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The veins are more numerous than the arteries; they have thinner walls,
-and the larger ones are provided with <b>valves</b> that prevent
-the impure blood from flowing backward. The veins carry impure or
-<b>dark-red</b> blood towards the heart, and if one is opened the dark
-blood flows in a steady stream; it does not spurt. The great number
-of veinlets in the lower parts of the foot form a complex net-work
-(plexus) of vessels which are in such manifold and close union with one
-another that checking the flow of blood in one part does not seriously
-interfere with the flowing of the blood towards the larger veins. The
-following are the most important of these net-works of veins or venous
-plexuses: (1) the <i>solar venous plexus</i> (<a href="#FIG_26">Fig. 26, <i>D</i></a>);
-(2) the <i>podophyllous venous plexus</i> (<a href="#FIG_25">Fig. 25, <i>C</i></a>);
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span>
-(3) <i>superficial coronary venous plexus</i> (<a href="#FIG_25">Fig. 25, <i>B</i></a>);
-(4) <i>bulbar venous plexus</i> (<a href="#FIG_26">Fig. 26, <i>B</i></a>).
-All these plexuses of small veins contribute to form the <i>digital veins</i>
-(<a href="#FIG_25">Figs. 25</a> and <a href="#FIG_26">26, <i>A</i></a>).</p>
-
-<p class="space-below2"><b>Nerves</b> are roundish white cords which
-come from the brain and spinal cord; they generally accompany arteries.
-They divide and subdivide into smaller and smaller branches till
-they become invisible to the naked eye and are lost in the tissues.
-The nerves that are found in the foot come from the spinal cord, and
-because the largest nerves of the foot accompany the digital arteries
-they are called <i>digital nerves</i> (<a href="#FIG_25">Fig. 25, 1</a>). The
-branches ramify throughout all parts of the foot except the horny box and the
-hair. Nerves, according to their use or function, are classed as
-<i>motor</i> and <i>sensory</i>. The motor nerves end in muscles which
-they stimulate to action and control. The sensory nerves terminate
-in the skin and in the soft tissues just under the horny box or hoof
-(pododerm), and render these parts sensitive; that is, they convey
-certain feelings, as, for example, the pain caused by bruising,
-pricking, or close-nailing, to the brain and consciousness.</p>
-
-<h4 id="I_F">F. The Protective Organs of the Foot.</h4>
-
-<p>The protective organs are the skin and the horny box or hoof.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>external skin</i>, or <i>hide</i>, covers the entire body; in
-the feet it covers the bones, tendons, and ligaments, even passing
-in under the hoof and directly covering the os pedis. This portion
-of the skin, enclosed by the hoof and therefore invisible, is called
-the <i>pododerm</i> or foot-skin. In Germany it is called the
-<i>hoof-skin</i> (huflederhaut), because it is a continuation of the
-outer visible skin, and because it secretes the hoof,—that is, the
-hoof is produced by it. That part of the skin which is covered with
-hair is known as the external or <i>hair-skin</i>.</p>
-
-<p id="I_F_A">(<i>a</i>) <b>The hair-skin</b> (<a href="#FIG_27">Fig. 27, <i>a</i></a>)
-consists of <i>three</i> superposed <i>layers</i>,—(1) the <i>external</i>
-superficial layer, or <i>epidermis</i>; (2) the <i>middle</i> layer,
-<i>derm</i> or leather-skin (so-called because leather is made from
-it); (3) the <i>internal</i> layer, or <i>subcutaneous connective tissue</i>.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span></p>
-
-<p id="I_F_A_1">1. The <i>external layer</i>, or <i>epidermis</i>, is composed
-merely of single flattened, horn-like cells (scales) lying side by side and
-over one another, and uniting to form one entire structure,—a thin,
-horn-like layer, without blood-vessels or nerves. It extends over the
-entire surface of the body, and protects the underlying, very sensitive
-middle layer from external influences. The oldest cell-layers lie on
-the outer surface, and are being continuously brushed off in patches or
-scales, while new ones are constantly being formed on the outer surface
-of the middle layer.</p>
-
-<p id="I_F_A_2">2. The <i>middle layer</i>, <i>leather-skin</i> or <i>dermis</i>,
-is composed of solid, fibrous, and elastic tissues, and contains many
-blood-vessels, small nerves, sweat-and oil-glands, and hair follicles
-from which the hair grows. The hair upon the posterior surface of
-the fetlock-joint is usually long and coarse, forming a tuft known
-as the “foot-lock,” which encloses a horny spur, called the ergot.
-Common-bred horses have, as a rule, larger and coarser footlocks than
-thoroughbreds. The derm or leather-skin, which produces the hair and
-epiderm, is the thickest and most important layer of the skin.</p>
-
-<p id="I_F_A_3">3. <i>The inner layer, or subcutaneous tissue</i>, unites the
-middle layer with the muscles, tendons, ligaments, bones, or other structures.
-It is that loose fibrous mesh or net-work through which the butcher
-cuts in removing the hide from the carcass.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_27" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_045.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="333" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Foot from which the horny capsule or
-     hoof, has been removed by prolonged soaking: <i>a</i>,
-     skin; on the left the hair has been rubbed away; <i>b</i>,
-     perioplic band; <i>c</i>, coronary cushion; <i>d</i>,
-     podophyllous tissue (fleshy leaves); at the lower border
-     of the figure can be seen the minute thread-like processes
-     or villi which grow down from the lower end of each fleshy leaf.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p id="I_F_B">(<i>b</i>) <b>The hoof-skin</b> (<a href="#FIG_27">Figs. 27</a>
-and <a href="#FIG_28">28, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i></a>), or
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span>
-pododerm, is completely enclosed by the hoof. Although it is only an
-extension of the derm or middle layer of the hair-skin, it differs from
-the latter in structure and relations.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_28" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_046.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="322" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Foot from which the near half of the
-     horny wall and a greater part of the so-called fleshy
-     wall have been removed, in order to show the relation of
-     the lateral cartilage to adjacent structures: <i>a</i>,
-     vertical section of the skin prolonged downward through
-     the pododerm (foot-skin) to show clearly that the latter
-     is but a continuation of the former; <i>a′</i>, hairless
-     place on the skin; <i>b</i>, perioplic band; <i>b′</i>,
-     line indicating the upper border of the same; <i>b″</i>,
-     surface of section of the periople, or perioplic horn-band;
-     <i>c</i>, coronary cushion; <i>c′</i>, (left) line which
-     marks the upper border of the coronary cushion; <i>c″</i>,
-     section of wall at the toe; <i>d</i>, podophyllous tissue
-     (sensitive laminæ); <i>e</i>, horny sole; <i>f</i>,
-     white line; <i>g</i>, horny frog; <i>h</i>, fleshy frog;
-     <i>i</i>, lateral cartilage.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In order to study the pododerm we should not wrench the hoof off with
-violence, but should allow the foot to partially decompose by leaving
-it for six to eight days at ordinary room temperature; it can then
-be removed without injuring the pododerm. After the hoof has been
-removed the entire pododerm presents a more or less dark-red color
-(flesh-color), which is due to the great number of blood-vessels that
-it contains. For this reason different parts of the pododerm have
-received the prefix “fleshy,” as for example, fleshy wall, fleshy sole,
-fleshy frog, etc. The pododerm is what the uninformed horseshoer calls
-the “quick.” I will here remark that the three layers of the external
-or hair-skin are represented in the foot; however, the epidermis is
-in an entirely different form,—namely, the horny box or hoof. The
-internal layer or subcutaneous tissue of the hair-skin is absent in
-those parts of the foot where the pododerm covers the os pedis. There
-remains, therefore, only the middle layer, derm, or <i>pododerm, which
-secretes the hoof</i>, and which is the prolongation and representative
-of the middle layer of the hair-skin. The pododerm is distinguished
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span>
-from the derm of the hair-skin chiefly by the absence of hairs, oil-
-and sweat-glands, and the presence on its outer surface of fleshy,
-sensitive laminæ and small thread-like projections called villi.</p>
-
-<p>The pododerm consists of five different parts: the <i>perioplic
-band</i>, the <i>coronary band</i>, the <i>sensitive laminæ</i>
-(podophyllous tissue), the <i>velvety tissue of the sole</i>, and the
-<i>velvety tissue of the fleshy frog</i>.</p>
-
-<p id="I_F_B_1">1. The <i>perioplic band</i> (<a href="#FIG_28">Fig. 28, <i>b</i></a>)
-is a narrow ridge, about one-fifth to one-fourth of an inch wide, lying between the
-hair-skin and the coronary band. Somewhat broader at the toe than on
-the sides, it broadens out near the bulbs of the heels, over which it
-passes to end in the velvety tissue of the fleshy frog. It is separated
-from the coronary band by a narrow depression called the <i>coronary
-furrow</i> (Moeller). The surface of the perioplic band glistens
-faintly, and is thickly studded with numerous thread-like projections
-called villi, which are from one-twenty-fourth to one-twelfth of an
-inch in length. <b>The perioplic band secretes the soft horn of the
-perioplic ring and the perioplic or varnish-like outer layer of the wall.</b></p>
-
-<p id="I_F_B_2">2. The <i>coronary band</i> (<a href="#FIG_27">Fig. 27, <i>c</i></a>)
-lies between the perioplic band and the sensitive laminæ or fleshy leaves. It presents
-a prominent convex band or cushion about three-fourths of an inch wide,
-which extends entirely around the foot from one bulb of the heel to the
-other. In front it directly covers the anterior extensor tendon of the
-toe, and at the sides the lateral surfaces of the os coronæ and the
-upper part of the lateral cartilages, while farther back towards the
-heels the lateral cartilages project considerably above both coronary
-and perioplic bands. The coronary band is more convex (rounded) in
-front than on the sides of the foot, and is flattened in the region
-of the bulbs of the heels. Its surface is thickly covered with villi,
-which are longer and stronger than those of the perioplic band. At the
-bulbs of the heels the coronary band turns forward and inward along the
-fleshy frog nearly to its summit. This portion of the coronary band is
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span>
-from one-third to one-half an inch wide, and is called the <i>bar
-portion of the coronary band</i>. It is also covered with villi, which
-are directly continuous with those of the fleshy frog. <b>The coronary
-band secretes the principal part (middle layer) of the horny wall of
-the hoof, including the bar portion (bars) of the wall.</b></p>
-
-<div id="FIG_29" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_048.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="448" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Plantar surface of a foot deprived
-     of its horny capsule by prolonged maceration: <i>a</i>,
-     laminæ of the bars; <i>b</i>, velvety tissue of the sole;
-     <i>c</i>, velvety tissue of the frog; <i>d</i>, median
-     cleft of the fleshy frog, into which the velvety tissue
-     dips; <i>e</i>, bulbar portion of the perioplic band, which
-     passes insensibly into the velvety tissue of the fleshy frog.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p id="I_F_B_3">3. <i>The fleshy wall</i>, or <i>podophyllous tissue</i>
-(<a href="#FIG_27">Figs. 27</a>, <a href="#FIG_28">28, <i>d</i></a>,
-and <a href="#FIG_29">29, <i>a</i></a>), is all that portion of the pododerm
-on which there are fleshy leaves. This leafy tissue covers the anterior
-surface of the os pedis and the lower portion of the external surface
-of the lateral cartilages. At the bulbs of the heels it turns inward at
-a sharp angle and extends forward and inward, between the bar portion
-of the coronary band and the posterior part of the velvety tissue of
-the sole, nearly to the middle of the solar surface of the foot, to
-form the <i>laminæ of the bars</i> (<a href="#FIG_29">Fig. 29, <i>a</i></a>).
-The fleshy wall and fleshy bars are not covered with villi, but with numerous
-prominent, parallel, <i>fleshy leaves</i> placed close together, each
-of which runs in a straight line downward and forward from the coronary
-band to the lower border of the os pedis. Between the fleshy leaves are
-deep furrows in which, in a foot which has not been deprived of its
-horny capsule, lie the horny or insensitive leaves of the wall. The
-fleshy leaves (podophyllous laminæ) are related to one another somewhat
-as the leaves of a book; their posterior borders are attached to the
-body or basement membrane of the fleshy wall, while their anterior
-borders and sides are free. At their upper ends immediately below the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span>
-coronary band the leaves are quite narrow, but they gradually increase
-in width down to the middle, and thereafter maintain that breadth to
-the lower border of the os pedis, where they terminate in free, fleshy
-villi, which differ in no respect from those of the fleshy sole. The
-number and length of the fleshy leaves vary; in a medium-sized foot
-there are about five hundred, while in a large foot there may be as
-many as six hundred. On the anterior surface of the os pedis the leaves
-are thickest and longest; on the sides and quarters they gradually
-decrease in length, while in the bar region they are the shortest and
-gradually disappear near the anterior ends of the bars. The width of
-the leaves decreases as they become shorter. Viewed with the naked eye
-the leaves appear flat and smooth, but under the microscope one can see
-on both sides of a fleshy leaf numerous small, fleshy leaflets parallel
-to one another and extending lengthwise with the larger leaf. The large
-ones are called <i>principal leaves</i>, and the small ones are known
-as <i>collateral leaves</i>, or simply as <i>leaflets</i>.</p>
-
-<p id="I_F_B_3_A" class="blockquot"> <b>The fleshy leaves (podophyllous tissue)
-secrete the horny leaves (keraphyllous tissue) and serve to bind the
-horny wall to the pododerm. The strength of this union is due largely
-to the dovetailing of the horny leaves and their leaflets with the
-fleshy leaves and their leaflets.</b></p>
-
-<p id="I_F_B_4">4. <i>The fleshy sole</i> or <i>velvety tissue of the sole</i>
-(<a href="#FIG_29">Fig. 29, <i>b</i></a>) is that part of the pododerm which covers
-all the under surface of the foot except the plantar cushion, the bar laminæ, and
-the bar portion of the coronary band. It is sometimes slate-colored or
-studded with black spots, but is usually dark-red. It is thickly set
-with villi, which are especially long and strong<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
-near its periphery. <b>The fleshy sole</b> covers the solar plexus, or
-net-work of veins, and <b>secretes the horny sole</b>.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span></p>
-
-<p id="I_F_B_5">5. <i>The velvety tissue of the frog</i> (<a href="#FIG_29">Fig. 29, <i>c</i></a>)
-covers the lower surface of the plantar cushion, and in the region of the bulbs
-(<i>e</i>) passes insensibly into the perioplic band. In comparison
-with the fleshy sole, it has much finer and shorter villi and contains
-fewer blood-vessels. <b>It secretes the soft, horny frog.</b></p>
-
-<div id="FIG_30" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_050.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="259" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Side view of hoof recently removed:
-     <i>a</i>, the perioplic horn-band; it is swollen from
-     prolonged maceration in water; the upper border shows
-     adhering hairs; the inner surface (perioplic groove)
-     presents many minute openings; <i>a′</i>, the perioplic
-     horn-band broadens in passing over the bulb or glome of the
-     heel, and is finally lost in the horny frog; <i>a″</i>,
-     section of wall removed. That part of hoof on the right of
-     <i>b</i> is called the toe; between <i>b</i> and <i>c</i>
-     is the side wall or “mamma,” and between <i>c</i> and
-     <i>d</i> the “quarter;” <i>e</i>, projecting horny frog;
-     <i>f</i>, coronary groove with numerous minute openings;
-     <i>g</i>, keraphyllous layer of the wall (horny leaves).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p id="I_F_C">(<i>c</i>) <b>The horn capsule</b> or <b>hoof</b> (<a href="#FIG_30">Fig. 30</a>)
-is the entire mass made up of the horn-cells secreted from the whole surface
-of the pododerm, and next to the shoe is the organ with which the
-horseshoer has most to do. The horn capsule or hoof is nothing more
-than a very thick epidermis that protects the horse’s foot, just as
-a well-fitting shoe protects the human foot. The hoof of a sound
-foot is so firmly united with the underlying pododerm that only an
-extraordinary force can separate them. In its normal condition the
-hoof exactly fits the soft structures within it; hence it is evident
-that local or general contraction of the hoof must produce pressure
-on the blood-vessels and nerve-endings of the pododerm, disturb the
-circulation of the blood and the nutrition of the foot, and cause pain.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span></p>
-
-<div id="FIG_31" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_051.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="463" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Plantar surface of right fore-hoof:
-     <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, bearing-surface of the toe; <i>a</i>,
-     <i>b</i>, bearing-surface of the side walls or mammæ;
-     <i>b, c</i>, bearing-surface of the quarters; <i>d</i>,
-     buttress, or angle formed by wall and bar; <i>e</i>, bar;
-     <i>f</i>, sole; <i>f′</i>, branches of the sole; <i>g</i>,
-     white line; it passes between the sole and bars and ends
-     at <i>g′</i>; <i>h</i>, horny frog; <i>i</i>, branches of
-     the frog; <i>k</i>, heels, bulbs, or glomes of the hoof;
-     <i>l</i>, median lacuna of horny frog. Between the bars and
-     the horny frog lie the lateral lacunæ of the frog.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p id="I_F_C_1">The hoof is divided into three principal parts, which are solidly
-united in the healthy foot,—namely, the <b>wall</b>, the <b>sole</b>,
-and the <b>frog</b>. That part of the hoof which is almost wholly
-visible when the foot is on the ground (<a href="#FIG_30">Fig. 30, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i></a>),
-and which protects the foot in front and upon the sides, is known as
-the <b>wall</b>. In position, course, direction, and arrangement of
-its parts it simulates the different parts of the pododerm from which
-it is developed. It extends from the edge of the hair just above the
-coronary band to the ground; backward it gradually decreases in height
-(length), passes around the bulbs of the heels, and turns forward and
-inward (<a href="#FIG_32">Fig. 32, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i></a>, and
-<a href="#FIG_34">34, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i></a>) to
-form the <b>bars</b>, which are finally lost in the edge of the sole
-near the summit of the frog. It thus forms at each heel an angle
-(<a href="#FIG_31">Fig. 31, <i>d</i></a>, and <a href="#FIG_32">32, <i>d</i></a>)
-known as a buttress, which encloses a branch of the horny sole.
-Externally the wall is smooth, covered with the varnish-like periople,
-and presents indistinct ring-like markings (<a href="#FIG_30">Fig. 30</a>).
-Its inner surface, on the contrary, presents a great number of horn-leaves
-which are spoken of collectively as the <i>keraphyllous tissue</i>
-(<a href="#FIG_32">Figs. 32, <i>g</i></a>, and <a href="#FIG_35">35, <i>f</i></a>).
-The upper or <b>coronary border</b> of the wall is thin and flexible, and on its
-inner aspect is the <b>coronary groove</b>, into which fits the <b>coronary
-band</b> (<a href="#FIG_30">Fig. 30, <i>f</i></a>). The lower border of the wall,
-called the “<b>bearing-edge</b>” or <i>plantar border</i> (<a href="#FIG_31">Fig. 31, <i>a</i></a>),
-is the one to which the horseshoe is fastened. By dividing a
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span>
-hoof from before to behind along its median line, <i>outer</i> and
-<i>inner</i> halves or <i>walls</i> are produced, and by dividing
-the entire lower circumference of the wall into five equal parts
-or sections, a <b>toe</b>, two <b>side walls or mammæ</b>, and two
-<b>quarters</b> will be exhibited (<a href="#FIG_32">Figs. 32</a>
-and <a href="#FIG_33">33</a>). In order to designate these regions of
-the hoof still more accurately, they are spoken of as outer and inner
-toes, quarters, and heels.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_32" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_052.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="490" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Wall and bars seen from below:
-     <i>a</i>, toe; <i>b</i>, side wall, or mamma; <i>c</i>,
-     quarter; <i>d</i>, buttress; <i>e</i>, bar; <i>g</i>,
-     horn-leaves; <i>h</i>, space occupied by the frog.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>The direction</i> (slant) <i>and length of the wall</i> vary in one
-and the same hoof, as well as between fore and hind hoofs. The portion
-of the wall of fore-hoofs is the most slanting,—that is, forms the
-most acute angle with the surface of the ground,—and is also the
-longest. Towards the quarters the wall gradually becomes very nearly
-vertical; in almost all hoofs the posterior part of the quarters slants
-downward and inward towards the median vertical antero-posterior plane
-of the foot. At the same time the wall, in passing back from the toe to
-the heel, becomes gradually shorter in such a manner that the heights
-of the toe, side walls, and quarters are related to one another about
-as 3: 2: 1 in front hoofs and as 4: 3: 2 in hind hoofs. The outer
-wall is, as a rule, somewhat more slanting than the inner. Viewing a
-foot in profile, the toe and heel should be parallel; that is, the line
-from the hair to the ground at the toe should be parallel to the line
-from the hair to the ground at the buttress. <b>All deviations of the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span>
-wall from a straight line</b> (outward or inward bendings) <b>are to be
-regarded as faults or defects</b>.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_33" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_053a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="273" />
-     <p class="center">A hoof in profile; <i>a</i>, toe (one half);
-      <i>b</i>, side wall; <i>c</i>, quarter.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div id="FIG_34" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150 space-above2"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_053b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="218" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Vertical section through the middle
-     of a hoof, with horny frog removed, to show the position
-     of the bar: <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, marks the line at which
-     the wall bends forward and inward towards the median line
-     of the foot to become the bar. Bar runs forward and passes
-     imperceptibly into the sole <i>c</i>; <i>a</i>, <i>a′</i>,
-     the light shading shows the part of the bar that was in
-     contact with the horny frog.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>thickness of the wall</i> is also variable. In front hoofs the
-wall is thickest at the toe, and becomes gradually thinner towards
-the quarters, while in hind hoofs, there is very little difference
-in the thickness of the wall of the toe, sides, and quarters. <i>The
-more slanting half of the hoof is always the thicker</i>; thus, for
-example, the outer wall of a base-wide foot is always longer and more
-oblique than the inner wall, and is also thicker. According to Mayer,
-the thickness of the wall at the toe varies from three- to five-eighths
-of an inch, and at the quarters from two to three-eighths of an inch.
-These measurements are dependent upon the size and breeding of the horse.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span></p>
-
-<div id="FIG_35" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_054.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="296" />
-     <p class="blockquot">The outer wall of the hoof has
-     been removed by cutting vertically through the middle
-     of the toe, down to the upper surface of the sole, then
-     horizontally backward into the quarter, and, finally,
-     upward through the quarter: <i>a</i>, perioplic horn-band;
-     <i>b</i>, coronary groove; it turns inward and forward at
-     <i>c</i> to form the upper border of the bar; <i>d</i>,
-     surface of section of the wall at the toe; <i>d′</i>, at
-     the quarter; <i>e</i>, surface of horizontal section of the
-     wall near its lower border; <i>f</i>, keraphyllous layer of
-     the wall; at <i>f′</i> it turns forward and inward to cover
-     the bar; <i>f″</i>, horny leaves standing free and passing
-     insensibly into the white horn of the middle layer or true
-     wall; <i>g</i>, horny sole; <i>h</i>, white line; <i>i</i>,
-     small horn-spur in middle of toe; <i>k</i>, part of horny
-     frog which is in intimate union with the upper edge of the
-     bar; <i>l</i>, frog-stay of horny frog; it divides the
-     trough-like depression of the upper surface of the frog
-     into <i>m</i>, the two upper channels of the frog.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The horn wall is composed of <i>three superposed layers</i>. These
-from without to within are: (1) the <b>periople</b>, secreted by the
-perioplic band. It is very thin, glistening, and varnish-like in
-appearance, and covers the entire outer surface of the wall, except
-where it has been removed by the rasp, and prevents rapid evaporation
-of moisture from the horn. (2) The middle or <b>protective layer</b>
-(<a href="#FIG_35">Fig. 35, <i>d</i></a>) is the thickest, strongest, and most
-important of the three layers; it forms the principal mass of the wall, and
-is developed or secreted by the coronary band, which fits into the
-coronary groove. There are in the coronary groove a great number of
-small, funnel-shaped openings into which project the horn-producing
-villi or papillæ of the coronary band. (3) The <b>inner layer</b> or
-<b>keraphyllous layer</b> (<a href="#FIG_35">Fig. 35, <i>f</i></a>) consists of
-prominent, parallel horn-leaves lying side by side over the entire inner surface
-of the middle layer of the wall, and continuing beyond the buttresses
-to the ends of the bars (<a href="#FIG_35">Fig. 35, <i>f′</i></a>). This layer of
-horn-leaves (keraphyllous layer) has in a general way about the same shape and
-arrangement as the layer of fleshy leaves (podophyllous layer) which
-secretes it; for the horn-leaves fit in with the fleshy leaves in such
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span>
-a way that every fleshy leaf is embraced by two horn-leaves, and every
-horn-leaf by two fleshy leaves (<a href="#FIG_36">Fig. 36</a>). The keraphyllous
-layer and the horn of the inmost part of the middle or protective layer are
-always white, even in pigmented (colored) hoofs.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_36" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_055.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="257" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Cross-section of keraphyllous and
-     podophyllous laminæ (horny and fleshy leaves): <i>a</i>,
-     inmost part of the solid wall; the horn-tubes approach
-     very close to the horny leaves; <i>b</i>, body of the
-     podophyllous membrane; <i>c</i>, horny portion of a
-     horn-leaf directly continuous with the middle or principal
-     layer of the wall; <i>c′</i>, a rudimentary horn-leaf that
-     does not reach the body of the podophyllous membrane;
-     <i>c″</i>, cross-section of horny leaves from the sides of
-     which branch many secondary leaves (leaflets) composed of
-     soft (young) horn-cells. These soft cellular horn-leaflets
-     dovetail with the podophyllous or fleshy leaflets;
-     <i>d</i>, podophyllous laminæ extending from the body of
-     the podophyllous membrane; <i>d′</i>, podophyllous laminæ
-     which have branched in their course to the wall, and
-     thus given rise to <i>c′</i>, rudimentary horn-leaves;
-     <i>d″</i>, cross-section of podophyllous leaflets extending
-     from the sides of the podophyllous leaves; each two such
-     leaflets secrete a keraphyllous leaflet between them;
-     <i>e</i>, injected arterial vessels.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="space-below2"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span></p>
-
-<div id="FIG_37" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_056a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="301" />
-     <p class="blockquot space-below2">Vertical section of the horny
-     sole magnified: <i>a</i>, funnel-shaped openings which contain
-     the horn-producing villi of the fleshy sole; they are of various
-     sizes; <i>b</i>, horn-tubes; <i>c</i>, intertubular horn.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div id="FIG_38" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_056b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="335" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Horny frog, with the posterior
-     portion of the perioplic horn-band and the periople which
-     covers the quarters removed from the hoof as one piece by
-     maceration: <i>a</i>, trough-shaped depression of upper
-     surface, which is divided posteriorly into the two upper
-     channels of the frog by <i>b</i>, the frog-stay; <i>c</i>,
-     part of the frog that is joined to the bar and forms
-     the lateral wall of the depression (channels) on upper
-     surface of frog; <i>d</i>, lateral surface of horny frog
-     which, in its upper part, adheres to the bar, but below,
-     at <i>d′</i>, lies free; <i>e</i>, point or summit of the
-     frog; <i>f</i>, perioplic horn-band; <i>f′</i>, periople of
-     the quarters.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p id="I_F_C_3">The <b>horn sole</b> (<a href="#FIG_31">Fig. 31, <i>f</i></a>,
-and <a href="#FIG_35">Fig. 35, <i>g</i></a>) is secreted by the velvety
-tissue of the sole. A sole from which the loose flakes of old horn
-have been removed is about as thick as the wall. It covers the under
-surface of the foot, and presents upon its upper surface a convexity
-which exactly fits into the concavity on the under surface of the os
-pedis. This upper surface is thickly covered by a multitude of minute
-funnel-shaped openings for the reception of the villi of the velvety
-tissue of the sole (<a href="#FIG_37">Fig. 37</a>). The lower surface
-of the sole is more or less concave, rough, uneven, and often covered
-by loose scales of dead horn. Behind, the sole presents a triangular
-opening whose borders lie partly in contact with the horny frog and
-partly with the bars. This opening or re-entering angle divides
-the sole into a <i>body</i> (<a href="#FIG_31">Fig. 31, <i>f</i></a>)
-and two wings or <i>branches</i> (<a href="#FIG_31">Fig. 31, <i>f′</i></a>).
-The outer border of the sole unites through the medium of the <b>white
-line</b> with the lower part of the inner surface of the wall,—that
-is, with the keraphyllous layer of the wall. This <b>white line</b>
-(<a href="#FIG_31">Figs. 31, <i>g</i></a>, and <a href="#FIG_35">35, <i>h</i></a>),
-of so much importance to the horseshoer, is formed by the horn-leaves,
-and by those short plugs of tubular horn which are secreted by the
-villi that are always found at the lower ends of the fleshy leaves.
-The white line may be said to exist wherever the horn-leaves can be
-discerned upon the plantar surface of the hoof. It not only passes
-around the circumference of the sole from heel to heel, but may be
-followed forward from the buttresses along the bars almost to the
-summit of the frog. The horn of the white line is soft, unpigmented
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span>
-(white), and possesses so very little resistance (strength) that it is often
-found crumbling or even absent in places. The visible part of the white line
-is usually of a grayish-black color, owing to the working in from below
-of dirt and liquid manure, and to staining by rust from the nails.
-<b>The white line is very important, since it serves as the point from
-which we judge of the thickness of the wall, and because the horseshoe
-nail should penetrate it.</b></p>
-
-<div id="FIG_39" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_057a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="249" />
-     <p class="blockquot">A horny frog cut vertically and
-     lengthwise through its middle: <i>a</i>, upper surface;
-     <i>b</i>, frog-stay; <i>c</i>, median lacuna of frog, which
-     at <i>c′</i>, is overlaid with superposed layers of horn.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div id="FIG_40" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_057b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="212" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Longitudinal section of the wall
-     magnified. The dark stripes parallel and close together
-     are horn-tubes; the lighter surface between the tubes
-     represents the intertubular horn. Notice that the
-     horn-tubes are of various diameters. The space between
-     <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> represents the small tubes of the
-     outer, darker horn of the principal (middle) layer of the
-     wall; the space between <i>b</i> and <i>c</i> the lighter,
-     inner horn of the wall; <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, the horn
-     separating the wall proper from the horny leaves; <i>d</i>,
-     <i>e</i>, the horny leaves (keraphyllous tissue), on which
-     can be seen fine, parallel, vertical stripes; in the
-     horn-leaf at <i>f</i>, <i>f′</i>, are seen fissures passing
-     obliquely upward and outward towards the wall.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p id="I_F_C_4"><b>The Frog</b> (<a href="#FIG_31">Figs. 31, <i>h</i></a>,
-<a href="#FIG_35">35, <i>k</i>, <i>l</i></a>, <a href="#FIG_38">38</a> and
-<a href="#FIG_39">39</a>), secreted by the velvety tissue covering the plantar cushion
-and presenting almost the same form as the latter, lies as a wedge between
-the bars and between the edges of the sole just in front of the bars,
-with both of which structures it is intimately united. Its horn is
-<i>quite soft</i> and <i>very elastic</i>. The median lacuna or cleft
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span>
-of the frog (<a href="#FIG_31">Fig. 31, <i>l</i></a>) divides it into
-two branches (<a href="#FIG_31">Fig. 31, <i>i</i></a>), which pass
-backward and outward into the horny bulbs (<a href="#FIG_31">Fig. 31, <i>k</i></a>).
-In front of the median lacuna the two branches unite to
-form the <i>body</i> of the frog (<a href="#FIG_31">Fig. 31, <i>h</i></a>),
-which ends in a point, designated the <i>point</i>, apex, or summit of
-the frog. On the upper surface of the frog, directly over the median
-cleft of the lower surface, there is a small projection called the
-frog-stay (<a href="#FIG_35">Figs. 35, <i>l</i></a>, <a href="#FIG_38">38</a>
-and <a href="#FIG_39">39, <i>b</i></a>), which fits into the median
-cleft of the plantar cushion. Besides, the upper surface of the frog
-shows many minute openings, similar to but smaller than those of the
-sole and coronary groove, for the reception of villi. In unshod hoofs
-the frog, sole, bars, and bearing-edge of the wall are on a level; that
-is, the plantar surface of such hoofs is perfectly flat.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_41" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_058.jpg" alt="" width="350" height="344" />
-     <p class="center">Cross-section of the wall, magnified:<br />
-      <i>a</i>, horn-tubes;<br /> <i>b</i>, intertubular horn.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p id="I_F_C_5">The <i>minute structure of the horn</i> can scarcely be considered in
-detail in an elementary treatise such as this is. However, a few of the
-most important facts are as follows:</p>
-
-<p>If we carefully examine a transverse section of the horn of the wall
-(<a href="#FIG_41">Fig. 41</a>), sole, or frog, we will see with the naked eye,
-though much better with a magnifying glass, many minute points quite close to
-one another, and greatly resembling the small openings which we have seen
-in the coronary groove of the wall and on the upper surface of the
-horny sole and frog. If, now, we examine a longitudinal section of the
-wall (<a href="#FIG_40">Fig. 40</a>) or sole, we will see a number of fine, dark
-stripes which are straight, parallel, quite close to one another, of different
-widths, and which are separated by bands of lighter horn also of
-different widths. A thin section or slice of the wall taken at right
-angles to the direction of these dark lines (<a href="#FIG_41">Fig. 41</a>) shows
-us that the minute points that are visible to the naked eye, when held up to
-the light or moderately magnified, prove to be small openings (<a href="#FIG_41">Fig. 41, <i>a</i></a>).
-Since these openings, shown in <a href="#FIG_41">Fig. 41</a>, represent the
-dark lines shown in <a href="#FIG_40">Fig. 40</a>, because an opening is found wherever
-there is a dark line, <i>we must regard all dark lines seen in longitudinal
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span>
-sections of wall, sole, and frog as hollow cylinders or tubes</i>,
-though they are not always hollow, but are often filled with loosely
-adjusted, crumbling, broken down horn-cells. The dark edges of the
-openings (<i>a</i>) consist of thick layers of horn-cells (tube-walls).
-The entire structure is called a <b>horn-tube</b>, and the
-lighter-colored masses of horn (<a href="#FIG_41">Fig. 41, <i>b</i></a>)
-between the tubes are known as <b>intertubular horn</b>.</p>
-
-<p class="blockquot"><b>With the exception of the horny leaves of the
-wall and bars, all the horn of the hoof is composed of horn-tubes and
-intertubular horn.</b></p>
-
-<p id="I_F_C_6">The horn-tubes of the wall, sole, and frog always run downward and
-forward parallel to the direction of the wall at the toe,—that is,
-in a direction parallel with the inclination of the hoof as a whole.
-Although the wall, sole, and frog differ from one another considerably
-with respect to the size and number of the horn-tubes, the quality
-of the intertubular horn, and the thickness and strength of the
-horn-cells, these differences are only of subordinate interest or
-importance to the horseshoer; but he who desires to learn more of this
-matter is referred to the work of Leisering &amp; Hartmann, “Der Fuss des
-Pferdes in Rücksicht auf Bau, Verrichtungen und Hufbeschlag,” eighth
-edition, Dresden, 1893. This book also treats of the variations in the
-quality of hoofs, which is very important for the practical horseshoer
-to know. It, furthermore, considers the solidity and strength of the
-horn of the different parts of the hoof.</p>
-
-<p>With respect to solidity, two kinds of horn are distinguished,—namely,
-<b>hard</b> and <b>soft horn</b>. The periople, the white line, and the
-frog are soft horn structures; the middle layer of the wall and the
-sole are hard or solid horn. The wall, however, is somewhat harder and
-more tenacious than the sole, for the latter passes off in more or less
-large flakes (exfoliates) or crumbles away on its lower surface, at least
-in shod feet, while no such spontaneous shortening occurs in the wall.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span></p>
-
-<div id="FIG_42" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_060.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="494" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Vertical section through middle of
-     a forefoot, the skin and pododerm being in red. (In the
-     figure the direction of both long and short pasterns,
-     <i>B</i> and <i>D</i>, is too nearly vertical—too
-     steep). <i>A</i>, metacarpal bone (cannon); <i>B</i>,
-     os suffraginis (long pastern); <i>C</i>, inner sesamoid
-     bone (to render it visible a portion of the intersesamoid
-     ligament was removed); <i>D</i>, os coronæ (short pastern);
-     <i>E</i>, os pedis (foot-bone); <i>F</i>, navicular bone;
-     <i>a</i>, extensor tendon; <i>b</i>, suspensory ligament
-     of the fetlock; <i>b′</i>, superficial inferior sesamoid
-     ligament; <i>c</i>, perforatus tendon or flexor of the os
-     coronæ; <i>c′</i>, ring passing forward from this tendon
-     and encircling the perforans tendon; <i>d</i>, perforans
-     tendon; <i>e</i>, capsular ligament of fetlock-joint;
-     <i>f</i>, capsular ligament of coronary joint; <i>g</i>,
-     <i>g′</i>, capsular ligament of pedal joint; <i>h</i>,
-     synovial sheath of the perforans tendon; <i>i</i>, plantar
-     cushion and fleshy frog; <i>i′</i>, bulbs or glomes of
-     plantar cushion; <i>i″</i>, indicates the lowest point
-     reached by the plantar cushion, which in the figure is
-     hidden below by the frog-stay of the horny frog; <i>k</i>,
-     coronary band (red); <i>l</i>, podophyllous tissue (red);
-     <i>m</i>, velvety tissue of the sole (red); <i>n</i>,
-     velvety tissue of fleshy frog (red); <i>o</i>, wall;
-     <i>p</i>, sole; <i>q</i>, frog; <i>q′</i>, the inner half
-     of the frog-stay which reposes in the median lacuna of the
-     fleshy frog; <i>s</i>, hair-skin (red).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span>
-Soft horn differs from hard horn in that its horn-cells never become
-hard and horn-like. It is very elastic, absorbs water quickly, and as
-readily dries out and becomes very hard and brittle and easily fissured
-and chapped. With respect to <i>quality</i>, we distinguish good and
-bad horn; the former is fine and tenacious (tough), the latter coarse
-and either soft and crumbling or hard and brittle. If not dried out,
-all horn is elastic, though soft horn is more elastic than hard. All
-horn is a <i>poor conductor of heat</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The relative positions of the various parts of the foot are shown
-in <a href="#FIG_42">Fig. 42</a>.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#FIG_43">Fig. 43</a> represents the exterior of a well-formed foot.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_43" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_061.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="516" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Right forefoot viewed from the side:
-     <i>A</i>, lower end of the cannon; <i>B</i>, fetlock-joint;
-     <i>C</i>, long pastern; <i>D</i>, coronet; <i>E</i>, hoof;
-     <i>F</i>, heel; <i>F′</i> inner heel; <i>G</i>, foot-lock
-     covering the ergot.</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span></p>
-<h3 class="nobreak">CHAPTER II.<br />
-<span class="h_subtitle">THE FOOT IN ITS RELATION<br /> TO THE ENTIRE LIMB.</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<div id="FIG_44" class="figleft">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_062.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="499" />
-     <p class="center">Normal (regular) position<br /> of fore-limbs.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="space-above3">As there are well-formed and badly formed bodies, so
-there are well-formed and badly formed limbs and hoofs. The form of the hoof
-depends upon the position of the limb. A straight limb of normal
-direction possesses, as a rule, a regular hoof, while an oblique or
-crooked limb is accompanied by an irregular or oblique hoof. Hence,
-it is necessary, before discussing the various forms of the hoof, to
-consider briefly the various positions that may be assumed by the
-limbs. In this discussion we shall deal with the <b>living</b> horse.</p>
-
-<h4 id="II_A">A. Standing Positions of the Limbs.</h4>
-
-<p>The position of a limb depends upon the varying lengths of its
-component bones and the angles at which they meet one another. To judge
-the standing position of a fore-limb one must stand <i>in front</i>
-of the horse; to judge a hind limb, stand <i>behind</i> the horse;
-the backward or forward deviations of both front and hind limbs are
-judged by standing at the side. But a horse does not always move as his
-standing position would lead one to suspect; standing and moving are
-different. Therefore, in order to arrive at a proper judgment, one must
-observe the limbs both at rest and in motion.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span></p>
-
-<p id="II_A_A">(<i>a</i>) <b>The position of a limb viewed from in front</b>
-is normal or straight (<a href="#FIG_44">Fig. 44</a>) when it stands vertical
-or perpendicular. A plumb-line dropped from the point of the shoulder (middle
-of the scapulo-humeral articulation) should pass down the middle
-line of the limb, dividing it into inner and outer halves of
-equal width, and meeting the ground at the middle of the toe.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_45" class="f150 space-below1">Fig. 45.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_063a.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="363" />
-     <p class="center">Base-wide</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_46" class="f150">Fig. 46.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_063b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="386" />
-     <p class="center">Toe-wide</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_47" class="f150 space-below1">Fig. 47.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_063c.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="371" />
-     <p class="center">Toe-narrow<br /> (“pigeon-toed”)</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the <i>base-wide standing position</i> (<a href="#FIG_45">Fig. 45</a>) the
-plumb-line falls to the inner side of the limb; the limb extends obliquely
-downward and outward. To this class belong also the <i>knee-narrow</i>
-(knock-kneed) <i>position</i>, in which the knees are too close
-together, while the feet stand wide apart, and the <i>toe-wide
-position</i> (splay-footed, <a href="#FIG_46">Fig. 46</a>) in which
-the toes point obliquely forward and outward. In base-wide positions
-either the entire limb extends downward and outward or the foot alone
-is turned outward.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>base-narrow position</i> is frequently observed in horses with
-very wide breasts. The limbs run downward and inward, a plumb-line
-dropped from the point of the shoulder falling to the outer side of
-the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span>
-leg and foot. A special form of the base-narrow position is the
-<i>toe-narrow</i> or <i>pigeon-toed position</i> (<a href="#FIG_47">Fig. 47</a>).
-In some instances the legs are straight and perpendicular down to the fetlock,
-while from there to the ground the phalanges incline obliquely inward.
-Another form is the <i>knee-wide</i> or <i>bandy-legged position</i>,
-in which the knees are placed too far apart, while the cannons and
-phalanges incline downward and inward.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_48" class="f150">Fig. 48.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_064a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="548" />
-     <p class="center">Normal (regular) fore-limb<br /> in profile.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_49" class="f150 space-below1">Fig. 49.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_064b.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="535" />
-     <p class="center">Normal (regular) hind-limb<br /> in profile.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_50" class="f150">Fig. 50.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_065a.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="399" />
-     <p class="center">Camped in front.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_51" class="f150">Fig. 51.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_065b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="427" />
-     <p class="center">Calf-kneed.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_52" class="f150">Fig. 52.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_065c.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="422" />
-     <p class="center">Acute-angled foot<br /> (low-jointed).</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>The position of a fore-limb viewed in profile</b> is regular or
-normal (<a href="#FIG_48">Fig. 48</a>) when a perpendicular line dropped from the
-tuberosity of the acromian spine (point of union of the upper and middle thirds of
-the scapula or shoulder-blade) divides the leg from the elbow to the
-fetlock into anterior and posterior halves of equal width, and touches
-the ground immediately back of the bulbs of the heel. A perpendicular
-line dropped from the point of union of the middle and lower thirds
-of the scapula (shoulder-blade) will cut the humerus into halves, and
-meet the ground between the toe and the heel.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
-The <i>foot-axis</i> (line of direction of the three phalanges) and the
-wall at the toe form an angle of from forty-five to fifty degrees with
-the horizontal ground-surface.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span></p>
-
-<p>From this normal or regular standing position, there are <i>deviations
-forward</i> as well as <i>backward</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>Forward Deviations.</b>—“<i>Standing in front</i>” or “<i>camped
-in front</i>” (<a href="#FIG_50">Fig. 50</a>) is that position in which the entire
-leg from the body to the ground is placed too far forward. <i>Sheep-kneed</i>
-(<a href="#FIG_51">Fig. 51</a>) is that position in which the forward deviation
-is from the knee downward, the knee being placed too far under the body.
-“<i>Weak-jointed</i>,” “<i>low-jointed</i>,” or “<i>acute-angled</i>”
-(<a href="#FIG_52">Fig. 52</a>) is that position in which the limbs are perpendicular
-and straight down as far as the fetlock-joint, but the feet are placed too
-far in front.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_53" class="f150">Fig. 53.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_066a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="443" />
-     <p class="center">Standing under.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_54" class="f150">Fig. 54.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_066b.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="435" />
-     <p class="center">Knee-sprung.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="II_A_B"><b>Backward Deviations.</b>—<i>Standing under in front</i> (<a href="#FIG_53">Fig. 53</a>)
-is that deviation in which the entire leg from the elbow down is placed
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span>
-back of the perpendicular line and, therefore, too far under the body.
-When this deviation affects only the cannon bone, the horse stands
-bent forward at the knees,—a condition known as “<i>goat-kneed</i>,”
-“<i>buck-kneed</i>,” “<i>over in the knees</i>,” or, more commonly,
-“<i>knee-sprung</i>” (<a href="#FIG_54">Fig. 54</a>). When the backward deviation
-is only from the fetlock down, the animal is said to stand <i>upright</i> or
-“<i>straight in the fetlock</i>.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_55" class="f150 space-below1">Fig. 55.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_067a.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="432" />
-     <p class="center">Normal (regular) position<br /> viewed from behind.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_56" class="f150">Fig. 56.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_067b.jpg" alt="" width="148" height="450" />
-     <p class="center">Base-wide<br /> (cow-hocked).</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_57" class="f150">Fig. 57.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_067c.jpg" alt="" width="149" height="452" />
-     <p class="center">Base-narrow.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<div id="FIG_58" class="figleft">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_068.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="401" />
-     <p class="center">Base-narrow position<br /> of hind limbs<br /> (bandy-legged).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<i>b</i>) <b>A hind leg viewed from behind</b> is said to be
-<i>regular</i> or <i>straight</i> (<a href="#FIG_55">Fig. 55</a>) when a perpendicular line
-dropped from the tuberosity of the ischium (<a href="#FIG_1">see Fig. 1, 9″</a>) divides
-the entire limb into inner and outer halves of equal width and touches
-the ground opposite the median lacuna of the frog. <b>Seen from the
-side</b>, this line just touches the point of the hock and, passing
-down at some distance from the flexor tendons, meets the ground
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span>
-considerably back of the heels. A perpendicular line dropped from the
-hip-joint should pass through the foot, meeting the ground half-way
-between the point of the toe and the heel (<a href="#FIG_49">Fig. 49</a>).
-There are base-wide, base-narrow, toe-wide, and toe-narrow deviations
-in the hind limbs as in the fore-limbs.</p>
-
-<p>The hind limbs are <i>base-wide</i> when they, either as a whole or in
-part, deviate outward from the normal. The “<i>cow-hocked</i>“ position
-(<a href="#FIG_56">Fig. 56</a>) is an example of the base-wide; in this case the
-points of the hocks are too close and turn towards each other, while the feet are
-widely separated and the toes turned outward. <i>Base-narrow</i> is
-that position of the hind legs in which either the entire leg deviates
-to the inner side of the perpendicular (<a href="#FIG_57">Fig. 57</a>), or the leg
-is about perpendicular down as far as the hock, but below this joint runs
-downward and inward (<a href="#FIG_58">Fig. 58</a>). In this latter case the hocks
-may be too far apart, the leg is bent outward at the hock and the animal is termed
-“<i>bandy-legged</i>,” “<i>bow-legged</i>.”</p>
-
-<p><b>Viewing a hind limb from the side</b>, it may be observed to deviate
-either forward or backward from the normal. Among forward deviations
-is the so-called “<i>sabre-leg</i>“ or “<i>sickle-hock</i>“ (<a href="#FIG_59">Fig. 59</a>),
-in which the hock-joint is too much flexed, the foot placed too far
-forward under the body, and the fetlock too slanting. In the position
-known as “<i>camped behind</i>” (<a href="#FIG_60">Fig. 60</a>) the leg is
-behind the body and the pastern is too upright, too nearly vertical.</p>
-
-<p>It is possible for each limb of the same horse to assume a different
-direction. It more often happens that if the fore-limbs are base-wide
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span>
-the hind limbs are base-narrow, or <i>vice</i> <i>versa</i>. While
-there are some other deviations that differ somewhat from those already
-described, they are of less importance to the horseshoer.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_59" class="f150 space-below1">Fig. 59.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_069a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="396" />
-     <p class="center">Sabre-legged or sickle-hocked.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_60" class="f150 space-below1">Fig. 60.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_069b.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="390" />
-     <p class="center">Camped behind.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<h4 id="II_B">B. Forms of Feet. Viewed from in Front,<br />
-from Behind, and in Profile.</h4>
-
-<p>In all the various positions of the limbs we find the feet in one of
-the following <i>three forms</i>, or very closely approaching one of
-them. By means of a proper knowledge of these three forms, the judging
-of the form, flight of the foot in travelling, and preparation of the
-hoof for the shoe, as well as the choice of the length of the shoe, are
-regulated, facilitated, and simplified.</p>
-
-<p>Whether a horse’s feet be observed from <i>in front</i> or from
-<i>behind</i>, their form corresponds to, or at least resembles,
-either that of the <b>regular</b> position (<a href="#FIG_61">Figs. 61</a>
-and <a href="#FIG_62">62</a>), the <b>base-wide</b> or toe-wide position
-(<a href="#FIG_63">Figs. 63</a> and <a href="#FIG_64">64</a>), or the
-<b>base-narrow</b> or toe-narrow position (<a href="#FIG_65">Figs. 65</a>
-and <a href="#FIG_66">66</a>).
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span></p>
-
-<p>By the <i>direction</i> of the <b>foot-axis</b>—that is, an imaginary
-line passing through the long axis of the three phalangeal bones (<a href="#FIG_61">Figs. 61</a>,
-<a href="#FIG_65">65</a>, <a href="#FIG_67">67</a>, <a href="#FIG_68">68</a>
-and <a href="#FIG_69">69</a>)—we determine whether or not the hoof and
-pastern stand in proper mutual relation.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_61" class="f150">Fig. 61.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_070a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="201" />
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_62" class="f150">Fig. 62.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_070b.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="191" />
-   </div>
-     <p class="center">A pair of front feet of regular position viewed from
-              in front and from behind.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the regular standing position (<a href="#FIG_61">Figs. 61</a> and
-<a href="#FIG_62">62</a>) the foot-axis runs straight downward and forward,
-in the base-wide position (<a href="#FIG_63">Figs. 63</a> and
-<a href="#FIG_64">64</a>) it runs obliquely downward and outward,
-and in the base-narrow position (<a href="#FIG_65">Figs. 65</a>
-and <a href="#FIG_66">66</a>) it runs obliquely downward and inward.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_63" class="f150">Fig. 63.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_070c.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="195" />
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_64" class="f150">Fig. 64.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_070d.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="207" />
-   </div>
-     <p class="center">A pair of feet of the base-wide (toe-wide) position seen from in front
-and from behind.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span>
-<i>Viewing the foot from the side</i>, we distinguish the
-<b>regular</b> (normal) position (<a href="#FIG_68">Fig. 68</a>), and designate
-all forward deviations as <b>acute-angled</b> (long toe and low heel,
-<a href="#FIG_67">Fig. 67</a>), and all deviations backward from the regular
-position as <b>upright</b> (short toe and high heel, <a href="#FIG_69">Fig. 69</a>),
-steep-toed, or stumpy.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_65" class="f150">Fig. 65.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_071a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="252" />
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_66" class="f150">Fig. 66.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_071b.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="245" />
-   </div>
-     <p class="center">A pair of feet of the base-narrow (toe-narrow)
-            position seen from in front and from behind.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>When the body-weight is uniformly distributed over all four limbs, the
-foot-axis should be <i>straight</i> (<a href="#FIG_67">Figs. 67</a> and
-<a href="#FIG_69">69</a>), not “broken” (bent); <b>the long pastern, wall
-at the toe, and foot-axis should have the same slant</b>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_67" class="f150">Fig. 67.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_071c.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="223" />
-     <p class="center">An acute-angled hoof.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_68" class="f150">Fig. 68.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_071d.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="221" />
-     <p class="center">A normal-angled hoof.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_69" class="f150">Fig. 69.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_071e.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="222" />
-     <p class="center">An upright<br /> (“stumpy”) hoof.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<div id="FIG_70" class="figleft">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_072.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="249" />
-     <p class="center">The “bear-foot.”</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span>
-A peculiar form of foot is the so-called <i>bear-foot</i> (<a href="#FIG_70">Fig. 70</a>),
-in which the foot-axis, viewed from the side, is broken strongly forward
-at the coronet. The wall at the toe stands much steeper than the long
-pastern and is more or less convex; in other words, a low-jointed,
-sloping pastern is attached to an upright hoof. Such a foot is
-sometimes improperly called a “club-foot.”</p>
-
-<h4 id="II_C">C. Lines of Flight of Hoofs in Motion.</h4>
-
-<p>If we observe horses moving unrestrained over level ground, we will
-notice differences in the carriage of the feet. <b>Viewed from in
-front, or from behind</b>, in the <i>regular standing position</i> of
-the limbs the hoofs are carried forward in a <i>straight direction</i>,
-that is, in a line parallel with the median line of the body (<a href="#FIG_71">Fig. 71</a>).
-The toes likewise point straight forward; the hoofs alight properly
-(flat) on the ground. If the horse stands <i>base-wide</i>, the hoof is
-carried in a circle; from its position, which is behind and well out
-from the median line, the hoof passes first forward and inward until it
-is close to the supporting leg, and then outward to the ground (<a href="#FIG_72">Fig. 72</a>),
-where the shock is received principally upon the outer toe. The
-toes point either directly forward, as in the regular standing position
-(<a href="#FIG_72">Fig. 72</a>), or forward and outward as in the toe-wide position
-(<a href="#FIG_73">Fig. 73</a>). In the toe-wide position the hoof in its flight
-may cross the median line.</p>
-
-<p>Exactly the reverse is true of the horse that stands
-<i>base-narrow</i>; in this case the hoof is moved in a circle whose
-convexity is outward,—that is, the hoof from its position behind,
-and close to the median line, is carried forward and outward and then
-inward to the ground (<a href="#FIG_74">Figs. 74</a> and <a href="#FIG_75">75</a>).</p>
-
-<p><b>Viewed from the side</b>, the line of flight of a hoof is determined
-largely by the obliquity (slant) of the foot-axis.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_71" class="f150">Fig. 71.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_073a.jpg" alt="" width="100" height="486" />
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_72" class="f150">Fig. 72.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_073b.jpg" alt="" width="100" height="442" />
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_73" class="f150">Fig. 73.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_073c.jpg" alt="" width="100" height="539" />
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_74" class="f150">Fig. 74.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_073d.jpg" alt="" width="100" height="492" />
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_75" class="f150">Fig. 75.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_073e.jpg" alt="" width="100" height="379" />
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>1. With a straight foot-axis of <i>normal slant</i> (45°-50°, <a href="#FIG_76">Fig. 76, <i>A</i></a>),
-the hoof follows the arc of a circle and reaches its highest
-point when directly above the supporting hoof, <i>i.e.</i>, when
-half-way in the stride.</p>
-
-<p>2. With a straight, but <i>acute-angled</i> foot-axis (less than 45°,
-<a href="#FIG_76">Fig. 76, <i>B</i></a>), the hoof rises rapidly, reaches its
-highest point before it has completed the first half of the stride, <i>i.e.</i>,
-before it has passed the supporting hoof, and descending gradually in a
-long curve alights easily on the ground.</p>
-
-<p>3. With a straight, but upright foot-axis (55° or more, <a href="#FIG_76">Fig. 76, <i>C</i></a>),
-the hoof rises slowly, reaches its highest point in front of
-the supporting hoof, from which point it descends rapidly. The gait is
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span>
-“choppy,” and in the saddle-horse unpleasant for the rider. <i>The
-length and the height of the stride are greatest in acute-angled feet;
-least in upright feet.</i> Furthermore, length and height of stride
-are in a measure dependent on breeding, training, condition of the
-legs (whether stiffened by use or disease), length of the hoof and the
-weight of the shoe.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_76" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_074.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="472" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Flight of the hoof as seen from the
-     side: <i>A</i>, flight of a regular hoof; <i>B</i>, flight
-     of an acute-angled hoof; <i>C</i>, flight of an upright
-     hoof.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Many deviations in the line of flight of hoofs and in the manner in
-which they are set to the ground occur; for example, horses heavily
-burdened or pulling heavy loads, and, therefore, not having free use of
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span>
-their limbs, project their limbs irregularly and meet the ground first
-with the toe; however, careful observation will detect the presence
-of one or the other of these lines of flight of the foot. Irregular
-carriage of the feet renders a horse unsuitable for general purposes
-only when it is very pronounced, in which case certain troublesome
-conditions, such as interfering and disease of joints, are of frequent
-occurrence.</p>
-
-<h4 id="II_D">D. The Influence of Weight in the Shoe<br /> or Otherwise
-Attached to the Hoof,<br /> in Altering the Flight of the Hoof.</h4>
-
-<p>There is nothing mysterious in the effect of weight upon the flight of
-the feet. On the contrary, the lines of flight are determined (as shown
-in pages 72-74, <a href="#FIG_71">Figs. 71-76</a>), <i>first</i>, by the relation
-of the transverse axes of the hinge-joints of the leg and foot to the line of
-progression (median line); <i>second</i>, by the length and obliquity
-of the hoof and pastern; <i>third</i>, by the height and length of
-stride which is natural to each individual.</p>
-
-<p><i>Weight induces higher action and a longer stride.</i> Inertia
-increases with the weight. A heavy shoe cannot be snatched from the
-ground as quickly as a light one, but when moving forward at a given
-velocity its greater momentum (momentum = mass (wt) × velocity: m = wt
-× v) carries the foot farther forward then does the lighter shoe. Thus,
-the heavier shoe, or weight attached to the hoof, lengthens the stride
-at both ends. The farther from the centre of rotation of the scapula
-the weight is placed, <i>i.e.</i>, the nearer to the toe it is placed,
-the greater the muscular effort required to start it and to stop it.</p>
-
-<p><i>Height of action</i>, though largely the result of breeding,
-temperament, and the exhilaration that accompanies perfect health and
-entire absence of muscular fatigue, is to a certain extent influenced
-by the <i>inclination of the pastern and toe to the cannon</i>. <i>The
-acute-angled foot</i>, in the folding of the leg during the first half
-of the stride, moves through a longer arc of a circle whose centre is
-the fetlock joint than does the normal or the upright foot; rises more
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span>
-rapidly and to a higher point. (<a href="#FIG_76">See Fig. 76, <i>B</i></a>.)
-When the momentum of a foot moving rapidly and abruptly upward is increased by
-weight the result is extreme and even exaggerated flexion of all joints
-of the leg, and by allowing the hoof to grow long the flexion is still
-further increased. In the show ring, harness horses with fair natural
-action may be made to “climb” by shoes weighing from thirty to sixty
-ounces upon hoofs an inch or more longer than normal. The leverage of a
-heavy shoe on a long hoof is excessive, fatiguing and most injurious to
-ligament, tendon and muscle. The action, while high, is <i>labored</i>,
-<i>pounding</i> and <i>altogether inelegant</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_77" class="f150">Fig. 77.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_076a.jpg" alt="" width="240" height="265" />
-     <p class="center">A 40 oz. right front shoe<br /> (hoof-surface)<br />
-         to increase knee-action in<br /> a high acting harness horse.<br />
-         For show-purposes only.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_78" class="f150">Fig. 78.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_076b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="267" />
-     <p class="center">The same seen from the<br /> ground-surface in profile:<br />
-      <i>a</i>, bevel from inner border<br /> of the web to outer border;<br />
-      <i>b</i>, ends of the branches of full<br /> thickness from outer to inner border.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the training of trotters weight is often used <i>to increase the
-length of the stride</i>, or to cause a <i>higher folding of a front
-foot</i>, in order to prevent “scalping“ or “speedy-cut.“ As soon as
-the new gait becomes a fixed habit the weight should be gradually
-lessened. <i>Weight is carried with less fatigue at a trot</i> then
-at a pace, or at a gallop. It therefore steadies a trotter that is
-inclined to pace, or “break” into a run. The increased momentum of
-the weighted hoof makes for rhythm of movement, and increases the
-difficulty of skipping, dwelling, or mixing gaits.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span></p>
-
-<p>In the <i>base-wide</i> (toe-wide) and <i>base-narrow</i> (toe-narrow)
-<i>standing positions</i>, the flight of the hoofs, as seen from in
-front or behind, is not straight forward, <i>i.e.</i>, parallel to
-the line of progression of the body, but in <i>arcs of circles</i>.
-(<a href="#FIG_72">See Figs. 72-75</a>, p. 73.) In these cases, increasing the
-weight of the hoofs, by increasing the momentum, must of necessity increase the
-tendency of the hoofs to move off at a tangent to the curves which
-they describe. In other words, <i>weight increases the centrifugal
-force</i> of a body moving in a curve. The <i>outward swing</i> of the
-hoofs of a base-narrow horse (paddling), and the <i>inward swing</i>
-of a base-wide horse (interfering), are made <i>more pronounced by
-adding weight to any part of the hoof</i>. <i>The centrifugal force is
-greatest</i> in base-wide feet when the weight is on the medial, or
-inner side of the hoof; in base-narrow feet when it is on the lateral
-or outer side.</p>
-
-<p>A side weight, or side weight shoe is often of service in a cross
-firing pacer. This animal usually stands base-narrow (toe-narrow)
-behind, and in motion his hind hoofs describe a curve at first forward
-and outward and then inward till contact is made with the diagonal hoof
-or leg. The added weight (placed on the outer side) by increasing the
-centrifugal force carries the hoof just enough farther from the centre
-around which the hoof swings to prevent contact. (<a href="#Page_138">See
-cross-firing, p. 138</a>.)</p>
-
-<p>Finally, it must not be forgotten that <i>weight is always weight</i>;
-that it <i>cuts speed</i> and <i>devours endurance</i>.</p>
-
-<h4 id="II_E">E. Forms of Hoofs.</h4>
-
-<p><i>A front hoof of the regular standing position</i> (<a href="#FIG_79">Fig. 79</a>).
-The inner and outer walls differ but little in direction and thickness.
-The outer wall is a little thicker and somewhat more slanting than the
-inner (<a href="#FIG_61">see Figs. 61</a> and <a href="#FIG_62">62</a>),
-and its outer circumference describes a larger arc of a circle,—that
-is, is more curved, as can be seen both at its plantar border and at
-the coronet. The length of the quarter in relation to the length or
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span>
-height of the side wall and toe is about as 1: 2: 3. The toe forms an
-angle with the ground of forty-five to fifty degrees (<a href="#FIG_68">see Fig. 68</a>).
-The direction of the wall at the toe, viewed from the side, should be
-parallel with the direction of the long pastern.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_79" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_078.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="441" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Right fore-hoof of the regular
-     position: <i>a</i>, side wall; <i>b</i>, quarter; <i>c</i>,
-     beginning of the bar; <i>d</i>, buttress; <i>e</i>, middle
-     of the bar; <i>f</i>, body of the sole; <i>f′</i>, branches
-     of sole; <i>g</i>, white line; <i>g′</i>, apparent end of
-     the bar; <i>h</i>, body of the frog; <i>i</i>, branch of
-     the frog; <i>k</i>, bulbs (glomes) of the heel; <i>l</i>,
-     middle cleft of frog; <i>m</i>, lateral cleft of frog.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>A hoof of the base-wide position</i> (<a href="#FIG_80">Fig. 80</a>)
-<i>is always awry</i>, because the outer wall is naturally somewhat longer
-and decidedly more slanting then the inner (<a href="#FIG_63">see Figs. 63</a>
-and <a href="#FIG_64">64</a>). The plantar border of the outer wall
-describes a large arc, whose sharpest curvature is where the side
-wall passes into the quarter. The plantar border of the inner wall is
-straighter (less curved); the outer half of the ground-surface (sole)
-of the hoof is, therefore, wider than the inner. So long as the hoof
-is healthy, both branches of the frog are equally developed. The
-wryness of the hoof depends upon the direction of the limb; therefore,
-a base-wide hoof should be regarded as a <i>normally wry hoof</i>, to
-distinguish it from hoofs which are wry from disease.</p>
-
-<p><i>A hoof of the toe-wide position</i> (<a href="#FIG_81">Fig. 81</a>)
-is distinguished from the preceding by the bending or curvature of the
-plantar border of the outer toe and inner quarter being often decidedly
-less pronounced than on the inner toe and outer quarter; therefore,
-two short curves and two long curves lie opposite each other; in other
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span>
-words, the inner toe and outer quarter, lying opposite each other, are
-sharply curved, while the outer toe and inner quarter, lying opposite
-each other, are much less sharply bent or curved. The toes are turned
-out. The feet are not set down flat upon the ground, but meet it with
-the outer toe.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_80" class="f150">Fig. 80.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_079a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="295" />
-     <p class="center">Right fore-hoof of the<br /> base-wide position.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_81" class="f150">Fig. 81.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_079b.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="307" />
-     <p class="center">Right fore-hoof of the<br /> toe-wide position.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>A hoof of the base-narrow position is normally wry</i>, but never
-so pronounced as a hoof of the base-wide position. The inner wall is
-but little, more oblique than the outer, the difference being most
-noticeable at the quarters (<a href="#FIG_65">Figs. 65</a> and
-<a href="#FIG_66">66</a>). The curve of the plantar border of the wall
-is similar to that of a regular hoof, except that the inner side wall
-and quarter are a little more sharply curved in a base-narrow hoof.
-Occasionally the outer quarter is somewhat drawn in under the foot.</p>
-
-<p>This form of hoof is most distinctly marked in animals that stand
-toe-narrow or are bandy-legged.</p>
-
-<p>As to the <i>forms of the hind hoofs</i>, what has been said concerning
-the influence of position of the limbs upon the shape of the front feet
-will apply equally well to them. The hind hoof (<a href="#FIG_82">Fig. 82</a>)
-is not round at the toe, but somewhat pointed or oval. It greatest width is
-between the middle and posterior thirds of the sole. It usually has a strongly
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span>
-concave sole and a somewhat steeper toe than the fore-hoof; viewed from
-the side, the angle of the toe with the ground in the regular standing
-position is from fifty to fifty-five degrees.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_82" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_080.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="436" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Right hind hoof of the regular
-     position: <i>a</i>, side wall; <i>b</i>, beginning of
-     the quarter; <i>c</i>, beginning of the bar; <i>d</i>,
-     buttress; <i>e</i>, middle of bar; <i>f</i>, body of the
-     sole; <i>f′</i>, branch of sole; <i>g</i>, white line of
-     the toe; <i>g′</i>, white line of the bar; <i>h</i>, body
-     of the frog; <i>i</i>, branch of the frog; <i>k</i>, bulbs
-     of heel; <i>l</i>, middle cleft of frog; <i>m</i>, lateral
-     cleft of frog.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Finally, we also distinguish <i>wide</i> and <i>narrow</i> hoofs; they
-are not dependent upon the position of the limbs, but upon the race and
-breeding of the animal.</p>
-
-<p><i>The wide hoof</i> (<a href="#FIG_83">Fig. 83</a>) is almost round upon
-its plantar surface. Its wall runs quite oblique to the ground. The sole is but
-moderately concave, and the frog is strong and well developed. <i>The
-narrow hoof</i> (<a href="#FIG_84">Fig. 84</a>) is rather elliptical,
-with steep side walls, strongly concaved sole, and small, undeveloped
-frog. The horn of the narrow hoof is fine and tough; of the wide hoof,
-usually coarse. The wide hoof may readily become flat. Narrow hoofs are
-either the result of breeding or premature shoeing.</p>
-
-<p>In enumerating the preceding forms of the hoof we have by no means
-referred to all the forms in which the hoof may be found; on the
-contrary, hoofs vary in shape and quality to such an extent that among
-a hundred horses no two hoofs can be found which are exactly alike. In
-fact, the same variety exists as in the faces of people, and we know
-that we can recall in succession even many more faces without finding
-two that are exactly alike. This explains the manifold differences in
-horse’s shoes with respect to size, form and other qualities.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_83" class="f150">Fig. 83.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_081a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="316" />
-     <p class="center">Wide fore-hoof.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_84" class="f150">Fig. 84.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_081b.jpg" alt="" width="230" height="320" />
-     <p class="center">Narrow fore-hoof.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Suppose now a hoof is before us; it is first necessary to know whether
-or not it is <b>healthy</b>. Unfortunately, a perfectly healthy hoof
-is not so easy to find as one may think. We recognize a sound hoof by
-the following marks: Seen from in front or from the side, the course
-of the wall from the coronet to the ground, in the direction of the
-horn-tubes, is straight,—that is, bent neither in nor out. A straight
-edge, placed upon the wall in the direction of the horn-tubes, touches
-at every point. The wall must show neither longitudinal nor transverse
-cracks or fissures. If there be rings, their position and course are
-important. Rings which pass around the entire circumference of the
-wall parallel to the coronet indicate nothing more than disturbances
-of nutrition of the hoof; <i>but the hoof cannot pass for sound</i>
-when the rings have any other position and direction than the one
-mentioned, or if the rings upon any part of the wall are more marked
-than elsewhere, even though they may be parallel to the coronary band.
-Marked ring-building upon the hoofs of horses which have regular
-feeding, grooming, and work indicates a weak hoof. Viewed from the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span>
-ground-surface and from behind, the bulbs of the heels should be well
-rounded, strongly developed, and not displaced. The concave sole should
-show no separation along the white line. The frog should be strong,
-well developed, and have symmetrical branches and a broad, shallow, dry
-median lacuna. The lateral lacunæ of the frog should be clean and not
-too narrow. The bars should pass in a straight direction forward and
-inward towards the point of the frog. Any bending outward of the bars
-towards the branches of the sole indicates the beginning of a narrowing
-of the space occupied by the frog,—that is, contraction of the heels.
-The horn of the branches of the sole in the buttresses and in their
-proximity should show no red staining. The lateral cartilages should be
-elastic. No part of the foot should be weakened at the cost of other
-parts. By firm union of all strong parts the strength and vigor of the
-hoof is in no sense disturbed. <i>If one desires to ascertain the exact
-form and state of health of the hoof, it must never be inspected and
-judged alone, but in connection with the entire limb.</i></p>
-
-<h4 id="II_F">F. Growth of the Hoof and Wear<br /> of the Hoof and Shoe.</h4>
-
-<p>All parts of the horn of the hoof grow downward and forward, the
-material for this growth being furnished by the remarkably large
-quantity of blood which flows to the pododerm. The growth of the hoof
-is regulated by the nerves.</p>
-
-<p>As a rule, the hoof grows <b>uniformly</b>,—that is, one section of
-the wall grows just as rapidly as another. A visible indication of growth
-is the increase in height and width of the hoof from colthood to maturity.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>rapidity of growth</i> of the wall varies, amounting in a month
-to from one-sixth to one-half of an inch. The average monthly growth
-in both shod and unshod horses of both sexes is, according to my own
-experiments, one-third of an inch. Hind hoofs grow faster than front
-hoofs, and unshod faster than shod. The hoofs of stallions grow more
-slowly than those of mares and geldings.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span></p>
-
-<p>Abundant <b>exercise</b>, proper grooming (flexibility and moistness
-of the horn), regular dressing of the wall, and <b>running barefoot</b>
-from time to time <b>favor growth</b>; while little or no exercise,
-dryness, and excessive length of the hoof hinder growth.</p>
-
-<p>The time required for the horn to grow from the coronet to the ground
-is, therefore, equally variable, and is, moreover, dependent upon the
-height (length of toe) of the hoof. At the toe the horn grows down in
-from eleven to thirteen months, at the mammæ or sides in from six to
-eight months, and at the quarters in from three to five months. The
-time required for the renewal of the entire hoof we term the <i>period
-of hoof renewal</i>. If, for example, we know exactly the rapidity
-of horn growth in a given case, we can estimate without difficulty
-the length of the “period of hoof renewal,” as well for the entire
-hoof as for each individual section of the wall. The duration of many
-diseases of the hoof (cracks, clefts, partial bendings of the wall,
-contractions, etc.) can be foretold with relative certainty only by
-knowing the period of hoof renewal.</p>
-
-<p><i>Irregular growth</i> sometimes takes place. The chief cause of
-this is usually an improper distribution of the body-weight over the
-hoof,—that is, an unbalanced foot. Wry hoofs of faulty positions of
-the limbs are often exposed to this evil; a faulty preparation of the
-hoof (dressing) for the shoe, as well as neglect of the colt’s hoofs,
-is in the majority of cases directly responsible for this condition.</p>
-
-<p>If in the shortening of the wall a part is from ignorance left too
-long, or one-half of the hoof shortened too much in relation to the
-other half, the foot will be unbalanced. The horse will then touch the
-ground first with the section of wall which has been left too high, and
-will continue to do so until this long section has been reduced to its
-proper level (length) by the increased wear which will take place at
-this point. In unshod hoofs this levelling process takes place rapidly;
-such, however, is not the case in shod hoofs, for here the shoe prevents
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span>
-rapid wear, and, indeed this levelling process is often rendered
-impossible through the welding of high steel calks to the shoe. If this
-fault in trimming be repeated at the next and subsequent shoeings,
-and if the faulty relation of the ground-surface of the hoof to the
-direction of the foot-axis remain during several months, the portion of
-wall left too high will grow more rapidly, the walls will lose their
-natural straight direction and become bent. If, for example, the outer
-wall has been left too long during a considerable period of time, a
-crooked hoof results (<a href="#FIG_85">Fig. 85</a>) in which the rings are placed
-closer together upon the low (concave) side than upon the high (convex) side.
-If for a long time the toe is excessively long, it will become bent;
-or if this fault affects excessively high quarters they will contract
-either just under the coronary band or will curl forward and inward at
-their lower borders. These examples are sufficient to show both the
-importance of the manner in which a horse places his foot to the ground
-and its influence upon the loading, growth, and form of the hoof.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_85" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_084.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="352" />
-     <p class="center">Crooked (right) fore-hoof.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="f120 space-above2"><b>Wear of the Shoe and of<br />
-the Hoof upon the Shoe.</b></p>
-
-<p>The wear of the shoe is caused much less by the weight of the animal’s
-body than by the rubbing which takes place between the shoe and the
-earth whenever the foot is placed to the ground and lifted.</p>
-
-<p>The wear of the shoe which occurs when the foot is placed on the ground
-is termed “<b>grounding wear</b>,” and that which occurs while the foot
-is being lifted from the ground is termed “<b>swinging-off wear</b>.“
-When a horse travels normally, both kinds of wear are nearly alike, but
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span>
-are very distinct when the paces are abnormal, especially when there is
-faulty direction of the limbs. While in the majority of horses whose
-limbs have been stiffened by age and overwork both kinds of wear are
-most marked at the toe of the shoe, we see relatively fewer cases of
-“grounding wear” at the ends of the branches (as in laminitis); on the
-contrary, we <b>always</b> notice “swinging-off wear” at the toe of the
-shoe. It is worthy of notice that length of stride has much to do with
-the wear. We observe that with shortening of the stride both kinds of
-wear occur at the toe of the shoe, and this is rapidly worn away, as
-is the case with horses which are fretful and prance under the rider,
-draw heavy loads, or from any other cause, as disease or infirmity, are
-obliged to shorten their steps. With increase of length of stride the
-wear of the shoe becomes more uniform.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_86" class="f150">Fig. 86.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_085a.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="219" />
-     <p class="center">A normal-angled foot<br /> with straight foot-axis.<br />
-            The shoe shows uniform wear.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_87" class="f150">Fig. 87.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_085b.jpg" alt="" width="170" height="218" />
-     <p class="center">An upright foot with foot-axis<br /> broken forward by reason of too<br />
-          high quarters. The shoe shows<br /> “grounding“ wear at ends of<br />
-          branches, and “swinging-off“<br /> wear at toe.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_88" class="f150">Fig. 88.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_085c.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="211" />
-     <p class="center">A hoof with foot-axis broken<br /> backward by reason of surplus<br />
-         horn at the toe. The shoe shows<br /> excessive “grounding“ and<br />
-         “swinging-off” wear at the toe.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>position</i> and <i>form of the shoe</i> have a marked influence
-upon its wear; <b>at the place where the shoe is too far under the
-hoof</b> either as a result of shifting or of having been nailed on
-crooked, or where the outer branch has not the necessary width, or does
-not form a sufficiently large curve, <b>the wear will be increased</b>.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span></p>
-
-<p>Also the relative length of side walls, or of toe and heels, influences
-rapidity of wear of the shoe. If through ignorance or carelessness one
-side wall be left too long, the branch beneath will meet the ground before
-other parts of the shoe and will wear faster (<a href="#FIG_87">see Figs. 87</a>,
-<a href="#FIG_88">88</a> and <a href="#FIG_89">89</a>).</p>
-
-<p><i>The wear of the hoof upon the shoe</i> occurs as a result of the
-movements of the quarters. Visible indications of this are the brightly
-polished, often sunken places upon the bearing-surface of the ends
-of the branches, showing that scouring occurs between the horn and
-the iron. Shoes which show brightly polished places in their anterior
-halves have been loose. The wear of the quarters upon the shoe is not
-always uniform, but is usually greater on the inner than on the outer
-quarter, especially in base-wide feet. The degree of this wear of the
-hoof may be from nothing to one-fourth of an inch or more from one
-shoeing to the next. Finally, we should remember that this usually
-invisible scouring away of the hoof gradually causes the nails at the
-quarters to become loose, and that this is more clearly marked in the
-front than in the hind hoofs.</p>
-
-<h4 id="II_G">G. Physiological Movements of the Hoof.<br />
-(Mechanism of the Hoof.)</h4>
-
-<p>These movements comprise all those changes of position within and of
-the hoof which are brought about by alternately weighting and relieving
-the foot, and which are manifest as changes of form of the hoof. The
-following changes in form of the hoof are most marked at the time that
-the hoof bears greatest weight,—that is, <i>simultaneous</i> with the
-greatest descent of the fetlock-joint.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>1. A lateral expansion over the entire region of the quarters,
-occurring simultaneously at the coronary and plantar borders. This
-expansion is small, and in general varies between one-fiftieth and
-one-twelfth of an inch.</p>
-
-<p>2. A narrowing of the anterior half of the hoof measured at the
-coronary border.</p>
-
-<p>3. A decrease in height of the hoof, with a slight sinking of the
-heels.</p>
-
-<p>4. A flattening (sinking) of the sole, especially in its
-branches.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>These changes of form are much more pronounced in the half of the hoof
-that bears the greater weight.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_89" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_087.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="443" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Transverse vertical section through
-     the middle of a right fore shod hoof of base-wide
-     form, viewed from behind. The outer wall having been
-     insufficiently lowered has caused increased wear of the
-     underlying branch of the shoe: <i>a</i>, wear of inner
-     branch (beneath the relatively short wall); <i>b</i>,
-     greater wear of outer branch beneath the relatively long
-     wall; <i>c</i>, the horn between the dotted line and the
-     shoe represents the surplus length of this outer wall.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A hoof while supporting the body-weight has a different form, and
-the tissues enclosed within it a different position, than when not
-bearing weight. Since loading and unloading of the foot are continually
-alternating, the relations of internal pressure even in the standing
-animal are continuously changing, so that, strictly speaking, the hoof
-is never at rest.</p>
-
-<p>The changes in form take place in the following order: the body-weight
-falls from above upon the os coronæ, os pedis, and navicular bone, and
-at the moment that the foot is placed upon the ground is transmitted
-through the sensitive laminæ and horny laminæ to the wall. At the
-instant that the fetlock reaches its lowest point the os pedis bears
-the greatest weight. Under the body-weight the latter yields, and with
-the navicular bone sinks downward and backward. At the same time the
-upper posterior portion of the os coronæ (<a href="#FIG_90">Fig. 90, <i>A</i></a>)
-passes backward and downward between the lateral cartilages (<i>a</i>), which
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span>
-project above the upper border of the wall, and presses the perforans
-tendon down upon the plantar cushion. The plantar cushion being
-compressed from above, and being unable to expand downward, is
-correspondingly squeezed out towards the sides and crowded against the
-lateral cartilages, and they, yielding, press against and push before
-them the wall at the quarters. The resistance of the earth acts upon
-the plantar surface of the hoof, and especially upon the frog, and
-it, widening, crowds the bars apart, and in this manner contributes
-to the expansion of the quarters, especially at their plantar border
-(<a href="#FIG_90">see Fig. 90</a>). The horny sole under the descent
-and pressure of the os pedis sinks a little—that is, the arch of the
-sole becomes somewhat flattened. All these changes are much more marked
-upon <i>sound unshod</i> hoofs, because in them the resistance of the
-earth upon the sole and frog is pronounced and complete. These changes
-in form are more marked in front feet than in hind. In defective
-and diseased hoofs it may happen that at the moment of greatest
-weight-bearing, instead of an expansion a contraction may occur at the
-plantar border of the quarters.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_90" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150">Fig. 90.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_088.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="326" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Vertical, transverse section of a
-     foot seen from behind: <i>A</i>, os coronæ; <i>B</i>,
-     os navicularis; <i>C</i>, os pedis; <i>a</i>, lateral
-     cartilage; <i>b</i>, anterior portion of fleshy frog;
-     <i>c</i>, section of perforans tendon; <i>d</i>, suspensory
-     ligament of the navicular bone; <i>l</i>, wall; <i>m</i>,
-     sole; <i>n</i>, white line; <i>o</i>, frog.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Three highly elastic organs there are which play the chief part in
-these movements,—namely, the lateral cartilages, the plantar cushion,
-and the horny frog. Besides these structures, indeed, all the remaining
-parts of the horn capsule, especially its coronary border, possess more
-or less elasticity, and contribute to the above-mentioned changes of form.</p>
-
-<p>In order to maintain the elastic tissues of the foot in their proper
-activity, regular and <i>abundant exercise</i>, with protection against
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span>
-drying out of the hoof, are absolutely necessary, because the movements
-of the different structures within the foot and the changes of form
-that occur at each step are indispensable in preserving the health of
-the hoof. Long-continued rest in the stable, drying out of the hoof,
-and shoeing decrease or alter the physiological movements of the foot,
-and these lead under certain conditions to foot diseases, with which
-the majority of horse owners are entirely unacquainted.</p>
-
-<p>As an outward, visible indication of the mobility of the quarters upon
-the shoe we may point to the conspicuous, brightly polished, and often
-sunken spots, or grooves, upon the ends of the branches. They are
-produced partly by an in-and-out motion of the walls at the quarters,
-and partly by a forward and backward gliding of the quarters upon the shoe.</p>
-
-<p><i>The benefits of these physiological movements</i> within the hoof
-are manifold:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>1. Through them shock is dispersed and the body protected from the
-evil consequences of concussion or shock.</p>
-
-<p>2. These movements increase the elasticity of the entire limb, and
-in this way contribute much to a light and elegant gait.</p>
-
-<p>3. They maintain a lively circulation of blood in the vessels of the
-pododerm, and this insures a rapid growth of horn.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Since it is a generally accepted fact that shoeing interferes with
-the physiological movements of the hoof, alters them, indeed, almost
-suppresses them, and that all these movements are spontaneous
-and natural only in sound <i>unshod</i> hoofs, we are justified
-in regarding shoeing as a <i>necessary evil</i>. However, it is
-indispensable if we wish to render horses serviceable upon hard
-artificial roads. If, in shoeing, consideration be given to the
-structure and functions of the hoof, and particularly to the
-hoof-surface of the shoe, the ends of the branches being provided with
-a smooth, level bearing-surface, which allows free play to the elastic
-horn capsule, in so far as this is not hindered by the nails we need
-have no fear of subsequent disease of the hoofs, provided the horse is
-used with reason and receives proper care.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="PART_II">PART II.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h3 class="nobreak">CHAPTER III.<br />
-<span class="h_subtitle">SHOEING HEALTHY HOOFS.</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<h4 id="III_A">A. Examination of a Horse Preliminary to Shoeing.</h4>
-
-<p>An examination should be made while the animal is <b>at rest</b>, and
-afterwards while <b>in motion</b>. The object of the examination is to
-gain accurate knowledge of the direction and movements of the limbs, of
-the form and character of the feet and hoofs, of the manner in which
-the foot reaches and leaves the ground, of the form, length, position,
-and wear of the shoe, and distribution of the nail-holes, in order
-that at the next and subsequent shoeings all ascertained peculiarities
-of hoof-form may be kept in mind and all discovered faults of shoeing
-corrected.</p>
-
-<p>The examination is best conducted in the following order: The horse
-should first be led at a walk in a straight line from the observer over
-as level a surface as possible, then turned about and brought back,
-that the examiner may notice the direction of the limbs and the manner
-in which the hoofs are moved and set to the ground. While the animal
-is moving away the observer notices particularly the hind limbs, and
-as it comes towards him he examines the fore-limbs. Then a few steps
-at a trot will not only show whether or not the animal is lame, but
-will often remove all doubt in those cases in which, while the animal
-was walking, the examiner was unable to make up his mind as to which
-was the predominating position of the limb. The problem presented is,
-therefore, to determine whether or not the direction of the limbs, the
-lines of flight of the hoofs, and the manner in which they are set down
-and picked up are regular. If there are deviations from the normal they
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span>
-will fall either into the base-wide and toe-wide group or into the
-base-narrow and toe-narrow group. When clear upon these points the
-horse is allowed to stand quietly, and the observer, placing himself
-in front, examines the foot more closely, fixes the direction of the
-foot-axis clearly in his mind, marks also the form and character of
-the hoofs and the position of the coronets, as far as these parts
-can be inspected from in front. At the same time each hoof should be
-closely inspected to determine whether the slant of both quarters
-corresponds to the direction of the long pastern, and whether the
-course of the wall from the coronet to the plantar border is straight
-or bent in or out (contraction, fulness). Walls curved from above to
-below always indicate an unnatural height of some section of the wall
-and a displacement of the base of support of the foot. In order to
-gain accurate and complete knowledge of the position of the limbs,
-the flight of the hoofs, and the manner of setting the foot to the
-ground, the horse must frequently be moved back and forth many times,
-especially when the standing position is somewhat irregular and the
-hoofs are of different shapes.</p>
-
-<p>At this point begins the examination of the position of the limbs, and
-the form of the feet and hoofs, in profile. After casting a glance over
-the entire body, so as to gain an idea of the animal’s weight, height,
-and length, the attention is turned to the position and direction of
-the limbs and hoofs. The eye should particularly note whether the form
-of the hoof corresponds to the position of the limb, and, furthermore,
-whether the slant of the pastern is the same as that of the wall at
-the toe,—that is, whether the foot-axis is straight or broken; also
-whether the toes and quarters are parallel, for the toe is sometimes
-bulging (convex) or hollowed out (concave) between the coronet and
-plantar border, and the quarters are frequently contracted and drawn or
-shoved under the foot (weak quarters). If the wall present rings the
-observer should note their position with reference to one another and
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span>
-to the coronet, and also their extent, and, furthermore, should
-determine whether or not they cross one another (thrush of the frog).
-At the same time he should notice the length of the shoes.</p>
-
-<p>Next, the feet should be raised and the examiner should notice the
-width of the hoof, the arching of the sole, the character of the frog,
-the position of the bulbs of the heel, as well as the presence of any
-cracks or clefts in the wall. Then the old shoes should be examined as
-to their age, form, the distribution and direction of their nail-holes
-(“punching”), position, and wear. With respect to the form of the
-old shoe, one should observe whether or not it corresponds to the
-form of the hoof. The same careful examination should be made of the
-number and distribution of the nail-holes. As regards the position
-of the shoe, one must first ascertain whether it completely covers
-the bearing-surface of the wall, and whether the shoe extends beyond
-the wall at any point and has caused interfering or given rise to
-irregular wear. Finally, the wear of the shoe should be observed, and
-the following points borne in mind: <i>One-sided wear, uneven setting
-down of the feet, and an unnatural course of the wall are often found
-together</i>, especially when uneven wearing of the shoe has existed
-for a long time,—that is, during several shoeings. As a rule, in such
-a case the more worn branch of the shoe is too near the centre of the
-foot, and the opposite branch too far from the centre (too “full”); in
-other words, the base of support (shoe) has been shifted too far in the
-direction of the less worn branch. Moreover, increased wear of a part
-of a shoe is an indication that the section of the wall above it is too
-high (too long) (<a href="#FIG_89">Fig. 89</a>), or that the wall upon
-the opposite side of the foot is too low (short). The twisting movement
-of many hind feet should, from physiological reasons, not be hindered
-by shoeing.</p>
-
-<h4 id="III_B">B. Raising and Holding the Feet<br />
-of the Horse to be Shod.</h4>
-
-<p>This can always be done without much trouble if the horse has been
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span>
-accustomed to it from early colthood. Certain rules governing the
-manner of taking hold of the feet, and of afterwards manipulating them,
-are of value.</p>
-
-<p>A shoer should <b>never grasp a foot suddenly</b>, or with both hands.
-The horse should first be prepared for this act. First see that the
-horse stands in such a position that he can bear his weight comfortably
-upon three legs. This is well worth noticing, and if the horse does not
-voluntarily assume such an easy position, move him gently until his
-feet are well under his body.</p>
-
-<p>If the shoer, for example, wishes to raise the left fore foot for
-inspection, he stands on the left side facing the animal, speaks
-quietly to him, places the palm of the right hand flat upon the
-animal’s shoulder, and, at the same time, with the left hand strokes
-the limb downward to the cannon and seizes the cannon <i>from in
-front</i>. With the right hand he now gently presses the horse towards
-the opposite side, and the foot becoming loose as the weight is shifted
-upon the other leg, he lifts it from the ground. The right hand now
-grasps the pastern from the inside followed by the left hand upon the
-inside and the right hand on the outside; then, turning partly to the
-right, the holder supports the horse’s leg upon his left leg, in which
-position he should always stand as quietly and firmly as possible. If,
-now, the shoer desires to have both hands free to work upon the hoof,
-he grasps the toe with the left hand in such a manner that the toe
-rests firmly in the palm while the four fingers are closely applied
-to the wall of the toe, takes a half step toward the rear, passes the
-hoof behind his left knee into his right hand which has been passed
-backward between his knees to receive it, and drawing the hoof forward
-outward and upward supports it firmly on his two knees,—the legs just
-above the knees being applied tightly against the pastern. The forefoot
-should not be raised higher than the knee (carpus), nor the hind foot
-higher than the hock, nor either foot be drawn too far backward. The
-correct standing position of the shoer or floorman while holding a
-front foot is shown in <a href="#FIG_91">Fig. 91</a>. Shortness of
-stature (5′-5′.6″) is desirable in a floorman.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span></p>
-
-<p>In lifting the <i>left hind foot</i> the animal should be gently
-stroked back as far as the angle of the hip, against which the left
-hand is placed for support, while the right hand strokes the limb down
-to the middle of the cannon, which it grasps <i>from behind</i>. While
-the left hand presses the animal’s weight over towards the right side,
-the right hand loosens the foot and carries it forward and outward from
-the body so that the limb is bent at the hock. The holder then turns
-his body towards the right, brings his left leg against the anterior
-surface of the fetlock-joint, and carries the foot backward, at which
-time his left arm passes over the horse’s croup and above and to the
-inner side of the hock. Finally, both hands encompass the long pastern.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_91" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150">Fig. 91.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_094.jpg" alt="" width="350" height="505" />
-     <p class="center">Proper position for holding a front foot.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>If the right feet are to be raised, the process is simply reversed.</p>
-
-<p>In raising the feet no unnecessary pain should be inflicted by
-pinching, squeezing, or lifting a limb too high. The wise shoer avoids
-all unnecessary clamor and disturbance; quiet, rapid, painless methods
-avail much more. In dealing with <i>young</i> horses the feet should
-not be kept lifted too long; let them down from time to time. In
-<i>old</i> and <i>stiff</i> horses the feet should not be lifted too
-high, especially in the beginning of the shoeing.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span></p>
-
-<div id="FIG_92" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150">Fig. 92.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_095.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="416" />
-     <p class="f120">The Martin horse rack (modified).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span>
-<i>Vicious</i> horses must often be severely handled. Watch the play of
-the ears and eyes continually, and immediately punish every exhibition
-of temper either by jerking the halter or bridle vigorously, or by loud
-commands. If this does not avail, then if soft ground is at hand make
-the horse back as rapidly as possible for some time over this soft
-surface; it is very disagreeable and tiresome to him. To raise a hind
-foot we may knot a strong, broad, soft, plaited band (side-line) into
-the tail, loop it about the fetlock of the hind foot, and hold the
-end. This often renders valuable service. The holder seizes the band
-close to the fetlock, draws the foot forward under the body, and then
-holds it as above described. The use of such a band compels the horse
-to carry a part of his own weight, and at the same time hinders him
-from kicking. Before attempting to place this rope or band about the
-fetlock, the front foot on the same side should be raised.</p>
-
-<p>The various sorts of twitches are objectionable, and their use should
-not be allowed unless some painful hoof operation is to be done. The
-application of the tourniquet, or “Spanish windlass,” to the hind leg
-is equally objectionable.</p>
-
-<p>Those horses which resist our attempts to shoe them we do not
-immediately cast or place in the stocks, but first have a quiet,
-trustworthy man hold them by the bridle-reins and attempt by gentle
-words and soft caresses to win their attention and confidence.</p>
-
-<p><i>Ticklish</i> horses must be taken hold of boldly, for light touches
-of the hand are to such animals much more unpleasant than energetic,
-rough handling. Many ticklish horses allow their feet to be raised when
-they are grasped suddenly without any preparatory movements.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span></p>
-
-<h4 id="III_C">C. Removing the Old Shoes.</h4>
-
-<p>If a horse’s hoofs are healthy, all the shoes may be taken off at the
-same time, but there are certain diseases of the hoof in which this
-should not be done.</p>
-
-<p>The rule to follow in removing every shoe is to <i>draw it
-cautiously</i>, not wrench it away with violence. Hoofs which are dirty
-should first be cleansed, preferably with a stiff brush. Next, the
-clinches should be <i>carefully</i> lifted by means of a rather dull
-clinch cutter (<a href="#FIG_93">Fig. 93</a>), <i>without injuring the horn</i>
-of the wall. In order, now, that the nails may be removed singly, the shoe must be
-slightly lifted. This may be done in one of two ways. The shoer may use
-a pair of pincers (<a href="#FIG_94">Fig. 94</a>), with broad bills which will
-encompass the branch of the shoe and come well together underneath it. The
-handles of the pincers are then moved <i>in the direction of the branches</i>
-of the shoe. The second method consists in raising the branches of the
-shoe by driving the nail-cutter from behind between the shoe and hoof
-and using it as a lever or pry to loosen the shoe.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_93" class="f150 space-below3">Fig. 93.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_097a.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="302" />
-     <p class="center">Clinch cutter<br /> and punch.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_94" class="f150">Fig. 94.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_097b.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="530" />
-     <p class="center">Pincers.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Violent and excessive twisting of the hoof and straining of ligaments
-may easily occur, but the smith should guard against them by supporting
-the hoof with the left hand or with the leg just above the knee, while
-loosening the shoe.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span></p>
-
-<h4 id="III_D">D. Preparing the Hoof for the Shoe.</h4>
-
-<p>This preparation is usually termed paring, trimming, or dressing. It is
-a most important step in the process of shoeing, and its object is to
-shorten the hoof, which has grown too long under the projection of the
-shoe, and prepare it to receive the new shoe. The instruments needed
-for this work are the rasp and the hoof-knife (<a href="#FIG_95">Fig. 95</a>);
-upon large and hard hoofs a pair of sharp nippers (<a href="#FIG_96">Fig. 96</a>),
-or a sharp <b>hewing knife, with broad handle and perfectly flat, smooth sides</b>,
-may be used, since these instruments will considerably facilitate and hasten
-the work.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_95" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150">Fig. 95.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_098.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="408" />
-     <p class="blockquot">German hoof set with detachable hook
-         blades. (W. M. Kunde, Dresden): <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, hoof
-         blades; <i>b</i>, pus searcher; <i>c</i>, scalpel.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>After the shoer has carefully examined the hoofs in the manner
-described upon pages 90, 91, and 92, and has fixed in mind the relation
-of the height of the hoofs to the size and weight of the body, he
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span>
-cleanses the hoof and removes all stubs of old
-nails. At the same time he should be asking himself <i>if</i>,
-<i>where</i>, and <i>how much</i> horn is to be removed. In all cases
-all loosely attached fragments of horn are to be removed, for example,
-chips of horn produced by repeated bending and stretching of the lower
-border of the wall. The sole is then freed from all flakes of dead
-horn. The shoer then runs the rasp around the outer border of the
-wall and breaks it off to the depth to which he thinks it should be
-shortened, and then <b>cuts the wall down to its union with the sole,
-so that at least one-eighth of an inch of the edge of the sole lies
-in the same level as the bearing-surface of the wall</b>. Finally,
-the wall, white line, and outer margin of the sole, forming the
-“bearing-surface,” must be rasped until they are perfectly horizontal,
-except that at the toe of fore-hoofs this bearing-surface may be rasped
-slightly upward (rolled toe).</p>
-
-<p>In dressing the hoof the <b>branches</b> of the frog should always
-be left prominent enough to project beyond the bearing-surface of
-the quarters about the thickness of an ordinary flat shoe. If it
-be weakened by paring, it is deprived of its activity, shrinks,
-and the hoof becomes narrow to a corresponding degree. The frog
-should, therefore, be <i>trimmed</i> only when it is really <i>too
-prominent</i>. However, loose and diseased particles of horn may be
-trimmed away when it is affected with thrush.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_96" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150">Fig. 96.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_099.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="178" />
-     <p class="f120">Nippers.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>bars</i> should be spared and never <b>shortened</b> except when
-too long. Their union with the wall at the quarters must in no case be
-weakened, and never cut through (opening up the heels). They should be
-left as high as the wall at the quarters, or only a little less, while
-the branches of the sole should lie about one-eighth of an inch lower.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span></p>
-
-<p>The <i>buttress</i> (angle formed by the union of wall and bar)
-requires special attention. In healthy unshod hoofs the bars run
-backward and outward in a straight line from the anterior third of the
-frog. In shod hoofs, however, it happens that the buttresses gradually
-lengthen, curl inward, and press upon the branches of the frog, causing
-the latter to shrink. In such cases the indication is to remove these
-prolongations of horn from the buttresses so as to restore to the bars
-their normal direction.</p>
-
-<p><b>The sharp edge of the plantar border of the wall should be broken
-away with a rasp until the relative thickness of the wall equals
-its absolute thickness.</b> (<a href="#FIG_97">Fig. 97</a>). However,
-in healthy hoofs, that is, in those whose <i>walls are straight from
-the coronet to the ground</i>, the outer surface of the wall should
-<b>never</b> <i>be rasped</i>. The only exceptions to this rule are
-those cases in which there is an outward bending of the lower edge of
-the wall, most frequent on the inner side wall and quarter.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_97" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150">Fig. 97.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_100.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="374" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Longitudinal (vertical) section of
-     the wall at the toe: <i>a c</i> is the absolute, and <i>a
-     b</i> the relative thickness of the wall. With <i>a</i>
-     as the centre, and the line <i>a c</i> as a radius, a
-     circle is drawn; the corner of horn in front of this circle
-     and indicated by dotted lines is to be removed with the rasp.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>With respect to the inclination of the ground-surface of the hoof to
-the direction of the foot-axis, as viewed from in front, the following
-facts are established:</p>
-
-<p>In the <i>regular</i> standing position of the limbs (seen from in
-front) the plantar surface of a hoof is at right angles to the foot
-axis, and the outer and inner walls are of equal heights.</p>
-
-<p>In the <i>base-wide</i> position of the limbs the plantar hoof-surface
-is more or less inclined to the foot-axis, usually to a very small
-degree, and the outer wall is somewhat higher (longer) and more
-slanting than the inner.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span></p>
-
-<p>In the <i>base-narrow</i> position of the limbs the plantar
-hoof-surface is more or less inclined to the direction of the foot
-axis, usually quite considerably, and the inner wall is somewhat higher
-than the outer.</p>
-
-<p>The foot is observed from the side in order to determine the proper
-relation of the length of the toe to the height of the quarters.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_98" class="f150">Fig. 98.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_101a.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="181" />
-     <p class="center">An untrimmed hoof with<br /> an excess of horn (<i>a</i>) at<br />
-           the toe which breaks<br /> the foot-axis backward.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_99" class="f150">Fig. 99.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_101b.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="187" />
-     <p class="center">An untrimmed hoof with<br /> the an excess of horn (<i>b</i>) at<br />
-          heels, which breaks the<br /> foot-axis forward.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_100" class="f150">Fig. 100.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_101c.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="178" />
-     <p class="center">Hoof dressed and foot-axis<br /> straightened by removing<br />
-            excess of horn below dotted<br /> lines in the two preceding<br />
-            illustrations.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In this also the foot-axis is our guide. If this axis is as it should
-be, the wall at the toe and the long pastern will have the <b>same
-slant</b> (<a href="#FIG_67">Figs. 67</a>, <a href="#FIG_68">68</a>
-and <a href="#FIG_69">69</a>). If the hoof has become too long under
-the protection of the shoe, this will be shown by the foot-axis being
-no longer a straight line, but broken backward at the coronet (<a href="#FIG_98">Fig. 98</a>);
-that is, the hoof in comparison with the fetlock will be too
-slanting. By shortening the toe more than the quarters this faulty
-relation will be corrected (<a href="#FIG_100">Fig. 100</a>) and the foot restored
-to its proper slant. If the quarters are too long (too high) in comparison
-with the length of the toe, the foot-axis will be broken forward at the
-coronet (<a href="#FIG_99">Fig. 99</a>), and the hoof will be too upright.
-By shortening the quarters more than the toe the foot-axis may be made
-straight. <b>The plantar surface of the hoof is therefore correct
-(balanced) when the horse places the foot flat upon the ground in
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span>
-travelling</b>, and when the lines bounding the hoof, viewed from in
-front, from behind, and in profile, correspond to the direction of the
-three phalanges (foot-axis).</p>
-
-<p>Finally, this fact should be emphasized, that in changing from flat
-shoes to those with calks, or the reverse, the hoofs must first be
-dressed in accordance, so that the foot axes will remain straight, and
-the feet be set always flat to the ground when the new shoes are on.
-Each hoof, when ready for the new shoe, should be let down and the
-horse allowed to stand upon it while it is again carefully examined
-and closely compared with the opposite hoof. Only after such close
-inspection has proved the dressing to be faultless can the hoof be
-considered as properly prepared and ready for the shoe. <i>The two
-front hoofs and the two hind hoofs, when the legs are in the same
-position, should not only be of equal size, but also in proper relation
-to the size and weight of the body</i>.</p>
-
-<h4 id="III_E">E. Preparing the Hoof for going Barefoot.</h4>
-
-<p>This becomes necessary when the nature of the ground and the kind of
-service required of the horse render shoeing unnecessary. However, to
-go barefoot the hoof must have <b>plenty of horn</b>. After removing
-the shoes the <b>frog should be pared down nearly to the level of the
-wall</b>, and the sharp outer edge of the wall well <b>rounded off</b>
-with the rasp, in some cases as far as the white line, otherwise large
-pieces of the wall will readily break away. Hoofs with very slanting
-walls must be more strongly rounded off than upright hoofs. Going
-barefoot strengthens the hoofs. From time to time the condition of
-these shoeless hoofs should be ascertained by inspection, and any
-growing fault in shape or direction of the horn immediately corrected.
-It quite frequently happens that the sharp edge of the wall must be
-repeatedly rounded, especially on very oblique walls (outer half of
-base-wide hoofs), and the quarters may require frequent shortening,
-because they are not always worn away as fast as the horn at the toe.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span></p>
-
-<h4 id="III_F">F. Making Shoes.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></h4>
-
-<p>Besides good, tough iron for the shoe, we need an anvil with a round
-horn and a small hole at one end, a round-headed turning-hammer, a
-round sledge, a stamping hammer, a pritchel of good steel, and, if
-a fullered shoe is to be made, a round fuller. Bodily activity and,
-above all else, a good eye for measurement are not only desirable, but
-necessary. A shoe should be made thoughtfully, but yet quickly enough
-to make the most of the heat.</p>
-
-<p><b>The iron</b> of which horseshoes are made is derived from the
-natural iron ore. Iron used for technical purposes is not chemically
-pure. Pure iron is rather too soft, and is therefore mixed with
-different substances, mostly with “carbon,” the most important
-ingredient of our fuel. Of course, the iron contains a very small
-quantity of carbon (0.5 to 5 per cent.). When iron contains more than
-2.2 per cent. of carbon it is hard, brittle, and more easily melted,
-and is known as crude iron, or raw iron, because it is derived from
-the raw product,—black ore. The melted crude iron is called <i>cast
-iron</i>. Iron is ductile when it contains less than 2.2 per cent.
-of carbon, and is then called forge iron, or <i>wrought iron</i>.
-Wrought iron is fusible only at a high temperature. Only weldable iron
-containing less than 1.6 per cent. of carbon is suitable for general
-use. Of this iron we distinguish two sorts,—steel and wrought iron.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span>
-A larger percentage of carbon is found in steel than in wrought iron.
-Steel is hard, can be tempered, and may be called tempered wrought
-iron. In order to temper or harden steel, bring it to a cherry-red
-heat, and then cool it suddenly by dipping it in cold water or wet
-sand. The tempered steel can again be softened as desired by heating
-and slowly cooling. By heating to a high temperature in a forge wrought
-iron will become doughy, and may then be intimately united (welded)
-with another piece at the same temperature by pressure or hammering.
-This property is called weld-ability; it is of great importance in
-making horseshoes. The heating of iron until it reaches the welding
-stage is called getting a “heat.” The act of welding wrought iron with
-steel is called “steeling.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_101" class="f150 space-below3">Fig. 101.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_104a.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="397" />
-     <p class="center">Fuller.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_102" class="f150">Fig. 102.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_104b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="493" />
-     <p class="center">Hammer-punch.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_103" class="f150">Fig. 103.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_104c.jpg" alt="" width="75" height="535" />
-     <p class="center">Pritchel.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Regarding <b>the tools</b>, the following hints are sufficient:</p>
-
-<p>The <i>anvil</i> should have a level, smooth, flat steel face.</p>
-
-<p>Likewise, the round head and flat face of both <i>turning-hammer</i>
-and <i>sledge</i> should be smooth.</p>
-
-<p>On the <i>fullering-hammer</i> (<a href="#FIG_101">Fig. 101</a>) the left side
-is flat, the right side convex, and the cutting edge has slightly rounded corners.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span></p>
-
-<p>The <i>hardy</i>, <i>fullering-hammer</i>, and <i>cold chisel</i>
-should be flawless on the edge.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>punch</i> (<a href="#FIG_102">Fig. 102</a>), used to make the nail-holes
-in the shoe, has a dull point, which should correspond in size with the head of the
-horseshoe-nail and have slightly rounded corners.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>pritchel</i> (<a href="#FIG_103">Fig. 103</a>) should not taper to a point,
-but should end in a rectangular surface whose length is twice its width, in order
-to punch iron through the shoe under the blow of the hammer.</p>
-
-<p class="f120"><b>Making the Shoe.</b></p>
-
-<p>To make a flat shoe, take the length of the hoof from the point of
-the toe to the buttress and the greatest width of the hoof; these two
-measurements, when added together, give the length of the bar for the
-shoe. The bar should be of such width and thickness as will require the
-least amount of working. For a bar-shoe or a shoe with heel-calks the
-bar must be correspondingly longer.</p>
-
-<p>Should we wish to preserve the exact outline of the plantar border
-of the wall, we may advantageously use such a <i>podometer</i> as is
-shown in <a href="#FIG_104">Fig. 104</a>. This consists of a perforated sheet-iron
-plate one-sixteenth to one-twelfth of an inch thick. This is laid upon the
-hoof, and the outline of the wall marked upon it with chalk.</p>
-
-<p>If necessary, the hoof may be set on a piece of smooth, stiff wrapping
-paper or card-board, and the outline of the wall closely traced with a
-lead pencil.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span></p>
-
-<div id="FIG_104" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150">Fig. 104.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_106.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="486" />
-     <p class="center">Podometer.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>To make a <b>front shoe</b> (<a href="#FIG_107">Figs. 107</a>
-and <a href="#FIG_108">108</a>), heat the bar white-hot
-just beyond its middle, place the head of the sledge hammer across
-one end of the face of the anvil, hold the unheated end of the bar on
-the head of the sledge,—the heated end resting on the face of the
-anvil, and bend the bar into a half-circle with the round head of the
-turning-hammer. (The outer branch of all shoes is made first; in making
-pairs the right shoe is made first.) The extreme end of the heated
-bar is drawn out to the desired width and thickness with the sledge.
-The bent branch is then placed obliquely across the heel of the horn
-of the anvil, is turned over toward the right till it rests upon an
-edge, and is then bevelled diamond-shaped from the toe to the end of
-the branch. [The edge in contact with the horn is the inner edge of
-the right branch (outer branch) of the right shoe; the edge beaten
-down by the hammer is the outer edge of the outer branch.] The branch
-is then flattened on the anvil because in the bending the outer edge
-has been stretched and thinned, while the iron of the inner edge has
-been crowded together (back-set) and thickened. In flattening, the shoe
-should be left a trifle thinner on the inner edge. The branch is again
-placed over the horn, and gone over lightly with the flat head of the
-turning-hammer and brought to a proper shape. It is now to be concaved
-with or without the help of the sledge, or the concaving may be
-omitted. The concaving should end about three-fourths of an inch from
-the end of the branch. Now turn the branch and fuller it, or fuller
-it first and concave afterwards. The fuller should be set in about
-one-twelfth of an inch from the edge for small shoes, somewhat more for
-large shoes, and led from the end of the branch towards the toe, twice
-being necessary to make the fullering of sufficient depth. Next, stamp
-the holes, punch them through with the pritchel, run over the surfaces,
-go over the outer edge of the shoe upon the horn, and, finally, hammer
-the bearing-surface smooth and horizontal. The left branch is made in
-the same way, except that it is turned to the left and the fullering
-carried from the toe to the heel. <b>Any ordinary shoe can and should
-be completed in the rough in two heats.</b> One pair of shoes requires
-from eight to fifteen minutes.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span></p>
-
-<p>The <b>hind shoe</b> (<a href="#FIG_116">Fig. 116</a>) is made in like manner,
-but the branches are not bent in a circle but given that form shown in
-<a href="#FIG_106">Fig. 106</a>. Concaving is not necessary; it is sufficient
-merely to round the inner edge of the web.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_105" class="f150">Fig. 105.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_107a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="203" />
-     <p class="center">The curvature of a branch of a front shoe.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_106" class="f150">Fig. 106.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_107b.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="206" />
-     <p class="center">The curvature of a branch of a hind shoe.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Since in bending the shoe, and especially the toe of a hind shoe, the
-inner edge is crowded together (back-set) and thickened to the same
-extent that the outer edge is stretched and thinned, we must remember
-to do away with these inequalities of thickness and strain by hammering
-the shoe smooth.</p>
-
-<p class="f120"><b>Peculiarities of the Shoe.</b></p>
-
-<p>They are dependent upon the structure, direction, and position of the
-leg and hoof, as well as upon the horse’s service and the nature of the
-ground. Since the shoe is an artificial base of support, and since a
-proper surface of support is of the greatest importance in preserving
-the soundness of the feet and legs, careful attention must be given to
-this matter. Naturally shoes designed for the various forms of hoofs
-must present equally great and equally numerous differences of form, as
-well as other peculiarities.</p>
-
-<p><b>General Properties.</b> 1. <b>Form.</b>—A form corresponding to the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span>
-shape of the hoof is indispensable in every shoe. Front and hind
-and right and left shoes should be sharply defined and easily
-distinguishable. <i>Front shoes</i> must, above all else, be circular
-<i>round cut the toe</i>. <i>Hind shoes</i>, on the contrary, should be
-<i>round pointed at the toe</i>, yet not too much so, but as in <a href="#FIG_116">Fig. 116</a>.</p>
-
-<p>2. <b>Width.</b>—All shoes should be wider webbed (more covered) at
-the toe than at the ends of the branches. The medium width should be
-about twice the thickness of the wall.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_107" class="f150">Fig. 107.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_108a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="245" />
-     <p class="center">Right front shoe, ground-surface.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_108" class="f150">Fig. 108.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_108b.jpg" alt="" width="270" height="245" />
-     <p class="center">Right front shoe, hoof-surface:<br />
-         <i>a</i>, bearing-surface;<br /> <i>b</i>, concaving, or “seating.”</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>3. <b>Thickness.</b>—Each shoe should, in general terms, be so thick
-that it need not be renewed under four weeks. Lungwitz found that the
-average required thickness is about seven-sixteenths of an inch. Of
-course, this thickness must be diminished or increased according to
-the rapidity of wear of the shoe. <i>Shoes without calks should be of
-uniform thickness</i>, unless there are special reasons for making them
-otherwise.</p>
-
-<p>4. <b>Length.</b>—For draft-horses they should be long enough to reach
-the bulbs of the heel, otherwise shorter, though in other respects
-they may differ (<a href="#SPEC_PROP">see “special properties”</a>), but should
-in all cases completely cover the bearing-surface of the hoof.</p>
-
-<p>5. <b>Surfaces.</b>—That part of the hoof-surface of the shoe which
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span>
-is in contact with the hoof (bearing-surface of the shoe, <a href="#FIG_109">Fig. 109, <i>a</i></a>)
-should be horizontal and wide enough to cover the wall,
-the white line, and from a twelfth to an eighth of an inch of the
-outer edge of the sole. Shoes for large hoofs require a broader
-bearing-surface than those for small hoofs. The concaving, or “seating”
-(<a href="#FIG_109">Fig. 109, <i>b</i></a>), should be made deeper or shallower,
-according to the nature of the sole. <i>Shoes for hoofs with strongly arched</i>
-(very concave) <i>soles, do not require any concaving</i> (hind hoofs,
-narrow fore-hoofs). <i>The object of concaving is to prevent pressure
-of the shoe upon the horny sole except at its margin.</i></p>
-
-<div id="FIG_109" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150">Fig. 109.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_109a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="117" />
-     <p class="center">Transverse section of a branch of a<br />
-          front shoe: <i>a</i>, bearing-surface;<br />
-          <i>b</i>, concaving; <i>c</i>, fullering,<br />
-          or “crease”; <i>d</i>, nail-hole.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The ground-surface of the shoe should be flat and <i>perfectly
-horizontal</i>, except at the toe, which may be turned upward (rolled
-toe, “rolling motion”).</p>
-
-<p>6. <b>Borders.</b>—The <i>outer border</i> should usually be
-moderately <i>base-narrow</i>,—that is, the circumference of the
-ground-surface of the shoe should be less than the circumference of
-its hoof-surface; in other words, the entire outer border of the shoe
-should be bevelled under the foot. Shoes made base-narrow are not so
-easily loosened, and materially assist in preventing interfering. The
-<i>inner border</i> should be moderately rounded.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_110" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150">Fig. 110.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_109b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="102" />
-     <p class="center">(<i>a</i>) correct and (<i>b</i>) incorrect fullering.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>7. <b>The “Fullering”</b> (<a href="#FIG_109">Fig. 109, <i>c</i></a>).—In depth it
-should be about two-thirds the thickness of the shoe, of uniform width, and
-“clean.” A fullering is not absolutely necessary, but it makes the shoe
-lighter in proportion to its size, facilitates a uniform placing of the
-nail-holes, renders the ground-surface somewhat rough, and, because it
-is rather difficult to make, increases the workman’s skill.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_111" class="f150">Fig. 111.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_110a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="277" />
-     <p class="center">Swiss military shoe,<br /> hoof-surface.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_112" class="f150">Fig. 112.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_110b.jpg" alt="" width="240" height="279" />
-     <p class="center">Swiss military shoe,<br /> ground-surface.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>8. <b>Nail-Holes</b> (<a href="#FIG_109">Fig. 109, <i>d</i></a>).—<b>The importance
-of the nail-holes</b>, as regards their <i>character</i>, <i>number</i>,
-<i>distribution</i>, <i>depth</i>, and <i>direction</i>, <b>cannot
-be over-estimated</b>, because by the nails which are driven through
-them the stability of the shoe upon the hoof should be maintained
-without injuring the sensitive structures, splitting the horny wall,
-or immoderately interfering with the elasticity of the foot. Each
-nail-hole should taper uniformly from the ground to the hoof-surface
-(funnel-shaped). For a medium-weight shoe six nail-holes are
-sufficient, while for all heavy shoes, especially those with toe- and
-heel-calks, eight are indicated; however, it should by no means be said
-that every nail-hole should contain a nail. Hind shoes usually require
-one more nail-hole than front shoes, yet seldom more than eight. In
-front shoes the nail-holes should be placed in the anterior half of the
-shoe (<a href="#FIG_107">Figs. 107</a> and <a href="#FIG_108">108</a>),
-while in hind shoes they are to be placed in the anterior two-thirds
-of the shoe (<a href="#FIG_116">Fig. 116</a>), and in both cases so distributed
-that the toe shall be without nail-holes, except in those shoes in which
-it may be desirable to omit the nail-holes in an entire
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span>
-branch (<a href="#FIG_153">Fig. 153</a>). <b>The depth of the nail-holes</b>—that
-is, their distance from the outer edge of the shoe—will depend always upon the
-thickness of the wall, and <b>should equal the absolute</b> (real)
-<b>thickness of the wall</b> (<a href="#FIG_97">Fig. 97</a>). It is evident, therefore,
-that all nail-holes should not be placed at the same depth (for thickness of
-the wall, <a href="#Page_53">see p. 53</a>).</p>
-
-<p>The <b>direction</b> in which the nail-holes should pass through the
-shoe depends upon the obliquity of the wall. The nail-holes around the
-toe, as a rule, should incline somewhat inward, the holes at the sides
-less so, while those at the quarters should be punched straight,—that
-is, should pass perpendicularly through the shoe.</p>
-
-<p>Both front and hind shoes for army horses in time of war and manœuvres
-should be so punched that one or two nails may be placed in the
-posterior half of the shoe (<a href="#FIG_111">Figs. 111</a> and
-<a href="#FIG_112">112</a>).</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_113" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150">Fig. 113.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_111.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="125" />
-     <p class="center">Form of clips: <i>a</i>, correct; <i>b</i>,
-            indifferent; <i>c</i>, faulty.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>9. <b>Clips</b> (<a href="#FIG_113">Fig. 113</a>) are <i>half-circular,
-leaf-like ears</i> drawn upward from the outer edge of the shoe. They
-should be strong and without flaw at the base, and somewhat <b>higher
-and thicker</b> upon hind than upon front shoes. Their height on flat
-shoes should equal the thickness of the shoe, while on shoes with
-leather soles, or with toe- and heel-calks they should be somewhat higher.</p>
-
-<p>According to their position we distinguish toe- and side-clips. They
-secure the shoe against shifting; therefore, as a rule, every shoe
-should have a toe-clip. A side-clip should always be drawn up on that
-branch of the shoe which first meets the ground in locomotion.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>A Shoe with Heel-Calks.</b>—All shoes with heel-calks designed for
-healthy hoofs should be so made and applied that they will disturb the
-normal setting down of the foot as little as possible, that the wear of
-the shoe will take place uniformly, and slipping be diminished. The toe
-of the shoe must, therefore, be left somewhat thicker than the branches
-just in front of the heel-calks. Moreover, every front shoe with
-heel-calks must be relatively long, and be provided with considerable
-rolling motion at the toe; that is, the shoe should be turned up at the
-toe, the bending beginning near the inner edge of the web. The three-
-or four-cornered, somewhat conical heel-calks with rounded corners
-should not be higher than the thickness of the shoe. With reference to
-the direction of the ends of the branches, we should see to it that
-they do not rise excessively, but that they assume as near as possible
-a horizontal direction in passing back to the heels (<a href="#FIG_115">see Fig. 115</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p id="FIG_114" class="f150">Fig. 114.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_112a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="89" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Shoe without calks, with perfectly level hoof- and ground-surfaces,
-           and with roll at the toe (flat, rolling motion shoe).</p>
-  <p id="FIG_115" class="f150">Fig. 115.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_112b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="116" />
-     <p class="center">Shoe with heel-calks for a front hoof.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>A Shoe with Toe- and Heel-Calks.</b>—Such a shoe should be of
-uniform thickness from end to end, and should have a toe-calk and two
-heel-calks that are somewhat stronger and longer than the heel-calks
-of a shoe which has no toe-calk. If to a shoe of uniform thickness, on
-which the heel-calks are somewhat higher than those already described,
-a piece of steel (<a href="#FIG_116">Fig. 116, <i>b</i></a>) of the height
-of the heel-calks is welded at the toe, we have a shoe with toe- and
-heel-calks. The toe-calk should never he higher than the heel-calks.
-There are three principal kinds of toe-calks,—namely:</p>
-
-<p>1. <i>The Sharp Toe-Calk.</i>—A bar of toe-steel of proper width and
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span>
-thickness for the toe-calk is thrust with the shoe into the fire. When
-the end of the bar is cherry-red in color it is withdrawn, laid across
-the straight hardy, and cut nearly through at a point a calk-length
-from the end. Bar and shoe are then brought to a welding heat, the
-calk quickly and securely welded across the toe of the shoe, the bar
-wrenched away, the calk gone over again with the hammer, when it is
-immediately beaten out to a sharp edge from the anterior face, either
-over the far edge of the anvil, or in a foot-vise. The posterior face
-of a sharp toe-calk should be perpendicular to the ground-surface
-of the shoe. Machine-made toe-calks, sharp, half-sharp and blunt,
-provided with a sharp spud at one or both ends, are in general use.
-Their use requires two heats, and the sharp calk is blunted in the welding.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p id="FIG_116" class="f150">Fig. 116.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_113.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="428" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Right hind shoe with toe- and
-     heel-calks: <i>a</i>, heel-calks; <i>b</i>, toe-calk;
-     <i>c</i>, greatest width of the base of support
-     (<i>i.e.</i>, contact with the ground) of this shoe when
-     <i>without</i> toe- and heel-calks; <i>d</i>, the greatest,
-     and <i>e</i>, the least width of the base of support of
-     this shoe with calks.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>2. <i>The Blunt Toe-Calk.</i>—It is a rather long rectangular piece
-of toe-steel, straight, or curved to conform to the toe of the shoe.
-The shoe-surface and the ground-surface of the calk are of equal
-dimensions. It should be welded on in one heat.</p>
-
-<p>3. <i>The Half-Sharp Toe-Calk</i> (Coffin-Lid Toe-Calk).—It resembles
-the blunt calk, except that the surface of the calk that is applied to
-the shoe is somewhat broader and longer than the surface that comes in
-contact with the ground. It is welded on in one heat. The first and
-third kinds are most suitable for winter.</p>
-
-<p>Since heel-and toe-calks raise the hoof far from the ground and
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span>
-prevent all pressure upon the frog, they diminish the elasticity of
-the hoof and injure it. They are injurious also to the joints, because
-they furnish a base of support which is essentially smaller than that
-afforded by a flat shoe (<a href="#FIG_116">Fig. 116</a>). However,
-they are indispensable for heavy draft purposes on <i>slippery</i>
-roads and in winter. Upon all other roads and in summer they are
-superfluous, at least upon front hoofs, especially as they do not
-wholly prevent slipping.</p>
-
-<p id="SPEC_PROP"><b>Special Properties.</b>—The many different forms of hoofs require a
-great variety of shoes. Following are the special peculiarities of each
-of the chief classes of shoes.</p>
-
-<p id="SHOE_1">1. <i>Shoe for a Regular Hoof.</i>—Outer edge: moderately base-narrow
-(bevelled under) all around. Distribution and direction of the
-nail-holes: regular. Length: longer than the hoof by the thickness of
-the shoe (<a href="#FIG_121">see Figs. 121</a> and <a href="#FIG_122">122</a>).</p>
-
-<p id="SHOE_2">2. <i>Shoe for an Acute-Angled Hoof.</i>—Outer edge: strongly
-base-narrow around the toe, but gradually becoming perpendicular
-towards the ends of the branches. Punching: regular, except that the
-nail-holes at the toe must incline inward somewhat more than usual.
-Length: rather longer than the preceding shoe (<a href="#FIG_123">see Fig. 123</a>).</p>
-
-<p id="SHOE_3">3. <i>Shoe for an Upright</i> (stumpy) <i>Hoof</i>.—Outer edge:
-perpendicular at the toe; but if the hoof is very steep, then base-wide
-at the toe,—<i>i.e.</i>, bevelled downward and outward. Punching: last
-nail should be placed just beyond the middle of the shoe. Direction of
-the holes: perpendicular. Length: short; at most, one-eighth of an inch
-longer than the hoof. In the case of a “bear-foot” (<a href="#FIG_70">see Fig. 70</a>)
-the shoe should be long.</p>
-
-<p id="SHOE_4">4. <i>Shoe for a Base-Wide Hoof.</i>—Outer edge; the outer branch
-should be moderately base-narrow,—<i>i.e.</i>, bevelled downward and
-inward, the inner branch perpendicular. Punching: upon the outer branch
-the holes should extend well back, while upon the inner branch they
-are to be crowded forward towards the toe (<a href="#FIG_117">see Fig. 117</a>).
-Length will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof as seen in profile
-(<a href="#SHOE_1">see 1</a>, <a href="#SHOE_2">2</a>, and <a href="#SHOE_3">3</a>).</p>
-
-<p id="SHOE_5">5. <i>Shoe for a Base-Narrow Hoof.</i>—Outer edge: the outer branch
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span>
-either perpendicular or base-wide, the inner branch strongly
-base-narrow. Punching: the nail-holes in the outer branch should be
-crowded towards the toe and, under certain conditions, punched deeper
-than the wall is thick, on account of the greater width of this branch;
-in the inner branch the nail-holes are to be distributed back to the
-quarter and punched light (<a href="#FIG_118">see Fig. 118</a>). Length will
-depend upon the obliquity of the hoof. The outer branch should be about
-one-fourth of an inch longer than the inner.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_117" class="f150">Fig. 117.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_115a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="273" />
-     <p class="center">A right front shoe for a base-wide<br /> (toe-wide) hoof.
-          The inner branch<br /> should be about one-fourth of an<br />
-          inch longer than the outer.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_118" class="f150">Fig. 118.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_115b.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="274" />
-     <p class="center">A right front shoe for a base-narrow<br /> (toe-narrow) hoof.
-        The outer branch<br /> is wider and one-fourth of an inch<br />
-        longer than the inner.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="SHOE_6">6. <i>Shoe for a Wide Hoof.</i>—Somewhat wider webbed (more
-covered) than usual. Outer edge: bevelled under the foot all around
-(base-narrow). Punching: nail-holes carried back into the posterior
-half of the shoe (<a href="#FIG_119">see Fig. 119</a>). Length will
-depend upon the obliquity of the hoof.</p>
-
-<p id="SHOE_7">7. <i>Shoe for a Narrow Hoof.</i>—Outer edge: moderately bevelled
-under the foot at the toe (base-narrow), elsewhere perpendicular.
-Distribution of the nail-holes: regular. Direction of the nail-holes:
-perpendicular and towards the quarters, inclining somewhat outward. The
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span>
-holes about the toe incline somewhat inward. Length will depend upon
-the obliquity of the hoof. Concaving unnecessary (<a href="#FIG_120">see Fig. 120</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_119" class="f150">Fig. 119.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_116a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="271" />
-     <p class="center">Flat shoe for a round hoof<br /> (right front).</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_120" class="f150">Fig. 120.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_116b.jpg" alt="" width="230" height="272" />
-     <p class="center">A left front shoe for a narrow hoof.<br />
-           The concaving is unnecessary.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The forms of shoes described in paragraphs 2 to 7 differ from that
-described in paragraph 1, but are necessary in order to lessen the
-injurious consequences of irregular loading (unbalancing) of the feet,
-and of unfavorable bases of support of the body-weight.</p>
-
-<h4 id="III_G">G. Choosing the Shoe.</h4>
-
-<p>The choice of the shoe for a given horse is not at all difficult after
-we have carefully considered his weight, the nature of his work, his
-standing position, gait, the form of his hoofs, and quality of the
-horn, bearing in mind the general and peculiar properties of shoes.
-As a rule, we choose a shoe that is longer than the hoof, because the
-latter grows and carries the shoe forward with it, and because the
-quarters gradually become lowered by rubbing and wearing away upon the
-branches of the shoe. The <b>length</b> of the shoe is of especial
-importance. For horses employed for slow, heavy draft purposes the shoe
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span>
-supplied with heel-and toe-calks should extend backward far
-enough to support the bulbs of the heels. On the contrary,
-horses used at a trot or gallop, as coach-and saddle-horses,
-require shorter shoes (<a href="#FIG_124">see Fig. 124</a>).</p>
-
-<p>The <i>weight</i> of the shoe should be so adjusted to the demands
-of the horse’s work, the condition of the legs (whether used up
-with work or not), and the nature of the ground that the shoeing
-will last <i>at least a month</i>. Hard roads and a heavy, clumsy
-gait require strong, durable shoes, which, under some conditions,
-are to be rendered still more durable by welding in
-steel. For moderate service upon soft roads we should use
-light shoes. Running horses require unusually thin and narrow
-shoes of steel (<a href="#FIG_125">see Figs. 125-128</a>).</p>
-
-<h4 id="III_H">H. Shaping and Fitting Shoes.<br /> General Considerations.</h4>
-
-<p>This is one of the most important parts of horseshoeing. Its object is
-to so fashion or shape the shoe which has been chosen for a particular
-hoof that its circumference will exactly correspond to the lower
-circumference of the previously prepared hoof, and its bearing-surface
-will fit air-tight to the bearing-surface of the hoof. At this time all
-defects in the surfaces of hoof and shoe and in the nail-holes must
-be remedied, the clips drawn up, and the shoe made to fit perfectly.
-The bearing-surface of the shoe, especially at the ends of the
-branches, must be kept <b>horizontal</b><a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
-and smooth, and its width regulated by the width of the bearing-surface
-of the hoof (<a href="#Page_99">see page 99</a>). Perfectly <i>uniform heating</i>
-is absolutely indispensable in shaping the shoe, because an irregularly
-heated shoe twists or becomes distorted at the warm places. Every shoe
-should be straight, and when held before the eye one branch should
-exactly cover the other. A flat shoe laid upon a level surface should
-touch at all parts of its ground-surface; the only exception to this is
-the shoe with a rolled toe (rolling motion), in which the toe is turned
-upward. A shoe is termed “<i>trough-shaped</i>” when only the inner
-edge of the web rests upon the flat surface. It is faulty, disturbs the
-stability of the foot, and shifts the weight of the body too much upon
-the quarters.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p id="FIG_121" class="f150">Fig. 121.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_118.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="278" />
-     <p class="center">Shod fore-hoof viewed in profile<br />
-            to show the “roll” at the toe.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>To front shoes we give a <b>rolled toe</b> (<a href="#FIG_121">Fig. 121</a>,
-rolling motion), by which we mean a more or less pronounced upward
-turn of the toe of the shoe. Ordinarily, the toe begins to turn
-up at the middle of the web, and should be elevated about one-half
-the thickness of the iron. The rolled toe corresponds to
-the natural wear of front hoofs, facilitates the “breaking over”
-of the feet, and insures a uniform wear of the shoe (<a href="#FIG_86">see Fig. 86</a>).
-The shoe is made moderately hot and placed on the foot
-with the toe-clip against the wall exactly in front of the point
-of the frog. The scorched horn should be repeatedly removed
-with the rasp until a perfect-fitting bed has been made upon
-the bearing-surface of the hoof. From the bearing-surface of
-the shoe to the inner border of the web the iron must be free
-from the sole around its entire circumference. The horn sole
-should not be burnt, because the velvety tissue of the sole lies
-immediately above it. In the region of the nail-holes the outer
-borders of shoe and wall should correspond.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span>
-<b>The nail-holes must under all conditions cover the white line.</b>
-From the last nail-hale back to the ends of the branches, for hoofs of
-the regular standing position of the limbs, the shoe should gradually
-widen until it projects at each quarter from a sixteenth to an eighth
-of an inch beyond the edge of the wall. The posterior half of the
-shoe should, therefore, be somewhat wider than the hoof. The effect
-of this will be to prolong the usefulness of the shoes. With respect
-to the <i>width of the branches</i>, an exception arises in the case
-of <i>hind shoes</i>, in which the inner branch, with few exceptions,
-should closely follow the border of the wall; this will prevent
-interfering and tearing off the shoe by the opposite foot.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p id="FIG_122" class="f150">Fig. 122.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_119.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="457" />
-     <p class="center">Left fore-hoof of normal position shod.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Between the ends of the branches and the frog there should be enough
-room, with few exceptions, to pass a foot-pick.</p>
-
-<p>In order to judge of the width of a shoe which has been fitted to
-the hoof, it is of advantage to seize the hoof in the left hand and,
-extending it towards the ground, to observe from behind and above the
-outer border of the shoe and the surfaces of the wall.</p>
-
-<p><i>Furthermore, the most important rule is that the shoe should
-always have the form of the foot, so long as the form of the hoof
-remains unaltered. In all hoofs that have already undergone
-change of form we must strive to give the shoe that form which
-the hoof had before it underwent change.</i> Such treatment will
-not only do the hoof no injury, but, on the contrary, is of
-advantage to it, as it is well known that in time the hoof will
-acquire the form of the shoe.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span></p>
-
-<p id="III_H_1" class="f120"><b>Shaping and Fitting Shoes.<br />
-Special Considerations.</b></p>
-
-<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>A shoe for a hoof of the regular form fits properly</i> when
-the outer border of the shoe in the region of the nail-holes closely
-follows the outer edge of the wall, but from the last nail-hole to
-the end of each branch extends beyond the wall from a sixteenth
-to an eighth of an inch, the shoe is straight, lies firmly and air-tight
-upon the bearing-surface of the hoof, the nail-holes fall
-exactly upon the white line, and there is sufficient space between
-the frog and the branches of the shoe for the passage of a foot-pick.
-The branches must be of equal length.</p>
-
-<p>While in fitting a shoe to a hoof of regular form we need
-pay attention only to the form of the hoof, <i>it is very different
-when we come to shape and fit shoes to hoofs of irregular forms</i>.
-<i>In these cases we must consider not only the form of the hoof,
-but the position of the limbs and the distribution of weight in
-the hoof</i>, because <b>where the most weight falls the surface of
-support of the foot must be widened, and where least weight
-falls</b> (<b>on the opposite side</b>) <b>the surface of support must
-be narrowed</b>. In this manner the improper distribution of weight
-within the hoof (an unbalanced foot) is regulated,—that is, is
-evenly distributed over the surface of support. The manner
-in which this is accomplished in the various forms of hoofs is
-as follows:</p>
-
-<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>An acute-angled hoof</i> requires the shoe described in
-<a href="#SHOE_2">paragraph 2, page 114</a>. The branches must be long,
-because more of the weight falls in the posterior half of the foot, and
-long branches extend the surface of support backward, while
-the surface of support in front is to be diminished by making
-the toe of the shoe base-narrow, either by turning it up or by
-bevelling it in under the foot. A shoe for an acute-angled hoof
-fits when it is otherwise related to the hoof as is described in
-paragraph <i>a</i>, above.</p>
-
-<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>An upright or stumpy hoof</i> presents exactly reverse
-conditions with respect to the distribution of weight within
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span>
-the hoof, and is treated in an exactly opposite manner. The
-surface of support should be increased at the toe and diminished
-at the quarters. This is accomplished by a shoe possessing the
-peculiarities described in <a href="#SHOE_3">paragraph 3, page 114</a>,
-whose nail-holes are directed either straight or slightly outward.</p>
-
-<p>(<i>d</i>) <i>A base-wide hoof</i> requires the surface of support
-to be widened upon the inner side of the foot and narrowed upon the
-outer side, because the inner half of the foot hears the more
-weight. A shoe having the peculiarities described in <a href="#SHOE_4">paragraph
-4, page 114</a>, accomplishes this end.</p>
-
-<p>(<i>e</i>) <i>The base-narrow hoof</i> is just the reverse of the
-preceding, and requires a shoe whose peculiarities are described in
-<a href="#SHOE_5">paragraph 5, page 114</a>. While in the normal standing
-position of the limbs, viewed from in front, the ends of the branches
-of the shoe should be equally distant from the middle of the
-median lacuna of the frog, this is not so in the base-wide and
-base-narrow positions. In the base-wide position the outer and
-in the base-narrow position the inner branch should be somewhat
-farther from the median lacuna than the branch of the
-opposite side.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p id="FIG_123" class="f150">Fig. 123.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_121.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="156" />
-     <p class="center">The three principal forms of hoofs shod with flat shoes.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>(<i>f</i>) <i>The wide hoof</i> has too large a surface of support, and,
-therefore, the shoe designed for it should possess the peculiarities
-enumerated in <a href="#SHOE_6">paragraph 6, page 115</a>.</p>
-
-<p>(<i>g</i>) <i>The narrow hoof</i> has already too narrow a base of
-support, and must not be made smaller; therefore, the shoe should
-not have a base-narrow but a perpendicular outer border, as
-described in <a href="#SHOE_7">paragraph 7, page 115</a>.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</span></p>
-
-<p id="III_H_2" class="f120"><b>Shoeing Saddlers and Hunters.</b></p>
-
-<p><i>The shoes for saddlers</i> (Park Hacks) should be light, short,
-and fitted snug to prevent forging, interfering and pulling of the
-shoes. The hoof-surface should cover the wall, white line and at
-least one-fourth of an inch of the margin of the sole. An average
-width of one inch is desirable. Both front and hind shoes should be
-fullered and concaved on the ground-surface (convex iron). <b>The
-Front Shoe</b>:—<i>Length</i>, should not project beyond the buttress
-more than one-eighth of an inch. <i>Width</i>, an inch at the middle
-on the branches, somewhat more at the toe, and less at the ends of
-the branches. <i>Bevelling</i>, outer border, base-narrow all around.
-The ends of the branches, and the heel-calks, in case they are used,
-are bevelled strongly downward and forward under the foot. The toe
-is rolled from the inner edge of the web, and provided with a strong
-central clip. Six nails are sufficient (<a href="#FIG_124">see Fig. 124</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p id="FIG_124" class="f150">Fig. 124.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_122.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="425" />
-     <p class="center">A right front shoe with forging calks;<br />
-         suitable for a saddle-horse, or hunter<br /> (convex iron).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>The Hind Shoe</b>:—<i>Length</i>, the shoe may project from one-fourth
-to three-eighths of an inch behind the buttresses. The
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</span>
-toe should be well rounded and somewhat blunt so that the
-horn of the toe will project beyond the shoe an amount equal to
-one-half the thickness of the wall. <i>Width</i>, somewhat less than
-the front shoe. The branches are of equal thickness, and should
-carry heel-calks whose height equals the thickness of the
-shoe. To guard against interfering the inside calk may be
-omitted and the inner branch thickened, fitted snug and bevelled
-strongly base-narrow. Clips are to be placed at inner and outer
-toes. Seven nails are sufficient.</p>
-
-<p><i>The shoes for hunters</i> do not differ materially from those
-suitable for Park Hacks. The hunter’s shoes are somewhat
-lighter, and to guard against injury to the feet by over-reaching
-and interfering, and against the shoes being pulled by stiff mire
-and by treading, the shoes must represent merely a prolongation
-of the hoofs, <i>i.e.</i>, must be no longer and no wider than the hoofs
-themselves. <b>The front shoe</b> of narrow, convex iron is rolled at
-the toe and has a central toe-clip. Forging heel-calks are advisable.</p>
-
-<p><b>The hind shoe</b> is set back at the toe, carries inner and outer
-toe-clips, an outer heel-calk and an inner interfering branch.
-Seven nails.</p>
-
-<p id="III_H_3" class="f120"><b>Shoeing Runners.</b></p>
-
-<p>Racing plates are intended solely to prevent excessive wear
-and breaking away of the wall, and to insure a secure foothold
-upon the ground. The shoes are made as light as possible,
-but they must not be so narrow and thin that they will bend
-or break. They are therefore made of steel, wide enough to
-cover the bearing-surface of the wall, white line, and an eighth
-of an inch of the sole. The ground-surface is divided into two
-sharp edge’s by a deep, clean, fullering continued entirely
-around the shoe. heel-calks are of no advantage. Front and
-hind shoes carry six nails. The last nails are well back in the
-quarters to prevent the spreading or bending of the light shoe.
-Front shoes are provided with central toe-clips; hind shoes
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span>
-carry inner and outer toe-clips and are set slightly under at the toe
-(<a href="#FIG_125">see Figs. 125</a>, <a href="#FIG_126">126</a>,
-<a href="#FIG_127">127</a>, <a href="#FIG_128">128</a>). An <i>average
-weight</i> running plate for a medium-sized hoof is <i>three to four ounces</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_125" class="f150">Fig. 125.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_124a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="247" />
-     <p class="center">A fore running plate,<br /> hoof-surface.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_126" class="f150">Fig. 126.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_124b.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="251" />
-     <p class="center">A fore running plate,<br /> ground-surface.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_127" class="f150">Fig. 127.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_124c.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="253" />
-     <p class="center">A hind running plate,<br /> hoof-surface.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_128" class="f150">Fig. 128.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_124d.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="252" />
-     <p class="center">A hind running plate,<br /> ground-surface.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="III_H_4" class="f120"><b>Shoeing Trotters and Pacers.</b></p>
-
-<p>The shoes worn while the trotter or pacer is in training are somewhat
-heavier than those worn while racing. Training shoes will average 40
-ounces to the set, while trotting and pacing plates weigh from 16 to 28
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span>
-ounces to the set. Of the six fastest trotters during the last year
-(1912) the average weight of the front shoes was 6⅚ ounces, of the
-hind shoes 4 ounces. Of the seven swiftest pacers of the same year the
-front shoes averaged 5½ ounces, and the hind shoes 3⅝ ounces. In short,
-<i>extreme speed at running, pacing or trotting demands as light a shoe
-as can be made, which will at the same time furnish a bearing for wall,
-white line and a narrow rim of the sole</i>.</p>
-
-<p>In style of shoes there is no marked difference between trotters
-and pacers—except in the hind shoes of pacers that cross-fire (<a href="#Page_140">see
-“cross-firing,” p. 140</a>). Open shoes predominate. Bar-shoes are used,
-not to give frog pressure, but to stiffen and prevent spreading of
-the shoe, when after a few days’ wear it becomes thin at the toe. The
-average trotting and pacing plate is so thin that it would be weakened
-by fullering, so most of them are stamped (punched). Six nails are
-sufficient. Clips are seldom needed.</p>
-
-<p>Pacers usually require a low circular grab or “rim” at the toe. This is
-set flush with the outer border, is about one-eighth of an inch high
-and is brazed on. Trotting plates are usually without toe-calks, though
-many are fullered across the toe (corrugated) to furnish a grip upon
-the ground.</p>
-
-<p>On both trotting and pacing shoes the heel-calks should be low and
-sharp and should run straight forward so as not to retard the forward
-glide of the foot as it is set to earth heel first. The heel-calk
-serves chiefly to prevent the lateral twist of the foot as the horse
-takes the sharp turns of the track.</p>
-
-<p>Freak shoes, toe-weights, side-weights, excessive length of hoof or
-toe, and other unscientific appliances and methods of shoeing speed
-horses are being gradually eliminated, and today the fastest are dressed
-and shod in accordance with the principles enunciated in this book.</p>
-
-<p id="III_H_5" class="f120"><b>Fitting Shoes to Heavy Draft-Horses.</b></p>
-
-<p>What has been previously said concerning shoeing holds good here;
-however, the conditions of shoeing are somewhat different in heavy
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</span>
-horses, and particularly with respect to hoofs which, without being
-clearly diseased, have been injured by shoeing. The entire operation
-requires more circumspection, because it is more difficult. In many
-cases one will find that the width that has been advised for the
-outer branch of the shoe at the quarter is not sufficient. Indeed,
-if a horse has wry feet, and there is unequal distribution of weight
-within the hoof, and we attempt in shoeing it to follow to the letter
-the directions given on preceding pages, we would be apt to favor the
-perpetuation of the defect. In such cases the slant of the wall at the
-quarters is of the greatest practical value to us in estimating the
-proper width for the shoe at this point.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p id="FIG_129" class="f150">Fig. 129.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_126.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="479" />
-     <p class="center">Left hind shoe with a broad, base-wide<br />
-        outer branch for draft-horses that stand<br />
-        markedly base-narrow (close behind).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>When uniform setting down of the hoof and uniform wear of the shoe are
-desired, every point in the coronary band in the posterior half of the
-foot must receive support by the shoe. This applies particularly to the
-outer halves of hoofs that are extremely base-narrow. If, for example,
-the coronet of the outer quarter projects beyond the plantar border
-of the quarter, the outer branch of the shoe from the last nail-hole
-back must be kept so wide (full) that an imaginary perpendicular line
-dropped from the coronary band will just touch the outer border of the
-shoe. The inner branch, on the contrary, should follow the edge of the
-wall as closely as possible. Furthermore, the new shoe should be given
-more curve,—that is, made wider and fitted more full where the old
-shoe shows greatest wear. <i>The principal thought should be to set the
-shoe, which should always be regarded as the base of support of the
-hoof, farther towards the more strongly worn side.</i> Such a practice
-renders superfluous the wide-spread and popular custom of bending
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</span>
-outward the outer quarter and heel-calk of hind shoes. From the manner
-in which a horse travels and the wear of the old shoe, we estimate the
-distance that the branches of the shoe should be set from the middle
-line of the hoof. If in following out this plan the bearing-surface of
-the outer quarter of the wall is not completely covered, the quarter
-will be pinched and squeezed inward; this should be prevented by a
-broader branch punched so deeply that the holes will fall upon the
-white line (<a href="#FIG_129">Fig. 129</a>).</p>
-
-<p>When the shoer has satisfied himself that the shoe fulfils every
-requirement and fits perfectly, it is to be cooled, the holes opened
-with an oiled pritchel, and the shoe brightened with a file. In filing,
-all sharp edges should be removed. If a shoe is to be filed upon the
-outer border, to give it a neater appearance, the filing should be done
-<i>lengthways of the shoe</i>, and <i>not crossways</i>; of course, the
-shoe must not be bent by being improperly clamped in the vise.</p>
-
-<p>It indicates much greater skill in making and fitting shoes when they
-look clean and finished with little or no filing.</p>
-
-<p class="blockquot"> In the preceding remarks I have insisted upon a
-horizontal bearing-surface for all shoes, with the single exception of
-shoes provided with the rolled toe (rolling motion). As far as I can
-judge from the literature of shoeing, and from what I have seen with
-my own eyes in many countries, this is the most wide-spread practice.
-In Germany, on the other hand, there is another method, followed
-in the military shoeing shops, <i>which consists in placing the
-bearing-surface of the shoe as nearly as possible at right angles to
-the slant of the wall</i>. According to this method the bearing-surface
-of the shoe, depending upon the direction of the wall (viewed from in
-front, from behind, and from the side), should incline more or less,
-now backward, now inward, now horizontal, and now outward. Shoes for
-wide hoofs are given a bearing-surface which inclines inward, while for
-narrow hoofs the shoes have a horizontal bearing-surface. Shoes for wry
-hoofs have a bearing-surface which inclines downward and inward for the
-slanting wall, and for the steeper wall a horizontal bearing-surface,
-which towards the end of the branch may incline slightly downward and
-outward. Besides, the bearing-surface of the ends of the branches,
-viewed from the side, has a backward and downward inclination. This
-method is practicable <b>only in part</b>.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</span></p>
-
-<h4 id="III_I">I. Nailing the Shoe.</h4>
-
-<p>This is that act of horseshoeing by which the shoe is fastened to the
-hoof by special nails called hoof-nails or horseshoe-nails, which are
-driven through the shoe and horny wall.</p>
-
-<p>At present there are hand-made and machine-made horseshoe-nails. Both
-kinds should be made of the best wrought iron. The nails must be
-slender, wedge-shaped, and twice as wide as they are thick. Thickness
-and length must be in proper relation to each other. We should never
-choose a nail which is longer than is absolutely necessary to hold the
-shoe; six to eight sizes are sufficient for all purposes.</p>
-
-<p>The rough nails (hand-made), before being used, must undergo a
-special shaping to prepare them to pass through the wall easily and
-in the desired direction. This preparation is called <i>shaping and
-bevelling</i>. In doing this we should see to it that the nails are
-made smooth, and even, but are not hammered harder than is absolutely
-necessary, because the lighter one can hammer the nails the better they
-will be.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_130" class="figleft">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 130.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_128.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="359" />
-     <p class="center">Hand-made<br /> horseshoe-nails,<br />
-        natural size,<br /> for fullered shoes<br />
-        (1, not bevelled).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Furthermore, we must give the nail that form which will insure its
-passing through the horn <i>straight</i> and <i>not in a curve</i>;
-with this object in view, the nail is to be slightly curved so that
-the side which is turned towards the frog in driving (inside) will be
-a little concave, the opposite side convex (<a href="#FIG_130">Figs. 130</a>,
-<a href="#FIG_3">3</a>, and <a href="#FIG_131">131, No. 10</a>),
-since it is known that a straight nail always passes through the
-horn in a curve, and not only does not long remain tight, but is quite
-likely to <i>press upon and injure the soft tissues</i> of the foot.
-(<a href="#VIII_1">See also, Nailing</a>.)</p>
-
-<p>At the point of the nail the <i>bevel</i> is to be so placed that it
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span>
-will form a short one-sided wedge with the slanting side directed
-<b>from within to without</b> (<a href="#FIG_130">Figs. 130, 3</a>,
-and <a href="#FIG_131">131, <i>d</i></a>). A short bevel is suitable
-for nails that are to be driven low, while a long bevel makes it
-possible to drive them high. <i>The bevel should never form a hook; it
-must always be straight, should be sharp but not thin, and under no
-conditions incomplete</i> (defective).</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_131" class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 131.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_129.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="414" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Machine-made horseshoe-nails (natural
-     size) with a low, wide head for a fullered shoe. The last
-     nail is shown from one border; the others from the inner
-     face: <i>a</i>, head; <i>b</i>, neck; <i>c</i>, shank;
-     <i>d</i>, bevel; <i>e</i>, point; <i>f</i>, inner face;
-     <i>g</i>, outer face.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Machine-made nails, smooth, polished, bevelled, and ready for use, are,
-for many reasons, to be preferred to hand-made nails, though the latter
-are rather tougher (<a href="#FIG_131">see Fig. 131</a>).</p>
-
-<p>Before the shoe is nailed on it should be cooled and again carefully
-examined by a competent shoer, who should then place it upon the hoof,
-where it should be critically observed to see whether it really fulfils
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span>
-every requirement of a properly-fitting shoe. Afterwards, the least
-fault or defect must be remedied, and then the work of <i>nailing</i>
-it begins. By nailing, the shoe is firmly and durably fastened to the
-hoof, in doing which the horn of the wall is spared so far as possible,
-the elasticity of the hoof borne always in mind, and wounding of the
-pododerm entirely avoided. <b>The nails must in all cases penetrate the
-white line</b> and pass through the wall in such a straight direction
-that they will appear neither too high nor too low upon its outer
-surface. In the first case there is considerable danger of pricking or
-close-nailing, and in the latter the nail-holes will tear out easily
-when the nails are being clinched.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_132" class="figleft">
-  <p class="f150"><span class="smcap">Fig. 132.</span></p>
-  <img  src="images/i_130.jpg" alt="" width="100" height="287" />
-     <p class="center">Driving<br /> hammer.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In driving a nail, it should be held in the fingers as long as possible
-in the direction in which it is desired that it shall pass through
-the horn. A nail should be driven cautiously, with attention to its
-<i>sinking and sound</i>, and yet with enough force so that at each
-stroke it will penetrate from one-fifth to one-fourth of an inch. The
-power required at each stroke will depend upon the hardness of the horn
-and the size of the nail. Fearless driving and timorous tapping should
-not be allowed.</p>
-
-<p>Nails, which at a depth of five-eighths of an inch are still going
-soft, or which bend and give a dull sound, or cause pain, should be
-immediately withdrawn.</p>
-
-<p>According to the size of the horse and his hoofs the nails should be
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span>
-driven from five-eighths to an inch and five-eighths high, and as
-<i>even</i> as possible. As soon as a nail is driven its point should
-be <b>immediately</b> bent down towards the shoe in order to prevent
-injuries. The heads of all the nails should then be gone over with a
-hammer and driven down solidly into the nail-holes, the hoof being
-meanwhile supported in the left hand. Pincers are then held under the
-bent nails and they are more sharply bent by <i>light</i> blows upon
-the nail-heads. The points of the nails are now nipped off near the
-hoof, the horn which has been thrown out just below the clinches by
-bending the nails down is removed with rasp or gouge, and the ends of
-the nails bent down still more, but not quite flush with the wall.
-This operation is called “clinching.” A clinching-block or a pair of
-ordinary blacksmith’s pincers is then placed under the end of the
-nail, now called a clinch, and by light blows (in doing this the nail
-must not bend within the wall) upon the head the clinch is turned
-closer to the surface of the wall; finally, with the front edge of the
-nail-hammer the clinch is hammered down flush with the wall. On the
-inner half of the wall the clinches should not be felt on stroking the
-wall with the fingers. The small amount of horn that projects beyond
-the shoe around the toe may be carefully rasped away in the direction
-in which the wall slants, but <i>never higher than the clinches</i>;
-finally, the sharp lower edge of the wall is to be removed by carrying
-the corner of the rasp around between the shoe and the horn.</p>
-
-<p>A clinch is sufficiently long when it equals the width of the nail at
-that point.</p>
-
-<p>It is of advantage to use a shoeing-bock or foot-stool in clinching
-the nails on the front hoofs. The hind hoofs may be clinched in the
-hands. Then the horse should be led out and again moved in order to
-see whether or not the new shoeing has actually accomplished what was
-desired. Finally, the entire hoof should be given a thin layer of
-hoof-salve.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span></p>
-
-<h4 id="III_K">K. Horseshoes More or Less Deficient<br /> in the Desirable Qualities<br />
-Described on Pages 107-116.</h4>
-
-<p class="f120"><b>Machine Shoes.</b></p>
-
-<p>1. <i>Machine Shoes of Wrought Iron.</i>—They are half-finished and
-finished. Though machine shoes with few exceptions show no distinction
-between front and hind, or left and right, with correct punching for
-these different feet, but usually present one form in different sizes,
-yet, unfortunately, they are in high favor with horseshoers, because
-they may be used for both summer and winter and for bar-shoes.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_133" class="f150">Fig. 133.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_132a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="287" />
-     <p class="center">A machine-made (drop-forged)<br /> front shoe, ground-surface.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_134" class="f150">Fig. 134.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_132b.jpg" alt="" width="260" height="285" />
-     <p class="center">A machine-made toe-weight front<br />
-          shoe for a harness horse, showing<br /> ground-surface. Punching good.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>For these reasons we cannot approve of machine shoes.</p>
-
-<p>2. <i>Finished Cast Shoes.</i>—They are of four kinds,—ordinary cast
-shoes, cast shoes with rope buffer, cast shoes with fiber buffer, and
-cast shoes fenestrated to hold a rubber buffer. Ordinary cast shoes of
-correct form and proper punching designed by Grossbauer, of Vienna, are
-sold by Hannes’ Sons, of that city.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_135" class="f150">Fig. 135.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_133a.jpg" alt="" width="210" height="216" />
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_136" class="f150">Fig. 136.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_133b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="221" />
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_137" class="f150">Fig. 137.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_133c.jpg" alt="" width="75" height="225" />
-   </div>
-     <p class="center">Machine-made (drop-forged) multi-calk fore shoe.<br />
-         <i>A</i>, ground-surface; <i>B</i>, hoof-surface; <i>C</i>, profile.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_138" class="f150">Fig. 138.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_133d.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="227" />
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_139" class="f150">Fig. 139.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_133e.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="233" />
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_140" class="f150">Fig. 140.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_133f.jpg" alt="" width="80" height="231" />
-   </div>
-     <p class="center">Machine-made (drop-forged) multi-calk hind shoe.<br />
-           <i>A</i>, ground-surface; <i>B</i>, hoof-surface; <i>C</i>, profile.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>Rope Shoes.</i>—These shoes have a groove on the ground-surface, in
-which rests a tarred rope, which greatly diminishes slipping on smooth
-pavement. For this reason alone they are extensively used in the large
-cities of Germany. Since the open rope shoe, when half worn out, will
-warp, the bar rope shoe is more satisfactory and more extensively used
-(<a href="#FIG_141">Figs. 141-144</a>).
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_141" class="f150">Fig. 141.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_134a.jpg" alt="" width="175" height="215" />
-     <p class="center">Bar rope shoe with<br /> bar bent forward.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_142" class="f150">Fig. 142.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_134b.jpg" alt="" width="175" height="214" />
-     <p class="center">The same with<br /> bar bent backward.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_143" class="f150">Fig. 143.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_134c.jpg" alt="" width="185" height="213" />
-     <p class="center">The same with<br /> beak-formed bar.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_144" class="f150">Fig. 144.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_134d.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="419" />
-     <p class="center">An open rope shoe.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Before fitting the shoe the rope must be removed. After the nails are
-driven it is laid in the groove and hammered into place. Rope shoes can
-seldom be fitted properly to hoofs other than those which are healthy
-and of regular shape.</p>
-
-<p><i>Fiber Shoes.</i>—These have a groove on the ground-surface into
-which layers of linen fiber belting have been tightly pressed. The
-fiber cannot be removed, and therefore the shoes cannot be heated, but
-must be fitted cold. The nail-holes are placed between the fiber and
-the outer border of the shoe, and are punched too light. The bearing
-surface of the shoe is unsupported, so that when the shoe is half worn
-out, it warps. There is no distinction between rights and lefts.</p>
-
-<p><i>Rubber shoes</i> have all the defects of fiber shoes, and one
-more. The hoof-surface is covered with canvas, which under normal
-and acute-angled hoofs wears through under the quarters and leads to
-loosening of the last nails.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span></p>
-
-<h4 id="III_L">L. Rubber Pads.</h4>
-
-<p>The increasing use of asphalt, tarvia and other hard, smooth and
-slippery materials for surfacing city streets and country highways has
-not only made travelling in flat and even in calked shoes precarious,
-but has aggravated all those injuries produced by concussion.</p>
-
-<p>To prevent slipping and the injurious effects of concussion a great
-many shoes have been devised, in which are incorporated such materials
-as hemp rope, linen fibre, papier maché, cork, wood, bast, felt and
-rubber, but all fail in greater or lesser degree to meet practical
-requirements.</p>
-
-<p>Rubber, though the most expensive of these materials, is the most
-resilient and takes the best grip on smooth pavement. A pad of rubber,
-wide enough to cover the branches of the frog alone, or the branches of
-the frog and the buttresses of the hoof, firmly cemented to a leather
-sole, constitutes the modern rubber pad (<a href="#FIG_145">Figs. 145</a>,
-<a href="#FIG_146">146</a>, <a href="#FIG_147">147</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_145" class="f150">Fig. 145.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_135.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="387" />
-     <p class="blockquot">A light driving pad, gummed and
-     stitched to a leather sole; seen from the ground-surface
-     and in profile. Used with a seven-to ten-ounce short shoe.
-     <i>a</i>, stitching; <i>b</i>, rubber bar under buttress
-     and frog; <i>c</i>, leather sole.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The frog- and buttress-pad used with a short shoe is to be preferred to
-the earlier frog pad which takes a full shoe.</p>
-
-<p><i>The advantages of rubber pads are</i>:</p>
-
-<p>1. They prevent slipping upon asphalt and other smooth, dry surfaces.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span></p>
-
-<p>2. They diminish concussion, and are valuable in the prevention and
-treatment of sore heels, dry and moist corns, bruised sole, and
-incipient side-bone.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_146" class="f150">Fig. 146.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_136a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="241" />
-     <p class="center">Air-cushion pad, seen from ground<br  />
-                       surface and in profile. Suitable for<br />
-                       light harness horses.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_147" class="f150">Fig. 147.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_136b.jpg" alt="" width="270" height="240" />
-     <p class="center">A heavy bar-pad suitable for heavy<br />
-                       harness and draft-horses on pavement.<br />
-                       The short shoe may carry a toe-calk<br />
-                       of medium height.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>3. They give frog pressure, develop the frog and tend to prevent
-contraction of the quarters and those lesions which may follow
-contraction, as corns, cracks of bars and quarters, laminitis of the
-quarters and thrush.</p>
-
-<p><i>A rubber pad should not be used</i>:</p>
-
-<p>1. In contraction of one or both quarters, when the frog is too much
-shrunken to bear upon the pad.</p>
-
-<p>2. In lameness from well developed side-bones.</p>
-
-<p>3. In navicular bursitis (“navicular disease”).</p>
-
-<p>4. In thrush, or canker of frog or sole.</p>
-
-<p>Rubber pads, light, medium and heavy, are made in all sizes and are
-suitable for all classes of horses, from the light roadster to the
-heavy draft type. The short shoe with which they are used reaches the
-middle of the quarters. The pad surface (upper surface) of the ends of
-the branches should be bevelled to conform to the pad, and to hold it
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span>
-firmly against the frog and buttresses. The thickness of the shoe
-should equal two-thirds the thickness of the pad, so that when
-fitted one-third of the thickness of the pad shall project below the
-ground-surface of the shoe. The shoe should be provided with a strong
-toe-clip. With the heavy, thick pad of a draft-horse a low toe-calk may
-be used, but heel-calks should never be put on a short shoe. Pads are
-seldom necessary on the hind feet.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span></p>
-
-<h3 class="nobreak">CHAPTER IV.<br />
-<span class="h_subtitle">SHOEING HORSES THAT FORGE AND INTERFERE.</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<h4 id="IV_A">A. Forging.</h4>
-
-<p>Forging is that defect of the horse’s gait by reason of which, at a
-trot, he strikes the ends of the branches or the under surface of the
-front shoe with the toe of the hind shoe or hoof of the same side.
-Forging in a pacer is termed “cross-firing” and consists in striking
-the inner quarter, or the under surface of the inner branch of a front
-shoe with the toe of the diagonal hind shoe or hoof.</p>
-
-<p>Forging is unpleasant to hear and dangerous to the horse. It is liable
-to wound the heels of the forefeet, damages the toes or the coronet of
-the hind hoofs, and often pulls off the front shoes.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_148" class="f150">Fig. 148.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_138a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="256" />
-     <p class="center">Right front shoe with concave ground-surface<br />
-                (“convex iron”) to prevent “forging.”</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_149" class="f150">Fig. 149.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_138b.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="209" />
-     <p class="center space-above2">Right hind shoe with lateral toe-clips<br />
-    to prevent “clicking” and the various<br /> injuries due to forging.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>Causes.</i>—1. Faulty conformation; for example, horses that stand
-considerably higher at the croup than at the withers; horses with
-long legs and short bodies; horses that “stand under” in front and
-behind. 2. Using horses on heavy ground, unskilful driving, allowing a
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span>
-long-necked, heavy-headed horse to carry his head too low; riding
-without holding a horse to his work by feeling his mouth and pressing
-the knees against his sides. 3. Fatigue frequently leads to forging,
-even in horses that are well built and properly shod. It may also occur
-in the act of vaulting over an obstacle. 4. Poor shoeing, especially
-too long toes upon the front and hind hoofs, and too long front shoes.</p>
-
-<p>The aim of the shoer should be to facilitate the quick and easy
-“breaking over” of the <b>front foot</b>, so that it may get away
-before it is overtaken by the hind foot. The toe of the front hoof
-should be fairly short and rolled; the quarters spared. The front shoe
-should be light, rolled at the toe and <b>no longer and no wider</b>
-than the hoof. The ends of the branches of a flat shoe, and also the
-heel-calks, in case they are needed to elevate a heel that is too low,
-should be bevelled from the hoof-surface of the shoe downward and
-forward under the foot. Such short heel-calks, bevelled to prevent
-forging, are called “forging calks.” If the horse continues to forge
-between the branches and against the ground-surface of the shoe,
-concaving this surface will prove advantageous (convex iron). The form
-of the front shoes of horses that forge should represent merely a
-prolongation of the hoof.</p>
-
-<p>The “breaking over” of the <b>hind foot</b> should be delayed by
-sparing the toe and lowering the quarters, but not sufficiently to
-break the foot-axis too far backward. The hind shoe is to be squared at
-the toe and the lower edge of the shoe in the region of the toe well
-rounded; instead of a toe-clip, two side-clips are to be drawn up and
-the shoe so fitted that at least three-fourths of the thickness of the
-wall of the toe, with the edge well rounded, will extend forward beyond
-the shoe. Should the toe of the hoof be short it may be raised either
-by a low toe-calk set one-fourth of an inch back from the edge of the
-shoe, or by thinning the shoe from the toe to the ends of the branches.
-The branches of a flat hind shoe should extend somewhat farther back of
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span>
-the buttresses than under normal conditions, to trail upon the ground
-just before the hoof alights, and acting as a brake, to bring the hoof
-to earth (<a href="#FIG_150">Fig. 150</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_150" class="f150">Fig. 150.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_140.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="308" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Hind shoe with swelled toe to slow the
-     breaking over. Often efficient when the hoof is too short
-     at the toe: <i>a</i>, long branches to trail and bring the
-     foot to earth; <i>b</i>, outer toe clip; <i>c</i>, toe
-     squared and set under to prevent injury to front hoof, and
-     to deaden the sound of forging.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>“Cross-firing” is most apt to occur and is most dangerous at extreme
-speed. Then, when the inner branch of the hind shoe strikes the inner
-heel, quarter or shoe of the diagonal front foot, both feet are in the
-air,—the fore foot is approaching the middle of its stride, while the
-offending hind foot is in the last third of its flight. The standing
-position that favors cross-firing is the base-wide (toe-wide) in front,
-and the base-narrow (toe-narrow) behind. With this direction of limbs
-the flight of the fore feet is forward and inward during the first
-half of their stride, while the flight of the hind feet is forward and
-inward during the second half of their stride (<a href="#FIG_72">see Figs. 72</a>,
-<a href="#FIG_73">73</a>, <a href="#FIG_75">75</a>).</p>
-
-<p>The problem is, therefore, so to pare and shoe a base-wide fore foot
-that it will break over nearer the centre of the toe and thus execute
-less of an inward swing during the first half of its stride, and to so
-pare and shoe a base-narrow hind foot that it will break over nearer
-the centre of the toe and thus execute less of an inward swing during
-the second half of its stride. Neither a toe-wide nor a toe-narrow
-foot can be made to break over the exact centre of the toe, and yet it
-is possible by dressing the hoof and by shoeing to shift the breaking
-over point nearer to the centre of the toe, and by doing so, to alter
-slightly the lines of flight of the feet.</p>
-
-<p>Dressing and shoeing the front foot: <b>The hoof</b> should be
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span>
-relatively low from the middle of the toe around to and including the
-<i>outer</i> buttress. If the inner half of the wall is deficient in
-length it must be raised above the outer half by applying a shoe which
-is thinner in its outer than in its inner branch. The inner toe should
-be left long.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_151" class="f150">Fig. 151.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_141a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="296" />
-     <p class="center">Left hind hoof of a toe-narrow<br />
-       pacer, shod to prevent cross-firing: <i>a</i>,<br />
-       dotted line indicating outer border of the hoof;<br />
-       <i>b</i>, long bent outer branch; <i>c</i>, short,<br />
-       thin inner branch; <i>d</i>, inner wall extending<br />
-       beyond the shoe; <i>f</i>, line from which inner<br />
-       branch is feather-edged. The shoe is of even<br />
-       thickness from <i>b</i> to <i>f</i> at inner<br />
-       toe; but from latter point to <i>c</i> diminishes<br />
-       to a feather edge.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_152" class="f150">Fig. 152.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_141b.jpg" alt="" width="280" height="297" />
-     <p class="center">Front view of hoof and shoe<br />
-        depicted in Fig. 151: <i>a</i>, outer branch<br />
-        fitted very full and bevelled base-wide;<br />
-        <i>b</i>, inner branch diminishing in thickness<br />
-        from inner toe <i>c</i>, to its termination at<br />
-        the inner quarter. Designed to favor “breaking<br />
-        over” near centre of the toe, and to widen the gait.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>The shoe</b> should be light, without heel-calks, but may carry
-a low, curved grab (“grab,” is a low, straight or curved, toe-or
-heel-calk on a racing plate) running from the second inner toe nail to
-the centre of the toe. <i>The inner branch</i> is to be fitted flush
-with the wall from the centre of the toe back to the quarter, back
-of which point it gradually extends beyond the wall, <i>i.e.</i>, is
-fitted full; and terminates well back of the buttress. <i>This inner
-branch</i> should be from one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch longer
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</span>
-than the outer branch. <i>The long inner branch, full at the quarter,
-is desirable, but must be covered by a quarter-boot, which a
-cross-firer should always wear.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>The outer branch</i> should be fitted snug and terminate at the
-buttress. From the centre of the toe to the end of the branch the
-ground-surface should be bevelled from the inner edge of the web to a
-knife-edge at the outer border.</p>
-
-<p>Dressing and shoeing the hind foot: <b>The hoof</b> should be
-relatively low from the centre of the toe around to and including the
-<i>inner</i> buttress. If the outer half of the hoof is deficient in
-length, it must be raised above the inner half by applying a shoe with
-a thin inner branch. The inner branch may terminate in a knife-edge
-midway between toe and heel (<a href="#FIG_151">Figs. 151</a>
-and <a href="#FIG_152">152</a>).</p>
-
-<p><i>The inner branch</i> is to be fitted snug from the centre of the toe
-to its end, and its ground-surface should be bevelled from the inner
-edge of the web to a knife-edge at the outer border.</p>
-
-<p><i>The outer branch</i> is to be fitted very full from the outside toe
-to the end. This branch should extend well behind the buttress, and
-in well-marked base-narrow hoofs should be turned outward in order to
-support the overhanging coronet of the quarter. The outer border should
-be bevelled base-wide, and the nail-holes punched coarse, <i>i.e.</i>,
-far in from the outer border (<a href="#FIG_151">Figs. 151</a> and
-<a href="#FIG_152">152</a>). The outer branch may carry a small heel-calk.</p>
-
-<h4 id="IV_B">B. Interfering.</h4>
-
-<p>A horse “interferes” when a hoof in motion strikes the opposite
-supporting leg. Interfering is apt to produce injuries, either of the
-coronary band of the inner half of the foot or of the fetlock-joint, or
-(in fore-limbs) of the cannon, even as high up as the knee. Lameness
-frequently accompanies such injuries.</p>
-
-<p><i>The causes of interfering</i> lie either in the <i>shoeing</i>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span>
-(of the foot that strikes, as well as of the foot which is struck), in
-the <i>position of the limbs</i>, or in the <i>use</i> of the animal.
-Horses that have the correct standing position do not interfere when
-they are properly shod; base-wide horses interfere sometimes; horses
-base-narrow down to the fetlock and toe-wide below that point interfere
-very frequently. Traces of unequal length, weariness, and shoeing at
-too long intervals favor interfering.</p>
-
-<p>In attempting to lessen or remove interfering, the horse must be most
-carefully examined with respect to the position of his limbs, his gait,
-and his shoeing, in the manner described on pages 90 to 92.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_153" class="f150">Fig. 153.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_143.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="428" />
-     <p class="blockquot">A right front shoe with nailless and
-     narrow inner branch for a base-wide hoof. Suitable for
-     horses that strike anywhere from inner toe back to the
-     quarter.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>If the cause is found to be the twisted position of a shoe, too wide
-hoofs, raised clinches, etc., nothing need be done further than to
-correct the shoeing; but if a faulty position of the limbs is the
-cause, we must ascertain the exact part of the hoof that does the
-striking, diminish the size of the hoof at that point, regulate the
-entire plantar surface of the hoof, make the shoe straight along
-the region that strikes,—that is, without curve,—and so fit it to
-the foot that one-third of the thickness of the wall will extend
-beyond the shoe. Where interfering is so pronounced as to produce
-serious injuries, we use a shoe with no nails in the inner branch
-(“dropped-crease” shoe) (<a href="#FIG_153">Figs. 153</a>,
-<a href="#FIG_156">156</a>, <a href="#FIG_157">157</a>).
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_154" class="f150">Fig. 154.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_144a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="230" />
-     <p class="center">Left hind shoe with interfering<br /> branch (ground-surface), for<br />
-                 base-narrow standing position.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_155" class="f150">Fig. 155.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_144b.jpg" alt="" width="240" height="251" />
-     <p class="center">The same (hoof-surface).</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_156" class="f150">Fig. 156.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_144c.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="230" />
-     <p class="center">Left hind interfering shoe without nail-holes in inner<br />
-               branch (“dropped-crease” shoe): <i>a</i>, side-clip.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_157" class="f150">Fig. 157.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_144d.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="237" />
-     <p class="center">Right hind shoe for toe-cutters. The dotted lines<br />
-            indicate the distance that the wall projects<br />
-            beyond the shoe: <i>a</i>, side-clip.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The so-called <i>interfering shoes</i> (<a href="#FIG_154">Figs. 154</a>
-and <a href="#FIG_155">155</a>) are worthy of recommendation only
-for hoofs of the base-narrow position. The interfering branch, whose
-greater thickness raises the inner wall, which is often too low, is
-to be so shaped and directed that the hoof will project somewhat
-beyond it. <i>This interfering branch must be made and shaped in
-accordance with each individual case.</i> The holes in the interfering
-branch should be punched somewhat finer (nearer the edge) than usual.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</span>
-Interfering shoes in which the nail-holes, with the exception of
-the inner toe nail-hole, are placed in the outer branch, are called
-“<i>dropped-crease interfering shoes</i>” (<a href="#FIG_156">Fig. 156</a>).
-Such shoes are not recommended for hind hoofs that are decidedly toe-wide
-(toe-cutters); in such cases better results will be obtained by using
-a shoe, either with or without heel-calks, whose inner branch is
-straight and without nails along the striking region, and is fitted
-wide (full) at the quarter. The inner branch should be from one-fourth
-to three-eighths of an inch longer than the outer. The inner heel-calk
-should be higher than the outer, and the end of the outer branch should
-be as base-narrow as it can be made (fitted close) (<a href="#FIG_157">Fig. 157</a>).
-In order to prevent shifting of an interfering shoe, a side-clip should be drawn
-up on the outer branch (<i>a</i>).</p>
-
-<p>There is no manner of shoeing that will prevent interfering which is
-caused by improper harnessing, crooked hitching, or weariness. The
-simpler and the <i>lighter</i> the shoes the less will horses interfere.</p>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</span></p>
-<h3 class="nobreak">CHAPTER V.<br />
-<span class="h_subtitle">WINTER SHOEING.</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<p>All shoes whose ground-surface is provided with contrivances to prevent
-slipping upon snow and ice are called winter shoes.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_158" class="figleft">
-  <p class="f120">Fig. 158.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_146.jpg" alt="" width="100" height="268" />
-     <p class="center">An ice-nail,<br /> frost-nail.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>These various contrivances are produced by several processes called
-“methods of sharpening.” All methods may be gathered into two
-groups,—namely, <i>practical</i> sharp-shoeing and <i>impractical</i>.
-Only the first will be considered.</p>
-
-<p>The durability of sharpened shoes depends partly upon whether they
-are made of steel or iron, and partly upon the nature of the ground
-in winter. If the ground is continuously covered with a thick layer
-of snow, whatever method of sharpening is followed, the shoes <b>stay
-sharp</b>; if, however, the winter is open, changeable, with more bare
-ice than snow, no method of sharpening, whatever it may be, will last
-long; the shoes will <b>not stay sharp</b>.</p>
-
-<p>For these reasons no method of sharpening which fulfils all conditions
-satisfactorily has yet been discovered.</p>
-
-<p id="V_1">The simplest and at the same time the least durable method
-of sharpening is: 1. That by means of <b>ice-nails</b> or
-<b>frost-nails</b> (<a href="#FIG_158">Fig. 158</a>). One or two nails
-are drawn from each branch of the shoe and replaced with ice-nails.</p>
-
-<p id="V_2">2. <b>Sharp Toe- and Heel-Calks.</b>—The outer calk is split
-and a small steel wedge welded in. It is then laid upon the edge of the
-anvil, indented and sharpened from within to without in such a manner
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span>
-that the calk shall be thin from the branch to the ground, and the
-outer surface shall be in the same vertical plane as the outer edge. If
-a calk is narrow from its base to its end, and at the same time without
-flaw, it does not need a sharp cutting edge. The inner calk should
-never be sharpened except the ground be very slippery. The cutting edge
-of this inner calk stands at right angles to the length of the branch,
-and its outer corner should then be rounded to prevent its injuring the
-opposite foot (<a href="#FIG_159">Figs. 159</a>, <a href="#FIG_160">160</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_159" class="f150">Fig. 159.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_147a.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="220" />
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_160" class="f150">Fig. 160.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_147b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="238" />
-   </div>
-     <p class="center">Outer and inner heel-calks sharpened.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>For horses used for heavy draft purposes a toe-calk is welded to the
-shoe and sharpened. For this purpose we use only steel (toe-steel),
-which is easily welded to the shoe and remains firm. Toe-calks and
-steeled heel-calks are tempered, in order, as much as possible, to
-lengthen their period of durability. This method of sharpening is the
-oldest and most wide-spread, and is employed on the shoes of all horses
-of which we require more than light service.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_161" class="f150">Fig. 161.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_147c.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="329" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Left fore-hoof sharp-shod: <i>a</i>,
-     toe-calk bevelled from in front; <i>b</i>, outer heel-calk
-     directed lengthwise with the branch; <i>c</i>, inner
-     heel-calk, half sharp and directed transversely to
-     direction of the branch.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Hoofs are easily damaged or even ruined by frequently repeated
-sharpening of the shoes, because every time this is done the shoes must
-be removed and replaced.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</span></p>
-
-<p id="V_3">3. <b>Shoeing with Screw Heel-Calks.</b>—Any ordinary flat shoe not
-too thin and narrow at the ends of the branches can be changed to
-a shoe with screw heel-calks by punching holes in the ends of the
-branches and cutting a thread in them.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_162" class="figleft">
-  <p class="f120">Fig. 162.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_148.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="363" />
-     <p class="center">Ground-surface of the end of<br />
-              a branch of shoe, showing (<i>a</i>)<br />
-              hole and counter-sinking<br />
-              for a screw-calk<br />
-              (one-half natural size).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The screw heel-calk holes are made either by punching or boring. The
-punching is done by means of an almost cylindrical hammer-punch,
-afterwards finishing the holes by driving through them a round punch
-which tapers from the middle towards both ends. On the ground-surface
-of the shoe the hole is moderately counter-sunk (<a href="#FIG_162">Fig. 162, <i>a</i></a>),
-so that after the thread has been cut and the calk screwed into place
-the shoulder of the latter will rest on the counter-sinking.</p>
-
-<p>At present nearly all screw-calks are made by machinery, either of iron
-or toe-steel. The former is too soft and therefore not sufficiently
-durable; the latter, however, is quite durable when the calk is
-properly hardened (tempered) by heating to a cherry-red, sticking
-the head of the calk as far as the tap into a bed of moist sand, and
-allowing it to slowly cool.</p>
-
-<p>The chief requirements of a good screw-calk are, further, a <b>clean,
-deep</b>, but not too coarse <b>thread</b>, and but <i>one size of
-thread and tap for all calks</i>, so that every calk will fit in every
-shoe. A calk whose tap measures one half-inch (12.7 millimetres)
-(Whitworth) in diameter is sufficient for the heaviest shoes. The tap
-which is used to cut the thread in the holes for the screw-calks must
-be about ¹/₁₂₅ of an inch thicker than the head of the calk. In the
-German army the calks have a tap fifteen thirty-seconds of an inch in
-diameter. The coachman should be given four calks (sharp and blunt) for
-each shoe, and a small screw-calk key for placing and removing them.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</span>
-Screw toe-calks are also used, yet they require special security to
-prevent their becoming loose. Experimentation with the screw toe-calks,
-though not yet entirely satisfactory, cannot be said to have ended.</p>
-
-<p>The advantages of shoes provided with good screw heel-calks are so
-manifold that they deserve marked preference over shoes sharpened
-by the ordinary methods. The common objections urged against
-screw-calks,—namely, that they loosen and are lost, or break off, are
-not worthy of serious consideration, since these evils are merely the
-result of unskilful workmanship and poor material. <i>Shoes with screw
-heel-calks are the best shoes for winter, especially for horses that
-have to work hard and continuously.</i></p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_163" class="f150">Fig. 163.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_149a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="364" />
-     <p class="center">Sharp screw-calks with Whitworth<br />
-                   thread (half-inch, natural size).</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_164" class="f150">Fig. 164.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_149b.jpg" alt="" width="100" height="355" />
-     <p class="center">Whitworth tap (half-inch,<br /> half natural size).</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Balling with snow is prevented by using shoes narrow in the web and
-concave upon the ground-surface (convex iron), and thoroughly oiling
-the sole and frog. Sole-pads of felt, leather, or straw serve the
-same purpose. Balling with snow is <i>best</i> prevented by a rubber
-sole-and-frog pad, or by a “stopping” of a patent hoof cement known in
-Germany as “huflederkitt.”
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</span></p>
-
-<p id="V_4">4. <b>Shoeing with Peg-Calks.</b>—The calks are merely stuck into the
-calk-holes, hence their name. Round and square peg-calks are used, but
-the former are better than the latter.</p>
-
-<p>The inventor of round peg-calks is Judson, an American. The shoes
-differ in no respect from the ordinary flat shoes. It is necessary that
-the tap of the calk have a moderately conical form, and exactly fit
-into the calk-hole of the shoe. The taper of the calk-tap is correct
-if for every ten thirty-seconds of an inch in length it increases or
-diminishes one-thirty-second of an inch in diameter (equal to one inch
-in every ten inches of length).</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_165" class="f120 space-below2">Fig. 165.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_150a.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="354" />
-     <p class="center">Sharp peg-calk<br /> (cog):<br /> <i>a</i>, the tap;<br /> <i>b</i>, the head.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_166" class="f120 space-below2">Fig. 166.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_150b.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="356" />
-     <p class="center">Blunt<br /> peg-calk:<br /> <i>a</i>, the tap;<br /> <i>b</i>, the head.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_167" class="f120">Fig. 167.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_150c.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="372" />
-     <p class="center">Lower<br /> part of<br /> the reamer.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Although the calk-holes may be punched in a hot shoe, yet boring and
-reaming them is much better, because by this method a more perfect fit
-can be secured. For this purpose we require a drill (a spiral drill is
-the best) whose diameter is exactly the same as that of the small end
-of the calk-tap (<a href="#FIG_165">Figs. 165, <i>c</i></a>,
-and <a href="#FIG_166">166, <i>c</i></a>). After the
-shoe has been fitted to the hoof, the provisional holes are drilled
-and afterwards reamed out from the ground-surface of the shoe with
-the reamer shown in <a href="#FIG_167">Fig. 167</a>. Since the tap of the reamer
-corresponds exactly in size to the tap of the calk, it is evident that the latter
-must exactly fit and be tight. The wire edge that is raised around the
-hole is removed with a file, and the edge then smoothed by introducing
-the reamer a second time. The calks are made of rolled round steel,
-which has the thickness of the tap-end of the calk. For this purpose
-we require a calk-mould or matrix, in which one or more holes have
-been finished with a reamer. A piece of rod steel is heated at the end
-for a distance nearly twice the length of the calk, is swaged, thrust
-into the matrix, then broken off, and back-set. This will give a blunt
-peg-calk. If a sharp calk is desired, the upper part of the head of the
-calk is sharpened in the ordinary manner, although this is accomplished
-most easily by using a pair of tongs with short jaws that are hollowed
-upon the inside for seizing the tap of the calk.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</span></p>
-
-<p>Before the shoes are nailed on, the normal punch should be oiled and
-driven into the calk-holes, and the calks passed into the holes to see
-that they fit perfectly.</p>
-
-<p>The calks are driven into place <b>after</b> the shoes are nailed to
-the hoofs. A light blow is sufficient to fasten a calk, yet a necessary
-precaution is first to remove every trace of oil from the calks and
-calk-holes. The first calk driven into place must be held with the hand
-while the second is being driven, otherwise it will either spring from
-the calk-hole or be loosened so that it will soon afterwards be lost.</p>
-
-<p>To remove such a calk we strike its head from different sides with a
-hammer, stone, or other hard object until it becomes loose, when a
-rather hard blow upon the shoe causes it to spring out. Calks which
-have worn down are seized by a pair of sharp nippers and loosened by
-blows upon the shoe. Since a calk which is firm soon rusts and is then
-very difficult to remove, it is recommended that all calks be removed
-every night.</p>
-
-<p>The <b>advantages</b> of peg-calks over screw-calks are: 1. They do not
-break off. 2. They are easier to make and simpler to use. 3. They are
-<b>cheaper</b>.</p>
-
-<p><b>Disadvantages.</b>—1. Peg-calks are sometimes lost, even when
-properly made and most carefully introduced. This evil happens much
-less frequently when the calks are put in by the maker (horseshoer)
-than when they are stuck in by the coachman, attendant, rider, or other
-person. When calks are lost on the way from the shop, it is usually due
-to some fault in the calk-holes or in the calks, although when the feet
-are balled with snow the calks are easily lost, because they do not
-then touch the ground.</p>
-
-<p>2. The removal of the calks often involves many difficulties, since
-they are apt to rust into place if not removed daily, and when worn
-down so far that they cannot be grasped with the pincers are almost
-impossible to remove. By hammering upon the calks and shoe many horses
-are rendered not only restive, but sensitive in the feet.</p>
-
-<p>3. If horses are used without the calks, a wire edge forms around the
-hole on the bottom of the shoe, which interferes with the placing of
-the calk and lessens its security.</p>
-
-<p>The <b>hollow peg-calk</b> (<a href="#FIG_168">Fig. 168</a>), made by
-Branscheid &amp; Philippi, of Remscheid, has considerable merit.
-It holds exceedingly well, and is very durable. It is furnished in
-three sizes,—Nos. 12, 13, and 14,—of twenty-seven, thirty-one, and
-thirty-four millimetres length, and twelve, thirteen, and fourteen
-millimetres diameter at the end of the tap.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</span></p>
-
-<p>A punch is furnished which, when driven up to its head in the holes of
-the heated shoe, insures a proper width and shape of the hole and an
-accurately fitting calk.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_168" class="f150">Fig. 168.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_152a.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="276" />
-     <p class="center">Hollow-spring peg-calk,<br /> No. 12.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_169" class="f150 space-below2">Fig. 169.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_152b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="147" />
-     <p class="center space-above2">Peg-puller.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The calks may be removed by an extractor (<a href="#FIG_169">Fig. 169</a>)
-having at one end a thread which is screwed into a corresponding thread
-on the inside of the hollow calk, when by a few hammer blows on the
-shoe the calk loosens. To prevent the calk becoming choked with dirt,
-a piece of cork is thrust into the hollow. It may be easily removed by
-means of the corkscrew at the other end of the extractor.</p>
-
-<p id="V_5">5. <b>Shoeing with Peg Toe-Calks.</b>—These are an invention of
-considerable worth, especially for heavy draft in hilly country. They
-render better service on hind than on front shoes.</p>
-
-<p>Peg toe-calks with a single tap are simpler and preferable to those
-with two taps. Every known contrivance to prevent the occasional loss
-of the peg toe-calk is impractical.</p>
-
-<p>The shoe for a peg toe-calk should be of good tough material and
-without a flaw. The toe of the shoe should be about one-twelfth to
-one-tenth of an inch thicker than the branches.</p>
-
-<p>The hole for the peg toe-calk, whatsoever its shape may be, must be
-smooth and uniform, with clean, true corners. Semi-circular holes
-should present the convex side towards the toe.</p>
-
-<p>Before punching, draw up the toe-clip. A punch-plate with a good-sized
-hole, and a tap which will fit into the square hole in the anvil will
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</span>
-facilitate the work. The punch-plate when in position should be flush
-with the front edge of the anvil. Place the toe of the shoe, hoof
-surface upward, over the hole of the punch-plate, and drive a hole with
-a punch-hammer which is perceptibly thinner than the model punch. Now
-turn the shoe over, punch back from the ground-surface, and then file
-away the wire edge which the punch has raised on the ground-surface.
-Next, take a hand-punch, the end of which should just enter the hole,
-punch through from the ground-surface, and correct any bulging by
-dressing lightly over the horn of the anvil. Finally, use the model
-punch to give the hole the exact size and smoothness.</p>
-
-<p>Should the hole in the toe of the shoe enlarge in time, as sometimes
-occurs, then back-set when necessary on removing the shoe. Backsetting
-is easiest with the half-round hole, because the curved side, being
-turned forward, runs approximately parallel to the outer border of the
-toe of the shoe.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_170" class="f150">Fig. 170.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_153.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="77" />
-     <p class="center">Cross-section of different forms of peg toe-calk taps.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A good serviceable peg toe-calk must possess the following characteristics:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>1. The tap must be of such shape as not to turn; therefore, not
-round.</p>
-
-<p>2. The tap must be cone-shaped, and diminish in diameter about
-one-thirty-second of an inch for each one-fourth of an inch of its
-length from base to apex. If the tap has less taper it will enlarge the
-hole in the shoe till the head of the calk comes into contact with the
-shoe, when the calk will loosen and drop out.</p>
-
-<p>3. The tap must be full-formed and smooth.</p>
-
-<p>4. It must fit air-tight in the toe, and a single <span
-class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</span> hammer-blow should be
-sufficient to fix it securely.</p>
-
-<p>5. The <b>head</b> of the toe-calk <b>must not rest on the shoe</b>;
-a space of one-sixteenth of an inch should intervene.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>While a shoer of average mechanical ability can make a faultless peg
-toe-calk, it is not profitable to do so while good machine-made calks
-are to be had very cheap.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_171" class="f150">Fig. 171.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_154a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="158" />
-     <p class="center">Chisel toe-calk. (Doring.) No. 1<br />
-             from the firm of Branscheid &amp;<br />Philippi, of Remscheid.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_172" class="f150">Fig. 172.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_154b.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="164" />
-     <p class="center">Shovel toe-calk.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_173" class="f150">Fig. 173.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_154c.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="187" />
-     <p class="center">Peg toe-calk shoeing after<br /> Fisher-Renker, of Dresden.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_174" class="f150 space-below1">Fig. 174.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_154d.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="146" />
-     <p class="center">Peg-calk (shovel-calk) after<br />
-           Kunze-Klotzsche-Königswald,<br /> of Dresden.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The best forms in use are the quadrangular heads, with oval, half-round
-(<a href="#FIG_171">Figs. 171</a> and <a href="#FIG_172">172</a>), and with
-two taps (<a href="#FIG_173">Figs. 173</a> and <a href="#FIG_174">174</a>).</p>
-
-<p>In several European countries the peg toe-calks with half-round tap and
-with two round taps are in use. To make good peg toe-calk shoes and
-fit the calks properly requires <b>more than ordinary knowledge and
-skill</b>. Poor work does much harm. Therefore, work carefully and get
-well paid for it.</p>
-
-<p id="V_6">6. <b>Removable Heel-Calks that do not Require Sharpening.</b>—The
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</span>
-undeniable fact that all chisel-shaped or pyramid-shaped sharp calks
-become dull in time, and must then either be sharpened or replaced by
-new calks, renders shoeing not only costly, but injurious to the hoofs
-and annoying to the owner. This drawback is most pronounced in large
-cities, where the snow never lies long upon the streets, and the horse
-just sharp-shod is soon obliged to travel upon bare pavements. Attempts
-have been made to lessen this annoyance by the use of calks that do
-<i>not require sharpening</i>, and yet which will prevent slipping
-even after they have been used for a long time upon bare pavements.
-It cannot be denied that such calks have considerable value, and,
-except when the ground is covered with ice, many of these calks render
-excellent service. Just as the ordinary sharp calks are satisfactory
-and very durable outside of the large cities, so now for the first
-time a few of these recently invented sharp calks seem to be worthy of
-recommendation for city use. The following are the best:</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_175" class="f150">Fig. 175.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_155a.jpg" alt="" width="210" height="236" />
-     <p class="center">Screw-calk with H-formed<br /> cross-section.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_176" class="f150">Fig. 176.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_155b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="232" />
-     <p class="center">Screw-calk with +-formed<br /> cross-section.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>1. Screw-calks and peg-calks with H-shaped cross-section (<a href="#FIG_175">Fig. 175</a>).</p>
-
-<p>2. Screw-calks with +-shaped cross-section (<a href="#FIG_176">Fig. 176</a>).</p>
-
-<p>3. Screw- and peg-calks with O-shaped cross-section (<a href="#FIG_176">Fig. 176</a>).</p>
-
-<p>4. Screw- and peg-calks with S-shaped cross-section.</p>
-
-<p>5. Angle-calks (<a href="#FIG_177">Fig. 177</a>).</p>
-
-<p>6. Screw- and peg-calks with rubber foot-pad.</p>
-
-<p>7. Screw-calks with Y star-shaped cross-section (<a href="#FIG_178">Fig. 178</a>).</p>
-
-<p>8. Hollow wedge-calks (<a href="#FIG_179">Fig. 179</a>).</p>
-
-<p>9. Perforated screw-calks (<a href="#FIG_180">Fig. 180</a>).</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_177" class="f120">Fig. 177.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_156a.jpg" alt="" width="115" height="164" />
-     <p class="center">Corner calk.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_178" class="f120">Fig. 178.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_156b.jpg" alt="" width="100" height="170" />
-     <p class="center">Star calk.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_179" class="f120">Fig. 179.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_156c.jpg" alt="" width="100" height="167" />
-     <p class="center">Hollow calk.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_180" class="f120">Fig. 180.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_156d.jpg" alt="" width="100" height="162" />
-     <p class="center">Perforated calk.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</span>
-There is no doubt that the grip that these calks take upon the ground
-and their durability depend upon the diameter and the arrangement of
-their surfaces of friction. From all experiments made thus far it is
-shown that those calks which have narrow and comparatively few surfaces
-of friction are the least durable.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_181" class="f150">Fig. 181.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_156e.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="108" />
-     <p class="center space-below2">Universal screw-calk key with tap.</p>
-   <p id="FIG_182" class="f150">Fig. 182.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_156f.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="137" />
-     <p class="center">Felber’s hand-vise to secure the hoof from<br />
-                 twisting while changing the screw-calks.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>To introduce and remove the calks we use a calk key or wrench. For the
-shop, the ordinary fork key (<a href="#FIG_181">Fig. 181</a>), the jaws of
-which are tempered, is recommended. It fits all calks.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</span></p>
-<h3 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VI.<br />
-<span class="h_subtitle">HOOF NURTURE.</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<p>Hoof nurture comprises all those measures which are employed to keep
-hoofs healthy, elastic, and serviceable.</p>
-
-<h4 id="VI_A">A. Care of Unshod Hoofs.</h4>
-
-<p>The care of the hoofs of colts is of special importance. <i>Abundant
-exercise</i> upon dry ground which is not too stony is most beneficial.
-Such exercise will cause the hoofs to wear gradually, and it will only
-be necessary from time to time to observe whether the wear is taking
-place uniformly, and if not, to correct the uneven wear with the rasp.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_183" class="f150">Fig. 183.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_157.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="183" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Twisted left front long pastern of
-     colt, viewed from the upper articular surface. The lower
-     end has been twisted toward the left: <i>a</i>, transverse
-     axis of lower articular surface; <i>b</i>, transverse axis
-     of the upper articular surface.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>If colts are reared in the stable, the horn continuing to grow down
-does not undergo sufficient wear, and changes in form of the hoof,
-and even permanent distortions of the bones of the foot gradually
-occur. The wall becomes too long and bends or sometimes separates from
-the sole and keraphyllous layer. Weak quarters bend (curl) inward
-and encroach upon the space occupied by the frog (contracted feet of
-colts). The toe becomes too long, and this gives rise to too steep a
-position of the pastern and causes an insecure and diffident gait;
-therefore the hoofs must be shortened from time to time. The in-curved
-quarters should be removed with the hoof-knife, and the outer edge of
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</span>
-the plantar border of the wall well rounded with the rasp. In the
-base-wide and base-narrow standing positions the outer and inner walls
-respectively become relatively long and induce the colt to assume a
-still more abnormal position. The young and pliant pasterns may thus
-become permanently twisted and distorted (<a href="#FIG_183">see Figs. 183</a>
-and <a href="#FIG_184">184</a>). In a hoof that is becoming awry,
-restoring to the wall its proper level with relation to the position
-of the limb will not only be invaluable in ultimately producing a good
-hoof, but will improve the faulty position of the limb. In exceptional
-cases, where the plantar border of some section of the wall gives
-evidence of too rapid wear, the application of a tip or of a half-shoe
-may be of benefit. Furthermore, we should attempt to secure greater
-cleanliness by frequently and thoroughly washing the hoofs and bedding
-with plenty of good straw.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_184" class="f150">Fig. 184.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_158.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="490" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Left front long pastern of a colt
-     showing compression shortening of outer half: <i>a</i>,
-     transverse axis of upper articulation; <i>b</i>, transverse
-     axis of coronary joint, not parallel to upper axis.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Too early shoeing of young horses is very injurious; it hinders the
-development of the hoofs, and, furthermore, young horses when shod are
-frequently seriously overworked and prematurely ruined. Moderate work
-in the fields does not injure young horses, but for such service they
-do not require shoes.</p>
-
-<p>The unshod hoofs of older horses should be periodically rounded with a
-rasp and the length of the walls regulated when, by reason of a lack of
-exercise, proper wear has not taken place.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</span></p>
-
-<h4 id="VI_B">B. Care of Shod Hoofs.</h4>
-
-<p>Shod hoofs are exposed to many more injuries than are unshod hoofs,
-because shoeing itself, although absolutely necessary to render horses
-continuously serviceable upon hard streets, is injurious to the hoof,
-since it to a greater or less extent prevents the physiological
-movements of the different parts of the foot, interferes with the
-circulation of the blood in the foot, slows the growth of the horn, and
-brings about a gradual shrinking of the entire hoof.</p>
-
-<p>In addition, there are the injurious consequences of stabulation. These
-are <i>prevention of free movement</i>, <i>uncleanliness</i> due to
-bad floors and filthy bedding,—as, for example, peat moss and soiled
-straw,—and <i>dryness</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Continuous standing always contributes to contraction of the hoofs,
-and this evil is greatly favored by dryness, which more particularly
-affects the front hoofs. The hind hoofs receive sufficient moisture
-from the animal’s manure. Poor floors, particularly those that are
-uneven, tire the limbs. Accumulation of manure and the <i>careless</i>
-use of stationary sole-pads induce thrush of the frog.</p>
-
-<p id="VI_B_A">The object of hoof nurture is to lessen or entirely remove all these
-injurious consequences of shoeing and stabulation. It comprises,
-therefore, not only the proper shortening of the hoofs every five to
-six weeks, but careful attention to <i>cleanliness and moisture</i>.
-Both are insured by dry straw and daily picking out and washing the
-hoofs. Such measures will prevent thrush in the hind feet. If front
-hoofs are washed once a day, sufficient moisture will penetrate
-the horn to give it that degree of suppleness (elasticity) which
-is possessed by an unshod hoof, and which contributes to a proper
-expansion of the hoof when the body-weight is placed upon it. <i>In
-order to prevent a hoof from again drying out</i>, the entire
-hoof should receive a thorough application of an oil or ointment
-(hoof-salve). <i>The object of greasing the horn is to prevent
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</span>
-evaporation of the moisture that has penetrated the horn.</i> Specially
-compounded hoof-salves are not necessary. Melted horse-grease,
-pork-fat, or any other fat that is not rancid is sufficient. Cosmoline
-is an excellent hoof-salve.</p>
-
-<p><i>Abundant</i> but not excessive <i>exercise</i> is more necessary
-than anything else to the preservation of the health of the hoof. It
-aids the circulation of blood within the foot, and, therefore, the
-growth of the horn. Horses which perform hard, regular work have, as
-a rule, better hoofs than those which stand the greater part of the
-time in the stable. Poulticing hoofs with clay, bran, linseed-meal,
-or white-rock, or standing them in water is unnecessary if they have
-had proper care, but will sometimes be of benefit when the hoofs have
-been neglected, and especially so for front hoofs. The latter are more
-exposed to drying influences, and the shoes prevent the moistening
-process by keeping the hoofs partially or completely removed from
-contact with the earth. <i>Oiling alone is not sufficient to soften
-horn</i>, but must always be preceded by permeation of the horn with
-water. <b>Oiling without first cleansing the hoof is useless, because
-this soon produces a greasy crust underneath which the horn is crisp
-and brittle.</b></p>
-
-<p>The surest sign of cleanliness of a hoof is the appearance of the
-natural color of the horn, the latter appearing translucent even after
-the hoof-ointment has been applied; therefore, blackened hoof-ointments
-should not be used. When hoofs are exposed to too much moisture (muddy
-roads, melting snow, etc.) an addition of wax or common yellow rosin to
-the hoof-ointment is recommended to prevent too great softening of the
-horn. <i>No hoof-ointment has any direct influence upon the growth of
-the horn.</i></p>
-
-<p>Inasmuch as it is a fact that the very best shoeing injures the hoof,
-it is advisable to allow horses to go barefoot whenever it is possible.
-This applies especially to horses that from any cause are thrown out
-of service, presupposing, of course, that the nature of the hoofs will
-allow them to go barefoot.</p>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</span></p>
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="PART_III">PART III.</h2>
-</div>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h3 id="VII_A" class="nobreak">CHAPTER VII.<br />
-<span class="h_subtitle">GENERAL REMARKS CONCERNING THE SHOEING<br />
-           OF DEFECTIVE HOOFS AND LAME HORSES.</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<p>The boundary between health and disease of the hoof is difficult to
-determine, especially when we have to deal with minor defects of
-structure or shape of the hoof. Ordinarily, we first consider a hoof
-diseased when it causes lameness. However, we know that diseases of the
-hoof may exist without lameness. Therefore, a hoof should be regarded
-as diseased or defective when the nature of the horn, the form of the
-hoof, or the parts enclosed by it, deviate from what we consider as
-normal or healthy (<a href="#Page_81">see page 81</a>), whether the
-service of the animal is influenced by it or not.</p>
-
-<p>Front hoofs become diseased or defective more readily than hind
-hoofs, because they bear greater weight, have more slanting walls,
-and are more exposed to drying influences. <b>All normally wry hoofs
-and acute-angled hoofs become more readily diseased than regular and
-upright (stumpy) hoofs.</b></p>
-
-<p>The <i>indications</i> of the various diseases of the hoof are
-discussed in the following chapters. We shall in this chapter undertake
-only a brief general discussion of <i>inflammation of the pododerm</i>.
-This inflammation, known as <b>pododermatitis</b>, always manifests
-itself by <i>lameness</i> and, under closer examination of the foot,
-by <i>increased warmth</i>, <i>pain</i>, and <i>stronger pulsation
-of the digital</i> and <i>plantar arteries</i>. The pain produces
-either a <i>timid, shortened</i> (sore) <i>gait</i>, or well-marked
-<i>lameness</i>, especially upon <i>hard</i> ground. Increased
-sensitiveness of the pododerm is detected by compression of the hoof
-with the pincers (hoof-testers), or with greater certainty by lightly
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</span>
-tapping the hoof. The increased warmth of a part or of the entire
-hoof is detected by feeling with the hand. Intense pain and greatly
-increased warmth, with a moderate, diffuse swelling of the soft parts
-between the hoof and fetlock-joint, indicate suppuration within the hoof.</p>
-
-<p><i>The examination</i> of horses lame in the feet must always be
-cautious and searching, and should begin with the moving and judging
-of the horse as already described on page 90. The faults detected in
-the hoof or in the shoeing, the pain and increased warmth of the hoof,
-will not leave us in doubt as to whether the animal is lame in the hoof
-or not. However, should there be a doubt, we must carefully examine
-all the joints and tendons of the foot and, if necessary, of the limb
-above, and observe the animal’s manner of travelling at a walk and at a
-trot, on soft and on hard ground, in a straight line and in a circle.</p>
-
-<p>The <b>removal of the shoe</b> should be performed with <b>greatest
-caution</b>. Under certain conditions the second shoe should not be
-removed until the first has been replaced. The same caution must be
-observed in paring the hoof, which is to be regarded as a part of
-the examination of the hoof. The paring of a hoof for this purpose
-often differs somewhat from the preparation of a sound hoof for the
-shoe, and while it is necessary because it frequently furnishes the
-first trustworthy indication of the trouble, it must be done with
-circumspection and intelligence.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>causes</i> of diseases of the hoof are very numerous, for many
-external influences act injuriously upon the hoof. In addition to
-too great dryness, want of care (neglected shoeing), and premature,
-unreasonable, cruel use of the horse, should be mentioned particularly
-<i>injudicious dressing of the hoof and direct and indirect faults in
-the shoeing</i>. The pododerm, shut in between the hard os pedis and
-the stiff, unyielding horn capsule, is frequently exposed to bruising
-and other injuries, from which arise most of the defects of the hoof
-itself. All these things lead, under certain conditions, to lameness.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_185" class="f150">Fig. 185.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_163.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="426" />
-     <p class="center">Bar-shoe for right foot.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>Treatment.</i>—First of all, the discovered causes should be
-removed, or, if this is not possible, as is frequently the case, they
-should be ameliorated. Very often the lameness may be removed by proper
-shoeing, a change in the animal’s work, and better care of the hoof.
-When there is intense inflammation within the foot, the shoe should be
-removed for a few days. When the inflammation is moderate and confined
-to a small area, it is usually sufficient to alter the shoeing by
-regulating unnatural relations of height in the different parts of the
-wall, and by removing all superfluous horn from the wall and sole (to
-a less degree from the frog), partly for the purpose of rendering the
-horn capsule more yielding, and partly to make the poultices which
-are used more effective. The shoe is then to be so applied that the
-diseased region will be <i>relieved of the body-weight</i>, and will
-remain free from all pressure from the shoe. This can be done partly
-by making the underlying branch of the shoe somewhat wider and longer
-than the other, and partly by cutting down the bearing-edge of the
-wall where this is possible without weakening it too much, otherwise
-by concaving or beating down the upper surface of the shoe. By reason
-of the fact that the posterior half of the hoof is the seat of most
-diseases of the hoof, it is to be recommended that the nail-holes
-in shoes used in these diseases be placed as far as possible in the
-anterior half of the shoe, and in some special cases distributed evenly
-around the toe. Among shoes suitable for diseased hoofs the bar-shoe
-(<a href="#FIG_185">Fig. 185</a>) holds the first place, because it renders superfluous
-many other shoes specially designed for various diseases of the hoof. It is
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</span>
-made like an ordinary flat shoe, except that it requires a somewhat
-longer piece of iron; the ends of the branches are bent inward over a
-dull corner of the anvil, bevelled, laid one over the other, and welded
-together to form the bar. The width and thickness of the bar should be
-the same as of the rest of the shoe, and its frog-surface should be
-slightly concave.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>bar-shoe is valuable, because</i> it protects from pressure
-diseased sections of the wall which have been laid free, allows part of
-the body-weight to be borne by the frog, and restores normal activity
-to the disturbed physiological movements of the foot. By using it we
-can either gain a more extensive bearing-surface for the hoof, or can
-make it easier for the surface that bears the weight to do the work. If
-on account of <i>weakness</i> of the bearing-surface of the hoof, or
-from any other cause, we wish to distribute the body-weight over the
-entire plantar surface of the foot with the exception of the painful
-region, we add a <i>leather sole</i> to the bar-shoe.</p>
-
-<p>In this case it is necessary to place holes in the ends of the branches
-of the shoe, so that we may rivet the leather firmly to the shoe with
-small nails. The shoe should be made somewhat wider than the hoof,
-and the clips somewhat higher than usual. After fitting the shoe the
-grooves for the clips are cut in the leather, the latter is riveted
-to the shoe, and all leather projecting beyond the outer edge of the
-shoe is trimmed away. The lacunæ of the frog and other concavities of
-the sole are then thickly smeared with wood-tar and afterwards filled
-up with oakum to such a degree that the packing will bear some of
-the body-weight when the shoe and leather sole are in position. This
-packing is of great importance, because it prevents the filtering in
-from behind of sand and slime, preserves the toughness and pliability
-of the horn, breaks shock, and produces a gradual expansion of the
-posterior half of the hoof. Before nailing the shoe to the foot the
-leather sole should be soaked in water.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</span></p>
-
-<p  id="VII_B" class="f150 space-above2"><b>Classification of Diseases of the Hoof.</b></p>
-
-<p class="f120"><b>INFLAMMATIONS OF THE PODODERM.</b></p>
-
-<p>1, Nailing (pricking and close-nailing); 2, street-nail; 3,
-calk-wounds; 4, corns (bruised sole); 5, bruised heels; 6, laminitis
-(founder); 7, keraphyllocele (tumor of horny leaves).</p>
-
-<p class="f120"><b>DEFECTS OF THE HORN CAPSULE<br /> AND LATERAL CARTILAGES.</b></p>
-
-<p>(<i>a</i>) Changes of form: 1, flat hoof and full hoof (dropped sole);
-2, upright hoof (stumpy or stubby hoof); 3, contracted hoof; 4, wry
-hoof; 5, crooked hoof; 6, ossification of the lateral cartilage
-(side-bone).</p>
-
-<p>(<i>b</i>) Disturbances of continuity of the horn capsule: 1, cracks;
-2, clefts; 3, loose wall; 4, hollow wall; 5, thrush.</p>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</span></p>
-<h3 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VIII.<br />
-<span class="h_subtitle">INFLAMMATIONS OF THE PODODERM<br  /> (PODODERMATITIS).</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<h4 id="VIII_1">1. Nailing.</h4>
-
-<p>Wounds of the velvety tissue of the sole or of the podophyllous tissue
-of the wall, caused by nails which have been driven into the hoof for
-the purpose of fastening the shoe, are usually termed “nailing.”</p>
-
-<p>We distinguish <i>direct</i> and <i>indirect</i> nailing; the former is
-noticed <i>immediately</i>, the latter <i>later</i>.</p>
-
-<p>In <b>direct</b> nailing the nail passes directly into the pododerm
-(velvety tissue of the sole, podophyllous tissue); the wound produced
-may vary from a simple puncture of the pododerm to chipping of the
-border of the os pedis, and is <b>always accompanied by bleeding</b>,
-even though it may not always be noticed.</p>
-
-<p>In <b>indirect</b> nailing the nail does not pass entirely through the
-horn capsule, but very close to the sensitive tissues, and crowds the
-soft horn inward against them. This inward bulging presses upon the
-pododerm and causes inflammation and lameness, which may not manifest
-themselves for several days.</p>
-
-<p><i>Symptoms.</i>—The first symptom of direct nailing is <b>instant
-pain</b> indicated by flinching or a jerking of the limb, showing that
-the nail has taken a wrong course, and then a more or less profuse
-hemorrhage. Usually the blood flows from the nail-hole, or the nail
-when withdrawn may merely show a bloodstain at its point; however,
-internal bleeding may occur without any external manifestations. The
-symptoms of indirect nailing are entirely different. In this case
-<i>pain does not arise immediately</i>, but later, sometimes as soon as
-the horse attempts to bear his weight upon the shod foot. In the latter
-case, on holding up the opposite foot the animal sways backward and
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</span>
-throws his weight upon the holder, or becomes restless. As a rule,
-the consequences of indirect nailing are first manifested after two
-or three days, infrequently from the eighth to the fourteenth day, as
-inflammation within the hoof and lameness, at which time a careful
-examination will usually reveal increased warmth of the hoof, pain
-upon pressure with the hoof-testers and on tapping the hoof lightly,
-some swelling of the entire foot, increased pulsation of the digital
-arteries, and unwillingness of the animal to place all or perhaps any
-of its weight upon the foot.</p>
-
-<p><i>Suspicion of nailing</i> should be entertained if the shoeing be
-recent, the hoof appear too small in relation to the body-weight, the
-walls have been thinned by rasping or have been broken away, or if the
-nails have been driven too high or very irregularly.</p>
-
-<p><i>Causes.</i>—The most common causes are mistakes in shoeing. In
-the majority of cases the cause is a disregard of the rule that the
-<b>nails should penetrate the white line</b> (<a href="#Page_118">see pages 118</a>,
-<a href="#Page_119">119</a> and <a href="#Page_130">130</a>,
-heavy type). 1, using badly-punched shoes; 2, excessive paring and
-shortening of the hoof; 3, weakening of the lower border of the wall by
-excessive rasping away of the outside (<a href="#FIG_187">Fig. 187, <i>c</i></a>);
-4, mistakes in fitting the shoe, especially applying shoes that are too narrow,
-letting the toe-clips too deep into the horn, by which the nail-holes
-near the toe, instead of falling upon the white line, are carried back
-upon the edge of the sole, or using shoes in which the nail-holes
-are too wide or improperly directed; 5, using nails that are split,
-incomplete, badly formed and bevelled, and too large; 6, starting nails
-too deep or with the bevel on the outside, or drawing them too tight.
-As occasional causes may be mentioned: 7, old nail-stubs in the horn;
-8, walls that are very thin or broken away; 9, a soft, crumbling wall,
-which alters the sound and feeling of the nail as it is driven, and
-makes it difficult to judge of its course; 10, restlessness of the
-animal while being shod.</p>
-
-<p><i>Examination.</i>—Press with the hoof-testers upon the sole and
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</span>
-clinches; tap lightly upon the clinches. If these acts cause pain,
-there can be little doubt that the nail is responsible for the damage.
-Remove the shoe by drawing each nail separately and carefully. Examine
-the nails with reference to their direction and size, as well as to
-staining with blood, blood-serum, or pus. Immediately after removing
-the shoe, look for the point of entrance of each nail into the hoof,
-and if a nail-hole be found upon the edge of the sole (<a href="#FIG_187">Fig. 187, <i>b</i></a>)
-instead of in the white line, it is highly probable that the
-nail which passed in at that place pressed upon the sensitive tissues
-of the foot. Every nail-hole should then be searched by passing a clean
-new nail into it and pressing its point towards the soft tissues at
-various depths; any indication of pain caused by this act is pretty
-sure proof of nailing. It stands to reason that the character of the
-nail-holes in the shoe should be closely examined.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_186" class="f150">Fig. 186.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_168a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="217" />
-     <p class="center">Cross-section of a shod hoof,<br />
-         the hoof-skin or pododerm being<br /> in red: <i>a</i>, indirect nailing<br />
-         where backsetting has been<br /> overdone and has bent the nail;<br />
-         <i>b</i>, nail properly placed<br /> and of correct shape.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_187" class="f150">Fig. 187.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_168b.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="255" />
-     <p class="center">Front hoof deficient in horn:<br />
-       <i>a</i>, right position of the<br /> nail-holes in the white line;<br />
-       <i>b</i>, faulty position inside<br /> of the white line; <i>c</i>, wall<br />
-       weakened by excessive rasping.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>Treatment.</i>—When the foot has sustained an ordinary simple prick
-with a nail, the latter should be left out and the hole well filled
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</span>
-with wax. As a rule, no serious results follow. In severe direct
-nailing the entire shoeing should be most carefully examined, and only
-after everything is found to be right, and the shoe fits in such a
-manner that the nails can only penetrate the wall from the white line,
-can it be regarded as correct. The offending nail-hole is then to be
-closed with wax. According to the intensity of the wound we may expect
-a more or less pronounced inflammation of the pododerm, and this is to
-be combated by resting the animal and cooling the foot.</p>
-
-<p>If the wound is clean and recent, enlarging the opening in the horn by
-cutting and boring can have no reasonable object; the wound by such an
-act will not be made smaller, but larger.</p>
-
-<p>Frequently, however, the wound is not observed or suspected until the
-pain has become very intense (indirect nailing, nail-pressure); in
-such cases the offending nail when withdrawn is apt to be covered with
-pus or a dark, thin, ill-smelling liquid. In such a case the liquid,
-whatever its nature may be, must be given free escape. In order to
-accomplish this it is entirely sufficient to cut away a section of
-the wall from the nail-hole outward, not greater than the width of
-the little finger, and then to assist in the discharge of the pus
-by placing the foot in a warm bath; it is entirely wrong, in fact,
-reprehensible, to remove all horn of the wall and sole which has been
-loosened from the soft parts by the suppurative process. After the
-escape of the inflammatory fluids, the wall and sole will form the
-best-fitting and most suitable protective dressing for the diseased
-region until it has secreted new horn. If, after removal of the nail
-and pus, the pain does not diminish, warm disinfecting baths of one to
-two parts of creolin, or the same amount of lysol, to one hundred parts
-of water at a temperature of about 90° F. will be of especial benefit;
-they will not only soften the horn, but by their moisture and warmth
-will directly diminish the pain and have a healing influence upon the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</span>
-suppurating surfaces. The warm baths must actually <i>be warm and be
-kept warm</i>. Antiseptic solutions at room temperature are much less
-efficient.</p>
-
-<p>If the pain has not been very pronounced, or if it has been greatly
-alleviated by two or three warm baths, then, as a rule, it is
-sufficient to put a few drops of creolin upon the inflamed surface, and
-to close the opening with oakum (carbolized oakum or carbolized cotton
-is better).</p>
-
-<p>The horse which has been nailed will be again perfectly serviceable
-after a few days if shod with a shoe which does <b>not press</b> upon
-the inflamed region. <i>The shoe does not press when it rests only
-upon the bearing-edge of the wall, when the white line and the edge of
-the sole are entirely free of the shoe, and no nails are driven in the
-immediate vicinity of the wound.</i></p>
-
-<p class="blockquot"> Even though, as we have seen, nailing in the
-great majority of cases is not particularly serious to the horse and
-owner, yet we should never forget that tetanus (lockjaw), a disease
-which is nearly always fatal to horses, may follow. Nailing, however
-insignificant it may seem, may under conditions lead to the death of
-the horse.</p>
-
-<h4 id="VIII_2">2. Street-Nail.</h4>
-
-<p>The <i>condition</i> caused by accidental injury of the sensitive
-structures covered by the horny sole, such as the velvety tissue of
-the sole and frog, plantar cushion, perforans tendon, navicular bone,
-os pedis, or the pedal articulation, by sharp objects, especially
-nails, is called “penetrating street-nail,” or simply “street-nail.”
-The resistance of the ground to the weight of the body drives these
-penetrating objects through the sole or frog into the foot.</p>
-
-<p>Hind hoofs are more often affected than fore-hoofs. A favorite point of
-entrance is the lateral lacuna of the frog. Street-nail is favored by
-excessive thinning of the sole and frog.</p>
-
-<p><i>Symptoms.</i>—The symptoms are, as a rule, sudden pain followed by
-lameness. The first assistance is usually sought in the shoeing shop.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</span>
-If the cause of lameness be found to be a penetrating nail, piece of
-glass, or other pointed foreign body, it must be <i>carefully drawn
-out</i>, in doing which we should remove the <i>entire object</i>,
-not allowing pieces to break off and remain in the wound. Since it is
-always important to know in what direction and how deep the foreign
-body has penetrated, in order to be able to estimate the gravity of the
-wound, it is advisable in all cases to preserve the penetrating body,
-that it may be shown to the veterinarian, in case his services are required.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_188" class="f150">Fig. 188.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_171.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="513" />
-     <p class="center">Shod hind foot, with splint dressing.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In slight injuries to the velvety tissue of the sole or frog,
-accompanied with moderate pain, it is of no benefit to enlarge the
-opening, though the horn of the sole or frog should be thinned for
-the space of an inch or more around the wound, followed by cooling
-applications. Deep, penetrating wounds accompanied with intense pain
-require the attention of a veterinarian.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</span></p>
-
-<p>Often some form of dressing is necessary, and this is usually
-held in place by a special shoe. For slight injuries, such
-<i>splint-dressings</i> as are shown in <a href="#FIG_188">Figs. 188</a>
-and <a href="#FIG_189">189</a> are sufficient. Whether such a dressing
-be applied to the front or hind feet, the shoe should be <i>well
-concaved</i> upon the hoof-surface. The dressing is held in place by
-thin splints of tough wood, which are firmly wedged between the shoe
-and hoof.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_189" class="f150">Fig. 189.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_172.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="477" />
-     <p class="center">A practical “splint shoe” for hospital use.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In those rare cases in which it is necessary to maintain continuous
-pressure upon the seat of the wound, and to protect the entire plantar
-surface of the hoof, a <i>covered shoe</i> (<a href="#FIG_190">Figs. 190</a>
-and <a href="#FIG_191">191</a>) is recommended. This shoe is provided
-with a sheet-iron cover, having at the toe a spur which fits into a
-corresponding hole in the toe of the shoe, and fastened at the heels by
-means of screw heel-calks.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</span></p>
-
-<h4 id="VIII_3">3. Calk-Wounds of the Coronet.</h4>
-
-<p>All tread-wounds of the coronet, caused by the calks of the opposite
-shoe, by the shoes of other horses, or by forging, are known as calk
-wounds, or simply as “calking.” The injury itself is either a bruise
-or a bruised wound, followed by inflammation of the coronary cushion
-and an interruption in the formation of horn at that point. It occurs
-most often in winter from sharp calks, especially on the hind feet. The
-common seat of the injury is the coronet of the toe and inner side of
-the foot.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_190" class="f150">Fig. 190.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_173a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="342" />
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_191" class="f150">Fig. 191.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_173b.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="322" />
-   </div>
-     <p class="blockquot">Shoe with cover-plate for street-nail
-     treatment; suitable where pressure-dressing is desired:
-     <i>a</i>, hole in the bottom of the toe-calk for reception
-     of spur, <i>b</i>, of cover-plate; <i>c</i>, holes for
-     reception of screw-calks, <i>d</i>, which fasten the
-     cover-plate to the shoe.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The inflammation terminates either in resolution—that is, passes
-gradually away, leaving the tissues apparently normal—or in
-suppuration. The perioplic horn-band, which is usually loosened from
-the perioplic band by the injury, does not again unite. For this
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</span>
-reason, and because of the interruption in the formation of horn at the
-seat of injury, there results a transverse depression or cleft in the wall.</p>
-
-<p>The shoeing has to deal only with the lameness that may be present as
-a result of the calking. The section of the wall containing the lesion
-should be shortened, so that it will not press upon the shoe. Serious
-calk-wounds, as a rule, require treatment by a veterinarian.</p>
-
-<h4 id="VIII_4">4. Corns (Bruised Sole).</h4>
-
-<p>The expression “corns” is applied to nearly all bruises of the pododerm
-of the posterior half of the foot, with the exception of the frog,
-which are apparent to the eye as yellowish, reddish, or bluish-red
-discolorations of the horn of the sole and white line.</p>
-
-<p>The surface of the pododerm (fleshy leaves and villi) is chiefly
-involved, and almost without exception there is rupture of small
-blood-vessels and an outpouring of blood between the pododerm
-and the horn. The blood penetrates the horn-tubes and causes the
-above-mentioned staining. By subsequent growth of horn these stained
-patches are carried downward, and are finally uncovered and brought to
-sight in paring the hoof.</p>
-
-<p>The seat of corns is either on the fleshy leaves of the quarters, or on
-the velvety tissue of the sole in the angle between the wall and the
-bar, or on the fleshy leaves of the bars. Thus we distinguish <i>corns
-of the wall, sole, and bars</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Corns affect chiefly the front hoofs, and more often the inner half
-than the outer. Unshod feet are seldom affected.</p>
-
-<p>According to the intensity of the lesions we distinguish:</p>
-
-<p>1. <i>Dry Corns.</i>—The red-stained horn is dry, and there is seldom
-lameness.</p>
-
-<p>2. <i>Suppurating Corns.</i>—They are the result of intense bruising
-followed by inflammation. The pus is either thin and dark grayish
-in color, denoting a superficial inflammation of the pododerm, or
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</span>
-yellowish and thick, denoting a deep inflammation of the pododerm. In
-the latter case a veterinarian should be called. Lameness is usually
-pronounced.</p>
-
-<p>3. <i>Chronic Corns.</i>—In this case there is vivid discoloration of
-horn in all possible hues. The horn is either soft, moist, and lardy,
-or crumbling, cracked, and at times bloody. The inner surface of the
-horn capsule has lost its normal character, and is covered with horny
-swellings or nodules (<a href="#FIG_192">Fig. 192, <i>a</i></a>).
-Sometimes the wing of the os pedis on that side has become morbidly
-enlarged and loosened. A short, cautious gait alternates with
-well-marked lameness; the latter appears whenever the shoe presses too
-firmly on the corn, or when the hoof becomes too dry.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_192" class="f150">Fig. 192.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_175.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="267" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Inner aspect of a quarter of a hoof,
-         showing changes in the horn-leaves due to chronic corns:
-         <i>a</i>, horny tumor resulting from the disease.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>The causes</i>, aside from the form and quality of the hoofs
-and the position of the limbs, lie in injudicious dressing of the
-hoof and in faulty shoes. Too much trimming of wide and flat hoofs,
-excessive weakening of the quarters, sole, bars, and frog of all other
-hoofs, while the toe is usually left too long, are the usual causes.
-Shortening one quarter too much in relation to the other, so that the
-foot is unbalanced and the lower side overloaded, is a frequent cause.
-Hollowing the sole and bars excessively and unnecessary thinning of the
-branches of the sole in the search for corns are also causes.</p>
-
-<p>Among faulty shoes we may mention those not level on the hoof-surface,
-trough-shaped, too short in the branches, shoes which do not completely
-cover the bearing-surface of the hoof, or whose bearing-surface at
-the ends of the branches is directed downward and inward so that the
-quarters are squeezed together when the weight is put on the foot.
-Insufficient concaving of the shoe is often an exciting cause of corns
-in flat feet and in those with dropped soles. A well-formed shoe which
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</span>
-does not rest firmly upon the hoof, or which has been shifted as a
-result of careless nailing, may as readily cause bruising of the
-quarters as neglected shoeing. The latter causes, as a rule, corns of
-the sole. It is very rarely that corns are caused by stones fastened
-between the frog and branches of the shoe or in unshod hoofs by pebbles
-becoming wedged in the white line.</p>
-
-<p><i>Dryness</i> is particularly injurious to the hoofs, and is in the
-highest degree favorable to the production of corns. It renders the
-hoof stiff and inelastic, and first manifests itself by a short,
-cautious (sore) gait when the horse is first put to work.</p>
-
-<p><i>Treatment.</i>—First, removal of the causes, by restoring the
-proper form to the hoof through shortening a toe which is too long
-(especially apt to be the case in acute-angled hoofs), cutting down
-quarters which are too high, and carefully removing all dead horn from
-the branches of the sole, especially in acute-angled hoofs.</p>
-
-<p>Deeply digging out a small area of blood-stained horn is injurious.
-It is much better to thin the horn of the entire branch of the sole
-uniformly, in doing which we should avoid wounding the velvety tissue
-of the sole or drawing blood.</p>
-
-<p>The proper shoe is the <b>bar-shoe</b>, except when both cartilages are
-ossified. The pressure should not be taken from the quarters unless
-they are sore.</p>
-
-<p>When there is a <i>suppurating corn</i>, the shoe should be left off
-several days. A <i>chronic corn</i> should be protected continuously
-from pressure by the shoe. This is accomplished by using a bar-shoe
-with leather sole. <i>A three-quarter shoe is not sufficient to
-properly protect a hoof affected with a chronic corn, if the animal
-must perform exacting labor on hard roads.</i></p>
-
-<p>The care of the hoof consists in keeping it cool, moderately moist,
-and pliant.</p>
-
-<h4 id="VIII_5">5. Inflammation of the Heels.</h4>
-
-<p>Inflammation of the bulbs of the plantar cushion (heels) is usually
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</span>
-caused by such external influences as bruising. It occurs in both shod
-and unshod feet. The symptoms are: increased warmth, pain and swelling,
-sometimes infiltration of the tissues with blood, accompanied by a
-short, cautious gait, or, if only one foot is affected, by well-marked
-lameness.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>most frequent causes</i> are: going barefoot upon hard (frozen),
-uneven ground; shoeing hoofs having low heels with flat shoes that are
-too short; sometimes too much frog pressure by the bar of a bar-shoe;
-forging and grabbing.</p>
-
-<p>The treatment first indicated is a cooling application in the form of
-an ice-poultice, or a soaking in cold water. Later, astringent (drying)
-applications are of benefit, especially if the perioplic horn-ring
-has partially loosened from the bulbs of the heels; for example, a
-weak solution in water of sulphate of copper (1 to 20), followed by
-the application of a shoe with heel-calks, which is quite long in the
-branches and <i>which must not press upon the wall of the quarters</i>.</p>
-
-<h4 id="VIII_6">6. Laminitis (Founder).</h4>
-
-<p>By this name we designate a peculiar inflammation of the pododerm at
-the toe. It arises suddenly in well-nourished and apparently healthy
-horses, following excessive work or long-continued rest in the stable,
-and frequently leads to a decided change of form of the hoof.</p>
-
-<p>The disease is always accompanied with intense pain. It most often
-affects both front feet, more rarely all four feet, or only one foot.
-In the first case the two front feet are planted far in advance of
-the body, and the hind feet well forward under the belly. When all
-four feet are affected, travelling is exceedingly difficult, often
-impossible; in this case there is nearly always a high fever over the
-entire body.</p>
-
-<p>The seat of the disease is in the fleshy leaves about the toe, more
-rarely upon the side walls and quarters. Depending upon the intensity
-of the inflammation, the fleshy leaves are more or less loosened from
-the horny leaves, as a result of which there is a change of position of
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</span>
-the os pedis, with a simultaneous sinking of the coronet at the toe.
-This produces a change of form of the hoof. The quarters become higher.
-Rings form upon the wall, and their course is quite characteristic of
-the disease. At the toe these rings are quite close to one another, but
-as they pass back towards the quarters they gradually separate from one
-another and recede from the coronary band (<a href="#FIG_193">Figs. 193</a>,
-<a href="#FIG_194">194</a>, and <a href="#FIG_195">195</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_193" class="f150">Fig. 193.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_178.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="334" />
-     <p class="blockquot">Vertical longitudinal section of a
-     foot altered by chronic laminitis: <i>a</i>, hollow wall at
-     toe thrust forward; <i>b</i>, leafy layer much thickened
-     and crumbling (“seedy-toe”); <i>c</i>, dotted line showing
-     limit to which the toe may be rasped away in shoeing;
-     <i>d</i>, dropped sole; <i>e</i>, atrophy of lower sharp
-     edge of os pedis; <i>g</i>, dotted line indicating the
-     height of the perioplic band; <i>h</i>, foot axis.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The wall at the toe is sunken just under the coronet; its lower
-part, on the contrary, is thrust forward. <i>Later, the white line
-becomes pathologically widened.</i> The horn of the white line is
-dry, crumbling, and easily broken down, so that a break in continuity
-(crack) is apt to occur between the wall and sole, and lead to the
-formation of a <i>hollow wall</i> (“seedy-toe”). Where the inflammation
-is moderate and is not repeated, healing usually takes place and the
-horn grows down regularly and in normal direction from the coronet.
-However, a rather brittle condition of the horn remains permanently.
-If, on the contrary, the inflammation was very severe or repeated
-several times, the horny sole becomes flat just in front of the point
-of the frog as a result of the sinking of the os pedis, or it may even
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</span>
-drop below the level of the wall (full hoof, dropped sole). Indeed, it
-even happens at times that the toe of the os pedis perforates the horny
-sole just in front of the point of the frog. The wall at the toe, which
-was previously but little altered in form, is now thrust prominently forward.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_194" class="f150">Fig. 194.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_179a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="154" />
-     <p class="center">Foundered foot<br /> (chronic laminitis),<br />
-              before dressing.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_195" class="f150">Fig. 195.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_179b.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="160" />
-     <p class="center">Foundered foot, dressed and shod.<br />
-        The dotted lines indicate its form<br /> before being
-        dressed,—<i>i.e.</i>,<br /> as shown in Fig. 194.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The inflammation of the pododerm may under certain conditions and by
-skilful veterinary treatment be removed, so that the characteristic
-changes of form and quality of the hoof will not occur. But if this is
-not accomplished, as is often the case, the disease will be obstinate,
-and permanent morbid changes of the horn capsule take place.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_196" class="f150">Fig. 196.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_179c.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="223" />
-     <p class="blockquot">A hoof altered by chronic laminitis;
-     shod with an open flat shoe: <i>a</i>, wall at the toe does
-     not bear on the shoe; <i>b</i>, clip at the end of the
-     branch to oppose the tendency of the shoe to slip forward
-     when half worn out.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A horse in such a condition can be used, but the gait will be short
-and stiff. The hoofs are shuffled forward and set heels first to the ground,
-a manner of travelling that rapidly wears away the branches of the shoe.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</span></p>
-
-<p>In dressing a foundered hoof the outer circumference of the sole is
-the guide. The thick projecting wall at the toe may be removed with
-the rasp without injuring the foot. The sole should be spared, but the
-quarters should be lowered to improve the setting of the foot to the
-ground.</p>
-
-<p>The choice of the shoe will depend upon the shape and nature of the
-sole. If this is still concave, an ordinary shoe may be used. If,
-however, the sole is flat or dropped, it must be protected by an open
-shoe with a broad web, or with a bar-shoe (<a href="#FIG_197">Fig. 197</a>),
-which is of especial value when the bearing-edge of the wall is weak
-or broken away.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_197" class="f150">Fig. 197.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_180a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="292" />
-     <p class="center">A well-covered (wide-webbed) bar-shoe,<br />
-            with two lateral toe-clips and an<br /> end-clip, for a foundered foot.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_198" class="f150">Fig. 198.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_180b.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="292" />
-     <p class="center">An open shoe for a foundered<br /> foot with a dropped sole.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>As long as there is pain on pressure about the toe there should be no
-toe-clip, but two side-clips. The wall between these clips should be
-lowered a tenth to an eighth of an inch to prevent pressure of the shoe
-upon the sensitive tissues of the toe (<a href="#FIG_195">Fig. 195</a>).
-The nails should be as small as possible and placed well back towards
-the quarters. No nail should be driven in the wall at the toe when
-there is separation of sole and wall at the toe (hollow wall,
-seedy-toe).
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</span></p>
-
-<p>The shoes of horses affected with founder often work forward as a
-result of the animals travelling upon their heels. To prevent this
-evil, clips may be raised at the ends of the branches of an open shoe,
-or one clip in the middle of the bar, in case a bar-shoe is used
-(<a href="#FIG_197">Fig. 197</a>).</p>
-
-<h4 id="VIII_7">7. Keraphyllocele<br /> (Horn Tumor).</h4>
-
-<p>A keraphyllocele is a more or less sharply bounded horn tumor
-projecting from the inner surface of the wall.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_199" class="f150">Fig. 199.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_181.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="496" />
-     <p class="blockquot space-below2">A section of wall at the toe
-     showing a Keraphyllocele (horn-leaf tumor): <i>a</i>, coronary
-     border; <i>b</i>, plantar border; <i>c</i>, body of tumor;
-     <i>d</i>, base of tumor presenting funnel-shaped opening
-     discharging pus.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Its occurrence is rare. Its favorite seat is at the toe. It rarely
-causes lameness. It can only be diagnosed with certainty when it
-extends downward to the lower border of the wall. In this case there
-may be seen a half-moon-shaped thickening of the white line which
-rounds inward upon the edge of the sole, and is of a waxen color.
-Frequently the horn at this place crumbles away, leaving a more or less
-dark-colored cavity from which there sometimes escapes a small quantity
-of dark-grayish pus.</p>
-
-<p><i>Causes.</i>—Chronic inflammation of the podophyllous tissue,
-resulting from compression or bruising. Keraphyllocele frequently
-follows a complete toe-crack of long duration, or a deep calk-wound at
-the coronet.</p>
-
-<p><i>Prognosis.</i>—Unfavorable, whether there is lameness or not. If
-there is no lameness it is very apt to arise later, and if lameness is
-already present it can only be removed by an operation, which should be
-performed by a veterinarian. A return of the lameness following hard
-work at a trot upon hard roads is always to be feared.</p>
-
-<p><i>Shoeing.</i>—An ordinary shoe well concaved underneath the inflamed
-region, which should be relieved of all pressure.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</span></p>
-<h3 class="nobreak">CHAPTER IX.<br />
-<span class="h_subtitle">DEFECTS OF THE HOOF.</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<h4 id="IX_A">A. Changes of Form.</h4>
-
-<p id="IX_A_1" class="f120">1. <span class="smcap">The Flat and the
-Full Hoof<br /> (Dropped Sole).</span></p>
-
-<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Flat Hoof.</i>—A flat hoof is one whose toe and side
-walls are <i>inclined very obliquely</i> to the ground-surface, and
-whose sole is <i>on a level</i> with the bearing-surface of the wall.</p>
-
-<p>It exists most often in horses bred in low-lying, marshy countries.</p>
-
-<p>Frequently the frog is well developed, and projects considerably beyond
-the level of the wall. The branches of the sole sink perceptibly under
-the weight of the body, much more than in better-formed hoofs.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_200" class="f150">Fig. 200.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_182.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="218" />
-     <p class="blockquot space-below2">Cross-section of a
-     shod flat foot: <i>a</i>, sufficiently high bearing-edge
-     of wall, and a horizontal bearing-surface on the shoe;
-     <i>b</i>, insufficient height of bearing-edge of wall, and
-     therefore a corresponding downward and inward inclination
-     of the bearing-surface of the shoe.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>Preparing the Hoof for the Shoe.</i>—The rule is to <b>spare</b>
-the plantar surface of the foot. After removing from the sole
-what little loose horn there may be, level the usually deficient
-bearing-surface of the wall with the rasp. The outer border of the
-wall, especially at the toe, should be rounded off rather more strongly
-than usual, because the toe requires and will bear considerable
-shortening. Outward bendings of the lower border of the wall should
-be removed as far as it is practicable to do so.</p>
-
-<p>The shoe, which should be rather wider in the web and thicker than
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</span>
-usual, should have its bearing-surface shaped to correspond to the
-bearing-surface of the wall; that is, if the bearing-surface of the
-wall is below the margin of the sole (the sole of the foot being
-uppermost), then the bearing-surface of the shoe should incline
-downward and inward (<a href="#FIG_200">Fig. 200, <i>b</i></a>).
-The bearing-surface of the branches, however, must always remain
-horizontal. The shoe always requires deep concaving, especially along
-the inner branch of the sole. If the quarters are weak, the walls
-defective, or there are corns, cracks, loose walls, or other diseases
-of the hoof, a <b>bar-shoe</b> should be selected.</p>
-
-<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Full Hoof</i> (Dropped Sole).—A full hoof is one whose
-sole instead of being concave is convex,—that is, bulges beyond the
-bearing-surface of the wall. It either arises gradually from a flat
-hoof or is the result of laminitis (founder). In full hoofs the lower
-surface of the os pedis is of the same shape as the horny sole.</p>
-
-<p><i>The preparation of a full hoof</i> for the shoe consists merely
-in removing all loose horn. In case the dropping of the sole is
-very pronounced, the bearing-surface of the wall should be built up
-artificially with Defay’s hoof cement. The shoe should be light, but
-broad in the web, and furnished with a more or less deep concaving,
-which extends from the inner edge of the web to the outer edge of the
-shoe, and corresponds in shape to the bulging of the sole. By reason of
-the deficiency of the wall, the <b>bar-shoe</b> deserves the preference
-over an open shoe. It is frequently necessary to apply toe- and
-heel-calks to remove the hoof from contact with the ground. The nails
-should he thinner and longer than usual, and a more secure position of
-the shoe may be secured without injury to the hoof by drawing up two
-side-clips.</p>
-
-<p>Flat and full hoofs are <b>incurable</b>. Shoeing is of benefit only in
-rendering such horses serviceable. Soles that are soft and sensitive
-should he smeared with crude turpentine or pine-tar, though unusual
-sensitiveness calls for a leather sole. Horses with full hoofs should
-not be driven faster than a walk over hard roads. During long-continued
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</span>
-spells of wet weather softening of these hoofs should be prevented by
-smearing the soles with a hoof-ointment containing resin.</p>
-
-<p id="IX_A_2" class="f120">2. <span class="smcap">The Upright or Stumpy Hoof.</span></p>
-
-<p>The upright or stumpy hoof is that form in which the quarters, with
-relation to the toe, are too long (too high). The wall at the toe
-stands very steep, in some cases perpendicular, and is strongly worn
-away by standing and travelling.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_201" class="f150">Fig. 201.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_184a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="239" />
-     <p class="center">Upright or stumpy hoof,<br /> shod with a “tip.”</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_202" class="f150 space-below1">Fig. 202.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_184b.jpg" alt="" width="260" height="235" />
-     <p class="center">Beaked shoe for stilt-foot.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>Causes.</i>—1. The upright hoof is peculiar to the “standing under”
-position (<a href="#FIG_53">Fig. 53</a>, page 66) and to the so-called
-bear-foot (<a href="#FIG_70">Fig. 70</a>, page 72).</p>
-
-<p>2. It arises also as a result of all those alterations in the direction
-of the limbs which tend to remove the quarters from contact with the
-ground (contraction of the flexor tendons, spavin,—<a href="#FIG_202">Fig. 202</a>).</p>
-
-<p>3. It may arise gradually from neglect of the hoofs of horses running
-barefoot.</p>
-
-<p>4. It may arise from excessive shortening of the toe in relation to the
-quarters.</p>
-
-<p><i>Shoeing.</i>—The forms of hoofs mentioned in class 1 should be left
-as they are. The hoofs that fall under class 2 should be dressed and
-shod until a more natural setting down of the foot is secured. This
-is brought about by sparing the quarters, and applying a shoe with
-thickened branches or with heel-calks. Where the service of the animal
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</span>
-is exacting and upon hard streets, the toes, especially of the hind
-shoes, may be made more durable by welding in steel plates. Besides,
-the shoe should be moderately <i>base-wide</i> around the toe,—that
-is, should be bevelled downward and outward, should have a <i>strong
-toe-clip</i>, and should be <i>quite concave at the toe</i> and
-<i>rolled</i>. (<a href="#FIG_203">Figs. 203</a> and <a href="#FIG_204">204</a>).
-Should the hoof tip forward whenever the weight is thrown upon the
-limb, a shoe with a spur projecting from the centre of the toe, and
-turning back and pressing upon the wall just underneath the coronary
-band, will be of service (<a href="#FIG_202">Fig. 202</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_203" class="f150">Fig. 203.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_185a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="270" />
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_204" class="f150 space-below1">Fig. 204.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_185b.jpg" alt="" width="310" height="267" />
-   </div>
-     <p class="center">Shoe for stumpy hoofs, viewed from ground-surface,<br />
-             hoof-surface, and in profile.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Only those upright hoofs which are the result of the causes mentioned
-in 3 and 4 are to be dressed as ordinary hoofs, and if the service
-required is not too exacting they should be shod with tips (<a href="#FIG_201">Fig. 201</a>),
-or with shoes with thinned branches.</p>
-
-<p id="IX_A_3" class="f120">3. <span class="smcap">The Contracted Hoof.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>A hoof which has deviated from its normal form in such a manner that
-its posterior half, either in part or as a whole, is too narrow, is a
-contracted hoof.</i> The walls of the quarters assume an abnormally
-oblique direction downward and inward towards the median line of the hoof.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</span></p>
-
-<p>When contraction affects only one quarter, it is called <i>unilateral
-contraction</i>, or abnormal wryness (<a href="#FIG_211">Fig. 211</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_205" class="f150">Fig. 205.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_186.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="438" />
-     <p class="blockquot space-below2">A fore-hoof with
-     bilateral contraction of the quarters: <i>a</i>, spur of
-     horn prolonged from the buttress, which compresses the
-     frog; <i>b</i>, narrow median lacuna of the frog.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The buttresses are usually very much prolonged and press upon the frog
-and cause it to shrink. The bars no longer run in the natural straight
-direction from the point of the frog backward and outward, but describe
-a circle passing outward, backward, and inward.</p>
-
-<div id="FIG_206" class="figleft">
-  <p class="f120">Fig. 206.</p>
-  <img  src="images/i_187.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="314" />
-     <p class="center"><i>A</i>, Defay’s shoe for<br />
-         expanding the quarters<br /> of a hoof; <i>a</i>, clip<br />
-         apposed to the buttress;<br /> <i>b</i>, slot sawed at the<br />
-         toe to weaken the shoe;<br /> <i>B</i>, screw for expanding<br />
-         the Defay’s shoe.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Contraction affects front feet, especially those of the
-<i>acute-angled</i> form, more often than hind feet. In order to
-determine whether or not a hoof is too narrow, we should always examine
-the frog and its lateral lacunæ. If the frog is small and narrow, and
-the lateral lacunæ very narrow and deep, there can be no doubt but that
-the hoof is too narrow (contracted).</p>
-
-<p><i>The causes</i>, aside from too little exercise, are chiefly errors
-in shoeing, such as weakening the posterior half of the hoof, leaving
-too long a toe, either neglecting to remove the spurs of horn which
-grow from the buttresses and press upon the frog, or removing them
-incompletely, and using shoes whose branches are either <i>too wide
-apart</i> or are inclined downward and inward, so that under the weight
-of the body <i>the heels are squeezed together</i> and contraction is favored.</p>
-
-<p><i>Prevention and Treatment.</i>—First, it should be borne in mind
-<i>that whatever exercises moderate pressure upon the sole, frog, and
-bars tends to expand the hoof</i>. The action and value of the various
-shoes, frog-, and sole-pads, are measured by this rule. For this reason
-a shoe with heel-calks is never advisable if an open flat shoe without
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</span>
-other means of relief can be used. Furthermore, since contraction is
-the parent of nearly all diseases of the hoof (corns, quarter-cracks,
-bar-cracks, thrush of the frog), we should use the greatest care to
-<b>prevent</b> it by dressing the hoof as described on pages 98 to
-103, using flat shoes with a <b>horizontal bearing-surface for the
-quarters</b>, giving <b>abundant exercise, preventing drying out of the
-horn</b>, and allowing the animal to go barefoot whenever possible.
-<i>Where the contraction is but slight</i> the foregoing rules will be
-found sufficient.</p>
-
-<p><i>In very pronounced contraction, where the hoof is not acute-angled,
-an expansive shoe</i> with clips raised at the ends of the branches to
-press against the buttresses may prove very advantageous; but under
-no conditions should violence be used in expanding the heels with the
-expanding-screw. This is an act of extreme delicacy, and should be
-performed only by experienced veterinarians.</p>
-
-<p><i>In very pronounced contraction of one or both quarters of hoofs of
-every degree of obliquity</i> we may obtain a continuous expansive
-action by the use of one of the numerous V-shaped springs, of which the
-<i>Chadwick spring</i> is the best (<a href="#FIG_207">Fig. 207</a>
-and <a href="#FIG_208">208</a>). After levelling
-the wall and thinning the branches of the sole, the points of the
-spring are set against the <b>buttresses</b>, the apex of the spring
-moved to and fro till the points have bored well into the horn, when
-the apex is laid against the sole at the toe, the sole filled with tar
-and oakum and covered by a leather sole, and a bar-shoe applied. If the
-contraction be less pronounced, or if the frog be much shrunken we may
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</span>
-place a Chadwick spring beneath a rubber bar-pad with a short shoe. The
-spring may be stiffened from shoeing to shoeing, first by introducing
-the ferrule at the apex of the spring and later by shifting the ferrule
-toward the shoulder (<a href="#FIG_207">Figs. 207, <i>b</i></a>, and
-<a href="#FIG_208">208, <i>b</i></a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_207" class="f150">Fig. 207.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_188a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="250" />
-     <p class="center">The Chadwick spring for expanding<br />
-            contracted quarters: <i>a</i>, apex<br />
-            of spring; <i>b</i>, ferrule to<br />
-            stiffen the spring; <i>c</i>,<br />
-            point which is buried in a<br /> buttress of the hoof.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_208" class="f150 space-below1">Fig. 208.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_188b.jpg" alt="" width="260" height="247" />
-     <p class="center">A fore-hoof showing a Chadwick<br />
-        spring in proper position:<br /> <i>a</i>, Chadwick spring;<br />
-        <i>b</i>, ferrule to stiffen<br /> spring as desired; <i>c</i>,<br />
-        uncompressed spring before it<br /> has been engaged against the<br />
-        buttresses; <i>d</i>, buttresses<br /> in which points of spring<br />
-        are buried.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>For contracted hoofs of the <i>acute-angled form</i> we use the
-bar-shoe, and if there are other diseases of the hoof present, or if
-we wish a more rapid and continuous expansive action, we use also a
-leather sole with foot-packing with or without a buttress spring.
-A foul frog should be properly cleansed, and then disinfected with
-pine-tar thinned with alcohol or crude wood-vinegar (pyroligneous acid).</p>
-
-<p>Further curative measures are: turning the horse out without shoes
-(expensive and seldom practicable); applying tips; using shoes the
-bearing-surface of whose branches inclines downward and outward
-(unilateral contraction requires but one branch to be so constructed);
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</span>
-hoof-pads of rubber (<a href="#FIG_145">Figs. 145</a>, <a href="#FIG_146">146</a>,
-and <a href="#FIG_147">147</a>), straw, rope, cork, hoof cement, etc.
-Special forms of contraction are distinguished, and are as follows:</p>
-
-<p id="IX_A_3_A">(<i>a</i>) <i>The Contraction of Wide Hoofs.</i>—This contraction
-is manifest as a concavity or groove in the wall just below the coronet,
-usually at the quarters, though sometimes extending entirely around
-the foot parallel to the coronary band (<a href="#FIG_209">Fig. 209</a>).
-Pain is produced in the contracted area by lightly tapping the horn, but
-not by moderate pressure with the hoof-testers.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_209" class="f150">Fig. 209.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_189.jpg" alt="" width="350" height="399" />
-     <p class="blockquot space-below2">Wide fore-hoof with “coronary
-         contraction”: (<i>a</i>) broad shallow groove in each quarter,
-         and disappearing toward the toe.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Green horses with wide hoofs, just from the pasture, are particularly
-liable to this form of contraction. As a rule, the lameness does not
-disappear completely until the wall has assumed its natural, straight
-direction by growing down properly from the coronary band.</p>
-
-<p>In dressing the hoof and applying the <i>bar-shoe</i>, care must be
-taken that the lower border of the wall underneath the painful area is
-lowered so much that it will not receive direct pressure from the shoe.</p>
-
-<p id="IX_A_3_B">(<i>b</i>) <i>Contraction of the Sole.</i>—This is accompanied by an
-unnatural direction of the wall. Instead of the wall being straight
-from the coronet to the shoe, it describes a curve whose convexity
-is outward (keg-shaped, claw-shaped when seen from the side) (<a href="#FIG_210">Fig. 210</a>).
-The hoof seems constricted (tied in) at the coronet and at its
-plantar border, the sole is abnormally concave (arched), and the
-plantar surface of the hoof is considerably shortened from toe to
-heel. It happens in both shod and unshod horses, with otherwise strong
-hoofs, but is quite rare. It is occasionally associated with navicular
-bursitis (“navicular disease”).
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Causes.</i>—Principally dryness, too little exercise, and shoes
-without horizontal bearing-surface.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_210" class="f150">Fig. 210.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_190.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="330" />
-     <p class="blockquot space-below2">A fore-hoof with a
-     contracted sole, properly shod: <i>a</i>, toe convex
-     in profile; <i>b</i>, shoe fitted full all around, and
-     “bearing-surface” inclining outward; <i>c</i>, outer border
-     bevelled base-wide.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The treatment is correspondingly simple: The shoes should be flat,
-fitted full all around to coax the wall out at every point, and the
-outer border bevelled base-wide, so as to furnish a base of support
-that is wider and longer than the hoof. In moderate contraction of the
-sole, the bearing-surface of the shoe should be perfectly horizontal,
-but if the contraction be very pronounced, the entire bearing-surface
-should incline downward and outward (even at the toe). No toe-or
-side-clip should be used. The shoe should be reset every two weeks; the
-sole kept so thin by paring that it will spring under thumb pressure,
-and kept moist by washing, tubbing or “stopping,” and the animal given
-moderate exercise daily.</p>
-
-<p><i>In all forms of contraction of the hoof abundant exercise and the
-maintenance of the natural pliancy of the horn by daily moistening
-(washing) with water are absolutely necessary for successful
-treatment.</i></p>
-
-<p id="IX_A_4" class="f120">4. <span class="smcap">The Wry Hoof.</span></p>
-
-<p>If one side wall and quarter is steep, and the other very slanting
-or oblique, we term such a hoof a “wry hoof.” Such a hoof divided in
-the middle line presents two very <i>dissimilar</i> halves. There are
-three classes of wry hoofs: 1, normal wry hoofs (<a href="#FIG_63">see Figs. 63-66</a>);
-2, pathological wry hoofs, or hoofs contracted in one quarter (<a href="#IX_A_3">see
-contracted hoofs</a>); 3, wry hoofs which are the result of improper
-shortening of the wall and of neglect in horses running barefoot.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</span></p>
-
-<p>Only the second and third classes of wry hoofs require especial
-attention. First, the more oblique wall must be cut down, and the steep
-wall spared,—a procedure which differs essentially from that employed
-in treating the first class, but is, nevertheless, entirely warranted,
-because these second and third kinds of wry hoofs do not correspond to
-the direction of the limb.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_211" class="f150">Fig. 211.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_191.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="339" />
-     <p class="blockquot space-below2">A wry right front foot of
-     the base-wide class, viewed from behind. The bar-shoe is
-     fitted full along the contracted inner quarter, and snug
-     on the outside. The inner branch of the frog rests upon
-     the bar of the shoe; the outer branch is free. The inner
-     quarter from the last nail back to the frog is free of the
-     shoe.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In order to take weight from the steep wall, we use with advantage a
-<i>bar-shoe</i>, which should be longer and wider than the hoof on
-its contracted side. In other words, enlarge the base of support by
-making the branch of the shoe broader. If an entire side wall and
-quarter is contracted the branch of the shoe beneath must be broad, the
-border bevelled base-wide, and the branch punched so deeply that the
-nail-holes will fall upon the white line.</p>
-
-<p>In old work-horses any sort of shoe may be used, though a flat shoe
-serves the purpose best. If a hoof is wry from faulty paring, and we
-cannot at once completely restore the proper relative slant of the two
-walls by paring alone, we may use a shoe with a thicker branch for the
-half of the hoof which is too low (too steep).</p>
-
-<p>In colts such wry hoofs can often be cured only by shoeing. The shoe
-employed for this purpose is so made that the branch underneath the
-steep (contracted) wall is quite thick, but gradually thins away around
-the toe to the end of the other branch. In strongly marked cases the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</span>
-thin branch may end at the middle of the side wall (a three-quarter
-shoe). This method of shoeing shifts the body-weight upon the slanting
-wall and restores the foot to its proper shape in from two to four shoeings.</p>
-
-<p><i>Causes.</i>—Unequal distribution of the weight in the inner and
-outer halves of the foot, in conjunction with excessive cutting down or
-wear of the steeper wall. All faults in shoeing which tend to produce
-contraction of the heels aid in the formation of a wry foot, especially
-when these faults directly affect the steep wall. Neglect of the colt’s
-hoofs during the first years of life frequently lays the basis for wry
-foot in later years. All wry feet are more susceptible to disease than others.</p>
-
-<p>The amount or degree of wryness varies considerably. In a moderately
-developed case the steep wall (usually the inner) will be drawn in
-at the plantar border of the quarter, presenting a convex surface
-between this border and the coronet, and the adjacent branch of the
-frog will be more or less shrunken. In extreme cases the slanting wall
-(usually the outer) will also be involved and bent in the opposite
-direction,—<i>i.e.</i>, will be concave (dished) between coronet and
-lower border (crooked hoof).</p>
-
-<p><i>Prognosis.</i>—When the degree of wryness corresponds to the slant
-of the foot-axis and the old shoe shows nearly uniform wear, the defect
-is not directly injurious. In very pronounced “wryness,” however, with
-thin, bent walls, a number of associated lesions, such as corns and
-cracks, may be present and render the animal unfit for service upon
-paved or macadam roads.</p>
-
-<p id="IX_A_5" class="f120">5. <span class="smcap">The Crooked Hoof.</span></p>
-
-<p>A crooked hoof (<a href="#FIG_212">Fig. 212</a>) is one whose walls (viewed from
-in front or behind) do not pass in a straight, natural direction from the coronet
-to the ground, but are bent in such a manner that the bearing-surface
-of the wall in relation to the foot-axis lies either too far out or in.</p>
-
-<p>It may occur on any foot, but is seldom strongly marked.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Causes.</i>—The causes are either long-continued leaving of
-one-half of the wall too high, or the use of shoes shaped for normal
-feet upon hoofs of the base-wide position.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_212" class="f150">Fig. 212.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_193.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="462" />
-     <p class="blockquot space-below2">A crooked right fore-hoof
-     of the base-wide position: <i>a</i>, convex wall, too high;
-     <i>b</i>, concave wall, too low; <i>c d</i> shows how much
-     of the outer wall must be removed with the hoof-knife;
-     <i>f</i>, superfluous horn to be removed gradually with the
-     rasp; <i>c e</i> and <i>g h</i> indicate the position of
-     the shoe with relation to the hoof.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The principal part of the treatment is the proper dressing of the hoof.
-The wall which is bent out at the middle and drawn in at the plantar
-border is, as a rule, too high and too near the centre of the foot
-(too narrow); the opposite wall, on the contrary, is too low and too
-far from the centre of the foot (too wide). This explains the manner
-in which the hoof should be cut down and rasped. The shoe must be laid
-out as far as possible towards the side which is too high and narrow.
-A straight edge placed against the high wall touches it only at its
-middle. The distance of this line from the lower edge of the wall shows
-us how far the surface of support—namely, the shoe—should be set out
-beyond the horn. If the straight edge be placed against the opposite
-wall, it will touch only at the coronet and at the plantar border,
-showing that the wall is concave. The distance of the middle of this
-wall from the straight edge shows us how much too wide this half of
-the wall is at its plantar border, and how much of the outer surface
-of the wall at its plantar border should be removed with the rasp. The
-restoration of a crooked hoof to its normal form requires several shoeings.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</span></p>
-
-<p id="IX_A_6" class="f120">6. <span class="smcap">Ossification
-of the Lateral Cartilage<br /> (Side-Bone).</span></p>
-
-<p>The ossification of a lateral cartilage (<a href="#FIG_213">Fig. 213</a>) consists
-in a change of the cartilage into bone. Heavy horses are more frequently affected
-than lighter ones. It most often involves the outer cartilages of the
-forefeet, seldom both cartilages. Side-bones always interfere with the
-physiological movements of the foot, and may, indeed, entirely suppress them.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_213" class="f150">Fig. 213.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_194.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="301" />
-     <p class="blockquot space-below2">A left fore os pedis
-     viewed in profile, showing ossification of the external
-     lateral cartilage: <i>a</i>, dotted line shows normal line
-     of union of cartilage with wing of os pedis; <i>b</i>,
-     ossified portion (“side bone”). The unossified cartilage
-     has been removed by maceration.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The disease can only be diagnosed with certainty after the upper part
-of the cartilage has ossified. The coronet is then rather prominent
-(bulging), and feels hard. The gait is short, and cautious, and
-well-marked lameness often follows severe work. As <i>causes</i>, may
-be mentioned predisposition in heavy lymphatic horses, and violent
-concussion or shock due to fast work upon hard roads. The disease is
-<i>incurable</i>.</p>
-
-<p>A special method of shoeing is only necessary when the outer cartilage
-is ossified and the quarter upon that side is contracted. After
-removing the old shoe, whose outer branch is, as a rule, more worn away
-than the inner, the outer wall will always be found too high, due to
-the fact that there has been little or no expansion and contraction in
-this quarter and, therefore, little or no wear of the horn against the
-shoe. The hoof is therefore wry,—on the outside too high, and on the
-inside too low. This shows us how the foot should be dressed so as to
-obtain a proper base of support and a uniform wear of the shoe. The
-most suitable shoe is a <i>flat shoe</i>, whose outer branch must be
-wider than the inner. It is so applied that the inner branch follows the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</span>
-edge of the wall closely, while the outer branch must be full and
-at the quarter must extend beyond the wall far enough to touch a
-perpendicular line dropped from the coronet (<a href="#FIG_215">Fig. 215</a>).
-The shoe must, therefore, be punched deep (coarse) on the outer branch
-and fine on the inner. A side-clip must be placed on the outer branch,
-because in time the outer half of the hoof will again be too high.
-<i>Bar-shoes and rubber pads are injurious when both cartilages are
-ossified</i>, but may be used when there is partial ossification of
-<i>but one cartilage</i>, especially if corns are present.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_214" class="f150">Fig. 214.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_195a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="275" />
-     <p class="center">Right fore-hoof whose form has<br />
-         changed as a result of ossification<br /> of the external lateral cartilage.</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_215" class="f150">Fig. 215.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_195b.jpg" alt="" width="280" height="273" />
-     <p class="center">Shoe with broad outer branch, for<br />
-          the hoof shown in the preceding cut.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<h4 id="IX_B">B. Disturbances of Continuity of the Hoof.</h4>
-
-<p id="IX_B_1" class="f120">1. <span class="smcap">Cracks.</span></p>
-
-<p>Interruptions of continuity of the wall extending in the direction of
-the horn-tubes are known as cracks or seams. They have, according to
-their location, degree, and extent, not only various names, but also a
-varying significance.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Occurrence.</i>—On the inner side of front hoofs, especially of
-horses that stand base-wide; on hind hoofs, usually at the toe.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_216" class="f150">Fig. 216.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_196.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="213" />
-     <p class="blockquot space-below2">Hoof exhibiting a coronary crack,
-          a plantar or low crack, and a complete deep crack, the latter
-          with a nail ready to be clinched.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>Classification.</i>—According to location we distinguish
-toe-cracks, side-cracks, quarter-cracks, and bar-cracks. Those cracks
-which affect only the upper border of the hoof are called <i>coronary
-cracks</i>; those which are limited to the lower border of the hoof
-are sometimes designated <i>low cracks</i> (plantar cracks); while
-those which are continuous from one border to the other are called
-<i>complete cracks</i>. If the crack passes through the entire
-thickness of the wall to the sensitive tissues underneath, it is called
-a <i>deep</i> or <i>penetrating crack</i>, in contradistinction to the
-<i>superficial crack</i> (<a href="#FIG_216">Fig. 216</a>).</p>
-
-<p><i>Causes.</i>—There are many. Besides wounds of the coronet,
-everything that impairs the elasticity of the horn, weakens the hoof,
-and causes an overloading of one-half of the hoof. Furthermore, great
-dryness and excessive work on hard streets.</p>
-
-<p><i>Prognosis.</i>—This will depend upon the age, kind, and location
-of the crack. A <i>low crack is without significance</i> unless it is
-the remnant of an old coronary crack which has grown down. <i>Coronary
-cracks</i>, on the contrary, <i>are more serious</i> because of the
-lameness which often accompanies them, and especially on account of the
-long duration of the healing process.</p>
-
-<p>The borders of the crack <b>never</b> grow together, and healing can
-only take place through healthy, unbroken horn growing down from the
-coronary band.</p>
-
-<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Treatment of Coronary and Bar-Cracks.</i>—If
-practicable, allow the affected horse to go barefoot; otherwise, the
-use of the <b>bar-shoe</b> for <i>all cracks</i> is advised, because it
-will continuously protect the diseased section of wall from pressure by
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</span>
-the shoe. If there are present still other diseases of the hoof (corns,
-contraction, flat or full hoof), the addition of a leather sole with
-packing will be most beneficial, not only in favoring the healing of
-the crack, but also in improving the form of the hoof and in favoring
-the cure of the other lesions. In all coronary cracks it is of
-advantage to assist healing by fastening or immobilizing the borders of
-the crack by one of the following methods:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>1. By rivets (nails), which pass across the crack through holes
-previously drilled in the horn (<a href="#FIG_217">Fig. 217</a>).</p>
-
-<p>2. By clamps or hooks, which by means of special pincers are forced
-into pockets previously burnt into the horn on opposite sides of the
-crack (<a href="#FIG_219">Fig. 219, B</a>).</p>
-
-<p>3. By a thin iron plate placed across the crack and secured by small
-screws, such as are used in wood (<a href="#FIG_220">Figs. 220</a>,
-<a href="#FIG_221">221</a>).</p>
-
-<p>4. By means of a bandage to last one shoeing.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>Toe-crack</b> occurs most often in draught horses and most
-frequently in the hind feet. In shod hoofs it starts at the coronary
-border, and unless proper treatment is instituted soon reaches the
-plantar border. Long toes and low quarters and excessive dryness of the
-horn are predisposing causes. The exciting cause is usually forward
-pressure of the upper end of the short pastern against the thin upper
-edge of the wall of the toe. In the last part of the phase of contact
-of hoof with ground the pasterns are upright, or may even incline
-downward and backward (foot-axis broken strongly backward), the short
-pastern presses the coronary band firmly against the upper thin edge of
-the toe, when if brittle through dryness it is unable to stretch and
-tears asunder. Thus, under the effort of starting a heavy load, when a
-horse with all four legs flexed has risen upon the points of his toes,
-a short quick slip followed by a catch, will frequently start a crack
-at the coronet.</p>
-
-<p>The hoof should be so dressed and shod that the foot-axis shall be
-straight when seen from the side. In hind feet it is admissible to
-break the foot-axis slightly forward. Therefore, shorten the toe and
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</span>
-spare the quarters. If the latter are deficient in length, raise them
-by swelling the branches or by low heel-calks.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_217" class="f150">Fig. 217.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_198a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="389" />
-     <p class="blockquot space-below2">Toe-crack immobilized
-     by lateral toe-clips: <i>a</i>, bearing-surface left free
-     from pressure; <i>b</i>, heads of the rivets (nails) driven
-     through holes previously drilled.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The shoe may be open, or a bar-shoe, or a short shoe with a rubber
-frog- and buttress-pad. Whatever expands the quarters closes a
-toe-crack. The Defay’s shoe (<a href="#FIG_206">Fig. 206</a>), or the
-Chadwick spring beneath a rubber pad, or beneath a bar-shoe with
-leather sole, if the frog be much shrunken, will be of service. The
-shoe should fit air-tight, except for an inch or so on both sides of
-the crack. Two lateral toe-clips (<a href="#FIG_217">Fig. 217</a>) are
-drawn up, and the wall between these clips is cut down from a twelfth
-to an eighth of an inch.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_218" class="f150">Fig. 218.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_198b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="94" />
-     <p class="blockquot space-below2">Spiral drill for boring
-     the hole into which a round wire nail is driven to fasten a
-     toe-crack: (<i>a</i>) three sided point of drill (similar
-     to the point of a stilet of a cæcal trocar).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>After the shoe has been nailed on tight the toe-crack should be
-immobilized. The best method is by buried nails. Slots are burned or
-cut on opposite sides at a distance of an inch from the crack. With a
-spiral drill (<a href="#FIG_218">see Fig. 218</a>) bore a hole from a slot at
-right angles tothe crack. Make a similar hole on the opposite side. Make the
-holes continuous by introducing a straight hot wire. The rivet may be an
-ordinary round wire nail which has been softened by bringing it to a
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</span>
-yellow heat and allowing it to cool slowly. It is driven through and
-the ends firmly clinched. Such a nail is easily placed, need not press
-upon fleshy leaves, can not be stripped off or lost, and holds fast.
-The horse should stand on the foot while the rivet is being clinched.
-Two are sufficient for a complete crack (<a href="#FIG_217">Fig. 217</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_219" class="f150">Fig. 219.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_199.jpg" alt="" width="350" height="529" />
-     <p class="blockquot space-below2"><i>A</i>, Vachette
-     burning iron for making the two slots to receive the ends
-     of the hook; <i>b</i>, shoulder; <i>B</i>, Vachette hook;
-     <i>C</i>, pincers for forcing the hook into the wall.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A more rapid, though less efficient method of immobilizing a toe-or a
-quarter-crack is by the use of the Vachette hook. A special apparatus
-is required (<a href="#FIG_219">see Fig. 219</a>). The burning iron
-(<a href="#FIG_219">Fig. 219, <i>A</i></a>) is brought to a yellow
-heat, its end applied to the wall so that the two ears are on opposite
-sides and equidistant from the crack, when it is pressed firmly till
-the shoulder (<a href="#FIG_219">Fig. 219, <i>b</i></a>) touches the
-surface of the wall. A Vachette hook, the distance between the points
-of which equals the distance between the ears of the firing iron,
-is seized by the special pincers (<i>C</i>), pressed into the slots
-burned to receive it, and is then driven into the horn by compressing
-the pincers. At the toe these hooks are frequently stripped off by the
-heels of the opposite shoe (in hind feet). Free application of hoof
-ointment, and maceration of the horn by melting snow or mud tends to
-loosen them so that they often drop out.</p>
-
-<p>An efficient method of fastening either a toe-or a quarter-crack is by
-using a metal plate one-sixteenth (¹/₁₆″) of an inch thick, provided
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</span>
-with four to eight holes for the reception of screws four- to
-five-sixteenths of an inch long. The plate is heated, bent to conform
-to the curvature of the wall and pressed against the horn till it burns
-a bed for itself, when it is screwed fast. It will not loosen (see
-<a href="#FIG_220">Fig. 220, <i>b</i></a>). In every complete crack of the wall
-the growing down of coherent horn is favored by thinning the horn for an inch on
-both sides of the crack directly over the coronary band (<a href="#FIG_221">see Fig. 221, <i>a</i></a>),
-so that any gliding movement between the sides of the crack
-below can not be transmitted through the thinned area to the crack in
-the velvety tissue of the coronary band. Cutting a “V” at the coronet
-acts similarly, but is less efficient.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_220" class="f150">Fig. 220.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_200a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="278" />
-   <p class="blockquot space-below2">Hoof with coronary quarter-crack,
-     shod with a bar-shoe. The part of the quarter relieved of pressure
-     <i>a</i>, is indicated by the dotted lines; <i>b</i>, iron plate
-     secured by small wood screws ⁴/₁₆-⁵/₁₆ of an inch in length.</p>
-
-   <p id="FIG_221" class="f150">Fig. 221.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_200b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="315" />
-     <p class="blockquot space-below2">Hoof with complete
-     quarter-crack, shod with a bar-shoe: <i>a</i>, area
-     thinned almost to the pododerm; <i>b</i>, ¹/₁₆ inch metal
-     plate secured by screw ⁵/₁₆ of an inch long; <i>c</i>,
-     quarter relieved of pressure from bottom of crack to a
-     perpendicular dropped from top of crack.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>Quarter-crack</b> is usually associated with contraction of
-the heels. It occurs on the inner quarter of base-wide (toe-wide)
-hoofs, and rarely in the outer quarter of base-narrow hoofs. For
-quarter-cracks we use a bar-shoe and determine the extent of the wall
-to be laid free in the following manner: We imagine the crack to be
-prolonged in the direction of the horn-tubes to the plantar border,
-and drop a perpendicular line from the upper end of the crack to the
-plantar border. That part of the plantar border lying between these two
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</span>
-points is then to be lowered sufficiently to prevent pressure from the
-shoe until the next shoeing (<a href="#FIG_220">Figs. 220, <i>a</i></a>,
-and <a href="#FIG_221">221, <i>c</i></a>).</p>
-
-<p>This method should be followed even when the perpendicular line falls
-behind the buttress.</p>
-
-<p>The crack may be immobilized by the metal plate, or by narrow ticking
-bandage or adhesive tape wound a half dozen times around the hoof, in
-conjunction with a bar-shoe, Chadwick spring, leather sole and tar and
-oakum sole-packing.</p>
-
-<p>In dressing the hoof, the side containing the crack should be spared,
-the opposite side lowered, the object being to shift the weight and
-consequent expansion into the sound quarter. When the affected quarter
-is deficient in length the branch of the shoe beneath should be made
-thicker, even to the extent of causing it to ground in advance of the
-opposite branch.</p>
-
-<p>Next to shoeing, rubber hoof-pads render good service, because through
-them a part of the body-weight is distributed over the sole and frog.
-They assist in widening the hoof, and lessen shock when the foot is set
-to the ground. These are all matters which favor the growing down of
-unbroken horn.</p>
-
-<p>When the crack gaps widely, and the frog is small and deep in the foot
-<i>a shoe with bar-clips</i> (Defay’s shoe), or a Chadwick spring, with
-bar-shoe and leather sole may be used. It is not impossible, indeed,
-to obtain a cure by using an ordinary open flat shoe, though much will
-depend upon the other lesions that may be present, the nature of the
-hoof, and the service required of the animal.</p>
-
-<p>If the edges of the crack are irregular and overlapping, they should
-be carefully thinned away. Thinning the horn on both sides of the crack
-over the coronary band, preventing drying out of the horn, and frequent
-applications of carbolized oil to the coronet favor growth of undivided
-horn and guard against a renewal of the crack.</p>
-
-<p>If in the beginning of the disease there is inflammation and lameness,
-cooling poultices should be used for several days. When there is no
-lameness, the horse may be used for slow draft purposes.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</span>
- <i>Coach-and saddle-horses should be kept from fast work until sound horn
-has grown down at least one-half of an inch from the coronet.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>Bar-cracks</i> are usually the result of changes of position of the
-quarters, and are just as frequently brought about by contraction as
-by leaving the quarters too high. We see them almost entirely upon the
-fore-hoofs. They seldom occur alone, but are usually accompanied by
-corns. When the crack extends to the pododerm there is a superficial
-inflammation of the pododerm and lameness. When treatment is not
-promptly begun the inflammation extends to the deeper layers of the
-pododerm, or, indeed, even to the plantar cushion, and gives rise to
-swelling of the bulb of the heel upon that side and to a well-marked
-lameness, which requires treatment by a competent veterinarian.</p>
-
-<p>Ordinarily a bar-crack is only found by a close examination of the
-hoof after the shoe has been removed. In paring the hoof the crack
-usually appears as a dark streak, sometimes as a bloody fissure; not
-infrequently grayish hoof-pus is discovered in the depths of the crack.</p>
-
-<p>The treatment must be directed towards favoring the growth of a
-continuous (unbroken) bar. This is accomplished by completely removing
-the edges of the crack, paring the horn of the vicinity very thin,
-and preventing the least pressure upon the wall of this quarter by
-the shoe, by lowering this quarter with the rasp and applying a
-<b>bar-shoe</b> with leather sole.</p>
-
-<p>Following the removal of the edges of the crack there often appears,
-especially in stumpy hoofs, a deep groove; if the bottom of this groove
-is moist, we should pack it with oakum wet with a five per cent.
-solution of creolin or carbolic acid, and cover the oakum with wax
-(grafting-wax). The cracks will return if the exciting causes cannot be
-completely removed.</p>
-
-<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Treatment of Low Cracks (Plantar Cracks).</i>—These
-cracks, occurring principally upon the hoofs of unshod horses, are
-the result of excessive stretching and bending of the lower border of
-the wall. Insufficient rounding of the wall with the rasp is largely
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</span>
-responsible for them. An exciting cause in shod horses is the use of
-too large nails in shoes that are punched too fine.</p>
-
-<p>Every coronary crack becomes in time a low or plantar crack, and this
-has an important bearing upon the prognosis, because a renewal of the
-coronary crack will be followed by a low crack.</p>
-
-<p>In order to remove these cracks it is sufficient merely to shoe the
-horse. Upon shod horses they may be prevented by using properly punched
-shoes and thin nails. The lower border of the wall near the crack
-should be relieved of pressure by cutting out a half-moon-shaped piece
-of horn. To prevent the crack from extending farther upward we may burn
-a transverse slot at the upper end of the crack, in as far as the leafy
-layer of the wall, or cut such a slot with a small hoof-knife.</p>
-
-<p id="IX_B_2" class="f120">2. <span class="smcap">Clefts.</span></p>
-
-<p>An interruption of continuity of the wall, at right angles to the
-direction of the horn-tubes, is called a <i>cleft</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Clefts may occur at any part of the wall; yet they occur most often
-upon the inner toe and inner side, as a result of injury from sharp,
-improperly placed heel-calks (<a href="#Page_173">see page 173</a>). However,
-suppurating corns, or other suppurative processes situated at the coronet or
-which find their point of escape at the coronet, may from time to time lead
-to separations of continuity and the formation of horn-clefts.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_222" class="f150">Fig. 222.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_203.jpg" alt="" width="350" height="435" />
-     <p class="center space-below2">Hoof with clefts of the toe and side wall.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Horn-clefts, though the result of lesions which are often very
-injurious and interfere with the use of the horse, are of themselves
-not an evil which can be abolished or healed by shoeing, although, in
-many cases, proper shoeing would have prevented them. A horn-cleft is
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</span>
-not a matter for consideration by the shoer until it has grown down so
-far that it comes within the region of the nails.</p>
-
-<p>In order not to disfigure the hoof unnecessarily, the horn below the
-cleft should be kept in place as long as possible by shortening the
-wall at that point, to remove shoe-pressure, and by driving no nails
-into it. If, however, the horn is loose and about to come away, it
-should be removed and the defect filled with Defay’s patent horn-cement.</p>
-
-<p id="IX_B_3" class="f120">3. <span class="smcap">Loose Wall.</span></p>
-
-<p>Separation of the wall from the sole <i>in the white line</i> is called
-loose wall (<a href="#FIG_223">Fig. 223, <i>a</i></a>).</p>
-
-<p><i>Occurrence.</i>—Frequent on the fore-hoofs of shod and unshod
-horses, and oftener upon the inner than upon the outer side. More
-rare on hind hoofs. Common-bred horses with wide and flat feet are
-predisposed to this trouble.</p>
-
-<p>We distinguish <i>superficial</i> and <i>deep loose wall</i>; only the
-latter requires the shoer’s attention, because it leads to lameness.</p>
-
-<p><i>Causes.</i>—Walls which are very oblique (slanting); outward
-bendings of the plantar border of the wall; burning the horn with hot
-shoes; dryness; neglected shoeing; excessive softening of the horn with
-poultices, particularly of cow-dung; carelessness in preparing the
-bearing-surfaces of hoof and shoe in shoeing; uneven fitting of the shoe.</p>
-
-<p><i>Treatment.</i>—It aims to remove the lameness and to favor growth
-of coherent horn. In the first place the removal of the exciting
-causes, followed by proper shortening of the wall. We should apply
-a shoe whose bearing-surface <i>inclines slightly downward and
-inward</i>, is perfectly smooth, and wide enough to cover the wall,
-white line, and outer border of the sole; the iron should be only
-moderately warm. Where there is lameness we use a leather sole with
-packing, or a <b>bar-shoe</b>. The loose wall should be freed from
-shoe-pressure only when it does not extend far along the white line.
-When the separation is extensive the loose wall should not be lowered.
-The crack should be filled with wood-tar, crude turpentine, or soft
-grafting-wax.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</span></p>
-
-<p>If a loose wall occur upon the foot of a horse while running barefoot,
-all separated horn should be removed; if, on account of the nature of
-the ground, this seems to be impracticable, the hoof must be shod.</p>
-
-<p><i>Care of the Hoof.</i>—Shoe at least every four to five weeks.
-Preserve the pliancy and toughness of the horn by judicious moistening.</p>
-
-<p id="IX_B_4" class="f120">4. <span class="smcap">Hollow Wall.</span></p>
-
-<p>A <i>hollow wall is one in which a separation has occurred between the
-middle layer of the wall and the keraphyllous layer</i>. This crack or
-separation always extends in the direction of the layers of the wall
-(<a href="#FIG_223">Fig. 223, <i>b</i></a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_223" class="f150">Fig. 223.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_205.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="215" />
-     <p class="center space-below2">An imaginary transverse vertical
-          section of a hoof<br /> showing (<i>a</i>) loose wall and
-         (<i>b</i>) hollow wall.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>Occurrence.</i>—Quite rare.</p>
-
-<p>We should suspect a hollow wall when a part of the wall <i>rounds out
-prominently beyond the rest</i>, and gives forth a hollow (resonant)
-sound when struck. The white line presents a crack, yet we should
-hesitate to form a conclusion as to the extent of the separation from
-the extent of the crack along the white line, since the latter may be
-considerably smaller. The separation extends higher up the wall than
-in the case of loose wall, frequently to the coronet. The cavity is
-usually filled with crumbling, disintegrated horn.</p>
-
-<p>Hollow wall is not often accompanied by pain. Lameness may arise,
-however, if the hollow section of wall assists in bearing the
-body-weight, and if the animal does fast work upon paved streets.</p>
-
-<p><i>Causes.</i>—Mechanical influences resulting in chronic inflammation
-of fleshy leaves.</p>
-
-<p><i>Treatment.</i>—A cure is possible, but requires considerable time.
-In shoeing, which should always aim to <i>relieve pressure</i> from the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</span>
-hollow section of wall, we cleanse the cavity and fill it with oakum
-and tar, crude turpentine, or wax. Where the separation is very
-extensive we use a <i>bar-shoe</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The time required for complete cure of hollow and loose walls will
-depend upon the height of the separation (see growth of the hoof,
-<a href="#Page_82">page 82</a>).</p>
-
-<p id="IX_B_5" class="f120">5. <span class="smcap">Thrush of the Frog.</span></p>
-
-<p>When the horny frog is ragged and fissured, and an ill-smelling,
-dark-colored liquid collects in the lacunæ of the frog, it is affected
-with thrush. When thrush exists uninterruptedly for several months the
-perioplic band is irritated and forms rings of periople which assume an
-irregular course and cross the rings of the middle layer of the wall
-(<a href="#FIG_224">Fig. 224</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_224" class="f150">Fig. 224.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_206.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="302" />
-     <p class="center space-below2">Hoof with irregular superficial rings<br />
-           resulting from thrush of the frog.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>causes</i>: uncleanliness, <b>too little exercise</b> in fresh
-air, excessive paring of the frog, and the use of shoes with calks by
-which the frog is permanently removed from the ground.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>consequences</i> are, besides contraction of the hoof, soreness
-in travelling, a shortening of the step, and, occasionally, well-marked
-lameness.</p>
-
-<p><i>Treatment.</i>—Removal of all greasy horn from the frog, and of the
-prominent overgrown angles of the buttresses (<a href="#Page_100">see page 100</a>),
-thorough washing of the frog once or twice daily with a 5 per cent. creolin or
-carbolic solution, <b>abundant exercise</b>, and shoes without calks.</p>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</span></p>
-<h3 id="X_1" class="nobreak">CHAPTER X.<br />
-<span class="h_subtitle">SHOEING MULES, ASSES, AND OXEN.</span></h3>
-</div>
-
-<p>1. The shoeing of mules and asses is, as in the case of horses, a
-necessity if these animals are to be used for draft or saddle purposes
-on hard streets. The structure and characteristics of the hoofs of
-these animals are quite similar to those of the horse, differing
-chiefly in the form and thickness of the wall. The mule hoof is long
-and narrow and round at the toe, the sole is well arched, and the side
-walls are rather steep (<a href="#FIG_225">Fig. 225</a>). In the ass the
-narrowness of hoof is still more pronounced, the wall is relatively
-<b>thick</b>, the frog is particularly well developed in its branches,
-and therefore the hoof is relatively wide in the region of the
-quarters. The horn of both mule and ass is tough.</p>
-
-<p>The shoes differ from those of the horse in no other respect than that
-they should be lighter and narrower. Four nail-holes are sufficient for
-an ass’ shoe, and five to six for a mule’s.</p>
-
-<p>On account of the hardness and toughness of the walls, we use nails
-that are short but strong in the shank; nails with weak shanks are apt
-to bend in driving.</p>
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_225" class="f150">Fig. 225.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_207.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="359" />
-     <p class="center">A mule’s hoof.<br /> (Plantar surface).</p>
-   </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <p id="FIG_226" class="f150 space-below2">Fig. 226.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_208.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="278" />
-     <p class="center">A shod ox-claw.</p>
-   </div>
-</div>
-
-<p id="X_2">2. <i>The shoeing of oxen</i> is essentially different from that
-of horses, because the foot of the ox is cloven (split), the long pastern,
-short pastern, and hoof-bone are double, so that, instead of one hoof
-or claw, there are two upon each foot, distinguished as outer and
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</span>
-inner. Each claw consists of wall, sole, and bulbs; the frog is absent.
-The wall is considerably thinner than that of the horse’s hoof, the
-sole is thin, and the bulbs are low. For these reasons the shoe
-designed for a claw must be thin, but wide.</p>
-
-<p>The holes must be punched fine and the nails be quite short and strong.
-On each shoe a long tongue should be made on the inner edge near the
-toe, and so directed that it can be turned upward and outward to
-embrace the toe of the claw. A small clip raised on the outer toe of
-each shoe will increase its stability. In some parts of Saxony the
-shoes are so made that the tongue of each shoe begins in the rear
-third of its inner edge and runs forward, upward, and outward, closely
-embracing the wall of the toe. The smaller clip is drawn up on the
-outer edge of the shoe close to the toe. These shoes are more difficult
-to make, but when applied sit more firmly and remain fast longer than
-all others. Machine-made ox shoes (<a href="#FIG_227">Fig. 227</a>) have no clip at the inner
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</span>
-toe, and are frequently pulled and lost. For this reason they are
-inferior to hand-made shoes. An undivided shoe (the so-called “closed
-claw-shoe”) is unsuitable for oxen, because it deprives both claws of
-their natural, free movements. However, such a shoe is of advantage
-for heavy draft over hard and very rough roads, because it lessens the
-liability of the fetlock and coronary joints and the cleft of the claws
-to strains.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_227" class="f150">Fig. 227.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_209.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="451" />
-     <p class="blockquot space-below2">Pair of machine-made ox shoes,
-           viewed from the ground-surface and in profile;
-           <i>a</i>, toe-calk; <i>b</i>, heel-calks.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Great difficulty is often encountered in holding the feet during the
-operation of shoeing. It is necessary to fasten the head securely
-against a tree, post, or wall. A front foot may be raised and held
-by passing a slip-noose in the end of a rope or side-line around the
-fetlock and carrying the line over the withers to the opposite side,
-where it is held by an assistant. A hind limb may be controlled by
-passing a round pole in front of the hock of the leg to be raised,
-and, with a man at each end of the pole, carrying the limb backward
-and upward, in which position it is held; or the limb may be bent and
-controlled by tightening a twitch or tourniquet upon the leg just above
-the hock (<a href="#FIG_228">Fig. 228</a>). Oxen that continue to resist
-may sometimes be quieted by light blows of a short stick upon the base
-of the horns. In parts of the country where many oxen are shod stocks
-are in common use.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_228" class="f150">Fig. 228.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_210.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="401" />
-     <p class="center space-below2">Hind foot raised by means of a round pole.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Very satisfactory stocks have been designed by Gutenaecker, of Munich
-(<a href="#FIG_229">Fig. 229</a>). The four corner-posts (<i>a</i>, <i>a</i>,
-<i>b</i>, <i>b</i>) are eight inches square and eight feet long, of which three
-feet four inches are solidly implanted in the ground. They are united
-by side- and cross-bars (<i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>). In front of
-the corner-posts (<i>a</i>, <i>a</i>) and in the middle line stands
-a head-post (<i>e</i>) of the same dimensions as the corner-posts,
-provided with a slot four inches wide and twenty inches long beginning
-three feet from the ground. In this slot is a pulley-wheel (<i>i</i>),
-and below it a windlass (<i>k</i>) for winding up the rope which is
-tied around the base of the animal’s horns. The corner-posts are
-provided with a slot (<i>n</i>) three inches wide and three inches
-deep, within which are placed two movable side-bars (<i>o</i>,
-<i>p</i>), which can be set at desired heights and fastened by iron
-pins. Between the front and rear corner-posts of the right-hand side is
-an eight-sided roller with a ratchet and click at one end, and having
-on one of the sides six iron hooks, to which a girth is attached. On
-the opposite side of the stocks, at the same height, is a stationary
-bar (<i>f</i>) with six hooks (<i>g</i>, <i>g</i>) on the outer side.
-The belly girth is six feet long, six inches wide, and terminates at
-both ends in several strong cords two feet four inches long with iron
-rings at their ends. Between the front corner-posts are a neck-yoke
-(<i>h</i>) and a breast-bar which slide in the slots (<i>m</i>) and
-may be fixed at desired heights by iron pins. On the rear face of each
-rear corner-post is an iron bracket (<i>s</i>) one foot and a half
-long, with a ring (<i>t</i>) six inches in diameter, through which
-passes a round pole padded in the middle and kept in place by two iron
-pins. Above each bracket is a hook (<i>u</i>) to which the end of the
-breeching attaches.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-   <p id="FIG_229" class="f150">Fig. 229.</p>
-   <img src="images/i_211.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="285" />
-     <p class="blockquot space-below2">Gutenäcker’s stocks
-     for oxen: <i>a</i>, front corner-posts; <i>b</i>, rear
-     corner-posts; <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, connecting bars;
-     <i>e</i>, head-post; <i>f</i>, bar for holding belly girth;
-     <i>g</i>, hooks for girth; <i>h</i>, neck-yoke; <i>i</i>,
-     pulley-wheel; <i>k</i>, windlass with ratchet and click;
-     <i>m</i>, slot for neck-yoke and breast-bar; <i>n</i>,
-     slot for movable side-bars; <i>o</i>, <i>p</i>, side-bars;
-     <i>r</i>, hook for fetlock strap; <i>s</i>, iron bracket;
-     <i>t</i>, iron ring for rear cross pole; <i>u</i>, hooks
-     for breeching.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</span>
-Before an animal is brought into the stocks the neck-yoke is raised,
-the breast-bar lowered, and the girth left hanging from the hooks on
-the stationary bar. The ox is then led into the stocks and the rope
-which is tied around the base of the horns is carried over the pulley
-(<i>i</i>), fastened to the hook on the roller (<i>k</i>), and wound up
-till the head is tight against the head-post. The yoke and breast-bar
-are then placed in position and fastened, the breeching hung on the
-hooks (<i>u</i>), and the belly girth attached to the hooks on the
-roller, so that, if need be, it can be shortened till it bears the
-animal’s entire weight.</p>
-
-<p>To control a front foot a slip-noose is placed about the fetlock and
-the limb is raised and lashed to the side-bar, the rope passing finally
-to the hook (<i>r</i>). To control a hind foot a slip-noose is placed
-about the fetlock, the foot carried upward and backward over the rear
-cross-bar, and, with the front surface of the fetlock-joint resting
-against the padding of the bar, the limb is firmly secured by wrapping
-the line several times about the limb and bar.</p>
-
-<p>When no stocks are at hand, we may use an ordinary farm wagon or a
-truck wagon. Tie the ox with his head forward between the front and
-hind wheels. Fasten the large end of a binding pole to the spokes of
-the front wheel and let it rest on the hub. Swing the pole close to the
-ox and induce him to step over it with one hind leg, then raise the
-rear end of the pole, and with it the leg and so much of the animal’s
-hind quarters that the inner hind leg standing close to the wagon rests
-but lightly upon the ground. The binding pole may then be slung with
-a rope from the rack of the wagon or other stationary object and the
-outer limb held in the usual manner. By following this method a shoer with
-one assistant can easily and safely control the most refractory oxen.</p>
-
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</span></p>
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2>
-</div>
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li class="isub1">Apprentice, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Arteries, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Articulations, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Balanced hoof, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Balling with snow, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Bar-shoe, uses of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Bare foot, preparing the hoof, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Bars, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">dressing, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Base-narrow position, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Base-wide position, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Beaked shoe, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Bear-foot, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Bearing-surface of shoes, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Blood-vessels, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Bow-legged position, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Buttress, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Calf-kneed, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Calk-wound, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Camped behind, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">in front, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Cannon bone, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Carpus, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Cartilages, lateral, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Cast iron, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">shoes, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Chadwick spring, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Clefts, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Clinch cutter, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Clinching, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Clips, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Close-nailing, burning, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Contracted hoof, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">sole, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Corn, chronic, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">dry, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">suppurating, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Corns, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">treatment, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Coronary band, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">joint, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">ligaments, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Cover-plate shoe, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Cow-hocked, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Cracks, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">coronary and bar, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">plantar, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Crest, semilunar, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Crooked hoof, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Cross-firing, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Defay’s shoe, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Diseases of hoof, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Dressing the hoof, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Driving the shoe, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Drop-forged shoes, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Dropped sole, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Elastic parts of foot, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Examination before shoeing, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Feet, forms of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Femur, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Fetlock, ligaments of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">joint, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Fiber shoes, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Fibula, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Flat hoof, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Fleshy frog, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">sole, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">wall, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Flight of hoofs, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Foot, articulations of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">bones of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Foot-axis, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">relation to sole, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">straight and broken, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Forging, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Founder, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">dressing hoof, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">shoeing, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Frog, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">dressing, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Front shoe, making, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Frost-nails, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Full hoof, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Fullering, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">hammer, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Gathered nail, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Hair-skin, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Head, bones of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Heavy draught horses, shoeing, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Heel-calks, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">always sharp, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Heels, inflammation of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Hind shoe, making, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Hock, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Hollow wall, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Hoof, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">benefits of movements within, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">crooked, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">growth of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">healthy, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">irregular growth, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">knife, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">ointments, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">physiological movements of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">wear against shoe, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">wear of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Hoof-skin, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Hoofs, care of unshod, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Hoofs, forms of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">of colts, care of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Horn, minute structure of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">qualities of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">tumor, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Horseshoeing, object of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">schools, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Horseshoer, requisites of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Humerus, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Hunters, shoeing, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Interfering, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Iron for horseshoes, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Joints, free, hinge, and pivot, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Keraphyllocele, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Knee-sprung, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Laminitis, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Leather sole, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Ligaments, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Limbs, standing positions, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Loose wall, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Low-jointed, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Mucous bursæ, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Mule shoes, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Muscles, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Nail-holes, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Nailing, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">causes of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">examination and treatment, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Nails, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Navicular bone, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Nerves, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Nippers, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Normal position, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Os pedis, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Ox shoes, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Oxen, securing feet, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Pacers, shoeing, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Pads, rubber, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Pastern, long, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">short, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Patella, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Pedal joint, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">ligaments, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Peg-calks, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Peg toe-calks, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Pelvis, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Periople, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Perioplic band, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Periosteum, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Pigeon-toed position, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Pincers, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Plantar cushion, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Pododerm, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Pododermatitis, symptoms of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">treatment of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Podophyllous tissue, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Podometer, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Pricking, direct nailing, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Pritchel, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Protective organs of foot, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Punch, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Quarter-crack, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Quarters, contraction of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Radius, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Raising feet in shoeing, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Removing shoes, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Rolled toe, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Rope shoes, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Rubber shoes, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Runners, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Saddle-horses, shoeing, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Scapula, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Screw heel-calks, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Seedy-toe, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Sesamoid bones, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">ligaments, <a href="#Page_29">29-31</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Sharp toe- and heel-calks, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Shod hoofs, care of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Shoe, choosing the, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">for acute-angled hoof, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">for base-narrow hoof, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">for base-wide hoof, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">for narrow hoof, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">for regular hoof, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">for stumpy hoof, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">for wide hoof, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">parts of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">wear of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">weight of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Shoeing defective hoofs, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Shoes, fitting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">general properties, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">machine, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">making, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">nailing, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">removing old, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">shaping and fitting, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">special properties, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Sickle-hock, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Side-bone, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Sole, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">contraction of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Spinal column, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Splint-bones, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">shoe, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Standing under, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Station of rest, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Steel, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Stocks, for horses, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">for oxen, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Stifle-joint, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Stilt-foot, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Street-nail, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Stride, height of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">length of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Stumpy hoof, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Suspensory ligament, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">altering tension of, <a href="#Page_36">36-38</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Synovia, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Tendon, anterior extensor, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">deep flexor, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">lateral extensor, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">sheaths, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">superficial flexor, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Tendons, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Tension of tendon, altering, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Thorax, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Thrush, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Tibia, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Toe- and heel-calks, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Toe-calk, blunt, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">half-sharp, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">sharp, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Toe-crack, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Tools for making shoes, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Tread, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Trotters, shoeing, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Trunk, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Tubbing and stopping, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Ulna, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Vachette hook, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Veins, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Velvety frog, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">sole, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Wall, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">dressing, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">height of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">leafy layer, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">protective layer, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">slant of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">thickness of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Weight, influence of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Weights, side and toe, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">White line, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Wide hoofs, contraction of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">Wry hoof, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
-</ul>
-
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="footnotes">
-<p class="f150 u"><b>Footnotes:</b></p>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a>
-In order to see the length, thickness, and abundance of the villi of
-the pododerm, place the foot deprived of its hoof in a clear glass jar
-and cover it with water, renewing the latter until it is no longer
-tinged with blood.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a>
-<b>In station of rest</b>, the normal position of a fore-leg, as seen
-from the side, is somewhat different. The <i>station of rest</i> is the
-position that is maintained with the least possible muscular effort.
-With gradual muscular relaxation the head and neck sink to a point
-somewhat below the line of the back, the top of the shoulder-blade
-sinks a little, and the shoulder and elbow joints move forward till the
-centre of the elbow joint is directly above the ground-surface of the
-hoof. Therefore, when a horse <i>at rest</i> stands firmly on all four
-feet, <i>the fore-leg</i> viewed from the side, <i>has a normal</i>
-(regular) <i>direction, when a perpendicular line dropped from the
-tuberosity of the acromian spine passes through the middle of the elbow
-joint and meets the ground near the middle of the hoof</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a>
-On a shoe we distinguish an <i>outer</i> and an <i>inner branch</i>.
-The anterior portion, formed by the union of the two branches, is
-called the <i>toe</i>. The upper surface, upon which the hoof rests,
-is called the <i>hoof-surface</i>, and the under surface, which is
-in contact with the ground, the <i>ground-surface</i>. That portion
-of the hoof-surface which is in direct contact with the lower border
-of the wall, the white line, and a narrow margin of the sole is
-termed the <i>bearing-surface</i>, and when necessary “concaving”
-(seating) extends from this to the inner border of the shoe. On the
-ground-surface is seen the “fullering” or “crease.”</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a>
-The horizontal bearing-surface is in accordance with nature, because
-the changes of form of the hoof which take place at the plantar
-border of the wall, on burdening and unburdening the foot, should not
-be interfered with. A horizontal bearing-surface best fulfils this
-requirement.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a>
-Should lameness persist, it will be necessary to remove a strip of the
-wall from the plantar border to the coronet in order to remove the
-horn tumor. The fleshy leaves which have secreted the tumor must be
-extirpated and the surface of the os pedis well scraped, or the growth
-will return.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="transnote bbox space-above2">
-<p class="f120 space-above1">Transcriber&#8217;s Notes:</p>
-<hr class="r5" />
-<p class="indent">The cover image was created by the transcriber, and is in the public domain.</p>
-<p class="indent">The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up
-                  paragraphs and so that they are close to the text they illustrate.</p>
-<p class="indent">Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.</p>
-</div>
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A TEXT-BOOK OF HORSESHOEING ***</div>
-<div style='text-align:left'>
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