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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..08605af --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #66663 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/66663) diff --git a/old/66663-0.txt b/old/66663-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index aa07b89..0000000 --- a/old/66663-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5813 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Ancient history from the monuments: Greek -cities & islands of Asia Minor, by William Sandys Wright Vaux - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Ancient history from the monuments: Greek cities & islands of - Asia Minor - -Author: William Sandys Wright Vaux - -Release Date: November 4, 2021 [eBook #66663] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Turgut Dincer, Barry Abrahamsen, and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The Internet - Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANCIENT HISTORY FROM THE -MONUMENTS: GREEK CITIES & ISLANDS OF ASIA MINOR *** - - -[Illustration: - - LION FROM CNIDUS. -] - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - Ancient History - From the Monuments. - Greek Cities & Islands of Asia Minor - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - ANCIENT HISTORY - - - FROM THE MONUMENTS. - - - ───────── - - - GREEK CITIES & ISLANDS - - - OF - - - ASIA MINOR. - - - - BY - - - W. S. W. VAUX, M.A., F.R.S. - - - - ─── - PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF - THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION - APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING - CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE. - ─── - - - - LONDON: - Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. - Sold at the Depositories, - 77, Great Queen Street, Lincoln’s-Inn Fields; - 4, Royal Exchange; 48, Piccadilly; - And by all Booksellers. - ─── - 1877. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - ─── - - - CHAPTER I. - - INTRODUCTION—Cyzicus—Lampsacus—Abydus—Assus—Palæ- Page 1 - Scepsis—Troy—Dr. Schliemann—Ilium Novum—Alexandria— - Troas—Pergamum or Pergamus—Æolis. - - - CHAPTER II. - - Phocæa—Smyrna—Clazomenæ—Erythræ—Teos—Colophon—Ephesus— Page 34 - Mr. Wood—Miletus—Branchidæ or Didyma—Sacred Way—Mr. - Newton—Thyateira—Magnesia ad Sipylum—Philadelphia— - Tralles—Sardes— Halicarnassus—Mausoleum—Cnidus— - Demeter—Lion-Tomb—Mr. Pullan—Physcus—Caunus— - Stratonicea—Aphrodisias—Mylasa and Labranda. - - - CHAPTER III. - - Xanthus—Sir Charles Fellows—Telmessus—Patara—Pinara— Page 86 - Myra—Tlos and Antiphellus—Attalia—Perge—Eurymedon— - Aspendus—Side—Termessus— Cremna—Sagalassus—Selge— - Antioch of Pisidia—Tarsus—Coracesium—Laertes—Selinus— - Anemurium—Celenderis—Seleuceia— Corycus—Soli—Adana— - Mallus—Mopsuestia—Anazarbus—Issus. - - - CHAPTER IV. - - Isaura—Iconium—Lystra—Derbe—Apamea Cibotus—Aezani— Page 124 - Synnada—Philomelium—Laodicea Combusta—Hierapolis— - Laodicea ad Lycum—Colossæ—Ancyra—Pessinus—Tavium— - Nazianzus—Cæsarea ad Argæum—Tyana—Comana—Trapezus— - Amastris—Sinope—Prusa ad Olympum—Nicæa—Nicomedia— - Islands of Greece—Lesbos—Samos—Chios—Rhodus—Messrs. - Biliotti and Saltzmann—Cyprus—Mr. Lang—General Palma - di Cesnola - - - CHAPTER V. - - St. Paul Page 172 - - - Index Page 187 - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - GREEK CITIES AND ISLANDS OF ASIA MINOR. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - INTRODUCTION. - -Cyzicus—Lampsacus—Abydus—Assus—Palæ-Scepsis—Troy—Dr. Schliemann—Ilium - Novum—Alexandria—Troas—Pergamum or Pergamus—Æolis. - - -BEFORE we proceed to give a somewhat detailed account of the more -important cities of Asia Minor, and of the islands adjacent to its west -and southern shores, we may mention that Asia Minor, as it lies on the -map, exhibits, in its contour, a remarkable resemblance to Spain. -Extending between N. Lat. 36° and 42°, and E. Long. 26° and 40°, it is -about the same size as France, and somewhat less than Spain and Portugal -taken together. Its interior consists of a central plateau, rarely lower -than 3,000 ft. above the sea, often much more; many portions of it, -however, especially to the N. and E., affording excellent pasturage for -sheep, and, therefore, now, as for centuries, the natural home of the -Turkomán shepherds. - -At the S.W. end of Asia Minor terminates, also, the great central -mountain-range of Asia itself, which, running from the Brahmaputra -westwards, connects the Himálayas and the Caucasus. - -Many of the streams flowing from these mountains are heavily charged -with lime; hence the remarkable deposits of travertine, &c., to be seen -at Hierapolis and elsewhere. Indeed, to the geological features of the -country we owe the fact that the military and commercial routes through -Asia Minor have been always nearly the same, the earliest and the latest -conquerors having followed the same roads. - -The present produce of Asia Minor is almost insignificant when -considered with reference to its geographical area, and to the great -wealth extracted from it by the Romans (Cic. pro Leg. Manil. 2). But -every land, alike, decays under the oppressive and unintelligent rule of -the Osmanlis of Constantinople. The name, Asia Minor, we may add, is -comparatively modern, and is not met with earlier than Orosius, in the -fifth century A.D., while that of Anatolia (Ἀνατολἠ) is used first by -Constantinus Porphyrogenitus, in the tenth century A.D. - -The chief provinces of Asia Minor (omitting the smaller subdivisions of -Ionia, Æolis, and Troas, included, as these latter are usually, under -Mysia and Lydia) are the following:—Mysia, Lydia, Caria, to the W., and -fronting the Ægean Sea; Lycia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia, opposite to Crete -and Cyprus; Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus, on the Black Sea; and, in -the centre, Pisidia and Lycaonia, Phrygia, Galatia and Cappadocia. - -We propose to notice the more important towns, according to the order of -the provinces just recited; and, following this order, we take first -Mysia and its chief town, CYZICUS (the _Esquize_ of mediæval times), -which was situated on the neck of a peninsula running out into the Sea -of Marmora. Mr. Hamilton describes its position as “a sandy isthmus, -having near its southern end many large blocks of stone,” not, -improbably, the remains of Strabo’s “bridge.” Many ancient monuments may -still be traced among its present cherry-orchards, attesting its -original magnitude and magnificence, most of the relics now visible -being Roman, and its destruction having, no doubt, been mainly due to -the great earthquakes in the reign of Tiberius and Aurelius, which -ruined and depopulated so many other of the fairest towns of Asia -Minor.[1] - -Footnote 1: - - Tacitus, speaking of A.D. 17, the 4th of Tiberius, says:—“Eodem anno - duodecim celebres Asiæ urbes collapsæ nocturno motu terræ” (Annal. ii. - c. 47): and Cicero speaks of Cyzicus as “urbem Asiæ celeberrimam - nobisque amicissimam.” Compare also Apoll. Rhod. i. 936-941, 983-987; - Valer. Max. ii. 630; Ovid. Trist. i. 9. - -Mr. Hamilton, indeed, noting the loose and rubbly character of its -buildings, doubts the architectural fame of the city; but it is probable -that what we now see was once cased with marble, as much fine marble is -found in the adjacent hills. Some, too, of its buildings are of a -granite easily disintegrable. Any how, it would seem to be a place where -well-conducted excavations might bring to light many curious relics of -the past. Cyzicus was classed by Anaximenes of Lampsacus among the -colonies of Miletus, but was not of importance till the close of the -Peloponnesian war, when, by the discreditable peace of Antalcidas, it -was surrendered to the Persians, its ultimate prosperity being in great -measure due to its position, as a natural entrepôt, between the Black -Sea and the Ægean. In Roman times it was, according to Strabo, a “Libera -civitas,” and, with the exception of Nicomedia and Nicæa, the most -important city in that part of Asia Minor. In the days of Caracalla it -had become a “Metropolis,” and, still later, was an Episcopal see. - -Of the great wealth and, we may perhaps add, of the popularity of its -citizens in the fifth and fourth century B.C., the gold coins, called -Cyzicene _staters_, are ample evidence; though it may be doubted -whether, as was once thought, the _zecchino_ (or sequin), means -_Cyzicene_. In an able paper by Dr. (now Sir Patrick) Colquhoun (Trans. -Roy. Liter. vol. iv. p. 35), it is clearly shown that the “_Squise_” of -Ville-Hardouin is the ancient Cyzicus, “the oldest commercial place in -the world,” as that writer, with some exaggeration, asserts. The form -“Esquisse” is probably, as Dr. Colquhoun suggests, a corruption of εἰς -Κὐζικον (“to Cyzicus”).[2] Dr. Colquhoun’s paper is full of curious -information on the early mediæval state of this part of Asia Minor. Its -decline was mainly due to the invasion of the Goths in A.D. 262, but it -long remained the metropolis of the Hellespontine province (Hierocl. -Synecd. p. 661. Malala, Chron. i. p. 364). It was finally destroyed by -an earthquake in A.D. 943. - -Footnote 2: - - Similar modern modifications may be noticed in other sites of the - Levant. Thus, Stanchio (Kos) comes from εἰς τἡν Κῶν; Stamboul is not, - necessarily, a corruption of Constantinopolis, but, more probably, of - εἰς τἡν πόλιν (“to the city”); so Stalimene (Lesbos) comes from εἰς - τὁν λιμἐνα (“to the port”). - -Another Mysian town of note was LAMPSACUS, also a colony of Miletus and -Phocæa, attested as this is by its gold and silver coins, and by a -statue of a prostrate lion, said to have been the work of Lysippus, and -subsequently, placed by Agrippa in the Campus Martius at Rome. The town -was famous for its wine, and was, for this reason, granted to -Themistocles, who is said to have learnt here, or at Magnesia, Persian -in a year; the district around having been granted to him by his old -enemy the King of Persia. Like most of the towns of western Asia Minor, -it often changed hands during the rival contests of its more powerful -neighbours; but, having, with a wise forethought, voted a crown of gold -to the Romans, it was accepted by them as an ally,[3] and, hence, was, -in the time of Strabo, a town of some magnitude. A small village, called -Lampsaki, most likely marks on our modern maps the site of the old town. - -Footnote 3: - - Liv. xliii. 6. Most likely, its brave resistance to Antiochus had - favourably inclined the Romans to it (Liv. xxxiii. 38; xxxv. 42; - Polyb. xxi. 10). - -A little to the south of Lampsacus was ABYDUS, at the narrowest part of -the Hellespont, and opposite the town of Sestus.[4] It was a little -above Abydus that Xerxes constructed his famous bridge, B.C. 480; but, -except for the gallant resistance it made to Philip, son of Demetrius, -king of Macedon, Abydus has no place in history. In legendary lore, -however, it was the scene of the famous swimming of Leander to visit his -lady-love, the Priestess of the Temple at Sestus, on the opposite or -European shore, a natatory feat, however, far surpassed in recent days. -Lord Byron’s lines on the subject are well known:— - - He could, perhaps, have pass’d the Hellespont, - As once (a feat on which ourselves we prided) - Leander, Mr. Ekenhead, and I did. - Don Juan, Cant. ii. 105. - -Footnote 4: - - The average breadth of the Hellespont was about three miles—rather - narrow for Homer’s πλατὑς, “the broad.” He, probably, however, looked - on it rather as a mighty river; to which, indeed, his epithets of - ἀγάῤῥοος and ἀπείρων (“strong-flowing,” and “boundless”) well enough - apply. Herodotus calls it δολερὁς and ἀλμυρὁς ποταμός, “a treacherous - and unsavoury river” (vii. 35). - -Leander’s labour, however, was greater than that of the poet or his -companion, in that he swam _against_ the stream to reach Sestus, the -current being often so powerful that a well-manned boat cannot be pulled -straight across it. - -A little further down the coast, and facing nearly due south, is ASSUS, -a site which has been visited by many travellers, as Walpole, Choiseul- -Gouffier, Raoul-Rochette, Fellows, and Pullan. The most ancient -monuments of Greek art in the Louvre at Paris were removed thence. The -position of the chief buildings is very grand; indeed, in Strabo’s time, -Assus was considered as a fortress almost inaccessible.[5] Its ruins are -still remarkably perfect, one gate at least, of triangular construction, -resembling those at Mycenæ and Arpinum. There are, also, vestiges of a -hexastyle Doric temple, showing some analogy with those at Pæstum. -Seventeen large fragments from the metopes and two façades of the Temple -were ultimately removed to France by Capt. Chaigneau, together with a -Doric capital. They were found scattered over the slope of the hill, and -must have been removed at some time or the other, probably for building -purposes; indeed, fragments of similar pieces were also noticed in some -of the neighbouring houses. In character of workmanship, the sculptures -resemble the Æginetan marbles now at the British Museum. But their -execution is not so effective, the material of which they are made being -the coarse red stone of the neighbourhood. To the same cause is, -perhaps, due the fact that they had not been carried away long ago. Had -they been of fine marble, they would have been valuable plunder. Sir -Charles Fellows, speaking of Assus, says, “After depositing my baggage, -I took the most intelligent Turk in the place as my cicerone.... -Immediately around me were the ruins, extending for miles, undisturbed -by any living creature except the goats and kids. On every side lay -columns, triglyphs and friezes, of beautiful sculpture, every object -speaking of the grandeur of this ancient city. In one place I saw thirty -Doric capitals placed up in a line for a fence.” Sir Charles Fellows -gives a drawing of one of the friezes now in Paris, and adds, “I then -entered the Via Sacra, or Street of Tombs, extending for miles. Some of -these tombs still stand in their original beautiful forms, but most have -been opened, and the lids are lying near the walls they covered, -curiosity or avarice having been satisfied by displacing them.... These -ruins are on a considerably larger scale than those of the Roman city, -and many of the remains are equally perfect. Several are highly -ornamented and have inscriptions; others are as large as a temple, being -twenty to thirty feet square; the usual height of the sarcophagus is -from ten to twelve feet.”[6] - -Footnote 5: - - The character of the position of Assus led to a joke of the musician - Stratonicus, who applied to it a line of Homer (Il. vii. 144), playing - on the meaning of the word Ἆσσον, viz. - - Ἅσσον ἴθ’, ὡς κεν θᾶσσον ὀλέθρου πείραθ’ ἵκηαι, - - Come more quickly (or come to Assus), “that ye may the more quickly - come to utter destruction.” At Assus, St. Luke, and other companions - of St. Paul, rejoined him with their ship, the Apostle having walked - on foot from Alexandria Troas (Acts xx. 13). - -Footnote 6: - - The popular story of the “Lapis Assius,” with its supposed power of - destroying the flesh of bodies buried in it (whence the name - _sarkophagus_, or “flesh-consuming,”) is noticed by Dioskorides and - Pliny. But this Greek word is rarely used for a tomb, the more usual - word being σορός (soros). By the Romans, however, it was used, as in - Juv. x. 170. Colonel Leake observes of the ruins of Assos, “The whole - gives, perhaps, the most perfect idea of a Greek city that anywhere - exists” (Asia Minor, p. 128). See also R. P. Pullan, “Ruins of Asia - Minor,” p. 19. - -PALÆ-SCEPSIS is interesting for the native tradition, that it was once -the capital of Æneas’s dominions. It appears to have been situated near -the source of the Æsepus—high up on Mount Ida—the later Scepsis being -about sixty stadia (7½ miles) lower down (Strabo, xiii. 607). Dr. -Colquhoun[7] states that a village in the neighbourhood still bears the -name of _Eski Skisepje_, which, as Eski means “old” in Turkish, -corresponds with Palæ-Scepsis; Dr. Colquhoun at the same time quotes the -words of its discoverer, the distinguished Oriental scholar, Dr. -Mordtmann. “I did discover,” says Dr. Mordtmann, “a most ancient city -with its acropolis, towers and walls built of hewn stone, and furnished -with four gates. The antiquity of the place was manifested by an oak -having fixed its roots in the wall, and by its trunk having grown to a -girth of 530 centimètres (about 17 feet). On reference to Strabo, I -first became aware that I had discovered, probably, the most ancient -ruin in Asia Minor, for I hold that this can be no other than Palæ- -Scepsis.” The evidence adduced by Drs. Mordtmann and Colquhoun confirms -the accuracy of Strabo. The later town of Scepsis is memorable for the -discovery there, during the time of Sylla, of the works of Aristotle and -Theophrastus, which had been buried by the illiterate relations of one -Neleus (a pupil of Aristotle and friend of Theophrastus), lest they -should be carried off by Attalus, then founding his library at Pergamus. -It appears from Strabo, that though preserved from utter ruin, the -precious MSS. had suffered much from damp and worms; but they suffered -still more by the injudicious efforts of their purchaser, Apellicon of -Teos, a well-meaning person, though wholly incompetent to supply the -gaps he found. - -Footnote 7: - - See Dr. Colquhoun “On the Site of the Palæ-Scepsis of Strabo” (Trans. - R. S. Liter., vol. iv. 1852). - -But the most celebrated place in Mysia was the ancient city of TROY. It -would be out of place here, indeed impossible, to discuss any of the -various theories of ancient or modern times referring to this famous -town and its no less famous war. It is enough to state here our firm -belief in the existence of both, and further, that the legends since -grouped around them by no means demand any such non-existence. We have -no doubt that a prominent conical hill, now called Hissarlik, does -represent the spot where old Troy once stood.[8] The convergency of the -various stories of ancient history, the existence at Hissarlik of ruins -of remote antiquity, and the singular fitness of the position (unless, -indeed, all that is attributed to Homer is to be condemned as purely -mythical), lead to the seemingly inevitable conclusion that here, if -anywhere, once stood this celebrated town. - -Footnote 8: - - It has been, justly, we think, remarked (Quarterly Review, April, - 1874), that “not one of the sceptical critics has ever questioned that - these (the Homeric poems) show an acquaintance with the topography of - the region which (and this is no small point) has borne, from all - known antiquity, the name of the Troad.... Homer’s Ida, and Scamander, - and Hellespont are as real in his pages as in their existence at the - present day.” - -The inhabitants of Ilium were a mixed population, partly, it is -probable, of Thracian origin, and so far only Greek that a Pelasgian -element may be traced in both peoples, while they were probably, also, -inferior in civilization to the Greeks, with barbaric habits and -manners, already obsolete among their more polished enemies. Nor, again, -is it at all necessary to maintain that the capture of Troy implies its -entire destruction; it is, indeed, more likely that its ultimate ruin -was due to the enmity of its Asiatic neighbours, as suggested by Strabo -on the authority of an ancient writer, Xanthus. It is clear that Ilium -stood on rising ground, between the rivers Scamander and Simois, and -that here were placed the palaces of Priam and of his sons. The whole -spot was, we may reasonably conclude, surrounded by strong walls, with -many gates, only one of which is, however, noticed in Homer by name. -Such was the tradition, the long endurance of which is shown in the -subsequent sacrifice by Xerxes, recorded by Herodotus (vii. 43). - -The new Ilium of later days most likely occupied the same traditional -site; the theory of Demetrius of Scepsis, adopted by Strabo, of two -Iliums separated the one from the other by a considerable interval of -ground, being clearly adverse to a common-sense view of the question.[9] -Any one would naturally expect that those who constructed _Novum Ilium_ -would select that place for their town to which the legends most -distinctly pointed; while a manifest objection to the view of Demetrius -is that it converts Homer from a poet into a topographer, and attempts -to make the natural features of the country accord with his poetic -descriptions. It is far more probable that Homer, or whoever collected -the poems passing under his name, had but a very general idea of the -localities where were laid the scenes he describes: while there is, -also, no general agreement as to the true site of Troy among those -writers who, in modern times, have more or less accepted the theory of -Demetrius and Strabo. Indeed, on the idea of Homer having written his -poems with an Ordnance map in his lap, it is simply impossible to fix on -any one spot that satisfies all the conditions of his story. - -Footnote 9: - - The site for ancient Ilium of recent years the most popular is called - _Bournarbashi_, where the Scamander emerges from the lower ridges of - Mount Ida, and, therefore, not far from the “village of the Ilians.” - This view, proposed originally by Chevallier in 1788, and, - subsequently, adopted by Rennell, Leake, Welckher, Forchhammer, - Choiseul-Gouffier, and others, has, however, been completely answered - by Grote, whose arguments have been fully confirmed by the latest - researches. - -We must now notice the recent marvellous researches of Dr. Schliemann, -for, though they have done little towards the revelation of Homer’s -Troy, they have demonstrated that, many feet below very ancient and -still existing walls, there have once been enormous structures, the -treasury, fortress, and royal residence of some wealthy ruler of remote -antiquity. While, therefore, we do not believe that Dr. Schliemann has -found old Troy, in the same sense that Layard discovered the palaces of -Sardanapalus, the Greek inscriptions he has unearthed have assuredly -proved the identity of the modern Hissarlik with _Novum_ Ilium. What, -then, is the history of Schliemann’s researches, and what has he done -that any other man might not have done with as ample means at his -command? Doubtless there are other men who might have done as much as -he, notably Mr. Layard. As Dr. Schliemann was much influenced by his -early education at home, and as his career has been a very extraordinary -one, we feel sure our readers would like to know something of the digger -as well of as what he has dug out. We purpose, therefore, to give a -brief sketch of his personal history, and then, with equal brevity, to -add a notice of what he has accomplished. - -Born in 1822 at a small village in Mecklenburg, he tells us that, “as -soon as I learnt to speak my father related to me the great deeds of the -Homeric heroes,” and, though from ten years of age he was an apprentice -in a warehouse,[10] he always retained, as he adds, “the same love for -the famous men of antiquity which I conceived for them in my first -childhood.” As time went on Schliemann became a clerk, though on a -yearly salary of only £32: but he contrived to live on half—to do -without a fire, and to devote all his spare moments to the study of -languages. Thus he learnt first English and French, each in six months, -and then other modern tongues, including Russ. - -Footnote 10: - - In this “warehouse,” let it not be forgotten, Schliemann was employed - from fourteen to twenty years of age, from 5 A.M. to 11 P.M., selling - herrings, butter, brandy, milk, &c.; and that it was not till after he - had lost this occupation from an injury caused by lifting a cask, that - he was _promoted_ to the clerkship at the salary mentioned in the - text. - -To Dutch, Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese he allowed only six weeks -each. During the eight years from 1846 to 1854 he was so much occupied -in business that he had no time for literature; in the latter end, -however, of the second year he found time to learn Swedish and Polish. -It was not till January, 1856, that he ventured to attack Greek, his -fear being, as he naïvely remarks, that the fascination of its study -might interfere with his commercial duties. Aided however by two Greek -friends, he tells us he learnt modern Greek in six weeks, and, in three -months more, sufficient classical Greek to understand the ancient -writers, and especially Homer. In 1858 Dr. Schliemann was able to travel -over Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Italy, and Egypt, on the way learning -somewhat of (we presume colloquial) Arabic, and returning thence through -Syria and Athens to St. Petersburg. It was not, however, till 1863 that -he had secured, by his vigorous commercial occupations, the means to -spend the rest of his life as he pleased. - -His first plan, in 1864, was to visit the fatherland of Ulysses, but -this was only a hasty and flying trip, and he was, shortly afterwards, -induced to extend his journey to India, China, and Japan. On his return -to Europe he spent some time in Paris, but made also, thence, journeys -to Greece and the plains of Troy, an account of which, written, it would -seem, about 1868, he has given in the first volume of his recent work. -This volume contains, _inter alia_, the result of his studies among the -“Cyclopean” works in Argolis, a knowledge of great value to him when he -commenced his more important excavations. He seems also, about this -period, to have carefully examined the Troad, and to have satisfied -himself that Hissarlik was the place at which to commence his -excavations. Having married a Greek lady, in every sense a “help-meet” -for the work he had set himself to do, he went again to the Troad in the -spring of 1870, and, having secured an ample number of labourers, -continued his excavations there during the greater part of the period -between the autumn of 1871 and the summer of 1873. - -It must not be supposed that this work was one of ease or pleasant toil: -he had not the patient “Chaldeans” who did Layard’s behests, still less -had he Hormuzd Rassam to settle, as a native only can settle, the ever- -rising disputes between the Greek and Mussulman “navvies.” Indeed, to -secure one pavement from destruction, he had to tell his workmen that by -this road “Christ had gone up to visit King Priam”! The cost, too, was -very heavy; for he had often 150 men in his employment, and expended, -from his own resources, fully £8,000. Is it possible to estimate too -highly such exertions towards the ascertainment of the reality or -falsity of ancient story, and this, too, by the only thoroughly -effectual means, the excavation of sites of traditional importance? Can -we withhold our admiration for the labourer, even though his enthusiasm -may have led him to believe all he found was Trojan, the golden relics, -especially, being those of King Priam? and, after all, what matters the -theory of the excavator, so the work he does is well done? As well might -we quarrel with Mr. Parker’s labours in Rome, because he has coupled -with his most valuable excavations his own, somewhat fanciful, belief in -the personality of a Romulus. Every honest excavation, such as those of -Dr. Schliemann and Mr. Parker, are so many landmarks recovered from all- -destroying time. We can well afford to dispense with or to smile at the -fancies of the excavators, so only that a careful record be kept of what -the excavations have really revealed. - -Dr. Schliemann’s account of his diggings, between the autumn of 1871 and -June 17, 1873, has been published in the form of twenty-three letters or -memoirs; a mode of narrative the more pleasant that it places the reader -_au courant_ with the daily ideas of the discoverer, though, -necessarily, causing some repetition and not a few corrections. His -Introduction, however, gives a sufficient summary of what he -accomplished. With the text he has also provided an atlas of 217 -photographic plates of the plans and excavations carried on throughout -the whole plain of Troy, together with representations of between three -and four thousand individual objects discovered. These photographs—not, -we regret to say, from the originals, but from drawings of them—are -wholly inadequate to give any satisfactory idea of the beauty or -character of the objects themselves. - -Dr. Schliemann having, as we have stated, made up his mind[11] that the -rising ground now called _Hissarlik_ (or fortress) was the site of Old -Troy, commenced his diggings there, on a plateau about 80 feet above the -level of the plain, with a steep descent to the N.E. and N.W. Above this -plateau is a portion of ground 26 feet higher, about 925 feet long by -620 feet wide, which he assumed to be the Pergamum of Homer, or citadel -of Priam. If so, beneath and around this Acropolis must have been the -second as well as the earlier city. Dr. Schliemann went to work much as -miners do when they are “prospecting,” only on a larger scale: he took -soundings of the plain till he reached the virgin rock, at a depth never -greater than 16 feet, at first meeting only with walls of houses and -fragments of pottery of a Greek or even later period. As he found -nothing else up to the edge of the Pergamum,[12] he concluded that the -original Ilium did not spread into the plain, and that its area was -accurately defined by the great wall he afterwards found. In short, he -concluded that the city had no special Acropolis,[12] as feigned by -Homer, and that any enlargement of the old town was due to the _débris_ -gradually thrown down or accumulated around the base of the small -central hill. He adds, rather amusingly, “I venture to hope that the -civilized world will not only not be vexed that the town of Priam has -shown itself scarcely the twentieth part as large as was to be expected -from the statements of the Iliad, but, on the contrary, that, with -delight and enthusiasm, it will accept the certainty that Ilium did -really exist.” - -Footnote 11: - - Dr. Schliemann has fully stated in the _Augsburg Gazette_, Sept. 26, - 1873, his reasons for accepting Hissarlik for Troy, and for rejecting - Bounarbashi and other sites; and his reasons, to _an antiquary_, are - weighty:—1. At Bounarbashi, nothing has been found earlier than - potsherds of the sixth century B.C. 2. Sir J. Lubbock, in the so- - called tomb of Hector, found nothing earlier than the third century - B.C. 3. Von Hahn found neither potsherds nor bricks on the north side - of the Balidagh, between the Akropolis (of Gergi) and the springs of - Bounarbashi. 4. The sites examined by Clarke and Barker Webb, and that - of Ulrichs, presented no remains of man. 5. The “village of the - Ilians”—κώμη Ἰλιέων of Demetrius of Skepsis—gave forth nothing earlier - than potsherds of the first century B.C. On the other hand, under - Hissarlik, have been found all or most of the remains, treasure - included, which Dr. Schliemann has secured. - -Footnote 12: - - This word Pergamum or Pergama, which occurs more than once in Asia - Minor, notably in the case of the great city of that name, is probably - only another form of the πύργος, _burg_ or _berg_, which runs through - so many languages of the Indo-European family. Thus, Sanskr. _spurg_; - Gr. πυργ, originally σφυργος or φυργος. So the Gothic _bairg-ahei_, - mountainous; _fairg-uni_, mountain. Compare, also, with this, Berge in - Thrace, and Perge in Pamphylia. Possibly, the Celtic _briga_ - (_Brigantes_, the dwellers in the hills) is connected with the same - root. The Arabs have now adopted the word (see Rénan). - -There is nothing specially remarkable in the small size of the -“supposed” Troy. It was an ancient custom to build the town round a -central Acropolis where possible. So was it with Athens and Mycenæ, with -Rome, Carthage and Mount Zion; the ordinary dwellings of the population -for centuries being huts or small cottages, like the traditional -_Tugurium_ of Romulus, buildings which would, naturally, leave behind -them no traces of their former existence. It has been well remarked, -that Homer cannot fairly be accused of having _invented_ this Pergamum, -as the hill was a natural fact: and that what he really did, was, to -indulge his imagination as to the magnificence of the town he grouped on -it or in the plain round it. - -The little hill of Hissarlik became, therefore, the centre of Dr. -Schliemann’s labours, the most productive field of his excavations, and -the site where he laid open walls far more ancient than Greek Ilium, -with a perfect entrance-gateway and paved road through it, together with -many remains of houses, and a marvellous collection of relics, some of -great intrinsic value. But the most unexpected discovery was the -_position_ of the various remains, proving, as this did, that, at least, -four different sets of people had occupied this site, and covered it -with their own buildings, in complete unconsciousness that there had -been elder races there before them, whose remains were actually under -them. The same fact has been noticed, but on a small scale, elsewhere. -Thus Roman London lies some sixteen or seventeen feet under the Mansion -House or Bank of England; so, too, Layard found successive traces on the -mound of Nimrud of Arab, Roman, and Parthian occupation. But such traces -are as nothing to what Dr. Schliemann’s works revealed. It was clear -that the natural hill of Hissarlik had been, at first, somewhat -levelled, being also, in some places, made more secure by a retaining -wall, and that, above this, the successive ruins have been heaped up in -a solid mass from 46 to 52 feet above the native rock. On this, lastly, -_Novum Ilium_ was built. Dr. Schliemann gives a section, whence it -appears that, commencing from the existing surface, Greek Ilium occupies -about six feet in depth; that at 23 feet below this, Dr. Schliemann’s -“Troy of Homer” is reached; and that, under this “Troy,” again, is a -third stratum 29 feet thick, the whole human accumulations. The most -sceptical person on the subject of “Troy divine” cannot question the -accuracy of Dr. Schliemann’s measurements, whatever he may think of his -theories. It is manifest that even the stratum immediately under Ilium -Novum is essentially prehistoric. Of what date, then, are the still -lower strata? Indeed, calculations, on such a point, can as little be -relied on as those of Mr. Horner on the _alluvium_ of the Egyptian -Delta. There are, however, some matters connected with them that must be -noticed from their peculiarity. Thus the super-imposed layers testify to -periods of occupation rather than to those of destruction; while the -theory of distinct and well-defined stone, bronze, and iron ages -completely breaks down, stone implements occurring in all the strata, -and even where bronze is abundant. Iron, on the other hand, is almost -wholly absent. Thus instruments of stone and of copper occur with -ornaments in gold, silver, and even ivory, evidencing, as these do, -advance in civilization and, as the cause of this, some interchange of -commerce with other nations. - -Whatever else, therefore, may be thought of Dr. Schliemann’s researches, -it cannot be doubted but that the excavations at Hissarlik form a new -chapter in the history of man, and as such [apart from any supposed -connection with Homer], are a sufficient reward for his labour and -expenditure of capital. It would unquestionably have been better (but -who shall control honest enthusiasm?) had he been less ready to invest -every discovery he made with some Homeric name; we could have been well -free of such pretentious identifications as the Tower of Ilium, the -Scæan gates, the Royal Palace, and King Priam’s Treasure; just as, in a -similar case, Mr. Parker’s valuable contributions to the early history -of Rome are not improved by the revival of the legend of a Romulus and -Remus, and of the suckling of these heroes by a she-wolf. Nothing, -however, allowing for these slight blemishes, can exceed the interest of -Dr. Schliemann’s narrative. - -“The excavations,” to quote his own words, “prove that the second nation -which built a town on this hill, upon the _débris_ of the first settlers -(which is from twenty to thirty feet thick), are the Trojans of whom -Homer sings.... The strata of this Trojan _débris_, which, without -exception, bears marks of great heat, consists mainly of red ashes of -wood, and rise from five to ten feet above the great wall of Ilion, the -double Scæan gate, and the great surrounding wall, the construction of -which Homer ascribes to Poseidon and Apollo, and they show that the town -was destroyed by a fearful conflagration. How great this heat must have -been is clear also from the large slabs of stone of the road leading -from the double Scæan gate down to the plain; for when a few months ago -I laid this road open, all the slabs appeared as much uninjured as if -they had been put down quite recently; but after they had been exposed -to the air for a few days the slabs of the upper part of the road, to -the extent of some 10 feet, which had been exposed to the heat, began to -crumble away, and have now almost disappeared, while those of the lower -portion of the road, which had not been touched by the fire, have -remained uninjured, and seem to be indestructible. A further proof of -the terrible catastrophe is furnished by a stratum of scoriæ of melted -lead and copper of a thickness of from ⅕ of an inch to 1⅕ inch, which -extends nearly through the whole hill at a depth of from 27 feet to 29 -feet.” - -It was here that Dr. Schliemann found the prodigious structure he has -named the “Tower of Ilion,” a building no less than 40 feet thick. “This -tower,” he adds, “after having been buried for thirty-one centuries, and -after, during thousands of years, one nation after another had built its -houses and palaces high above its summit, has now again been brought to -light, and commands a view, if not of the whole plain, at least of its -northern parts, and of the Hellespont.” A little way beyond this tower -is a remarkably perfect gateway, fitted for two pairs of gates, one -behind the other, the upper fastenings of which still remain in the -stone posts. These Dr. Schliemann takes for the “Scæan gates” of Homer. -He then came to what he calls the “Palace of Priam,” no doubt, a house -of some kind, at a depth of from 22 to 26 feet, resting upon the great -tower, and directly under the Temple of Minerva. Its walls were built of -small stones cemented with earth, and would seem to belong to different -epochs. The walls vary in thickness from 4 feet to 1 foot 10 inches. All -about, within as well as without, are abundant signs of fire, which must -have burnt with prodigious fury. Dr. Schliemann speaks of many feet in -thickness of red and yellow wood ashes. Here, as at Nineveh and at -Carthage, the first destruction seems to have been fire, the great -extent of it, in each case, having probably arisen from the wooden -construction of the upper portions of these houses. At Nineveh, it has -been reasonably supposed that only the foundations of the walls were of -stone or brick, the upper part, like many Eastern houses at the present -day, being wholly of wood, which would readily catch fire, and fill the -rooms below with burning embers. In several of the rooms of one of these -houses Dr. Schliemann found red jars from 7 to 8 feet high, and, to the -east of the house, what he assumes to have been a sacrificial altar, a -slab of granite 5 feet 4 inches long by 5 feet 5 inches broad. Such a -conflagration, it is likely, would be long remembered; and it has been -acutely asked whether, after all, there may not have been an Asiatic -Iliad handed down from mouth to mouth, of which Homer may have availed -himself, as did the mediæval Minnesingers. - -The next and the greatest of Schliemann’s discoveries was also one of -his last: we give it in his own words. “In the course of excavations on -the Trojan wall, and in the immediate neighbourhood of Priam’s house, I -lighted on a great copper object of remarkable form, which attracted my -attention all the more, as I thought I saw gold behind. Upon this copper -object rested a thick crust of red ashes and calcined ruins, on which -again weighed a wall nearly 6 feet thick and 18 feet high, built of -great stones and earth, and which must have belonged to the period next -after the destruction of Troy. In order to save this treasure from the -greed of my workmen, and to secure it for science, it was necessary to -use the very greatest haste, and so, though it was not yet breakfast- -time, I had “paidos,” or resting-time, called out at once. While my -workmen were eating and resting I cut out the treasure with a great -knife, not without the greatest effort and the most terrible risk of my -life, for the great wall of the fortress which I had to undermine, -threatened every moment to fall upon me. But the sight of so many -objects, of which each alone is of inestimable worth to science, made me -foolhardy, and I thought of no danger. The carrying off, however, of the -treasures would have been impossible without the help of my dear wife, -who stood by ready to pack up the objects in her shawl as I cut them -out, and to take them away.” - -We may add that the whole find lay together in a quadrangular mass, -retaining the shape of the box in which it had been deposited, and that -hard by was a large key, presumably that which once locked it. The -treasure had, probably, been hastily packed, an idea fully sustained by -its miscellaneous character. Indeed, the same thing seems to have -happened in the case of the bronze plates found by Mr. Layard at -Nineveh. The mass of precious metal found is simply astonishing, one cup -alone weighing 40 oz. of gold, while there were besides, innumerable -objects in bronze, silver and gold, spears and axes, and two-edged -daggers, together with a large bronze shield, with a central boss, and a -rim raised as if to receive the edges of ox-hides or other covering. -Fortunately, the gold vessels had resisted the action of the fire; some -of them having been cast, others hammered; in some cases, too, soldering -had been used. One curious portion of the collection Dr. Schliemann -describes as follows:—“That this treasure was packed,” says he, “in the -greatest haste, is shown by the contents of the great silver vase, in -which I found, quite at the bottom, two splendid golden diadems, a -fillet for the head, and four most gorgeous and artistic pendants for -ear-rings. On them lay fifty-six golden ear-rings and 4,750 little -golden rings, perforated prisms and dice, together with golden buttons -and other precious things which belonged to other ornaments. After -these, came six golden bracelets, and, quite at the top of all, in the -silver vase, were two small golden cups.” - -Besides these more precious objects, Dr. Schliemann met with a quantity -of what, for want of a better name, may be called idols, consisting of -flat pieces of stone, marbles, and terra-cotta, [and, in one instance, -of the vertebra of some antediluvian animal,] containing on one side “an -attempt to model a face whether human or owlish.” Such objects are not -rare. In the British Museum are many flat pieces of burnt clay, with -moulding on them, of the rudest kind, not wholly unlike what Dr. -Schliemann found. Dr. Schliemann sees in these the original type of the -sacred owl of Minerva,—to say the least,—a very bold guess. Indeed, but -for the place where they were found, their remote antiquity might be -doubted, as they might be, after all, but degraded types of a good -period of art. Dr. Schliemann, however, maintains that many of these -strange owl-headed objects of clay are representatives of Athene,—in -fact, the original type of the γλαυκῶπις θεὰ, the “goddess with the -bright or flashing eyes,” and, also, that this epithet ought to be now -translated the “owl-faced goddess”! But though Dr. Schliemann may urge -in favour of his views that, as the worship of Athene was of Oriental -origin, there is no reason why she should not have been represented as -owl-faced, just as we find an eagle-headed Nisroch, a hawk-headed Ra, -and a ram-headed Ammon, there is, really, no evidence in favour of his -theory. Mr. Newton has embraced everything in his remark that “the -conception of the human form as an organic whole, a conception we meet -with in the very dawn of Greek art, nowhere appears” in Dr. Schliemann’s -collections, the probability being that these objects are of an -antiquity long antecedent to anything Greek, and the work of a people in -no way connected with the Greeks. In Greek art, the usual adjunct to -most representations of Athene on coins is the owl, while in Homer -(Odyss. iii. 372) Athene leaves Nestor, under the form of an osprey. It -is possible, therefore, that these metamorphoses symbolize a still -earlier faith. - -Having already stated our belief that not only did an Ilium or a Troy -really exist, but, also, that there was a real living Homer, we need not -notice the objections urged against the opinions of Dr. Schliemann, on -the ground that “as the Iliad is a mythical poem, it is absurd to expect -in it any historical kernel,” a method of reasoning, to say the least, -unsatisfactory, if not fallacious. There is no conceivable reason why -the most mythical poem may not comprehend contorted images of real -events; the difficulty, in each case, and the only real difficulty, -being the unravelling of the confused stories, which prevent our taking -up the tangled skein of history. No one supposes the early legends of -the Zendavesta to be history, yet some of the stations of the migration -from N.E. to S.W. can be reasonably identified: so, too, no one supposes -the story of Gyges in Herodotus historical, though the annals of Assur- -bani-pal prove the reality of a “Gugu, king of Ludim.” The prehistoric -theory may be pressed too far. - -Of the character of the art of the objects of Dr. Schliemann, or of the -date of his wonderful collections, there is, at present, no evidence on -which to base a reasonable judgment. One thing, however, seems certain; -that they are not Greek—nor in any way connected with Greek art. If -among the vast numbers of objects found, there may be some objects -resembling others met with in Greece, the natural inference would be -that, as so much of Greek art is traceable ultimately to Asia, so, too, -are these. Nor must we, altogether, ignore the possible effects of -commerce. Dr. Schliemann has certainly proved the existence of a wealthy -population—living on the spot that tradition and history alike have -assigned to Troy; and we cannot doubt that the owners of these remains -were pre-Hellenic. It is not so long ago that Semiramis was as mythical -a name as King Priam; and who can say that a future Rawlinson may not -prove the truth of a Trojan Priam as clearly as that “Sammuramit” -reigned in Nineveh? The dwellers on the rock of Ilion clearly were “no -prehistoric savages,” but denizens of a real city, with its fortress and -palace. It is curious that, above Dr. Schliemann’s “Trojans,” at a -distance of from 23 to 33 feet, dwelt a population who constructed their -houses of small stones and earth, and, occasionally, of sun-dried -bricks. The artistic remains of this people are inferior to those below -them; yet they made coarse pottery, battle-axes, knives, nails, &c., -with a slight use of copper or bronze, but with plenty of stone -implements. This place, having been destroyed in its turn, another set -of people occupied the mound, a race inferior in civilization to all who -had preceded them. These people, it has been suspected, were Cimmerians, -perhaps, portions of the Nomad tribes, who, we know from Herodotus and -Strabo, constantly made eruptions into Asia Minor. - -We must add that, among the various objects found by Dr. Schliemann, -were some scratches of the rudest kind, on a honestone, from the first -supposed to be letters of some alphabet. The truth of this conjecture -has been recently proved by the persevering study of Professor Gomperz, -of Vienna, who says that, in the comparisons he has made between the -Cypriote alphabet and the Hissarlik inscriptions, “I have not -schematized, I have not enlarged or reduced anything. Every dot, every -twist is copied with slavish accuracy from the best Cyprian documents. -Nor have I allowed myself to be eclectic and to mix letters of different -periods and localities.” Professor Max Müller adds, “Accepting these -statements of Professor Gomperz, I can only repeat my conviction, that -his decipherment of the first inscription _Tagoi Dioi_ seems to me -almost beyond reasonable doubt.” The interpretation of the other -presumed inscriptions is more open to doubt. - -It is a remarkable fact, as clearly shown by Dr. Schliemann’s -researches, that the occupiers of all these strata, alike, were tillers -of the ground, while the huge jars found standing upright can hardly -have been used for any other purpose than the storing of wine, oil, or -corn. The quantity of copper found suggests a connection with Cyprus—the -island of copper—as do, also, the inscriptions just noticed; subsequent -analysis, however, has thrown doubt on Dr. Schliemann’s idea that his -vessels were of pure copper.[13] The fine red pottery, too, is said to -resemble very much the existing pottery of Cyprus. The vases are, -however, not painted, nor have any traces of sculpture been as yet -detected. - -Footnote 13: - - The Romans called their copper from Cyprus, _Cyprium_: but the name of - the island is, more likely, from the Hebrew _Chopher_, the cypress - tree. - -In concluding these notes on Dr. Schliemann’s collection, which, from -our limited space, have been more condensed than we could have wished, -we need only add that, besides the greater and richer monuments, Dr. -Schliemann has found thousands of terra-cotta disks or wheels, each with -a hole in the middle, the purport of which has considerably exercised -the imaginations of the learned. Thus they have been called spindles, -weights for sinking nets or weaving and _ex voto_ tablets by Dr. -Schliemann himself, &c. The variety of patterns on them is so great -that, if anything but meaningless ornaments, it is impossible to suppose -them all for one and the same purpose; and the patterns on some of them -are unquestionably very curious. Thus we have scratches much resembling -the earliest Chinese sacred characters; others, clearly astronomical; -and, above all, that commonest of Buddhist symbols, the _Swastika_, a -cross with arms curved or straight, and bent at right angles. - -With regard to ILIUM NOVUM, or Hissarlik, which, as we have said, we -believe occupies the site of the older city, we must say, that whatever -doubts may have existed as to this point previously to Dr. Schliemann’s -excavations ought now to cease, as the Greek remains he has found there -are unquestionably sufficient for this identification. How early Novum -Ilium was founded cannot now be determined; but, as the place was one of -some strength, it is reasonable to suppose it may have been occupied -very soon after the fall of Old Troy, supposing, what, however, is not -necessary, that Troy was wholly destroyed. When Xerxes passed, it was a -place of importance, and the son of Xerxes recognized it as a Greek -city. Alexander, too, like Xerxes, sacrificed there, and bestowed many -favours on the population, notably as occupants of the presumed site of -the ancient city; the Romans did the same, perhaps with the additional -idea of protecting the traditional site whence they claimed their own -descent (Liv. xxxvii. 37, xxxviii. 39). Sylla and Lucullus were, alike, -friendly to it and Lucan asserts that, after Pharsalia, Julius Cæsar -(mindful of his presumed ancestor Iulus) examined for himself these -localities (cf. App. Bell. Mithr. c. 53; Plut. Vit. Syll.; Strab. xiii. -594; Lucan, ix. 967), at the same time instituting the “Ludi Trojani,” -noticed by Virgil and other writers (Æn. v. 602; Suet. Cæs. 39; Dio -Cass. xliii. 23).[14] - -Footnote 14: - - The famous _Sigean_ inscription (now in the British Museum), was - procured by Lord Elgin from the porch of the village church on the - promontory of Sigeum, a little way S. of Hissarlik. For many years it - was supposed to be the oldest of Greek inscriptions; but it is - probably not so old as some of those from Branchidæ procured by Mr. - Newton, or, as the Greek inscription on the Colossus of Psammetichus - at Abu-Simbel, in Nubia. Its object was to record the presentation of - certain vessels for the use of the Prytaneium at Sigeum by Phanodicus - and Hermocrates, a native of Proconnesus. - -ALEXANDRIA TROAS (in the Acts of the Apostles simply Troas) has nothing -really to do with the Trojan legend, but was an important place of -commerce in Roman times, and the capital of the surrounding district. It -was originally founded by Antigonus,[15] and is chiefly memorable for -the remarkable munificence of a private individual, Herodes Atticus, who -built an immense aqueduct, some traces of which still remain. Suetonius -asserts that Julius Cæsar once thought of transferring Alexandria in -Egypt to this place, and Zosimus adds that Constantine had, also, at one -time designed it as the capital of his Eastern Empire (Suet. Cæs. c. 79; -Zosimus, ii. 30); an idea, perhaps, preserved in its present name _Eski -Stamboul_. It was thence that St. Paul and St. Luke set sail for -Macedonia (Acts xvi. 11), and here, somewhat later, the Apostle restored -the boy Eutychus to life (Acts xx. 9). Lastly, on rounding Cape Lectum, -we come upon a deep and beautiful gulf, where stood the ancient town of -_Adramyttium_, according to Strabo, a colony of the Athenians (xiii. 6), -but, more probably, the creation of Adramys, the brother of Crœsus. It -was early a place of considerable commerce, for which its admirable -position well fitted it (Herod. vii. 42). Subsequently it was given by -the Romans to the kings of Pergamus, but was almost obliterated by -Mithradates (Strabo, xiii. p. 614). It was in a ship of Adramyttium that -St. Paul commenced his voyage from Cæsarea to Italy to plead his cause -before Nero (Acts xxvii. 2). - -Footnote 15: - - The earliest coins of Alexandria Troas bear the name of Antigonia - (Sestini. Mon. Vet. p. 76). - -We come now to a city, PERGAMUM or PERGAMUS (for the name is used -indifferently, though the latter or masculine form is, perhaps, the most -common), which, regard being had to the fact, that, as a great town, it -was not of remote antiquity, became in later days one of the most -celebrated places of antiquity. It is said to have been a colony of the -Heraclidæ from Arcadia (Pausan. i. 4, 5), and to have been first -mentioned as a distinct city by Xenophon (Anab. vii. 8, 4), grouped, in -all probability, round a fortress of considerable natural strength, -whence, indeed, it derived its name. The commencement of its greatness -was its selection by Lysimachus as his treasure city. Lysimachus was -succeeded by Philetærus, and subsequently by Eumenes, Attalus Philetærus -II. &c., a family remarkable for its noble deeds, as well as for the -proverbial wealth of many of its members. Thus Attalus I., who was -proclaimed King of Pergamus for his glorious victory over the Gaulish -invaders, was eminent alike for his military skill, and for his -political foresight (Polyb. xviii. 29; Liv. xxxiii. 21) in espousing the -cause of the Romans. Eumenes II., no less than his father, the firm -friend of the Romans, is worthy of record for the great library he -formed at his capital city, held in antiquity to be second only to that -of Alexandria (Strab. xiii. p. 264; Athen. i. 3).[16] It is said that in -this library skins were first used for writing on, and that, from the -title given to these sheets—“Pergamenæ chartæ”—we derive the name of -“Parchment” (Varr. ap. Plin. xiii. 11).[17] The last of the Attali, -after a reign of five years, dying childless, left his kingdom by his -will to the Romans (Strab. xiii. 624, xiv. 646). Mr. Arundell gives a -picturesque account of his ascent to the citadel, and of the magnificent -view thence. - -Footnote 16: - - This library was given by Antony to Cleopatra. - -Footnote 17: - - Περγαμηνή χάρτη, or parchment, appears to have been brought into use - by Crates of Mallos when Ptolemy cut off the supply of the _byblus_ or - the _papyrus_ reed. - -Immediately following on _Mysia_ to the S. is the great province of -_Lydia_, the portion of it fronting the Ægean bearing generally the name -of _Ionia_, with a small district at its N.W. corner, touching Mysia, -named _Æolis_. It was a popular belief that the Æolians were the first -great body of Greek colonists to settle in Asia Minor, but, curiously, -the name of Æolians does not occur in Homer. Strabo makes their advent -to Asia Minor four generations earlier than the Ionian migration, and -this movement has been supposed to have been contemporary with the -return of the Heracleidæ, and may, not improbably, have been, in some -degree, caused by it. In common with the other Greek colonies, the -Æolians became subject to Crœsus, and, on the success of Cyrus, were -annexed to the Persian empire; hence, in the Græco-Persian war, they -contributed sixty ships to the armament of Xerxes. The principal towns -of Æolis were Myrina, Cyme, Neontichos, and Methymna. They are not, -however, of sufficient importance to detain us here. Pass we, therefore, -to _Ionia_. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CHAPTER II. - -Phocæa—Smyrna—Clazomenæ—Erythræ—Teos—Colophon—Ephesus—Mr. Wood—Miletus— - Branchidæ or Didyma—Sacred Way—Mr. Newton—Thyateira—Magnesia ad - Sipylum—Philadelphia—Tralles—Sardes—Halicarnassus—Mausoleum—Cnidus— - Demeter—Lion-Tomb—Mr. Pullan—Physcus—Caunus—Stratonicea—Aphrodisias— - Mylasa and Labranda. - - -PHOCÆA—the most northern of the Ionian cities—founded by emigrants from -_Phocis_, under two Athenian chiefs, soon, from the excellence of its -harbour, secured a prominent place among the early maritime states of -the world, and was the first to establish colonies on the Adriatic, the -coasts of Etruria, Gaul, and Spain. It is reported that Arganthonius, -then king of Tartessus (probably Tarshish), did all he could to persuade -these enterprising strangers to stay in his land; and that, failing -this, he gave them large sums of money to build (or rebuild) the walls -of their native town. Phocæa is often mentioned subsequently, though it -does not appear to have performed any very memorable actions. It may be -traced by its coins, and by the annalists and ecclesiastical writers to -the latest period of the Byzantine empire. Indeed, so late as A.D. 1421, -the Genoese built a new town near its ancient site, which still retains -the name of _Palaio-Phoggia_. - -A little further to the S. we come to SMYRNA, one of the most celebrated -cities of Asia Minor, though it was comparatively late in attaining this -eminence. It was situated on a bay of unrivalled beauty and commercial -excellence; and, almost alone of the great cities or ports of Western -Asia has preserved its eminence to the present day, being now, as it has -long been, the chief emporium of the Levant trade. In remote times, -Smyrna successfully resisted the attacks of Gyges, king of Lydia, and -was, in consequence, taken and destroyed by his successor, Alyattes. It -is said, that, after this blow, it was nearly deserted for 400 years, -but was, at length, rebuilt by Antigonus and Lysimachus, though not -exactly on the same site. With this rebuilding its great prosperity -commenced. Nor were the claims to distinction advanced by itself -inferior to its real greatness. Inscriptions abound (some of the best, -indeed, among the marbles at Oxford), where, as on its coins, it calls -itself ΠΡΩΤΗ ΑCΙΑC, the “first city of Asia”; and so, indeed, it long -continued, though at times suffering severely from civil wars and -earthquakes, and most of all from the merciless treatment of Tímúr. -Smyrna claimed, especially, to be the birthplace of Homer, and dedicated -a temple to him. A cave was also shown there, in which the poet was said -to have composed his verses (Pausan. Ach. 5). Smyrna is not, however, -mentioned by Homer. In the reign of Tiberius, Smyrna contended with ten -other cities for the honour (?) of erecting a temple to that worthless -ruler, and won the prize; and here, not many years later, the Christian -Church flourished under Polycarp, its first bishop, who is believed to -have suffered martyrdom in its stadium about A.D. 166. - -Next to Smyrna we may take CLAZOMENÆ, a town whose date is probably not -earlier than the Ionic migration. It was famous as the birthplace of -Anaxagoras, the philosopher, whose disciple Archelaus taught Socrates -and Euripides; and, also, as one of the states which joined with the -Phocæans in founding the naval colony of Naucratis in Egypt (Herod. ii. -178). It retained its name and existence till late in the Byzantine -period (Plin. v. 31; Ptol.; Hierocl. Synecd.), but, towards the middle -of the eleventh century, was finally destroyed by the Turks. - -ERYTHRÆ, celebrated as the home of one if not of two Sibyls—and a town -whose life is traceable by coins and inscriptions to a late period of -the Roman empire, and, from the acts of Councils and other -ecclesiastical documents, was manifestly for some time an episcopal see. -Its land produced good wine [being called in a distich preserved by -Athenæus φερεστάφυλος Ἐρύθρα (Erythra yielding bunches of grapes)],[18] -and fine wheaten flour:—TEOS (now Sighajik), the birthplace of Anacreon -and of Hecatæus the historian; famous, too, for its temple, dedicated to -Bacchus, some remains of which have been published by the Society of -Dilettanti, and, recently, more fully examined by Mr. Pullan:—COLOPHON, -an early Ionian settlement, once the possessor of a flourishing navy, -and of cavalry reputed victorious wherever employed;[19] and illustrious -for its poets, Mimnermus, Phœnix, and Hermesianax, and, possibly even -Homer; till at length it was destroyed by Lysimachus:—PRIENE, the -birthplace of the philosopher and statesman Bias, and still identifiable -by considerable ruins near the Turkish village of Samsoun, to the S. of -Mycale, with a famous Temple of Minerva Polias, the ruins of which have -been engraved in the “Ionian Antiquities.” In Chandler’s time, about 100 -years ago, the whole circuit of the city walls was still standing. - -Footnote 18: - - The lines are— - - ἐν δἐ φερεσταφύλοις Ἐρυθραῖς ἐκ κλιβάνου ἐλθὼν - λευκòς ἁβραῖς θάλλων ὥραις τἐρψει παρά δεῖπνον. - Archestr. ap. Athen. iii. 112, B. - -Footnote 19: - - From this continued success arose the proverb, τὸν Κολοφῶνα ἐπέθηκεν - “he has brought the work to a completion.” And, hence, the final - letters or signature at the end of a book have been termed the - _colophon_. - -But of the cities of W. Asia, no one took a higher place than EPHESUS; -though not one of the most ancient, or noticed by Homer. Pliny ascribes -its origin to the Amazons; and Strabo gives an excellent account of its -site, the chief feature of which was a celebrated port called Panormus, -with the temple of Diana, one of the Seven Wonders of the world, at a -little distance without the city walls. The worship of this Diana (of -Asiatic origin, and symbolized by her peculiar statue) was earlier than -the planting of the Ionian colony by Androcles, as has been reasonably -suspected, on a hill called Coressus, the lower ground (ultimately the -chief part of the city) having been only gradually built over. After its -first colonization we hear nothing of Ephesus till the time of Crœsus, -who is said to have failed to take the town, owing to a device of a -certain Pindarus, who attached the city to the temple by a rope, thus -making the intervening space sacred, or an asylum. On this the story -goes, that Crœsus, of all princes then ruling, a lover of the gods, -spared, indeed, the city, but showed his common sense by changing its -constitution and banishing Pindarus. It further appears that Crœsus -dedicated golden bulls at Ephesus, and helped largely in the -construction of the first temple dedicated there. The temple we now know -was about 1,400 yards from the city, a fact, apparently, not anticipated -by the first modern investigators of its site. - -The inhabitants of Ephesus, as a rule, were time-servers, and ready to -court the support of whosoever for the time being were their most -powerful neighbours. Thus, at first, they joined the Ionian revolt; -then, on the overthrow of Xerxes, were for a while tributary to Athens; -and then, again, after the victories of Lysander, permitted their city -to be the head-quarters of the Spartan operations against Asia Minor; -though he could not, however, persuade the people to change the name of -their city to that of his wife Arsinoe. After the overthrow of -Antiochus, Ephesus was added by the Romans to the kingdom of Pergamus. - -Again, when Mithradates was all-powerful, we find the people of Ephesus, -to please him, joining in a general massacre of the Romans in their -town; indeed, going to such lengths as not to respect the asylum of -their own temple; the natural result being a severe punishment of this -fickle population on the ultimate success of the Romans. On an -inscription, however, recently discovered, we believe, by Mr. Wood, but -now at Oxford, the people assert that they had been compelled to act -against their will, and that they were none the less, at heart, the -devoted friends of the Romans. As a place of commercial importance, -Ephesus did not survive the first three centuries of the Roman empire, -as the city was sacked by the Goths in A.D. 262, and its famous temple -burnt, an event of which some traces have been detected during the -recent excavations on its site. In later days it passed into the hands -of the Seljuks and Turks, and a great mosque was built there by Selim I. -on the rising ground overlooking the port. The long occupation of the -site of Ephesus by a mixed population is attested by the discovery there -by Mr. Wood of a hoard of coins, belonging chiefly to the Western States -of Europe, and struck during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. -Among these are some of the Christian subjects of Saro-khan, an emir of -Magnesia in the fourteenth century.[20] It is believed that the present -name of its site, Aiosoluk, is a corruption of Hagios Theologos (St. -John), the name borne by Ephesus during the Middle Ages. - -Footnote 20: - - An interesting account of these coins (2,231 in number) has been given - in the Numism. Chron., vol. xii. New Ser., 1872, by Mr. H. A. Grueber, - of the British Museum. The whole “find,” with some lumps of metal, - weighed more than seventeen pounds of silver. Among these were coins - of Naples, of Rhodes, of the Seljuk Amírs, of Venice, Genoa, and of - the Papal States, their dates embracing a period of about eighty - years, from A.D. 1285. - -The chief glory of Ephesus was its temple. According to the most ancient -reports, there had been in remote times one, at least, of the grandest -proportions which Herodotus claims, with that of Juno at Samos, as among -the greatest works of the Greeks. Its architect is said to have been -contemporary with Theodorus and Rhœcus, the builders of the Samian -Heræum, early in the sixth century B.C.; and Xenophon, especially, -notices it, as he deposited there the share entrusted to him of the -tenth, arising from sale of the slaves of the Ten Thousand at Cerasus, -which was appropriated to Apollo and Artemis.[21] We have here an -instance of a custom noticed elsewhere,—viz., that the great temples of -the Hellenic world were often used as banks of deposit, where treasure -was collected, not merely in the form of _anathemata_ or dedicated -objects, but, also, in large quantities of bullion, &c., _in trust_. -Many inscriptions in Boeckh show clearly that the administrators of the -temples employed these treasures as loans. Artemis was, in fact, a -queen, whose dower was the wealth accumulated in her temple. As is well -known, the original (or the second temple of Artemis, for this point is -not clear) was burnt by Herostratus, in B.C. 356, traditionally, on the -same night on which Alexander the Great was born, but it was soon -rebuilt. It would take a whole book, says Pliny, to describe all its -details, and it is admitted to have been the largest temple of -antiquity. - -Footnote 21: - - In Pausanias, vii. 11, will be found a very full and interesting - account of the worship of the Ephesian Artemis, but it is too long to - quote here. Pindar says, the worship was instituted by the Amazons, - Crêsos or Korêsos, an autochthon, and Ephesus, the son of the river - god Cayster, being the first builders of the temple. For details of - the older temples, see Strab. xiv. 641; Xen. Anab. v. 3; Plin. xvi. - 79; and Vitruv. x. 6. - -Among other valuables, the temple contained the famous picture by -Apelles of Alexander, while the circuit round it was an asylum where -debtors and worse rogues could screen themselves from justice, an evil -which, as an inscription recently found there shows, Augustus found it -needful to restrain within reasonable limits. Ephesus, too, was the -usual port where the Roman proconsuls landed, on their way to their -several provinces. Thus, Cicero came to Ephesus when going to his -government in Cilicia. So, too, Metellus Scipio put in there before -Pharsalia, and M. Antonius after Philippi. There, too, also, was -collected the fleet of Antony and Cleopatra before the fatal day of -Actium.[22] - -Footnote 22: - - Le Quien’s “Oriens Christianus” gives a list of seventy Christian - bishops of Ephesus from Timothy to A.D. 1721. A good many of the later - ones could only have been bishops in name. - -But the most interesting matter to us in connection with Ephesus have -been Mr. Wood’s excavations there, with his discovery not only of many -unexpected monuments of the ancient town, but of undoubted relics of the -famous temple itself. Mr. Wood, as the constructing engineer of the -Smyrna and Aidin Railway, had naturally become well acquainted with the -neighbourhood of Ephesus, and, hence, so early as 1863, had made, at his -own expense, some excavations, clearing out thereby the Odeum, and -ascertaining the true position of the Magnesian and Coressian gates. In -these researches, he met with several valuable inscriptions, one of them -referring to a certain Roman, Publius Vedius Antoninus, who was at the -time the γραμματεὺς—the Scribe or Town-clerk—of the city.[23] By degrees -the position of the Theatre, the scene of the tumult at the time of St. -Paul’s visit, was clearly made out; but where was the Temple? In the -prosecution of his excavations Mr. Wood had, however, met with many -decrees of the people of Ephesus relating to the Temple,—one of them -containing much curious information about the ritual used in the Temple- -worship, with lists of the votive offerings, to be carried on certain -days in procession “through the Magnesian Gate to the Great Theatre, and -thence back again through the Coressian Gate to the Temple.” Among the -list of statues are several of Diana, probably, such as those which -“Demetrius and his craftsmen” manufactured in the days of St. Paul. - -Footnote 23: - - Colonel Leake, in 1824, seems to have given the first sensible - suggestion as to where the temple ought to be sought for. The - Admiralty chart of 1836 (the foundation of the maps of Kiepert 1841- - 1846) and of Guhl (1843), afforded also the first accurate survey of - the Gulf of Scala Nova. In 1862, Mr. Falkener suggested the head of - the harbour to the west of the city as the most likely site. - -[Illustration: - - DRUM OF PILLAR. -] - -At length, in April, 1869, Mr. Wood came upon some massive walls, which -were proved to have been those of the courtyard in which the Temple had -once stood, by an inscription in Greek and Latin, stating that Augustus -had rebuilt them; and, finally, in 1870, a marble pavement was lighted -on, at the depth of nineteen feet below the alluvial soil of the present -plain, together with drums of columns, quite six feet high, one base -being still attached to its plinth. The site of the Temple of Diana had -been reached, and its style was, at once, seen to have been similar to -that of the Temple of Athene Polias at Priene, and of Apollo at -Branchidæ. It is scarcely possible to speak too highly of Mr. Wood’s -tact and sagacity. Thus, considering the accounts of ancient authors too -vague as guides for excavation, his first diggings were essentially -tentative, and with the view of meeting with some illustrative -inscriptions. In the Great Theatre he was more likely to find them than -anywhere else, and here, indeed, he discovered six large stones, -originally from the cella of the Temple, and each bearing various -decrees. Indeed, by the most important of these, to which we have -already alluded, the real clue was afforded as to its whereabouts. The -of finding this inscription confirmed Mr. Wood’s original idea of -feeling his way to the Temple from one of the city gates, the result -being the discovery of two roads,—one of them leading round the mountain -Prion or Pion, the other towards the town of Magnesia. He wisely -determined to trace the one which showed the greatest amount of wear or -use, assuming that if either of them led to the Temple it would be the -most used one. In the one round Mount Prion he found four distinct ruts, -deeply cut in its pavement of huge blocks of marble, while the other -road was worn scarcely at all. He then devoted all his energy, to use -his own words, “in exploring the road round Mount Pion,[24] which -eventually led to the Temple.” - -Footnote 24: - - The spelling of the name of this little eminence does not seem to be - quite certain. Pausanias and Pliny call it Pion; Strabo, on the other - hand, Prion. There was a mountain so named in the island of Cos. Comp. - _Priene_. - -In this way, the peribolus, or courtyard wall of the Temple, was soon -reached, and, not long after, as before stated, the drums of several of -the columns were exhumed, lying in a confused mass as they had fallen, -sixteen or seventeen centuries ago. The largest and best preserved of -these drums, of which a sketch is given as the frontispiece for this -volume, was found on February 3rd, 1871; it is somewhat more than 6 feet -high and 18½ feet in circumference, and weighs 11¼ tons. From the -figures carved on it, one of which represents Mercury, it may be fairly -presumed that it was one of the thirty-six “columnæ cælatæ” recorded by -Pliny. Mr. Wood states that though this splendid building was not only -destroyed by earthquakes and the malice of man, all the stones, -moreover, having been carried away that could be used for building -purposes, enough still remained to enable him to draw out on paper an -accurate plan of its original shape and _contour_. He adds that, in the -course of his excavations, he “discovered the remains of three distinct -temples, the last but two, the last but one, and the last. The former -must have been that built 500 B.C., for which the solid foundations -described by Pliny and Vitruvius were laid.... Between 5 and 6 feet -below the pavement and under the foundations of the walls of the cella, -I found the layer of charcoal, 4 inches thick, described by Pliny. This -was laid between two layers of a composition about 3 inches thick, -similar to, and of the consistency of, glazier’s putty.” - -In conclusion, we may add that Mr. Wood found abundant instances of the -use of colour, chiefly vermilion and blue, and one specimen of gold -inserted, as a fillet; together with several pieces of friezes much -shattered, but, evidently, of the same size and artistic character as -the reliefs on the drum. The reliefs themselves do not exhibit any great -artistic merit, though they fairly represent the characteristic style of -the Macedonian period: their general effect must, however, have been -very rich and gorgeous, and quite in character with what we know of rich -and luxurious Ephesus. We have not, at present, any evidence that the -columns, as well as the drums, were covered with sculpture. Mr. Wood, we -believe, thinks they were, but a medallion in the Bibliothèque at Paris, -which gives the front of the Temple, rather suggests the contrary. - -Passing on from Ephesus we come to the scarcely less celebrated city of -MILETUS, the parent, according to Pliny, of more than 80 colonies.[25] -Situated at the mouth and, on the left bank, of the Mæander, Miletus -more strictly belongs to Caria; but it was, also, one of the most -conspicuous members of the Ionian confederacy. It is believed that it -was originally founded by a colony from Crete, under the leadership of -Sarpedon, the brother of Minos; an idea, in some degree, confirmed by a -notice in Homer (Il. ii. 867). Herodotus (ix. 97) only mentions -Sarpedon’s establishing himself in Lycia. The advantageous position of -the town, with a harbour capable of holding a large fleet, naturally -gave it, from the earliest times, the lead in maritime affairs. Its most -important colonies were Abydus, Lampsacus, and Parium on the Hellespont; -Proconnesus and Cyzicus on the Propontis; Sinope and Amisus on the -Euxine; with several more on the coast of Thrace and Tauris, and on the -Borysthenes. The period, however, of Miletus’s chief power was comprised -between its Ionian colonization and its conquest by the Persians in 494 -B.C. After that period, it did not maintain the same lead among the -seaports of the Asiatic Greeks; indeed, during the time of its greatest -fame, peace was practically unknown among its people, who were -constantly distracted by factions aristocratic or democratic. - -Footnote 25: - - Rambach—De Mileto ejusque coloniis (Hal. Sax. 1790)—has attempted, not - without success, to identify the larger number of them. - -As was natural, the kings of Lydia made many attempts to possess -themselves of Miletus. In the reign of Alyattes, however, the Lydian and -Milesian quarrel was, for the time, made up, the Lydian king having been -supposed to have incurred the wrath of the gods, as his troops had burnt -a temple dedicated to Minerva at Assessos. Some of the rulers of the -town were men of historic note, especially Thrasybulus, the friend of -the Corinthian Periander. Somewhat later, the Milesians made a treaty -with Crœsus, and, what was of more importance to them, secured its -maintenance by Cyrus; hence, their town was spared much of the misery -inflicted on the other Ionian states in the first war with the Persians -(Herod. i. 141, 143). But if Miletus had been previously fortunate, this -good luck deserted her during the great Græco-Persian war; nor could she -indeed complain, as the chief promoter of this rebellion was her -“tyrannus” Histiæus. As will be remembered, it was mainly through -Histiæus and his kinsman Aristagoras, that Ionia revolted against the -Persians; and, further, that, to the instigations of the latter, was due -the needless burning of the great western capital of the Persians, -Sardes. An immediate attack on Miletus by the Persian satraps was the -natural reply to this treachery; and the city was eventually taken by -storm, with all the horrors consequent thereon.[26] It may be doubted, -whether after this fall, Miletus ever again recovered her former glory. - -Footnote 26: - - Herodotus, vi. 18-21, states that the Athenians were so much - distressed at the fall of Miletus, that they fined the poet Phrynichus - 1,000 drachmæ for putting on the stage a drama entitled “The Capture - of Miletus.” - -Subsequently, Miletus made many spasmodic efforts to regain her freedom, -but with little avail, though it still existed till the decline of the -Byzantine empire—its Church being under the direction of bishops who -ranked as Metropolitans of Caria (Hierocl.).[27] A pestilential swamp -now covers the birthplace of Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes.[28] - -Footnote 27: - - At Miletus, St. Luke tells us that St. Paul sent to his chief - disciples at Ephesus (distant about thirty miles) to come to see him. - This was their last opportunity, as he was then on his final journey - to Jerusalem (Acts xx. 17). - -Footnote 28: - - A proverb cited by Athenæus from Aristotle may refer to the condition - of the Milesians after the capture of their city by the Persians:— - Πάλαι ποτ’ ἦσαν ἄλκιμοι Μιλήσιοι. - -In the neighbourhood of Miletus stood, at BRANCHIDÆ or Didyma, the -famous temple of Apollo Didymæus, the site, we feel pleased to say, of -one of Mr. Newton’s most valuable researches. It was known in Greek -history from the remotest times, as the site of a shrine and of an -oracle second only in sanctity and importance to that of Delphi; as the -spot where Pharaoh Necho dedicated the armour he had worn when he took -the city of Cadytis (Herod, ii. 159), and as a place which received from -Crœsus, before his war with Cyrus, golden offerings equal in weight to -those he gave to Delphi. It was plundered and burnt by Darius I., and, a -second time, by Xerxes, its sacred family of priests having been, on -this occasion, swept off to Sogdiana by the conqueror; but it revived -again, in renewed splendour, towards the close of the Peloponnesian war, -when rebuilt on a scale so vast that, according to Strabo, it could not -be roofed over: it was memorable, especially, too, for a succession of -oracles ascending to a period before the commencement of history, yet -not wholly extinct even so late as the days of Julian. It was reasonable -to expect that such a place would retain some relics of its past -greatness, and of its pre-eminence among the sacred shrines of -antiquity. Indeed, many travellers, before Mr. Newton, had spoken of the -ruins of the Temple and of the Sacred Way leading to it, and, from the -notices in Wheler (1685), Gell, Leake, the “Ionian Antiquities,” and -Hamilton, much valuable information may be gathered. - -It was left to Mr. Newton to complete what had been indeed, hardly done -at all before, and to secure for England the most important sculptures -still _in situ_. The Temple of Apollo Didymæus[29] was originally -approached from the sea by a “SACRED WAY,” on each side of which had -once been a row of seated statues, sepulchral _sori_, tombs, &c. Along -this “Way” Mr. Newton discovered eight seated statues, generally about 4 -feet 6 inches high, by 2 feet 9 inches broad and deep; the character of -their workmanship being, at the first glance, strikingly Egyptian, at -least in this respect, that their drapery, extending from the shoulders -to the feet, consists of one closely-fitting garment (_chitōn_), and of -a light shawl (_peplos_). One only of the figures retains its head, the -sculptured treatment of it being that usually recognized as the most -archaic Greek, in that the hair is arranged in long parallel tresses, as -in the earliest coins of Syracuse. With two exceptions, all these -statues belong to the same period of art. Mr. Newton says, it is evident -that no one of them occupied, when he discovered them, exactly its -original position, and that they must, at some time or other, have been -thrown down and partially removed—an opinion confirmed by a somewhat -later discovery of about eighty feet of the original paving of the -“SACRED WAY,” together with some bases, not improbably those on which -these statues had been originally placed. The “SACRED WAY” can still be -traced for about 580 yards. - -Footnote 29: - - Didyma was the ancient name of the site where the temple stood; hence - the building was sometimes called the “Didymæum.” Strabo speaks of it - as τοῦ ἐν Διδύμοις ναοῦ. On the pretence that the priests of Branchidæ - voluntarily returned with Xerxes to Persia, their descendants were - cruelly murdered by Alexander the Great (Strabo, xiv. 634, xi. 517; - Quint. Curt., vii. 5). - -[Illustration: - - INSCRIPTION OF CHARES. -] - -In a wall extending along it are, here and there, masses of polygonal -masonry, with individual stones of immense size, the remains, probably, -of an original Hellenic wall. At a short distance from the last of the -seated statues, Mr. Newton met with two remarkable monuments—a colossal -lion and a female sphinx—both, unfortunately, much injured. The sphinx -was completely buried under the earth, and had nothing in its form to -recommend it, but the lion had, on its side, a very ancient inscription, -which the barbarous Greeks of the neighbourhood had done all they could -to obliterate. The important question is, to what period are these works -to be assigned? Now, of direct evidence we have none; for, though -history speaks of the two temples at this spot, we have no record of the -statues themselves; the probability being that they were damaged nearly -as much as at present before Herodotus visited the spot, and, probably, -by the Persians. Yet, in spite of the silence of history, we have some -indirect evidence from the monuments themselves; enough, at least, to -determine their age within tolerably accurate limits. In the first -place, we have the character of their art, which is, unquestionably, -very archaic; secondly, on three of the chairs are inscriptions in the -oldest Greek character; on the most important one written -_boustrophedon_ (_i.e._ backwards and forwards, as an ox ploughs); -thirdly, a long inscription on the recumbent lion, and another, quite as -old, on a detached block, the base, possibly, of a statue now lost. In -order that the nature of the characters used may be comprehended, we -annex a woodcut of the legend on one of the chairs of the seated -figures, the translation of which is, “I am Chares, son of Clesis, ruler -of Teichaoessa, a [dedicatory] monument of Apollo.”[30] On the block -found near the chair, the inscription states that “the sons of -Anaximander have [dedicated a statue?] of Andromachus,” and that -“Terpsicles made it”: while that, on the side of the lion,—the most -curious of them all,—declares that “the sons of Python, Archelaos, -Thales, Pasikles, Hegesander, and Lysias, have dedicated the offerings, -as a tenth, to Apollo.” Some years since, a still more perfect seated -figure was in existence, on the chair of which was an inscription copied -by Sir W. Gell and Mr. Cockerell, and published by Boeckh and Rose.[31] - -Footnote 30: - - This inscription was probably attached to a portrait statue. - Teichioessa, or Teichiousa, we know from Thucydides (viii. 26, 28), - was a strong place near Miletus. Athenæus (viii. 351) spells it - Teichiûs. Mr. Newton suggests that Chares was probably one of the - petty rulers on the western coast of Asia Minor in the sixth and fifth - centuries B.C., of whom Herodotus notices more than one. A _bon-mot_ - of Stratonicus the musician is recorded by Athenæus: “As Teichioessa - was inhabited by a mixed population, he observed that most of the - tombs were those of foreigners, on which he said to his lad, ‘Let us - be off, since strangers seem to die here, but not one of the natives’” - (viii. p. 351). Teichoessa was also famous for the excellence of its - mullets (Ital. _triglia_), - - ... χειμῶνι δὲ τρίγλην - ἔσθι’ ἐνὶ ψαφαρῇ ληφθεῖσαν Τειχιοέσσῃ - Μιλήτου κώμῃ.—Archestr. ap. Athen. _l. c._ - -Footnote 31: - - Colonel Leake (Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor, Lond., 1824, p. 239) - has given an account of this chair, and suggests that the arrangement - of these statues is similar to that of the avenues of the temples in - Egypt. In a note to p. 342 of Colonel Leake’s work, is a brief memoir - by the late C. J. Cockerell, in which he suggests that the temple at - Branchidæ was never completed, as the flutings of the columns are not - finished (see, also, pp. 347, 348). There is an engraving of this - chair in the “Ionian Antiquities.” - -[Illustration: - - CHAIR FROM BRANCHIDÆ. -] - -We cannot discuss here the character of the inscriptions quoted above, -but all palæographers admit that the writing belongs to the earliest -Greek period, not improbably anterior to the year B.C. 520. It may be -still earlier, as, on the lion inscription, we find the name of -Hegesander and another name, which, though the first letter has met with -an injury, we agree with Mr. Newton in thinking, must be read as Thales, -while, on the detached block, we have that of Anaximander. Now it is -certainly remarkable that on two adjoining stones, found close to the -most sacred temple of the Milesians, the names of two of the most -celebrated philosophers of that town should occur. If, then, these be -really the names of those philosophers, they may be supposed to have -joined with other citizens of Miletus in dedicating the figure of the -lion, and of the object (whether statue or otherwise) once attached to -the second inscription; and, if so, the dates of these works would be -between B.C. 470 and B.C. 560. Anaximander was born about B.C. 610, and -Hegesander was probably the father of Hecatæus, who was himself born -about B.C. 520. - -It is worthy of remark that, unlike so many other early Greek works, -these sculptures exhibit no trace of an Asiatic or Assyrian origin. The -only style they recall is that of Egypt, while the only Assyrian -monument they resemble is the semi-Egyptian seated figure brought by Mr. -Layard from Kalah Sherghat. Mr. Newton has justly pointed out that the -resemblance to Egyptian work “is seen not only in the great breadth of -the shoulders, but also in the modelling of the limbs, in which the -forms of the bones and muscles are indicated with far greater refinement -and judgment than at first sight seems to be the case ... the subdued -treatment of the anatomy contributes to the general breadth and repose -for which these figures are so remarkable, and suggests the idea that -they were executed by artists who had studied in Egypt.” We know that -the Greeks were intimately connected with Psammetichus I., Amasis, and -Neco; while the tombs at Cameirus, in Rhodes, have yielded works almost -certainly imitated from Egyptian prototypes by early Greek artists. We -have, too, the statement of Diodorus, that Theodorus of Samos and his -brother Telecles of Ephesus, the sons of Rhoecus, derived the canon of -their sculptures from Egypt. The general character, however, of the -ornamentation, the mæander-pattern, and the lotos and borders on the -garments of the seated figures, agreeing, as these do, with the same -patterns on early Greek vases, tend to show that their actual artists -were Greeks. Thus, too, the archaic statue of Athene in the Acropolis at -Athens is essentially Greek, and not Egyptian. Pliny has further noticed -that two Cretan sculptors, Dipænos and Scyllis, were the first artists -(about B.C. 580) of note, as workers in marble: it is, therefore, quite -conceivable that they may have been the actual artists of these -monuments. - -We shall now say a few words of THYATEIRA, MAGNESIA AD SIPYLUM, -PHILADELPHIA, and TRALLES with some rather fuller remarks on the -celebrated city, SARDES, the capital of Lydia. - -THYATEIRA was a place of considerable importance, and probably of early -origin, but of no great rank among the surrounding towns till the time -of the Macedonians; its best known name, according to Steph. Byzant., -being due to Seleucus Nicator. To us, its chief interest is its -connection with early Christianity, as the home of “Lydia the seller of -purple” (Acts xvi. 14), and as one of the Seven Churches of the -Apocalypse. There are still, according to Sir Charles Fellows, remains -of a considerable city; and it is also, under the name of Ak-Hissar, a -flourishing commercial town. Close to the Lake Gygæa, not far from -Sardes, was the sepulchral mound of Alyattes, considered by Herodotus -one of the wonders of Lydia. This remarkable tumulus, which is about 280 -yards in diameter, has been recently excavated by M. Spiegenthal, who -discovered in its centre a sepulchral chamber of highly polished marble -blocks, and of about the same size as that of the tomb of Cyrus. Such -tumuli are common in Asia Minor; indeed, round the same lake, are three -or four more, probably, as Strabo has suggested, the tombs of other -early Lydian kings. Sir Gardner Wilkinson has pointed out that their -structure—a stone basement with a mound of earth above—resembles the -constructed tombs of Etruria. - -The _Lydian_ MAGNESIA—usually called “_Ad Sipylum_,” to distinguish it -from the Magnesia of Ionia—was the scene of the great victory gained by -the two Scipios in B.C. 190, over Antiochus the Great though aided by -the Gauls, which handed over Western Asia to the Romans. Hence, in the -Mithradatic war, the Magnesians stood firmly by Rome. A coin of this -place has on it the head of Cicero, and is interesting as the only -portrait (good or bad) we have of that great orator. In legendary -history, Mount Sipylus, which overhangs Magnesia on the S., was famous -as the residence of Tantalus and Niobe; and here, too, was a town of the -same name as the mountain, said to have been converted into a lake by -volcanic action[32] (Paus.). Homer alludes to the mountain in speaking -of Niobe’s transformation (Il. xxiv. 614), as do also Sophocles (Antig. -v. 822), and Ovid (Metam. vi. 310). The story of the weeping Niobe was -probably an optical illusion (Paus. Attic. c. 21), and, curiously, the -origin of it has been clearly shown by Chandler, who says, “The phantom -of Niobe may be defined as an effect of a certain portion of light and -shade on a part of Sipylus, perceivable at a particular point of view. -The traveller, who shall visit Magnesia after this information, is -requested to observe carefully a steep and remarkable cliff, about a -mile from the town; varying his distance, while the sun and shade, which -come gradually on, pass over it, I have reason to believe he will see -Niobe” (Travels, p. 331). The magnetic influence on the compass is -confirmed by Arundell, but the name “Magnet” has been derived from other -towns of the same name. - -Footnote 32: - - Hamilton (vol. i. p. 49) confirms the identity of Sipylus and its - neighbourhood with the legend of Tantalus, by the discovery of his - friend Mr. Strickland (it had been previously, however, noticed by - Chishull) of a remarkable statue sculptured on the rocky base of the - mountain. “This statue” Mr. Strickland states, “is rudely sculptured - out of the solid rock. It represents a sitting figure contained in a - niche, and its height from the base to the top of the head may be - about twenty feet.” “There can be little doubt that this is the - ancient statue of Cybele mentioned by Pausanias,” but it can scarcely - be, as some other travellers have supposed, Niobe. - -PHILADELPHIA, named from Attalus Philadelphus, suffered more than any -other Lydian town from earthquakes, so that, after that in the reign of -Tiberius it was well-nigh deserted. It continued, however, to hold its -own for many years, and is memorable for the long and gallant resistance -it made to the Turks. It submitted, at length, in A.D. 1390, to Bayazíd, -and is still a place of some size under its new name of Allah-Shehr. -Philadelphia is noticed in the Revelations (iii. 7) as one of the Seven -Churches. A story long prevailed of a wall made of bones of the citizens -slain by Bayazíd; and Rycaut remarks, that “these bones are so entire -that I brought a piece thereof with me from thence.” Chandler, however, -found a simple solution for this wonder in a petrifying stream, like -that at Laodicea. “This,” says he, “encrusted some vegetable substances -which have perished, and left behind, as it were, their moulds.” Gibbon -particularly notices the gallantry of the Philadelphians:—“At a -distance,” says he, “from the sea, forgotten by the Emperor, encompassed -on all sides by the Turks, her valiant citizens defended their religion -and freedom above fourscore years, and, at length, capitulated with the -proudest of the Ottomans in 1390. Among the Greek colonies and Churches -of Asia, Philadelphia is still erect, a column in a scene of ruins.” - -TRALLES, in the time of Strabo, was one of the most flourishing cities -of Asia Minor; indeed, situated as it was, on the high road from Ephesus -through Lydia and Phrygia, it could hardly have failed to be a place of -great traffic (Cic. Ep. ad Att. v. 14; Artemid. ap. Strab. xiv. p. 663). -Hence its citizens were generally selected to fill the expensive offices -of Asiarchs, or Presidents of the games celebrated in the province. -Though abundant ruins may be seen over the whole site of the ancient -city, they have been so shattered by earthquakes as to be now scarcely -recognizable. - -We come now to SARDES, by far the most important city of Lydia. The date -of its foundation has not been recorded, but it must have early been a -place of note, as Herodotus states that it was plundered by the -Cimmerians, though they could not capture its citadel.[33] Its real -importance, however, evidently began when it became the capital of the -Lydian monarchs, men whose unusual wealth has been fully attested by -Herodotus, who had himself seen the gifts of Crœsus in the treasury at -Delphi. The story of the mode whereby the citadel of Sardes was taken by -Cyrus is most likely true; indeed is, in some degree, confirmed by a -later capture, under circumstances not unsimilar, by Lagoras, a general -of Antiochus the Great (Polyb. vii. 4-7). - -Footnote 33: - - Sardes, from Σάρδεις; but it is often written Sardis. - -Under the reign of Crœsus, Sardes was unquestionably a great and -flourishing city, the resort of men of learning and ability, who were, -Herodotus tells us, attracted thither by the fame and hospitality of the -king (i. 29): on the success of Cyrus, it was simply transferred from -the native dynasty of rulers to the conquering Persians, becoming thus, -not only the capital of Persian Asia Minor, but the occasional residence -of the monarch himself. Thus Xerxes spent the winter there when -preparing his unwise invasion of Greece (Herod. vii. 32-37); and here, -too, Cyrus the Younger collected the army so easily crushed on the fatal -day of Cunaxa. Xenophon remarks that the beauty of its gardens excited -the admiration of even the Spartan Lysander, who was amused by the tale -that Cyrus himself had often played there the part of gardener (Œcon. p. -880; cf. Cic. de Senect. c. 17). The town itself seems to have consisted -chiefly of thatched houses, and so was easily burnt by the Ionians in -their revolt. The burning of Sardes was felt by the Persian monarch to -be a gross insult, the more so that his rule had been notoriously mild -and equitable. Sardes made no resistance to Alexander the Great; hence, -its people were permitted by that monarch to retain their ancient laws -and customs (Arrian, i. 17). During the wars of the Seleucidæ it was, at -different times, subject to the prevailing ruler of that house, and, -hence, passed over to the Romans after the defeat of Antiochus at -Magnesia.[34] Colonel Leake has given, in his Asia Minor, some -interesting notes by Mr. Cockerell on the antiquities of this town, with -a special account of the famous temple of Cybele, or the Earth, which -stood on the banks of the Pactolus, and of which three great columns -were then standing.[35] This temple was burnt by the Ionians in B.C. -503, and never completely reconstructed.[36] Most interesting to the -Christian are the remains of two churches, one supposed to be that of -the Church of the Panagia, and another, in front of it, said to be that -of St. John. The former is almost wholly constructed of magnificent -fragments of earlier edifices, and is, perhaps, as Colonel Leake -thought, “the only one of the Seven churches of which there are any -distinguishable remains.” Bearing in mind, too, St. Paul’s residence for -three years in the neighbouring town of Ephesus, we must suppose the -capital of Lydia was included in the declaration of St. Luke that “all -they which dwelt in Asia (_i.e._ Roman Proconsular Asia) heard the word -of the Lord Jesus, both Jews and Greeks” (Acts xix. 10; compare also 1 -Cor. xvi. 19, and Rev. iii. 1-5). In later days, more than one Council -was held here. Indeed, this famous city may be traced through a long -period of Byzantine history (Eunap. p. 154; Hierocl. p. 669). The -emperor Julian made Chrysanthius, of Sardes, pontiff of Lydia; but his -attempt to restore the heathen worship was a failure. About A.D. 400 it -was plundered by the Goths under Tribigild and Cainas, officers in Roman -pay; in the eleventh century it was seized by the Turks, and, two -centuries later, nearly destroyed by Tímúr. A miserable village, called -Sart, now occupies its site; and so completely has it passed away, that -we might inquire with Horace, “Quid Crœsi regia Sardes?” if we may not -quite add the commencement of the following line, “Smyrna quid?” (Horat. -Epist. I. i. 2). No remains of its ancient grandeur now exist, and the -“princes” of Lydia, her wise men, her captains, and “her rulers and her -mighty men” have long been asleep in the innumerable tumuli spread over -all the level country around. - -Footnote 34: - - A part of the fortifications of Sardes bore the same name, Prion, - which we find at Ephesus (Polyb. vii. 4-7). Is the name in any way - connected with Priene? As a Greek word, πρίων means a saw; hence, - possibly, a serrated ridge of hills—the Spanish _sierra_. - -Footnote 35: - - There are only two now (Arundell). - -Footnote 36: - - Colonel Leake, in 1824, supposed the Temple of Ephesus was the largest - temple of antiquity. It is now known that it was really the sixth in - size—that of Agrigentum in Sicily being the largest. - -We proceed now to notice some of the more important towns of CARIA, and -take first HALICARNASSUS (now Budrum) which had achieved the most -enduring fame, as the site of the Mausoleum or Tomb of Mausolus, once of -the Seven Wonders of the World. Originally, a colony from Trœzene, in -Argolis, Halicarnassus had early adopted Asiatic tastes and habits; -hence, firmly adhering to the Persians, its Queen Artemisia I., the -widow of Lygdamis, fought for Xerxes at Salamis. A remarkable vase in -Egyptian alabaster, with the name and titles of Xerxes on it in the -three forms of the cuneiform writing, discovered by Mr. Newton in the -Mausoleum, was, perhaps, the reward-gift of the Persian monarch for this -service. To her namesake, the second Artemisia, we owe the building of -the Mausoleum, 130 years subsequently. - -With regard to the history of this remarkable monument, it is well known -that, on the death of Mausolus, B.C. 353, Artemisia, his widow and -sister, resolved to celebrate his memory by all the honours the art and -literature of the period could bestow, and to employ, for this purpose, -four of the most celebrated sculptors of antiquity,—Bryaxis, Timotheus, -Leochares or Scopas, and Praxiteles.[37] It is said that this queen’s -short reign, of two years only, did not enable her to witness the -completion of her grand design, but that these great sculptors finished -the work after her death for their own honour and the glory of art. Much -of what they accomplished was, certainly, extant till comparatively -modern times. Thus, the building is noticed, first by Strabo and Pliny, -then by Gregory of Nazianzus in the fourth, by Constantinus -Porphyrogenitus in the tenth, and by Eudocia in the eleventh centuries -respectively; all these accounts implying that it was still visible. -Again, Frontanus, the historian of the siege of Rhodes, states that a -German knight, Henry von Schlegelholt, constructed the citadel at Budrum -out of the Mausoleum. Yet, even then, it was only partially destroyed, -for when Cepio visited Budrum in 1472 he mentions seeing its remains -among the ruins of the ancient town. In the later repairs, however, of -the citadel, the masonry of the substructure of the Mausoleum must have -been wholly removed; the result being that visitors to Budrum, before -Mr. Newton commenced his excavations, could not determine its site. - -Footnote 37: - - Its architects were Satyrus and Phiteus, and the building itself a - parallelogram surrounded by thirty-six columns, supporting a pyramid - of twenty-four steps, which tapered to the top like a _meta_, or goal. - Its height was 140 feet. Martial describes it as “Aere vacuo pendentia - Mausolea.” Pausanias states that the Romans admired it so much that - they called all similar buildings “Mausolea”; while Eustathius, in the - twelfth century, observes of it, Θαῦμα καὶ ἦν καὶ ἔστι (“it was and is - a wonder”) clearly implying its existence, in some form or other, even - then. In M. Guichard’s “Funérailles de Romains,” &c., Lyons, 1581, the - sculptured reliefs and “certain white marble steps” (possibly those of - the pyramid) are noticed. This information, he says, he had from M. - Dalechamps—the editor of Pliny—and he, again, from M. de la Tourette, - who was present, in 1522, when its last stones were finally removed to - build the castle. - -About the middle of the last century, the Greek sculptures built into -the walls of the fortress were published in Dalton’s “Views in Greece -and Egypt, 1751-81,” and were subsequently described by Choiseul- -Gouffier, Moritt, Prokesch von Osten, W. J. Hamilton, as, also, in the -second volume of “Ionian Antiquities.” Nothing, however, was done -towards a more complete examination of them, till, in 1845, Sir -Stratford Canning (now Lord Stratford de Redcliffe), then H.M. -Ambassador at Constantinople, was able to extract them from these walls, -and to present them to the British Museum in February, 1846. The chief -subject of these sculptures is the contest between the Greeks and the -Amazons, and their artistic style may be compared with that of the slabs -on the Choragic monument of Lysicrates at Athens, of the date of B.C. -334. The pieces thus recovered were evidently but subordinate portions -of a much larger design. - -From this time nothing further was done till Mr. Newton was sent by Lord -Stratford de Redcliffe, in the early part of 1856, on a cruise to the -south of the Archipelago; on which occasion he landed at Budrum, and -partially examined the site, but without detecting any visible evidence -of the Mausoleum.[38] In October of the same year, however, Mr. Newton -took up his abode at Budrum with a few sappers under the command of -Lieut. Smith, R.E. Mr. Newton commenced his excavations on the same spot -he had previously slightly examined, and, for some time, met with little -except abundant mosaics, the remains of a splendid villa, some of them -inscribed with the names of the persons represented,—such as Meleager -and Atalanta, Dido and Æneas. A little further on, Mr. Newton found in -the rubble several drums of columns, with late and shallow Doric -flutings, and, at one corner of the building, a well, in which was a -small head in white marble, a bronze lamp, and some other objects: many, -too, of the rooms still retained their skirting of white marble. But -still no Mausoleum appeared. - -Footnote 38: - - Admiral Spratt, R.N., a veteran surveyor, proposed his site for the - Mausoleum, because, 1. he thought it coincided with the description of - Vitruvius; 2. on the eastern side there are still portions of an - Hellenic wall; 3. on the N. side were several fragments of columns of - large diameter; and, 4. it might be inferred that the Mausoleum stood - on a mound. He did not, however, follow the example of Prof. Ross, in - writing a paper against Mr. Newton’s early account of the Mausoleum in - the “Classical Museum,” with a sneer at the possibility of any - student, who had not himself surveyed the place, forming a conception - of the real position of the great building. It is satisfactory to know - that Prof. Ross’s personal survey proved to be even less satisfactory - than that of Capt. Spratt. - -At length, however, Mr. Newton commenced digging on a spot where, nearly -sixty years ago, Professor Donaldson had noticed the remains of “a -superb Ionic edifice,” and soon came on many small fragments of a frieze -in high relief, and on a portion of a colossal lion resembling in -execution the lions’ heads built into the walls of the castle. Mr. -Newton next fell in with a mass of ruins lying just below the surface, -one column, indeed, standing nearly upright but inverted, and 10 feet -below, a little further on, with the edge of a pavement or step, about 6 -inches below which the native rock had been levelled for a floor. In the -earth on this floor was found the body of a colossal statue from the -waist to the ankle, and another mass of sculpture—a warrior on horseback -in a Persian or Oriental costume, in itself a most remarkable specimen -of ancient sculpture. There could be no doubt now that these were relics -of the Mausoleum, the smoothed rock being the bed on which the building -had once stood. The work, in all cases, was of the best, the fragments -of the small figures being generally better preserved than those on the -frieze already in the British Museum. The discovery of the column just -alluded to had this especial value, that, by its measurement and order, -a judgment could be formed of the size of the building to which it had -belonged: ultimately these measurements showed that the building itself -must have had much resemblance in style to the temple at Priene. - -By the spring of the next year (1857) Mr. Newton had determined the -base-lines of the original building, and proved it must have been a -parallelogram 116 feet long on the west by 126 feet on the south side, -its entire circumference having been about 472 feet. The inner part of -this quadrangle was paved with large slabs of a greenish-grey stone 1 -foot thick. The cause of the ruin of the building was, also, clear -enough; first, earthquakes shook down a considerable portion, and then -the Knights of Rhodes, and, after them, the Turks, used up every -available stone above ground for building purposes. Fortunately, -however, the plunderers only took what was ready to their hand; hence -the massive courses of the foundation-stones were left, because unseen. -On the western side, a grand staircase of twelve steps, 30 feet wide, -led from the base of the hill to the western side of the precincts of -the Mausoleum. Near these were found the vase of Xerxes, and a gigantic -stone weighing more than ten tons, which probably once closed the -entrance to the actual tomb. No remains of the tomb itself were found; -yet, there is reason for believing that some portion of it, if not the -actual body of the king, was visible during the demolition by the -Knights. On the east side of the Mausoleum, a colossal seated male -figure was next discovered, of a grand style, but sadly shattered; and -then, on the north, a similarly colossal female figure, which must have -been originally scarcely less than 12 feet high. Here, also, was found a -very beautiful fragment of one of the friezes, representing a female -figure stepping into a chariot, the face of which, happily but slightly -injured, retains even now the finish of a cameo. - -Mr. Newton’s next plan of ascertaining, if possible, the boundary-wall -of the _temenos_ was a happy one, as he thus, at once, discovered a mass -of marble blocks, piled one above another, and intermixed with fragments -of statues; and thus unearthed, (1) a colossal horse, in two pieces, and -part of the head of another horse, with the bronze bridle still adhering -to it; (2) a lion in fine condition, and another in two pieces; (3) a -draped female figure broken in half; (4) a head of Apollo. All these -sculptures were found heaped together, and had evidently not been -disturbed since they had fallen. - -The conclusion was inevitable, that parts of the colossal horses of the -quadriga from the top of the monument had now been met with; and that -this quadriga and much of the pyramid, its support, had been simply -hurled upon and over the wall of the _temenos_, and that Mr. Newton had, -in fact, found them just as they had fallen, it may be 1,700 years -ago.[39] Near to the horse’s head, too, was found a face of a colossal -male head, presumably that of some personage connected with the -quadriga, and, from its general style, which is analogous to the -idealized portrait of Alexander the Great on the coins of Lysimachus, -most likely from a statue of Mausolus himself. The face has a noble -expression, and by a happy accident, the outlines of the features have -remained uninjured. Though we have no actual evidence on this subject, -it is probable that the statue we have called Mausolus was standing in -the chariot at the top of the monument. On the south side of the -building Mr. Newton found several portions of what, when put together, -were clearly parts of one of its wheels. The fragments consisted of part -of the outer circle, half the nave, and a piece of one of the spokes. -The wheel, originally, had six spokes, the alternate intervals between -each spoke having been closed to ensure by its solidity the strength of -the whole wheel. As what has been found shows that the wheel was 7.7 -inches in diameter; and as the horses could scarcely have been less than -10 feet in length, we may fairly suppose the top of the pyramid on which -the quadriga stood was at least 24 feet long. From other calculations it -may be shown that the pyramid was 23½ feet high: but for these and other -similar details we must refer our readers to Mr. Newton’s work on the -Mausoleum. - -Footnote 39: - - It is reasonable to conjecture that the first ruin of the Mausoleum - was due to the earthquakes of the first and second centuries A.D., to - which we have already alluded. - -We must, however, add that the measurements of the height and tread of -the blocks of marble believed to have been the steps of the pyramid, -formed an essential feature of the calculation. The results arrived at -were mainly due to the ingenuity and mathematical knowledge of Lieut. -Smith, R.E., who was also able to distribute Pliny’s 36 columns over a -circumference of 412 feet, so as to preserve a uniform intercolumniation -on each side of the building. - -[Illustration: - - STEPS OF THE PYRAMID. -] - -The difficulty of Lieutenant Smith’s theory is that so large a space -from the centres of the columns to the walls of the cella is left -unsupported; but the plan of support he has suggested occurs in other -and nearly contemporaneous structures, as, for instance, in a tomb at -Mylasa. Again the great height, 65 feet, between the bases of the -columns and the ground, is found to agree with the proportions of other -tombs, as in Lycia and at Souma in Algeria. In all probability, this -lofty basement was ornamented by one or more friezes, while the lions, -of which Mr. Newton found remains of no less than fourteen, may have -stood between the columns or at the corners, looking out on the plain. -Since their arrival in England, great skill has been shown in uniting -the innumerable fragments into which some of the slabs and statues had -been broken; and visitors to the British Museum are now able to form a -good idea of the grandeur and beauty of the equestrian or Amazonian -figure, whose costume resembles that of the Persians on the temple of -the Wingless Victory at Athens; and of the two great statues it has been -agreed to call Mausolus and Artemisia. In the same room, there may, -also, now be seen the whole of the frieze that has been recovered; and -it is interesting to observe how much less injured are the portions -excavated by Mr. Newton, than those which, built into the castle wall, -have for four centuries, at least, been exposed to the corroding action -of the sea-breezes. - -We take next CNIDUS, at the S.W. end of Asia Minor, and, after -Halicarnassus, the most celebrated city of Caria. The description of its -position by Strabo and Pausanias coincides exactly with the observations -of modern travellers. Thus, Strabo speaks of its two ports, one of which -can be closed; and of an island (now Cape Krio) in front of the city, -lofty, in the form of a theatre, and joined by a causeway to the -mainland; both of which statements are completely confirmed by Beaufort -and Hamilton. Pausanias adds that the island was connected by a bridge. -The whole district is covered by ruins, the northern wall being, -according to Hamilton, nearly perfect: he adds, that “there is a round -tower of great beauty at the extremity of the peninsula, near the -northern harbour” (ii. 40). Some of the most important architectural -features of the town may be seen in the “Ionian Antiquities.” - -Cnidus is noticed first in the Homeric hymns, and later as a -Lacedæmonian colony, and as a member of the Dorian Hexapolis, or -assembly of six cities, whose place of meeting was the temple of the -Triopian Apollo, on Cape Krio.[40] As a population, the Cnidians were -great traders, combining with this a love for, and a high sense of, art. -Thus we find them at a remote period in Egypt (Herod. ii. 178), and -possessing a treasury at Delphi, while Lipara, near Sicily, was one of -their colonies. In the various wars of the fifth and fourth centuries -B.C., we find the Cnidians sometimes on one side and sometimes on the -other. Thus, they submitted to Harpagus, the general of Cyrus;[41] then -supported Athens, then deserted her after her losses in Sicily,[42] and -then, again, in Roman times, were, generally, on the side of Rome.[43] -The Cnidians derived much fame from their patronage of art. Thus, the -famous painting of Polygnotus in the Lesche at Delphi was their -gift;[44] as were also a statue of Jupiter at Olympia, and one at -Delphi, of their founder, Triopas; with other statues of Leto, of -Apollo, and of Artemis shooting arrows at Tityus. The most famous art- -possession of Cnidus was the naked statue by Praxiteles so well known as -the Cnidian Venus,[45] of which abundant notices are extant, especially -in Lucian. It stood in a chamber with two doors, so that it could be -seen all round, and many people visited Cnidus solely for this purpose. -So proud were the Cnidians of this statue that, when Nicomedes offered -to pay the whole public debt of Cnidus in return for the statue, they -preferred keeping their statue and their debts. This statue, justly -considered the fittest representation of the “Regina Cnidi Paphique,” -continued long uninjured, and is mentioned by Philostratus in his life -of Apollonius of Tyana; but, in the reign of Theodosius, having been -removed to Constantinople, it was totally destroyed by fire in the -palace of Lausus, about A.D. 475. There were also preserved at Cnidus -two statues by Bryaxis and Scopas, two of the sculptors of the -Mausoleum. Cnidus was also famous for her pottery, well known in ancient -times by the name of “Κεράμια Κνίδια.”[46] - -Footnote 40: - - Near this temple the Cnidians held their assemblies and the games - (αγῶνες τοῦ Τριοπίου Ἀπόλλωνος, Herod. i. 144, or Ἀγὡν Δώριος, Arist. - ap. Schol. Theocr. Idyll. xvii. 69). The officer in charge of these - games was called δαμιουργὸς (Leake, p. 227). - -Footnote 41: - - The Cnidians wished to cut through the narrow neck of land between - their two harbours; but the Delphic oracle replied that, had Jupiter - intended Cape Krio should have been an island, he would have made it - so:— - - Ζεὺς γὰρ κ’ ἔθηκε νῆσον εἴ κ’ ἐβούλετο—Herod. i. 174. - -Footnote 42: - - Cnidus paid dear for this desertion by loss of all her ships (Thucyd. - viii. 35, 42). - -Footnote 43: - - Hamilton (ii. 42) shows that more than one of Julius Cæsar’s personal - friends were connected with Cnidus. - -Footnote 44: - - See papers by W. W. Lloyd in “Museum of Classical Antiquities,” vol. - i. 1851. - -Footnote 45: - - Praxiteles made two statues of Venus, one naked, the other veiled. The - Coans chose the latter, the Cnidians the former. - -Footnote 46: - - The territory round Cnidus was rich in wine, corn, oil, and various - vegetables, noticed by Athenæus (i. p. 33, ii. p. 66), and by Pliny - (xiii. 35, xix. 32, &c.). Pliny adds (xvi. 64) that Cnidian reeds made - excellent pens; hence the fitness of Catullus’s lines— - - “Quæque Ancona Cnidumque arundinosam - Colis” (Carm. xxx. vi. 11). - - The historian Ctesias, Eudoxus, a disciple of Plato, and Agatharcides, - were natives of Cnidus. From Hierocles, the Notitiæ and the Acts of - Councils, it would seem to have existed as late as the seventh and - eighth centuries. - -The report of the Dilettanti Society, to which we have alluded, and -those of Captain Beaufort and others, having excited much interest in -England, it was thought advisable that careful excavations should be -made at a spot where there was so much promise of successful results; -hence Mr. Newton, at the close of his work at Halicarnassus, resolved to -do for Cnidus what he had done for the other Carian city. - -[Illustration: - - DEMETER FROM CNIDUS. -] - -Mr. Newton commenced his operations by examining a platform supported by -polygonal masonry, and jutting out like a pier from the side of the -mountain, soon discerning that he was on the site of the _temenos_ of -Demeter, as a niche in the face of the rock above still retained a -portion of a dedicatory inscription to that goddess. Shortly afterwards -he found a small _stele_, and, near it, the statue noticed by the -Dilettanti mission, the head, hands, and feet of which were wanting. -Enough, however, remained to show that it had once been a work “of fine -style and execution.” Inscriptions soon after turned up on the same -spot: one of them recording the dedication of an edifice (οἶκος) and of -a statue (ἄγαλμα) to Demeter and Persephone, and, what was of far higher -interest, the head of the seated figure just noticed, exhibiting a -countenance of exquisite beauty, with a most tender and refined -expression. This head has recently been specially studied by Professor -Brunn, and his paper on it (translated by Mr. Murray, of the British -Museum) published in vol. xi. pt. 1 of the Trans. of the Royal Society -of Literature. In this paper Professor Brunn traces, with a masterly -hand, the intercrossing ideas suggested by the mixed character of -Demeter as a wife, a mother, and a widow. “The character,” says he, “of -mother pervades the whole mythology of Demeter: the mother who, without -a husband, lived only for her child; who had to lose her child, and to -be filled with anxiety for her; to have her anxiety lessened, but never -silenced or removed, by occasional visits from her daughter.... The eye -is sunk in the socket, as if physically weary; but anxiety of mind -fights against the weariness, and will not yet surrender to it. The look -is not sunk, but is directed upwards, only a little less sharply.” ... -“Can it be,” adds the Professor, “only the result of chance that -Christian artists have also represented the Madonna wearing the veil? -... In the centre of the Christian religion, also, is the figure of a -mother who lives only for her Child and in her Child, who, in the same -way, grieves for the loss of her Son, and finds blessedness in the -spiritual contemplation of Him. Suppose a Christian artist were to give -his Madonna the head of our Demeter, he would certainly not be censured -for it.” - -About the same time Mr. Newton met with two other statues, each of -considerable interest: the one representing a female figure with a -modius on her head, partially covered by the peplos, and in her right -hand a pomegranate; the other, a female statue nearly six feet high, -with its body draped to the feet. Its general character is that of an -elderly woman wasted with sorrow, with little of that matronly -comeliness which, in ancient art, generally characterizes Demeter. From -the Homeric hymn to Demeter we learn that the goddess, while wandering -in search of her daughter Persephone, was wont to assume the garb of an -old woman, and thus traversed the earth for days without tasting food. -She is likened, also, to an aged nurse or housekeeper in a regal house, -a description well agreeing with this statue. This type of the sorrowing -Demeter has not, we believe, been previously recognized in any extant -monument of ancient art. A passage, however, in Clemens Alexandrinus -(Cohort. ad Gentes, i. 30, ed. Potter) suggests that she was sometimes -represented in sculpture under this aspect. - -Near the first statue of Demeter, the sitting figure, were several thin -nearly decayed sheets of lead, which, on being unrolled, proved to have -been inscribed with curses and imprecations in the names of Demeter, -Persephone, and other of the infernal gods. Such inscriptions have been -occasionally met with before, and are known by the name of _Diræ_. - -On pursuing his researches in this _temenos_, Mr. Newton came upon the -entrance to a large chamber, full of miscellaneous antiquities, -including many bases of former statues, some with remains of stelæ, -others with hollowed spaces for the feet of statues. Most of them bore -dedications to Demeter in the Doric dialect; and, with them, were many -other objects connected with her worship, as three boar pigs, a -calathus, and many votive female breasts in marble. The date of these -objects is probably, as Mr. Newton suggests, about B.C. 370-320. Below -these, again, were layers of lamps, _amphoriskoi_, vessels in Samian -ware, hair-pins of bone, bodkins, and glass bottles, all probably Roman. -It is likely that this chamber was formerly a treasury connected with -one of the temples; and, that it has never been disturbed since it -became a ruin is certain from the fact that the edges of the fractured -stones are still clean and sharp. It is curious that, besides the marble -pigs, the bones of many young pigs were also found, manifest remains of -sacrifices to Demeter. - -The clearing out of the Theatres did little to reward Mr. Newton’s -labours; indeed, it soon became but too clear that all, or nearly all, -the finer works had long since been removed, probably, like the Venus, -to Constantinople. Hence, shortly afterwards, he gave his chief -attention to a thorough examination of the Necropolis, the vast extent -of which naturally inspired hopes of important discoveries. This -necropolis, the general character of which is very well shown in one of -the plates in the “Ionian Antiquities,” must in former days have been -one of the most striking features of the town. One of the structures -still remaining _in situ_ was, Mr. Newton observes, not unlike in form -to an early Christian church, with a chamber, vestibule, and apse or -alcove at the south end. On each side were smaller apses, and, in front -of each of them, a marble sarcophagus. The sarcophagi generally exhibit -good Roman work of the time of Domitian, but have suffered much by the -fall of the roof; they must once have been magnificent specimens of the -decorative style of their day, though they exhibit the decay of good -taste in the lavish prodigality of ornament with which they have been -covered. In the earth around were abundant fragments of Greek -inscriptions, nearly all of them decrees of the Senate and people of -Cnidus. One of the tombs Mr. Newton considered to have been that of a -certain Lykæthus, as an inscription records decrees in his favour, by -show of hands (χειροτονία), at the festival of the greater Dionysia, -together with the erection of a statue to him at the public expense. -There is no satisfactory proof as to when this Lykæthus lived; but his -tomb would seem to date from the early Seleucidan period, when Cnidus -was a free city. - -Having completed the survey of Cnidus itself, Mr. Newton proceeded next -to examine the villages in the neighbourhood, the result being the -discovery of a colossal lion. Reports of its existence had reached him -before, but it was left to Mr. Pullan, the architect of the expedition, -to make its actual discovery, at a distance of between three and four -miles to the E. of Cnidus, in a position wherein, except by accident, it -might have remained unnoticed for another twenty-one centuries. The -exact spot where the lion was found may be seen in the Admiralty chart, -which shows, on the summit of a cliff, opposite Cape Crio, the ruins of -an ancient tomb, which are strewn all around. Below this, some 60 feet, -the lion was reposing on a ledge of rock, beneath which, again, is a -sheer precipice of 300 feet into the sea. The lion was lying on its -right side, and its upper portion had suffered much from exposure to the -weather. It had been carved, as well as the base on which it reposes, of -one piece of Parian marble, and measures nearly 10 ft. in length, by 6 -ft. in height. This noble lion is probably earlier than the Mausoleum, -and exhibits a more severe and majestic style than those of the -Mausoleum.[47] The removal of the lion was a labour of much toil and -difficulty; indeed, could hardly have been accomplished had Mr. Newton -not had the aid of some sailors from an English ship of war. - -Footnote 47: - - See Frontispiece. - -The tomb itself was a nearly equal square of 39 ft. 2¾ inches, with the -remains of a pyramid like that of the Mausoleum.[48] Its present height -is about 17 ft.; the four lower feet being composed of immense blocks of -marble, supporting eleven courses of travertine. On the west, and most -perfect side, a portion of the lower step of the stylobate still -remains. No _data_ have been obtained of the exact height of the columns -once round the monument; but, as, in an angle step, one tread was 13½ -inches, and the other only 10½, it is clear that this structure, like -the Mausoleum, was oblong. Although the action of an earthquake was -probably the primary cause of the ruin of this monumental tomb, there -can be no doubt, also, that it has suffered much from plunderers, who, -in search for treasure, have torn up as much of the inner pavement as -they could move. The jambs of the doorway still exist, and the interior -was shaped like a beehive. The top has been closed in by one immense -block, and, as its upper side was somewhat broader than the lower, this -block must have been dropped into its position, like the bung of a -gigantic cask, after the rest of the building was finished. The chamber, -itself, exhibits in its sides a series of openings expanding outwards -like embrasures—no doubt, θῆκαι, or resting-places for bodies: indeed, -on clearing the rubbish away, a number of human bones were met with. Mr. -Newton considers this monument can hardly be later than 350 B.C., and -that it was built as a monument to many citizens who had fallen in -battle. To what period, then, can it be assigned? Probably to either the -repulse of the Athenians by the Cnidians in B.C. 412; or to the defeat -of the Lacedæmonians by Conon in B.C. 394; and, of the two, it is more -likely it was erected in commemoration of the former event, which was -one of much glory to the town. To the north and further inland, are two -other tombs of precisely similar construction, but inferior in size. - -Footnote 48: - - Mr. Falkener found at Ouran, in Phrygia, a monument he has restored as - similar to this Lion-tomb. We wish he had also given a sketch of the - ruin as he found it. (Museum Class. Antiq. i. p. 174.) - -Having now devoted a considerable space to Halicarnassus and Cnidus, -owing to their being, from recent researches, of such high importance, -we must notice very briefly the other towns of Caria. The small town of -PHYSCUS is chiefly of interest for its magnificent bay and harbour, so -well known to modern navigators (under the name of Marmorice), as one of -the finest in the world for vessels of the largest size. Possibly it was -this very character that led to its being so little noticed in -antiquity, as ancient galleys did not value depth of water. The capacity -of the bay of Marmorice will be best comprehended, when we remind our -readers that Nelson anchored his whole fleet within it, just before the -battle of the Nile. Not far from this was CAUNUS, the ancient capital of -a population whom Herodotus held were not Carians; indeed, their coins -and architecture seem to prove them Lycians. The site of Caunus has been -identified, there being still considerable monumental remains and walls -of so-called Cyclopean masonry. The Caunians were an active and high- -spirited race, and made a gallant resistance to the Persians, a few -years later joining with equal enthusiasm in the great Ionian revolt -(Herod. v. 103). Towards the close of the Peloponnesian war we find -Caunus constantly mentioned. Having been rejected by the Romans in a -petition against Rhodes, they conceived against them the bitterest -hatred, and hence carried out with great atrocity the massacre of the -Romans planned by Mithradates (Appian, Mithr. c. 23). Caunus was so -unhealthy in the summer that “pale-faced Caunians” became a proverb. - -STRATONICEA (now Eski-hissar), one of the chief inland towns of Caria -and mainly built by Antiochus Soter, derived its name from his wife -Stratonice. The great Mithradates married thence his wife Monima. Not -far from the town was the famous temple of Jupiter Chrysaorius, the -centre of the political union of the Carian states. Stratonicea has been -much explored by travellers; and, so early as 1709, Mr. Consul Sherard -presented to the Earl of Oxford a book of Greek inscriptions copied by -him at various places in Asia Minor. This volume is now in the Harleian -collection. The most important monument of the town is the celebrated -edict of Diocletian—in Greek and Latin—the first copy of which, by -Sherard, is in the volume just mentioned. The late Colonel Leake[49] has -shown that its date is about A.D. 303, and its object to direct those -engaged in the traffic of provisions not to exceed certain fixed prices -in times of scarcity. Fellows states that the names of many of the -articles of food enumerated therein are still used by the peasantry of -Asia Minor. _Inter alia_, we learn that silken garments were in common -use, as Ammianus[50] pointed out, seventy years later; as also the rough -coat or _birrhus_, the _caracallis_, or hooded cloak (afterwards adopted -by the monks), the Gallic breeches and socks. The late date of the -inscription is shown by its barbarous Latinity, above all, by the -reduced value of the _drachma_ or _denarius_. Thus a denarius appears as -the equivalent of a single oyster, or of the hundredth part of a lean -goose! The names of the provisions recorded not only indicate the -ordinary food of the people, but also the costly dainties of the -epicure. Thus several kinds of honey, of hams, of sausages,[51] of salt -and fresh-water fish, of asparagus and of beans, are noted. Gibbon has -not failed to notice this inscription, though, in his day, it had been -very imperfectly copied. - -Footnote 49: - - See Trans. Roy. Soc. of Literature, 1st series, 4to. vol. i. p. 181. - 1826. - -Footnote 50: - - Ammianus was not acquainted with the true origin of silk. He still - describes it, as did Virgil and Pliny, as a sort of woolly substance - (_lanugo_) combed from a tree in China. - -Footnote 51: - - The derivation of the word “sausage” may not be generally known. - “Icicium” means “minced meat”; “salsum icicium,” the same salted. From - the latter comes the Italian _salsiccio_, the French _saucisse_, and - the English sausage. So _jecur ficatum_ (Greek, συκωτὸν), hog’s liver, - derived from the fattening of geese with figs (“pinguibus et ficis - pastum jecur anseris albi,” Horat. Satir. ii. 8, 88) is preserved in - the Italian _fegato_ and the modern Greek συκώτι, used for liver in - general. It is curious to meet on a decree on the walls of a temple in - Caria with _pernæ Menapicæ_, Westphalian hams. - -APHRODISIAS was a considerable place, and, at a very late period, as -appears from Hierocles, the capital of Caria. It is but little mentioned -in ancient history, but Tacitus records that, setting forth decrees of -Cæsar and Augustus in its favour,[52] it pleaded before the Senate for -the right of sanctuary attached to its temples, when Tiberius was wisely -attempting to abridge these injurious immunities. Aphrodisias was -chiefly famous for its magnificent Ionic temple of Venus, many columns -of which are still standing. They may be seen in the third volume of the -“Ionian Antiquities,” 1840,[53] and in Mr. Pullan’s work. - -Footnote 52: - - “Dictatoris Cæsaris ob vetusta in partes merita et recens Divi Augusti - decretum” (Tacit. Ann. iii. 62). An inscription published by Chishull - in his Antiq. Asiat. (p. 152), but, we believe, first copied by - Sherard, confirms the statement of Tacitus. - -Footnote 53: - - The name of Aphrodisias was more than once changed. Thus when - Christianity began to prevail, the first change was to Tauropolis (as - is shown on an inscription copied by Fellows), and, again, to - Stauropolis (or the city of the Cross). When, however, towards the end - of the fifth century, the festivals of Venus were revived by - Asclepiodotus of Alexandria, the ancient name was revived also. - -Sir Charles Fellows has given an excellent description (Lycia, p. 32) of -the state in which he found the ruins, with a beautiful drawing of the -Ionic temple. “I never,” says he, “saw in one place so many perfect -remains, although by no means of a good age of the arts”: he thinks, -too, that the early city must have been in great measure destroyed. -“These (the later) walls are,” he adds, “composed of the remains of -temples, tombs, and theatres removed, although uninjured. The reversed -inscriptions, and inverted bas-reliefs bear testimony to this change.” -Sir Charles Fellows quotes one inscription as showing how carefully the -owners of these tombs endeavoured to secure their preservation and sole -occupancy. “But if,” says the legend, “contrary to these directions, -anybody shall bury another (in this monument), let him be accursed, and -besides pay into the most holy treasury 5,000 denarii, of which one- -third is to be his who institutes the proceedings.” Inscriptions with -similar curses are, indeed, common enough. - -MYLASA _and_ LABRANDA may be taken together, as from the former a Sacred -Way led to Labranda. The former was, no doubt, in early times one of the -chief places in Caria, before Halicarnassus was adopted as the royal -residence; indeed, we find a proof of this in the fact that it had a -temple to which Lydians and Mysians were alike admitted (Herod, i. 171). -Physcus, to which we have already referred was considered as its port. -Mylasa, in ancient times, as Strabo avers, a city of great beauty, owed -much to its having been built close to a mountain of the finest white -marble. It was, indeed, so close, that one of the provincial governors -observed that the founder of the town ought to have been ashamed of his -blunder, if not frightened.[54] It was, also, so full of sacred -buildings, that when Stratonicus came there, thinking there were more -temples than people, he exclaimed, in the middle of the forum, “Hear, oh -ye temples”! (Athen. viii. p. 348). - -Footnote 54: - - Strabo’s words are: Ταύτην γὰρ, ἔφη, τὴν πόλιν ὁ κτίσας εἰ μὴ - ἐφοβεῖτο, ἆρ’ οὐδ’ ᾐσχύνετο; (xiv. 659). - -The people of Mylasa having made a successful resistance to the attacks -of Philip, the son of Demetrius, were rewarded by being made “free” by -the Romans. Modern travellers, from Pococke to Chandler, fully confirm -the statements of the ancients as to the abundance of marble monuments; -and Colonel Leake adds that, since they were there, the Turks have -pulled down the best ruin, that of the Temple of Romulus and Augustus. -Sir Charles Fellows, on his second journey, observed on the key-stone of -a gateway the double-headed axe (bipennis), indicating that the building -to which it belonged had once been consecrated to the Jupiter of -Labranda, a name said to have been derived from λαβρὺς, the Carian word -for an axe;[55] and succeeded, also, in identifying it (pp. 66-67). He -says of it, “The only conspicuous building of the place is a beautiful -temple of the Corinthian order, but I think not of the finest age.... It -stands in a recess in the hills, and is consequently not seen without -approaching close to it.”[56] - -Footnote 55: - - Strabo calls the temple νεὠς άρχαῖος, and Herodotus adds that there - was a holy grove of plane-trees near it, ἅγιον ἂλσος πλατανίστων (v. - 119). Plutarch (ii. p. 302 A) states that λαβρὺς was the Lydian and - Carian word for axe (which we find represented also on the coins of - Mausolus and Pixodarus). On one of the Oxford marbles (ii. 12), - probably an altar, occur the words Διός Λαβραύνδου. - -Footnote 56: - - Since Sir Charles’s visit, this spot has been carefully examined by - Mr. Pullan, who states that the building (of which the fifteen columns - still stand) is really of Roman times and work, though engraved (under - the auspices of Dr. Chandler) as a Greek temple in the “Ionian - Antiquities,” vol. i. (Pullan, “Ruins of Asia Minor,” p. 26). - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CHAPTER III. - -Xanthus—Sir Charles Fellows—Telmessus—Patara—Pinara—Myra—Tlos and - Antiphellus—Attalia—Perge—Eurymedon—Aspendus—Side—Termessus—Cremna— - Sagalassus—Selge—Antioch of Pisidia—Tarsus—Coracesium—Laertes—Selinus— - Anemurium—Celenderis—Seleuceia—Corycus—Soli—Adana—Mallus—Mopsuestia— - Anazarbus—Issus. - - -WE come now to _Lycia_, of which many of the most important monuments -are now in the Lycian room at the British Museum—for the most part the -records of its chief town, XANTHUS—and all procured by Sir Charles -Fellows. A few less valuable remains, were, at the same time, obtained -from other Lycian towns. - -The chief value of the monuments from _Lycia_ lies in this, that, while -they exhibit many well-executed pieces of sculpture, interesting as a -local or provincial rendering of Greek work of the middle of the fourth -century B.C., they comprise, also, a few slabs, as, for instance, those -from the Harpy tomb, of a genuine Archaic type. - -Xanthus, the town from which the greater part of the monuments about to -be described have been secured, underwent remarkable vicissitudes of -fortune, some of which, it has been thought, are indicated on its -sculptures. Originally, it was a Cretan colony settled at or near -Xanthus; hence we read, in the Iliad, of Sarpedon and Glaucus, as the -leaders of the Lycians in the Trojan army, and of the body of the former -being carried back by Sleep and Death to Lycia to be honoured with a -_stele_ and tomb. Pandarus, too, the celebrated archer, is also a -Lycian. On the overthrow of Crœsus, Harpagus, Cyrus’s general, was sent -to reduce Lycia with a mixed force of Persians, Dorians, and Ionians; -the Glaucidæ, or royal family of Lycia, having vigorously supported the -Ionians in their resistance to Cyrus. - -On this occasion Xanthus made a memorable defence. It is said that, when -driven from the plain by the united forces of the Persian and -confederate army, its people took refuge in their citadel, and, -collecting therein their wives, children, and treasures, burnt them, at -the same time falling to a man in a furious sally upon their enemies -(Herod, i. 176). That the Persian success was complete, we know from the -fact, that, sixty years later, the then Xanthians sent fifty ships to -the aid of Xerxes, and continued, subsequently, to pay an annual tax to -the Persian monarchs.[57] Yet their courage was not subdued; for when -Alexander, after his victory over the Persians at the Graneicus, -descended into Lycia, at Xanthus, and there alone, he met with an -obstinate resistance. - -Footnote 57: - - It has been suggested (see Rawlinson’s Herodotus, i. p. 312) that the - family of Harpagus continued to govern Lycia, and that the Xanthian - obelisk (to which we shall presently refer) was erected soon after the - battle of Eurymedon, B.C. 466. But “son of Harpagus,” on that - monument, may easily mean no more than his descendant, just as Jehu - was called “the son of Omri.” - -In the subsequent war, the Xanthians supported Antigonus; hence the -assault and capture of the town by Ptolemy; and, during the war between -Brutus and the Triumvirs, the former entered Lycia, and a bloody attack -on, and siege of, Xanthus were the natural results. We are told, that on -this occasion, the people of the town did as they had done before when -assaulted by Harpagus, destroying themselves, their wives, and their -children, in a similar holocaust. Subsequently, we hear little of -Xanthus, except that it suffered severely from the two great earthquakes -in the days of Tiberius and Antoninus Pius. The town of Xanthus was -situated on the left bank of the Sirbes[58] or Sirbus, called Xanthus or -the Yellow by the Greeks; at a distance of between 6 and 7 miles from -the sea. On the highest point was the Acropolis, a Roman work, built -chiefly out of the ruins of the older town. On the brow of the hill -stood what has been called the Harpy tomb. - -Footnote 58: - - Dionysius Periegetes testifies to both names: - - Σίβρῳ ἐπ’ ἀργυρέῳ ποταμῷ ... - - and - - Ξάνθου ἐπί προχοῇσιν ... κ. τ. λ. (v. 847.) - -[Illustration: - - PERSIAN SATRAP SEATED. -] - -The monuments found at Xanthus may be arranged under the head of (1) the -so-called Ionic trophy monument,[59] (2) Miscellaneous reliefs, (3) -Tombs. The first stands on the east side of the city, and was -constructed of white marble on a basement of grey Lycian stone. Two or -more friezes had once surrounded it, representing contests between -warriors fully armed after the Greek fashion, or more lightly clad in -tunics or naked, and wearing helmets. Sir C. Fellows imagines he can -recognize, in some cases, the loose-robed bearded Lycians, with their -peculiar arms and _curtained_ shields,[60] the battle being that in the -plains recorded by Herodotus.[61] Asiatics are certainly represented on -some of the slabs with the pointed cap or cydaris, while, on other slabs -is an attack on the main gate of a strongly-fortified town. On another -relief is a Persian satrap seated, with the umbrella, or symbol of -sovereignty, over his head, and on other slabs, are indications of a -sortie from the city and of its repulse. The city may or may not be -Xanthus itself, but, within the walls, are well-known monuments of that -town, upright square pillars or _stelæ_, four of which are -represented.[62] The “Trophy monument,” which has been cleverly restored -by Sir Charles Fellows, as a peripteral tetrastyle temple, may be seen -in the Lycian room in the British Museum. We regret, however, we cannot -accept his view, that the subject of these sculptures is the capture of -Xanthus by Harpagus, as this event took place in B.C. 545; while none of -these reliefs can be as early as B.C. 400.[63] - -Footnote 59: - - On the whole, it seems most likely that this monument was the - sanctuary of some local hero, possibly of the original founder or - leader (οἰκιστής or ἀρχηγέτης), like the Theseum at Athens. It might, - therefore, have been the Harpageum, or memorial of Harpagus, or of the - Harpagi. Mr. Benjamin Gibson has supposed that the “Trophy monument” - was intended to commemorate “the conquest of Lycia by the united - forces of the Persians and Ionians” (Mus. of Class. Antiq. vol. i. - 132); and Mr. Watkiss Lloyd has published an able memoir on it, - entitled “Xanthian Marbles—the Nereid Monument.” - -Footnote 60: - - This “curtain” was a sort of appendage attached to the lower end of - the shield, and was intended to protect the legs from stones. It was - called λαισήἲον, and is mentioned in Hom. Il. v. 453: - - ἀσπίδας ἐυκὐκλους λαισήϊά τε πτερόεντα. - - A vase published by Inghirami well represents the usual character of - this appendage. Millingen supposes the subject of this vase to be - “Antiope leading Theseus to the walls of Themiscyra.” (Cf. Müller, - Arch. d. Kunst, § 342.) - -Footnote 61: - - Some of these scenes may refer to real events in the history of - Xanthus; and the Oriental chief, too, on the “Trophy” monument would - seem to be aided by Greek mercenaries. - -Footnote 62: - - It has been suggested that the so-called _triquetra_ on the Lycian - coins, consisting of three curved objects, like sickles or elephant- - goads, or the _harpa_ (ἅρπη) of Perseus, joined in the centre, is - emblematic of the name of Harpagus. Such “canting heraldry” (as in the - case of _Arpi_ in Apulia, and of _Zancle_ in Sicily) is not, however, - accepted by the best numismatists as of approved Greek use, though - possible enough among a semi-Oriental population. - -Footnote 63: - - The plate on the opposite page must not be considered as more than a - possible arrangement of some of the sculptures found. - -2. The Miscellaneous reliefs found in and about the Acropolis are -chiefly relics of much older buildings; they are generally in the rough, -gritty stone of the country, and have some resemblance to early Greek -work, especially to the sculptures from Assos. Their chief subjects are -a lion devouring a deer, and a satyr, the size of life, running along -the ground. - -[Illustration: - - IONIC TROPHY MONUMENT. -] - -3. The Tombs. The tomb-system, so to speak, as developed in Lycia, is a -striking characteristic of that province, and has been, therefore, -carefully studied by Sir Charles Fellows, who has classed them, -according to their forms, under the heads of Obelisk, Gothic, and -Elizabethan. The first, as the name implies, is simply a square block -surmounted by a cap and cornice; the second and third have lancet-head -tops or deep mullioned recesses, respectively. Of the two first the -British Museum has excellent specimens; the third was chiefly used for -carvings on the face of solid rocks. All alike exhibit imitations of -wooden structures with panelled doors, bossed nails, and knockers -suspended from lions’ mouths. One of these tombs, the so-called Harpy -tomb, from its great curiosity, we must notice somewhat fully. It -consists of a square column about 17½ feet high, in one piece of stone, -surmounted by a series of bas-reliefs, forming the walls of a square -chamber, seven feet each way, and having a small door on its west side. -On these walls are representations of Harpies, between whom, in each -case, is a group consisting of one seated and one standing figure. There -is reason to suppose the subject of these reliefs a local myth, and, as -the daughters of a Lycian hero, Pandarus, are said to have been carried -off by Harpies, this is not improbably the subject here. Harpies are -usually, as here, indicated with the faces, breasts, and hands of women, -and with bodies and feet of vultures. It is possible that this _stele_ -may have been the tomb of some prince of the royal family of Lycia, who -claimed descent from the mythical hero, Pandarus. No certain date can be -assigned to it; but, had it been executed in Attica instead of Lycia, -B.C. 530 would not have been too early for it. In any case, its -execution must have preceded the Persian conquest of Lycia. - -One of the most interesting of the Gothic tombs is that of a man whose -name has been read Paiafa, and who was, probably a satrap of Lycia. The -top of this structure much resembles an inverted boat, with a high ridge -running along it, like a keel. On each side of the roof is an armed -figure in a _quadriga_;[64] on the north side, below the _tympanum_, the -Satrap is seated as a judge, his dress and general appearance being the -same as that of the Persian on the Trophy monument. - -Footnote 64: - - Herodotus remarks that the people of Bithynia carried two Lycian - spears, and had helmets of brass, on the summits of which were the - ears and horns of an ox. Cf. also, on coins, the helmet of Eukratides, - king of Bactriana. - -In concluding these notes on Xanthus, we may allude to some casts from a -tomb at Pinara, hard by, carved on the face of the solid rock. Sir -Charles Fellows states that, in the centre of this city, there rises a -round rocky cliff, speckled all over with tombs, many of them being only -oblong holes, and quite inaccessible. One cast gives the representation -of a walled city with tombs, towers, gates, and walls; the battlements, -on the whole, much resembling the town shown on the “Trophy monument.” -Another cast gives the interior of the portico of a rock tomb at Tlos, -with Bellerophon, one of the heroes of Lycia, triumphing over the -Chimæra. - -It only remains for us to notice the famous _Inscribed Stele_, the -longest inscription yet met with in the Lycian character, and containing -a notice of a son of Harpagus, and the names of several Lycian towns. On -the north side, between the lines of Lycian characters, is a Greek -inscription in twelve hexameter lines,[65] the first from an epigram of -Simonides (B.C. 556), and a notice of the achievements of this son of -Harpagus. The whole inscription consists of about 250 lines. - -Footnote 65: - - Colonel Leake (Trans. of the Roy. Soc. of Literature, vol. ii. 1844) - has given a translation of the twelve lines in Greek, showing that - this monument was erected by a certain Datis, called a son of - Harpagus. It states that he had gained the highest honours in the - Carian games, and had slain “in one day seven heavy-armed soldiers, - men of Arcadia.” The epigram of Simonides (Anthol. Brunck. vol. i. p. - 134) commemorates the battles at Cyprus and on the Eurymedon, B.C. - 470. Another conjecture is that the son of Harpagus was called Sparsis - (Leake, ibid. p. 32). Colonel Leake thinks the date of the inscription - not earlier than B.C. 400. - -Over the other towns of LYCIA, TELMESSUS, PATARA, PINARA, MYRA, TLOS, -and ANTIPHELLUS, it is not necessary for us to dwell at any great -length, the more so that they were not, historically, of great -importance, and are to us only interesting for the remains of art still -visible on the spot. - -TELMESSUS was on the coast, and is now represented by the village of -Makri.[66] In ancient times it was famous for the skill of its augurs. -Herodotus tells us they were often consulted by the kings of Lydia, and -especially by Crœsus; and Arrian ascribes to them a remote antiquity. -Their reputation long survived; for Cicero speaks of the town thus:— -“Telmessus in Caria est quâ in urbe excellit haruspicum disciplina” (De -Divin. i. 41). In early Christian times it had a bishop. Telmessus has -been fully described by Dr. Clarke and Sir Charles Fellows. Its -monumental remains are almost wholly tombs; but these are, many of them, -remarkable for their beauty, as also for the extraordinary labour -bestowed on them in cutting them out of the face of the rock. Sir -Charles Fellows makes the curious remark, that, though the Greek -population of Lycia were mainly Dorians, he did not meet with any tombs -or other monuments unquestionably of the Doric order. - -Footnote 66: - - Fellows remarks that the Meio of the maps and of the “Modern - Traveller” (supposed, too, by Cramer to be a corruption of Telmessus) - is not known in the country. - -PATARA, on the left bank of the river Xanthus, was chiefly celebrated -for its worship and temples of the Lycian Apollo, known by the -appellation of Patareus.[67] According to Herodotus (i. 182), the -priestess who delivered it was shut up in the temple every night, but -the oracular responses were only occasional. The Pataræan oracle was -very ancient, and considered scarcely inferior to that of Delphi. -Captain Beaufort, in his account of Karamania, places the remains of -Patara[68] near the shore, and notices “a deep circular pit of singular -appearance, which may have been the seat of the oracle.” Fellows alludes -to “a beautiful small temple about the centre of the ruined city,” with -a doorway “of beautiful Greek workmanship, ornamented in the Corinthian -style, and in fine proportion and scale.” The port of Patara, which was -too small to contain the combined fleet of the Romans and Rhodians under -Regillus in the war with Antiochus (Liv. xxxvii. 17) is now completely -overgrown with brushwood, &c. The theatre is shown by an inscription to -have been built (more probably rebuilt) in the fourth consulate of -Antoninus Pius, A.D. 145. - -Footnote 67: - - Hor. Od. iii. 4, 62: Delius aut Patareus Apollo. Stat. Theb. i. 696: - - ... Seu te Lyciæ Pataræa nivosis - Exercent dumeta jugis. - - Virg. Æn. iv. 143: - - Qualis ubi hibernam Lyciam Xanthique fluenta - Deserit, ac Delum maternam invisit Apollo. - - On which passage Servius makes the remark that the oracles were - delivered alternately,—during the winter months at Patara, and during - the summer at Delos. - -Footnote 68: - - Cicero uses the Ethnic form Pataranus (Orat. in Flacc. c. 32). - -PINARA, at the foot of Mount Cragus, was another of the six Lycian towns -in which divine honours were paid to the hero Pandarus, Homer’s -celebrated archer: its name is said to be a Lycian word for a round hill -(v. Ἀρτύμνησος, ap. Ptol.; Plin. v. 28; Hierocl. p. 684); and such a -hill, pierced everywhere for tombs, Fellows found, as we have stated, in -the very centre of it. Such a physical feature would not have been -overlooked by any Greeks. He adds that “the whole city appears to be of -one date and people,” the inscriptions being generally in the Lycian -character.[69] The carvings on the rock-tombs here, judging from the -drawing he gives (p. 141), are of much interest and beauty. - -Footnote 69: - - Colonel Leake (Roy. Soc. Lit. i. p. 267) was of the opinion that the - Lycian characters were modifications of Archaic Greek. - -MYRA, sometimes called Andriace (whence the modern _Andraki_), was, -according to Appian, a place of some note, and it is still remarkable -for the beauty and richness of its rock-cut tombs (Pullan). The Sacred -historian of St. Paul’s journeyings writes that, after quitting Sidon -and Cyprus, “when we had sailed over the Sea of Cilicia and Pamphylia, -we came to Myra, a city of Lycia; and there the centurion found a ship -of Alexandria sailing into Italy, and he put us therein” (Acts xxvii. 5, -6). Myra, at a late period, seems to have been the metropolis of the -province (Malala, Chron. xiv.; Hierocl. p. 684). A Nicholas, Bishop of -Myra, is also mentioned (Const. Porphyr. Themist. 14). Colonel Leake -observes that, on the banks of the river by which Lucullus ascended to -Myra, are the ruins of a large building, which, from an inscription, -appears to have been a granary, erected in the time of Hadrian;[70] and -Fellows adds that “the tombs are generally very large, and all appear to -have been for families, some having small chambers, one leading to the -other, and some highly interesting from their interior peculiarities of -arrangement.” Many bas-reliefs within the porticos of the tombs still -retain their original colour, as may be seen on the casts from them in -the British Museum. - -Footnote 70: - - Beaufort gives a minute description of this building, and states that - it is 200 feet long, with walls 20 feet high. The inscription on it, - “HORREA IMP. CAESARIS DIVI TRAIANI HADRIANI,” &c., proves that it has - been a granary: it was divided into seven separate compartments. - -TLOS and ANTIPHELLUS, though occasionally mentioned in ancient times, -had been well-nigh forgotten till these and other sites were diligently -sought out by modern travellers. Leake speaks of the latter as -containing a theatre nearly complete, with many catacombs and -sarkophagi, some very large and magnificent; and Fellows thinks the -tombs here the largest in Lycia. “The rocks for miles round,” he says, -“are strewn with their fragments, and many hundreds are still standing, -apparently unopened.” - -TLOS, of which we know little more than that it lay on the road to -Cibyra, was first accurately determined by Sir Charles Fellows, who -considered the original city must have been demolished in very early -times, as “finely-wrought fragments are now seen built into the strong -walls which have fortified the town raised upon its ruins.” The theatre -was the most highly-finished he had seen, for the seats were not only of -polished marble, but each seat had an overhanging cornice, often -supported by lions’ paws. An inscription found there records the name of -Sarpedon, showing that the name of the mythical hero of Lycia was still -preserved among the people. The name for tomb at Tlos is always Heroum. - -As the provinces are so closely connected, we shall take _Pamphylia_ and -_Pisidia_ together, simply selecting from them such sites as seem of the -highest interest. We shall, therefore, notice first ATTALIA (the modern -Adalia), although there has been some dispute among geographers whether -Adalia does really occupy the site of the old city: the true course of a -stream called Catarrhactes,[71] from its plunging headlong over -precipices into the sea, being still undetermined, has mainly led to -this confusion. The probability is that, owing to the agency of -earthquakes, the coastline has been much changed during the last 2,000 -years; moreover, Colonel Leake and others believe the calcareous matter -brought down, in this period by the different streams, sufficient to -cause the cessation of any such cascade, the main stream having been -also much diverted to fertilize the gardens round the town. The physical -changes have in fact, been so great, that it is more wonderful that -anything can be determined on a certain and satisfactory basis. Captain -Beaufort thought the modern town occupied the site of Olbia.[72] On the -other hand, Leake considered Adalia the representative of Attalia, and -that Olbia would probably be found in some part of the plain which -extends for seven miles from the modern Adalia to the foot of Mount -Solyma. Attalia derived its name from Attalus Philadelphus. From it, St. -Paul and St. Barnabas, on their return, sailed to the Syrian Antioch -(Acts xiv. 25). In later times it was the seat of a bishopric. It is now -the principal southern Turkish port of Asia Minor, and has many ancient -remains. Leake remarks on “the walls and other fortifications, the -magnificent gate or triumphal arch, bearing an inscription in honour of -Hadrian, an aqueduct, and the numerous fragments of sculpture and -architecture.” Fellows adds:—“Adalia, which is called by the Turks -_Atalia_, I prefer to any Turkish town that I have yet visited; every -house has its garden, and consequently the town has the appearance of a -wood, and of what?—orange, lemon, fig, vine, mulberry, all cultivated -with the artificial care of a town garden, and now (April 3) in fresh -spring beauty.” It was from Attalia, or from its neighbourhood, that -Mark “turned back”[73] (Acts xiii. 13). - -Footnote 71: - - Colonel Leake remarks that, after heavy rains, the river precipitates - itself copiously over the cliffs near the projecting point of the - coast, a little to the west of Laara. - -Footnote 72: - - “The delightful situation of this place,” says he, “appears to have - been clearly alluded to in the ancient name Olbia, derived from the - adjective ὄλβιος, blessed or happy” (Karamania, p. 137). - -Footnote 73: - - Mr. Davis notices the great gate, the inside of it being “ceiled” with - small squares of fine white marble and bearing the curious - inscription, τὸ ἔργον τῆς πλακώσεως τῆς πύλης—Πλάκωσις does not occur - in classical Greek; but πλάξ is a flat surface, and πλακόω is to cover - with such pieces. Hence, πλακώτης μαρμάρου is one who overlays with - marble. In the commencement of their journey Attalia is not mentioned - by name, but only Perga (Acts xiii. 13). - -Nearly due N. of Attalia was PERGE, famous in olden times for the temple -and worship of Artemis Pergæa.[74] The date of the city is uncertain, -but it lasted, as an ecclesiastical centre, till late in the Byzantine -times. Alexander, in his march eastwards, occupied Perge, finding, as -might have been expected, much difficulty in his advance through the -adjacent mountains; St. Paul, too, and St. Barnabas were here twice; -first, on their way from Cyprus; and, secondly, on their return to -Syria. The ruins noticed by General Köhler, at a place called _Eski -Kalesi_, were probably those of this place. The theatre and stadium are -still quite perfect. On these walls and other buildings the Greek shield -is constantly carved, reminding the spectator of the passage in Ezekiel, -xxvii. 11, “They hanged their shields upon thy walls round about.” - -Footnote 74: - - Perge is mentioned in Callimachus’s Hymn to Diana, v. 187: - - Νήσων μὲν Δολίχη, πολίωνδέ τοι εὐαδε Πέργη; - - and in Dionysius Periegetes, v. 854: - - Ἄλλαι δ’ ἐξείης Παμφυλίδες είσἱ πόληες - Κώρυκος, Πέργη τε, καἱ ἠνεμόεσσα Φάσηλις. - -Passing along the coast to the east we come to the EURYMEDON, physically -a small stream, yet celebrated in history for the double defeat, on one -and the same day, of the Persians by Cimon. The Persian ships were drawn -up at the mouth of the river, but, at the first attack, the crews fled -to the shore. Cimon then landed his men, and after a severe struggle the -camp and baggage were taken (Thucyd. i. 100; Plut. Vit. Cimon.). Some -years later, a Rhodian fleet anchored off its mouth before attacking the -fleet of Antiochus, then commanded by Hannibal (Livy, xxxvii.). The -entrance of this stream is now completely blocked up by a bar.[75] - -Footnote 75: - - Dr. Arnold has shown that, in the account in Thucyd. i. 100, the - phrase διέφθειραν τἁς πάσας ὲς τὰς διακοσίας means that the number of - the ships destroyed by the Athenians was, in all, 200, not that there - were no more, as some writers have supposed. - -On the Eurymedon was seated the old Argive town of ASPENDUS, some of the -coins of which read, barbarously, ΕΣΤFΕΔΝΥΣ. Thucydides speaks of it as -a seaport; but he, probably, means that it was a boat-station at the -mouth of the river. Aspendus is noticed by Arrian, and was the place -where Thrasybulus was slain in his tent by the natives; it is also -mentioned in the campaign of Manlius (Liv. xxxviii.; Polyb. xxii.).[76] -Mr. Pullan gives a beautiful drawing of its theatre, which is by far the -most perfect in Asia Minor. One other place of considerable reputation -in Pamphylia must be briefly noted; viz. SIDE, a colony of the Cumæans -of Æolis, and remarkable for the fact that, soon after they came there -they forgot their native Greek tongue, and spoke a barbarous jargon. It -was off this town the battle was fought when the fleet of Antiochus, -under Hannibal, was utterly routed by the Rhodians. When, somewhat -later, the pirates of Cilicia became so formidable, Side was one of -their chief harbours, and one of the markets where they disposed of -their ill-gotten plunder. Side was in Roman times the capital of -_Pamphylia prima_, and was still in existence when Hierocles wrote. -Capt. Beaufort found it utterly deserted; but its remains would seem to -be very striking, especially its outer walls and theatre, which is not -less than 409 feet in external diameter, with a perpendicular height, -from the area, of 79 feet: all its seats are, Capt. Beaufort says, of -white marble, and the building could have held 13,370 persons, sitting -comfortably; it is, he adds, “in a very perfect state; few of the seats -have been disturbed, even the stairs are, in general, passable.” The -same observer considered that, at some later period, this great -structure had been converted into a fortress, as walls, with towers and -gates, but of inferior work, now extend to the seashore. - -Footnote 76: - - From Dionys. Perieg. 852, it would seem that Venus had a peculiar - worship there—for ἔνθα συοκτονίῃσι Διωναίην ἱλάονται. - -Our knowledge of the ancient geography of _Pisidia_ is mostly derived -from Arrian’s notice of Alexander’s march, from Livy’s account of the -expedition of C. Manlius Vulso, and from the details in Polybius of the -hostilities carried on by Garsyeris, the general of Achæus, against the -people of TERMESSUS, one of its chief cities. At the time Manlius was -approaching this town the Termessians were in open war with the people -of Isionda or Isinda, and, having captured this city, were besieging the -citadel. The Roman general was not sorry to have so good a pretext for -interfering; hence his march on Isinda, his relief of that city, and his -fining the Termessians fifty talents. A glance at the map suggests that -he must have come in, by the defiles of Milyas, near a place now called -Al-Malu. The presumed ruins of Isinda have been noticed by M. Coransez, -as extending over nearly a square league, and as remarkable for their -massive structure. - -TERMESSUS itself was evidently at the entrance of the defiles whereby -Pisidia communicates with Pamphylia and Lycia. Arrian says that “the men -of Termessus occupy a site very lofty and precipitous on every side, the -road passing close to the city being very difficult, as the mountain -reaches down from the city to the road. There is over against this, -another mountain not less precipitous, and these form a gate, as it -were, on the road,” &c. This statement is fully confirmed by the -observation of General Köhler (ap. Leake, Asia Minor, pp. 133-135): “The -two great ranges on the west and north of the plains of Adalia,” says -he, “now approach each other, and, at length, are only divided by the -passes through which the river finds its way. The road, however, leaves -this gorge to the right, and ascends the mountain by a paved and winding -causeway, a work of great labour and ingenuity.”[77] Alexander the -Great, it would seem, despaired of taking the town; or, possibly, -thought its siege would detain him too long; he, however, forced the -defiles, passing on to the north to Cormasa, Cremna, and Sagalassus, a -course probably pursued by Manlius subsequently.[78] CREMNA, where, -owing to its great natural strength, the Romans placed a colony (Strab. -xii. 569), has been carefully examined by Mr. Davis (“Anatolica,” p. -182), who gives also a plan, showing the construction of this remarkable -fortress. His description is as follows:[79] “It (Kremna) is a plateau -of limestone, which is bounded on three sides by precipices, some -extremely deep and abrupt.” - -Footnote 77: - - There is some confusion between the two Termessi, one of which is - apparently to the left of the road passing W. and N.W. from Adalia. - This we think was _Termessus Minor_—the _Almalu_ of Mr. Davis. The - more important place, _Termessus Major_ (on its coins μείζων), was at - the head of the pass described. These views are confirmed by Eustath. - and Dion. Perieg. v. 858, Stephan. Byzant., and Hierocles. At a later - period, the see of Termessus had united with it the churches of two - other places—Jovia and Eudocia. - -Footnote 78: - - Cramer and some other geographers place Cremna to _the N._ as well as - the E. of Sagalassus, where it _could not have been_. - -Footnote 79: - - The description in Arundell, vol. ii. pp. 59, &c., shows that he had - explored the same ruins forty years before Mr. Davis, under the idea - they were those of Selge, though, on his plate, he adds the words, - “Acropolis of Germe—Cremna.” Colonel Leake, too, suggested that - “Germe” was perhaps a corruption of “Cremna.” Had Mr. Arundell - reflected on an inscription he himself copied there ... ΛΔΗ ... ΝΑΤΩΝ, - he might have seen that the last word could naturally be supplied as - ΚΡΗΜΝΑΤΩΝ—“of the people of Kremna.” Zosimus says the winding path up - to the fortress was called by the natives the _Snail_. - -“From it,” he adds, “the country inclined rapidly in its general -formation to the valley of the Kestrus, which must have been at least -5,000 feet below us.... Most of the buildings of the city lay to the -N.W. of our point of ascent. On the N.E. and N. was an extensive open -space cultivated, but with many oak trees and with much underwood -scattered over it.” ... Zosimus (A.D. 425) relates the history of the -blockade of Kremna by a Roman army. It had been occupied by Lydius, an -Isaurian free-booter, and his provisions falling short, he caused a part -of the plateau to be sowed with corn. A great double gate is the only -structure still standing, and, as all the columns have fallen exactly in -the same direction, Mr. Davis reasonably conjectures they were -overthrown by a single shock of an earthquake. Some well-paved streets -are traceable, one 18 feet wide, with tombs and corridors running along -each side. It is curious that a place so remarkable, physically, is -scarcely mentioned by ancient writers. Thus, it is not noticed in the -campaign of Alexander, who must have passed under it, but it was taken -by Strabo’s contemporary, the Galatian Amyntas (xii. 569),[80] and was -still later, as we have stated, a Roman colony with the title “Colonia -Julia Augusta Cremna.” Its name is obviously derived from κρημνός, an -overhanging precipice.[81] Kremna was a Christian bishopric, but only -one of its bishops, Theodorus, is recorded. - -Footnote 80: - - Αμύντας ... πολλὰ χωρία ἐξεῖλεν, ἀπόρθητα πρότερον ὄντα, ὧν καὶ Κρῆμνα - (Strab. xii. 569). - -Footnote 81: - - Zosimus’s description is exactly to the point:—Κρήμναν ... ἐν - ἀποκρήμνῳ τε κειμἐνην καὶ κατἁ μέρος χαράδραις βαθυτάταις ὠχυρωμένην - (i. c. 69). - -SAGALASSUS was taken by Alexander, after a severe conflict, the result -being, says Arrian, that all the rest of Pisidia submitted to his arms -(i. 28). On the other hand, Manlius contented himself with ravaging the -territory around it; thereby compelling the Sagalassians to pay a heavy -contribution both of money and produce. Both Arrian and Livy bear -testimony to the warlike and independent character of the mountaineers -of this part of Asia Minor; while Strabo adds that it passed over to the -Romans, as one of the towns of Amyntas, the tetrarch of Lycaonia. -Sagalassus is further noticed by Pliny and Ptolemy, and, in Christian -times, was a bishopric. Some magnificent ruins, at a great height above -the plain, have been proved by Mr. Arundell to be those of this place, -as he found there an inscription reading ΣΑΓΑΛΑΣΣΕΩΝ ΠΟΛΙΣ ΤΗΣ ΠΙΣΙΔΙΑΣ, -“The City of the Sagalassians of Pisidia.” The position of the old town, -as may be seen in one of the engravings in Mr. Arundell’s second -Journey, is exceedingly picturesque; and we may feel sure Arrian is -correct in stating that Alexander encountered a stiff resistance from -its inhabitants ere he forced his way into the town. - -The existing remains of Sagalassus are mostly Roman, but there is one -very old wall of polygonal masonry. One of the principal ruins, with a -portico 300 feet long by 27 feet wide, has probably been a Christian -church: there is, also, a singularly perfect theatre. The ruins of the -Christian church exhibit a building of vast proportions, constructed of -huge blocks of marble, with Corinthian columns two feet in diameter. A -large cross is cut deep into one of the blocks at the principal -entrance. Mr. Hamilton, who calls the modern village Allahsún, says that -“there is no other ruined city in Asia Minor, the situation and -extensive remains of which are so striking, or so interesting, or which -give so perfect an idea of the magnificent combination of temples, -palaces, theatres, gymnasia, fountains, and tombs which adorned the -cities of the ancient world.”[82] - -Footnote 82: - - Hamilton adds—“To the south is a high, insulated, and conical hill, - agreeing with Arrian’s description of the Acropolis, λόφος πρὸ τῆς - πόλεως—a hill in front of the city.” - -One other place in Pisidia we have yet to mention, SELGE, of old one of -its chief cities, yet, strange to say, at present unidentified, or only -so doubtfully. Originally a colony from Lacedæmon, Selge maintained -throughout its whole history the character of its founders, and, -probably, owing to better laws and government, soon surpassed all the -neighbouring towns in population and power, Strabo believing that it -once had as many as 20,000 inhabitants. Much of its success was due to -the security of its position, high among the mountains and difficult of -access. Hence, the Selgians retained their personal freedom, and, though -more than once compelled to pay heavily and deservedly for their own -aggressions, were never dispossessed of their town by actual conquest. -Naturally, they were constantly in conflict with their neighbours, -especially, with Telmessus and Pednelissus.[83] They had, however, the -sense to conciliate Alexander when he passed through their country. In -the war with Pednelissus, it would seem that, aided by the then most -powerful chief of the neighbouring country, Achæus compelled the -Selgians to sue for peace, to pay down 400 talents, to restore the -prisoners they had taken, and to give 300 talents more. Yet, in an -actual attack on the city he was repulsed with heavy loss (Polyb. v. 72- -77). The coins of Selge prove its existence till a late date. One would -have thought that such a place, would have left remains behind it amply -sufficient for its identification; yet all we can say, certainly, of it -is that it could not have been far to the east or south-east of -Sagalassus. From Zosimus, we might be led to look for it _between_ the -Cestius and Eurymedon, for Tribigildus, having crossed the latter, found -himself enclosed between it and the Melas: and possibly, Fellows did -discover it. “On this promontory,” says he, “stood one of the finest -cities that probably ever existed, now presenting magnificent wrecks of -grandeur. I rode for at least three miles through a part of the city, -which was one pile of temples, theatres, and buildings, vieing with each -other in splendour.... The material of the ruins, like those near -Alaysóon (Sagalassus) had suffered much from exposure to the elements -... but the scale, the simple grandeur, and the beauty of style bespoke -its date to be early Greek. The sculptured cornices frequently contain -groups of figures fighting, wearing helmets and body armour, with -shields and long spears.” Unfortunately, Fellows did not find a single -legible inscription, but the remains are, very likely, what Beaufort -heard of at Alaya; viz., “extensive remains of an ancient Greek city -with many temples, about fifteen hours’ distance (say 35 miles) to the -northward.”[84] Lastly, we must give an account of the Pisidian, or more -accurately, the Phrygian, Antioch, a town of the highest interest to the -Christian reader, from its connection with St. Paul’s early labours. It -is remarkable that, 50 years ago, its position was not known, though the -ancient notices of it, carefully studied, seem to point out, pretty -clearly, where it ought to have been found. Little is known of this -Antioch in early times, but it was, traditionally, a colony of Magnesia -on the Mæander. Afterwards, like almost all the towns of Eastern and -Central Asia Minor, it fell under the rule of the Seleucidæ, and, on -their overthrow, was given by the Romans to Eumenes of Pergamus as one -of the rewards for his faithful alliance. Subsequently, it was, for a -while, under Amyntas the Lycaonian. At an early period of the empire, -Antioch was known as Cæsarea, and somewhat later, according to Ulpian, -its citizens enjoyed the Jus Italicum, that is, the same privileges as -native Romans. At the time of St. Paul’s visit it was the centre of a -great commercial activity. According to Strabo, Antioch was on the south -side of the mountain boundary of Phrygia and Pisidia (p. 577), -Philomelium, a Phrygian town, being exactly to the north, the latter -standing on level ground, while Antioch stood on a small eminence.[85] -It was reserved for Mr. Arundell to show, almost certainly, its true -site,[86] and his description is exceedingly interesting. Almost his -first discovery was a “long and immense building, constructed with -prodigious stones, and standing south and west.” This was a church, not -improbably constructed on the site of the Synagogue where St. Paul -preached. “The remains of the aqueduct,” he adds, “of which twenty-one -arches are perfect, are the most splendid I ever beheld, the stones -without cement, of the same massy dimensions as the wall.” - -Footnote 83: - - It should be noted here, that the finding gold or silver coins at a - place is not _alone_ sufficient evidence for its name, though such a - discovery is a presumption in favour of it. Where, however, a large - number of small _copper_ coins are found, the presumption becomes very - strong. Obviously, gold and silver coins may, easily, pass from one - site to another, simply as objects of commerce. - -Footnote 84: - - The neighbourhood of Selge produced, and produces, two useful - botanical substances; one, the balsam of styrax or storax (liquid- - amber orientalis), the juice of an umbrageous tree like the plane. - Krinos (περὶ Στύρακος, Athens, 1862—) shows it has been correctly - described by Aetius and Paulus Ægineta in the 6th and 7th centuries. - It is noticed, also, in the Travels of the Russian Abbot of Tver, A.D. - 1113-5. The author of the “Periplus” states that, in his time, storax - went, as it does now, by way of the Red Sea to India. In India it is - called Rose Malloes (Rosa Mallas, Rosum Alloes, Rosmal), perhaps from - the Malay, Rasamala. This gum is extracted now by the Yuruk Turkomans, - and is still used in the churches and mosques of S. Asia Minor for - incense. One form of this substance is _Resina Benzoe_—_Gum Benjamin_, - or _Benzoin_ (Ibn Batuta’s Travels, A.D. 1325-49—who says it comes - from Java, and is called Java Frankincense or Camphor). The popular - name is a corruption of _Lubán Jáwi_ into _Ban-jawi_, &c. Crawfurd - thinks it the old Malabathrum. It is stated by Vasco da Gama to be a - product of Xarnuz (Siam). - - The other substance is _Rhizoma Iridis_ (popularly Orris-root), used - of old for giving a sweet odour to unguents (see Theophrastus, - Dioskorides, and Pliny). The ancient arms of Florence were a white - lily or iris on a red shield. Orris-root was used as a perfume in - England in 1480 (Wardrobe Accounts of Edward IV.), and, according to - Gerarde, was grown here. In Tuscany it is still grown under the name - of _Giaggiolo_. - -Footnote 85: - - All geographers, even Colonel Leake, seem to have gone astray here, in - their interpretation of Strabo. Thus, D’Anville placed Antioch at Ak- - Shehr (12 or 13 miles to the N., on the real site of Philomelium), and - such, too, would seem to have been the opinion of the Latin historians - of the Crusades, and even of Anna Comnena. In the Peutinger tables, a - great road is marked from Iconium to Side, with a branch to Antioch. - This is well explained, if the present _Yalobatch_ represents Antioch. - -Footnote 86: - - We do not discredit Mr. Arundell’s discovery, if we say that, in the - actual text of his travels, he rather suggests a strong probability - than proves his discovery. He did not find any inscription with the - name of the town. His argument is, however, a strong inference that no - other place in that neighbourhood, but Antioch, could have left such - vast remains. - -[Illustration: - - ANTIOCH OF PISIDIA. -] - -A little further on he met with undoubted remains of a Temple of -Bacchus, with the thyrsus or Bacchic emblem, and an inscription stating -that one Calpurnius was “High Priest for life to the most glorious god -BACCHUS.” Another building, Mr. Arundell thinks, from the number of -fluted columns, must have been a portico, “or the Temple of Lunus, or of -Men Arcæus, whose worship was established at Antioch.”[87] Le Quien, in -his “Oriens Christianus,” enumerated twenty-six bishops of Antioch. One -of these, Methodius, and six other metropolitans subscribed the protest -of the Eastern Church against the errors of Calvin. Hamilton, -subsequently, found at Antioch an inscription reading ANTIOCHEAE -CAESARE, which proves the truth of Arundell’s inferences (i. p. 474). - -Footnote 87: - - Strabo speaks of the worship of this deity (ἱεροσύνη τις Μηνὸς - Ἀρκαίου) at Antioch in olden times. It seems to have been abolished - for some time, but to have been revived in Roman days, as coins exist - with the god Lunus leaning on a column, and the legend COL. MEN. - ANTIOCH, or MENSIS. COL. CAES. ANTIOCH.; and inscriptions exist with - the name of L. Flavius Paulus—who is termed CVRATORI ARCÆ SANCTVARII. - Strabo, a native of Amasia, states that a god called Men Pharnaces was - worshipped at Cabira. From the coins we further learn, that the river - at Antioch was called Antihos or Anthos, with ANTIOCH. COL., and the - type of a woman reclining. - -CILICIA had but few towns of much importance, and these chiefly on the -coast or not far inland. Indeed, when we have mentioned Tarsus, Soli, -Mallus, and Mopsuestia, we have noticed the principal places in this -province. Of these, TARSUS[88] alone calls for any lengthened -description. Of the early history of this city little is known, but a -tradition, illustrated by one of its coins, asserted that Sardanapalus -was buried there.[89] Its situation, however, led to its becoming the -capital of Cilicia, a position it long retained. Tarsus stood on a rich -and fertile plain on both sides of the river Cydnus. Historically, it is -first noticed by Xenophon, as, in his day, a great and wealthy city, -under a Persian satrap named Syennesis, the unwise ally of Cyrus the -Younger. It remained under the Persian rule till the time of Alexander -the Great, who nearly lost his life by imprudently bathing when too hot -in the Cydnus (Curt. iii. 5; Arrian, ii. 4). In later days it was, -generally, under the Seleucidæ, though, for a brief period, subject to -the second and third Ptolemy. - -Footnote 88: - - We can see no reason for supposing Tarsus the “Tarshish” of the Bible. - It did not export the kind of produce entrusted to the “ships of - Tarshish,” while the notices of it in the Bible (Gen. x. 4; 1 Chron. - i. 7; Psalm lxxiv.; Isaiah lxvi. 19), imply a town or territory in the - far west, whence, only, some of these products (as tin), so far as we - know, were then obtainable. Hence we find the Phœnicians sailing - thither in “long ships” (Ezek. xxvii. 12, xxviii. 13; Jerem. x. 9); - while the Roman writers, as Ovid (Met. xiv. 416), Silius Italicus - (iii. 399), and Claudian (Epist. iii. v. 14), evidently use the name - Tartessus as synonymous with “West.” On the whole, it is most likely - that Tartessus in Spain (considered loosely as a district rather than - as a town) represents the Biblical Tarshish, and that “ships of - Tarshish” is a term equivalent with “Indiamen.” - -Footnote 89: - - A fine specimen of this coin (one of Antiochus VIII., king of Syria) - was in the cabinet of the late General C. R. Fox. It was found, in - 1848, in a leaden box, between Adana and Tarsus, some twenty feet - under the surface of the ground. It has been engraved by Mr. Vaux, in - his “Nineveh and Persepolis,” 4th ed. 1856, p. 62. As its type—the so- - called tomb of Sardanapalus—is found on other coins of Tarsus, as late - as the time of Gordian, it is certain this myth maintained its hold on - the popular mind for a long period. The story of the pageant of - Cleopatra (Plut. Vit. Antonii) shows that the Cydnus must, in those - days, have been navigable up to Tarsus, some eight or nine miles from - the sea. - -Supporting the cause of Cæsar, the great Julius himself paid Tarsus a -visit, when the Tarsians changed the name of their city to Juliopolis. -Augustus made it a “libera civitas.” Hence, St. Paul, her most -illustrious son, spoke truly, when he said it was “no mean city,” and -urged with equal truth and justice that he was “free-born,” while his -judge had only obtained this right “at a great price.” The fact is, its -position on the immediate confines of Syria and of Mesopotamia was of -the highest importance to the Romans in their conflict with the -Parthians and Persians. It still retains its old name, slightly modified -into Tarsous, and is still the chief city of this part of Karamania. - -Tarsus[90] was famous in early days for a remarkable class of coins, -known as Satrap-money. Among these are coins of Tiribazus, Pharnabazus, -Syennesis, and of other rulers, between B.C. 410 and B.C. 370. A -description of a coin of Pharnabazus will show their general character. -On the obverse of this silver piece is a bearded and helmeted head, -possibly the mythological type of Bellerophon or Perseus, either of -which would be appropriate to the Græco-Asiatic population of Cilicia, -and the name of Pharnabazus in Phœnician letters. On the reverse, is a -seated representation of the Jupiter of Tarsus, with the legend, _Baal- -Tarz_, evidently the _Zeus Tersios_ of the Greeks, recorded on another -coin as ΔΙΟΣ ΤΑΡΣΕΩΝ, “Of the Jupiter of the Tarsians.” The Duc de -Luynes attributed this coin to the famous Pharnabazus (B.C. 413-374), -who, originally Satrap of the N.W. district of Asia Minor, is memorable -for the steady resistance he made to the Greeks, while the ruler of -Lydia, Tissaphernes, on the other hand, accepted Lacedæmonian gold. If -so, this coin must have been struck when Pharnabazus had given (B.C. -397, 8) the command of the Persian fleet to the Athenian Conon, as -Tarsus was then the centre of the operations against Cyprus. Another -extremely rare coin of Pharnabazus, with his name in Greek, was struck -at Lampsacus in Mysia, perhaps, for the payment of the Greek mercenaries -of Artaxerxes. - -Footnote 90: - - Strabo has noted the studious habits of the Tarsians; no other city, - not even Athens and Alexandria, surpassing it in the number and - character of its schools. He adds, moreover, that the learned seldom - remained in the city, but, like St. Paul, migrated elsewhere to - complete their studies. - -The towns along the coast of Cilicia have been very carefully studied by -Captain Beaufort, who has identified many of them. The first of these, -passing from W. to E., was CORACESIUM, a place historically interesting -as having been held for a long time by Diodotus Tryphon, who, having -revolted from Antiochus, set the first example of active defiance to the -Seleucidæ; Coracesium was, also, the last place where the pirates made a -united resistance to the forces of Pompey.[91] The whole story of these -freebooters is very interesting. It is clear that their successes were -mainly due to two things; first, the peculiar fitness of their ports -along the seashore of Cilicia for prolonged resistance, with the high -range of Taurus to fall back on if over-pressed; and, secondly, to the -internecine squabbles of the kings of Cyprus, Egypt, and Syria with -themselves and with the Romans, which made it, from time to time, the -interest of each party to wink at their worst deeds. The Sacred Island -of Delos was their chief western entrepôt; the increasing luxury of the -Romans at the same time giving ample encouragement to their traffic in -slaves. - -Footnote 91: - - _Anchiale_, which Colonel Leake thought the fort of Tarsus, like that - city, claimed Sardanapalus as its founder. The legend was that - Sardanapalus, the son of Anakyndaraxes, erected, in one day, the - cities of Anchiale and Tarsus. No one, nowadays, accepts the verses - given by Strabo, relating to this Sardanapalus and his deeds, as - genuine, and Aristotle says the sentiments in them are fitter for the - grave of an ox than for the tomb of a king (Cic. Tusc. Disput. v. 35). - An early writer, Amyntas, records what recent research has shown to be - probably the truth, viz. that Sardanapalus was buried at Nineveh. - -The promontory of Alaya, identified by Captain Beaufort with Coracesium, -rises, he says, abruptly “from a low, sandy isthmus which is separated -from the mountains by a broad plain; two of its sides are cliffs of -great height, and absolutely perpendicular, indeed the eastern side, on -which the town is placed, is so steep that the houses seem to rest on -each other.” Other places along this coast eastwards are, LAERTES (the -birthplace of Diogenes Laertius), ἐπὶ λόφου μαστοειδοῦς, “on a hill, in -form like a woman’s breast,” and SELINUS, a river and a town (now -Selinty), the first of which is mentioned by Strabo, and the second by -Livy. Its later name of Trajanopolis it owed to the sudden death there -of the Emperor Trajan (A.D. 117), but, at a later period, the old name -was revived in connection with an episcopal church (Hierocles). Beaufort -speaks of its magnificent cliffs—“On the highest point of these,” he -says, “are the ruins of a castle which commands the ascent of the hill -in every direction, and looks perpendicularly down on the sea.” He -notices also several other large structures, and, among these, a -mausoleum (perhaps that of Trajan), an agora, a theatre, and an -aqueduct. The supposed mausoleum, 70 feet long and 50 feet wide, is -constructed of large well-cut blocks of stone and contains only one -vault. Cyprus, distant sixty-five miles, can be clearly seen from this -headland. - -The next important seaport was ANEMURIUM (now _Anamur_), in the -neighbourhood of which Beaufort discovered a perfect city of tombs. -“These tombs,” says he, “are small buildings detached from each other -and mostly of the same size, though varying in their proportions; the -roofs are arched, and the exterior of the walls is dashed with a -composition of plaster and small particles of burnt red brick. Each tomb -consists of two chambers: the inner one is subdivided into cells or -receptacles for the bodies, and the outer apartment is supplied with -small recesses and shelves, as if for the purpose of depositing the -funereal offerings, or the urns that contained the ashes. The castle -strongly resembles some of the ancient castles of Great Britain. Its -keep or citadel is placed on a small rocky eminence, and commands two -open courts.... The extreme dimensions are about 800 feet by 300 feet.” - -CELENDERIS (now _Chelindreh_) was noted in ancient history as the place -which Piso, the enemy of Germanicus, attempted to take (Tacit. An. xi. -80), and appears, also, in the Ecclesiastical annals, as one of the -episcopal towns of Isauria. As the nearest point of communication with -Cyprus, it is still occupied by a small population. There are some -remains of a fortress which Tacitus describes as of great strength; -while many arched vaults, sepulchres and sarkophagi may be seen on the -spot. All along this part of the coast of Cilicia the presence of the -Crusaders is clearly shown in the names of existing places, as, for -instance, in _Cavalière_ and _Provençal Island_; indeed, Vertot records -that, during the settlement of the Christian knights at Rhodes, they -took possession of several islands and castles along the shores of Asia -Minor. Another place, some eight or nine miles inland, SELEFKEH, the -ancient SELEUCEIA AD CALYCADNUM, is also specially noticed by De Jauna -in his History of Armenia, as given by the king of Armenia to the -knights of Rhodes for their services. This town, which owed its real or -supposed origin to Seleukus Nicator, was famous for its schools of -literature and philosophy: Athenæus and Xenarchus, two well-known -Peripatetics, having been born there. Seleucia was still in existence in -the time of Ammianus, and the ecclesiastical historians, Socrates and -Sozomen, speak of Councils having been held here. - -Beaufort reports the existence at Selefkeh of many ruins on the west -side of the river, and, especially, of an enormous reservoir lined with -hard cement (the “_opus Signinum_” or “_Coccio pesto_” of the Roman -aqueducts). This structure is 150 feet long by 75 feet broad and 35 feet -deep, and could, therefore, have held nearly 10,000 tons of water. A -little further on is a place called _Korghoz_, possibly, the CORYCUS of -antiquity, and the site of the Corycian cave, in mythology, the fabled -abode of the giant, Typhôs;[92] but, more probably, the crater of an -extinct volcano. Strabo says it was a deep and broad circular valley, -the lower part rugged, but covered with shrubs and evergreens, and, -especially, with saffron, which was abundant here. From an internal -cavity gushed forth a copious stream, which, for a while lost, after a -brief course, reappeared near the sea, which it joined. This was called -the “bitter water.” Beaufort found two places bearing the name of Korgho -Kalaler (castles), there being many signs in the neighbourhood of the -former existence of a city of considerable size:—“A mole of great unhewn -rocks projects at one angle from the fortress about 100 yards across the -bay, terminated by a solid building twenty feet square.”[93] Can this be -the remains of an ancient _pharos_ or lighthouse? We should add that the -places, hitherto described, belong to what was usually called Cilicia -Tracheia; those we shall now notice, belonging, on the other hand, to -the plain country. - -Footnote 92: - - Pind. Pyth. i. 31, thus speaks of him and of his home:— - - Τυφὼς ἑκατὸν κάρανος· τὸν ποτὲ - Κιλίκιον θρέψεν πολυώνυμον - ἅντρον. - - He is also called, Pyth. viii. 26, - - Τυφὼς Κίλιξ ἑκατόγκρανος. - - Æschylus, too, gives him the same epithet of “hundred-headed.”—Prom. - Vinct. 350. - -Footnote 93: - - Pomponius Mela (i. 13) gives an even fuller description of this famous - cave, probably from the same original author, Callisthenes. - -Of these we take first, SOLI, a colony (Strabo tells us) from Lindus, a -relationship the Solians did not forget during subsequent negotiations -with the Romans. Soli is first mentioned in Xenophon’s Anabasis, and -must, in the following seventy years, have rapidly increased, as -Alexander the Great fined the people 200 talents for their attachment to -the Persian empire. After having been destroyed by Tigranes, Pompey -placed there some of the Cilician pirates whom he had spared; at the -same time changing the name of the city to Pompeiopolis. Most of the -existing remains are, therefore, Roman. “The first object,” says -Beaufort, “which presented itself on landing was a beautiful harbour or -basin, with parallel sides and circular ends; it is entirely artificial, -being formed by surrounding moles or walls fifty feet in thickness and -seven feet in height.... Opposite to the entrance of the harbour a -portico rises from the surrounding quay, and opens to a double row of -two hundred columns which, crossing the town, communicates with the -principal gate towards the country; and from the outside of that gate a -paved road continues, in the same line, to a bridge over a small -river.... Even in its present state of wreck, the effect of the whole is -so imposing, that the most illiterate seaman in the ship could not -behold it without emotion.” The actual execution of these columns is, -however, poor; and, of the original two hundred, only forty-four are now -standing.[94] Soli was the birthplace of Chrysippus, Philemon, and -Aratus. - -Footnote 94: - - It has been said that the term σολοικσμος—_solœcismus_—_solecism_— - meaning ungrammatical speech—was derived from the people of Soli; but - this accusation is not certain (Cf. Strab. xiv. 671; Eustath. ad Dion. - Perieg. v. 875; Suidas in voce Σόλοι). There was another Soli in - Cyprus, the inhabitants of which were usually termed Solii (Σόλιοι), - to distinguish them from those on the mainland, who were termed - Σολεῖς. Both, probably, spoke but indifferent Greek. - -ADANA, which is noticed first in the Mithradatic War, by Appian, and, -subsequently, by Pliny, Ptolemy, Dio Cassius, Procopius, and the -Byzantine historians, like Tarsus, adopted the name of Hadrian. It is -still a place of some size, and the capital of the Pashalik of the same -name. - -Near the mouth of the river _Pyramus_ (now _Gihoon_), and further up, -are three towns which may be taken together. The first is MALLUS, very -near the sea, on the left bank of the river over which Alexander threw a -bridge, in Mallotis, Strabo’s name for the circumjacent district; or -Megarsus (possibly an earlier name for Mallus,) described in Lycophon as -standing on a “sea-worn hill”—an expression Beaufort says accurately -applies to a place now called _Karadash_.[95] Mallus retained its name, -slightly modified to Malo, till mediæval times (Sanut. Secret. Fid. li. -p. iv. c. 26): 2ndly, above Mallus, MOPSUESTIA, the creation of a -certain mythical hero called Mopsus. According to Pliny, this town was a -“free” city, and Procopius states that Justinian repaired the bridge -over it (Ædif. v. 5). During the Byzantine period the name was modified -to _Mensis_. Still further up the same river was ANAZARBA (sometimes -called _Cæsarea ad Anazarbum_), the capital, in the fifth century, of -Eastern Cilicia as Tarsus was of the Western—(Hierocles). It was nearly -destroyed by earthquakes in the reigns of Justin and Justinian (Procop. -Hist. Arcana, c. 18; Cedren., p. 299). Dioskorides and Oppian were born -there. The last place in Cilicia to which we shall call attention is -ISSUS, ever memorable as the scene of the famous conflict between -Alexander and Darius. Its modern name, Scandaroon or Alexandretta, is -obviously derived from Alexandreia. The town stood at the foot of the -main chain of Mount Amanus, and, at the head of the gulf to which it -gave its name. It was early (as might have been expected from its -position) a considerable town, but, in Strabo’s time, had ceased to be -more than a small port. Cicero, in his expedition against the -mountaineers in the neighbourhood stayed there for some time (Epist. ad -Attic. v. 20). The famous defile leading from Cilicia into Syria was to -the east of the town. - -Footnote 95: - - Lycophron’s words are— - - Πυράμου πρὸς ἐκβολαῖς. - ──────────── - Αἰπὺς δ’ ἀλιβρὸς ὄχμος ἐν μεταιχμίῳ - Μέγαρσος.—(Cassandr. v. 439.) - - The river Pyramus, according to Scylax, could be ascended by ships as - far as Mallus, but the poets feigned that its mud would, in time, join - Cyprus to the mainland. The poetical words are— - - Ἔσσεται ἐσσομένοις ὅτε Πύραμος εὐρυοδίνης - Ἡϊόνα προχέων ἱερὴν εἰς Κύπρον ἵκεται. - - It has been disputed whether Megarsus was really on the river, but the - legend on its coins—ΜΕΓΑΡΣΕΩΝ ΠΡΟΣ ΤΩ ΠΥΡΑΜΩ—sets _this_ question at - rest. The Aleian plain, which lay between Tarsus and Mallus, was the - traditional scene of Bellerophon’s disaster (Il. z. 200). - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - -Isaura—Iconium—Lystra—Derbe—Apamea Cibotus—Aezani—Synnada—Philomelium— - Laodicea Combusta—Hierapolis—Laodicea ad Lycum—Colossæ—Ancyra— - Pessinus—Tavium—Nazianzus—Cæsarea ad Argæum—Tyana—Comana—Trapezus— - Amastris—Sinope—Prusa ad Olympum—Nicæa—Nicomedia—Islands of Greece— - Lesbos—Samos—Chios—Rhodus—Messrs. Biliotti and Saltzmann—Cyprus—Mr. - Lang—General Palma di Cesnola. - - -HAVING now spoken of some of the principal places in the west and south -of Asia Minor, it will, we think, be convenient to take next those -towards its centre, in _Cappadocia_, _Phrygia_, and _Galatia_. We must, -however, notice, first, the two small districts of _Lycaonia_ and -_Isauria_, which are really portions cut out of the larger adjoining -provinces. Isauria will not detain us long, as there is little in it -that can be called Greek. It was, as it has ever been, a wild mountain -district, with a population unsubdued till about the time of -Constantine; and, even after that, if the Byzantine writers are worthy -of credit, whole armies of Constantinopolitan Greeks melted as snow in -conflict with these robber tribes. Ancient authors knew little of -Isauria except its northern part, all to the south, with its capital, -ISAURA, being to them, practically, a _terra incognita_. As marauders, -however, the Isaurians were so troublesome to their neighbours, that the -Roman Senate sent a considerable force against them, in B.C. 73, under -P. Servilius, whose success won for him the title of “Isauricus.” This -conquest, however, so to call it, was but temporary, and, not long -after, Amyntas of Lycaonia lost his life in an attempt to crush one of -their tribes. In later days, one of their chieftains, Trebellianus, -claimed for himself the rank of Emperor, and struck coins; and the -Isaurians boasted, also, of one genuine Emperor, Zeno Isauricus, A.D. -474-491. - -Of its chief town, ISAURA, we have coins of the time of Geta and -Elagabalus bearing the title of ΜΗΤΡΟΠΟΛΕΩΣ ΙΣΑΥΡΩΝ. Mr. Hamilton has -satisfactorily identified its site on the line of road between Iconium -and Anemurium—a determination in agreement with Pliny’s statement (v. -27), that the province of Isauria stretched to the sea in that -direction: he adds that the tradition of their ancient robber -propensities is still remembered by the existing peasantry of the -district, though, considering what this country has undergone during the -last fifteen hundred years, any such tradition is not worth much. Mr. -Hamilton found the ruins of the capital on one of the loftiest ridges -between the Taurus and the plains of Konieh (Iconium) at an elevation of -quite 5,000 feet above the sea, the wild and inaccessible district -around it offering, as he observes, “little or no temptation to the -rapacity of its neighbours.” An inscription found on the spot fully -confirmed his previous surmises: it was on a triumphal arch, in honour -of the Emperor Hadrian, and, on the ground near it, was a marble globe, -a common emblem of Imperial power “I afterwards,” says he, “found -several other inscriptions in this part of the town; of these, No. 432, -lying near the _agora_, is full of interest, as alluding to several -buildings formerly erected in its neighbourhood.” Strabo had remarked -(xii. p. 569) that Amyntas died before he had completed the town wall, -and this Hamilton found to be literally true, everything around -indicating a town entirely rebuilt, the wall itself, its octagonal -towers, temples, and triumphal arches being constructed in the same -peculiar style. “There is,” says he, “an air of newness in its very -ruins, as if it had been destroyed before it was half built, although it -must not be forgotten that it flourished for many centuries after the -death of Augustus.” - -In Lycaonia there were few towns of importance, except ICONIUM, -LAODICEA, DERBE, and LYSTRA, the geological features of the country -being unfavourable to the existence of a large population. Travellers -who have seen both compare Lycaonia with the interior of Australia. Both -were, by nature, extensive sheep-walks (thus, Amyntas had as many as 300 -flocks of sheep); while both, alike, had much of arid and salt desert, -fitted only for camels. The central plain of Lycaonia, from Kiepert’s -map, seems the largest in Asia Minor, and resembles the _steppes_ of -Central Asia and of southern Russia. Ainsworth tells how his camels -browsed off the tops of the _Mesembryanthemum_ and _Salicornia_, -reminding them, as these, doubtless, did, of plains more familiar to -them than those of Asia Minor. Strabo made Isauria part of Lycaonia. - -The principal town of Lycaonia, ICONIUM, is mentioned first by Xenophon, -who considered it the most eastern one of Phrygia, at one day’s journey, -according to Cicero, from Philomelium (Ak-shehr). Its position, amid -many small streams, which exhaust themselves in watering its gardens, -and as the meeting-place of several of the most important of the Roman -roads through Asia Minor, made it, from the first, an important -_entrepôt_; and, though Strabo calls it πολίχνιον (a little town), the -account of Pliny, and the narrative in the Acts of the Apostles, prove -it was a large and populous place in the middle of the first century -A.D. Indeed, in Pliny’s time, its territory embraced fourteen towns, -stretched around the capital (v. 27). Cicero was there for several days -previously to his Cilician campaign. Iconium will always be invested -with much interest owing to St. Paul’s visits to it; the first of which -was immediately after his expulsion from Antioch in Pisidia, when the -Apostles “shook off the dust of their feet.” Messrs. Conybeare and -Howson have well remarked, that the vast plain and the distant mountains -are the most interesting features of modern _Konieh_; for these, -probably, remain as they were in the first century of Christianity, -while the town has been repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt. Little, -indeed, remains of Greek or Roman Iconium, except the inscriptions and -fragments of sculptures built into the Turkish walls. - -Iconium was famous in the early Middle Ages as the capital of the Seljuk -Sultans,[96] but was taken by the Emperor Barbarossa, during the second -Crusade, in his famous but futile attempt to force his way through Asia -Minor. To quote the picturesque words of Gibbon, “Forty campaigns in -Germany and Italy had taught Barbarossa to command; and his soldiers, -even the princes of the empire, were accustomed under his reign to obey. -As soon as he had lost sight of Philadelphia and Laodicea, the last -cities of the Greek frontier, he plunged into the salt and barren -desert, a land (says the historian) of horror and tribulation. During -twenty days every step of his fainting and sickly march was besieged by -innumerable hordes of Turkmans, whose numbers and fury seemed after each -defeat to multiply and to inflame. The emperor continued to struggle and -to suffer; and such was the measure of his calamities, that when he -reached the gates of Iconium no more than 1,000 knights were able to -serve on horseback. By a sudden and resolute assault he defeated the -guards and stormed the capital of the sultan, who sued for pardon and -peace. The road was now open, and Frederic advanced in a career of -triumph, till he was unfortunately drowned in a petty torrent of -Cilicia.”[97] Leake points out that its walls, still between two or -three miles round, are full of inscriptions and of other ancient -remains, which the Seljuks seem to have tried to preserve. - -Footnote 96: - - The Seljuks had first been at Nicæa; but, when the Crusaders took that - town, in A.D. 1099, they fell back on Iconium, which they held, with - the exception of the brief interval of its capture by Barbarossa in - 1189, till the irruption of the Mongols, under Jinghis Khán, and of - his grandson, Huláku, who broke down their power completely. Konieh - has been an integral part of the Turkish empire ever since the days of - Bayazíd. - -Footnote 97: - - There has been much doubt in which “Cilician torrent” Barbarossa was - drowned. The name in the record is the “Saleph,” which maybe a - corruption of Selefkeh (Seleucia), a name sometimes given to the - Calycadnus, as a chief town on it. There seems no reason for drowning - him in the Cydnus, or modern Kara-su. - -The position of LYSTRA and DERBE are still uncertain. Of Derbe, we know -that it was the residence of a robber chief of Lycaonia, named -Antipater,[98] who was ultimately subdued by Amyntas (Strabo, xii. p. -569), while Strabo and Stephanus Byzantinus placed it on the borders of -Isauria towards Cappadocia. St. Luke, however, and Hierocles placed it -as clearly in Lycaonia. If Lystra and Derbe stood in St. Luke’s order, -Lystra would be the nearest to Iconium; but, though mentioned in Pliny -and Ptolemy, we have no further hint as to its actual position. One of -its bishops was present at the Council of Chalcedon. The interesting -account in the Acts xiv. 6-21, of the behaviour of the people of Lystra, -when St. Paul proved his Divine mission by the cure of the cripple, must -be fresh in the mind of every one. With regard to the speculative -identifications of the sites of Lystra and Derbe, it is, perhaps, worth -stating that S.E. of Konieh is a remarkable isolated hill, the Karadagh -or Black mountain. Not far from this mountain, Leake and Hamilton placed -these two towns, the former twenty miles S.E. of Iconium, the latter at -some remarkable ruins around its base, called by the Turks Bin-bir- -kalis-seh, or the 1,001 churches. Mr. Hamilton and Mr. Edward Falkener -have both examined this remarkable group of ruined churches, recording, -as they clearly do, some site peculiarly revered in early Christian -times. Mr. Falkener’s remarks on these curious monuments are much to the -point. “The principal group,” says he, “of the Bin-bir-Kalisseh, lies at -the foot of Karadagh.... Perceiving ruins on the slope of the mountain, -I began to ascend, and, on reaching them, perceived that they were -churches, and, looking upwards, descried others yet above me, and -climbing from one to the other, I at length gained the summit, where I -found two churches. On looking down, I perceived churches on all sides -of the mountain scattered about in various positions.... There are about -two dozen in tolerable preservation, and the remains of perhaps forty -may be traced altogether.... The mountain must have been considered -sacred; all the ruins are of the Christian epoch, and, with the -exception of a huge palace, every building is a church.” It appears from -the Acts that, besides the Greek, there was still extant a local -Lycaonian dialect, and this is what we should expect from what we know -in the cases of Caria, Lycia, and Phrygia, respectively. There are, -however, no certain means, now, of determining what was its character, -and whether it was of Semitic or of Indo-European descent. - -Footnote 98: - - Cicero (ad Fam. xiii. 73) says he was treated with much civility by - the Lycaonian Antipater—a view of things not agreeable to his - correspondent Q. Philippus, who had been previously proconsul of Asia - Minor. Stephanus Byzantinus states that Derbe was sometimes called - “Delbia,” a word in the Lycaonian dialect said to mean “juniper.” It - is possible that two words of much similarity have been confounded in - the MSS., viz. λιμὴν, a harbour or port, and λίμνη, a lake or marsh; - and that the town was really on the shores of one of the many internal - lakes of that part of Asia Minor. The position of Derbe near the lake - of _Ak Ghieul_, and its resemblance to Delbia, with the modern name of - _Divleh_, as suggested by Hamilton, tends to its identification with - Divleh. - -Having dealt pretty fully with the provinces and towns of Asia Minor to -the west and south, with some notice of those in Lycaonia, we propose -now to notice the chief ones in _Phrygia_ and _Galatia_, though we have -not space to weigh nicely the limits of each of these districts, which -were, indeed, till Roman times, in a state of constant change. Rome, as -we know, thought fit to include under the name of Asia more than one -piece arbitrarily cut out of the older provinces; Roman Asia being to -the rest of Asia Minor much what Portugal on maps was to Spain. - -The Phrygians themselves were, like the Mysians, probably of Thracian -origin, as the name Bryges, or Briges, is found in Macedonia, and is, -probably, connected with the Celtic word “briga,” as in Artobriga. We -find also in the neighbouring province of Bithynia a tribe called -Bebryces. The Phrygians have also been supposed to have some connection -with Armenia—a theory, however, mainly resting on their legend of a -primeval flood, and of the resting of an ark on the mountains near -Celænæ. - -It is certain that the people of this part of Asia Minor were very much -intermixed. Thus, the Trojans and Mysians were almost certainly members -of the great Phrygian race; for Hecuba was a Phrygian princess, and -Hector a common Phrygian name. One stream of immigrators may, therefore, -have come from Armenia into Europe, and have, thence, returned somewhat -later to Phrygia, the Phrygians, like the Macedonians, being said to be -unable to pronounce the φ (ph), and saying Bilippus and Berenice, for -Philippus and Pherenice: in the army, too, of Xerxes, the Armenians and -Phrygians wear similar armour. Recent researches by Baron Texier and Mr. -Hamilton have shown that the Phrygians had a peculiar style of -architecture, the former having discovered an entire town carved out of -the solid rock. Tombs, too, occur, in construction resembling the lion -gate of Mycenæ; while there is also a legend of a Phrygian Pelops in -Argolis. Phrygian religious rites were widely accepted by remote -districts of the ancient world, the goddess Cybele being strictly a -Phrygian deity, and the wild “orgies” of her worship essentially -Asiatic. - -Of the towns of Phrygia we take first APAMEA, as unquestionably one of -the most important for its varied history and for the many persons of -note who are linked with it. Its foundation is due to Antiochus Soter, -who named it after his mother Apama. According to Strabo, it stood at -the source of the river Marsyas, which burst forth in the middle of the -city, and flowed thence into the Mæander; and, though this description -is not quite borne out by recent observations, the identity of its size -with the modern village of Deenare or Denair, has been satisfactorily -shown by an inscription found by Mr. Arundell, reading—QUI. APAMEAE. -NEGOCIANTVR. H. C. (hoc. curaverunt). “The merchants frequenting Apamea -have taken care (to erect this monument).”[99] Cicero, who was appointed -proconsul of Cilicia in B.C. 51, has left us many interesting -particulars about it in his letters to his friends, as he was much -there. At this place, too, he deposited one of the three copies of his -quæstor’s accounts, at the same time refusing to accept for himself or -to permit his soldiers to appropriate, any of the booty taken from the -enemy. In a letter to Can. Sallustius, proquæstor, he adds: “I shall -leave the money at Laodicea ... in order to avoid the hazard, both to -self and the commonwealth, of conveying it in specie.” While governing -his province, one of his friends requested him to procure some panthers -for him. This he did, and at his own expense, remarking at the same time -“that the beasts made sad complaints against him, and resolved to quit -the country, since no snares were laid in his province for any other -creatures but themselves.”[100] - -Footnote 99: - - Arundell (i. p. 192). He remarks further: “Apamea may now be asserted - to have been at _Deenare_ with as much confidence as that Ephesus or - Sardis stood on the sites which still preserve their names. Apamea - stood, we should add, nearly, though not quite, on the site of the - ancient Celænæ. It suffered so severely from earthquakes, that the - Roman tribute due from it was remitted, A.D. 53, for five years - (Tacit. Ann. xii. 58).” - -Footnote 100: - - Mr. Arundell remarks the panthers are still (1834) occasionally found - in the neighbourhood of Smyrna. - -[Illustration: - - COIN OF APAMEA CIBOTUS. -] - -But, besides the classical history of Apamea, which is well enough -known, this place was accredited with a tradition referring to the Ark, -which, though purely legendary, cannot be omitted here; the more so as -the story of the Ark resting after the Flood on one of the heights near -Apamea has been supposed by some to have given that city the title of -“Cibotus,” or “Apamea of the Chest.”[101] Indeed, Mount Ararat was -placed by some on the confines of Phrygia. The coin of Alexander -Severus, of which we give a copy above, is supposed to refer to this -story. On the reverse is the name of the people of Apamea, and, above, a -square structure resting on a rock, and surrounded by water. In this box -are two figures, male and female, and in front the word ΝΩΕ (Noe). It -is, therefore, a fair presumption that the maker of the medal did mean -to represent Noah and wife. Two other persons, also a man and a woman, -stand in front of the supposed ark. If, as we believe, the Scriptural -deluge took place in Babylonia, some features of its story might easily -have found their way to Phrygia; while, independently of this, we know -that, even in the days of St. Paul, there were Jewish synagogues in many -of the great towns of Asia Minor. Moreover, during the 150 years between -St. Paul and Alexander Severus, some, at least, of the more striking -events recorded in the Bible must have become popularly known. - -Footnote 101: - - It ought to be added that the ancient name of Apamea, when the capital - of Phrygia, was Celænæ, and that, in Roman times, though Laodicea - Combusta was the residence of the proconsul, it was considered, - commercially, inferior only to Ephesus. Laodicea was one of the towns - privileged to strike those curious silver coins known by the name of - _Cistophori_. Though we do not accept the Ark story as the origin of - this name “Kibotus,” we cannot say that we attach much, if any, weight - to many other derivations that have been proposed. - -The next place we notice is AZANI, or AEZANI (for both spellings occur), -the latter, that of the coins of the place, being the more preferable. -It is certain that the present Lord Ashburnham, in 1824, was the first -to determine where it stood, though this discovery has, with some -carelessness, been often attributed wrongly. It is now called Tchandur -Hissar, and, from Keppel, Hamilton, and Fellows, appears to possess some -ruins of remarkable beauty, and more than one Roman bridge. Hamilton (i. -101) states that its Ionic temple (of which Fellows and Pullan give -drawings) is one of the most perfect in Asia Minor. Rather curiously, no -walls have been found; but the place has suffered from plunderers -severely, every tomb having been despoiled. - -In _Phrygia Magna_, as distinguished from _Phrygia Epictetus_, a place -of early notice and of long importance was SYNNADA, which we hear of -first in connection with the famous march of Cn. Manlius against the -Gallo-Græci. Cicero visited it in his progress towards Cilicia. In -Pliny’s time, it was the judicial centre of the neighbourhood. It was -chiefly famous for a beautiful marble with purple spots and veins, to -which Statius alludes (Silv. i. 5, 56). Texier was the first to discover -the actual quarries, which were, as the natives of old asserted, not at -Synnada, but at Docimia; whence the marble itself was sometimes called -“Docimites lapis.” Paulus Silentiarius, in a poem on the church of St. -Sophia, has well described its character. Docimia itself was probably at -the end of the plain where Synnada was itself situate. Hierocles makes -Synnada a bishopric of Phrygia Salutaris. Its ruins are now called _Eski -Kara Hissar_. - -On the main road from Synnada towards Iconium stood PHILOMELIUM, the -“city of nightingales,” now, since the discovery of the true site of the -Pisidian Antioch, identified with Ak-shehr. It was a place of much value -to the early Turkish rulers, and many handsome Saracenic buildings may -still be seen; hence, too, it is often mentioned in the wars between the -Greek emperors and the Sultans of Iconium, as in Procopius (Hist. Arc. -18) and Anna Comnena (p. 473).[102] - -Footnote 102: - - PHILOMELIUM, now called _Afium Kara Hissar_ (the “black castle of - opium”), has much interest as the centre of the great Asia-Minor trade - in that drug, the medicinal properties of which were known to - Theophrastus in the third century B.C., under the name of μηκώνιον. - Scribonius Largus (A.D. 40), also, knew that the best form of it was - procured from the capsules, and not from the leaves of the poppy - (Berthold, Argent. 1786, c. iii. s. 2). Dioscorides, thirty years - later, calls the juice of these capsules ὀπός (Angl. _Sap_), and the - cutting them ὀπίζειν. Hence, the name, _Opium_. Pliny (iv. c. 65, xx. - c. 76) points out the medicinal use of “Opion,” and Celsus calls the - extracted juice “_Lacryma papaveris_.” Obviously, from this “Opion” - comes the Arabic “Afyum,” which is found in many Eastern languages, - and may have been spread all the more, owing to Muhammad’s - interdiction of the use of wine. In India, _Opium_ is noticed, first, - in Barbosa’s Travels, A.D. 1511 (ap. Hakluyt), who found it, at that - time, in Malabar and Calicut. Neither Chinese nor Sanskrit has a - native word for this drug. _Opium Thebaicum_ is mentioned as early as - A.D. 1288-96, by Simon Januensis, Physician to Pope Nicholas IV. - (Clavis Sanationis. Venet. 1510); and Kæmpfer (1687) remarks that - compounds of opium, nutmegs, &c., were largely sold in his time, as - long before, under the name of “_Theriaka_.” - -But the most important place in the neighbourhood was LAODICEA, often -called “Combusta,” “the burnt,” which is to be carefully distinguished -from the other town of the same name we shall presently describe in -connection with Hierapolis, and which is generally called “ad Lycum,” -“on the Lycus,” in the province of Lydia. Recent geographers, however, -give both these towns to Phrygia. Laodicea Combusta was about nine hours -N.W. of Iconium, and under its modern names of Yorgan Ladik or Ladik-el- -Tchaus, is famous throughout Asia Minor for its manufacture of carpets. -It has been, popularly, supposed, that it derived its name from the -existence at it of some remarkable volcanic agencies. This, however, Mr. -Hamilton has clearly shown, is not the case. “There is not,” he says, “a -particle of volcanic or igneous rock in the neighbourhood; the hills -consist of blue marble, and of the argillaceous and micaceous schists -with which that rock is usually associated.” He thinks it may, at some -time or other, have been burnt down, and, on being rebuilt, have -received this distinguishing title. The inscriptions he found there, -though in great abundance, have little interest, being chiefly funereal: -they are all carved out of the dark blue-veined limestone of the -adjoining hills. - -The last three places in Phrygia, which we think it necessary to note -especially, we shall take together, as situate near one another, and, -historically, closely connected. These cities are HIERAPOLIS, LAODICEA, -(ad Lycum), and COLOSSÆ. - -HIERAPOLIS is chiefly remarkable for waters so loaded with petrifying -materials as to have completely changed, by their deposits, the face of -the country in the course of centuries; a result, noticed by many -ancient authors, as Vitruvius, Pausanias, &c. Chandler states that a -cliff near the town is one entire incrustation, and describes its -appearance as that of “an immense frozen cascade, the surface wavy, as -of water at once fixed, or in its headlong course suddenly -petrified.”[103] An excellent view of this curious scene is given in Mr. -Davis’s “Anatolica,” p. 100. Besides its remarkable petrifying power, -Strabo states also that the waters of Hierapolis were famous for dyeing; -and it is curious confirmation of this statement, that an early English -traveller (Dr. Smith, in 1671) copied an inscription referring to a -“_company of dyers_” (ἡ ἐργασία τῶν βαφέων). The position of Hierapolis -must have been very imposing, placed as it was on a high piece of -ground, “200 paces wide, and a mile in length.” Abundant ruins still -remain, consisting of the relics of three Christian churches, one 300 -feet long, and of a gymnasium, considered by Leake to be one of the only -three “which are in a state of preservation sufficient to give any -useful information on the subject of these buildings,” together with a -prodigious number of fallen columns, in the wildest state of confusion. -It seems a pity that no efficient steps have been taken to excavate -thoroughly such a site as that of Hierapolis, where monuments of much -historical interest, possibly, too, of surpassing excellence as -sculpture, might reasonably be anticipated. Hierapolis is specially -noticed in St. Paul’s epistle to the Colossians (iv. 13), which shows -clearly that, at that time, there were many converts to Christianity, -probably owing to the zeal of Epaphras, who had been long a common -labourer with the Apostle. Somewhat later, Hierapolis appears in -Hierocles as the metropolis of Phrygia; and Arundell gives a list of the -bishops of the see whose names have been preserved. The present ruins -are called _Pambouk Kalessi_. - -Footnote 103: - - Mr. Hamilton says he could distinctly trace six different cascades, - each of which had left a separate incrustation. The ancient city - itself was built on a terrace entirely formed by this or similar - incrustations. He adds: “But if the appearance of the encrusted cliff - was curious when seen from below, it became infinitely more so when we - looked down upon it from the road, and the detail of its structure - became more apparent. The wavy and undulating lines of solid matter - which extend over the surface look as if a large river had been - suddenly arrested in its course and converted into stone.” - -LAODICEA “_ad Lycum_” was, in the time of Strabo, one of the principal -places in this province, and the centre of the Roman power in this part -of Asia. Many men of great wealth, it is said, contributed to its early -magnificence; Strabo noticing Hiero, who, besides greatly embellishing -it during his lifetime, left to it by will the sum of 2,000 talents, -together with the orator Zeno, and his son Polemo, who was made by -Augustus king of part of Pontus. There are some difficulties in -reconciling the statements of ancient authors about the rivers that -flowed by or close to this town, and even recent investigations have not -made this matter quite clear. Four rivers are mentioned in connection -with it—the Lycus, Asopus, Caprus, and the Cadmus. Of these the first -is, unquestionably, the most important, as having given its name to the -town. It is likely these difficulties have been increased by the -earthquakes noticed by Strabo, who says that Laodicea, more than any -other town, was subject to their baneful influence. His words are -remarkable (εἰ γάρ τις ἄλλη καὶ ἡ Λαοδίκεια εὕσειστος, Strab. p. 578). -Such earthquakes would, naturally modify the course of these -streams.[104] Col. Leake calls especial attention to the importance of a -thorough investigation of the ruins of all these great towns: so much is -still on the surface, that he thinks there is reasonable hope of the -discovery of much still buried. The same, to a smaller extent, would, -probably, prove true of other cities in the vale of the Mæander; for -Strabo thought that Philadelphia, Sardes, and Magnesia ad Sipylum were -not less than Laodicea, and had all alike suffered from the ravages of -earthquakes; and this view was completely supported by Arundell from his -own personal observations at Laodicea (Seven Churches, p. 85). - -Footnote 104: - - Compare what Tacitus says, Annal. ii. 79, xiv. 97, and Herodotus’s - statement that the Lycus disappeared at Colossæ, close by, a statement - in some degree confirmed by Strabo (xii. 578), and other remarks - bearing on the history of this important town in Polyb. v. 57, 3; Cic. - Verr. i. 3; Epist. ad Fam. iii. 5, 7; Tacit. Annal. iv. 55; Philostr. - p. 543. - -Laodicea suffered severely at the hands of Mithradates, but, with the -reign of Augustus, its real fame and prosperity arose and long -continued. About A.D. 1097 it was seized by the Turks, and subsequently -was, alternately, in their hands or in those of the Byzantine emperors. -In 1190 the Emperor Barbarossa was welcomed by the then inhabitants with -much kindness, but, shortly afterwards, it was wholly desolated by the -Turks. The zeal of St. Paul for the Church of Laodicea suggests that -there must early have been abundant converts to the new faith in its -neighbourhood. It is, however, also clear that their allegiance was not -very trustworthy, and that they were much inclined to accept a modified -form of Christianity. St. Paul’s words in his Epistle to the Colossians -(ii. 1) show this plainly enough—“For I would,” says he, “that ye knew -what great conflict I have for you, and for them at Laodicea, and for as -many as have not seen my face in the flesh.” Again, “When this epistle -is read among you, cause that it be read also in the Church of the -Laodiceans” (iv. 16). The Book of Revelation contains, also, strong -strictures on the lukewarmness of the Laodiceans. “I know thy works, -that thou art neither cold nor hot; I would thou wert cold or hot. So -then, because thou art lukewarm, and neither cold nor hot, I will spue -thee out of my mouth” (Rev. iii. 15, 16). Laodicea, though sometimes -called Ladik, is more usually known as Eski-Hissar, the Turkish form of -the common Levantine title of Palæo-Castro—“Old Castle.” - -COLOSSÆ, the last of the three towns, has been much confused with the -other two, from the haste and want of accurate observation of different -travellers. Much time is, indeed, requisite for the comparison of the -brief notes of ancient authors with the existing facts. It is not -certain when Colossæ was founded, or to what circumstances it owes its -name, but it existed some centuries before the Christian era, as it is -mentioned by Herodotus as a large and flourishing town of Phrygia when -Xerxes passed through it in B.C. 481, on his way from Cappadocia to -Sardes (vii. 30); nor had it, apparently, at all decayed when visited by -Cyrus the Younger, about eighty years subsequently, (Xen. Anab. i. 2). -Like the people of the adjacent Laodicea, the Colossians were great -growers of wool. It was nearly destroyed in the days of Nero, but it -survived, at all events, as the name of a Christian bishopric, till the -time of Hierocles’s _Synecdemus_. Somewhat later, a new town named -Chonas was built there, the certain identification of its ruins being -mainly due to the fact that Nicetas the Annalist was born there. St. -Paul, as we know, wrote an epistle to the Colossians, but his words, -“Since we _heard_ of your faith in Christ Jesus,” seem to imply that he -was never there himself. On the other hand, Epaphras, who was a native -of Colossæ, and Onesimus, are specially noted as having preached there. - -Colossæ has been repeatedly visited by travellers, such as Dr. Smith, -Picenini, Pococke, and Arundell; but to Mr. Hamilton we owe the clearest -notice of it, and the reconciling of many points not understood by those -who preceded him. Herodotus, as we have remarked, had stated that there -was a χάσμα γῆς (a deep chasm) at Colossæ, and that the Lycus flowed by -a subterranean channel for half a mile. This chasm Mr. Hamilton traced, -proving how the Lycus may well have been _said_ to have flowed -underground, owing to the great accumulation of petrifying matter from -the stream, now called _Ak Sú_, or “White Water.” Mr. Hamilton quotes, -also, a passage from the Byzantine writer, Curopalates, clearly -referring to the same curious phenomenon. Pliny, too, makes an -interesting remark as to the quality of this water, where he says, -“There is a river at Colossæ which will convert brick into stone.” -Hamilton adds, “The Ak Sú, which joins the Choruk in the centre of the -town, would soon cover a brick with a thick incrustation, and even fill -the porous interior with the same substance by means of infiltration.” - -The only towns in Galatia we think worthy of any especial note are -ANCYRA, PESSINUS, and TAVIUM—in fact, Galatia, the land of the Asiatic -Gauls, was little more than a dismemberment of the ancient Phrygia, -mainly induced by the invasion of a portion of the vast horde of Gauls, -who, descending from Pannonia under the second Brennus, B.C. 279, were, -ultimately, induced to cross the Hellespont, on the invitation of -Nicomedes I. of Pergamus. The general history of Galatia is so well -known, we need not dwell on it here. Suffice it, that the three -principal tribes of these invaders were known as the Tectosages, the -Tolistoboii, and the Trocmi, and that, after many battles, in which -their power was greatly reduced, they were settled, the first at Ancyra, -the second at Pessinus, and the third at Tavium. Some historical facts -connected with them, it may, however, be as well to mention; viz., that -Antiochus obtained the name of Soter from the great defeat he inflicted -on them; and that, beaten by Attalus I. and Prusias, they were most -completely subdued by the consul Manlius in A.D. 189. Gauls are found as -mercenaries in all the wars of the times, and, often, fighting against -one another, being even noticed as such in the Maccabees (1. viii. 2). -So late as the fourth century, St. Jerome, who had lived long at Trèves, -states that the common tongue of Galatia was the same as that of that -city. Curiously, only one name, certainly Celtic, _Eccobriga_, between -Tavium and Ancyra, has been preserved in the Itineraries. As a people, -they greatly resembled the Gauls Cæsar describes—“Natio est omnis -Gallorum admodum dedita superstitionibus”; hence, they adopted, at once, -the Phrygian worship of Cybele as “Mater Deorum,”—the “Galli” of -Pessinus being her special priests. Their leading men, however, soon -became wealthy, and were speedily Hellenized. - -The most important place in Galatia was ANCYRA, on the Sangarius; -traditionally, the foundation of Midas, the son of Gordius. The anchor -he found there, whence the city’s name, Pausanias says, was, still, in -his day, preserved in the Temple of Jupiter. The territory round this -city was formally created a Roman province by Augustus, B.C. 25, the -epithet “Tectosagum” being added to its title “Sebaste,” to distinguish -it from Pessinus and Tavium, which bore, also, the epithets of Sebaste -or Augusta. On the coins of Nero, Ancyra is, also, called Metropolis; -and, though much decayed, is still a considerable place, with a large -population.[105] In the adjacent plains occurred the mighty conflict -between Bayazíd and Timúr (Tamerlane), in which the former lost his -crown, and was taken prisoner by the Moghul emperor, though the popular -legend of the “cage of Bayazíd” is, probably, as little authentic as the -burning of the library of Alexandria by the orders of Omar. - -Footnote 105: - - In the Jerusalem and Antonine Itineraries we notice one name, _Ipeto- - brogea_, the latter portion of which is probably Celtic, like Allo- - _broges_, &c. - -But the most interesting matter, in connection with Ancyra is the famous -Inscription of Augustus[106] (sometimes called his “Will”), generally -known by scholars under the title of the “Marmor Ancyranum.” What was -then visible of this Inscription was first copied by Busbequius, about -A.D. 1555, and published in 1579, at Antwerp, by Andreas Schottus.[107] -At first, the Latin portion only was obtained, but, by degrees, portions -of the Greek have been recovered, an important addition having been made -by Mr. Hamilton.[108] A very complete account of it has been recently -published by Theod. Mommsen, under the title “Res gestæ Divi Augusti,” -Berl. 1865, with very accurate copies of the Greek legend, specially -executed for Napoleon III. by M. Perrot. - -Footnote 106: - - The whole town of Ancyra swarms with inscriptions. Mr. Hamilton says: - “The collection of inscriptions made during my stay at Ancyra was very - numerous; many of them never before published. They were met with in - all parts of the town,—in the gateways and courtyards of private - houses, but, chiefly, on the walls of the citadel.” - -Footnote 107: - - The original inscription was engraved at Rome on brazen tablets in - front of his Mausoleum (Sueton. Aug.), known in Mediæval times under - the name of _L’Austa_. From an inscription in Boeckh, C. I. Gr. No. - 4,039, we learn that the Ancyran inscription was placed in the - Σεβαστῆον (Augusteum), and on one of the antæ of the Temple are the - words— - - Γαλατῶν [τ]ὁ [κοινὸν] - [ἱε] ρασάμενον - Θεῷ Σεβαστῷ - Καὶ Θεᾷ Ῥώμῃ - - This is probably the temple alluded to in the decree of Augustus, and - referred to by Josephus (Antiq. xvi. 6). - -Footnote 108: - - Too much credit cannot be given to Mr. Hamilton for his successful - labours in copying the greater part of the Greek version, which in - many instances supplies defects in the Latin version. “I entered,” - says he, “into a negotiation with the proprietor of the house ... - (abutting on the Temple).... In the course of two days I had the - satisfaction of finding that he had agreed to my proposal. I had - hardly dared to hope that the Mahometan would have allowed a Ghiaour - to take down the wall of his house for such a purpose.” - -It would be impossible to give here even the briefest summary of this -very interesting and valuable inscription, which fully deserves the most -careful perusal; but we may mention that, among the historical events -Augustus records, are his crushing the murderers of Julius Cæsar, when -he was only 21,—the titles conferred on him—the census of his people—the -closing of the Temple of Janus—his great largesses to the people, -agreeably with the will of Julius Cæsar—with a remarkable list of the -monumental works begun or completed by him in Rome[109]—a notice of the -highest value to Roman antiquaries, and, therefore, very properly given -by Mr. Parker in his recent volume on the “Forum Romanum.” He then -recounts his crushing the pirates, noticing also the Servile war; the -effect of the battle of Actium on Italy; the boundaries of the provinces -then subject to him, and the extension of the Roman arms to Æthiopia and -Arabia; the submission of Tiridates and Phraates, the kings of Parthia; -and of Dubnovelaunus, king of the Britons. He concludes by saying, “When -I wrote this I was in my seventy-sixth year,” and very shortly after -this he died.[110] - -Footnote 109: - - An interesting work is extant by Julius Frontinus on the Aqueducts to - the city of Rome, which has been remarkably illustrated by the recent - researches of Mr. J. H. Parker, C.B., on the spot; see, also, for the - “Monumentum Ancyranum,” J. H. Parker’s “Forum Romanum and Via Sacra,” - Pl. xxvii.-ix.; Lond. 8vo, 1876. - -Footnote 110: - - Mr. Pullan gives a view of the entrance to the Temple. - -The next town of Galatia we notice, PESSINUS, was situate near the left -bank of the Sangarius, on the road to Angora. It was the capital of the -Gallic tribe of the Tolistoboii, and celebrated in antiquity for its -worship of the goddess Rhea, or Cybele. The story went that the original -shrine of this goddess was removed to Rome, towards the close of the -second Punic war, the safety of Italy being said to depend on this step. -It is clear that the people of Pessinus did not care much about their -most sacred shrine—possibly, however, as King Attalus supported the -Roman demand, they could not help themselves. It is worthy of note, -that, not long after the removal of this shrine, the Galli became the -chief priests of the worship of Cybele, and, as such, went out to -propitiate Manlius, when about to throw a bridge over the Sangarius -(Livy, xxxviii. 18). Polybius gives the names of these priests (Polyb. -Fragm. 4). Coins of Pessinus exhibit the worship of Cybele as late as -Caracalla, and we know that Julian the Apostate visited her temple -(Ammian. xxii. 9). One name she bore was that of Agdistis, Pessinus -itself being seated under this mountain, which was also called Dindymus. -M. Texier seems to have first recognized its ruins at a place now called -Sevrihissar, of which an excellent account is given by Mr. Hamilton (i. -p. 438). “Every step we advanced,” says he, “gave evidence of the -importance and magnificence of the public buildings with which this site -must once have been adorned.” We may add that Mr. Hamilton’s further -researches enabled him to reconcile the conflicting accounts of the -march of Manlius in Polybius and Livy, the whole of the course of the -Roman general being, now, fairly traceable. - -The last of these Galatian towns, TAVIUM, was the abode of the third -Gallic tribe, the Trocmi, as is shown by an inscription on a coin, -reading ΤΑΟΥΙΑΝΩΝ ΤΡΟ. The position of this town has been identified by -Mr. Hamilton as that where M. Texier found some very remarkable -sculptures, which he, erroneously, called Pterium, the site of one of -the battles between Crœsus and Cyrus. It is more probable that this -place was much nearer the shores of the Black Sea. If Hamilton is right, -Boghaz-kieui marks the site of the old town, which was one of great -trade, and famous for a colossal bronze statue and temple of Jupiter. -The careful measurement of the seven great roads, recorded as having met -at Tavium, agrees, too, with his view. The bas-reliefs discovered by M. -Texier, about two miles from this temple, are among the most curious in -Asia Minor. Mr. Hamilton gives a view of them (vol. i. p. 394), whence -we are inclined to think that they must be of Persian origin. So far as -we can judge from the engraving, the work resembles much that at -Behistan; moreover, two of the figures seem to be standing on lions or -panthers, as on the reliefs found by Mr. Layard at Bavian, and to be -seen, also, of some of the coins of Tarsus. The subject appears to be -the meeting of two kings, the principal figures being five feet high. -Two of the figures stand on a kind of double-headed eagle. Mr. Hamilton -suggested a resemblance between them and those at Persepolis, an -appreciation the more remarkable that when Mr. Hamilton’s work was -published in 1842, none of the Assyrian excavations had been begun. -Considering the great influence of the Persians after the establishment -of the empire of Darius, the son of Hystaspes, there is no improbability -in the carving being the work of some powerful satrap, like Pharnabazus, -who might easily have been familiar with the sculptures at Bavian, -Behistan, and Persepolis. - -Over the towns in the remaining provinces of Asia Minor, _Cappadocia_, -_Pontus_, _Paphlagonia_, and _Bithynia_, it will not be necessary for us -to linger at any length; not because there are not abundant objects of -interest in each of them, but that the remains, purely Greek, are -comparatively few, while the space we can give for an adequate -description of them is exceedingly limited. We shall, however, notice -some of the chief places, either of Greek origin, or directly connected -with the Greeks, referring to the journals of the travellers we have so -often quoted; and especially to Mr. Hamilton, for a more full and -detailed account of them. - -To take first _Cappadocia_, which is in this sense peculiar, that it was -for centuries governed, first by satraps claiming descent from one of -the seven conspirators who aided Darius, and, secondly, by a native race -of kings, till it became a Roman province. The great plains of -Cappadocia, at an altitude seldom less than 4,000 feet above the sea, -were famous for the breed of horses they raised; corn, too, and many -excellent fruits found in this province their native home. Salt, and -various kinds of crystal, were also largely exported from Cappadocia. - -Of the towns of Cappadocia, we may mention NAZIANZUS, a site celebrated -as the birthplace of its famous bishop, Gregory, a great ecclesiastical -writer, a wit and a poet (see his humorous description of Sasina, the -church to which he was first appointed, Orat. xxv. p. 435, which we wish -we had space to quote). Its ancient position has been accurately -determined by the observations of more than one modern traveller -(Hamilton, ii. p. 228). _Mazaca_, afterwards called CÆSAREA _ad Argæum_, -was for many centuries the capital of Cappadocia, and is still a place -of some importance. The chief feature of its scenery was the Mons Argæus -(now Erjish Dagh), reputed the loftiest mountain of Asia Minor, which -rises immediately above it, covered with perpetual snow. The town -itself, though ultimately the capital, appears to have been for a long -time little more than a camp; indeed, Horace’s description probably -tells us all that “His Majesty” of Cappadocia really required: -“Mancipiis locuples, eget æris Cappadocum rex” (“Though rich in slaves, -the king of Cappadocia lacks ready money”), (Ep. i. 6, 39). Cappadocian -slaves were abundant in Rome, and had a high reputation as bakers and -confectioners (Plut. Lucull. Athen. i. 20, &c.). One of the most -memorable events of the history of the town was, its long and gallant -resistance to the Sassanian emperor, in the war between Valerian and -Sapor. In Christian times, it derived much fame from the fact that St. -Basil was born there, and was, subsequently, for many years its bishop -(Socrat. H. E. v. 8; Hierocl. p. 698). Mr. Hamilton (ii. pp. 274-281) -gives an interesting account of his ascent of the great mountain near it -[the height of which he found to be about 13,000 feet], a feat, we -believe, he was the first to accomplish. - -TYANA, another Cappadocian town, is chiefly noted as the birthplace of -Apollonius of Tyana, whose amusing life has been preserved by -Philostratus. From its position on the defiles leading through Taurus -into Cilicia, it must have been a place of some importance; and hence, -probably, the tradition that it was built by Semiramis (Strab. xii. -537). In later times it was the seat of a Christian bishopric (Greg. -Naz. Epist. 33). Hamilton thinks that a place called _Iftyan Kas_ may -mark this site. There is near to it the remains of a fine aqueduct, -ascribed by the natives to Nimrod, but, really, of Roman origin. - -COMANA, the only other place in Cappadocia, which it is necessary to -notice, was really the chief town of a subdistrict called Cataonia. It -was chiefly celebrated for its collection of priests, soothsayers, and -the like, who were devoted to the worship of Mâ (the Moon), or, as some -say, the Cappadocian Bellona. Strabo asserts that the votaries of this -sacred institution amounted to as many as 6,000 persons, of both sexes -(xii. 535). Some, on the other hand, think this goddess the Anaitis of -the Persians, the Agdistis or Cybele of the Phrygians. Coins of Comana, -of Antoninus Pius, show that there was a Roman colony there, which was -in existence as late as Caracalla. - -_Pontus_, a narrow slip along the shores of the Black Sea, was chiefly -memorable for its great fertility in the fruits now so common in our -western lands, as cherries (perhaps so named from one of its towns, -Cerasus), peaches, almonds, &c. It was also very rich in grain, timber, -honey, and wax; while its mineral wealth is strikingly shown by the fact -that one of its tribes, the Chalybes, famous so early as the time of -Xenophon for their skill in working iron, gave their name to the Greek -word for hardened iron or steel.[111] TRAPEZUS (now Trebisonde), its -only considerable town, was in ancient days believed to be a colony of -Sinope, the foundress of several other places along the coasts of the -Black Sea. It was evidently a city of note when Xenophon came there, in -B.C. 400, with the remains of the Ten Thousand, as its citizens -hospitably entertained the Greek host under his command. We find it, -also, in much prosperity when Arrian was governor of Pontus, under -Hadrian. In later days, Trapezus was the capital of a petty empire under -a branch of the princely house of the Comneni, its rulers assuming the -pompous title of Emperors of Trebizonde, and claiming, though not always -securing, independence of the Greek Empire. It is still a place of -commercial importance. We may add that it was not far from this place, -near the town of Zela, that Cæsar defeated the troops of the despicable -traitor Pharnaces so quickly, that he announced his victory in the -famous words, “Veni, Vidi, Vici” (“I came, I saw, I conquered”) (Hist. -Bell. Alex. c. 72; Plut. Vit. Cæs.; Sueton. Cæs. c. 37). The history of -Pontus is closely interwoven with that of the famous Mithradates; but, -into this, we have not the space to enter here. - -Footnote 111: - - Æschylus, Pers., v. 715, speaks of οἱ σιδηροτέκτονες Χάλυβες. - -_Paphlagonia_ is chiefly famous for the vast forests that clothed the -southern and more hilly portions of its territory, and for its vast -herds of horses, mules, &c. (the former of which are noticed so early as -Homer (Il. ii. 281 and 852)). Its only two towns of any note were -AMASTRIS, in the days of Pliny the Younger a handsome place, with -squares and many public buildings,—and SINOPE; both towns, certainly, of -remote antiquity, the latter, indeed, attributed by some to the -Argonauts, and by others to the Amazons. In the days of Xenophon, SINOPE -was a rich and flourishing city; and then, and for a long time, -subsequently, the navy of Sinope was highly distinguished among those of -the other maritime cities of Greece. Sinope was also famous, like -Byzantium, for the fishery of the _pelamys_ or tunny-fish; deriving, -also, much of its subsequent wealth from the fact, that it was selected -by the kings of Pontus as their royal residence. Lucullus first, and -Cæsar, subsequently, in the wars with Mithradates and Pharnaces, -respectively, treated the people with much kindness, and left to them -most of the works of sculpture with which their town had been -embellished by the Pontic monarchs. Sinope is mentioned as a flourishing -place in the times of Strabo, Trajan, and Arrian, nor did it decay, till -every other place, in like manner and for the same reasons, decayed on -the advent of the barbarians from Central Asia, under the hoofs of whose -horses, as the proverb says, no grass ever grows again. - -_Bithynia_, the last province of Asia Minor to which we shall have to -call attention, was, as we have remarked before in the case of Mysia, in -its population, largely of Thracian origin. Subsequently to Cyrus the -younger, it was ruled by a series of native kings, the last of whom, -Nicomedes II., bequeathed his country to the Romans. Many of these -rulers were men of tried valour; thus one defeated a general of -Alexander the Great; and another crushed the invading Gauls. Pliny the -Younger, in his letters, gives an interesting account of the spread of -Christianity in this province, at the same time showing that his stern -and hardy master, Trajan, was less inclined to act severely against them -than his literary and philosophic lieutenant. The towns of Bithynia to -which we propose to call attention, are PRUSA, NICÆA, and NICOMEDIA. - -PRUSA, generally distinguished by the epithet _ad Olympum_, more clearly -to mark its site, is said to have been built by Hannibal (Plin. v. 2), -but was, probably, much older, though Chrysostom, a native of the town, -does not claim for it any high antiquity (Orat. xliii. p. 585). It -continued to flourish under the Roman Empire (Plin. Epist. x. 35), and -was, also, for a while, a leading place under the Greek Empire; indeed, -it is still, under the modified name of Broussa, one of the chief cities -of Turkish Anatolia. Its name will, doubtless, be fresh in the memory of -many of our readers as the long home of the gallant Abd-el-Kader, and of -more than one of the Hungarian leaders whom the treachery of Georgey -compelled to abandon their native country. The grand Olympus which -overhangs Broussa was generally termed the Mysian, to distinguish it -from the Olympus of Thessaly. Near it was the town of Hadriani (now -Edrenos), the coins of which bear the inscription ΑΔΡΙΑΝΕΩΝ ΠΡΟC -ΟΛΥΜΠΙΟΝ. - -NICÆA, so named after his wife by Lysimachus, was the real capital of -Bithynia, and, for a long time, one of the most important towns of -Western Asia. Pliny the Younger, as governor of the province, undertook -to restore it, and, during the later Byzantine period it was constantly -taken and retaken by the Greeks and Turks, respectively. Leake and other -travellers show that there are abundant remains of this famous old town, -now called Isnik; not that, under the Turks, it is, or ever could have -become, a great city. In Ecclesiastical story, Nicæa will ever be -memorable as the site where assembled, in A.D. 325, the grand body of -bishops, so well known as the _Council of Nice_, to condemn the Arian -heresy. Our own Church is believed to owe to it its most valuable -“Nicene” Creed. Coins of Nicæa abound even as late as the time of -Gallienus. - -NICOMEDEIA, as the name implies, the chief residence of the Bithynian -kings of the name of Nicomedes, was a large and flourishing city, and, -as may be gathered from the letters of Pliny to Trajan, long continued -so; indeed, in later times, when occupied with the Parthian or other -Eastern wars, it was a convenient and constant residence for the Roman -emperors (Niceph. Callist. vii.). We have a curious account of the ruin -done to this city by an earthquake in one of the strange orations of -Julian’s friend, the orator Libanius, entitled μονωδία ἐπὶ Νικομηδείᾳ, -in which he mourns the loss of its public baths, temples, gymnasia, &c.: -some of these were, however, subsequently restored by Justinian (Procop. -Ædif. v. 1). The historian Arrian was born here, and Constantine the -Great died at his villa Ancyron, hard by. - -Having said so much on the subject of the leading Greek cities of Asia -Minor, or rather of some of them, we shall notice, but as briefly as -possible, the principal islands adjacent to its shores; and as the space -at our disposal compels us to contract our narrative within the closest -limits, we shall refer only to _Lesbos_, _Samos_, _Chios_, _Rhodus_, and -_Cyprus_. _Crete_, as a matter of fact, is generally attached, -geographically, to the continent of Greece, but, in any case, would -require a volume to itself that adequate justice should be done to its -ancient and modern story. - -LESBOS, which lay off the coast of Mysia, indeed, about seven miles from -Assos, was celebrated in ancient times for its high cultivation of -poetry and music, and for the many men of literary eminence it produced. -To Lesbos we owe Terpander and Arion of Methymna, Alcæus, and Sappho; -and Pittacus, Theophrastus, and Cratippus were also born there. More -than one passage in Homer, and especially Il. xx. 544, and Odyss. iv. -342, show that many of the towns in the island had large populations, -even in remote times, and owned, also, a considerable extent of -territory on the mainland opposite. Lesbos displayed a personal love for -freedom, which contrasted well with their kinsmen on the continent; for, -though crushed, for a while, by Polycrates of Samos, and submitting, -perhaps, wisely, to Harpagus, the general of Cyrus, the Lesbians were -among the most active seconders of the revolt of Aristagoras, suffering -severely in the end, as did Chios and Tenedos, when the Persians won the -day. So, too, at Salamis, they stoutly supported the Greek cause. Their -subsequent history was that of most of the islands in the Ægæan. -Sometimes they were for, perhaps more often against, Athens; paying -often dearly enough for their love of freedom; and being, in the end, -chiefly under Athens, which, while strenuously advocating the so-called -sacred cause of freedom, took good care to divide their lands among her -own citizens. In later days, they struggled against Roman -aggrandisement, but, of course, in vain. The Romans, however, do not -seem to have treated the island with severity, and, as late as Commodus, -we have a coin reading ΚΟΙΝΟΝ Λεσβίων, which implies some amount of -self-government. We may mention, incidentally, that, at Lesbos, Julius -Cæsar received a civic crown for saving the life of a soldier (Livy, -Epit. 87; Sueton. c. 2); that, in A.D. 802, Irene, the Byzantine -empress, here ended her strange life; and, that four centuries later, -John Palæologus gave Lesbos, as her dowry, to his sister, when about to -marry Francis Gateluzio, in whose hands the island remained till -overwhelmed by the Turks. - -SAMOS, a name said to mean highland, and, doubtless, deserving this name -for its far superior height to the islands adjacent, bore, like Lesbos, -many different names in antiquity, with a population much intermixed, -the result of successive colonies of Carians, Leleges, and Ionians. To -the last people it chiefly owed its historic fame, having been, in very -early times, an active member of the Ionian confederacy. As islanders, -the Samians had much credit for their skill in boatbuilding; indeed, -Thucydides (i. 13) goes so far as to say they were the first -boatbuilders, a statement, evidently, to be accepted with a good deal of -allowance. It seems, however, certain that a citizen of Samos, one -Cælius, was the first to reach the Atlantic by passing through the -Pillars of Hercules, and that Polycrates, the friend of Anacreon, did -much to increase the naval fame of his island. - -After having made treaties with Amasis of Egypt, and Cambyses of Persia -(which alone show the eminence ascribed to Samos at this early period), -we know further, that, from Samos, as his head-quarters, Datis sailed -for Marathon, the inference being that Samos at that time was less Greek -than perhaps, it ought to have been; hence too, perhaps, somewhat later, -the severe punishment inflicted on it by Pericles and Sophocles. From -the commencement of the Roman wars in the East, Samos seems, generally, -to have sided with Rome, becoming, ultimately, part of the province of -“Asia.” Hence, too, probably the fact that Augustus (or rather as he -then was, Octavianus) spent his winter there after the battle of Actium. -Samos was, in early times, greatly devoted to the worship of Juno, and -Herodotus states that her temple there was the largest he had seen. It -was, however, never completely finished. According to Virgil, Samos was -the second in the affections of Juno, and, in Strabo’s time, in spite of -the plunder it had suffered in the Mithradatic war, and, subsequently, -by Verres, her temple was a complete picture-gallery. Here too, as so -often elsewhere, a Sacred Way led from the temple to the city. Samos was -also famous for an earthenware of a “red lustrous” character. Her art, -in this respect, was copied by the Romans, their common red ware being -popularly called “Samian.” Of this most Museums have abundant and -excellent specimens (Marryat, “Pottery and Porcelain,” 1850). - -CHIOS, now _Scio_, in ancient days known by the name Pityusa, referring -doubtless to its abundant pine-forests, was nearly as close to the -mainland of Asia Minor as Lesbos, and, in size, rather more than twice -that of the Isle of Wight. It was in character peculiarly rugged, its -epithet in Homer [of whom it claimed to be the birthplace], of -παιπαλοέσσα (the “craggy”), being literally true. In ancient and in -modern times it has been famed for the beauty of its women; in the -former, also, for the excellence of its wines. In an oval place, not far -from its chief town, stood the temple of Cybele, whose worship the -Chiotes especially affected; and, that all things might fit properly, -the careless Pococke seeing there her headless statue, which he -describes as that of Homer, with equal judgment converted the lions -between which she is sitting into Muses! Its present chief town is said, -in situation, to resemble Genoa in miniature. Traditionally, its oldest -people were the Pelasgi; but Ion, a native writer, with better reason, -traces them to Crete. Chios was little injured by the first Persian -conquest, as the Persians, then like Timúr, eighteen hundred years -later, had no fleet; but it was thoroughly sacked and plundered, -subsequently, for the crime of having sent one hundred ships to fight -off Miletus in aid of the Ionians (Herod. vi. 8, 32). - -During the Peloponnesian war, Chios at first supported the Athenians, -but was afterwards ravaged by them, though they failed to take its -capital. So, in the Mithradatic war, though at first supporting the king -of Pontus, Chios fell under his displeasure, in that it had allowed -Roman “negotiatores” to frequent and settle in its ports, and had to pay -2,000 talents, and to suffer still rougher treatment at the hands of his -general, Zenobius. In modern times, Scio has suffered more perhaps than -any other Greek island. Early in the fourteenth century, the Turks -secured possession of it by a general massacre; in 1346, it was taken -from them by the Genoese, who held it for nearly two centuries and a -half, till it was recaptured by the Turks. In 1822, having been -foolishly over-persuaded—though then a comparatively flourishing island— -to join in the revolt of the Greeks against the Turks, a powerful -Ottoman fleet attacked it, who, landing, massacred right and left, -enslaved its women and children, and made, as is their wont, a well- -cultivated district a desert, destroying, too, by fire and sword a town -with thirty thousand inhabitants. No doubt fifty-four years is a very -long time in the eyes of mere politicians; but historians might have -been expected to remember “Scio,” and to have anticipated similar -results at “Batak,” or wherever else these barbarians are able to repeat -the habits and practices of their fore-fathers. - -RHODUS, an island about ten miles from the south-west end of Lycia, next -claims our attention, as one of the most important of the Greek -settlements of antiquity, and as retaining still something of its -ancient splendour. In remote ages as the adopted abode of the Telchines, -a celebrated brotherhood of artists, probably of Phœnician origin, -Rhodes soon became famous for its cultivation of the arts, so imported, -leading, as these did, naturally, to a civilization much in advance of -the people around them. Its early history abounds with many legendary -tales, which we regret we cannot insert here (but see Pindar Ol. vii.; -Hom. Il. ii. 653). The Rhodians, no doubt from their early connections -with the Phœnicians, were among the greatest navigators of antiquity, -and this, too, earlier than B.C. 776, when the Olympian games are said -to have been instituted: hence the foundation by them of very remote -colonies in Sicily, Italy, and Spain; in the latter country, especially -_Rosas_, which, remarkably enough, retains its ancient name, but -slightly modified. The Rhodian code of naval laws became too, as is well -known, not only the law of the Mediterranean, but the basis of the law -of much more modern times. The people of this island did not, perhaps, -for prudential reasons, join in the Ionian revolt or in the Persian war. - -In the Peloponnesian war, too, they did not take an active part, though -serving (according to Thucydides), with reluctance, on the side of -Athens, against the people of Syracuse and Gela. In those days they were -chiefly valued as light troops, especially, as darters and slingers. In -the cause of Darius Codomannus against Alexander, the Rhodians supported -Memnon, the ablest admiral of the day, whose death, perhaps more than -that of any other individual person, hastened the downfall of the -Persian monarchy; and somewhat subsequently, their resistance to -Demetrius Poliorcetes, in the memorable siege they underwent, secured -them the highest credit, and the admiration of their conqueror. Indeed, -they were in such esteem among their neighbours, that (so Polybius -states) when their city had been almost destroyed by an earthquake, the -rulers of Sicily, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt vied with each other in -the liberality of the supplies and presents they sent to repair this -calamity. To the Romans their services were of the highest value, -indeed, it was mainly due to them, that the naval operations of Livius, -the Roman admiral, were successful in the wars against Philip and -Antiochus (Liv. xxxi. 14; xxxvii. 9, &c.). - -But, perhaps, the most interesting matter in connection with the island -of Rhodes is the history of the researches recently conducted there by -Messrs. Biliotti and Salzmann on the site of Camirus, one of the three -chief original cities of that island, the combining of which together, -about B.C. 408, resulted in the creation of the capital city, Rhodes. It -was natural, therefore, to expect that any antiquities discovered at -these places would be earlier than this date. The ground all round is -now covered by a pine forest, in the clearing of which the old -necropolis was discovered by a bullock falling into a tomb. In 1853, Mr. -Newton obtained many _terra-cotta_ vases of a very archaic type, and -other fictile vases from the peasants’ houses of the adjacent village of -Kalaverda. Some of the _pinakes_ or platters, with geometrical patterns -painted in brown on a pale ground, resembled the oldest objects of this -class from the tombs of Athens and Melos; the sites, too, of Mycenæ and -Tiryns are also strewn with similar fragments.[112] Other amphoræ and -oinochoæ, with black figures on a red ground, or red figures on a black, -were also met with.[113] - -Footnote 112: - - As has been well shown in Dr. Schliemann’s recent researches. - -Footnote 113: - - Travels in the Levant, i. p. 235. - -Shortly after this, a _firman_ was obtained from Constantinople, -empowering Messrs. Biliotti and Salzmann to make a thorough -investigation into this ancient site, the result of which has been the -opening of at least 275 tombs. From these tombs many precious works of -art in gold, bronze, and glass, with figures in terra-cotta, and -calcareous stones, together with vases and alabaster jars, have been -procured, some of them probably as old as B.C. 650. The whole may be -grouped under the heads: (1) Asiatico-Phœnician, or Archaic Greek; (2) -Greek of the best and latest periods; (3) Egyptian, or imitations of -Egyptian. The first is the most important, as comprehending most of the -gold and silver ornaments, with a few terra-cottas. It has been supposed -that the makers of these objects were Phœnicians of Tyre and Sidon; but, -as many of the specimens betray a marked Assyrian character and -influence, they are more probably copies, at second hand, of works -originally Assyrian. - -On examining these curious works of art, it will be observed that most -of those in gold have been used either as necklaces or for attachment to -other substances, probably leather, consisting, as they do, for the most -part, of thin pieces or plaques of metal, averaging from one to two and -a half inches in length, with subjects on them worked up, as a rule, -from behind, after the fashion now called _repoussée_ work. Thus we meet -with standing female figures, draped to the feet (which are close -together), as on the sculptures from Branchidæ, with long and -elaborately-dressed hair falling on their shoulders and naked breasts, -the arms being raised in a stiff and formal manner, and the hands -partially closed. Another figure has large wings, almost like a -_nimbus_, hands crossed, and elbows square; and against the body of this -figure, a rudely-executed animal. A third holds in each hand a small -lion by the tail, just as on some of the sculptures from Khorsabad. On a -fourth the lions are not held, but are springing up against the figure. - -On another plaque we have nearly the same type, with this distinction, -that the lions stand out in very high relief, and, curiously enough, are -in style almost identical with those on a _fibula_ obtained from -Cervetri by the late Mr. Blayds. Many instances may be seen of the -_narsingh_, or man-lion type—a compound figure, with the head, body, and -legs of a man, but attached to or behind this body, and, as it were, -growing out of it, the body of an animal with hoofs. This monstrous form -occurs, also, on a vase from Athens and on Assyrian cylinders. There -are, also, specimens of winged, man-headed lions, their wings being -thrown back so as to cover the whole figure, just as on the Assyrian -sculptures. In some cases, we find bronze plated with gold, the latter -having often been forced asunder by the rust and consequent expansion of -the bronze. - -Besides these objects, were found, also, small glass vessels of a rich -purple colour with yellow bands, like those from Cære and other of the -oldest cities of Italy, and a coffin, 6 feet 4 inches long, and 2 feet 1 -inch wide, made entirely of _terra-cotta_. There are traces of brown and -red paint over the whole of it, and, at one end, lions in red, with -floral ornaments, and, at the other, a black bull between two brown -lions. Many large terra-cotta plates were also found, with various -subjects; such as the combat between Hector and Menelaus over the body -of Euphorbus, with the names of the combatants written over them, a -drawing of especial interest, from the archaic type of the -superinscribed characters: there were, too, a Gorgon’s head, sirens, and -other strange animals, and a sphinx and a bull with his horns drawn in -perspective. These plates were probably of local manufacture. But, -besides these curious antique monuments, the excavations at Camirus -brought to light many objects of very fine work, two of which must be -mentioned. One, a small gold vessel of exceeding beauty, about an inch -in diameter, at one end of which is a seated Eros or Cupid; on the -other, Thetis on a dolphin, with the arrows Vulcan had forged for her -son Achilles. The other, a magnificent amphora, with figures in red on a -black ground, the subject being “the surprise of Thetis by Peleus”; in -fact, the same as that on one side of the Portland vase; thus -confirming, in a most unexpected manner, the interpretation originally -proposed many years ago by Mr. Millingen. This vase is of the time of -Alexander the Great, and few, if any vases have as yet been found in the -Archipelago exhibiting such free and masterly drawing as this one from -Camirus. - -The island of CYPRUS, which lay off the southern coast of Asia Minor, -was one of the most celebrated of those generally called the Greek -Islands, though it had, probably, less claim to this designation, and -was more Oriental than any of the others. It was, as was natural from -its position, early settled by the Phœnicians, Herodotus speaking of the -inhabitants as a very mixed race. It is not possible to determine which -of several of its towns was the most ancient; but, in the early Jewish -Scriptures, we read of “ships of Chittim,” probably those of Citium, one -of its chief towns. In later days, Paphos, itself of remote antiquity, -became the capital of the island, and the residence, as we learn from -the Acts of the Apostles, of the Roman proconsul. As the centre of the -worship of Venus, which is noticed so early as Homer, as well as by many -later writers, Paphos was greatly visited by strangers, among whom -Tacitus mentions, particularly, the Emperor Titus, when on his way to -besiege Jerusalem (Hist. ii. 3-4). Her symbol, or idol, was a purely -Asiatic type, and consisted merely of an upright, conical, and -unsculptured stone. The history of the island was a very chequered one, -and there were but comparatively short intervals of time when it was -really under its own native rulers; more frequently it was held by one -or other of the continental empires near it which happened for the time -to be the most powerful. Thus it was, usually, in the hands of the -Persians, till the overthrow of that power by Alexander, when it was -secured by the Ptolemies, in whose diadem it was the most precious -jewel. In the end it was, of course, seized by the Romans, becoming -first an Imperial province, and then, by the arrangement of Augustus, -directly under the Senate. In later times, it was the seat of a -bishopric, one of the most famous of the bishops of Paphos being the -celebrated Epiphanius. During the Crusades, Richard Cœur de Lion -captured the island and gave it to Guy de Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, -whence the title of kings of Cyprus and Jerusalem, adopted, till recent -times, by some of the monarchs of Western Europe. - -In recent times, the Island of Cyprus has proved one of the most -abundant sources of precious remains of antiquity, excavated chiefly by -Mr. R. H. Lang and General Palma di Cesnola. The former gentleman has -published in the Numismatic Chronicle (vol. xi. New Series, 1870), an -account of the silver coins, many of native Cypriote manufacture, he -lighted on while digging out an ancient temple at Dali (Idalium), in -1869. The coins were found at two several times, and, from the way in -which some of them adhered together, had probably been enclosed in a -bag, though no traces of it were detected. Mr. Lang believed he could -trace from them the existence of the six or seven distinct kingdoms, -which we know, from other sources, once existed in this island. The -earliest of these coins are, perhaps, as old as the middle of the sixth -century B.C. - -The most important results of Mr. Lang’s excavations in this temple are -now in the British Museum, and have been described by him in a paper -read before the Royal Society of Literature (see Transactions, New -Series, vol. xi. pt. i. 1875). In this memoir, which has been -supplemented with some careful observations by Mr. R. S. Poole, Mr. Lang -has given many interesting details of his excavations. His first -diggings were in 1868, when his men soon “came upon (as it were) a mine -of statues,” several of them being of colossal proportions, and on two -large troughs, in an outer court, perhaps once employed for the -ablutions connected with the temple, which was completely “full of the -heads of small statues, which, after being broken from their bodies, had -been pitched pell-mell into the troughs.” Near these troughs were three -rows of statues; some, too, of the chambers excavated were also full of -statuary—and in a stratum of charcoal were comminuted fragments of the -bones and teeth of several animals; as of bullocks, sheep, camels, and -swine. We can only add, here, that the treatment of the beard on some of -the heads is remarkably Assyrian; which, indeed, might reasonably have -been expected, as the island was long subject to that empire,—and, that, -besides coins and sculptures, Mr. Lang procured, also, several Phœnician -inscriptions, not, however, of very early date, their characters being -nearly identical with those on the well-known inscription in the -Bodleian Library at Oxford, together with one bilingual inscription in -Cypriote and Phœnician writing. The last has proved of great value, in -that it enabled the late Dr. Brandis and Mr. G. Smith to settle many -important points in connection with the Cyprian alphabet. - -Nearly about the same time as Mr. Lang, General di Cesnola, the American -consul in Cyprus, was commencing a series of excavations, the latest -results of which have, in some respects, far surpassed anything Mr. Lang -achieved. M. Cesnola began digging, we believe, first about 1867; but -his first important discoveries were in the spring of 1870, when he -found at Golgos the remains of two temples of Venus, nearly on the spot -where, some time before, the Count de Vogüé had been less fortunate. It -was here that M. di Cesnola formed his first collection, now for the -most part in the museum of New York. As in the case of Mr. Lang, the -statues had all been thrown down and grievously defaced by -“iconoclastic” hands. Among them, however, were many which had been -simply hurled from their pedestals, and were, therefore, nearly as fresh -as when first made. One great interest in the collection is, that it is -almost wholly the product of local artists. Naturally there was in it a -large number of statuettes of Venus, of vases, of lamps, and of objects -in glass; the latter, we believe, chiefly from Idalium. It is said that -altogether there were nearly 10,000 objects, and that New York secured -them for about £1 apiece. We cannot discuss here the question, much -mooted at the time, whether or not the collection ought to have been -bought by the English Government; but, had it been, we do not know where -it could have been adequately exhibited. The British Museum seems to be -as full as ever; nor is there any apparent hope of the removal of the -hideous black sheds between the columns in the front of it, which have -now, for these twenty years, defaced any architectural beauty it may be -supposed to have. - -But by far the most remarkable of General di Cesnola’s discoveries are -his most recent ones, the great results of which are now, we believe, on -their way to New York, the American Government having had the good sense -to supply him with ample means for continuing his researches in the best -manner. These last, commenced in 1873, have been prosecuted at various -ancient sites, such as those of Golgos, Salamis, Palæo-Paphos, Soli, and -Amathus; Curium having ultimately proved the most valuable mine of -antiquities. Besides two superb sarcophagi he had previously secured, M. -Cesnola found at Curium a mosaic pavement, in style, as he calls it, -Assyrio-Egyptian, which had already been partly dug through by some -former excavator, and beneath this, at a depth of twenty feet, a -subterranean passage in the rock leading into three chambers, -communicating the one with the other. In the first of these he came upon -a great number of small ornaments, rings, &c., in pure gold; in the -second, on a considerable collection of gilt vases, cups, &c.; and in -the third, on innumerable miscellaneous objects, comprising vases of -alabaster, candelabra, metal mirrors, daggers, armlets, small statues of -animals, &c. The most valuable individual specimens would seem to be a -crystal vase and a pair of armillæ in gold, bearing a double Cypriote -inscription. What then is the history of this precious _trouvaille_? We -venture to think that General di Cesnola’s idea on the subject is -probably the true one,—that it represents the offerings in a temple now -destroyed, and hurriedly packed away, possibly when it was attacked by -iconoclasts. Some of the bijoux are inscribed with the names of the -owners, and probably donors. Like the relics from Cameirus, these -Cypriote monuments are of great antiquarian value, as proving the -transition from Eastern to Greek art. - -[For further details, see Atti d. Real. Acad. d. Scien. di Torino, vol. -x.; and Ceccaldi, Le ultime Scoperte nell’ isola di Cipro, 1876.] - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CHAPTER V. - - ST. PAUL. - - -DURING previous parts of this work we have, from time to time, alluded -to the presence of St. Paul at various places we have described; the -interest, however, every one feels in the great Apostle of the Gentiles -induces us to throw together in one chapter a brief summary of his -journeys in Asia Minor; the more so, that to a Christian, studying the -history of this portion of Western Asia, St. Paul stands out alone—“none -but himself can be his parallel.” - -St. Paul’s missionary labours commenced from the period when the Holy -Ghost said, “Separate me Barnabas and Paul for the work whereunto I have -called them” (Acts xiii. 2); an order, doubtless, given at Antioch in -Syria, as they soon after started from Seleucia, the port of Antioch, -for Cyprus, the native home of Barnabas. Antioch was then the capital of -Northern Syria, and as much, if not more than Jerusalem, the centre of -Christian evangelization. Hence, the natural reason why at Antioch men -were “first called Christians.” Seleucia, too, at the mouth of the -Orontes, about twenty miles below Antioch, was the “key of Syria,” and -had, recently, obtained from Pompey the title of a “Free City,” an -honour which it long retained. Dr. Yates (long a resident in the -neighbourhood), in an interesting memoir on this city (in the Museum of -Classical Antiquities), mentions that the names of the piers at the -mouth of its harbour still preserve a record of St. Paul’s voyage, the -southern one being called after him, and the northern after Barnabas. -Structures so vast as these may easily have remained to the present day, -for Pococke states that some of the stones “are twenty feet long by five -deep and six wide, and fastened together by iron cramps.” The voyage -from Seleucia to Cyprus is, generally, short and easy. - -The first place they made in the island was Salamis,[114] whence they -proceeded right across it to Paphos, the residence of the Roman -governor, Sergius Paulus, “a prudent man.” Here we have the remarkable -story of Elymas the sorcerer, and of the conversion of the governor on -witnessing the miracle by the hand of St. Paul. Cyprus was at that time, -as may be gathered from Dio Cassius, under the direct government of the -Emperor of Rome, together with Syria and Cilicia; but, a little later, -this historian adds that Augustus restored it to the Senate. St. Luke’s -title, therefore, of proconsul is correct, as that invariably given to -the rulers of the provinces belonging to the Senate. A Cyprian -inscription in Boeckh confirms this view. The occurrence of a person -called a “sorcerer” at the court of the Roman governor is quite in -accordance with the manners of the times. Thus, Juvenal sarcastically -speaks of the “Orontes flowing into the Tiber.”[115] - -Footnote 114: - - Salamis was on the east side of the island, nearly opposite to Syria; - and, in early times, the capital of the island. It was destroyed by - the Romans, but rebuilt with the name of Constantia. It was a little - to the north of Famagousta, the name of which, curiously enough, is - not of Latin origin, as might be supposed, but a lineal descendant of - the original Assyrian Ammochosta. - -Footnote 115: - - Juven. Sat. iii. 60; ib. vi. 584, 589; Horat. Od. i. xi.; Sat. ii. 1; - and Juven. iii. 13, and vi. 542, point out the number of Jewish - impostors of the lowest kind with whom Rome was then infested: - Juvenal, vi. 553, indicates the influence the so-called Chaldean - astrologers possessed there. - -It has been often thought that, from the miracle over Elymas, dates the -change of the name of the apostle from Saul to Paul, and certain it is -that, subsequently to the words “Then Saul (who is also called Paul)” -(Acts xiii. 9), the first name does not occur again; moreover, in his -fourteen Epistles the apostle invariably calls himself Paul. So happened -it in earlier days, when Abram was changed into Abraham. It has been -further supposed that, as Barnabas was a native of Cyprus, the apostles -were induced to visit that island first; but, for their crossing to -Attalia in Pamphylia, in preference to any other port, no reason can be -assigned, though we may conjecture that they acted on information -obtained in Cyprus. The communication was no doubt easy and probably -constant. Attalia, as we have pointed out, was then, as now, a place of -some consequence, and almost the only port of southern Asia Minor: -thence they proceeded up the steep and rugged defiles of the Pamphylian -mountains to Perga, and, ultimately, to Antiochia in Pisidia. The sacred -writer records no event on their route thither, except the secession of -Mark, which probably took place soon after they had landed; nor has he -even given the reason that influenced Mark; but this may have been as -Matthew Henry has suggested: “Either he (Mark) did not like the work, or -he wanted to go and see his mother.” St. Paul, we know, felt acutely, -what he might fairly have considered as little short of a desertion; -indeed, this secession led, as we shall see hereafter, to the separation -between himself and Barnabas on the eve of his second missionary -journey. - -Whatever Mark’s reasons, certain it is he did depart, and that St. Paul -pushed on with characteristic bravery through a country the nature of -which we have described when speaking of Cremna, Sagalassus, and of the -probable position of Perge; and which may be comprehended, in all its -fulness, by those who have time to study the valuable researches of -Leake and Hamilton, Spratt and Forbes, Arundell and Sir Charles Fellows. -It has been reasonably conjectured that, St. Paul travelling, as he -probably did a little before the full heat of the summer had commenced, -attached his small party to some large group or caravan travelling -inwards and northwards in the same direction. Many travellers, and -especially Sir Charles Fellows, have pointed out the annual custom -prevailing among the dwellers along the southern shores of Asia Minor, -of leaving their homes at the beginning of the hot weather, and of -migrating with their cattle and household property to the cooler valleys -of the mountains. - -With regard to Antioch in Pisidia, we have already shown that Mr. -Arundell was the first to point out that some ruins, now called -Yalobatch, can scarcely be any other than those of this Antioch. We need -not, therefore, dwell any longer on this point, simply adding, that, -from its great commercial importance, St. Paul must have found there -many resident Jews, while we know that there was at least one synagogue. - -On arriving at Antioch, the narrative in the Bible goes on to say that -the Apostles “went into the synagogue on the Sabbath-day, and sat down”; -then, after the reading the Law, as was and still is, the usual custom, -the rulers of the synagogue desired them to speak, and St. Paul gave one -of his most characteristic addresses, being, at first, well received by -his own countrymen, and, especially so, by those persons who, having -given up idol-worship, were usually known as proselytes. He was, -therefore, invited to preach on the following Sabbath-day, the -intervening week having been, no doubt, well employed in constant -meetings between St. Paul and these proselytes, and in earnest addresses -and exhortations. Hence, we are told that, on this second occasion, -“came almost the whole city together to hear the word of God.” But this -was more than the Jews could endure: so they stirred up the “chief men -of the city,” and the Apostles were soon after (we are not told how -soon) “expelled out of their coasts,” that is, ordered to go beyond the -limits of the Roman colony of Antioch; though, as they returned to it -again, shortly afterwards, it is likely that no formal decree of -banishment was promulgated against them. On this “they shook off the -dust of their feet against them.”[116] - -Footnote 116: - - The action used by the Apostles was, it will be remembered, in - obedience to the direct words of our Lord: “Whosoever,” said He, - “shall not receive you nor hear you, when ye depart thence, shake off - the dust under your feet as a testimony against them” (Matt. x. 14; - Mark vi. 11; Luke ix. 5). It was, in fact, a symbolical act, implying - that the city was regarded as profane. It may be presumed that the - “devout and honourable women” (Acts xiii. 50) were proselytes. - -St. Paul’s speech, on the second Sabbath, is worthy of note as that in -which he first definitely stated the object of his mission; for, when -thus attacked by his own countrymen, he turned upon them with the words, -“It was necessary that the word of God should first have been spoken to -you; but, seeing ye put it from you and judge yourselves unworthy of -everlasting life, we turn to the Gentiles” (Acts xiii. 46). Strabo (vii. -3) has pointed out that “feminine influence” was a remarkable -characteristic of the manners of Western Asia in his day, and of this we -find the Jews availing themselves, on this occasion. Leaving Antioch, -then, the Apostles turned nearly south-east to Iconium, which, as we -have already stated, was, in those days, the chief town of the sub- -district of Lycaonia. The treatment the Apostles received at Iconium was -not very different from that they had experienced at Antioch. Here, as -there, “the unbelieving Jews stirred up the Gentiles,” but were not, for -some time, successful in their designs, as the Apostles were able to -abide there a long time, “speaking boldly in the Lord.” In fact, as at -Ephesus, “the multitude of the city was divided, and part held with the -Jews, and part with the Apostles” (xiv. 4). In the end, however, the -Jews prevailed: so the Apostles had to save themselves from being -stoned, by flight “unto Lystra and Derbe, cities of Lycaonia, and unto -the region that lieth round about” (ver. 6), “and there,” it is added, -“they preached the Gospel.” - -We have, already, shown that there is some doubt as to the position of -these two towns, but that Mr. Falkener has probably found Lystra on the -side of a mountain called Karadagh, at a place called by the Turks Bin- -bir-Kalessi, or, the Thousand Churches. So, too, the site of Derbe has, -certainly, not been yet made out completely; but, from the similarity of -name, it may be at Divle, as suggested by Hamilton. - -The narrative of what took place at Lystra is very interesting. At -first, we may presume that St. Paul preached to any chance groups that -collected around him: after some time, however, he saw a poor cripple -“who had never walked,” and “perceiving that he had faith to be healed,” -at once cured him, saying to him with a loud voice, “Stand upright on -thy feet.” Need we wonder that the astonishment of the people vented -itself in the natural exclamation that “the gods had come to us in the -likeness of men.” The narrative implies the existence, before the walls -of the city, of a temple of Jupiter (Acts xiv. 13), some traces of which -may, perhaps, still remain, and, if so, will serve, hereafter, for the -identification of the site. Messrs. Conybeare and Howson have pointed -out that the beautiful legend of the visit of Jupiter and Mercury to the -earth, in Ovid’s story of Baucis and Philemon, belongs to this part of -Asia Minor: the people of Lystra would, therefore, have been prepared to -recognize in Barnabas and Paul the Jupiter and Mercury of their own -fables. What was the “speech of Lycaonia” we have no means of telling, -no undoubted words of this dialect having, so far as we are aware, been -preserved. - -But the Lycaonians, though, at first, so readily convinced of the -divinity of the Apostles, soon showed themselves as fickle as the -“foolish Galatians.” St. Luke adding, “and there came thither certain -Jews from Antioch and Iconium and persuaded the people, and having -stoned Paul, drew him out of the city, supposing that he was dead,” so -little lasting was the impression produced, even by the cure of one born -a cripple. It is, doubtless, to this attack upon him that St. Paul, -subsequently, alludes in the words, “Once was I stoned” (2 Cor. xi. 25). -That he was not killed, like St. Stephen, as Barnabas and his friends -feared and the Jews hoped, is a miracle in itself. Any how, he recovered -at once as “he rose up and came into the city,” and departed next day -“with Barnabas to Derbe.” It was at Lystra that St. Paul made the -acquaintance of Timotheus (or Timothy) his future constant and steadfast -companion. With Derbe ends all that has been recorded of St. Paul’s -First journey. On the return, however, of Paul and Barnabas, we learn -that they fearlessly visited again all the places where they had -previously preached, “confirming the souls of the disciples, and -exhorting them to continue in the faith.” At the same time, too, they -ordained “elders in every church,” praying with fasting, and commending -“them to the Lord, on whom they believed.” - -The course of the Second missionary journey of St. Paul, most of which -falls within the limits of this volume, was probably determined on when -the Council of the Apostles at Jerusalem sent letters “unto the brethren -which are of the Gentiles in Antioch, in Syria, and in Cilicia” (xv. -23): it was manifestly, also, St. Paul’s own desire, for he says, “Let -us go again and visit our brethren in every city, where we have -announced the word of the Lord, and see how they do.” It was, on the -proposal of this second journey, that the famous dispute took place -between St. Paul and Barnabas, the former refusing to take with him -Barnabas’s kinsman Mark, because he had turned back before. For this -journey (at Attalia), therefore, “Paul chose Silas, and departed, being -recommended by the brethren unto the grace of God; and he went through -Syria and Cilicia confirming the Churches” (ver. 40). We cannot discuss -here the circumstances of this quarrel between the two “servants of the -Lord,” but one good result from it was, clearly, a far wider preaching -of the Gospel than might otherwise have occurred; as, by this -separation, two distinct streams of missionary labour were provided -instead of one; Barnabas taking the insular, while St. Paul took the -continental line. - -We do not know which way St. Paul went on leaving Antioch, but it is -most likely he passed into Cilicia by the “Syrian Gates,” now called the -pass of Beilan, the character of which may be fully learnt from Mr. -Ainsworth and other travellers. For some unknown reason, Sacred history -does not give the name of a single place visited during this -confirmatory tour, till the Apostles reached Derbe and Lystra; though we -may feel sure, especially as the “Gentiles of Cilicia” are mentioned in -the letter of the Apostles, that St. Paul did not fail to visit his -native town, Tarsus, the “no mean city” of his address to the Roman -governor. At Tarsus, if anywhere in Cilicia, Christians would be surely -found who would be glad of the Apostle’s “confirming” words. From -Tarsus, St. Paul must have passed from S.E. to N.W., through the great -mountain barrier which separates the central table-land of Asia Minor -from the plain country in which Tarsus was situated. There are several -passes; the nearest to Tarsus and most direct, being that of the -“Cilician Gates,” a remarkable cleft, about eighty miles in length. -Ascending, probably, by this pass, St. Paul would reach the plains of -Lycaonia, at an altitude of about 4,000 feet above the sea, in four or -five days. At Lystra (probably) he met again the young disciple -Timotheus, “who was well reported of at Lystra and Iconium,” and who, at -St. Paul’s request, at once joined him: thence, “as they went through -the cities they delivered them the decrees for to keep that were -ordained by the Apostles and Elders that were at Jerusalem; and so were -the churches established in the faith, and increased in number daily.” -We are not told that, on this occasion, St. Paul met with any serious -opposition. - -The brevity of the account of this journey is most disappointing, as we -do not know whether St. Paul visited even Antioch in Pisidia: all we -learn is that he was _ordered_ to “go through Phrygia and the region of -Galatia,” altogether new ground, and representing districts that could -not have been evangelized before. Yet even here the names of no towns -are recorded till he gets to Mysia: on the other hand, he was _not -permitted_ to preach the “word” in Asia; that is, within Roman “Asia,” -nor to enter Bithynia. Most likely, as suggested by Messrs. Conybeare -and Howson, he followed the great Roman lines of communication, and -passed by Laodicea, Philomelium, and Synnada. - -It has been inferred from his use of the plural, “to the churches of -Galatia,” as the heading of his Epistle to that people, that there was -no one great church there, as at Ephesus or Corinth; but this seems to -us refining too much. We may, however, suppose that no special miracles -marked this journey, or, at all events, none which St. Luke thought it -necessary to notice. We learn from St. Paul himself (Galat. iv. 13) that -it was owing to bodily sickness that he preached to the Galatians in the -first instance, it may be, as has been suggested, on his way to Pontus, -from which distant province we know that some Jewish proselytes had come -to Jerusalem, and were present on the day of Pentecost (Acts ii. 11): -moreover, it is certain, from his Epistle to the Galatians, that he had -been well received by this inconstant people, a large and mixed -multitude having embraced Christianity. - -As, in so many other instances, no clue is given us as to the further -route actually taken by the Apostles to Troas, but, by the Divine -prohibition to them of preaching in “Asia,” we may conjecture that the -time was not ripe for spreading the Gospel among the great cities of -Ephesus, Smyrna, or Pergamus. It will be noticed that the Apostles are -not forbidden to _enter_ Asia, as was the case with Bithynia, but only -not to _preach there_. Indeed, they could not, easily, have got to Troas -without passing through “Asia.” - -The first seaport St. Paul reached must have been Adramyttium, which is -not, however, noticed here by name, though it is subsequently, when on -the voyage to Rome. Of this place we have, already, given some account: -and hence, it would seem, that the Apostle passed onwards to Assos and -Alexandria Troas, where the remarkable vision appeared to him which is -thus described:— - -“And a vision appeared to Paul in the night. There stood a man of -Macedonia and prayed him, saying, Come over into Macedonia, and help us. -And, after he had seen the vision, immediately we endeavoured to go into -Macedonia, assuredly gathering that the Lord had called us for to preach -the Gospel unto them. Therefore, loosing from Troas we came with a -straight course to Samothrace....” (Acts xvi. 9, 10, 11). - -Compelled as we are here to compress as much as possible what must be -said, we reluctantly desist from following St. Paul to Europe. We need, -therefore, only state that, after two years St. Paul returned to Antioch -in Syria and Jerusalem, passing, on his way, sufficient time at Ephesus, -so that “he himself entered into the synagogue, and reasoned with the -Jews” (xviii. 19), promising, at the request of the congregation, that -he would return to Ephesus, “if God will.” Having “saluted the Church” -(probably of Jerusalem) he returned to Antioch, and thence “departed and -went over all the country of Galatia and Phrygia in order, strengthening -all the disciples,”[117] arriving, ultimately, at Ephesus, where he -found Apollos, “an eloquent man, and mighty in the Scriptures” (xviii. -24). - -Footnote 117: - - The brief statement in the Acts does not tell us anything of the - course St. Paul took on this occasion; but as he went “over all the - country of Galatia and Phrygia in order,” we can have no doubt that - his visitation of the churches was complete, and that he went to all - or most of the places noticed in the previous journeys. - -The visit of St. Paul to Ephesus was the period when it pleased God to -do for the later disciples what had been previously done, twelve or -thirteen years before, on the day of Pentecost: “the Holy Ghost came on -them, and they spake with tongues, and prophesied.” In the present -instance, it is enough to refer to the words in the narrative as given -in the Acts xix. 2: “He” (St. Paul) “said unto them, Have ye received -the Holy Ghost since ye believed? And they said unto him, We have not so -much as heard whether there be any Holy Ghost,” &c.... “When they heard -this, they were baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus; and when Paul -laid his hands upon them, the Holy Ghost came on them, and they spake -with tongues, and prophesied.” - -At Ephesus St. Paul dwelt more than two years, diligently preaching the -Gospel, and “disputing daily in the school of one Tyrannus.” No -opposition appears to have arisen for some time; indeed, for three -months, he was allowed the use of even the synagogue; but, in the end, -the idol-brokers felt their trade was in jeopardy, and, especially, men, -who, like Demetrius, the silversmith, making the “silver shrines for -Diana, brought no small gain unto the craftsmen.” - -As at Corinth, St. Paul at Ephesus was brought, face to face, with -Asiatic superstition, withstanding even magic arts, as Moses did, -Jannes, and Jambres, and, also, “exorcists.” What this “magic” really -was has been much debated. Anyhow, the Talmud tells us that a “knowledge -of magic” was required as a necessary qualification for a seat in the -Sanhedrin, so that the councillor might be able to try those accused of -such practices, though some of these need not, necessarily, have been of -evil intention: it is clear, however, from the case of Sceva (xix. 14), -that many of the “exorcists” made a bad use of any superior knowledge -they possessed or pretended to have. St. Paul’s success, however, in -putting down this species of knavery, was so complete, that a large -number of the exorcists submitted to him, and burnt their books, which -were valued at a very high price. The “town-clerk” was, doubtless, as we -have remarked before, a Roman officer, and, as the keeper of the public -records, one of the most important personages in the town. His language -in putting down the _émeute_ in the theatre clearly shows this; but, as -he evidently refers to others of greater power than himself, we hardly -think, as some have done, that he was himself one of the “Asiarchs,” or, -as our translation has it, “chiefs of Asia.” His language shows that he -was not unfriendly to St. Paul (though not necessarily that he was, -himself, a Christian); and, further, that he well knew how to deal with -a multitude, “the more part of whom knew not wherefore they were come -together.” - -We have now brought nearly to an end the short outline we felt it -necessary to give of St. Paul’s journeying in Asia Minor. It is probable -that, soon after the disturbance in the theatre, he left for Macedonia; -so that the rest of his connection with Asia Minor or with the Greek -islands may be summed up in a few words. After some time passed in -Macedonia, with a possible journey through Illyricum and Western Greece, -which occupied him for three months (xx. 3), St. Paul returned to the -north, and, passing by Philippi and Neapolis, crossed the Ægæan to -Alexandria Troas. This second visit to Troas is chiefly notable for the -story of the boy Eutychus, who, overcome with sleep when St. Paul -continued his speech until midnight, fell to the ground and was killed. -It will be observed, that, in the miracle of his restoration to life, -St. Paul implied the use of the very words of our Saviour to the young -maiden: “She is not dead, but sleepeth.” Thence he proceeded alone on -foot twenty miles to Assos, through a district then, as now, richly -wooded, but with a good Roman road, long since in utter decay. It was a -lonely walk the great Apostle pursued then; but solitude is sometimes -required to give greater strength. - -From Assos St. Paul took ship to Mytilene, proceeding onwards to Chios, -Samos, Trogyllium, and Miletus. At this last place, he summoned the -elders from Ephesus, and bade a solemn farewell to the Christians of -Asia, among whom he had laboured so long and so efficiently; and passing -thence by Coos and Rhodes to Patara, finally entered a ship there, and -sailed to Phœnicia (xxi. 1). At Trogyllium the Admiralty chart shows a -harbour that still bears the name of St. Paul’s Port. So far as we know, -with the exception of touching at Cnidus on his last voyage to Rome, St. -Paul had no further connection with Asia Minor. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - INDEX. - - - Abydus, Xerxes builds his bridge near, 5. - - Ancyra, temple and inscription of Augustus, 144-147. - - Antioch of Pisidia, site of, suggested by Mr. Arundell, proved by Mr. - Hamilton, 111-114. - - Apamea, and the legend of the ark resting there, 133-135. - - Argæus, Mt., near Cæsarea, ascended for the first time by Mr. Hamilton, - 151. - - Asia Minor, size of, 1; - less productive than of old, 2; - chief islands of, noticed here, Lesbos, Samos, Chios, Rhodus and - Cyprus, 156-171. - - Aspendus, beauty of theatre at, 102. - - Assus, importance of the monuments found there, 7. - - Attali, gallant character of the family of, 31, 32. - - Attalia (now Adalia), important port of, 99, 100. - - - Beaufort, Capt., discovery by of the granary of Trajan at Myra, 98. - - Branchidæ, famous oracle and temple at, 48, 49; - important excavations at by Mr. Newton, 49-55. - - - Chios, through all history, ancient and modern, cruelly - treated by its neighbours, 159, 160. - - Cnidus, important excavations at by Mr. Newton, 73-80. - - Colossæ, satisfactorily identified by Mr. Hamilton, 142-143. - - Cyprus, recent valuable researches in by Mr. Lang and General Palma di - Cesnola, 166-171. - - Cyzicus, position of, 3. - - - Ephesus, one of the most important of the cities of W. Asia, 37; - discovery of its famous temple of Diana by Mr. Wood, 42-45. - - - Falkener, Mr., interesting notice of Mt. Karadagh and of Bir-bir- - Kalisseh, the 1,001 churches, 130. - - - Gomperz, Prof., interpretation by of some inscriptions found by Dr. - Schliemann, 27, 28. - - - Hierapolis, remarkable petrifactions near, 137, 139. - - Hissarlik, the true site of ancient Troy, 10; - as also of new Troy, 29. - - - Iconium, its history, ancient and mediæval, 127-128. - - Isaura, Mr. Hamilton identifies the site of, 125-126. - - - Lampsacus, for some time the home of Themistocles, 5. - - Laodicea (ad Lycum), the chief town of Roman Proconsular Asia, 139-141. - - Lesbos, general character of its citizens, 156-157. - - Lystra and Derbe, difficulties in their identification, 129-130. - - - Magnesia (the Lydian), legends of Tantalus and Niobe connected with, - 56, 57. - - Mausoleum, or tomb of Mausolus, excavations at, by Mr. Newton, 62-70. - - Miletus, great importance of its position as a port, and the parent of - more colonies than any other place in antiquity, 45-47. - - Myra, remarkable beauty of its rock-cut tombs at, 97-98. - - - Palæ-scepsis, the MSS. of Aristotle discovered there, 9. - - Patara, celebrated oracle at, 96. - - Paul, St., missionary labours of, in Asia Minor, 172-186. - - Philadelphia, famous resistance of, to the Turks in A.D. 1390, 58. - - Philomelium, the best opium grown round it, 136 (and n.). - - Phrygians, the ethnological relations of, 131-133. - - Physcus (now Marmorice), Lord Nelson anchors his ships there, 80. - - Pullan, Mr., discovery by, of a colossal lion near Cnidus, 77-80. - - - Rhodus, remarkable excavations in, at Camirus, by Messrs. Biliotti and - Saltzmann, 162-165. - - - Sagalassus, grand natural position of, 107. - - Samos, history of, 157-159. - - Sardes, importance of in ancient history, 59-61. - - Sarkophagi, so named from the stone found at Assus, 8. - - Schliemann, Dr., remarkable early career of, 12-14; - excavations by, at Troy, 14-24; - his reasons for believing Hissarlik the site of Troy, 16 (n.). - - Selge, position of, not quite certain, 108, 109. - - Selinus (in Cilicia), the death-place of the Emperor Trajanus, 117. - - Sinope, the royal residence of the kings of Pontus, 153, 154. - - Smyrna, long endurance of, as a great port, 34, 35. - - Soli (in Cilicia) and solecisms, 121 (n.). - - Stratonicea, remarkable inscription of Diocletian thence, 81, 82. - - - Tarsus, abundant interesting notices of, 113-116. - - Telmessus, famous for its augurs, 95. - - Termessus, remarkable position of, 104. - - Troy, various theories as to its true position, 11. - - - Xanthus, in Lycia, curious story of, 86-89; - discoveries at, by Sir Charles Fellows, 89-95. - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - ---------------------------- - - WYMAN AND SONS, PRINTERS, GREAT QUEEN ST., LINCOLN’S-INN FIELDS. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - ● Transcriber’s Notes: - ○ An entry for the Index was added to the Table of Contents. - ○ Some footnotes did not have a legible number and were renumbered - to the best-match reference number in the text. - ○ Incorrect Greek accent and breathing marks were silently - corrected. - ○ In cases where the author mis-spelled words in very well-known and - well-documented excerpts from classical works, the incorrect - spelling has been corrected - ○ Typographical errors were silently corrected. - ○ Text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_). - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANCIENT HISTORY FROM THE MONUMENTS: -GREEK CITIES & ISLANDS OF ASIA MINOR *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Ancient history from the monuments: Greek cities & islands of Asia Minor</p> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: William Sandys Wright Vaux</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: November 4, 2021 [eBook #66663]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Turgut Dincer, Barry Abrahamsen, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANCIENT HISTORY FROM THE MONUMENTS: GREEK CITIES & ISLANDS OF ASIA MINOR ***</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/cover.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c000' /> -</div> -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/frontis.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p><span class='c001'>LION FROM CNIDUS.</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c000' /> -</div> -<div> - <h1 class='c002'>Ancient History<br />From the Monuments.<br />Greek Cities & Islands of Asia Minor</h1> -</div> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='c005'><em class='gesperrt'>ANCIENT HISTORY</em></span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='c006'>FROM THE MONUMENTS.</span></div> - <div class='c000'>─────────</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='c007'>GREEK CITIES & ISLANDS</span></div> - <div class='c000'>OF</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='c007'>ASIA MINOR.</span></div> - <div class='c004'>BY</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='c008'><em class='gesperrt'>W. S. W. VAUX,</em> M.A., F.R.S.</span></div> - <div class='c004'>───</div> - <div>PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF</div> - <div>THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION</div> - <div>APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING</div> - <div>CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.</div> - <div>───</div> - <div class='c004'><span class='large'>LONDON:</span></div> - <div><span class='large'><span class="blackletter">Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.</span></span></div> - <div><span class='large'>Sold at the Depositories,</span></div> - <div><span class='large'>77, Great Queen Street, Lincoln’s-Inn Fields;</span></div> - <div><span class='large'>4, Royal Exchange; 48, Piccadilly;</span></div> - <div><span class='large'>And by all Booksellers</span>.</div> - <div>───</div> - <div>1877.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c000' /> -</div> -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 id='toc' class='c009'><em class='gesperrt'>CONTENTS</em>.</h2> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c000'> - <div>───</div> - <div class='c000'>CHAPTER I.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<table class='table0' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='84%' /> -<col width='15%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c010'><span class='sc'>Introduction</span>—Cyzicus—Lampsacus—Abydus—Assus—Palæ-Scepsis—Troy—Dr. Schliemann—Ilium Novum—Alexandria—Troas—Pergamum or Pergamus—Æolis.</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#ch01'>Page 1</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c000'> - <div>CHAPTER II.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<table class='table0' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='84%' /> -<col width='15%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Phocæa—Smyrna—Clazomenæ—Erythræ—Teos—Colophon—Ephesus—Mr. Wood—Miletus—Branchidæ or Didyma—Sacred Way—Mr. Newton—Thyateira—Magnesia ad Sipylum—Philadelphia—Tralles—Sardes— Halicarnassus—Mausoleum—Cnidus—Demeter—Lion-Tomb—Mr. Pullan—Physcus—Caunus—Stratonicea—Aphrodisias—Mylasa and Labranda.</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#ch02'>Page 34</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c000'> - <div>CHAPTER III.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<table class='table0' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='84%' /> -<col width='15%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Xanthus—Sir Charles Fellows—Telmessus—Patara—Pinara—Myra—Tlos and Antiphellus—Attalia—Perge—Eurymedon—Aspendus—Side—Termessus— Cremna—Sagalassus—Selge—Antioch of Pisidia—Tarsus—Coracesium—Laertes—Selinus—Anemurium—Celenderis—Seleuceia— Corycus—Soli—Adana—Mallus—Mopsuestia—Anazarbus—Issus.</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#ch03'>Page 86</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c000'> - <div>CHAPTER IV.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<table class='table0' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='84%' /> -<col width='15%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Isaura—Iconium—Lystra—Derbe—Apamea Cibotus—Aezani—Synnada—Philomelium—Laodicea Combusta—Hierapolis—Laodicea ad Lycum—Colossæ—Ancyra—Pessinus—Tavium—Nazianzus—Cæsarea ad Argæum—Tyana—Comana—Trapezus—Amastris—Sinope—Prusa ad Olympum—Nicæa—Nicomedia—Islands of Greece—Lesbos—Samos—Chios—Rhodus—Messrs. Biliotti and Saltzmann—Cyprus—Mr. Lang—General Palma di Cesnola</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#ch04'>Page 124</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c000'> - <div>CHAPTER V.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<table class='table0' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='84%' /> -<col width='15%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>St. Paul</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#ch05'>Page 172</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Index</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#idx'>Page 187</a></td> - </tr> -</table> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c000' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span><span class='xxlarge'>GREEK CITIES AND ISLANDS OF ASIA MINOR.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 id='ch01' class='c009'><em class='gesperrt'>CHAPTER I</em>.<br /><span class='c012'>INTRODUCTION.</span></h2> -</div> -<p class='c013'>Cyzicus—Lampsacus—Abydus—Assus—Palæ-Scepsis—Troy—Dr. -Schliemann—Ilium Novum—Alexandria—Troas—Pergamum or Pergamus—Æolis.</p> -<p class='c014'><span class='sc'>Before</span> we proceed to give a somewhat detailed -account of the more important cities of Asia Minor, -and of the islands adjacent to its west and southern -shores, we may mention that Asia Minor, as it -lies on the map, exhibits, in its contour, a remarkable -resemblance to Spain. Extending between -N. Lat. 36° and 42°, and E. Long. 26° and 40°, it -is about the same size as France, and somewhat less -than Spain and Portugal taken together. Its interior -consists of a central plateau, rarely lower than -3,000 ft. above the sea, often much more; many -portions of it, however, especially to the N. and E., -affording excellent pasturage for sheep, and, therefore, -now, as for centuries, the natural home of the -Turkomán shepherds.</p> -<p class='c015'>At the S.W. end of Asia Minor terminates, also, -the great central mountain-range of Asia itself, which, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>running from the Brahmaputra westwards, connects -the Himálayas and the Caucasus.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Many of the streams flowing from these mountains -are heavily charged with lime; hence the remarkable -deposits of travertine, &c., to be seen at Hierapolis -and elsewhere. Indeed, to the geological -features of the country we owe the fact that the -military and commercial routes through Asia Minor -have been always nearly the same, the earliest and -the latest conquerors having followed the same roads.</p> - -<p class='c015'>The present produce of Asia Minor is almost insignificant -when considered with reference to its geographical -area, and to the great wealth extracted from -it by the Romans (Cic. pro Leg. Manil. 2). But every -land, alike, decays under the oppressive and unintelligent -rule of the Osmanlis of Constantinople. The -name, Asia Minor, we may add, is comparatively -modern, and is not met with earlier than Orosius, -in the fifth century A.D., while that of Anatolia -(Ἀνατολἠ) is used first by Constantinus Porphyrogenitus, -in the tenth century A.D.</p> - -<p class='c015'>The chief provinces of Asia Minor (omitting the -smaller subdivisions of Ionia, Æolis, and Troas, included, -as these latter are usually, under Mysia and -Lydia) are the following:—Mysia, Lydia, Caria, to -the W., and fronting the Ægean Sea; Lycia, Pamphylia, -and Cilicia, opposite to Crete and Cyprus; -Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus, on the Black -Sea; and, in the centre, Pisidia and Lycaonia, Phrygia, -Galatia and Cappadocia.</p> - -<p class='c015'>We propose to notice the more important towns, -according to the order of the provinces just recited; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>and, following this order, we take first Mysia and -its chief town, <span class='sc'>Cyzicus</span> (the <i>Esquize</i> of mediæval -times), which was situated on the neck of a peninsula -running out into the Sea of Marmora. Mr. Hamilton -describes its position as “a sandy isthmus, having -near its southern end many large blocks of stone,” -not, improbably, the remains of Strabo’s “bridge.” -Many ancient monuments may still be traced among -its present cherry-orchards, attesting its original magnitude -and magnificence, most of the relics now -visible being Roman, and its destruction having, no -doubt, been mainly due to the great earthquakes in the -reign of Tiberius and Aurelius, which ruined and -depopulated so many other of the fairest towns of -Asia Minor.<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c016'><sup>[1]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f1'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. </span>Tacitus, speaking of A.D. 17, the 4th of Tiberius, says:—“Eodem -anno duodecim celebres Asiæ urbes collapsæ nocturno -motu terræ” (Annal. ii. c. 47): and Cicero speaks of Cyzicus -as “urbem Asiæ celeberrimam nobisque amicissimam.” Compare -also Apoll. Rhod. i. 936-941, 983-987; Valer. Max. ii. 630; -Ovid. Trist. i. 9.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>Mr. Hamilton, indeed, noting the loose and rubbly -character of its buildings, doubts the architectural -fame of the city; but it is probable that what we -now see was once cased with marble, as much fine -marble is found in the adjacent hills. Some, too, of -its buildings are of a granite easily disintegrable. -Any how, it would seem to be a place where well-conducted -excavations might bring to light many -curious relics of the past. Cyzicus was classed by -Anaximenes of Lampsacus among the colonies of -Miletus, but was not of importance till the close -<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>of the Peloponnesian war, when, by the discreditable -peace of Antalcidas, it was surrendered to the -Persians, its ultimate prosperity being in great measure -due to its position, as a natural entrepôt, between the -Black Sea and the Ægean. In Roman times it was, -according to Strabo, a “Libera civitas,” and, with the -exception of Nicomedia and Nicæa, the most important -city in that part of Asia Minor. In the days -of Caracalla it had become a “Metropolis,” and, -still later, was an Episcopal see.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Of the great wealth and, we may perhaps add, of -the popularity of its citizens in the fifth and fourth -century B.C., the gold coins, called Cyzicene <i>staters</i>, -are ample evidence; though it may be doubted -whether, as was once thought, the <i>zecchino</i> (or -sequin), means <i>Cyzicene</i>. In an able paper by Dr. -(now Sir Patrick) Colquhoun (Trans. Roy. Liter. vol. -iv. p. 35), it is clearly shown that the “<i>Squise</i>” of -Ville-Hardouin is the ancient Cyzicus, “the oldest -commercial place in the world,” as that writer, with -some exaggeration, asserts. The form “Esquisse” is -probably, as Dr. Colquhoun suggests, a corruption of -εἰς Κὐζικον (“to Cyzicus”).<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c016'><sup>[2]</sup></a> Dr. Colquhoun’s paper -is full of curious information on the early mediæval -state of this part of Asia Minor. Its decline was mainly -due to the invasion of the Goths in A.D. 262, but it long -remained the metropolis of the Hellespontine province -<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>(Hierocl. Synecd. p. 661. Malala, Chron. i. p. 364). -It was finally destroyed by an earthquake in A.D. 943.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f2'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. </span>Similar modern modifications may be noticed in other sites -of the Levant. Thus, Stanchio (Kos) comes from εἰς τἡν Κῶν; -Stamboul is not, necessarily, a corruption of Constantinopolis, -but, more probably, of εἰς τἡν πόλιν (“to the city”); so Stalimene -(Lesbos) comes from εἰς τὁν λιμἐνα (“to the port”).</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>Another Mysian town of note was <span class='sc'>Lampsacus</span>, also -a colony of Miletus and Phocæa, attested as this is by -its gold and silver coins, and by a statue of a prostrate -lion, said to have been the work of Lysippus, and subsequently, -placed by Agrippa in the Campus Martius -at Rome. The town was famous for its wine, and was, -for this reason, granted to Themistocles, who is said -to have learnt here, or at Magnesia, Persian in a year; -the district around having been granted to him by -his old enemy the King of Persia. Like most of the -towns of western Asia Minor, it often changed hands -during the rival contests of its more powerful neighbours; -but, having, with a wise forethought, voted a -crown of gold to the Romans, it was accepted by them -as an ally,<a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c016'><sup>[3]</sup></a> and, hence, was, in the time of Strabo, -a town of some magnitude. A small village, called -Lampsaki, most likely marks on our modern maps the -site of the old town.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f3'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. </span>Liv. xliii. 6. Most likely, its brave resistance to Antiochus -had favourably inclined the Romans to it (Liv. xxxiii. 38; xxxv. -42; Polyb. xxi. 10).</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>A little to the south of Lampsacus was <span class='sc'>Abydus</span>, -at the narrowest part of the Hellespont, and opposite -the town of Sestus.<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c016'><sup>[4]</sup></a> It was a little above -Abydus that Xerxes constructed his famous bridge, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>B.C. 480; but, except for the gallant resistance it -made to Philip, son of Demetrius, king of Macedon, -Abydus has no place in history. In legendary -lore, however, it was the scene of the famous swimming -of Leander to visit his lady-love, the Priestess -of the Temple at Sestus, on the opposite or European -shore, a natatory feat, however, far surpassed in -recent days. Lord Byron’s lines on the subject are -well known:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c018'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>He could, perhaps, have pass’d the Hellespont,</div> - <div class='line'>As once (a feat on which ourselves we prided)</div> - <div class='line'>Leander, Mr. Ekenhead, and I did.</div> - <div class='c019'>Don Juan, Cant. ii. 105.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote c020' id='f4'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. </span>The average breadth of the Hellespont was about three -miles—rather narrow for Homer’s πλατὑς, “the broad.” He, -probably, however, looked on it rather as a mighty river; to -which, indeed, his epithets of ἀγάῤῥοος and ἀπείρων (“strong-flowing,” -and “boundless”) well enough apply. Herodotus -calls it δολερὁς and ἀλμυρὁς ποταμός, “a treacherous and -unsavoury river” (vii. 35).</p> -</div> - -</div> -<p class='c017'>Leander’s labour, however, was greater than that of -the poet or his companion, in that he swam <i>against</i> -the stream to reach Sestus, the current being often so -powerful that a well-manned boat cannot be pulled -straight across it.</p> -<p class='c015'>A little further down the coast, and facing nearly -due south, is <span class='sc'>Assus</span>, a site which has been visited -by many travellers, as Walpole, Choiseul-Gouffier, -Raoul-Rochette, Fellows, and Pullan. The most ancient -monuments of Greek art in the Louvre at Paris -were removed thence. The position of the chief buildings -is very grand; indeed, in Strabo’s time, Assus -was considered as a fortress almost inaccessible.<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c016'><sup>[5]</sup></a> Its -<span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>ruins are still remarkably perfect, one gate at least, of -triangular construction, resembling those at Mycenæ -and Arpinum. There are, also, vestiges of a hexastyle -Doric temple, showing some analogy with those -at Pæstum. Seventeen large fragments from the -metopes and two façades of the Temple were ultimately -removed to France by Capt. Chaigneau, -together with a Doric capital. They were found scattered -over the slope of the hill, and must have been -removed at some time or the other, probably for -building purposes; indeed, fragments of similar pieces -were also noticed in some of the neighbouring -houses. In character of workmanship, the sculptures -resemble the Æginetan marbles now at the -British Museum. But their execution is not so effective, -the material of which they are made being the -coarse red stone of the neighbourhood. To the same -cause is, perhaps, due the fact that they had not -been carried away long ago. Had they been of fine -marble, they would have been valuable plunder. Sir -Charles Fellows, speaking of Assus, says, “After -depositing my baggage, I took the most intelligent -Turk in the place as my cicerone.... -Immediately around me were the ruins, extending -for miles, undisturbed by any living creature -except the goats and kids. On every side lay -columns, triglyphs and friezes, of beautiful sculpture, -every object speaking of the grandeur of this ancient -city. In one place I saw thirty Doric capitals placed -up in a line for a fence.” Sir Charles Fellows gives -a drawing of one of the friezes now in Paris, and -adds, “I then entered the Via Sacra, or Street of -Tombs, extending for miles. Some of these tombs -<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>still stand in their original beautiful forms, but most -have been opened, and the lids are lying near the -walls they covered, curiosity or avarice having been -satisfied by displacing them.... -These ruins are on a considerably larger scale than -those of the Roman city, and many of the remains -are equally perfect. Several are highly ornamented -and have inscriptions; others are as large as a temple, -being twenty to thirty feet square; the usual height -of the sarcophagus is from ten to twelve feet.”<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c016'><sup>[6]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f5'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. </span>The character of the position of Assus led to a joke of the -musician Stratonicus, who applied to it a line of Homer (Il. vii. -144), playing on the meaning of the word Ἆσσον, viz.</p> -<p class='c021'>Ἅσσον ἴθ’, ὡς κεν θᾶσσον ὀλέθρου πείραθ’ ἵκηαι,</p> -<p class='c017'>Come more quickly (or come to Assus), “that ye may the -more quickly come to utter destruction.” At Assus, St. Luke, and -other companions of St. Paul, rejoined him with their ship, the -Apostle having walked on foot from Alexandria Troas (Acts xx. 13).</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f6'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. </span>The popular story of the “Lapis Assius,” with its supposed -power of destroying the flesh of bodies buried in it (whence the -name <i>sarkophagus</i>, or “flesh-consuming,”) is noticed by Dioskorides -and Pliny. But this Greek word is rarely used for a tomb, -the more usual word being σορός (soros). By the Romans, however, -it was used, as in Juv. x. 170. Colonel Leake observes -of the ruins of Assos, “The whole gives, perhaps, the most -perfect idea of a Greek city that anywhere exists” (Asia Minor, -p. 128). See also R. P. Pullan, “Ruins of Asia Minor,” p. 19.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Palæ-Scepsis</span> is interesting for the native tradition, -that it was once the capital of Æneas’s dominions. -It appears to have been situated near the source of the -Æsepus—high up on Mount Ida—the later Scepsis -being about sixty stadia (7½ miles) lower down (Strabo, -xiii. 607). Dr. Colquhoun<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c016'><sup>[7]</sup></a> states that a village in the -neighbourhood still bears the name of <i>Eski Skisepje</i>, -which, as Eski means “old” in Turkish, corresponds -with Palæ-Scepsis; Dr. Colquhoun at the same time -quotes the words of its discoverer, the distinguished -Oriental scholar, Dr. Mordtmann. “I did discover,” -says Dr. Mordtmann, “a most ancient city with its -acropolis, towers and walls built of hewn stone, and -furnished with four gates. The antiquity of the place -<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>was manifested by an oak having fixed its roots in the -wall, and by its trunk having grown to a girth of 530 -centimètres (about 17 feet). On reference to Strabo, -I first became aware that I had discovered, probably, -the most ancient ruin in Asia Minor, for I hold that -this can be no other than Palæ-Scepsis.” The evidence -adduced by Drs. Mordtmann and Colquhoun -confirms the accuracy of Strabo. The later town of -Scepsis is memorable for the discovery there, during -the time of Sylla, of the works of Aristotle and -Theophrastus, which had been buried by the illiterate -relations of one Neleus (a pupil of Aristotle and -friend of Theophrastus), lest they should be carried -off by Attalus, then founding his library at Pergamus. -It appears from Strabo, that though preserved -from utter ruin, the precious MSS. had suffered -much from damp and worms; but they suffered still -more by the injudicious efforts of their purchaser, -Apellicon of Teos, a well-meaning person, though -wholly incompetent to supply the gaps he found.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f7'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. </span>See Dr. Colquhoun “On the Site of the Palæ-Scepsis of -Strabo” (Trans. R. S. Liter., vol. iv. 1852).</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>But the most celebrated place in Mysia was the -ancient city of <span class='sc'>Troy</span>. It would be out of place -here, indeed impossible, to discuss any of the various -theories of ancient or modern times referring to this -famous town and its no less famous war. It is enough -to state here our firm belief in the existence of both, -and further, that the legends since grouped around -them by no means demand any such non-existence. -We have no doubt that a prominent conical hill, now -called Hissarlik, does represent the spot where old -Troy once stood.<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c016'><sup>[8]</sup></a> The convergency of the various -<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>stories of ancient history, the existence at Hissarlik -of ruins of remote antiquity, and the singular fitness of -the position (unless, indeed, all that is attributed to -Homer is to be condemned as purely mythical), lead -to the seemingly inevitable conclusion that here, if -anywhere, once stood this celebrated town.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f8'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. </span>It has been, justly, we think, remarked (Quarterly Review, -April, 1874), that “not one of the sceptical critics has ever questioned -that these (the Homeric poems) show an acquaintance -with the topography of the region which (and this is no small -point) has borne, from all known antiquity, the name of the -Troad.... Homer’s Ida, and Scamander, and Hellespont are -as real in his pages as in their existence at the present day.”</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>The inhabitants of Ilium were a mixed population, -partly, it is probable, of Thracian origin, and so far -only Greek that a Pelasgian element may be traced -in both peoples, while they were probably, also, -inferior in civilization to the Greeks, with barbaric -habits and manners, already obsolete among their -more polished enemies. Nor, again, is it at all -necessary to maintain that the capture of Troy -implies its entire destruction; it is, indeed, more -likely that its ultimate ruin was due to the enmity -of its Asiatic neighbours, as suggested by Strabo on -the authority of an ancient writer, Xanthus. It -is clear that Ilium stood on rising ground, between -the rivers Scamander and Simois, and that here were -placed the palaces of Priam and of his sons. The -whole spot was, we may reasonably conclude, surrounded -by strong walls, with many gates, only one -of which is, however, noticed in Homer by name. -Such was the tradition, the long endurance of which -is shown in the subsequent sacrifice by Xerxes, recorded -by Herodotus (vii. 43).</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>The new Ilium of later days most likely occupied the -same traditional site; the theory of Demetrius of Scepsis, -adopted by Strabo, of two Iliums separated the one -from the other by a considerable interval of ground, -being clearly adverse to a common-sense view of -the question.<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c016'><sup>[9]</sup></a> Any one would naturally expect that -those who constructed <i>Novum Ilium</i> would select that -place for their town to which the legends most distinctly -pointed; while a manifest objection to the view -of Demetrius is that it converts Homer from a poet -into a topographer, and attempts to make the natural -features of the country accord with his poetic descriptions. -It is far more probable that Homer, or whoever -collected the poems passing under his name, -had but a very general idea of the localities where -were laid the scenes he describes: while there is, also, -no general agreement as to the true site of Troy -among those writers who, in modern times, have -more or less accepted the theory of Demetrius and -Strabo. Indeed, on the idea of Homer having written -his poems with an Ordnance map in his lap, it is -simply impossible to fix on any one spot that satisfies -all the conditions of his story.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f9'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. </span>The site for ancient Ilium of recent years the most popular -is called <i>Bournarbashi</i>, where the Scamander emerges from the -lower ridges of Mount Ida, and, therefore, not far from the -“village of the Ilians.” This view, proposed originally by Chevallier -in 1788, and, subsequently, adopted by Rennell, Leake, -Welckher, Forchhammer, Choiseul-Gouffier, and others, has, -however, been completely answered by Grote, whose arguments -have been fully confirmed by the latest researches.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>We must now notice the recent marvellous researches -of Dr. Schliemann, for, though they have -done little towards the revelation of Homer’s -<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>Troy, they have demonstrated that, many feet below -very ancient and still existing walls, there have -once been enormous structures, the treasury, fortress, -and royal residence of some wealthy ruler of -remote antiquity. While, therefore, we do not -believe that Dr. Schliemann has found old Troy, -in the same sense that Layard discovered the palaces -of Sardanapalus, the Greek inscriptions he has unearthed -have assuredly proved the identity of the -modern Hissarlik with <i>Novum</i> Ilium. What, then, is -the history of Schliemann’s researches, and what has -he done that any other man might not have done with -as ample means at his command? Doubtless there are -other men who might have done as much as he, notably -Mr. Layard. As Dr. Schliemann was much influenced -by his early education at home, and as his career has -been a very extraordinary one, we feel sure our readers -would like to know something of the digger as well -of as what he has dug out. We purpose, therefore, to -give a brief sketch of his personal history, and then, -with equal brevity, to add a notice of what he has -accomplished.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Born in 1822 at a small village in Mecklenburg, he -tells us that, “as soon as I learnt to speak my father -related to me the great deeds of the Homeric heroes,” -and, though from ten years of age he was an -apprentice in a warehouse,<a id='r10' /><a href='#f10' class='c016'><sup>[10]</sup></a> he always retained, as he -adds, “the same love for the famous men of antiquity -<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>which I conceived for them in my first childhood.” -As time went on Schliemann became a clerk, though -on a yearly salary of only £32: but he contrived to -live on half—to do without a fire, and to devote all -his spare moments to the study of languages. Thus -he learnt first English and French, each in six months, -and then other modern tongues, including Russ.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f10'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r10'>10</a>. </span>In this “warehouse,” let it not be forgotten, Schliemann -was employed from fourteen to twenty years of age, from 5 <span class='fss'>A.M.</span> -to 11 <span class='fss'>P.M.</span>, selling herrings, butter, brandy, milk, &c.; and that -it was not till after he had lost this occupation from an injury -caused by lifting a cask, that he was <i>promoted</i> to the clerkship -at the salary mentioned in the text.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>To Dutch, Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese he -allowed only six weeks each. During the eight years -from 1846 to 1854 he was so much occupied in -business that he had no time for literature; in the -latter end, however, of the second year he found time -to learn Swedish and Polish. It was not till January, -1856, that he ventured to attack Greek, his fear being, -as he naïvely remarks, that the fascination of its study -might interfere with his commercial duties. Aided -however by two Greek friends, he tells us he learnt -modern Greek in six weeks, and, in three months -more, sufficient classical Greek to understand the -ancient writers, and especially Homer. In 1858 Dr. -Schliemann was able to travel over Sweden, Denmark, -Germany, Italy, and Egypt, on the way learning somewhat -of (we presume colloquial) Arabic, and returning -thence through Syria and Athens to St. Petersburg. -It was not, however, till 1863 that he had secured, by -his vigorous commercial occupations, the means to -spend the rest of his life as he pleased.</p> - -<p class='c015'>His first plan, in 1864, was to visit the fatherland -of Ulysses, but this was only a hasty and flying trip, -and he was, shortly afterwards, induced to extend his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>journey to India, China, and Japan. On his return -to Europe he spent some time in Paris, but made -also, thence, journeys to Greece and the plains of -Troy, an account of which, written, it would seem, -about 1868, he has given in the first volume of his -recent work. This volume contains, <i>inter alia</i>, the -result of his studies among the “Cyclopean” works -in Argolis, a knowledge of great value to him when -he commenced his more important excavations. He -seems also, about this period, to have carefully examined -the Troad, and to have satisfied himself -that Hissarlik was the place at which to commence -his excavations. Having married a Greek lady, in -every sense a “help-meet” for the work he had set -himself to do, he went again to the Troad in the -spring of 1870, and, having secured an ample number -of labourers, continued his excavations there during -the greater part of the period between the autumn -of 1871 and the summer of 1873.</p> - -<p class='c015'>It must not be supposed that this work was one -of ease or pleasant toil: he had not the patient -“Chaldeans” who did Layard’s behests, still less had -he Hormuzd Rassam to settle, as a native only can -settle, the ever-rising disputes between the Greek and -Mussulman “navvies.” Indeed, to secure one pavement -from destruction, he had to tell his workmen -that by this road “Christ had gone up to visit King -Priam”! The cost, too, was very heavy; for he had -often 150 men in his employment, and expended, -from his own resources, fully £8,000. Is it possible -to estimate too highly such exertions towards the -ascertainment of the reality or falsity of ancient -<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>story, and this, too, by the only thoroughly effectual -means, the excavation of sites of traditional importance? -Can we withhold our admiration for the -labourer, even though his enthusiasm may have led -him to believe all he found was Trojan, the golden -relics, especially, being those of King Priam? and, -after all, what matters the theory of the excavator, so -the work he does is well done? As well might we -quarrel with Mr. Parker’s labours in Rome, because -he has coupled with his most valuable excavations his -own, somewhat fanciful, belief in the personality of a -Romulus. Every honest excavation, such as those of -Dr. Schliemann and Mr. Parker, are so many landmarks -recovered from all-destroying time. We can -well afford to dispense with or to smile at the fancies -of the excavators, so only that a careful record be kept -of what the excavations have really revealed.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Dr. Schliemann’s account of his diggings, between -the autumn of 1871 and June 17, 1873, has been published -in the form of twenty-three letters or memoirs; -a mode of narrative the more pleasant that it places -the reader <i>au courant</i> with the daily ideas of the -discoverer, though, necessarily, causing some repetition -and not a few corrections. His Introduction, -however, gives a sufficient summary of what he accomplished. -With the text he has also provided an -atlas of 217 photographic plates of the plans and excavations -carried on throughout the whole plain of -Troy, together with representations of between three -and four thousand individual objects discovered. -These photographs—not, we regret to say, from the -originals, but from drawings of them—are wholly inadequate -<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>to give any satisfactory idea of the beauty -or character of the objects themselves.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Dr. Schliemann having, as we have stated, made -up his mind<a id='r11' /><a href='#f11' class='c016'><sup>[11]</sup></a> that the rising ground now called -<i>Hissarlik</i> (or fortress) was the site of Old Troy, commenced -his diggings there, on a plateau about 80 -feet above the level of the plain, with a steep descent -to the N.E. and N.W. Above this plateau is a portion -of ground 26 feet higher, about 925 feet long by 620 -feet wide, which he assumed to be the Pergamum of -Homer, or citadel of Priam. If so, beneath and -around this Acropolis must have been the second as -well as the earlier city. Dr. Schliemann went to work -much as miners do when they are “prospecting,” only -on a larger scale: he took soundings of the plain till -he reached the virgin rock, at a depth never greater -than 16 feet, at first meeting only with walls of houses -and fragments of pottery of a Greek or even later -period. As he found nothing else up to the edge of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>the Pergamum,<a id='r12' /><a href='#f12' class='c016'><sup>[12]</sup></a> he concluded that the original Ilium -did not spread into the plain, and that its area was -accurately defined by the great wall he afterwards -found. In short, he concluded that the city had no -special Acropolis,<a href='#f12' class='c016'><sup>[12]</sup></a> as feigned by Homer, and that any -enlargement of the old town was due to the <i>débris</i> -gradually thrown down or accumulated around the -base of the small central hill. He adds, rather -amusingly, “I venture to hope that the civilized -world will not only not be vexed that the town of -Priam has shown itself scarcely the twentieth part as -large as was to be expected from the statements of -the Iliad, but, on the contrary, that, with delight and -enthusiasm, it will accept the certainty that Ilium did -really exist.”</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f11'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r11'>11</a>. </span>Dr. Schliemann has fully stated in the <i>Augsburg Gazette</i>, -Sept. 26, 1873, his reasons for accepting Hissarlik for Troy, and -for rejecting Bounarbashi and other sites; and his reasons, to <i>an -antiquary</i>, are weighty:—1. At Bounarbashi, nothing has been -found earlier than potsherds of the sixth century B.C. 2. Sir J. -Lubbock, in the so-called tomb of Hector, found nothing earlier -than the third century B.C. 3. Von Hahn found neither potsherds -nor bricks on the north side of the Balidagh, between the -Akropolis (of Gergi) and the springs of Bounarbashi. 4. The -sites examined by Clarke and Barker Webb, and that of Ulrichs, -presented no remains of man. 5. The “village of the Ilians”—κώμη Ἰλιέων -of Demetrius of Skepsis—gave forth nothing -earlier than potsherds of the first century B.C. On the other -hand, under Hissarlik, have been found all or most of the remains, -treasure included, which Dr. Schliemann has secured.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f12'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r12'>12</a>. </span>This word Pergamum or Pergama, which occurs more than -once in Asia Minor, notably in the case of the great city of that -name, is probably only another form of the -πύργος, <i>burg</i> or <i>berg</i>, -which runs through so many languages of the Indo-European -family. Thus, Sanskr. <i>spurg</i>; Gr. πυργ, originally σφυργος -or φυργος. So the Gothic <i>bairg-ahei</i>, mountainous; <i>fairg-uni</i>, -mountain. Compare, also, with this, Berge in Thrace, and Perge -in Pamphylia. Possibly, the Celtic <i>briga</i> (<i>Brigantes</i>, the dwellers -in the hills) is connected with the same root. The Arabs have -now adopted the word (see Rénan).</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>There is nothing specially remarkable in the small -size of the “supposed” Troy. It was an ancient custom -to build the town round a central Acropolis where -possible. So was it with Athens and Mycenæ, -with Rome, Carthage and Mount Zion; the ordinary -dwellings of the population for centuries -being huts or small cottages, like the traditional -<i>Tugurium</i> of Romulus, buildings which would, naturally, -leave behind them no traces of their former -<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>existence. It has been well remarked, that Homer -cannot fairly be accused of having <i>invented</i> this -Pergamum, as the hill was a natural fact: and that -what he really did, was, to indulge his imagination -as to the magnificence of the town he grouped on it -or in the plain round it.</p> - -<p class='c015'>The little hill of Hissarlik became, therefore, the -centre of Dr. Schliemann’s labours, the most productive -field of his excavations, and the site where he -laid open walls far more ancient than Greek Ilium, -with a perfect entrance-gateway and paved road -through it, together with many remains of houses, -and a marvellous collection of relics, some of great -intrinsic value. But the most unexpected discovery -was the <i>position</i> of the various remains, proving, as -this did, that, at least, four different sets of people -had occupied this site, and covered it with their own -buildings, in complete unconsciousness that there had -been elder races there before them, whose remains -were actually under them. The same fact has been -noticed, but on a small scale, elsewhere. Thus Roman -London lies some sixteen or seventeen feet under the -Mansion House or Bank of England; so, too, Layard -found successive traces on the mound of Nimrud of -Arab, Roman, and Parthian occupation. But such -traces are as nothing to what Dr. Schliemann’s works -revealed. It was clear that the natural hill of Hissarlik -had been, at first, somewhat levelled, being also, in -some places, made more secure by a retaining wall, -and that, above this, the successive ruins have been -heaped up in a solid mass from 46 to 52 feet above -the native rock. On this, lastly, <i>Novum Ilium</i> was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>built. Dr. Schliemann gives a section, whence it -appears that, commencing from the existing surface, -Greek Ilium occupies about six feet in depth; that -at 23 feet below this, Dr. Schliemann’s “Troy of -Homer” is reached; and that, under this “Troy,” -again, is a third stratum 29 feet thick, the whole human -accumulations. The most sceptical person on the -subject of “Troy divine” cannot question the accuracy -of Dr. Schliemann’s measurements, whatever he -may think of his theories. It is manifest that even the -stratum immediately under Ilium Novum is essentially -prehistoric. Of what date, then, are the still lower strata? -Indeed, calculations, on such a point, can as little be -relied on as those of Mr. Horner on the <i>alluvium</i> of -the Egyptian Delta. There are, however, some matters -connected with them that must be noticed from their -peculiarity. Thus the super-imposed layers testify -to periods of occupation rather than to those of -destruction; while the theory of distinct and well-defined -stone, bronze, and iron ages completely breaks -down, stone implements occurring in all the strata, and -even where bronze is abundant. Iron, on the other -hand, is almost wholly absent. Thus instruments of -stone and of copper occur with ornaments in gold, -silver, and even ivory, evidencing, as these do, advance -in civilization and, as the cause of this, some -interchange of commerce with other nations.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Whatever else, therefore, may be thought of Dr. -Schliemann’s researches, it cannot be doubted but -that the excavations at Hissarlik form a new chapter -in the history of man, and as such [apart from any -supposed connection with Homer], are a sufficient -<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>reward for his labour and expenditure of capital. It -would unquestionably have been better (but who shall -control honest enthusiasm?) had he been less ready -to invest every discovery he made with some Homeric -name; we could have been well free of such pretentious -identifications as the Tower of Ilium, the -Scæan gates, the Royal Palace, and King Priam’s -Treasure; just as, in a similar case, Mr. Parker’s -valuable contributions to the early history of Rome -are not improved by the revival of the legend of a -Romulus and Remus, and of the suckling of these -heroes by a she-wolf. Nothing, however, allowing -for these slight blemishes, can exceed the interest of -Dr. Schliemann’s narrative.</p> - -<p class='c015'>“The excavations,” to quote his own words, “prove -that the second nation which built a town on this -hill, upon the <i>débris</i> of the first settlers (which is -from twenty to thirty feet thick), are the Trojans -of whom Homer sings.... The strata of this -Trojan <i>débris</i>, which, without exception, bears marks -of great heat, consists mainly of red ashes of wood, -and rise from five to ten feet above the great wall -of Ilion, the double Scæan gate, and the great surrounding -wall, the construction of which Homer -ascribes to Poseidon and Apollo, and they show that -the town was destroyed by a fearful conflagration. -How great this heat must have been is clear also -from the large slabs of stone of the road leading from -the double Scæan gate down to the plain; for when -a few months ago I laid this road open, all the slabs -appeared as much uninjured as if they had been put -down quite recently; but after they had been exposed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>to the air for a few days the slabs of the upper part -of the road, to the extent of some 10 feet, which had -been exposed to the heat, began to crumble away, and -have now almost disappeared, while those of the lower -portion of the road, which had not been touched by -the fire, have remained uninjured, and seem to be indestructible. -A further proof of the terrible catastrophe -is furnished by a stratum of scoriæ of melted lead -and copper of a thickness of from ⅕ of an inch to -1⅕ inch, which extends nearly through the whole hill -at a depth of from 27 feet to 29 feet.”</p> - -<p class='c015'>It was here that Dr. Schliemann found the -prodigious structure he has named the “Tower -of Ilion,” a building no less than 40 feet thick. -“This tower,” he adds, “after having been buried -for thirty-one centuries, and after, during thousands -of years, one nation after another had built its -houses and palaces high above its summit, has now -again been brought to light, and commands a view, -if not of the whole plain, at least of its northern parts, -and of the Hellespont.” A little way beyond this -tower is a remarkably perfect gateway, fitted for two -pairs of gates, one behind the other, the upper fastenings -of which still remain in the stone posts. These -Dr. Schliemann takes for the “Scæan gates” of -Homer. He then came to what he calls the “Palace -of Priam,” no doubt, a house of some kind, at a depth -of from 22 to 26 feet, resting upon the great tower, -and directly under the Temple of Minerva. Its -walls were built of small stones cemented with -earth, and would seem to belong to different epochs. -The walls vary in thickness from 4 feet to 1 foot 10 -<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>inches. All about, within as well as without, are -abundant signs of fire, which must have burnt with -prodigious fury. Dr. Schliemann speaks of many feet -in thickness of red and yellow wood ashes. Here, as -at Nineveh and at Carthage, the first destruction -seems to have been fire, the great extent of it, in each -case, having probably arisen from the wooden construction -of the upper portions of these houses. At Nineveh, -it has been reasonably supposed that only the foundations -of the walls were of stone or brick, the upper -part, like many Eastern houses at the present day, being -wholly of wood, which would readily catch fire, and -fill the rooms below with burning embers. In several -of the rooms of one of these houses Dr. Schliemann -found red jars from 7 to 8 feet high, and, to the east -of the house, what he assumes to have been a sacrificial -altar, a slab of granite 5 feet 4 inches long by -5 feet 5 inches broad. Such a conflagration, it is -likely, would be long remembered; and it has been -acutely asked whether, after all, there may not have -been an Asiatic Iliad handed down from mouth to -mouth, of which Homer may have availed himself, as -did the mediæval Minnesingers.</p> - -<p class='c015'>The next and the greatest of Schliemann’s discoveries -was also one of his last: we give it in -his own words. “In the course of excavations -on the Trojan wall, and in the immediate neighbourhood -of Priam’s house, I lighted on a great -copper object of remarkable form, which attracted -my attention all the more, as I thought I saw gold -behind. Upon this copper object rested a thick crust -of red ashes and calcined ruins, on which again -<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>weighed a wall nearly 6 feet thick and 18 feet high, -built of great stones and earth, and which must have -belonged to the period next after the destruction of -Troy. In order to save this treasure from the greed -of my workmen, and to secure it for science, it was -necessary to use the very greatest haste, and so, -though it was not yet breakfast-time, I had “paidos,” -or resting-time, called out at once. While my workmen -were eating and resting I cut out the treasure -with a great knife, not without the greatest effort and -the most terrible risk of my life, for the great wall of -the fortress which I had to undermine, threatened -every moment to fall upon me. But the sight of so -many objects, of which each alone is of inestimable -worth to science, made me foolhardy, and I thought -of no danger. The carrying off, however, of the treasures -would have been impossible without the help of -my dear wife, who stood by ready to pack up the -objects in her shawl as I cut them out, and to take -them away.”</p> - -<p class='c015'>We may add that the whole find lay together -in a quadrangular mass, retaining the shape of -the box in which it had been deposited, and that -hard by was a large key, presumably that which once -locked it. The treasure had, probably, been hastily -packed, an idea fully sustained by its miscellaneous -character. Indeed, the same thing seems to have -happened in the case of the bronze plates found by -Mr. Layard at Nineveh. The mass of precious metal -found is simply astonishing, one cup alone weighing -40 oz. of gold, while there were besides, innumerable -objects in bronze, silver and gold, spears and axes, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>and two-edged daggers, together with a large bronze -shield, with a central boss, and a rim raised as if -to receive the edges of ox-hides or other covering. -Fortunately, the gold vessels had resisted the action -of the fire; some of them having been cast, others -hammered; in some cases, too, soldering had been -used. One curious portion of the collection Dr. Schliemann -describes as follows:—“That this treasure was -packed,” says he, “in the greatest haste, is shown by -the contents of the great silver vase, in which I found, -quite at the bottom, two splendid golden diadems, a -fillet for the head, and four most gorgeous and artistic -pendants for ear-rings. On them lay fifty-six golden -ear-rings and 4,750 little golden rings, perforated -prisms and dice, together with golden buttons and -other precious things which belonged to other ornaments. -After these, came six golden bracelets, and, -quite at the top of all, in the silver vase, were two -small golden cups.”</p> - -<p class='c015'>Besides these more precious objects, Dr. Schliemann -met with a quantity of what, for want of a -better name, may be called idols, consisting of flat -pieces of stone, marbles, and terra-cotta, [and, in one -instance, of the vertebra of some antediluvian animal,] -containing on one side “an attempt to model a face -whether human or owlish.” Such objects are not -rare. In the British Museum are many flat pieces -of burnt clay, with moulding on them, of the rudest -kind, not wholly unlike what Dr. Schliemann found. -Dr. Schliemann sees in these the original type of -the sacred owl of Minerva,—to say the least,—a very -bold guess. Indeed, but for the place where they -<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>were found, their remote antiquity might be doubted, -as they might be, after all, but degraded types of -a good period of art. Dr. Schliemann, however, -maintains that many of these strange owl-headed -objects of clay are representatives of Athene,—in fact, -the original type of the γλαυκῶπις θεὰ, the “goddess -with the bright or flashing eyes,” and, also, that -this epithet ought to be now translated the “owl-faced -goddess”! But though Dr. Schliemann may -urge in favour of his views that, as the worship of -Athene was of Oriental origin, there is no reason -why she should not have been represented as owl-faced, -just as we find an eagle-headed Nisroch, a -hawk-headed Ra, and a ram-headed Ammon, there is, -really, no evidence in favour of his theory. Mr. Newton -has embraced everything in his remark that “the -conception of the human form as an organic whole, a -conception we meet with in the very dawn of Greek -art, nowhere appears” in Dr. Schliemann’s collections, -the probability being that these objects are of an -antiquity long antecedent to anything Greek, and the -work of a people in no way connected with the Greeks. -In Greek art, the usual adjunct to most representations -of Athene on coins is the owl, while in -Homer (Odyss. iii. 372) Athene leaves Nestor, under -the form of an osprey. It is possible, therefore, -that these metamorphoses symbolize a still earlier -faith.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Having already stated our belief that not only did -an Ilium or a Troy really exist, but, also, that there -was a real living Homer, we need not notice the -objections urged against the opinions of Dr. Schliemann, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>on the ground that “as the Iliad is a mythical -poem, it is absurd to expect in it any historical kernel,” -a method of reasoning, to say the least, unsatisfactory, -if not fallacious. There is no conceivable reason why -the most mythical poem may not comprehend contorted -images of real events; the difficulty, in each -case, and the only real difficulty, being the unravelling of -the confused stories, which prevent our taking up the -tangled skein of history. No one supposes the early -legends of the Zendavesta to be history, yet some of -the stations of the migration from N.E. to S.W. can be -reasonably identified: so, too, no one supposes the -story of Gyges in Herodotus historical, though the -annals of Assur-bani-pal prove the reality of a “Gugu, -king of Ludim.” The prehistoric theory may be -pressed too far.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Of the character of the art of the objects of -Dr. Schliemann, or of the date of his wonderful collections, -there is, at present, no evidence on which -to base a reasonable judgment. One thing, however, -seems certain; that they are not Greek—nor in -any way connected with Greek art. If among the -vast numbers of objects found, there may be some -objects resembling others met with in Greece, the -natural inference would be that, as so much of Greek -art is traceable ultimately to Asia, so, too, are -these. Nor must we, altogether, ignore the possible -effects of commerce. Dr. Schliemann has certainly -proved the existence of a wealthy population—living -on the spot that tradition and history alike -have assigned to Troy; and we cannot doubt that -the owners of these remains were pre-Hellenic. It is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>not so long ago that Semiramis was as mythical a name -as King Priam; and who can say that a future -Rawlinson may not prove the truth of a Trojan Priam -as clearly as that “Sammuramit” reigned in Nineveh? -The dwellers on the rock of Ilion clearly were “no -prehistoric savages,” but denizens of a real city, with -its fortress and palace. It is curious that, above -Dr. Schliemann’s “Trojans,” at a distance of from -23 to 33 feet, dwelt a population who constructed -their houses of small stones and earth, -and, occasionally, of sun-dried bricks. The artistic -remains of this people are inferior to those below -them; yet they made coarse pottery, battle-axes, -knives, nails, &c., with a slight use of copper or -bronze, but with plenty of stone implements. This -place, having been destroyed in its turn, another set -of people occupied the mound, a race inferior in -civilization to all who had preceded them. These -people, it has been suspected, were Cimmerians, -perhaps, portions of the Nomad tribes, who, we know -from Herodotus and Strabo, constantly made eruptions -into Asia Minor.</p> - -<p class='c015'>We must add that, among the various objects found -by Dr. Schliemann, were some scratches of the rudest -kind, on a honestone, from the first supposed to be -letters of some alphabet. The truth of this conjecture -has been recently proved by the persevering study -of Professor Gomperz, of Vienna, who says that, in -the comparisons he has made between the Cypriote -alphabet and the Hissarlik inscriptions, “I have not -schematized, I have not enlarged or reduced anything. -Every dot, every twist is copied with slavish accuracy -<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>from the best Cyprian documents. Nor have I -allowed myself to be eclectic and to mix letters of -different periods and localities.” Professor Max -Müller adds, “Accepting these statements of Professor -Gomperz, I can only repeat my conviction, that his -decipherment of the first inscription <i>Tagoi Dioi</i> seems -to me almost beyond reasonable doubt.” The interpretation -of the other presumed inscriptions is more -open to doubt.</p> - -<p class='c015'>It is a remarkable fact, as clearly shown by Dr. -Schliemann’s researches, that the occupiers of all -these strata, alike, were tillers of the ground, while -the huge jars found standing upright can hardly have -been used for any other purpose than the storing of -wine, oil, or corn. The quantity of copper found -suggests a connection with Cyprus—the island of -copper—as do, also, the inscriptions just noticed; -subsequent analysis, however, has thrown doubt on -Dr. Schliemann’s idea that his vessels were of pure -copper.<a id='r13' /><a href='#f13' class='c016'><sup>[13]</sup></a> The fine red pottery, too, is said to resemble -very much the existing pottery of Cyprus. The vases -are, however, not painted, nor have any traces of -sculpture been as yet detected.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f13'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r13'>13</a>. </span>The Romans called their copper from Cyprus, <i>Cyprium</i>: -but the name of the island is, more likely, from the Hebrew -<i>Chopher</i>, the cypress tree.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>In concluding these notes on Dr. Schliemann’s -collection, which, from our limited space, have been -more condensed than we could have wished, we need -only add that, besides the greater and richer monuments, -Dr. Schliemann has found thousands of terra-cotta -disks or wheels, each with a hole in the middle, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>the purport of which has considerably exercised the -imaginations of the learned. Thus they have been -called spindles, weights for sinking nets or weaving -and <i>ex voto</i> tablets by Dr. Schliemann himself, &c. The -variety of patterns on them is so great that, if anything -but meaningless ornaments, it is impossible to -suppose them all for one and the same purpose; and -the patterns on some of them are unquestionably -very curious. Thus we have scratches much resembling -the earliest Chinese sacred characters; others, -clearly astronomical; and, above all, that commonest -of Buddhist symbols, the <i>Swastika</i>, a cross with arms -curved or straight, and bent at right angles.</p> - -<p class='c015'>With regard to <span class='sc'>Ilium Novum</span>, or Hissarlik, which, -as we have said, we believe occupies the site of the -older city, we must say, that whatever doubts may -have existed as to this point previously to Dr. Schliemann’s -excavations ought now to cease, as the Greek -remains he has found there are unquestionably sufficient -for this identification. How early Novum -Ilium was founded cannot now be determined; but, -as the place was one of some strength, it is reasonable -to suppose it may have been occupied very soon -after the fall of Old Troy, supposing, what, however, -is not necessary, that Troy was wholly destroyed. -When Xerxes passed, it was a place of importance, -and the son of Xerxes recognized it as a Greek city. -Alexander, too, like Xerxes, sacrificed there, and -bestowed many favours on the population, notably as -occupants of the presumed site of the ancient city; -the Romans did the same, perhaps with the additional -idea of protecting the traditional site whence they -<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>claimed their own descent (Liv. xxxvii. 37, xxxviii. -39). Sylla and Lucullus were, alike, friendly to it -and Lucan asserts that, after Pharsalia, Julius Cæsar -(mindful of his presumed ancestor Iulus) examined -for himself these localities (cf. App. Bell. Mithr. c. 53; -Plut. Vit. Syll.; Strab. xiii. 594; Lucan, ix. 967), at -the same time instituting the “Ludi Trojani,” noticed -by Virgil and other writers (Æn. v. 602; Suet. Cæs. -39; Dio Cass. xliii. 23).<a id='r14' /><a href='#f14' class='c016'><sup>[14]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f14'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r14'>14</a>. </span>The famous <i>Sigean</i> inscription (now in the British Museum), -was procured by Lord Elgin from the porch of the village church -on the promontory of Sigeum, a little way S. of Hissarlik. For -many years it was supposed to be the oldest of Greek inscriptions; -but it is probably not so old as some of those from Branchidæ -procured by Mr. Newton, or, as the Greek inscription on the -Colossus of Psammetichus at Abu-Simbel, in Nubia. Its object -was to record the presentation of certain vessels for the use of -the Prytaneium at Sigeum by Phanodicus and Hermocrates, a -native of Proconnesus.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Alexandria Troas</span> (in the Acts of the Apostles -simply Troas) has nothing really to do with the -Trojan legend, but was an important place of commerce -in Roman times, and the capital of the surrounding -district. It was originally founded by -Antigonus,<a id='r15' /><a href='#f15' class='c016'><sup>[15]</sup></a> and is chiefly memorable for the remarkable -munificence of a private individual, Herodes -Atticus, who built an immense aqueduct, some traces -of which still remain. Suetonius asserts that Julius -Cæsar once thought of transferring Alexandria in -Egypt to this place, and Zosimus adds that Constantine -had, also, at one time designed it as the capital of -his Eastern Empire (Suet. Cæs. c. 79; Zosimus, ii. 30); -<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>an idea, perhaps, preserved in its present name <i>Eski -Stamboul</i>. It was thence that St. Paul and St. Luke set -sail for Macedonia (Acts xvi. 11), and here, somewhat -later, the Apostle restored the boy Eutychus to life -(Acts xx. 9). Lastly, on rounding Cape Lectum, we -come upon a deep and beautiful gulf, where stood the -ancient town of <i>Adramyttium</i>, according to Strabo, a -colony of the Athenians (xiii. 6), but, more probably, -the creation of Adramys, the brother of Crœsus. It -was early a place of considerable commerce, for which -its admirable position well fitted it (Herod. vii. 42). -Subsequently it was given by the Romans to the kings -of Pergamus, but was almost obliterated by Mithradates -(Strabo, xiii. p. 614). It was in a ship of Adramyttium -that St. Paul commenced his voyage from -Cæsarea to Italy to plead his cause before Nero -(Acts xxvii. 2).</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f15'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r15'>15</a>. </span>The earliest coins of Alexandria Troas bear the name of -Antigonia (Sestini. Mon. Vet. p. 76).</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>We come now to a city, <span class='sc'>Pergamum</span> or <span class='sc'>Pergamus</span> -(for the name is used indifferently, though the latter or -masculine form is, perhaps, the most common), which, -regard being had to the fact, that, as a great town, it -was not of remote antiquity, became in later days -one of the most celebrated places of antiquity. It -is said to have been a colony of the Heraclidæ -from Arcadia (Pausan. i. 4, 5), and to have been first -mentioned as a distinct city by Xenophon (Anab. vii. -8, 4), grouped, in all probability, round a fortress of -considerable natural strength, whence, indeed, it -derived its name. The commencement of its greatness -was its selection by Lysimachus as his treasure -city. Lysimachus was succeeded by Philetærus, and -subsequently by Eumenes, Attalus Philetærus II. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>&c., a family remarkable for its noble deeds, as well -as for the proverbial wealth of many of its members. -Thus Attalus I., who was proclaimed King of Pergamus -for his glorious victory over the Gaulish -invaders, was eminent alike for his military skill, and -for his political foresight (Polyb. xviii. 29; Liv. -xxxiii. 21) in espousing the cause of the Romans. -Eumenes II., no less than his father, the firm friend -of the Romans, is worthy of record for the great -library he formed at his capital city, held in antiquity -to be second only to that of Alexandria (Strab. xiii. -p. 264; Athen. i. 3).<a id='r16' /><a href='#f16' class='c016'><sup>[16]</sup></a> It is said that in this library -skins were first used for writing on, and that, from the -title given to these sheets—“Pergamenæ chartæ”—we -derive the name of “Parchment” (Varr. ap. -Plin. xiii. 11).<a id='r17' /><a href='#f17' class='c016'><sup>[17]</sup></a> The last of the Attali, after a reign -of five years, dying childless, left his kingdom by his -will to the Romans (Strab. xiii. 624, xiv. 646). -Mr. Arundell gives a picturesque account of his ascent -to the citadel, and of the magnificent view thence.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f16'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r16'>16</a>. </span>This library was given by Antony to Cleopatra.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f17'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r17'>17</a>. </span>Περγαμηνή χάρτη, or parchment, appears to have been -brought into use by Crates of Mallos when Ptolemy cut off the -supply of the <i>byblus</i> or the <i>papyrus</i> reed.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>Immediately following on <i>Mysia</i> to the S. is the -great province of <i>Lydia</i>, the portion of it fronting the -Ægean bearing generally the name of <i>Ionia</i>, with a -small district at its N.W. corner, touching Mysia, -named <i>Æolis</i>. It was a popular belief that the -Æolians were the first great body of Greek colonists -to settle in Asia Minor, but, curiously, the name of -Æolians does not occur in Homer. Strabo makes -<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>their advent to Asia Minor four generations earlier -than the Ionian migration, and this movement has -been supposed to have been contemporary with the -return of the Heracleidæ, and may, not improbably, -have been, in some degree, caused by it. In common -with the other Greek colonies, the Æolians -became subject to Crœsus, and, on the success of -Cyrus, were annexed to the Persian empire; hence, -in the Græco-Persian war, they contributed sixty -ships to the armament of Xerxes. The principal -towns of Æolis were Myrina, Cyme, Neontichos, -and Methymna. They are not, however, of sufficient -importance to detain us here. Pass we, therefore, to -<i>Ionia</i>.</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c000' /> -</div> -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span> - <h2 id='ch02' class='c009'><em class='gesperrt'>CHAPTER II</em>.</h2> -</div> -<p class='c013'>Phocæa—Smyrna—Clazomenæ—Erythræ—Teos—Colophon—Ephesus—Mr. -Wood—Miletus—Branchidæ or Didyma—Sacred -Way—Mr. Newton—Thyateira—Magnesia ad Sipylum—Philadelphia—Tralles—Sardes—Halicarnassus—Mausoleum—Cnidus—Demeter—Lion-Tomb—Mr. -Pullan—Physcus—Caunus—Stratonicea—Aphrodisias—Mylasa and -Labranda.</p> -<p class='c014'><span class='sc'>Phocæa</span>—the most northern of the Ionian cities—founded -by emigrants from <i>Phocis</i>, under two Athenian -chiefs, soon, from the excellence of its harbour, -secured a prominent place among the early maritime -states of the world, and was the first to establish -colonies on the Adriatic, the coasts of Etruria, Gaul, -and Spain. It is reported that Arganthonius, then -king of Tartessus (probably Tarshish), did all he -could to persuade these enterprising strangers to stay -in his land; and that, failing this, he gave them -large sums of money to build (or rebuild) the walls of -their native town. Phocæa is often mentioned subsequently, -though it does not appear to have performed -any very memorable actions. It may be traced -by its coins, and by the annalists and ecclesiastical -writers to the latest period of the Byzantine empire. -Indeed, so late as A.D. 1421, the Genoese built a -new town near its ancient site, which still retains the -name of <i>Palaio-Phoggia</i>.</p> -<p class='c015'>A little further to the S. we come to <span class='sc'>Smyrna</span>, one -of the most celebrated cities of Asia Minor, though -<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>it was comparatively late in attaining this eminence. -It was situated on a bay of unrivalled beauty and -commercial excellence; and, almost alone of the -great cities or ports of Western Asia has preserved its -eminence to the present day, being now, as it has -long been, the chief emporium of the Levant trade. -In remote times, Smyrna successfully resisted the -attacks of Gyges, king of Lydia, and was, in consequence, -taken and destroyed by his successor, -Alyattes. It is said, that, after this blow, it was nearly -deserted for 400 years, but was, at length, rebuilt by -Antigonus and Lysimachus, though not exactly on the -same site. With this rebuilding its great prosperity -commenced. Nor were the claims to distinction -advanced by itself inferior to its real greatness. -Inscriptions abound (some of the best, indeed, among -the marbles at Oxford), where, as on its coins, it calls -itself ΠΡΩΤΗ ΑCΙΑC, the “first city of Asia”; and -so, indeed, it long continued, though at times suffering -severely from civil wars and earthquakes, and most -of all from the merciless treatment of Tímúr. Smyrna -claimed, especially, to be the birthplace of Homer, and -dedicated a temple to him. A cave was also shown -there, in which the poet was said to have composed -his verses (Pausan. Ach. 5). Smyrna is not, however, -mentioned by Homer. In the reign of Tiberius, -Smyrna contended with ten other cities for the -honour (?) of erecting a temple to that worthless -ruler, and won the prize; and here, not many years -later, the Christian Church flourished under Polycarp, -its first bishop, who is believed to have suffered -martyrdom in its stadium about A.D. 166.</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>Next to Smyrna we may take <span class='sc'>Clazomenæ</span>, a town -whose date is probably not earlier than the Ionic migration. -It was famous as the birthplace of Anaxagoras, -the philosopher, whose disciple Archelaus taught -Socrates and Euripides; and, also, as one of the states -which joined with the Phocæans in founding the -naval colony of Naucratis in Egypt (Herod. ii. 178). -It retained its name and existence till late in the -Byzantine period (Plin. v. 31; Ptol.; Hierocl. Synecd.), -but, towards the middle of the eleventh century, was -finally destroyed by the Turks.</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Erythræ</span>, celebrated as the home of one if not -of two Sibyls—and a town whose life is traceable -by coins and inscriptions to a late period of the -Roman empire, and, from the acts of Councils and -other ecclesiastical documents, was manifestly for some -time an episcopal see. Its land produced good wine -[being called in a distich preserved by Athenæus -φερεστάφυλος Ἐρύθρα (Erythra yielding bunches of -grapes)],<a id='r18' /><a href='#f18' class='c016'><sup>[18]</sup></a> and fine wheaten flour:—<span class='sc'>Teos</span> (now Sighajik), -the birthplace of Anacreon and of Hecatæus -the historian; famous, too, for its temple, dedicated -to Bacchus, some remains of which have been published -by the Society of Dilettanti, and, recently, more -fully examined by Mr. Pullan:—<span class='sc'>Colophon</span>, an early -Ionian settlement, once the possessor of a flourishing -navy, and of cavalry reputed victorious wherever employed;<a id='r19' /><a href='#f19' class='c016'><sup>[19]</sup></a> -and illustrious for its poets, Mimnermus, Phœnix, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>and Hermesianax, and, possibly even Homer; till -at length it was destroyed by Lysimachus:—<span class='sc'>Priene</span>, -the birthplace of the philosopher and statesman Bias, -and still identifiable by considerable ruins near the -Turkish village of Samsoun, to the S. of Mycale, -with a famous Temple of Minerva Polias, the ruins -of which have been engraved in the “Ionian Antiquities.” -In Chandler’s time, about 100 years ago, -the whole circuit of the city walls was still standing.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f18'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r18'>18</a>. </span>The lines are—</p> -<div class='lg-container-l c022'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>ἐν δἐ φερεσταφύλοις Ἐρυθραῖς ἐκ κλιβάνου ἐλθὼν</div> - <div class='line'>λευκòς ἁβραῖς θάλλων ὥραις τἐρψει παρά δεῖπνον.</div> - <div class='c019'>Archestr. ap. Athen. iii. 112, B.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f19'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r19'>19</a>. </span>From this continued success arose the proverb, τὸν Κολοφῶνα -ἐπέθηκεν “he has brought the work to a completion.” And, -hence, the final letters or signature at the end of a book have -been termed the <i>colophon</i>.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>But of the cities of W. Asia, no one took a higher -place than <span class='sc'>Ephesus</span>; though not one of the most -ancient, or noticed by Homer. Pliny ascribes its -origin to the Amazons; and Strabo gives an excellent -account of its site, the chief feature of which was a -celebrated port called Panormus, with the temple of -Diana, one of the Seven Wonders of the world, at a -little distance without the city walls. The worship of -this Diana (of Asiatic origin, and symbolized by her -peculiar statue) was earlier than the planting of the -Ionian colony by Androcles, as has been reasonably -suspected, on a hill called Coressus, the lower ground -(ultimately the chief part of the city) having been -only gradually built over. After its first colonization -we hear nothing of Ephesus till the time of Crœsus, -who is said to have failed to take the town, owing to -a device of a certain Pindarus, who attached the city -to the temple by a rope, thus making the intervening -space sacred, or an asylum. On this the story goes, -that Crœsus, of all princes then ruling, a lover of the -gods, spared, indeed, the city, but showed his common -<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>sense by changing its constitution and banishing -Pindarus. It further appears that Crœsus dedicated -golden bulls at Ephesus, and helped largely in the -construction of the first temple dedicated there. The -temple we now know was about 1,400 yards from the -city, a fact, apparently, not anticipated by the first -modern investigators of its site.</p> - -<p class='c015'>The inhabitants of Ephesus, as a rule, were time-servers, -and ready to court the support of whosoever -for the time being were their most powerful neighbours. -Thus, at first, they joined the Ionian revolt; -then, on the overthrow of Xerxes, were for a while -tributary to Athens; and then, again, after the victories -of Lysander, permitted their city to be the -head-quarters of the Spartan operations against Asia -Minor; though he could not, however, persuade the -people to change the name of their city to that of -his wife Arsinoe. After the overthrow of Antiochus, -Ephesus was added by the Romans to the kingdom -of Pergamus.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Again, when Mithradates was all-powerful, we find -the people of Ephesus, to please him, joining in a -general massacre of the Romans in their town; indeed, -going to such lengths as not to respect the -asylum of their own temple; the natural result being -a severe punishment of this fickle population on -the ultimate success of the Romans. On an inscription, -however, recently discovered, we believe, -by Mr. Wood, but now at Oxford, the people -assert that they had been compelled to act against -their will, and that they were none the less, at -heart, the devoted friends of the Romans. As a -place of commercial importance, Ephesus did not -<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>survive the first three centuries of the Roman empire, -as the city was sacked by the Goths in A.D. -262, and its famous temple burnt, an event of which -some traces have been detected during the recent -excavations on its site. In later days it passed into -the hands of the Seljuks and Turks, and a great -mosque was built there by Selim I. on the rising -ground overlooking the port. The long occupation -of the site of Ephesus by a mixed population is -attested by the discovery there by Mr. Wood of a -hoard of coins, belonging chiefly to the Western States -of Europe, and struck during the thirteenth and fourteenth -centuries. Among these are some of the -Christian subjects of Saro-khan, an emir of Magnesia -in the fourteenth century.<a id='r20' /><a href='#f20' class='c016'><sup>[20]</sup></a> It is believed that the -present name of its site, Aiosoluk, is a corruption -of Hagios Theologos (St. John), the name borne by -Ephesus during the Middle Ages.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f20'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r20'>20</a>. </span>An interesting account of these coins (2,231 in number) has -been given in the Numism. Chron., vol. xii. New Ser., 1872, -by Mr. H. A. Grueber, of the British Museum. The whole -“find,” with some lumps of metal, weighed more than seventeen -pounds of silver. Among these were coins of Naples, of -Rhodes, of the Seljuk Amírs, of Venice, Genoa, and of the -Papal States, their dates embracing a period of about eighty -years, from A.D. 1285.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>The chief glory of Ephesus was its temple. According -to the most ancient reports, there had been -in remote times one, at least, of the grandest proportions -which Herodotus claims, with that of Juno at -Samos, as among the greatest works of the Greeks. -Its architect is said to have been contemporary with -Theodorus and Rhœcus, the builders of the Samian -Heræum, early in the sixth century B.C.; and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>Xenophon, especially, notices it, as he deposited there -the share entrusted to him of the tenth, arising from -sale of the slaves of the Ten Thousand at Cerasus, -which was appropriated to Apollo and Artemis.<a id='r21' /><a href='#f21' class='c016'><sup>[21]</sup></a> We -have here an instance of a custom noticed elsewhere,—viz., -that the great temples of the Hellenic world -were often used as banks of deposit, where treasure -was collected, not merely in the form of <i>anathemata</i> -or dedicated objects, but, also, in large quantities of -bullion, &c., <i>in trust</i>. Many inscriptions in Boeckh -show clearly that the administrators of the temples -employed these treasures as loans. Artemis was, in -fact, a queen, whose dower was the wealth accumulated -in her temple. As is well known, the original (or the -second temple of Artemis, for this point is not clear) -was burnt by Herostratus, in B.C. 356, traditionally, -on the same night on which Alexander the Great was -born, but it was soon rebuilt. It would take a whole -book, says Pliny, to describe all its details, and it is -admitted to have been the largest temple of antiquity.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f21'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r21'>21</a>. </span>In Pausanias, vii. 11, will be found a very full and interesting -account of the worship of the Ephesian Artemis, but it is too -long to quote here. Pindar says, the worship was instituted by -the Amazons, Crêsos or Korêsos, an autochthon, and Ephesus, -the son of the river god Cayster, being the first builders of the -temple. For details of the older temples, see Strab. xiv. 641; -Xen. Anab. v. 3; Plin. xvi. 79; and Vitruv. x. 6.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>Among other valuables, the temple contained the -famous picture by Apelles of Alexander, while the -circuit round it was an asylum where debtors and -worse rogues could screen themselves from justice, -an evil which, as an inscription recently found there -shows, Augustus found it needful to restrain within reasonable -<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>limits. Ephesus, too, was the usual port where -the Roman proconsuls landed, on their way to their -several provinces. Thus, Cicero came to Ephesus -when going to his government in Cilicia. So, too, -Metellus Scipio put in there before Pharsalia, and -M. Antonius after Philippi. There, too, also, was -collected the fleet of Antony and Cleopatra before the -fatal day of Actium.<a id='r22' /><a href='#f22' class='c016'><sup>[22]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f22'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r22'>22</a>. </span>Le Quien’s “Oriens Christianus” gives a list of seventy Christian -bishops of Ephesus from Timothy to A.D. 1721. A good -many of the later ones could only have been bishops in name.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>But the most interesting matter to us in connection -with Ephesus have been Mr. Wood’s excavations there, -with his discovery not only of many unexpected monuments -of the ancient town, but of undoubted relics -of the famous temple itself. Mr. Wood, as the constructing -engineer of the Smyrna and Aidin Railway, -had naturally become well acquainted with the neighbourhood -of Ephesus, and, hence, so early as 1863, had -made, at his own expense, some excavations, clearing -out thereby the Odeum, and ascertaining the true -position of the Magnesian and Coressian gates. In -these researches, he met with several valuable inscriptions, -one of them referring to a certain Roman, -Publius Vedius Antoninus, who was at the time the -γραμματεὺς—the Scribe or Town-clerk—of the city.<a id='r23' /><a href='#f23' class='c016'><sup>[23]</sup></a> -By degrees the position of the Theatre, the scene -<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>of the tumult at the time of St. Paul’s visit, -was clearly made out; but where was the Temple? -In the prosecution of his excavations Mr. Wood had, -however, met with many decrees of the people of -Ephesus relating to the Temple,—one of them containing -much curious information about the ritual -used in the Temple-worship, with lists of the votive -offerings, to be carried on certain days in procession -“through the Magnesian Gate to the Great Theatre, -and thence back again through the Coressian Gate to -the Temple.” Among the list of statues are several of -Diana, probably, such as those which “Demetrius and -his craftsmen” manufactured in the days of St. Paul.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f23'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r23'>23</a>. </span>Colonel Leake, in 1824, seems to have given the first sensible -suggestion as to where the temple ought to be sought for. The -Admiralty chart of 1836 (the foundation of the maps of Kiepert -1841-1846) and of Guhl (1843), afforded also the first accurate -survey of the Gulf of Scala Nova. In 1862, Mr. Falkener -suggested the head of the harbour to the west of the city as the -most likely site.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/ip043.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p><span class='c001'>DRUM OF PILLAR.</span></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c015'>At length, in April, 1869, Mr. Wood came upon some -massive walls, which were proved to have been those -of the courtyard in which the Temple had once stood, -by an inscription in Greek and Latin, stating that Augustus -had rebuilt them; and, finally, in 1870, a marble -pavement was lighted on, at the depth of nineteen feet -below the alluvial soil of the present plain, together with -drums of columns, quite six feet high, one base being still -attached to its plinth. The site of the Temple of Diana -had been reached, and its style was, at once, seen to -have been similar to that of the Temple of Athene -Polias at Priene, and of Apollo at Branchidæ. It is -scarcely possible to speak too highly of Mr. Wood’s -tact and sagacity. Thus, considering the accounts of -ancient authors too vague as guides for excavation, his -first diggings were essentially tentative, and with the -view of meeting with some illustrative inscriptions. In -the Great Theatre he was more likely to find them -than anywhere else, and here, indeed, he discovered -<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>six large stones, originally from the cella of the -Temple, and each bearing various decrees. Indeed, -by the most important of these, to which we have -already alluded, the real clue was afforded as to -its whereabouts. The of finding this inscription confirmed -Mr. Wood’s original idea of feeling his way -to the Temple from one of the city gates, the result -being the discovery of two roads,—one of them -leading round the mountain Prion or Pion, the other -towards the town of Magnesia. He wisely determined -to trace the one which showed the greatest -amount of wear or use, assuming that if either of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>them led to the Temple it would be the most used -one. In the one round Mount Prion he found four -distinct ruts, deeply cut in its pavement of huge blocks -of marble, while the other road was worn scarcely at -all. He then devoted all his energy, to use his own -words, “in exploring the road round Mount Pion,<a id='r24' /><a href='#f24' class='c016'><sup>[24]</sup></a> -which eventually led to the Temple.”</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f24'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r24'>24</a>. </span>The spelling of the name of this little eminence does not -seem to be quite certain. Pausanias and Pliny call it Pion; -Strabo, on the other hand, Prion. There was a mountain so -named in the island of Cos. Comp. <i>Priene</i>.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>In this way, the peribolus, or courtyard wall of -the Temple, was soon reached, and, not long after, -as before stated, the drums of several of the columns -were exhumed, lying in a confused mass as they -had fallen, sixteen or seventeen centuries ago. The -largest and best preserved of these drums, of which -a sketch is given as the frontispiece for this volume, -was found on February 3rd, 1871; it is somewhat -more than 6 feet high and 18½ feet in circumference, -and weighs 11¼ tons. From the figures carved on -it, one of which represents Mercury, it may be fairly -presumed that it was one of the thirty-six “columnæ -cælatæ” recorded by Pliny. Mr. Wood states that -though this splendid building was not only destroyed -by earthquakes and the malice of man, all the stones, -moreover, having been carried away that could be -used for building purposes, enough still remained to -enable him to draw out on paper an accurate plan of -its original shape and <i>contour</i>. He adds that, in -the course of his excavations, he “discovered the remains -of three distinct temples, the last but two, the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>last but one, and the last. The former must have -been that built 500 B.C., for which the solid foundations -described by Pliny and Vitruvius were laid.... -Between 5 and 6 feet below the pavement and under -the foundations of the walls of the cella, I found -the layer of charcoal, 4 inches thick, described by -Pliny. This was laid between two layers of a composition -about 3 inches thick, similar to, and of the -consistency of, glazier’s putty.”</p> - -<p class='c015'>In conclusion, we may add that Mr. Wood found -abundant instances of the use of colour, chiefly vermilion -and blue, and one specimen of gold inserted, -as a fillet; together with several pieces of friezes -much shattered, but, evidently, of the same size and -artistic character as the reliefs on the drum. The -reliefs themselves do not exhibit any great artistic -merit, though they fairly represent the characteristic style -of the Macedonian period: their general effect must, -however, have been very rich and gorgeous, and quite -in character with what we know of rich and luxurious -Ephesus. We have not, at present, any evidence that -the columns, as well as the drums, were covered -with sculpture. Mr. Wood, we believe, thinks they -were, but a medallion in the Bibliothèque at Paris, -which gives the front of the Temple, rather suggests -the contrary.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Passing on from Ephesus we come to the scarcely -less celebrated city of <span class='sc'>Miletus</span>, the parent, according -to Pliny, of more than 80 colonies.<a id='r25' /><a href='#f25' class='c016'><sup>[25]</sup></a> Situated at the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>mouth and, on the left bank, of the Mæander, Miletus -more strictly belongs to Caria; but it was, also, one -of the most conspicuous members of the Ionian confederacy. -It is believed that it was originally founded -by a colony from Crete, under the leadership of -Sarpedon, the brother of Minos; an idea, in some -degree, confirmed by a notice in Homer (Il. ii. -867). Herodotus (ix. 97) only mentions Sarpedon’s -establishing himself in Lycia. The advantageous -position of the town, with a harbour capable of -holding a large fleet, naturally gave it, from the -earliest times, the lead in maritime affairs. Its -most important colonies were Abydus, Lampsacus, -and Parium on the Hellespont; Proconnesus and -Cyzicus on the Propontis; Sinope and Amisus on the -Euxine; with several more on the coast of Thrace -and Tauris, and on the Borysthenes. The period, -however, of Miletus’s chief power was comprised between -its Ionian colonization and its conquest by the -Persians in 494 B.C. After that period, it did not -maintain the same lead among the seaports of the -Asiatic Greeks; indeed, during the time of its -greatest fame, peace was practically unknown among -its people, who were constantly distracted by factions -aristocratic or democratic.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f25'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r25'>25</a>. </span>Rambach—De Mileto ejusque coloniis (Hal. Sax. 1790)—has -attempted, not without success, to identify the larger number -of them.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>As was natural, the kings of Lydia made many -attempts to possess themselves of Miletus. In the reign -of Alyattes, however, the Lydian and Milesian quarrel -was, for the time, made up, the Lydian king having -been supposed to have incurred the wrath of the gods, -as his troops had burnt a temple dedicated to -Minerva at Assessos. Some of the rulers of the town -<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>were men of historic note, especially Thrasybulus, the -friend of the Corinthian Periander. Somewhat later, -the Milesians made a treaty with Crœsus, and, what -was of more importance to them, secured its maintenance -by Cyrus; hence, their town was spared much -of the misery inflicted on the other Ionian states in -the first war with the Persians (Herod. i. 141, 143). -But if Miletus had been previously fortunate, this -good luck deserted her during the great Græco-Persian -war; nor could she indeed complain, as the -chief promoter of this rebellion was her “tyrannus” -Histiæus. As will be remembered, it was mainly -through Histiæus and his kinsman Aristagoras, that -Ionia revolted against the Persians; and, further, -that, to the instigations of the latter, was due the -needless burning of the great western capital of the -Persians, Sardes. An immediate attack on Miletus -by the Persian satraps was the natural reply to this -treachery; and the city was eventually taken by storm, -with all the horrors consequent thereon.<a id='r26' /><a href='#f26' class='c016'><sup>[26]</sup></a> It may -be doubted, whether after this fall, Miletus ever -again recovered her former glory.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f26'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r26'>26</a>. </span>Herodotus, vi. 18-21, states that the Athenians were so much -distressed at the fall of Miletus, that they fined the poet Phrynichus -1,000 drachmæ for putting on the stage a drama entitled -“The Capture of Miletus.”</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>Subsequently, Miletus made many spasmodic efforts -to regain her freedom, but with little avail, though -it still existed till the decline of the Byzantine -empire—its Church being under the direction of -bishops who ranked as Metropolitans of Caria -(Hierocl.).<a id='r27' /><a href='#f27' class='c016'><sup>[27]</sup></a> A pestilential swamp now covers the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>birthplace of Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes.<a id='r28' /><a href='#f28' class='c016'><sup>[28]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f27'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r27'>27</a>. </span>At Miletus, St. Luke tells us that St. Paul sent to his chief -disciples at Ephesus (distant about thirty miles) to come to see -him. This was their last opportunity, as he was then on his -final journey to Jerusalem (Acts xx. 17).</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f28'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r28'>28</a>. </span>A proverb cited by Athenæus from Aristotle may refer -to the condition of the Milesians after the capture of their city -by the Persians:—Πάλαι ποτ’ ἦσαν ἄλκιμοι Μιλήσιοι.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>In the neighbourhood of Miletus stood, at <span class='sc'>Branchidæ</span> -or Didyma, the famous temple of Apollo -Didymæus, the site, we feel pleased to say, of -one of Mr. Newton’s most valuable researches. -It was known in Greek history from the remotest -times, as the site of a shrine and of an oracle second -only in sanctity and importance to that of Delphi; as -the spot where Pharaoh Necho dedicated the armour -he had worn when he took the city of Cadytis -(Herod, ii. 159), and as a place which received -from Crœsus, before his war with Cyrus, golden -offerings equal in weight to those he gave to Delphi. -It was plundered and burnt by Darius I., and, a -second time, by Xerxes, its sacred family of priests -having been, on this occasion, swept off to Sogdiana -by the conqueror; but it revived again, in renewed -splendour, towards the close of the Peloponnesian -war, when rebuilt on a scale so vast that, according -to Strabo, it could not be roofed over: it was memorable, -especially, too, for a succession of oracles ascending -to a period before the commencement of -history, yet not wholly extinct even so late as the -days of Julian. It was reasonable to expect that such -a place would retain some relics of its past greatness, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>and of its pre-eminence among the sacred shrines of -antiquity. Indeed, many travellers, before Mr. Newton, -had spoken of the ruins of the Temple and of the -Sacred Way leading to it, and, from the notices in -Wheler (1685), Gell, Leake, the “Ionian Antiquities,” -and Hamilton, much valuable information may be -gathered.</p> - -<p class='c015'>It was left to Mr. Newton to complete what had -been indeed, hardly done at all before, and to secure -for England the most important sculptures still <i>in situ</i>. -The Temple of Apollo Didymæus<a id='r29' /><a href='#f29' class='c016'><sup>[29]</sup></a> was originally approached -from the sea by a “<span class='sc'>Sacred Way</span>,” on each -side of which had once been a row of seated statues, -sepulchral <i>sori</i>, tombs, &c. Along this “Way” Mr. -Newton discovered eight seated statues, generally -about 4 feet 6 inches high, by 2 feet 9 inches broad -and deep; the character of their workmanship being, -at the first glance, strikingly Egyptian, at least in this -respect, that their drapery, extending from the shoulders -to the feet, consists of one closely-fitting garment -(<i>chitōn</i>), and of a light shawl (<i>peplos</i>). One only -of the figures retains its head, the sculptured treatment -of it being that usually recognized as the most archaic -Greek, in that the hair is arranged in long parallel -tresses, as in the earliest coins of Syracuse. With -two exceptions, all these statues belong to the same -<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>period of art. Mr. Newton says, it is evident that no -one of them occupied, when he discovered them, -exactly its original position, and that they must, at -some time or other, have been thrown down and partially -removed—an opinion confirmed by a somewhat -later discovery of about eighty feet of the original -paving of the “<span class='sc'>Sacred Way</span>,” together with some -bases, not improbably those on which these statues -had been originally placed. The “<span class='sc'>Sacred Way</span>” can -still be traced for about 580 yards.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f29'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r29'>29</a>. </span>Didyma was the ancient name of the site where the temple -stood; hence the building was sometimes called the “Didymæum.” -Strabo speaks of it as τοῦ ἐν Διδύμοις ναοῦ. On the -pretence that the priests of Branchidæ voluntarily returned with -Xerxes to Persia, their descendants were cruelly murdered by -Alexander the Great (Strabo, xiv. 634, xi. 517; Quint. Curt., -vii. 5).</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/ip051.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p><span class='c001'>INSCRIPTION OF CHARES.</span></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c015'>In a wall extending along it are, here and there, -masses of polygonal masonry, with individual stones -of immense size, the remains, probably, of an -original Hellenic wall. At a short distance from -the last of the seated statues, Mr. Newton met -with two remarkable monuments—a colossal lion -and a female sphinx—both, unfortunately, much -injured. The sphinx was completely buried under -the earth, and had nothing in its form to recommend -it, but the lion had, on its side, a very ancient inscription, -which the barbarous Greeks of the neighbourhood -had done all they could to obliterate. The important -question is, to what period are these works to be -assigned? Now, of direct evidence we have none; -for, though history speaks of the two temples at this -spot, we have no record of the statues themselves; -the probability being that they were damaged nearly -as much as at present before Herodotus visited the -spot, and, probably, by the Persians. Yet, in spite -of the silence of history, we have some indirect evidence -from the monuments themselves; enough, at -least, to determine their age within tolerably accurate -<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>limits. In the first place, we have the character of -their art, which is, unquestionably, very archaic; secondly, -on three of the chairs are inscriptions in -the oldest Greek character; on the most important -one written <i>boustrophedon</i> (<i>i.e.</i> backwards and forwards, -as an ox ploughs); thirdly, a long inscription on -the recumbent lion, and another, quite as old, on a -detached block, the base, possibly, of a statue now -lost. In order that the nature of the characters used -may be comprehended, we annex a woodcut of the -legend on one of the chairs of the seated figures, the -translation of which is, “I am Chares, son of Clesis, -ruler of Teichaoessa, a [dedicatory] monument of -Apollo.”<a id='r30' /><a href='#f30' class='c016'><sup>[30]</sup></a> On the block found near the chair, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>the inscription states that “the sons of Anaximander -have [dedicated a statue?] of Andromachus,” and -that “Terpsicles made it”: while that, on the side -of the lion,—the most curious of them all,—declares -that “the sons of Python, Archelaos, Thales, Pasikles, -Hegesander, and Lysias, have dedicated the -offerings, as a tenth, to Apollo.” Some years since, a -still more perfect seated figure was in existence, on -the chair of which was an inscription copied by Sir -W. Gell and Mr. Cockerell, and published by Boeckh -and Rose.<a id='r31' /><a href='#f31' class='c016'><sup>[31]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f30'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r30'>30</a>. </span>This inscription was probably attached to a portrait statue. -Teichioessa, or Teichiousa, we know from Thucydides (viii. 26, -28), was a strong place near Miletus. Athenæus (viii. 351) -spells it Teichiûs. Mr. Newton suggests that Chares was -probably one of the petty rulers on the western coast of Asia -Minor in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C., of whom Herodotus -notices more than one. A <i>bon-mot</i> of Stratonicus the musician -is recorded by Athenæus: “As Teichioessa was inhabited by -a mixed population, he observed that most of the tombs were -those of foreigners, on which he said to his lad, ‘Let us be -off, since strangers seem to die here, but not one of the -natives’” (viii. p. 351). Teichoessa was also famous for the -excellence of its mullets (Ital. <i>triglia</i>),</p> -<div class='lg-container-l c022'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line in3'>... χειμῶνι δὲ τρίγλην</div> - <div class='line'>ἔσθι’ ἐνὶ ψαφαρῇ ληφθεῖσαν Τειχιοέσσῃ</div> - <div class='line'>Μιλήτου κώμῃ.—Archestr. ap. Athen. <i>l. c.</i></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f31'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r31'>31</a>. </span>Colonel Leake (Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor, Lond., -1824, p. 239) has given an account of this chair, and suggests -that the arrangement of these statues is similar to that of -the avenues of the temples in Egypt. In a note to p. 342 -of Colonel Leake’s work, is a brief memoir by the late C. J. -Cockerell, in which he suggests that the temple at Branchidæ -was never completed, as the flutings of the columns are not -finished (see, also, pp. 347, 348). There is an engraving of this -chair in the “Ionian Antiquities.”</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/ip052.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p><span class='c001'>CHAIR FROM BRANCHIDÆ.</span></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c015'>We cannot discuss here the character of the inscriptions -quoted above, but all palæographers admit -that the writing belongs to the earliest Greek -period, not improbably anterior to the year B.C. 520. -It may be still earlier, as, on the lion inscription, we -find the name of Hegesander and another name, -which, though the first letter has met with an injury, -we agree with Mr. Newton in thinking, must be read -<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>as Thales, while, on the detached block, we have that -of Anaximander. Now it is certainly remarkable that -on two adjoining stones, found close to the most -sacred temple of the Milesians, the names of two of -the most celebrated philosophers of that town should -occur. If, then, these be really the names of those -philosophers, they may be supposed to have joined -with other citizens of Miletus in dedicating the figure -of the lion, and of the object (whether statue or -otherwise) once attached to the second inscription; -and, if so, the dates of these works would be between -B.C. 470 and B.C. 560. Anaximander was born about -B.C. 610, and Hegesander was probably the father -of Hecatæus, who was himself born about B.C. 520.</p> - -<p class='c015'>It is worthy of remark that, unlike so many other -early Greek works, these sculptures exhibit no trace of -an Asiatic or Assyrian origin. The only style they recall -is that of Egypt, while the only Assyrian monument they -resemble is the semi-Egyptian seated figure brought -by Mr. Layard from Kalah Sherghat. Mr. Newton -has justly pointed out that the resemblance to Egyptian -work “is seen not only in the great breadth of the -shoulders, but also in the modelling of the limbs, in -which the forms of the bones and muscles are indicated -with far greater refinement and judgment than -at first sight seems to be the case ... the subdued -treatment of the anatomy contributes to the general -breadth and repose for which these figures are so -remarkable, and suggests the idea that they were -executed by artists who had studied in Egypt.” We -know that the Greeks were intimately connected -with Psammetichus I., Amasis, and Neco; while the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>tombs at Cameirus, in Rhodes, have yielded works -almost certainly imitated from Egyptian prototypes -by early Greek artists. We have, too, the statement -of Diodorus, that Theodorus of Samos and his brother -Telecles of Ephesus, the sons of Rhoecus, derived the -canon of their sculptures from Egypt. The general -character, however, of the ornamentation, the mæander-pattern, -and the lotos and borders on the garments -of the seated figures, agreeing, as these do, -with the same patterns on early Greek vases, tend to -show that their actual artists were Greeks. Thus, too, -the archaic statue of Athene in the Acropolis at Athens -is essentially Greek, and not Egyptian. Pliny has -further noticed that two Cretan sculptors, Dipænos -and Scyllis, were the first artists (about B.C. 580) of -note, as workers in marble: it is, therefore, quite -conceivable that they may have been the actual artists -of these monuments.</p> - -<p class='c015'>We shall now say a few words of <span class='sc'>Thyateira</span>, <span class='sc'>Magnesia -ad Sipylum</span>, <span class='sc'>Philadelphia</span>, and <span class='sc'>Tralles</span> -with some rather fuller remarks on the celebrated -city, <span class='sc'>Sardes</span>, the capital of Lydia.</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Thyateira</span> was a place of considerable importance, -and probably of early origin, but of no great rank -among the surrounding towns till the time of the Macedonians; -its best known name, according to Steph. -Byzant., being due to Seleucus Nicator. To us, its chief -interest is its connection with early Christianity, as the -home of “Lydia the seller of purple” (Acts xvi. 14), -and as one of the Seven Churches of the Apocalypse. -There are still, according to Sir Charles Fellows, remains -of a considerable city; and it is also, under -<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>the name of Ak-Hissar, a flourishing commercial town. -Close to the Lake Gygæa, not far from Sardes, was the -sepulchral mound of Alyattes, considered by Herodotus -one of the wonders of Lydia. This remarkable tumulus, -which is about 280 yards in diameter, has been recently -excavated by M. Spiegenthal, who discovered in its -centre a sepulchral chamber of highly polished marble -blocks, and of about the same size as that of the tomb -of Cyrus. Such tumuli are common in Asia Minor; -indeed, round the same lake, are three or four more, -probably, as Strabo has suggested, the tombs of other -early Lydian kings. Sir Gardner Wilkinson has pointed -out that their structure—a stone basement with a mound -of earth above—resembles the constructed tombs of -Etruria.</p> - -<p class='c015'>The <i>Lydian</i> <span class='sc'>Magnesia</span>—usually called “<i>Ad Sipylum</i>,” -to distinguish it from the Magnesia of Ionia—was -the scene of the great victory gained by the two -Scipios in B.C. 190, over Antiochus the Great though -aided by the Gauls, which handed over Western Asia -to the Romans. Hence, in the Mithradatic war, the -Magnesians stood firmly by Rome. A coin of this -place has on it the head of Cicero, and is interesting -as the only portrait (good or bad) we have of that -great orator. In legendary history, Mount Sipylus, -which overhangs Magnesia on the S., was famous as -the residence of Tantalus and Niobe; and here, too, -was a town of the same name as the mountain, said -to have been converted into a lake by volcanic -action<a id='r32' /><a href='#f32' class='c016'><sup>[32]</sup></a> (Paus.). Homer alludes to the mountain in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>speaking of Niobe’s transformation (Il. xxiv. 614), as -do also Sophocles (Antig. v. 822), and Ovid (Metam. -vi. 310). The story of the weeping Niobe was -probably an optical illusion (Paus. Attic. c. 21), and, -curiously, the origin of it has been clearly shown by -Chandler, who says, “The phantom of Niobe may -be defined as an effect of a certain portion of light -and shade on a part of Sipylus, perceivable at a particular -point of view. The traveller, who shall visit -Magnesia after this information, is requested to observe -carefully a steep and remarkable cliff, about a -mile from the town; varying his distance, while the -sun and shade, which come gradually on, pass over -it, I have reason to believe he will see Niobe” -(Travels, p. 331). The magnetic influence on the -compass is confirmed by Arundell, but the name -“Magnet” has been derived from other towns of the -same name.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f32'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r32'>32</a>. </span>Hamilton (vol. i. p. 49) confirms the identity of Sipylus -and its neighbourhood with the legend of Tantalus, by the -discovery of his friend Mr. Strickland (it had been previously, -however, noticed by Chishull) of a remarkable statue sculptured -on the rocky base of the mountain. “This statue” Mr. Strickland -states, “is rudely sculptured out of the solid rock. It represents -a sitting figure contained in a niche, and its height from -the base to the top of the head may be about twenty feet.” -“There can be little doubt that this is the ancient statue of -Cybele mentioned by Pausanias,” but it can scarcely be, as -some other travellers have supposed, Niobe.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Philadelphia</span>, named from Attalus Philadelphus, -suffered more than any other Lydian town from -earthquakes, so that, after that in the reign of Tiberius -it was well-nigh deserted. It continued, however, -to hold its own for many years, and is memorable -for the long and gallant resistance it made to the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>Turks. It submitted, at length, in A.D. 1390, to -Bayazíd, and is still a place of some size under its -new name of Allah-Shehr. Philadelphia is noticed -in the Revelations (iii. 7) as one of the Seven -Churches. A story long prevailed of a wall made of -bones of the citizens slain by Bayazíd; and Rycaut -remarks, that “these bones are so entire that I -brought a piece thereof with me from thence.” -Chandler, however, found a simple solution for this -wonder in a petrifying stream, like that at Laodicea. -“This,” says he, “encrusted some vegetable substances -which have perished, and left behind, as it -were, their moulds.” Gibbon particularly notices -the gallantry of the Philadelphians:—“At a distance,” -says he, “from the sea, forgotten by the -Emperor, encompassed on all sides by the Turks, her -valiant citizens defended their religion and freedom -above fourscore years, and, at length, capitulated -with the proudest of the Ottomans in 1390. Among -the Greek colonies and Churches of Asia, Philadelphia -is still erect, a column in a scene of ruins.”</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Tralles</span>, in the time of Strabo, was one of the most -flourishing cities of Asia Minor; indeed, situated as it -was, on the high road from Ephesus through Lydia -and Phrygia, it could hardly have failed to be a place -of great traffic (Cic. Ep. ad Att. v. 14; Artemid. ap. -Strab. xiv. p. 663). Hence its citizens were generally -selected to fill the expensive offices of Asiarchs, -or Presidents of the games celebrated in the province. -Though abundant ruins may be seen over the whole -site of the ancient city, they have been so shattered -by earthquakes as to be now scarcely recognizable.</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>We come now to <span class='sc'>Sardes</span>, by far the most important -city of Lydia. The date of its foundation has not -been recorded, but it must have early been a place of -note, as Herodotus states that it was plundered by -the Cimmerians, though they could not capture its -citadel.<a id='r33' /><a href='#f33' class='c016'><sup>[33]</sup></a> Its real importance, however, evidently began -when it became the capital of the Lydian monarchs, -men whose unusual wealth has been fully attested -by Herodotus, who had himself seen the gifts -of Crœsus in the treasury at Delphi. The story -of the mode whereby the citadel of Sardes was taken -by Cyrus is most likely true; indeed is, in some -degree, confirmed by a later capture, under circumstances -not unsimilar, by Lagoras, a general of -Antiochus the Great (Polyb. vii. 4-7).</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f33'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r33'>33</a>. </span>Sardes, from Σάρδεις; but it is often written Sardis.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>Under the reign of Crœsus, Sardes was unquestionably -a great and flourishing city, the resort of men of -learning and ability, who were, Herodotus tells us, -attracted thither by the fame and hospitality of the -king (i. 29): on the success of Cyrus, it was simply -transferred from the native dynasty of rulers to the -conquering Persians, becoming thus, not only the -capital of Persian Asia Minor, but the occasional residence -of the monarch himself. Thus Xerxes spent the -winter there when preparing his unwise invasion of -Greece (Herod. vii. 32-37); and here, too, Cyrus the -Younger collected the army so easily crushed on the -fatal day of Cunaxa. Xenophon remarks that the -beauty of its gardens excited the admiration of even -the Spartan Lysander, who was amused by the tale -<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>that Cyrus himself had often played there the part of -gardener (Œcon. p. 880; cf. Cic. de Senect. c. 17). -The town itself seems to have consisted chiefly of -thatched houses, and so was easily burnt by the -Ionians in their revolt. The burning of Sardes was -felt by the Persian monarch to be a gross insult, the -more so that his rule had been notoriously mild and -equitable. Sardes made no resistance to Alexander -the Great; hence, its people were permitted by that -monarch to retain their ancient laws and customs -(Arrian, i. 17). During the wars of the Seleucidæ it -was, at different times, subject to the prevailing -ruler of that house, and, hence, passed over to the -Romans after the defeat of Antiochus at Magnesia.<a id='r34' /><a href='#f34' class='c016'><sup>[34]</sup></a> -Colonel Leake has given, in his Asia Minor, some -interesting notes by Mr. Cockerell on the antiquities -of this town, with a special account of the famous -temple of Cybele, or the Earth, which stood on the -banks of the Pactolus, and of which three great -columns were then standing.<a id='r35' /><a href='#f35' class='c016'><sup>[35]</sup></a> This temple was burnt -by the Ionians in B.C. 503, and never completely -reconstructed.<a id='r36' /><a href='#f36' class='c016'><sup>[36]</sup></a> Most interesting to the Christian -are the remains of two churches, one supposed -to be that of the Church of the Panagia, and another, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>in front of it, said to be that of St. John. The -former is almost wholly constructed of magnificent -fragments of earlier edifices, and is, perhaps, as -Colonel Leake thought, “the only one of the Seven -churches of which there are any distinguishable -remains.” Bearing in mind, too, St. Paul’s residence -for three years in the neighbouring town of Ephesus, -we must suppose the capital of Lydia was included -in the declaration of St. Luke that “all they -which dwelt in Asia (<i>i.e.</i> Roman Proconsular Asia) -heard the word of the Lord Jesus, both Jews and -Greeks” (Acts xix. 10; compare also 1 Cor. xvi. 19, -and Rev. iii. 1-5). In later days, more than one -Council was held here. Indeed, this famous city may -be traced through a long period of Byzantine history -(Eunap. p. 154; Hierocl. p. 669). The emperor Julian -made Chrysanthius, of Sardes, pontiff of Lydia; -but his attempt to restore the heathen worship was -a failure. About A.D. 400 it was plundered by -the Goths under Tribigild and Cainas, officers in -Roman pay; in the eleventh century it was seized -by the Turks, and, two centuries later, nearly destroyed -by Tímúr. A miserable village, called Sart, -now occupies its site; and so completely has it passed -away, that we might inquire with Horace, “Quid -Crœsi regia Sardes?” if we may not quite add the -commencement of the following line, “Smyrna quid?” -(Horat. Epist. I. i. 2). No remains of its ancient -grandeur now exist, and the “princes” of Lydia, -her wise men, her captains, and “her rulers and her -mighty men” have long been asleep in the innumerable -tumuli spread over all the level country around.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f34'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r34'>34</a>. </span>A part of the fortifications of Sardes bore the same name, -Prion, which we find at Ephesus (Polyb. vii. 4-7). Is the -name in any way connected with Priene? As a Greek word, -πρίων means a saw; hence, possibly, a serrated ridge of hills—the -Spanish <i>sierra</i>.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f35'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r35'>35</a>. </span>There are only two now (Arundell).</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f36'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r36'>36</a>. </span>Colonel Leake, in 1824, supposed the Temple of Ephesus -was the largest temple of antiquity. It is now known that it -was really the sixth in size—that of Agrigentum in Sicily being -the largest.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>We proceed now to notice some of the more important -<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>towns of <span class='sc'>Caria</span>, and take first <span class='sc'>Halicarnassus</span> -(now Budrum) which had achieved the -most enduring fame, as the site of the Mausoleum -or Tomb of Mausolus, once of the Seven -Wonders of the World. Originally, a colony from -Trœzene, in Argolis, Halicarnassus had early adopted -Asiatic tastes and habits; hence, firmly adhering to -the Persians, its Queen Artemisia I., the widow of -Lygdamis, fought for Xerxes at Salamis. A remarkable -vase in Egyptian alabaster, with the name -and titles of Xerxes on it in the three forms of the -cuneiform writing, discovered by Mr. Newton in the -Mausoleum, was, perhaps, the reward-gift of the Persian -monarch for this service. To her namesake, the -second Artemisia, we owe the building of the Mausoleum, -130 years subsequently.</p> - -<p class='c015'>With regard to the history of this remarkable -monument, it is well known that, on the death of -Mausolus, B.C. 353, Artemisia, his widow and sister, -resolved to celebrate his memory by all the honours -the art and literature of the period could bestow, -and to employ, for this purpose, four of the most celebrated -sculptors of antiquity,—Bryaxis, Timotheus, -Leochares or Scopas, and Praxiteles.<a id='r37' /><a href='#f37' class='c016'><sup>[37]</sup></a> It is said -<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>that this queen’s short reign, of two years only, did -not enable her to witness the completion of her -grand design, but that these great sculptors finished -the work after her death for their own honour and -the glory of art. Much of what they accomplished -was, certainly, extant till comparatively modern times. -Thus, the building is noticed, first by Strabo and -Pliny, then by Gregory of Nazianzus in the fourth, -by Constantinus Porphyrogenitus in the tenth, and -by Eudocia in the eleventh centuries respectively; -all these accounts implying that it was still visible. -Again, Frontanus, the historian of the siege of Rhodes, -states that a German knight, Henry von Schlegelholt, -constructed the citadel at Budrum out of the Mausoleum. -Yet, even then, it was only partially destroyed, -for when Cepio visited Budrum in 1472 he mentions -seeing its remains among the ruins of the ancient -town. In the later repairs, however, of the citadel, the -masonry of the substructure of the Mausoleum must -have been wholly removed; the result being that -visitors to Budrum, before Mr. Newton commenced -his excavations, could not determine its site.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f37'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r37'>37</a>. </span>Its architects were Satyrus and Phiteus, and the building -itself a parallelogram surrounded by thirty-six columns, supporting -a pyramid of twenty-four steps, which tapered to the top -like a <i>meta</i>, or goal. Its height was 140 feet. Martial describes -it as “Aere vacuo pendentia Mausolea.” Pausanias -states that the Romans admired it so much that they called all -similar buildings “Mausolea”; while Eustathius, in the -twelfth century, observes of it, Θαῦμα καὶ ἦν καὶ ἔστι (“it -was and is a wonder”) clearly implying its existence, in some -form or other, even then. In M. Guichard’s “Funérailles de -Romains,” &c., Lyons, 1581, the sculptured reliefs and “certain -white marble steps” (possibly those of the pyramid) are -noticed. This information, he says, he had from M. Dalechamps—the -editor of Pliny—and he, again, from M. de la -Tourette, who was present, in 1522, when its last stones were -finally removed to build the castle.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>About the middle of the last century, the Greek -sculptures built into the walls of the fortress were -published in Dalton’s “Views in Greece and Egypt, -1751-81,” and were subsequently described by Choiseul-Gouffier, -Moritt, Prokesch von Osten, W. J. Hamilton, -as, also, in the second volume of “Ionian Antiquities.” -<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>Nothing, however, was done towards a more -complete examination of them, till, in 1845, Sir Stratford -Canning (now Lord Stratford de Redcliffe), then -H.M. Ambassador at Constantinople, was able to extract -them from these walls, and to present them to -the British Museum in February, 1846. The chief -subject of these sculptures is the contest between the -Greeks and the Amazons, and their artistic style may -be compared with that of the slabs on the Choragic -monument of Lysicrates at Athens, of the date of B.C. -334. The pieces thus recovered were evidently but -subordinate portions of a much larger design.</p> - -<p class='c015'>From this time nothing further was done till Mr. -Newton was sent by Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, in -the early part of 1856, on a cruise to the south of the -Archipelago; on which occasion he landed at Budrum, -and partially examined the site, but without detecting -any visible evidence of the Mausoleum.<a id='r38' /><a href='#f38' class='c016'><sup>[38]</sup></a> In -October of the same year, however, Mr. Newton took -up his abode at Budrum with a few sappers under the -command of Lieut. Smith, R.E. Mr. Newton commenced -his excavations on the same spot he had -<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>previously slightly examined, and, for some time, met -with little except abundant mosaics, the remains of -a splendid villa, some of them inscribed with the -names of the persons represented,—such as Meleager -and Atalanta, Dido and Æneas. A little further on, -Mr. Newton found in the rubble several drums of -columns, with late and shallow Doric flutings, and, -at one corner of the building, a well, in which was -a small head in white marble, a bronze lamp, and -some other objects: many, too, of the rooms still -retained their skirting of white marble. But still -no Mausoleum appeared.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f38'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r38'>38</a>. </span>Admiral Spratt, R.N., a veteran surveyor, proposed his site -for the Mausoleum, because, 1. he thought it coincided with -the description of Vitruvius; 2. on the eastern side there are -still portions of an Hellenic wall; 3. on the N. side were several -fragments of columns of large diameter; and, 4. it might be -inferred that the Mausoleum stood on a mound. He did not, -however, follow the example of Prof. Ross, in writing a paper -against Mr. Newton’s early account of the Mausoleum in the -“Classical Museum,” with a sneer at the possibility of any -student, who had not himself surveyed the place, forming a -conception of the real position of the great building. It is satisfactory -to know that Prof. Ross’s personal survey proved to be -even less satisfactory than that of Capt. Spratt.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>At length, however, Mr. Newton commenced digging -on a spot where, nearly sixty years ago, Professor -Donaldson had noticed the remains of “a superb -Ionic edifice,” and soon came on many small fragments -of a frieze in high relief, and on a portion of a -colossal lion resembling in execution the lions’ heads -built into the walls of the castle. Mr. Newton next fell -in with a mass of ruins lying just below the surface, -one column, indeed, standing nearly upright but inverted, -and 10 feet below, a little further on, with the -edge of a pavement or step, about 6 inches below -which the native rock had been levelled for a floor. -In the earth on this floor was found the body of a -colossal statue from the waist to the ankle, and -another mass of sculpture—a warrior on horseback -in a Persian or Oriental costume, in itself a most -remarkable specimen of ancient sculpture. There -could be no doubt now that these were relics of -the Mausoleum, the smoothed rock being the bed -on which the building had once stood. The work, in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>all cases, was of the best, the fragments of the small -figures being generally better preserved than those on -the frieze already in the British Museum. The discovery -of the column just alluded to had this especial -value, that, by its measurement and order, a judgment -could be formed of the size of the building to which -it had belonged: ultimately these measurements -showed that the building itself must have had much -resemblance in style to the temple at Priene.</p> - -<p class='c015'>By the spring of the next year (1857) Mr. Newton -had determined the base-lines of the original building, -and proved it must have been a parallelogram 116 -feet long on the west by 126 feet on the south side, -its entire circumference having been about 472 feet. -The inner part of this quadrangle was paved with -large slabs of a greenish-grey stone 1 foot thick. -The cause of the ruin of the building was, also, -clear enough; first, earthquakes shook down a considerable -portion, and then the Knights of Rhodes, -and, after them, the Turks, used up every available -stone above ground for building purposes. Fortunately, -however, the plunderers only took what was -ready to their hand; hence the massive courses of -the foundation-stones were left, because unseen. On -the western side, a grand staircase of twelve steps, -30 feet wide, led from the base of the hill to the -western side of the precincts of the Mausoleum. -Near these were found the vase of Xerxes, and a -gigantic stone weighing more than ten tons, which -probably once closed the entrance to the actual -tomb. No remains of the tomb itself were found; -yet, there is reason for believing that some portion -of it, if not the actual body of the king, was visible -<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>during the demolition by the Knights. On the east -side of the Mausoleum, a colossal seated male figure -was next discovered, of a grand style, but sadly shattered; -and then, on the north, a similarly colossal -female figure, which must have been originally scarcely -less than 12 feet high. Here, also, was found a very -beautiful fragment of one of the friezes, representing -a female figure stepping into a chariot, the face of -which, happily but slightly injured, retains even now -the finish of a cameo.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Mr. Newton’s next plan of ascertaining, if possible, -the boundary-wall of the <i>temenos</i> was a happy one, as -he thus, at once, discovered a mass of marble blocks, -piled one above another, and intermixed with fragments -of statues; and thus unearthed, (1) a colossal -horse, in two pieces, and part of the head of another -horse, with the bronze bridle still adhering to it; (2) -a lion in fine condition, and another in two pieces; -(3) a draped female figure broken in half; (4) a head -of Apollo. All these sculptures were found heaped -together, and had evidently not been disturbed since -they had fallen.</p> - -<p class='c015'>The conclusion was inevitable, that parts of the -colossal horses of the quadriga from the top of the -monument had now been met with; and that this -quadriga and much of the pyramid, its support, had -been simply hurled upon and over the wall of the -<i>temenos</i>, and that Mr. Newton had, in fact, found them -just as they had fallen, it may be 1,700 years ago.<a id='r39' /><a href='#f39' class='c016'><sup>[39]</sup></a> -Near to the horse’s head, too, was found a face of a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>colossal male head, presumably that of some personage -connected with the quadriga, and, from its general -style, which is analogous to the idealized portrait of -Alexander the Great on the coins of Lysimachus, most -likely from a statue of Mausolus himself. The face has -a noble expression, and by a happy accident, the outlines -of the features have remained uninjured. Though -we have no actual evidence on this subject, it is probable -that the statue we have called Mausolus was -standing in the chariot at the top of the monument. -On the south side of the building Mr. Newton found -several portions of what, when put together, were clearly -parts of one of its wheels. The fragments consisted -of part of the outer circle, half the nave, and a piece -of one of the spokes. The wheel, originally, had six -spokes, the alternate intervals between each spoke having -been closed to ensure by its solidity the strength -of the whole wheel. As what has been found shows -that the wheel was 7.7 inches in diameter; and as -the horses could scarcely have been less than 10 feet -in length, we may fairly suppose the top of the pyramid -on which the quadriga stood was at least 24 feet long. -From other calculations it may be shown that the -pyramid was 23½ feet high: but for these and other -similar details we must refer our readers to Mr. Newton’s -work on the Mausoleum.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f39'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r39'>39</a>. </span>It is reasonable to conjecture that the first ruin of the -Mausoleum was due to the earthquakes of the first and second -centuries A.D., to which we have already alluded.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>We must, however, add that the measurements of -the height and tread of the blocks of marble believed -to have been the steps of the pyramid, formed an -essential feature of the calculation. The results -arrived at were mainly due to the ingenuity and -mathematical knowledge of Lieut. Smith, R.E., who -was also able to distribute Pliny’s 36 columns over -<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>a circumference of 412 feet, so as to preserve a -uniform intercolumniation on each side of the -building.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id003'> -<img src='images/ip069.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p><span class='c001'>STEPS OF THE PYRAMID.</span></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c015'>The difficulty of Lieutenant Smith’s theory is that -so large a space from the centres of the columns to -the walls of the cella is left unsupported; but the plan -of support he has suggested occurs in other and -nearly contemporaneous structures, as, for instance, -in a tomb at Mylasa. Again the great height, 65 -feet, between the bases of the columns and the -ground, is found to agree with the proportions of -other tombs, as in Lycia and at Souma in Algeria. -In all probability, this lofty basement was ornamented -by one or more friezes, while the lions, of which -Mr. Newton found remains of no less than fourteen, -may have stood between the columns or at the corners, -looking out on the plain. Since their arrival -in England, great skill has been shown in uniting -the innumerable fragments into which some of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>slabs and statues had been broken; and visitors to -the British Museum are now able to form a good -idea of the grandeur and beauty of the equestrian or -Amazonian figure, whose costume resembles that of -the Persians on the temple of the Wingless Victory -at Athens; and of the two great statues it has been -agreed to call Mausolus and Artemisia. In the same -room, there may, also, now be seen the whole of the -frieze that has been recovered; and it is interesting -to observe how much less injured are the portions excavated -by Mr. Newton, than those which, built into -the castle wall, have for four centuries, at least, been -exposed to the corroding action of the sea-breezes.</p> - -<p class='c015'>We take next <span class='sc'>Cnidus</span>, at the S.W. end of Asia -Minor, and, after Halicarnassus, the most celebrated -city of Caria. The description of its position by -Strabo and Pausanias coincides exactly with the observations -of modern travellers. Thus, Strabo speaks -of its two ports, one of which can be closed; and -of an island (now Cape Krio) in front of the city, -lofty, in the form of a theatre, and joined by a causeway -to the mainland; both of which statements are -completely confirmed by Beaufort and Hamilton. Pausanias -adds that the island was connected by a bridge. -The whole district is covered by ruins, the northern -wall being, according to Hamilton, nearly perfect: -he adds, that “there is a round tower of great beauty -at the extremity of the peninsula, near the northern -harbour” (ii. 40). Some of the most important architectural -features of the town may be seen in the -“Ionian Antiquities.”</p> - -<p class='c015'>Cnidus is noticed first in the Homeric hymns, and -later as a Lacedæmonian colony, and as a member -<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>of the Dorian Hexapolis, or assembly of six cities, -whose place of meeting was the temple of the Triopian -Apollo, on Cape Krio.<a id='r40' /><a href='#f40' class='c016'><sup>[40]</sup></a> As a population, the Cnidians -were great traders, combining with this a love for, and -a high sense of, art. Thus we find them at a remote -period in Egypt (Herod. ii. 178), and possessing -a treasury at Delphi, while Lipara, near Sicily, was -one of their colonies. In the various wars of the fifth -and fourth centuries B.C., we find the Cnidians sometimes -on one side and sometimes on the other. Thus, -they submitted to Harpagus, the general of Cyrus;<a id='r41' /><a href='#f41' class='c016'><sup>[41]</sup></a> -then supported Athens, then deserted her after her -losses in Sicily,<a id='r42' /><a href='#f42' class='c016'><sup>[42]</sup></a> and then, again, in Roman times, were, -generally, on the side of Rome.<a id='r43' /><a href='#f43' class='c016'><sup>[43]</sup></a> The Cnidians derived -much fame from their patronage of art. Thus, the -famous painting of Polygnotus in the Lesche at Delphi -was their gift;<a id='r44' /><a href='#f44' class='c016'><sup>[44]</sup></a> as were also a statue of Jupiter at Olympia, -and one at Delphi, of their founder, Triopas; with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>other statues of Leto, of Apollo, and of Artemis shooting -arrows at Tityus. The most famous art-possession of -Cnidus was the naked statue by Praxiteles so well -known as the Cnidian Venus,<a id='r45' /><a href='#f45' class='c016'><sup>[45]</sup></a> of which abundant -notices are extant, especially in Lucian. It stood in -a chamber with two doors, so that it could be seen all -round, and many people visited Cnidus solely for this -purpose. So proud were the Cnidians of this statue -that, when Nicomedes offered to pay the whole public -debt of Cnidus in return for the statue, they preferred -keeping their statue and their debts. This statue, -justly considered the fittest representation of the -“Regina Cnidi Paphique,” continued long uninjured, -and is mentioned by Philostratus in his life of Apollonius -of Tyana; but, in the reign of Theodosius, -having been removed to Constantinople, it was totally -destroyed by fire in the palace of Lausus, about -A.D. 475. There were also preserved at Cnidus two -statues by Bryaxis and Scopas, two of the sculptors -of the Mausoleum. Cnidus was also famous for her -pottery, well known in ancient times by the name of -“Κεράμια Κνίδια.”<a id='r46' /><a href='#f46' class='c016'><sup>[46]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f40'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r40'>40</a>. </span>Near this temple the Cnidians held their assemblies and -the games (αγῶνες τοῦ Τριοπίου Ἀπόλλωνος, Herod. i. 144, -or Ἀγὡν Δώριος, Arist. ap. Schol. Theocr. Idyll. xvii. 69). -The officer in charge of these games was called δαμιουργὸς -(Leake, p. 227).</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f41'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r41'>41</a>. </span>The Cnidians wished to cut through the narrow neck of -land between their two harbours; but the Delphic oracle replied -that, had Jupiter intended Cape Krio should have been an island, -he would have made it so:—</p> -<p class='c021'>Ζεὺς γὰρ κ’ ἔθηκε νῆσον εἴ κ’ ἐβούλετο—Herod. i. 174.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f42'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r42'>42</a>. </span>Cnidus paid dear for this desertion by loss of all her ships -(Thucyd. viii. 35, 42).</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f43'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r43'>43</a>. </span>Hamilton (ii. 42) shows that more than one of Julius -Cæsar’s personal friends were connected with Cnidus.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f44'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r44'>44</a>. </span>See papers by W. W. Lloyd in “Museum of Classical Antiquities,” -vol. i. 1851.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f45'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r45'>45</a>. </span>Praxiteles made two statues of Venus, one naked, the other -veiled. The Coans chose the latter, the Cnidians the former.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f46'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r46'>46</a>. </span>The territory round Cnidus was rich in wine, corn, oil, and -various vegetables, noticed by Athenæus (i. p. 33, ii. p. 66), -and by Pliny (xiii. 35, xix. 32, &c.). Pliny adds (xvi. 64) that -Cnidian reeds made excellent pens; hence the fitness of -Catullus’s lines—</p> -<div class='lg-container-l c022'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“Quæque Ancona Cnidumque arundinosam</div> - <div class='line in1'>Colis” (Carm. xxx. vi. 11).</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c017'>The historian Ctesias, Eudoxus, a disciple of Plato, and Agatharcides, -were natives of Cnidus. From Hierocles, the Notitiæ -and the Acts of Councils, it would seem to have existed as -late as the seventh and eighth centuries.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'><span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>The report of the Dilettanti Society, to which we -have alluded, and those of Captain Beaufort and -others, having excited much interest in England, it -was thought advisable that careful excavations should -be made at a spot where there was so much promise -of successful results; hence Mr. Newton, at the -close of his work at Halicarnassus, resolved to do -for Cnidus what he had done for the other Carian -city.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id003'> -<img src='images/ip074.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p><span class='c001'>DEMETER FROM CNIDUS.</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<p class='c015'>Mr. Newton commenced his operations by examining -a platform supported by polygonal masonry, and -jutting out like a pier from the side of the mountain, -soon discerning that he was on the site of the <i>temenos</i> -of Demeter, as a niche in the face of the rock above -still retained a portion of a dedicatory inscription to -that goddess. Shortly afterwards he found a small <i>stele</i>, -and, near it, the statue noticed by the Dilettanti mission, -the head, hands, and feet of which were wanting. -Enough, however, remained to show that it had once -been a work “of fine style and execution.” Inscriptions -soon after turned up on the same spot: one of them -recording the dedication of an edifice (οἶκος) and of a -statue (ἄγαλμα) to Demeter and Persephone, and, -what was of far higher interest, the head of the seated -figure just noticed, exhibiting a countenance of exquisite -beauty, with a most tender and refined expression. -This head has recently been specially studied -by Professor Brunn, and his paper on it (translated -by Mr. Murray, of the British Museum) published in -vol. xi. pt. 1 of the Trans. of the Royal Society of -Literature. In this paper Professor Brunn traces, with -a masterly hand, the intercrossing ideas suggested by -the mixed character of Demeter as a wife, a mother, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>and a widow. “The character,” says he, “of mother -pervades the whole mythology of Demeter: the -mother who, without a husband, lived only for her -child; who had to lose her child, and to be filled with -anxiety for her; to have her anxiety lessened, but -never silenced or removed, by occasional visits from -her daughter.... The eye is sunk in the socket, -as if physically weary; but anxiety of mind fights -against the weariness, and will not yet surrender to it. -The look is not sunk, but is directed upwards, only a -little less sharply.” ... “Can it be,” adds the -Professor, “only the result of chance that Christian -artists have also represented the Madonna wearing -the veil? ... In the centre of the Christian -religion, also, is the figure of a mother who lives only -for her Child and in her Child, who, in the same way, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>grieves for the loss of her Son, and finds blessedness -in the spiritual contemplation of Him. Suppose a -Christian artist were to give his Madonna the head of -our Demeter, he would certainly not be censured -for it.”</p> - -<p class='c015'>About the same time Mr. Newton met with two -other statues, each of considerable interest: the one -representing a female figure with a modius on her -head, partially covered by the peplos, and in her right -hand a pomegranate; the other, a female statue nearly -six feet high, with its body draped to the feet. Its -general character is that of an elderly woman wasted -with sorrow, with little of that matronly comeliness -which, in ancient art, generally characterizes Demeter. -From the Homeric hymn to Demeter we learn that -the goddess, while wandering in search of her daughter -Persephone, was wont to assume the garb of an old -woman, and thus traversed the earth for days without -tasting food. She is likened, also, to an aged nurse -or housekeeper in a regal house, a description well -agreeing with this statue. This type of the sorrowing -Demeter has not, we believe, been previously recognized -in any extant monument of ancient art. A -passage, however, in Clemens Alexandrinus (Cohort. ad -Gentes, i. 30, ed. Potter) suggests that she was sometimes -represented in sculpture under this aspect.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Near the first statue of Demeter, the sitting figure, -were several thin nearly decayed sheets of lead, -which, on being unrolled, proved to have been inscribed -with curses and imprecations in the names -of Demeter, Persephone, and other of the infernal -gods. Such inscriptions have been occasionally met -with before, and are known by the name of <i>Diræ</i>.</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>On pursuing his researches in this <i>temenos</i>, Mr. Newton -came upon the entrance to a large chamber, full -of miscellaneous antiquities, including many bases of -former statues, some with remains of stelæ, others -with hollowed spaces for the feet of statues. Most -of them bore dedications to Demeter in the Doric -dialect; and, with them, were many other objects -connected with her worship, as three boar pigs, a -calathus, and many votive female breasts in marble. -The date of these objects is probably, as Mr. Newton -suggests, about B.C. 370-320. Below these, again, -were layers of lamps, <i>amphoriskoi</i>, vessels in Samian -ware, hair-pins of bone, bodkins, and glass bottles, all -probably Roman. It is likely that this chamber was -formerly a treasury connected with one of the temples; -and, that it has never been disturbed since it became -a ruin is certain from the fact that the edges of the -fractured stones are still clean and sharp. It is curious -that, besides the marble pigs, the bones of many young -pigs were also found, manifest remains of sacrifices to -Demeter.</p> - -<p class='c015'>The clearing out of the Theatres did little to reward -Mr. Newton’s labours; indeed, it soon became -but too clear that all, or nearly all, the finer works -had long since been removed, probably, like the -Venus, to Constantinople. Hence, shortly afterwards, -he gave his chief attention to a thorough examination -of the Necropolis, the vast extent of which naturally -inspired hopes of important discoveries. This necropolis, -the general character of which is very well shown -in one of the plates in the “Ionian Antiquities,” must -in former days have been one of the most striking -features of the town. One of the structures still remaining -<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span><i>in situ</i> was, Mr. Newton observes, not unlike -in form to an early Christian church, with a chamber, -vestibule, and apse or alcove at the south end. On -each side were smaller apses, and, in front of each of -them, a marble sarcophagus. The sarcophagi generally -exhibit good Roman work of the time of Domitian, -but have suffered much by the fall of the roof; they -must once have been magnificent specimens of the -decorative style of their day, though they exhibit the -decay of good taste in the lavish prodigality of ornament -with which they have been covered. In the -earth around were abundant fragments of Greek inscriptions, -nearly all of them decrees of the Senate -and people of Cnidus. One of the tombs Mr. Newton -considered to have been that of a certain Lykæthus, -as an inscription records decrees in his favour, by -show of hands (χειροτονία), at the festival of the -greater Dionysia, together with the erection of a statue -to him at the public expense. There is no satisfactory -proof as to when this Lykæthus lived; but -his tomb would seem to date from the early Seleucidan -period, when Cnidus was a free city.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Having completed the survey of Cnidus itself, Mr. -Newton proceeded next to examine the villages in the -neighbourhood, the result being the discovery of a -colossal lion. Reports of its existence had reached -him before, but it was left to Mr. Pullan, the architect -of the expedition, to make its actual discovery, -at a distance of between three and four miles to -the E. of Cnidus, in a position wherein, except by -accident, it might have remained unnoticed for another -twenty-one centuries. The exact spot where the -lion was found may be seen in the Admiralty chart, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>which shows, on the summit of a cliff, opposite Cape -Crio, the ruins of an ancient tomb, which are strewn -all around. Below this, some 60 feet, the lion was -reposing on a ledge of rock, beneath which, again, -is a sheer precipice of 300 feet into the sea. The -lion was lying on its right side, and its upper portion -had suffered much from exposure to the weather. It -had been carved, as well as the base on which it reposes, -of one piece of Parian marble, and measures -nearly 10 ft. in length, by 6 ft. in height. This noble -lion is probably earlier than the Mausoleum, and exhibits -a more severe and majestic style than those -of the Mausoleum.<a id='r47' /><a href='#f47' class='c016'><sup>[47]</sup></a> The removal of the lion was a -labour of much toil and difficulty; indeed, could -hardly have been accomplished had Mr. Newton not -had the aid of some sailors from an English ship of war.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f47'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r47'>47</a>. </span>See Frontispiece.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>The tomb itself was a nearly equal square of -39 ft. 2¾ inches, with the remains of a pyramid like -that of the Mausoleum.<a id='r48' /><a href='#f48' class='c016'><sup>[48]</sup></a> Its present height is -about 17 ft.; the four lower feet being composed of -immense blocks of marble, supporting eleven courses -of travertine. On the west, and most perfect side, -a portion of the lower step of the stylobate still -remains. No <i>data</i> have been obtained of the exact -height of the columns once round the monument; -but, as, in an angle step, one tread was 13½ inches, -and the other only 10½, it is clear that this structure, -like the Mausoleum, was oblong. Although -<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>the action of an earthquake was probably the primary -cause of the ruin of this monumental tomb, there can -be no doubt, also, that it has suffered much from -plunderers, who, in search for treasure, have torn up -as much of the inner pavement as they could move. -The jambs of the doorway still exist, and the interior -was shaped like a beehive. The top has been closed -in by one immense block, and, as its upper side was -somewhat broader than the lower, this block must -have been dropped into its position, like the bung of -a gigantic cask, after the rest of the building was -finished. The chamber, itself, exhibits in its sides a -series of openings expanding outwards like embrasures—no -doubt, θῆκαι, or resting-places for bodies: -indeed, on clearing the rubbish away, a number of -human bones were met with. Mr. Newton considers -this monument can hardly be later than 350 B.C., -and that it was built as a monument to many citizens -who had fallen in battle. To what period, then, can -it be assigned? Probably to either the repulse of -the Athenians by the Cnidians in B.C. 412; or to -the defeat of the Lacedæmonians by Conon in B.C. -394; and, of the two, it is more likely it was erected -in commemoration of the former event, which was -one of much glory to the town. To the north and -further inland, are two other tombs of precisely similar -construction, but inferior in size.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f48'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r48'>48</a>. </span>Mr. Falkener found at Ouran, in Phrygia, a monument -he has restored as similar to this Lion-tomb. We wish he had -also given a sketch of the ruin as he found it. (Museum Class. -Antiq. i. p. 174.)</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>Having now devoted a considerable space to Halicarnassus -and Cnidus, owing to their being, from -recent researches, of such high importance, we must -notice very briefly the other towns of Caria. The -small town of <span class='sc'>Physcus</span> is chiefly of interest for its magnificent -<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>bay and harbour, so well known to modern -navigators (under the name of Marmorice), as one of -the finest in the world for vessels of the largest size. -Possibly it was this very character that led to its -being so little noticed in antiquity, as ancient galleys -did not value depth of water. The capacity of the -bay of Marmorice will be best comprehended, when -we remind our readers that Nelson anchored his -whole fleet within it, just before the battle of the -Nile. Not far from this was <span class='sc'>Caunus</span>, the ancient -capital of a population whom Herodotus held were -not Carians; indeed, their coins and architecture -seem to prove them Lycians. The site of Caunus -has been identified, there being still considerable -monumental remains and walls of so-called Cyclopean -masonry. The Caunians were an active and high-spirited -race, and made a gallant resistance to the -Persians, a few years later joining with equal enthusiasm -in the great Ionian revolt (Herod. v. 103). -Towards the close of the Peloponnesian war we find -Caunus constantly mentioned. Having been rejected -by the Romans in a petition against Rhodes, they -conceived against them the bitterest hatred, and -hence carried out with great atrocity the massacre of -the Romans planned by Mithradates (Appian, Mithr. -c. 23). Caunus was so unhealthy in the summer -that “pale-faced Caunians” became a proverb.</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Stratonicea</span> (now Eski-hissar), one of the chief -inland towns of Caria and mainly built by Antiochus -Soter, derived its name from his wife Stratonice. -The great Mithradates married thence his wife -Monima. Not far from the town was the famous -<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>temple of Jupiter Chrysaorius, the centre of the -political union of the Carian states. Stratonicea has -been much explored by travellers; and, so early as -1709, Mr. Consul Sherard presented to the Earl of -Oxford a book of Greek inscriptions copied by him -at various places in Asia Minor. This volume is -now in the Harleian collection. The most important -monument of the town is the celebrated edict of -Diocletian—in Greek and Latin—the first copy of -which, by Sherard, is in the volume just mentioned. -The late Colonel Leake<a id='r49' /><a href='#f49' class='c016'><sup>[49]</sup></a> has shown that its date is -about A.D. 303, and its object to direct those engaged -in the traffic of provisions not to exceed certain -fixed prices in times of scarcity. Fellows states that -the names of many of the articles of food enumerated -therein are still used by the peasantry of Asia Minor. -<i>Inter alia</i>, we learn that silken garments were in -common use, as Ammianus<a id='r50' /><a href='#f50' class='c016'><sup>[50]</sup></a> pointed out, seventy -years later; as also the rough coat or <i>birrhus</i>, the -<i>caracallis</i>, or hooded cloak (afterwards adopted by -the monks), the Gallic breeches and socks. The late -date of the inscription is shown by its barbarous -Latinity, above all, by the reduced value of the -<i>drachma</i> or <i>denarius</i>. Thus a denarius appears as the -equivalent of a single oyster, or of the hundredth -part of a lean goose! The names of the provisions -recorded not only indicate the ordinary food of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>people, but also the costly dainties of the epicure. -Thus several kinds of honey, of hams, of sausages,<a id='r51' /><a href='#f51' class='c016'><sup>[51]</sup></a> -of salt and fresh-water fish, of asparagus and of beans, -are noted. Gibbon has not failed to notice this -inscription, though, in his day, it had been very imperfectly -copied.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f49'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r49'>49</a>. </span>See Trans. Roy. Soc. of Literature, 1st series, 4to. vol. i. -p. 181. 1826.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f50'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r50'>50</a>. </span>Ammianus was not acquainted with the true origin of silk. -He still describes it, as did Virgil and Pliny, as a sort of woolly -substance (<i>lanugo</i>) combed from a tree in China.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f51'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r51'>51</a>. </span>The derivation of the word “sausage” may not be generally known. -“Icicium” means “minced meat”; “salsum icicium,” the same salted. -From the latter comes the Italian <i>salsiccio</i>, the French -<i>saucisse</i>, and the English sausage. So <i>jecur ficatum</i> -(Greek, συκωτὸν), hog’s liver, derived from the fattening of -geese with figs (“pinguibus et ficis pastum jecur anseris albi,” -Horat. Satir. ii. 8, 88) is preserved in the Italian -<i>fegato</i> and the modern Greek συκώτι, used for liver in -general. It is curious to meet on a decree on the walls of a -temple in Caria with <i>pernæ Menapicæ</i>, Westphalian hams.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Aphrodisias</span> was a considerable place, and, at a -very late period, as appears from Hierocles, the capital -of Caria. It is but little mentioned in ancient -history, but Tacitus records that, setting forth decrees -of Cæsar and Augustus in its favour,<a id='r52' /><a href='#f52' class='c016'><sup>[52]</sup></a> it pleaded before -the Senate for the right of sanctuary attached to -its temples, when Tiberius was wisely attempting to -abridge these injurious immunities. Aphrodisias was -chiefly famous for its magnificent Ionic temple of -Venus, many columns of which are still standing. -They may be seen in the third volume of the “Ionian -Antiquities,” 1840,<a id='r53' /><a href='#f53' class='c016'><sup>[53]</sup></a> and in Mr. Pullan’s work.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f52'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r52'>52</a>. </span>“Dictatoris Cæsaris ob vetusta in partes merita et recens -Divi Augusti decretum” (Tacit. Ann. iii. 62). An inscription -published by Chishull in his Antiq. Asiat. (p. 152), but, we believe, -first copied by Sherard, confirms the statement of Tacitus.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f53'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r53'>53</a>. </span>The name of Aphrodisias was more than once changed. -Thus when Christianity began to prevail, the first change was to -Tauropolis (as is shown on an inscription copied by Fellows), -and, again, to Stauropolis (or the city of the Cross). When, -however, towards the end of the fifth century, the festivals of -Venus were revived by Asclepiodotus of Alexandria, the ancient -name was revived also.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'><span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>Sir Charles Fellows has given an excellent description -(Lycia, p. 32) of the state in which he found the -ruins, with a beautiful drawing of the Ionic temple. -“I never,” says he, “saw in one place so many perfect -remains, although by no means of a good age of the -arts”: he thinks, too, that the early city must have -been in great measure destroyed. “These (the later) -walls are,” he adds, “composed of the remains of -temples, tombs, and theatres removed, although uninjured. -The reversed inscriptions, and inverted bas-reliefs -bear testimony to this change.” Sir Charles -Fellows quotes one inscription as showing how carefully -the owners of these tombs endeavoured to secure -their preservation and sole occupancy. “But if,” -says the legend, “contrary to these directions, anybody -shall bury another (in this monument), let him be -accursed, and besides pay into the most holy treasury -5,000 denarii, of which one-third is to be his who -institutes the proceedings.” Inscriptions with similar -curses are, indeed, common enough.</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Mylasa</span> <i>and</i> <span class='sc'>Labranda</span> may be taken together, as -from the former a Sacred Way led to Labranda. The -former was, no doubt, in early times one of the chief -places in Caria, before Halicarnassus was adopted as -the royal residence; indeed, we find a proof of this -in the fact that it had a temple to which Lydians and -Mysians were alike admitted (Herod, i. 171). Physcus, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>to which we have already referred was considered as -its port. Mylasa, in ancient times, as Strabo avers, -a city of great beauty, owed much to its having been -built close to a mountain of the finest white marble. -It was, indeed, so close, that one of the provincial -governors observed that the founder of the town -ought to have been ashamed of his blunder, if not -frightened.<a id='r54' /><a href='#f54' class='c016'><sup>[54]</sup></a> It was, also, so full of sacred buildings, -that when Stratonicus came there, thinking there were -more temples than people, he exclaimed, in the -middle of the forum, “Hear, oh ye temples”! -(Athen. viii. p. 348).</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f54'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r54'>54</a>. </span>Strabo’s words are: Ταύτην γὰρ, ἔφη, τὴν πόλιν ὁ κτίσας εἰ μὴ -ἐφοβεῖτο, ἆρ’ οὐδ’ ᾐσχύνετο; (xiv. 659).</p> -</div> - -</div> -<p class='c015'>The people of Mylasa having made a successful -resistance to the attacks of Philip, the son of Demetrius, -were rewarded by being made “free” by -the Romans. Modern travellers, from Pococke to -Chandler, fully confirm the statements of the ancients -as to the abundance of marble monuments; and -Colonel Leake adds that, since they were there, the -Turks have pulled down the best ruin, that of the -Temple of Romulus and Augustus. Sir Charles -Fellows, on his second journey, observed on the key-stone -of a gateway the double-headed axe (bipennis), -indicating that the building to which it belonged had -once been consecrated to the Jupiter of Labranda, -a name said to have been derived from λαβρὺς, the -Carian word for an axe;<a id='r55' /><a href='#f55' class='c016'><sup>[55]</sup></a> and succeeded, also, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>in identifying it (pp. 66-67). He says of it, -“The only conspicuous building of the place is a -beautiful temple of the Corinthian order, but I think -not of the finest age.... It stands in a recess -in the hills, and is consequently not seen without -approaching close to it.”<a id='r56' /><a href='#f56' class='c016'><sup>[56]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f55'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r55'>55</a>. </span>Strabo calls the temple νεὠς άρχαῖος, and Herodotus adds -that there was a holy grove of plane-trees near it, ἅγιον ἂλσος πλατανίστων -(v. 119). Plutarch (ii. p. 302 A) states that -λαβρὺς was the Lydian and Carian word for axe (which we find -represented also on the coins of Mausolus and Pixodarus). On -one of the Oxford marbles (ii. 12), probably an altar, occur the -words Διός Λαβραύνδου.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f56'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r56'>56</a>. </span>Since Sir Charles’s visit, this spot has been carefully examined -by Mr. Pullan, who states that the building (of which -the fifteen columns still stand) is really of Roman times and -work, though engraved (under the auspices of Dr. Chandler) as -a Greek temple in the “Ionian Antiquities,” vol. i. (Pullan, -“Ruins of Asia Minor,” p. 26).</p> -</div> - -</div> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c000' /> -</div> -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span> - <h2 id='ch03' class='c009'><em class='gesperrt'>CHAPTER III</em>.</h2> -</div> -<p class='c013'>Xanthus—Sir Charles Fellows—Telmessus—Patara—Pinara—Myra—Tlos -and Antiphellus—Attalia—Perge—Eurymedon—Aspendus—Side—Termessus—Cremna—Sagalassus—Selge—Antioch -of Pisidia—Tarsus—Coracesium—Laertes—Selinus—Anemurium—Celenderis—Seleuceia—Corycus—Soli—Adana—Mallus—Mopsuestia—Anazarbus—Issus.</p> -<p class='c014'><span class='sc'>We</span> come now to <i>Lycia</i>, of which many of the -most important monuments are now in the Lycian -room at the British Museum—for the most part the -records of its chief town, <span class='sc'>Xanthus</span>—and all procured -by Sir Charles Fellows. A few less valuable -remains, were, at the same time, obtained from other -Lycian towns.</p> -<p class='c015'>The chief value of the monuments from <i>Lycia</i> lies -in this, that, while they exhibit many well-executed -pieces of sculpture, interesting as a local or provincial -rendering of Greek work of the middle of the fourth -century B.C., they comprise, also, a few slabs, as, for -instance, those from the Harpy tomb, of a genuine -Archaic type.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Xanthus, the town from which the greater part of -the monuments about to be described have been -secured, underwent remarkable vicissitudes of fortune, -some of which, it has been thought, are indicated on -its sculptures. Originally, it was a Cretan colony -settled at or near Xanthus; hence we read, in the -Iliad, of Sarpedon and Glaucus, as the leaders of the -Lycians in the Trojan army, and of the body of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>former being carried back by Sleep and Death to -Lycia to be honoured with a <i>stele</i> and tomb. Pandarus, -too, the celebrated archer, is also a Lycian. On -the overthrow of Crœsus, Harpagus, Cyrus’s general, -was sent to reduce Lycia with a mixed force of Persians, -Dorians, and Ionians; the Glaucidæ, or royal -family of Lycia, having vigorously supported the -Ionians in their resistance to Cyrus.</p> - -<p class='c015'>On this occasion Xanthus made a memorable -defence. It is said that, when driven from the plain -by the united forces of the Persian and confederate -army, its people took refuge in their citadel, and, -collecting therein their wives, children, and treasures, -burnt them, at the same time falling to a man in a -furious sally upon their enemies (Herod, i. 176). -That the Persian success was complete, we know -from the fact, that, sixty years later, the then Xanthians -sent fifty ships to the aid of Xerxes, and continued, -subsequently, to pay an annual tax to the -Persian monarchs.<a id='r57' /><a href='#f57' class='c016'><sup>[57]</sup></a> Yet their courage was not -subdued; for when Alexander, after his victory over -the Persians at the Graneicus, descended into Lycia, -at Xanthus, and there alone, he met with an obstinate -resistance.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f57'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r57'>57</a>. </span>It has been suggested (see Rawlinson’s Herodotus, i. p. 312) -that the family of Harpagus continued to govern Lycia, and that -the Xanthian obelisk (to which we shall presently refer) was -erected soon after the battle of Eurymedon, B.C. 466. But -“son of Harpagus,” on that monument, may easily mean no -more than his descendant, just as Jehu was called “the son of -Omri.”</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>In the subsequent war, the Xanthians supported -<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>Antigonus; hence the assault and capture of the town -by Ptolemy; and, during the war between Brutus and -the Triumvirs, the former entered Lycia, and a bloody -attack on, and siege of, Xanthus were the natural -results. We are told, that on this occasion, the people -of the town did as they had done before when -assaulted by Harpagus, destroying themselves, their -wives, and their children, in a similar holocaust. -Subsequently, we hear little of Xanthus, except -that it suffered severely from the two great earthquakes -in the days of Tiberius and Antoninus Pius. -The town of Xanthus was situated on the left bank -of the Sirbes<a id='r58' /><a href='#f58' class='c016'><sup>[58]</sup></a> or Sirbus, called Xanthus or the Yellow -by the Greeks; at a distance of between 6 and 7 -miles from the sea. On the highest point was the -Acropolis, a Roman work, built chiefly out of the -ruins of the older town. On the brow of the hill -stood what has been called the Harpy tomb.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f58'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r58'>58</a>. </span>Dionysius Periegetes testifies to both names:</p> -<p class='c021'>Σίβρῳ ἐπ’ ἀργυρέῳ ποταμῷ ...</p> -<p class='c017'>and</p> -<p class='c021'>Ξάνθου ἐπί προχοῇσιν ... κ. τ. λ. (v. 847.)</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/ip090.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p><span class='c001'>PERSIAN SATRAP SEATED.</span></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c015'>The monuments found at Xanthus may be arranged -under the head of (1) the so-called Ionic trophy -monument,<a id='r59' /><a href='#f59' class='c016'><sup>[59]</sup></a> (2) Miscellaneous reliefs, (3) Tombs. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>The first stands on the east side of the city, and was -constructed of white marble on a basement of grey -Lycian stone. Two or more friezes had once surrounded -it, representing contests between warriors -fully armed after the Greek fashion, or more lightly -clad in tunics or naked, and wearing helmets. Sir -C. Fellows imagines he can recognize, in some cases, -the loose-robed bearded Lycians, with their peculiar -arms and <i>curtained</i> shields,<a id='r60' /><a href='#f60' class='c016'><sup>[60]</sup></a> the battle being -that in the plains recorded by Herodotus.<a id='r61' /><a href='#f61' class='c016'><sup>[61]</sup></a> Asiatics -are certainly represented on some of the slabs with -the pointed cap or cydaris, while, on other slabs is -an attack on the main gate of a strongly-fortified -town. On another relief is a Persian satrap seated, -with the umbrella, or symbol of sovereignty, over his -head, and on other slabs, are indications of a sortie -from the city and of its repulse. The city may or -may not be Xanthus itself, but, within the walls, are -well-known monuments of that town, upright square -<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>pillars or <i>stelæ</i>, four of which are represented.<a id='r62' /><a href='#f62' class='c016'><sup>[62]</sup></a> The -“Trophy monument,” which has been cleverly restored -<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>by Sir Charles Fellows, as a peripteral tetrastyle temple, -may be seen in the Lycian room in the British Museum. -We regret, however, we cannot accept his view, that -the subject of these sculptures is the capture of -Xanthus by Harpagus, as this event took place in -B.C. 545; while none of these reliefs can be as early -as B.C. 400.<a id='r63' /><a href='#f63' class='c016'><sup>[63]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f59'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r59'>59</a>. </span>On the whole, it seems most likely that this monument was -the sanctuary of some local hero, possibly of the original founder -or leader (οἰκιστής or ἀρχηγέτης), like the Theseum at Athens. -It might, therefore, have been the Harpageum, or memorial of -Harpagus, or of the Harpagi. Mr. Benjamin Gibson has supposed -that the “Trophy monument” was intended to commemorate -“the conquest of Lycia by the united forces of the -Persians and Ionians” (Mus. of Class. Antiq. vol. i. 132); and -Mr. Watkiss Lloyd has published an able memoir on it, entitled -“Xanthian Marbles—the Nereid Monument.”</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f60'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r60'>60</a>. </span>This “curtain” was a sort of appendage attached to the -lower end of the shield, and was intended to protect the legs -from stones. It was called λαισήἲον, and is mentioned in Hom. -Il. v. 453:</p> -<p class='c021'>ἀσπίδας ἐυκὐκλους λαισήϊά τε πτερόεντα.</p> - -<p class='c017'>A vase published by Inghirami well represents the usual -character of this appendage. Millingen supposes the subject of -this vase to be “Antiope leading Theseus to the walls of Themiscyra.” -(Cf. Müller, Arch. d. Kunst, § 342.)</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f61'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r61'>61</a>. </span>Some of these scenes may refer to real events in the history -of Xanthus; and the Oriental chief, too, on the “Trophy” monument -would seem to be aided by Greek mercenaries.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f62'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r62'>62</a>. </span>It has been suggested that the so-called <i>triquetra</i> on the -Lycian coins, consisting of three curved objects, like sickles or -elephant-goads, or the <i>harpa</i> (ἅρπη) of Perseus, joined in the -centre, is emblematic of the name of Harpagus. Such “canting -heraldry” (as in the case of <i>Arpi</i> in Apulia, and of <i>Zancle</i> in -Sicily) is not, however, accepted by the best numismatists as of -approved Greek use, though possible enough among a semi-Oriental -population.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f63'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r63'>63</a>. </span>The <a href='#ionic'>plate</a> on the opposite page must not be considered as more -than a possible arrangement of some of the sculptures found.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>2. The Miscellaneous reliefs found in and about -the Acropolis are chiefly relics of much older buildings; -they are generally in the rough, gritty stone of the -country, and have some resemblance to early Greek -work, especially to the sculptures from Assos. Their -chief subjects are a lion devouring a deer, and a satyr, -the size of life, running along the ground.</p> - -<div id='ionic' class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/ip092.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p><span class='c001'>IONIC TROPHY MONUMENT.</span></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c015'>3. The Tombs. The tomb-system, so to speak, -as developed in Lycia, is a striking characteristic -of that province, and has been, therefore, carefully -studied by Sir Charles Fellows, who has classed them, -according to their forms, under the heads of Obelisk, -Gothic, and Elizabethan. The first, as the name implies, -is simply a square block surmounted by a cap and cornice; -the second and third have lancet-head tops or deep -mullioned recesses, respectively. Of the two first the -British Museum has excellent specimens; the third -was chiefly used for carvings on the face of solid -rocks. All alike exhibit imitations of wooden structures -with panelled doors, bossed nails, and knockers -suspended from lions’ mouths. One of these tombs, -the so-called Harpy tomb, from its great curiosity, we -<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>must notice somewhat fully. It consists of a square -column about 17½ feet high, in one piece of stone, -surmounted by a series of bas-reliefs, forming the -walls of a square chamber, seven feet each way, and -having a small door on its west side. On these walls -are representations of Harpies, between whom, in each -case, is a group consisting of one seated and one -standing figure. There is reason to suppose the subject -of these reliefs a local myth, and, as the daughters -of a Lycian hero, Pandarus, are said to have been -carried off by Harpies, this is not improbably the -subject here. Harpies are usually, as here, indicated -with the faces, breasts, and hands of women, and with -bodies and feet of vultures. It is possible that this -<i>stele</i> may have been the tomb of some prince of the -royal family of Lycia, who claimed descent from the -mythical hero, Pandarus. No certain date can be -assigned to it; but, had it been executed in Attica -instead of Lycia, B.C. 530 would not have been too -early for it. In any case, its execution must have -preceded the Persian conquest of Lycia.</p> - -<p class='c015'>One of the most interesting of the Gothic tombs -is that of a man whose name has been read -Paiafa, and who was, probably a satrap of Lycia. The -top of this structure much resembles an inverted boat, -with a high ridge running along it, like a keel. On each -side of the roof is an armed figure in a <i>quadriga</i>;<a id='r64' /><a href='#f64' class='c016'><sup>[64]</sup></a> on the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>north side, below the <i>tympanum</i>, the Satrap is seated as -a judge, his dress and general appearance being the -same as that of the Persian on the Trophy monument.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f64'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r64'>64</a>. </span>Herodotus remarks that the people of Bithynia carried two -Lycian spears, and had helmets of brass, on the summits of which -were the ears and horns of an ox. Cf. also, on coins, the -helmet of Eukratides, king of Bactriana.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>In concluding these notes on Xanthus, we may -allude to some casts from a tomb at Pinara, hard by, -carved on the face of the solid rock. Sir Charles -Fellows states that, in the centre of this city, there rises -a round rocky cliff, speckled all over with tombs, many -of them being only oblong holes, and quite inaccessible. -One cast gives the representation of a walled -city with tombs, towers, gates, and walls; the battlements, -on the whole, much resembling the town shown -on the “Trophy monument.” Another cast gives the -interior of the portico of a rock tomb at Tlos, with -Bellerophon, one of the heroes of Lycia, triumphing -over the Chimæra.</p> - -<p class='c015'>It only remains for us to notice the famous -<i>Inscribed Stele</i>, the longest inscription yet met with -in the Lycian character, and containing a notice of a -son of Harpagus, and the names of several Lycian -towns. On the north side, between the lines of -Lycian characters, is a Greek inscription in twelve -hexameter lines,<a id='r65' /><a href='#f65' class='c016'><sup>[65]</sup></a> the first from an epigram of Simonides -<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>(B.C. 556), and a notice of the achievements -of this son of Harpagus. The whole inscription consists -of about 250 lines.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f65'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r65'>65</a>. </span>Colonel Leake (Trans. of the Roy. Soc. of Literature, -vol. ii. 1844) has given a translation of the twelve lines in -Greek, showing that this monument was erected by a certain -Datis, called a son of Harpagus. It states that he had gained -the highest honours in the Carian games, and had slain “in -one day seven heavy-armed soldiers, men of Arcadia.” The -epigram of Simonides (Anthol. Brunck. vol. i. p. 134) commemorates -the battles at Cyprus and on the Eurymedon, -B.C. 470. Another conjecture is that the son of Harpagus was -called Sparsis (Leake, ibid. p. 32). Colonel Leake thinks the -date of the inscription not earlier than B.C. 400.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>Over the other towns of <span class='sc'>Lycia</span>, <span class='sc'>Telmessus</span>, <span class='sc'>Patara</span>, -<span class='sc'>Pinara</span>, <span class='sc'>Myra</span>, <span class='sc'>Tlos</span>, and <span class='sc'>Antiphellus</span>, it is not -necessary for us to dwell at any great length, the -more so that they were not, historically, of great importance, -and are to us only interesting for the remains -of art still visible on the spot.</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Telmessus</span> was on the coast, and is now represented -by the village of Makri.<a id='r66' /><a href='#f66' class='c016'><sup>[66]</sup></a> In ancient times it -was famous for the skill of its augurs. Herodotus -tells us they were often consulted by the kings of -Lydia, and especially by Crœsus; and Arrian ascribes -to them a remote antiquity. Their reputation long -survived; for Cicero speaks of the town thus:—“Telmessus -in Caria est quâ in urbe excellit haruspicum -disciplina” (De Divin. i. 41). In early Christian -times it had a bishop. Telmessus has been fully -described by Dr. Clarke and Sir Charles Fellows. -Its monumental remains are almost wholly tombs; -but these are, many of them, remarkable for their -beauty, as also for the extraordinary labour bestowed -on them in cutting them out of the face of the rock. -Sir Charles Fellows makes the curious remark, that, -though the Greek population of Lycia were mainly -Dorians, he did not meet with any tombs or other -monuments unquestionably of the Doric order.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f66'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r66'>66</a>. </span>Fellows remarks that the Meio of the maps and of the -“Modern Traveller” (supposed, too, by Cramer to be a corruption -of Telmessus) is not known in the country.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Patara</span>, on the left bank of the river Xanthus, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>was chiefly celebrated for its worship and temples -of the Lycian Apollo, known by the appellation -of Patareus.<a id='r67' /><a href='#f67' class='c016'><sup>[67]</sup></a> According to Herodotus (i. 182), the -priestess who delivered it was shut up in the temple -every night, but the oracular responses were only -occasional. The Pataræan oracle was very ancient, -and considered scarcely inferior to that of Delphi. -Captain Beaufort, in his account of Karamania, places -the remains of Patara<a id='r68' /><a href='#f68' class='c016'><sup>[68]</sup></a> near the shore, and notices -“a deep circular pit of singular appearance, which -may have been the seat of the oracle.” Fellows -alludes to “a beautiful small temple about the centre -of the ruined city,” with a doorway “of beautiful -Greek workmanship, ornamented in the Corinthian -style, and in fine proportion and scale.” The port of -Patara, which was too small to contain the combined -fleet of the Romans and Rhodians under Regillus in -the war with Antiochus (Liv. xxxvii. 17) is now completely -overgrown with brushwood, &c. The theatre -is shown by an inscription to have been built (more -<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>probably rebuilt) in the fourth consulate of Antoninus -Pius, A.D. 145.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f67'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r67'>67</a>. </span>Hor. Od. iii. 4, 62: Delius aut Patareus Apollo. -Stat. Theb. i. 696:</p> -<div class='lg-container-l c022'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line in7'>... Seu te Lyciæ Pataræa nivosis</div> - <div class='line'>Exercent dumeta jugis.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c017'>Virg. Æn. iv. 143:</p> -<div class='lg-container-l c022'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>Qualis ubi hibernam Lyciam Xanthique fluenta</div> - <div class='line'>Deserit, ac Delum maternam invisit Apollo.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c017'>On which passage Servius makes the remark that the oracles -were delivered alternately,—during the winter months at Patara, -and during the summer at Delos.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f68'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r68'>68</a>. </span>Cicero uses the Ethnic form Pataranus (Orat. in Flacc. -c. 32).</p> -</div> - -</div> -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Pinara</span>, at the foot of Mount Cragus, was another -of the six Lycian towns in which divine honours -were paid to the hero Pandarus, Homer’s celebrated -archer: its name is said to be a Lycian word for a -round hill (v. Ἀρτύμνησος, ap. Ptol.; Plin. v. 28; -Hierocl. p. 684); and such a hill, pierced everywhere -for tombs, Fellows found, as we have stated, in the very -centre of it. Such a physical feature would not have -been overlooked by any Greeks. He adds that “the -whole city appears to be of one date and people,” the -inscriptions being generally in the Lycian character.<a id='r69' /><a href='#f69' class='c016'><sup>[69]</sup></a> -The carvings on the rock-tombs here, judging from -the drawing he gives (p. 141), are of much interest -and beauty.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f69'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r69'>69</a>. </span>Colonel Leake (Roy. Soc. Lit. i. p. 267) was of the opinion -that the Lycian characters were modifications of Archaic Greek.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Myra</span>, sometimes called Andriace (whence the -modern <i>Andraki</i>), was, according to Appian, a place -of some note, and it is still remarkable for the beauty -and richness of its rock-cut tombs (Pullan). The -Sacred historian of St. Paul’s journeyings writes that, -after quitting Sidon and Cyprus, “when we had -sailed over the Sea of Cilicia and Pamphylia, we -came to Myra, a city of Lycia; and there the centurion -found a ship of Alexandria sailing into Italy, and -he put us therein” (Acts xxvii. 5, 6). Myra, at a late -period, seems to have been the metropolis of the -province (Malala, Chron. xiv.; Hierocl. p. 684). -A Nicholas, Bishop of Myra, is also mentioned -(Const. Porphyr. Themist. 14). Colonel Leake observes -<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>that, on the banks of the river by which Lucullus -ascended to Myra, are the ruins of a large building, -which, from an inscription, appears to have been a -granary, erected in the time of Hadrian;<a id='r70' /><a href='#f70' class='c016'><sup>[70]</sup></a> and Fellows -adds that “the tombs are generally very large, and -all appear to have been for families, some having -small chambers, one leading to the other, and some -highly interesting from their interior peculiarities of -arrangement.” Many bas-reliefs within the porticos of -the tombs still retain their original colour, as may be -seen on the casts from them in the British Museum.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f70'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r70'>70</a>. </span>Beaufort gives a minute description of this building, and -states that it is 200 feet long, with walls 20 feet high. The -inscription on it, “<span class='sc'>Horrea Imp. Caesaris Divi Traiani -Hadriani</span>,” &c., proves that it has been a granary: it was divided -into seven separate compartments.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Tlos</span> and <span class='sc'>Antiphellus</span>, though occasionally mentioned -in ancient times, had been well-nigh forgotten -till these and other sites were diligently sought out by -modern travellers. Leake speaks of the latter as containing -a theatre nearly complete, with many catacombs -and sarkophagi, some very large and magnificent; and -Fellows thinks the tombs here the largest in Lycia. -“The rocks for miles round,” he says, “are strewn -with their fragments, and many hundreds are still -standing, apparently unopened.”</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Tlos</span>, of which we know little more than that it lay -on the road to Cibyra, was first accurately determined -by Sir Charles Fellows, who considered the original -city must have been demolished in very early times, -as “finely-wrought fragments are now seen built into -the strong walls which have fortified the town raised -upon its ruins.” The theatre was the most highly-finished -<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>he had seen, for the seats were not only of -polished marble, but each seat had an overhanging -cornice, often supported by lions’ paws. An inscription -found there records the name of Sarpedon, -showing that the name of the mythical hero of Lycia -was still preserved among the people. The name for -tomb at Tlos is always Heroum.</p> - -<p class='c015'>As the provinces are so closely connected, we shall -take <i>Pamphylia</i> and <i>Pisidia</i> together, simply selecting -from them such sites as seem of the highest interest. -We shall, therefore, notice first <span class='sc'>Attalia</span> (the modern -Adalia), although there has been some dispute among -geographers whether Adalia does really occupy the -site of the old city: the true course of a stream -called Catarrhactes,<a id='r71' /><a href='#f71' class='c016'><sup>[71]</sup></a> from its plunging headlong over -precipices into the sea, being still undetermined, has -mainly led to this confusion. The probability is -that, owing to the agency of earthquakes, the coastline -has been much changed during the last 2,000 -years; moreover, Colonel Leake and others believe -the calcareous matter brought down, in this period by -the different streams, sufficient to cause the cessation -of any such cascade, the main stream having been also -much diverted to fertilize the gardens round the town. -The physical changes have in fact, been so great, that -it is more wonderful that anything can be determined -on a certain and satisfactory basis. Captain Beaufort -thought the modern town occupied the site of Olbia.<a id='r72' /><a href='#f72' class='c016'><sup>[72]</sup></a> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>On the other hand, Leake considered Adalia the -representative of Attalia, and that Olbia would -probably be found in some part of the plain which -extends for seven miles from the modern Adalia to -the foot of Mount Solyma. Attalia derived its name -from Attalus Philadelphus. From it, St. Paul and St. -Barnabas, on their return, sailed to the Syrian Antioch -(Acts xiv. 25). In later times it was the seat of a -bishopric. It is now the principal southern Turkish -port of Asia Minor, and has many ancient remains. -Leake remarks on “the walls and other fortifications, -the magnificent gate or triumphal arch, bearing an inscription -in honour of Hadrian, an aqueduct, and the -numerous fragments of sculpture and architecture.” -Fellows adds:—“Adalia, which is called by the Turks -<i>Atalia</i>, I prefer to any Turkish town that I have yet -visited; every house has its garden, and consequently -the town has the appearance of a wood, and of what?—orange, -lemon, fig, vine, mulberry, all cultivated -with the artificial care of a town garden, and now -(April 3) in fresh spring beauty.” It was from Attalia, -or from its neighbourhood, that Mark “turned back”<a id='r73' /><a href='#f73' class='c016'><sup>[73]</sup></a> -(Acts xiii. 13).</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f71'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r71'>71</a>. </span>Colonel Leake remarks that, after heavy rains, the river -precipitates itself copiously over the cliffs near the projecting -point of the coast, a little to the west of Laara.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f72'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r72'>72</a>. </span>“The delightful situation of this place,” says he, “appears -to have been clearly alluded to in the ancient name Olbia, derived -from the adjective ὄλβιος, blessed or happy” (Karamania, -p. 137).</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f73'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r73'>73</a>. </span>Mr. Davis notices the great gate, the inside of it being -“ceiled” with small squares of fine white marble and bearing -the curious inscription, τὸ ἔργον τῆς πλακώσεως τῆς πύλης—Πλάκωσις -does not occur in classical Greek; but πλάξ is a flat -surface, and πλακόω is to cover with such pieces. Hence, -πλακώτης μαρμάρου is one who overlays with marble. In the -commencement of their journey Attalia is not mentioned by -name, but only Perga (Acts xiii. 13).</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>Nearly due N. of Attalia was <span class='sc'>Perge</span>, famous in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>olden times for the temple and worship of Artemis -Pergæa.<a id='r74' /><a href='#f74' class='c016'><sup>[74]</sup></a> The date of the city is uncertain, but it -lasted, as an ecclesiastical centre, till late in the Byzantine -times. Alexander, in his march eastwards, occupied -Perge, finding, as might have been expected, -much difficulty in his advance through the adjacent -mountains; St. Paul, too, and St. Barnabas were here -twice; first, on their way from Cyprus; and, secondly, -on their return to Syria. The ruins noticed by General -Köhler, at a place called <i>Eski Kalesi</i>, were probably -those of this place. The theatre and stadium are still -quite perfect. On these walls and other buildings the -Greek shield is constantly carved, reminding the spectator -of the passage in Ezekiel, xxvii. 11, “They hanged -their shields upon thy walls round about.”</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f74'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r74'>74</a>. </span>Perge is mentioned in Callimachus’s Hymn to Diana, v. 187:</p> -<p class='c021'>Νήσων μὲν Δολίχη, πολίωνδέ τοι εὐαδε Πέργη;</p> -<p class='c017'>and in Dionysius Periegetes, v. 854:</p> -<div class='lg-container-l c022'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>Ἄλλαι δ’ ἐξείης Παμφυλίδες είσἱ πόληες</div> - <div class='line'>Κώρυκος, Πέργη τε, καἱ ἠνεμόεσσα Φάσηλις.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>Passing along the coast to the east we come to -the <span class='sc'>Eurymedon</span>, physically a small stream, yet celebrated -in history for the double defeat, on one and -the same day, of the Persians by Cimon. The Persian -ships were drawn up at the mouth of the river, but, -at the first attack, the crews fled to the shore. Cimon -then landed his men, and after a severe struggle the -camp and baggage were taken (Thucyd. i. 100; Plut. -Vit. Cimon.). Some years later, a Rhodian fleet -anchored off its mouth before attacking the fleet of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>Antiochus, then commanded by Hannibal (Livy, -xxxvii.). The entrance of this stream is now completely -blocked up by a bar.<a id='r75' /><a href='#f75' class='c016'><sup>[75]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f75'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r75'>75</a>. </span>Dr. Arnold has shown that, in the account in Thucyd. i. 100, -the phrase διέφθειραν τἁς πάσας ὲς τὰς διακοσίας means that -the number of the ships destroyed by the Athenians was, in -all, 200, not that there were no more, as some writers have -supposed.</p> -</div> - -</div> -<p class='c015'>On the Eurymedon was seated the old Argive -town of <span class='sc'>Aspendus</span>, some of the coins of which -read, barbarously, ΕΣΤFΕΔΝΥΣ. Thucydides speaks -of it as a seaport; but he, probably, means that it was -a boat-station at the mouth of the river. Aspendus -is noticed by Arrian, and was the place where -Thrasybulus was slain in his tent by the natives; -it is also mentioned in the campaign of Manlius -(Liv. xxxviii.; Polyb. xxii.).<a id='r76' /><a href='#f76' class='c016'><sup>[76]</sup></a> Mr. Pullan gives a beautiful -drawing of its theatre, which is by far the most -perfect in Asia Minor. One other place of considerable -reputation in Pamphylia must be briefly -noted; viz. <span class='sc'>Side</span>, a colony of the Cumæans of -Æolis, and remarkable for the fact that, soon after -they came there they forgot their native Greek tongue, -and spoke a barbarous jargon. It was off this town -the battle was fought when the fleet of Antiochus, -under Hannibal, was utterly routed by the Rhodians. -When, somewhat later, the pirates of Cilicia became so -formidable, Side was one of their chief harbours, and -one of the markets where they disposed of their ill-gotten -plunder. Side was in Roman times the capital -<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>of <i>Pamphylia prima</i>, and was still in existence when -Hierocles wrote. Capt. Beaufort found it utterly deserted; -but its remains would seem to be very striking, -especially its outer walls and theatre, which is not less -than 409 feet in external diameter, with a perpendicular -height, from the area, of 79 feet: all its seats are, -Capt. Beaufort says, of white marble, and the building -could have held 13,370 persons, sitting comfortably; -it is, he adds, “in a very perfect state; few of the -seats have been disturbed, even the stairs are, in -general, passable.” The same observer considered -that, at some later period, this great structure had -been converted into a fortress, as walls, with towers -and gates, but of inferior work, now extend to the -seashore.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f76'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r76'>76</a>. </span>From Dionys. Perieg. 852, it would seem that Venus had -a peculiar worship there—for ἔνθα συοκτονίῃσι Διωναίην ἱλάονται.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>Our knowledge of the ancient geography of <i>Pisidia</i> -is mostly derived from Arrian’s notice of Alexander’s -march, from Livy’s account of the expedition of -C. Manlius Vulso, and from the details in Polybius -of the hostilities carried on by Garsyeris, the general -of Achæus, against the people of <span class='sc'>Termessus</span>, one -of its chief cities. At the time Manlius was approaching -this town the Termessians were in open -war with the people of Isionda or Isinda, and, having -captured this city, were besieging the citadel. The -Roman general was not sorry to have so good a -pretext for interfering; hence his march on Isinda, -his relief of that city, and his fining the Termessians -fifty talents. A glance at the map suggests -that he must have come in, by the defiles of -Milyas, near a place now called Al-Malu. The presumed -ruins of Isinda have been noticed by M. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>Coransez, as extending over nearly a square league, -and as remarkable for their massive structure.</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Termessus</span> itself was evidently at the entrance of -the defiles whereby Pisidia communicates with Pamphylia -and Lycia. Arrian says that “the men of -Termessus occupy a site very lofty and precipitous -on every side, the road passing close to the city being -very difficult, as the mountain reaches down from the -city to the road. There is over against this, another -mountain not less precipitous, and these form a gate, -as it were, on the road,” &c. This statement is fully -confirmed by the observation of General Köhler (ap. -Leake, Asia Minor, pp. 133-135): “The two great -ranges on the west and north of the plains of -Adalia,” says he, “now approach each other, and, at -length, are only divided by the passes through which -the river finds its way. The road, however, leaves -this gorge to the right, and ascends the mountain by -a paved and winding causeway, a work of great labour -and ingenuity.”<a id='r77' /><a href='#f77' class='c016'><sup>[77]</sup></a> Alexander the Great, it would -seem, despaired of taking the town; or, possibly, -thought its siege would detain him too long; he, -however, forced the defiles, passing on to the north to -Cormasa, Cremna, and Sagalassus, a course probably -<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>pursued by Manlius subsequently.<a id='r78' /><a href='#f78' class='c016'><sup>[78]</sup></a> <span class='sc'>Cremna</span>, where, -owing to its great natural strength, the Romans -placed a colony (Strab. xii. 569), has been carefully -examined by Mr. Davis (“Anatolica,” p. 182), who -gives also a plan, showing the construction of this -remarkable fortress. His description is as follows:<a id='r79' /><a href='#f79' class='c016'><sup>[79]</sup></a> -“It (Kremna) is a plateau of limestone, which is -bounded on three sides by precipices, some extremely -deep and abrupt.”</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f77'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r77'>77</a>. </span>There is some confusion between the two Termessi, one of -which is apparently to the left of the road passing W. and N.W. -from Adalia. This we think was <i>Termessus Minor</i>—the <i>Almalu</i> -of Mr. Davis. The more important place, <i>Termessus Major</i> (on -its coins μείζων), was at the head of the pass described. These -views are confirmed by Eustath. and Dion. Perieg. v. 858, -Stephan. Byzant., and Hierocles. At a later period, the see of -Termessus had united with it the churches of two other places—Jovia -and Eudocia.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f78'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r78'>78</a>. </span>Cramer and some other geographers place Cremna to <i>the N.</i> -as well as the E. of Sagalassus, where it <i>could not have been</i>.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f79'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r79'>79</a>. </span>The description in Arundell, vol. ii. pp. 59, &c., shows that -he had explored the same ruins forty years before Mr. Davis, -under the idea they were those of Selge, though, on his plate, he -adds the words, “Acropolis of Germe—Cremna.” Colonel -Leake, too, suggested that “Germe” was perhaps a corruption -of “Cremna.” Had Mr. Arundell reflected on an inscription -he himself copied there ... ΛΔΗ ... ΝΑΤΩΝ, he might have -seen that the last word could naturally be supplied as ΚΡΗΜΝΑΤΩΝ—“of -the people of Kremna.” Zosimus says the winding -path up to the fortress was called by the natives the <i>Snail</i>.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>“From it,” he adds, “the country inclined rapidly -in its general formation to the valley of the Kestrus, -which must have been at least 5,000 feet below us.... -Most of the buildings of the city lay to the -N.W. of our point of ascent. On the N.E. and N. -was an extensive open space cultivated, but with -many oak trees and with much underwood scattered -over it.” ... Zosimus (A.D. 425) relates the history -of the blockade of Kremna by a Roman army. -It had been occupied by Lydius, an Isaurian free-booter, -and his provisions falling short, he caused -a part of the plateau to be sowed with corn. A -<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>great double gate is the only structure still standing, -and, as all the columns have fallen exactly in the same -direction, Mr. Davis reasonably conjectures they were -overthrown by a single shock of an earthquake. -Some well-paved streets are traceable, one 18 feet -wide, with tombs and corridors running along each -side. It is curious that a place so remarkable, physically, -is scarcely mentioned by ancient writers. Thus, -it is not noticed in the campaign of Alexander, who -must have passed under it, but it was taken by -Strabo’s contemporary, the Galatian Amyntas (xii. -569),<a id='r80' /><a href='#f80' class='c016'><sup>[80]</sup></a> and was still later, as we have stated, a Roman -colony with the title “Colonia Julia Augusta Cremna.” -Its name is obviously derived from κρημνός, an overhanging -precipice.<a id='r81' /><a href='#f81' class='c016'><sup>[81]</sup></a> Kremna was a Christian bishopric, -but only one of its bishops, Theodorus, is recorded.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f80'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r80'>80</a>. </span>Αμύντας ... πολλὰ χωρία ἐξεῖλεν, ἀπόρθητα πρότερον ὄντα, ὧν καὶ Κρῆμνα -(Strab. xii. 569).</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f81'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r81'>81</a>. </span>Zosimus’s description is exactly to the point:—Κρήμναν -... ἐν ἀποκρήμνῳ τε κειμἐνην καὶ κατἁ μέρος χαράδραις βαθυτάταις -ὠχυρωμένην (i. c. 69).</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Sagalassus</span> was taken by Alexander, after a severe -conflict, the result being, says Arrian, that all the rest -of Pisidia submitted to his arms (i. 28). On the -other hand, Manlius contented himself with ravaging -the territory around it; thereby compelling the Sagalassians -to pay a heavy contribution both of -money and produce. Both Arrian and Livy bear -testimony to the warlike and independent character -of the mountaineers of this part of Asia Minor; while -Strabo adds that it passed over to the Romans, -as one of the towns of Amyntas, the tetrarch of -Lycaonia. Sagalassus is further noticed by Pliny and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>Ptolemy, and, in Christian times, was a bishopric. -Some magnificent ruins, at a great height above the -plain, have been proved by Mr. Arundell to be those -of this place, as he found there an inscription reading -ΣΑΓΑΛΑΣΣΕΩΝ ΠΟΛΙΣ ΤΗΣ ΠΙΣΙΔΙΑΣ, “The -City of the Sagalassians of Pisidia.” The position of -the old town, as may be seen in one of the engravings -in Mr. Arundell’s second Journey, is exceedingly -picturesque; and we may feel sure Arrian is correct -in stating that Alexander encountered a stiff resistance -from its inhabitants ere he forced his way into the -town.</p> - -<p class='c015'>The existing remains of Sagalassus are mostly -Roman, but there is one very old wall of polygonal -masonry. One of the principal ruins, with a portico -300 feet long by 27 feet wide, has probably -been a Christian church: there is, also, a singularly -perfect theatre. The ruins of the Christian -church exhibit a building of vast proportions, constructed -of huge blocks of marble, with Corinthian -columns two feet in diameter. A large cross is cut -deep into one of the blocks at the principal entrance. -Mr. Hamilton, who calls the modern village Allahsún, -says that “there is no other ruined city in Asia -Minor, the situation and extensive remains of which -are so striking, or so interesting, or which give so -perfect an idea of the magnificent combination of -temples, palaces, theatres, gymnasia, fountains, and -tombs which adorned the cities of the ancient world.”<a id='r82' /><a href='#f82' class='c016'><sup>[82]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f82'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r82'>82</a>. </span>Hamilton adds—“To the south is a high, insulated, and -conical hill, agreeing with Arrian’s description of the Acropolis, -λόφος πρὸ τῆς πόλεως—a hill in front of the city.”</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'><span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>One other place in Pisidia we have yet to mention, -<span class='sc'>Selge</span>, of old one of its chief cities, yet, -strange to say, at present unidentified, or only so -doubtfully. Originally a colony from Lacedæmon, -Selge maintained throughout its whole history the -character of its founders, and, probably, owing to -better laws and government, soon surpassed all -the neighbouring towns in population and power, -Strabo believing that it once had as many as -20,000 inhabitants. Much of its success was due -to the security of its position, high among the mountains -and difficult of access. Hence, the Selgians -retained their personal freedom, and, though more -than once compelled to pay heavily and deservedly -for their own aggressions, were never dispossessed -of their town by actual conquest. Naturally, they -were constantly in conflict with their neighbours, -especially, with Telmessus and Pednelissus.<a id='r83' /><a href='#f83' class='c016'><sup>[83]</sup></a> They -had, however, the sense to conciliate Alexander when -he passed through their country. In the war with -Pednelissus, it would seem that, aided by the then -most powerful chief of the neighbouring country, -Achæus compelled the Selgians to sue for peace, to -pay down 400 talents, to restore the prisoners they -had taken, and to give 300 talents more. Yet, in -an actual attack on the city he was repulsed with -heavy loss (Polyb. v. 72-77). The coins of Selge -<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>prove its existence till a late date. One would have -thought that such a place, would have left remains -behind it amply sufficient for its identification; yet -all we can say, certainly, of it is that it could not have -been far to the east or south-east of Sagalassus. From -Zosimus, we might be led to look for it <i>between</i> the -Cestius and Eurymedon, for Tribigildus, having crossed -the latter, found himself enclosed between it and the -Melas: and possibly, Fellows did discover it. “On -this promontory,” says he, “stood one of the finest -cities that probably ever existed, now presenting magnificent -wrecks of grandeur. I rode for at least three -miles through a part of the city, which was one pile of -temples, theatres, and buildings, vieing with each other -in splendour.... The material of the ruins, like those -near Alaysóon (Sagalassus) had suffered much from exposure -to the elements ... but the scale, the simple -grandeur, and the beauty of style bespoke its date to -be early Greek. The sculptured cornices frequently -contain groups of figures fighting, wearing helmets -and body armour, with shields and long spears.” -Unfortunately, Fellows did not find a single legible inscription, -but the remains are, very likely, what Beaufort -heard of at Alaya; viz., “extensive remains of an -ancient Greek city with many temples, about fifteen -hours’ distance (say 35 miles) to the northward.”<a id='r84' /><a href='#f84' class='c016'><sup>[84]</sup></a> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>Lastly, we must give an account of the Pisidian, or -more accurately, the Phrygian, Antioch, a town of -the highest interest to the Christian reader, from its -connection with St. Paul’s early labours. It is remarkable -that, 50 years ago, its position was not known, -though the ancient notices of it, carefully studied, seem -to point out, pretty clearly, where it ought to have -been found. Little is known of this Antioch in early -times, but it was, traditionally, a colony of Magnesia -on the Mæander. Afterwards, like almost all the -towns of Eastern and Central Asia Minor, it fell -under the rule of the Seleucidæ, and, on their overthrow, -was given by the Romans to Eumenes of -Pergamus as one of the rewards for his faithful -alliance. Subsequently, it was, for a while, under -<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>Amyntas the Lycaonian. At an early period of the -empire, Antioch was known as Cæsarea, and somewhat -later, according to Ulpian, its citizens enjoyed -the Jus Italicum, that is, the same privileges as -native Romans. At the time of St. Paul’s visit it -was the centre of a great commercial activity. According -to Strabo, Antioch was on the south side -of the mountain boundary of Phrygia and Pisidia -(p. 577), Philomelium, a Phrygian town, being exactly -to the north, the latter standing on level ground, -while Antioch stood on a small eminence.<a id='r85' /><a href='#f85' class='c016'><sup>[85]</sup></a> It was -reserved for Mr. Arundell to show, almost certainly, -its true site,<a id='r86' /><a href='#f86' class='c016'><sup>[86]</sup></a> and his description is exceedingly -interesting. Almost his first discovery was a “long -and immense building, constructed with prodigious -stones, and standing south and west.” This was a -church, not improbably constructed on the site of the -Synagogue where St. Paul preached. “The remains -of the aqueduct,” he adds, “of which twenty-one -<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>arches are perfect, are the most splendid I ever -beheld, the stones without cement, of the same massy -dimensions as the wall.”</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f83'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r83'>83</a>. </span>It should be noted here, that the finding gold or silver coins -at a place is not <i>alone</i> sufficient evidence for its name, though -such a discovery is a presumption in favour of it. Where, however, -a large number of small <i>copper</i> coins are found, the presumption -becomes very strong. Obviously, gold and silver coins may, -easily, pass from one site to another, simply as objects of commerce.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f84'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r84'>84</a>. </span>The neighbourhood of Selge produced, and produces, two -useful botanical substances; one, the balsam of styrax or -storax (liquid-amber orientalis), the juice of an umbrageous -tree like the plane. Krinos (περὶ Στύρακος, Athens, 1862—) -shows it has been correctly described by Aetius and Paulus -Ægineta in the 6th and 7th centuries. It is noticed, also, in the -Travels of the Russian Abbot of Tver, A.D. 1113-5. The -author of the “Periplus” states that, in his time, storax went, -as it does now, by way of the Red Sea to India. In India it is -called Rose Malloes (Rosa Mallas, Rosum Alloes, Rosmal), -perhaps from the Malay, Rasamala. This gum is extracted -now by the Yuruk Turkomans, and is still used in the churches -and mosques of S. Asia Minor for incense. One form of this -substance is <i>Resina Benzoe</i>—<i>Gum Benjamin</i>, or <i>Benzoin</i> (Ibn -Batuta’s Travels, A.D. 1325-49—who says it comes from Java, -and is called Java Frankincense or Camphor). The popular name -is a corruption of <i>Lubán Jáwi</i> into <i>Ban-jawi</i>, &c. Crawfurd -thinks it the old Malabathrum. It is stated by Vasco da Gama -to be a product of Xarnuz (Siam).</p> - -<p class='c017'>The other substance is <i>Rhizoma Iridis</i> (popularly Orris-root), -used of old for giving a sweet odour to unguents (see Theophrastus, -Dioskorides, and Pliny). The ancient arms of Florence were -a white lily or iris on a red shield. Orris-root was used as a perfume -in England in 1480 (Wardrobe Accounts of Edward IV.), -and, according to Gerarde, was grown here. In Tuscany it is -still grown under the name of <i>Giaggiolo</i>.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f85'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r85'>85</a>. </span>All geographers, even Colonel Leake, seem to have gone -astray here, in their interpretation of Strabo. Thus, D’Anville -placed Antioch at Ak-Shehr (12 or 13 miles to the N., on the -real site of Philomelium), and such, too, would seem to have -been the opinion of the Latin historians of the Crusades, and -even of Anna Comnena. In the Peutinger tables, a great road -is marked from Iconium to Side, with a branch to Antioch. -This is well explained, if the present <i>Yalobatch</i> represents -Antioch.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f86'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r86'>86</a>. </span>We do not discredit Mr. Arundell’s discovery, if we say that, -in the actual text of his travels, he rather suggests a strong probability -than proves his discovery. He did not find any inscription -with the name of the town. His argument is, however, -a strong inference that no other place in that neighbourhood, -but Antioch, could have left such vast remains.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/ip112.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p><span class='c001'>ANTIOCH OF PISIDIA.</span></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c015'>A little further on he met with undoubted remains -of a Temple of Bacchus, with the thyrsus or Bacchic -emblem, and an inscription stating that one Calpurnius -was “High Priest for life to the most glorious god -<span class='sc'>Bacchus</span>.” Another building, Mr. Arundell thinks, -from the number of fluted columns, must have been a -portico, “or the Temple of Lunus, or of Men Arcæus, -whose worship was established at Antioch.”<a id='r87' /><a href='#f87' class='c016'><sup>[87]</sup></a> Le -<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>Quien, in his “Oriens Christianus,” enumerated -twenty-six bishops of Antioch. One of these, Methodius, -and six other metropolitans subscribed the -protest of the Eastern Church against the errors of -Calvin. Hamilton, subsequently, found at Antioch -an inscription reading ANTIOCHEAE CAESARE, -which proves the truth of Arundell’s inferences (i. -p. 474).</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f87'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r87'>87</a>. </span>Strabo speaks of the worship of this deity (ἱεροσύνη τις Μηνὸς Ἀρκαίου) -at Antioch in olden times. It seems to have been -abolished for some time, but to have been revived in Roman -days, as coins exist with the god Lunus leaning on a column, -and the legend COL. MEN. ANTIOCH, or MENSIS. COL. -CAES. ANTIOCH.; and inscriptions exist with the name of -L. Flavius Paulus—who is termed CVRATORI ARCÆ -SANCTVARII. Strabo, a native of Amasia, states that -a god called Men Pharnaces was worshipped at Cabira. From -the coins we further learn, that the river at Antioch was -called Antihos or Anthos, with ANTIOCH. COL., and the type -of a woman reclining.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Cilicia</span> had but few towns of much importance, and -these chiefly on the coast or not far inland. Indeed, -when we have mentioned Tarsus, Soli, Mallus, and -Mopsuestia, we have noticed the principal places in -this province. Of these, <span class='sc'>Tarsus</span><a id='r88' /><a href='#f88' class='c016'><sup>[88]</sup></a> alone calls for any -<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>lengthened description. Of the early history of this -city little is known, but a tradition, illustrated by one -of its coins, asserted that Sardanapalus was buried -there.<a id='r89' /><a href='#f89' class='c016'><sup>[89]</sup></a> Its situation, however, led to its becoming -the capital of Cilicia, a position it long retained. -Tarsus stood on a rich and fertile plain on both sides -of the river Cydnus. Historically, it is first noticed -by Xenophon, as, in his day, a great and wealthy city, -under a Persian satrap named Syennesis, the unwise -ally of Cyrus the Younger. It remained under the -Persian rule till the time of Alexander the Great, who -nearly lost his life by imprudently bathing when too -hot in the Cydnus (Curt. iii. 5; Arrian, ii. 4). In later -days it was, generally, under the Seleucidæ, though, for -a brief period, subject to the second and third Ptolemy.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f88'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r88'>88</a>. </span>We can see no reason for supposing Tarsus the “Tarshish” -of the Bible. It did not export the kind of produce entrusted -to the “ships of Tarshish,” while the notices of it in the -Bible (Gen. x. 4; 1 Chron. i. 7; Psalm lxxiv.; Isaiah lxvi. 19), -imply a town or territory in the far west, whence, only, some -of these products (as tin), so far as we know, were then obtainable. -Hence we find the Phœnicians sailing thither in “long -ships” (Ezek. xxvii. 12, xxviii. 13; Jerem. x. 9); while the -Roman writers, as Ovid (Met. xiv. 416), Silius Italicus (iii. 399), -and Claudian (Epist. iii. v. 14), evidently use the name Tartessus -as synonymous with “West.” On the whole, it is most likely -that Tartessus in Spain (considered loosely as a district rather -than as a town) represents the Biblical Tarshish, and that -“ships of Tarshish” is a term equivalent with “Indiamen.”</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f89'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r89'>89</a>. </span>A fine specimen of this coin (one of Antiochus VIII., king -of Syria) was in the cabinet of the late General C. R. Fox. -It was found, in 1848, in a leaden box, between Adana and -Tarsus, some twenty feet under the surface of the ground. It -has been engraved by Mr. Vaux, in his “Nineveh and Persepolis,” -4th ed. 1856, p. 62. As its type—the so-called tomb of -Sardanapalus—is found on other coins of Tarsus, as late as the -time of Gordian, it is certain this myth maintained its hold on the -popular mind for a long period. The story of the pageant of -Cleopatra (Plut. Vit. Antonii) shows that the Cydnus must, in -those days, have been navigable up to Tarsus, some eight or -nine miles from the sea.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>Supporting the cause of Cæsar, the great Julius himself -paid Tarsus a visit, when the Tarsians changed the -name of their city to Juliopolis. Augustus made it a -“libera civitas.” Hence, St. Paul, her most illustrious -son, spoke truly, when he said it was “no mean city,” -<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>and urged with equal truth and justice that he was -“free-born,” while his judge had only obtained this -right “at a great price.” The fact is, its position on -the immediate confines of Syria and of Mesopotamia -was of the highest importance to the Romans in their -conflict with the Parthians and Persians. It still -retains its old name, slightly modified into Tarsous, -and is still the chief city of this part of Karamania.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Tarsus<a id='r90' /><a href='#f90' class='c016'><sup>[90]</sup></a> was famous in early days for a remarkable -class of coins, known as Satrap-money. Among -these are coins of Tiribazus, Pharnabazus, Syennesis, -and of other rulers, between B.C. 410 and B.C. 370. -A description of a coin of Pharnabazus will show -their general character. On the obverse of this silver -piece is a bearded and helmeted head, possibly -the mythological type of Bellerophon or Perseus, -either of which would be appropriate to the Græco-Asiatic -population of Cilicia, and the name of Pharnabazus -in Phœnician letters. On the reverse, is a seated -representation of the Jupiter of Tarsus, with the -legend, <i>Baal-Tarz</i>, evidently the <i>Zeus Tersios</i> of the -Greeks, recorded on another coin as ΔΙΟΣ ΤΑΡΣΕΩΝ, -“Of the Jupiter of the Tarsians.” The Duc de -Luynes attributed this coin to the famous Pharnabazus -(B.C. 413-374), who, originally Satrap of the N.W. -district of Asia Minor, is memorable for the steady -resistance he made to the Greeks, while the ruler of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>Lydia, Tissaphernes, on the other hand, accepted -Lacedæmonian gold. If so, this coin must have -been struck when Pharnabazus had given (B.C. 397, 8) -the command of the Persian fleet to the Athenian -Conon, as Tarsus was then the centre of the operations -against Cyprus. Another extremely rare coin -of Pharnabazus, with his name in Greek, was struck at -Lampsacus in Mysia, perhaps, for the payment of the -Greek mercenaries of Artaxerxes.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f90'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r90'>90</a>. </span>Strabo has noted the studious habits of the Tarsians; no -other city, not even Athens and Alexandria, surpassing it in the -number and character of its schools. He adds, moreover, that -the learned seldom remained in the city, but, like St. Paul, migrated -elsewhere to complete their studies.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>The towns along the coast of Cilicia have been -very carefully studied by Captain Beaufort, who has -identified many of them. The first of these, passing -from W. to E., was <span class='sc'>Coracesium</span>, a place historically -interesting as having been held for a long time by -Diodotus Tryphon, who, having revolted from Antiochus, -set the first example of active defiance to the -Seleucidæ; Coracesium was, also, the last place where -the pirates made a united resistance to the forces of -Pompey.<a id='r91' /><a href='#f91' class='c016'><sup>[91]</sup></a> The whole story of these freebooters is -very interesting. It is clear that their successes were -mainly due to two things; first, the peculiar fitness -of their ports along the seashore of Cilicia for -prolonged resistance, with the high range of Taurus -to fall back on if over-pressed; and, secondly, to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>the internecine squabbles of the kings of Cyprus, -Egypt, and Syria with themselves and with the -Romans, which made it, from time to time, the interest -of each party to wink at their worst deeds. -The Sacred Island of Delos was their chief western -entrepôt; the increasing luxury of the Romans at the -same time giving ample encouragement to their traffic -in slaves.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f91'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r91'>91</a>. </span><i>Anchiale</i>, which Colonel Leake thought the fort of Tarsus, -like that city, claimed Sardanapalus as its founder. The legend -was that Sardanapalus, the son of Anakyndaraxes, erected, in -one day, the cities of Anchiale and Tarsus. No one, nowadays, -accepts the verses given by Strabo, relating to this Sardanapalus -and his deeds, as genuine, and Aristotle says the sentiments in -them are fitter for the grave of an ox than for the tomb of a -king (Cic. Tusc. Disput. v. 35). An early writer, Amyntas, -records what recent research has shown to be probably the -truth, viz. that Sardanapalus was buried at Nineveh.</p> -</div> - -</div> -<p class='c015'>The promontory of Alaya, identified by Captain -Beaufort with Coracesium, rises, he says, abruptly -“from a low, sandy isthmus which is separated from -the mountains by a broad plain; two of its sides are -cliffs of great height, and absolutely perpendicular, indeed -the eastern side, on which the town is placed, is -so steep that the houses seem to rest on each other.” -Other places along this coast eastwards are, <span class='sc'>Laertes</span> -(the birthplace of Diogenes Laertius), ἐπὶ λόφου μαστοειδοῦς, -“on a hill, in form like a woman’s breast,” -and <span class='sc'>Selinus</span>, a river and a town (now Selinty), the -first of which is mentioned by Strabo, and the second -by Livy. Its later name of Trajanopolis it owed to -the sudden death there of the Emperor Trajan (A.D. -117), but, at a later period, the old name was revived -in connection with an episcopal church (Hierocles). -Beaufort speaks of its magnificent cliffs—“On the -highest point of these,” he says, “are the ruins of a -castle which commands the ascent of the hill in every -direction, and looks perpendicularly down on the sea.” -He notices also several other large structures, and, -among these, a mausoleum (perhaps that of Trajan), -an agora, a theatre, and an aqueduct. The supposed -mausoleum, 70 feet long and 50 feet wide, is constructed -of large well-cut blocks of stone and contains -<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>only one vault. Cyprus, distant sixty-five miles, can -be clearly seen from this headland.</p> - -<p class='c015'>The next important seaport was <span class='sc'>Anemurium</span> (now -<i>Anamur</i>), in the neighbourhood of which Beaufort -discovered a perfect city of tombs. “These tombs,” -says he, “are small buildings detached from each -other and mostly of the same size, though varying -in their proportions; the roofs are arched, and the -exterior of the walls is dashed with a composition -of plaster and small particles of burnt red brick. -Each tomb consists of two chambers: the inner one -is subdivided into cells or receptacles for the bodies, -and the outer apartment is supplied with small recesses -and shelves, as if for the purpose of depositing -the funereal offerings, or the urns that contained the -ashes. The castle strongly resembles some of the -ancient castles of Great Britain. Its keep or citadel -is placed on a small rocky eminence, and commands -two open courts.... The extreme dimensions -are about 800 feet by 300 feet.”</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Celenderis</span> (now <i>Chelindreh</i>) was noted in ancient -history as the place which Piso, the enemy of Germanicus, -attempted to take (Tacit. An. xi. 80), and appears, -also, in the Ecclesiastical annals, as one of the episcopal -towns of Isauria. As the nearest point of communication -with Cyprus, it is still occupied by a small -population. There are some remains of a fortress which -Tacitus describes as of great strength; while many -arched vaults, sepulchres and sarkophagi may be seen -on the spot. All along this part of the coast of Cilicia -the presence of the Crusaders is clearly shown in the -names of existing places, as, for instance, in <i>Cavalière</i> -and <i>Provençal Island</i>; indeed, Vertot records that, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>during the settlement of the Christian knights at -Rhodes, they took possession of several islands and -castles along the shores of Asia Minor. Another place, -some eight or nine miles inland, <span class='sc'>Selefkeh</span>, the ancient -<span class='sc'>Seleuceia ad Calycadnum</span>, is also specially -noticed by De Jauna in his History of Armenia, as -given by the king of Armenia to the knights of -Rhodes for their services. This town, which owed -its real or supposed origin to Seleukus Nicator, -was famous for its schools of literature and philosophy: -Athenæus and Xenarchus, two well-known Peripatetics, -having been born there. Seleucia was still -in existence in the time of Ammianus, and the ecclesiastical -historians, Socrates and Sozomen, speak of -Councils having been held here.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Beaufort reports the existence at Selefkeh of many -ruins on the west side of the river, and, especially, of -an enormous reservoir lined with hard cement (the -“<i>opus Signinum</i>” or “<i>Coccio pesto</i>” of the Roman -aqueducts). This structure is 150 feet long by 75 -feet broad and 35 feet deep, and could, therefore, -have held nearly 10,000 tons of water. A little -further on is a place called <i>Korghoz</i>, possibly, the -<span class='sc'>Corycus</span> of antiquity, and the site of the Corycian -cave, in mythology, the fabled abode of the giant, -Typhôs;<a id='r92' /><a href='#f92' class='c016'><sup>[92]</sup></a> but, more probably, the crater of an extinct -<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>volcano. Strabo says it was a deep and broad -circular valley, the lower part rugged, but covered -with shrubs and evergreens, and, especially, with -saffron, which was abundant here. From an internal -cavity gushed forth a copious stream, which, -for a while lost, after a brief course, reappeared near -the sea, which it joined. This was called the “bitter -water.” Beaufort found two places bearing the name -of Korgho Kalaler (castles), there being many signs -in the neighbourhood of the former existence of a -city of considerable size:—“A mole of great unhewn -rocks projects at one angle from the fortress about -100 yards across the bay, terminated by a solid -building twenty feet square.”<a id='r93' /><a href='#f93' class='c016'><sup>[93]</sup></a> Can this be the remains -of an ancient <i>pharos</i> or lighthouse? We should -add that the places, hitherto described, belong to what -was usually called Cilicia Tracheia; those we shall -now notice, belonging, on the other hand, to the plain -country.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f92'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r92'>92</a>. </span>Pind. Pyth. i. 31, thus speaks of him and of his home:—</p> -<div class='lg-container-l c022'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>Τυφὼς ἑκατὸν κάρανος· τὸν ποτὲ</div> - <div class='line'>Κιλίκιον θρέψεν πολυώνυμον</div> - <div class='line'>ἅντρον.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c017'>He is also called, Pyth. viii. 26,</p> -<p class='c021'>Τυφὼς Κίλιξ ἑκατόγκρανος.</p> - -<p class='c017'>Æschylus, too, gives him the same epithet of “hundred-headed.”—Prom. -Vinct. 350.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f93'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r93'>93</a>. </span>Pomponius Mela (i. 13) gives an even fuller description of -this famous cave, probably from the same original author, -Callisthenes.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>Of these we take first, <span class='sc'>Soli</span>, a colony (Strabo tells -us) from Lindus, a relationship the Solians did not -forget during subsequent negotiations with the Romans. -Soli is first mentioned in Xenophon’s Anabasis, -and must, in the following seventy years, have -rapidly increased, as Alexander the Great fined the -people 200 talents for their attachment to the Persian -empire. After having been destroyed by Tigranes, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>Pompey placed there some of the Cilician pirates -whom he had spared; at the same time changing the -name of the city to Pompeiopolis. Most of the -existing remains are, therefore, Roman. “The first -object,” says Beaufort, “which presented itself on -landing was a beautiful harbour or basin, with parallel -sides and circular ends; it is entirely artificial, being -formed by surrounding moles or walls fifty feet in -thickness and seven feet in height.... Opposite -to the entrance of the harbour a portico rises from the -surrounding quay, and opens to a double row of two -hundred columns which, crossing the town, communicates -with the principal gate towards the country; -and from the outside of that gate a paved road continues, -in the same line, to a bridge over a small -river.... Even in its present state of wreck, the -effect of the whole is so imposing, that the most illiterate -seaman in the ship could not behold it without -emotion.” The actual execution of these columns is, -however, poor; and, of the original two hundred, only -forty-four are now standing.<a id='r94' /><a href='#f94' class='c016'><sup>[94]</sup></a> Soli was the birthplace -of Chrysippus, Philemon, and Aratus.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f94'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r94'>94</a>. </span>It has been said that the term σολοικσμος—<i>solœcismus</i>—<i>solecism</i>—meaning -ungrammatical speech—was derived from the -people of Soli; but this accusation is not certain (Cf. Strab. xiv. -671; Eustath. ad Dion. Perieg. v. 875; Suidas in voce Σόλοι). -There was another Soli in Cyprus, the inhabitants of which were -usually termed Solii (Σόλιοι), to distinguish them from those on -the mainland, who were termed Σολεῖς. Both, probably, spoke -but indifferent Greek.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Adana</span>, which is noticed first in the Mithradatic -War, by Appian, and, subsequently, by Pliny, Ptolemy, -Dio Cassius, Procopius, and the Byzantine -<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>historians, like Tarsus, adopted the name of Hadrian. -It is still a place of some size, and the capital of -the Pashalik of the same name.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Near the mouth of the river <i>Pyramus</i> (now <i>Gihoon</i>), -and further up, are three towns which may be taken -together. The first is <span class='sc'>Mallus</span>, very near the sea, on the -left bank of the river over which Alexander threw a -bridge, in Mallotis, Strabo’s name for the circumjacent -district; or Megarsus (possibly an earlier name for -Mallus,) described in Lycophon as standing on a -“sea-worn hill”—an expression Beaufort says accurately -applies to a place now called <i>Karadash</i>.<a id='r95' /><a href='#f95' class='c016'><sup>[95]</sup></a> -Mallus retained its name, slightly modified to Malo, -till mediæval times (Sanut. Secret. Fid. li. p. iv. c. 26): -2ndly, above Mallus, <span class='sc'>Mopsuestia</span>, the creation of a -certain mythical hero called Mopsus. According to -Pliny, this town was a “free” city, and Procopius states -<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>that Justinian repaired the bridge over it (Ædif. v. 5). -During the Byzantine period the name was modified -to <i>Mensis</i>. Still further up the same river was -<span class='sc'>Anazarba</span> (sometimes called <i>Cæsarea ad Anazarbum</i>), -the capital, in the fifth century, of Eastern Cilicia -as Tarsus was of the Western—(Hierocles). It -was nearly destroyed by earthquakes in the reigns of -Justin and Justinian (Procop. Hist. Arcana, c. 18; -Cedren., p. 299). Dioskorides and Oppian were born -there. The last place in Cilicia to which we shall call -attention is <span class='sc'>Issus</span>, ever memorable as the scene of the -famous conflict between Alexander and Darius. Its -modern name, Scandaroon or Alexandretta, is obviously -derived from Alexandreia. The town stood -at the foot of the main chain of Mount Amanus, and, -at the head of the gulf to which it gave its name. It -was early (as might have been expected from its position) -a considerable town, but, in Strabo’s time, had -ceased to be more than a small port. Cicero, in his -expedition against the mountaineers in the neighbourhood -stayed there for some time (Epist. ad Attic. -v. 20). The famous defile leading from Cilicia into -Syria was to the east of the town.</p> -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f95'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r95'>95</a>. </span>Lycophron’s words are—</p> -<div class='lg-container-l c022'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>Πυράμου πρὸς ἐκβολαῖς.</div> - <div class='line'>────────────</div> - <div class='line'>Αἰπὺς δ’ ἀλιβρὸς ὄχμος ἐν μεταιχμίῳ</div> - <div class='line'>Μέγαρσος.—(Cassandr. v. 439.)</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c017'>The river Pyramus, according to Scylax, could be ascended by -ships as far as Mallus, but the poets feigned that its mud -would, in time, join Cyprus to the mainland. The poetical -words are—</p> -<div class='lg-container-l c022'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>Ἔσσεται ἐσσομένοις ὅτε Πύραμος εὐρυοδίνης</div> - <div class='line'>Ἡϊόνα προχέων ἱερὴν εἰς Κύπρον ἵκεται.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c017'>It has been disputed whether Megarsus was really on the river, -but the legend on its coins—ΜΕΓΑΡΣΕΩΝ ΠΡΟΣ ΤΩ ΠΥΡΑΜΩ—sets -<i>this</i> question at rest. The Aleian plain, which lay between -Tarsus and Mallus, was the traditional scene of Bellerophon’s -disaster (Il. z. 200).</p> -</div> - -</div> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c000' /> -</div> -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span> - <h2 id='ch04' class='c009'><em class='gesperrt'>CHAPTER IV</em>.</h2> -</div> -<p class='c013'>Isaura—Iconium—Lystra—Derbe—Apamea -Cibotus—Aezani—Synnada—Philomelium—Laodicea Combusta—Hierapolis—Laodicea -ad Lycum—Colossæ—Ancyra—Pessinus—Tavium—Nazianzus—Cæsarea -ad Argæum—Tyana—Comana—Trapezus—Amastris—Sinope—Prusa -ad Olympum—Nicæa—Nicomedia—Islands -of Greece—Lesbos—Samos—Chios—Rhodus—Messrs. -Biliotti and Saltzmann—Cyprus—Mr. -Lang—General Palma di Cesnola.</p> -<p class='c014'><span class='sc'>Having</span> now spoken of some of the principal places -in the west and south of Asia Minor, it will, we think, -be convenient to take next those towards its centre, in -<i>Cappadocia</i>, <i>Phrygia</i>, and <i>Galatia</i>. We must, however, -notice, first, the two small districts of <i>Lycaonia</i> and -<i>Isauria</i>, which are really portions cut out of the larger -adjoining provinces. Isauria will not detain us long, -as there is little in it that can be called Greek. It -was, as it has ever been, a wild mountain district, -with a population unsubdued till about the time of -Constantine; and, even after that, if the Byzantine -writers are worthy of credit, whole armies of Constantinopolitan -Greeks melted as snow in conflict with -these robber tribes. Ancient authors knew little of -Isauria except its northern part, all to the south, -with its capital, <span class='sc'>Isaura</span>, being to them, practically, -a <i>terra incognita</i>. As marauders, however, -the Isaurians were so troublesome to their neighbours, -that the Roman Senate sent a considerable -force against them, in B.C. 73, under P. Servilius, -whose success won for him the title of “Isauricus.” -<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>This conquest, however, so to call it, was but -temporary, and, not long after, Amyntas of Lycaonia -lost his life in an attempt to crush one of their tribes. -In later days, one of their chieftains, Trebellianus, -claimed for himself the rank of Emperor, and struck -coins; and the Isaurians boasted, also, of one genuine -Emperor, Zeno Isauricus, A.D. 474-491.</p> -<p class='c015'>Of its chief town, <span class='sc'>Isaura</span>, we have coins of the -time of Geta and Elagabalus bearing the title of -ΜΗΤΡΟΠΟΛΕΩΣ ΙΣΑΥΡΩΝ. Mr. Hamilton has satisfactorily -identified its site on the line of road -between Iconium and Anemurium—a determination -in agreement with Pliny’s statement (v. 27), that the -province of Isauria stretched to the sea in that direction: -he adds that the tradition of their ancient -robber propensities is still remembered by the existing -peasantry of the district, though, considering -what this country has undergone during the -last fifteen hundred years, any such tradition is not -worth much. Mr. Hamilton found the ruins of the capital -on one of the loftiest ridges between the Taurus and -the plains of Konieh (Iconium) at an elevation of quite -5,000 feet above the sea, the wild and inaccessible -district around it offering, as he observes, “little or -no temptation to the rapacity of its neighbours.” An -inscription found on the spot fully confirmed his previous -surmises: it was on a triumphal arch, in honour -of the Emperor Hadrian, and, on the ground near it, was -a marble globe, a common emblem of Imperial power -“I afterwards,” says he, “found several other inscriptions -in this part of the town; of these, No. 432, -lying near the <i>agora</i>, is full of interest, as alluding to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>several buildings formerly erected in its neighbourhood.” -Strabo had remarked (xii. p. 569) that Amyntas -died before he had completed the town wall, and this -Hamilton found to be literally true, everything around -indicating a town entirely rebuilt, the wall itself, its -octagonal towers, temples, and triumphal arches -being constructed in the same peculiar style. “There -is,” says he, “an air of newness in its very ruins, as if -it had been destroyed before it was half built, although -it must not be forgotten that it flourished for many -centuries after the death of Augustus.”</p> - -<p class='c015'>In Lycaonia there were few towns of importance, -except <span class='sc'>Iconium</span>, <span class='sc'>Laodicea</span>, <span class='sc'>Derbe</span>, and <span class='sc'>Lystra</span>, the -geological features of the country being unfavourable -to the existence of a large population. Travellers -who have seen both compare Lycaonia with the interior -of Australia. Both were, by nature, extensive -sheep-walks (thus, Amyntas had as many as 300 -flocks of sheep); while both, alike, had much of arid -and salt desert, fitted only for camels. The central -plain of Lycaonia, from Kiepert’s map, seems the -largest in Asia Minor, and resembles the <i>steppes</i> of -Central Asia and of southern Russia. Ainsworth -tells how his camels browsed off the tops of the -<i>Mesembryanthemum</i> and <i>Salicornia</i>, reminding them, -as these, doubtless, did, of plains more familiar to -them than those of Asia Minor. Strabo made Isauria -part of Lycaonia.</p> - -<p class='c015'>The principal town of Lycaonia, <span class='sc'>Iconium</span>, is mentioned -first by Xenophon, who considered it the most -eastern one of Phrygia, at one day’s journey, according -to Cicero, from Philomelium (Ak-shehr). Its position, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>amid many small streams, which exhaust themselves -in watering its gardens, and as the meeting-place of -several of the most important of the Roman roads -through Asia Minor, made it, from the first, an -important <i>entrepôt</i>; and, though Strabo calls it -πολίχνιον (a little town), the account of Pliny, and -the narrative in the Acts of the Apostles, prove it -was a large and populous place in the middle of the -first century A.D. Indeed, in Pliny’s time, its -territory embraced fourteen towns, stretched around -the capital (v. 27). Cicero was there for several days -previously to his Cilician campaign. Iconium will -always be invested with much interest owing to St. -Paul’s visits to it; the first of which was immediately -after his expulsion from Antioch in Pisidia, when the -Apostles “shook off the dust of their feet.” Messrs. -Conybeare and Howson have well remarked, that the -vast plain and the distant mountains are the most interesting -features of modern <i>Konieh</i>; for these, probably, -remain as they were in the first century of Christianity, -while the town has been repeatedly destroyed and -rebuilt. Little, indeed, remains of Greek or Roman -Iconium, except the inscriptions and fragments of -sculptures built into the Turkish walls.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Iconium was famous in the early Middle Ages as the -capital of the Seljuk Sultans,<a id='r96' /><a href='#f96' class='c016'><sup>[96]</sup></a> but was taken by the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>Emperor Barbarossa, during the second Crusade, in -his famous but futile attempt to force his way through -Asia Minor. To quote the picturesque words of -Gibbon, “Forty campaigns in Germany and Italy had -taught Barbarossa to command; and his soldiers, even -the princes of the empire, were accustomed under -his reign to obey. As soon as he had lost sight -of Philadelphia and Laodicea, the last cities of the -Greek frontier, he plunged into the salt and barren -desert, a land (says the historian) of horror and tribulation. -During twenty days every step of his fainting -and sickly march was besieged by innumerable hordes -of Turkmans, whose numbers and fury seemed after -each defeat to multiply and to inflame. The emperor -continued to struggle and to suffer; and such was the -measure of his calamities, that when he reached the -gates of Iconium no more than 1,000 knights were -able to serve on horseback. By a sudden and resolute -assault he defeated the guards and stormed the -capital of the sultan, who sued for pardon and peace. -The road was now open, and Frederic advanced in a -career of triumph, till he was unfortunately drowned -in a petty torrent of Cilicia.”<a id='r97' /><a href='#f97' class='c016'><sup>[97]</sup></a> Leake points out that -its walls, still between two or three miles round, are -full of inscriptions and of other ancient remains, -which the Seljuks seem to have tried to preserve.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f96'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r96'>96</a>. </span>The Seljuks had first been at Nicæa; but, when the Crusaders -took that town, in A.D. 1099, they fell back on Iconium, -which they held, with the exception of the brief interval of its -capture by Barbarossa in 1189, till the irruption of the Mongols, -under Jinghis Khán, and of his grandson, Huláku, who -broke down their power completely. Konieh has been an integral -part of the Turkish empire ever since the days of Bayazíd.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f97'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r97'>97</a>. </span>There has been much doubt in which “Cilician torrent” -Barbarossa was drowned. The name in the record is the -“Saleph,” which maybe a corruption of Selefkeh (Seleucia), -a name sometimes given to the Calycadnus, as a chief town on -it. There seems no reason for drowning him in the Cydnus, or -modern Kara-su.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'><span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>The position of <span class='sc'>Lystra</span> and <span class='sc'>Derbe</span> are still uncertain. -Of Derbe, we know that it was the residence -of a robber chief of Lycaonia, named Antipater,<a id='r98' /><a href='#f98' class='c016'><sup>[98]</sup></a> who -was ultimately subdued by Amyntas (Strabo, xii. p. -569), while Strabo and Stephanus Byzantinus placed -it on the borders of Isauria towards Cappadocia. -St. Luke, however, and Hierocles placed it as clearly -in Lycaonia. If Lystra and Derbe stood in St. -Luke’s order, Lystra would be the nearest to Iconium; -but, though mentioned in Pliny and Ptolemy, we have -no further hint as to its actual position. One of its -bishops was present at the Council of Chalcedon. -The interesting account in the Acts xiv. 6-21, of the -behaviour of the people of Lystra, when St. Paul -proved his Divine mission by the cure of the cripple, -must be fresh in the mind of every one. With regard -to the speculative identifications of the sites of -Lystra and Derbe, it is, perhaps, worth stating that S.E. -of Konieh is a remarkable isolated hill, the Karadagh -or Black mountain. Not far from this mountain, Leake -and Hamilton placed these two towns, the former -<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>twenty miles S.E. of Iconium, the latter at some remarkable -ruins around its base, called by the Turks -Bin-bir-kalis-seh, or the 1,001 churches. Mr. Hamilton -and Mr. Edward Falkener have both examined this -remarkable group of ruined churches, recording, as -they clearly do, some site peculiarly revered in early -Christian times. Mr. Falkener’s remarks on these -curious monuments are much to the point. “The -principal group,” says he, “of the Bin-bir-Kalisseh, lies -at the foot of Karadagh.... Perceiving ruins on -the slope of the mountain, I began to ascend, and, -on reaching them, perceived that they were churches, -and, looking upwards, descried others yet above me, -and climbing from one to the other, I at length gained -the summit, where I found two churches. On looking -down, I perceived churches on all sides of the mountain -scattered about in various positions.... There -are about two dozen in tolerable preservation, and -the remains of perhaps forty may be traced altogether.... -The mountain must have been considered -sacred; all the ruins are of the Christian epoch, -and, with the exception of a huge palace, every -building is a church.” It appears from the Acts that, -besides the Greek, there was still extant a local -Lycaonian dialect, and this is what we should expect -from what we know in the cases of Caria, Lycia, and -Phrygia, respectively. There are, however, no certain -means, now, of determining what was its character, and -whether it was of Semitic or of Indo-European descent.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f98'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r98'>98</a>. </span>Cicero (ad Fam. xiii. 73) says he was treated with much -civility by the Lycaonian Antipater—a view of things not agreeable -to his correspondent Q. Philippus, who had been previously -proconsul of Asia Minor. Stephanus Byzantinus states that -Derbe was sometimes called “Delbia,” a word in the Lycaonian -dialect said to mean “juniper.” It is possible that two words of -much similarity have been confounded in the MSS., viz. λιμὴν, -a harbour or port, and λίμνη, a lake or marsh; and that the town -was really on the shores of one of the many internal lakes of -that part of Asia Minor. The position of Derbe near the lake -of <i>Ak Ghieul</i>, and its resemblance to Delbia, with the modern -name of <i>Divleh</i>, as suggested by Hamilton, tends to its identification -with Divleh.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>Having dealt pretty fully with the provinces and -towns of Asia Minor to the west and south, with some -notice of those in Lycaonia, we propose now to notice -<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>the chief ones in <i>Phrygia</i> and <i>Galatia</i>, though we -have not space to weigh nicely the limits of each of -these districts, which were, indeed, till Roman times, -in a state of constant change. Rome, as we know, -thought fit to include under the name of Asia more -than one piece arbitrarily cut out of the older provinces; -Roman Asia being to the rest of Asia Minor -much what Portugal on maps was to Spain.</p> - -<p class='c015'>The Phrygians themselves were, like the Mysians, -probably of Thracian origin, as the name Bryges, or -Briges, is found in Macedonia, and is, probably, -connected with the Celtic word “briga,” as in Artobriga. -We find also in the neighbouring province of -Bithynia a tribe called Bebryces. The Phrygians have -also been supposed to have some connection with -Armenia—a theory, however, mainly resting on their -legend of a primeval flood, and of the resting of an -ark on the mountains near Celænæ.</p> - -<p class='c015'>It is certain that the people of this part of Asia -Minor were very much intermixed. Thus, the Trojans -and Mysians were almost certainly members of -the great Phrygian race; for Hecuba was a Phrygian -princess, and Hector a common Phrygian name. One -stream of immigrators may, therefore, have come from -Armenia into Europe, and have, thence, returned -somewhat later to Phrygia, the Phrygians, like the -Macedonians, being said to be unable to pronounce -the φ (ph), and saying Bilippus and Berenice, for -Philippus and Pherenice: in the army, too, of Xerxes, -the Armenians and Phrygians wear similar armour. -Recent researches by Baron Texier and Mr. Hamilton -have shown that the Phrygians had a peculiar -<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>style of architecture, the former having discovered an -entire town carved out of the solid rock. Tombs, -too, occur, in construction resembling the lion gate of -Mycenæ; while there is also a legend of a Phrygian -Pelops in Argolis. Phrygian religious rites were widely -accepted by remote districts of the ancient world, the -goddess Cybele being strictly a Phrygian deity, and -the wild “orgies” of her worship essentially Asiatic.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Of the towns of Phrygia we take first <span class='sc'>Apamea</span>, as -unquestionably one of the most important for its -varied history and for the many persons of note who -are linked with it. Its foundation is due to Antiochus -Soter, who named it after his mother Apama. According -to Strabo, it stood at the source of the river -Marsyas, which burst forth in the middle of the city, -and flowed thence into the Mæander; and, though this -description is not quite borne out by recent observations, -the identity of its size with the modern village -of Deenare or Denair, has been satisfactorily shown -by an inscription found by Mr. Arundell, reading—<span class='fss'>QUI. -APAMEAE. NEGOCIANTVR. H. C.</span> (hoc. curaverunt). -“The merchants frequenting Apamea have -taken care (to erect this monument).”<a id='r99' /><a href='#f99' class='c016'><sup>[99]</sup></a> Cicero, who -was appointed proconsul of Cilicia in B.C. 51, has -left us many interesting particulars about it in his -letters to his friends, as he was much there. At this -<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>place, too, he deposited one of the three copies of his -quæstor’s accounts, at the same time refusing to accept -for himself or to permit his soldiers to appropriate, any -of the booty taken from the enemy. In a letter to -Can. Sallustius, proquæstor, he adds: “I shall leave -the money at Laodicea ... in order to avoid the -hazard, both to self and the commonwealth, of conveying -it in specie.” While governing his province, -one of his friends requested him to procure some -panthers for him. This he did, and at his own expense, -remarking at the same time “that the beasts -made sad complaints against him, and resolved to -quit the country, since no snares were laid in his -province for any other creatures but themselves.”<a id='r100' /><a href='#f100' class='c016'><sup>[100]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f99'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r99'>99</a>. </span>Arundell (i. p. 192). He remarks further: “Apamea may -now be asserted to have been at <i>Deenare</i> with as much confidence -as that Ephesus or Sardis stood on the sites which still -preserve their names. Apamea stood, we should add, nearly, -though not quite, on the site of the ancient Celænæ. It suffered -so severely from earthquakes, that the Roman tribute due -from it was remitted, A.D. 53, for five years (Tacit. Ann. xii. 58).”</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f100'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r100'>100</a>. </span>Mr. Arundell remarks the panthers are still (1834) occasionally -found in the neighbourhood of Smyrna.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id004'> -<img src='images/ip134.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p><span class='c001'>COIN OF APAMEA CIBOTUS.</span></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c015'>But, besides the classical history of Apamea, -which is well enough known, this place was accredited -with a tradition referring to the Ark, which, -though purely legendary, cannot be omitted here; the -more so as the story of the Ark resting after the Flood -on one of the heights near Apamea has been supposed -by some to have given that city the title of “Cibotus,” -or “Apamea of the Chest.”<a id='r101' /><a href='#f101' class='c016'><sup>[101]</sup></a> Indeed, Mount Ararat -<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>was placed by some on the confines of Phrygia. The -coin of Alexander Severus, of which we give a copy -above, is supposed to refer to this story. On the reverse -is the name of the people of Apamea, and, above, -a square structure resting on a rock, and surrounded -by water. In this box are two figures, male and -female, and in front the word ΝΩΕ (Noe). It is, -therefore, a fair presumption that the maker of the -medal did mean to represent Noah and wife. Two -other persons, also a man and a woman, stand in front -of the supposed ark. If, as we believe, the Scriptural -deluge took place in Babylonia, some features of its -story might easily have found their way to Phrygia; -while, independently of this, we know that, even in -the days of St. Paul, there were Jewish synagogues -in many of the great towns of Asia Minor. Moreover, -during the 150 years between St. Paul and -Alexander Severus, some, at least, of the more striking -<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>events recorded in the Bible must have become -popularly known.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f101'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r101'>101</a>. </span>It ought to be added that the ancient name of Apamea, when -the capital of Phrygia, was Celænæ, and that, in Roman times, -though Laodicea Combusta was the residence of the proconsul, -it was considered, commercially, inferior only to Ephesus. -Laodicea was one of the towns privileged to strike those curious -silver coins known by the name of <i>Cistophori</i>. Though we do -not accept the Ark story as the origin of this name “Kibotus,” -we cannot say that we attach much, if any, weight to many other -derivations that have been proposed.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>The next place we notice is <span class='sc'>Azani</span>, or <span class='sc'>Aezani</span> (for -both spellings occur), the latter, that of the coins of -the place, being the more preferable. It is certain that -the present Lord Ashburnham, in 1824, was the first to -determine where it stood, though this discovery has, -with some carelessness, been often attributed wrongly. -It is now called Tchandur Hissar, and, from Keppel, -Hamilton, and Fellows, appears to possess some ruins -of remarkable beauty, and more than one Roman -bridge. Hamilton (i. 101) states that its Ionic temple -(of which Fellows and Pullan give drawings) is one of -the most perfect in Asia Minor. Rather curiously, no -walls have been found; but the place has suffered -from plunderers severely, every tomb having been -despoiled.</p> - -<p class='c015'>In <i>Phrygia Magna</i>, as distinguished from <i>Phrygia -Epictetus</i>, a place of early notice and of long importance -was <span class='sc'>Synnada</span>, which we hear of first in connection -with the famous march of Cn. Manlius against -the Gallo-Græci. Cicero visited it in his progress -towards Cilicia. In Pliny’s time, it was the judicial -centre of the neighbourhood. It was chiefly famous -for a beautiful marble with purple spots and veins, -to which Statius alludes (Silv. i. 5, 56). Texier was -the first to discover the actual quarries, which were, -as the natives of old asserted, not at Synnada, but at -Docimia; whence the marble itself was sometimes -called “Docimites lapis.” Paulus Silentiarius, in a -poem on the church of St. Sophia, has well described -its character. Docimia itself was probably at the end -of the plain where Synnada was itself situate. Hierocles -<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>makes Synnada a bishopric of Phrygia Salutaris. -Its ruins are now called <i>Eski Kara Hissar</i>.</p> - -<p class='c015'>On the main road from Synnada towards Iconium -stood <span class='sc'>Philomelium</span>, the “city of nightingales,” now, -since the discovery of the true site of the Pisidian -Antioch, identified with Ak-shehr. It was a place -of much value to the early Turkish rulers, and many -handsome Saracenic buildings may still be seen; -hence, too, it is often mentioned in the wars between -the Greek emperors and the Sultans of Iconium, as -in Procopius (Hist. Arc. 18) and Anna Comnena -(p. 473).<a id='r102' /><a href='#f102' class='c016'><sup>[102]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f102'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r102'>102</a>. </span><span class='sc'>Philomelium</span>, now called <i>Afium Kara Hissar</i> (the “black -castle of opium”), has much interest as the centre of the great -Asia-Minor trade in that drug, the medicinal properties of which -were known to Theophrastus in the third century B.C., under -the name of μηκώνιον. Scribonius Largus (A.D. 40), also, knew -that the best form of it was procured from the capsules, and not -from the leaves of the poppy (Berthold, Argent. 1786, c. iii. -s. 2). Dioscorides, thirty years later, calls the juice of these capsules -ὀπός (Angl. <i>Sap</i>), and the cutting them ὀπίζειν. Hence, -the name, <i>Opium</i>. Pliny (iv. c. 65, xx. c. 76) points out the -medicinal use of “Opion,” and Celsus calls the extracted juice -“<i>Lacryma papaveris</i>.” Obviously, from this “Opion” comes -the Arabic “Afyum,” which is found in many Eastern languages, -and may have been spread all the more, owing to Muhammad’s -interdiction of the use of wine. In India, <i>Opium</i> is -noticed, first, in Barbosa’s Travels, A.D. 1511 (ap. Hakluyt), -who found it, at that time, in Malabar and Calicut. Neither -Chinese nor Sanskrit has a native word for this drug. <i>Opium -Thebaicum</i> is mentioned as early as A.D. 1288-96, by Simon -Januensis, Physician to Pope Nicholas IV. (Clavis Sanationis. -Venet. 1510); and Kæmpfer (1687) remarks that compounds of -opium, nutmegs, &c., were largely sold in his time, as long -before, under the name of “<i>Theriaka</i>.”</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>But the most important place in the neighbourhood -<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>was <span class='sc'>Laodicea</span>, often called “Combusta,” “the burnt,” -which is to be carefully distinguished from the other -town of the same name we shall presently describe in -connection with Hierapolis, and which is generally -called “ad Lycum,” “on the Lycus,” in the province -of Lydia. Recent geographers, however, give both -these towns to Phrygia. Laodicea Combusta was -about nine hours N.W. of Iconium, and under its -modern names of Yorgan Ladik or Ladik-el-Tchaus, -is famous throughout Asia Minor for its manufacture -of carpets. It has been, popularly, supposed, that it -derived its name from the existence at it of some -remarkable volcanic agencies. This, however, Mr. -Hamilton has clearly shown, is not the case. “There -is not,” he says, “a particle of volcanic or igneous -rock in the neighbourhood; the hills consist of blue -marble, and of the argillaceous and micaceous schists -with which that rock is usually associated.” He -thinks it may, at some time or other, have been burnt -down, and, on being rebuilt, have received this distinguishing -title. The inscriptions he found there, -though in great abundance, have little interest, being -chiefly funereal: they are all carved out of the dark -blue-veined limestone of the adjoining hills.</p> - -<p class='c015'>The last three places in Phrygia, which we think it -necessary to note especially, we shall take together, -as situate near one another, and, historically, closely -connected. These cities are <span class='sc'>Hierapolis</span>, <span class='sc'>Laodicea</span>, -(ad Lycum), and <span class='sc'>Colossæ</span>.</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Hierapolis</span> is chiefly remarkable for waters so -loaded with petrifying materials as to have completely -changed, by their deposits, the face of the country -in the course of centuries; a result, noticed by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>many ancient authors, as Vitruvius, Pausanias, &c. -Chandler states that a cliff near the town is one -entire incrustation, and describes its appearance as -that of “an immense frozen cascade, the surface -wavy, as of water at once fixed, or in its headlong -course suddenly petrified.”<a id='r103' /><a href='#f103' class='c016'><sup>[103]</sup></a> An excellent view of this -curious scene is given in Mr. Davis’s “Anatolica,” -p. 100. Besides its remarkable petrifying power, -Strabo states also that the waters of Hierapolis were -famous for dyeing; and it is curious confirmation of -this statement, that an early English traveller (Dr. -Smith, in 1671) copied an inscription referring to a -“<i>company of dyers</i>” (ἡ ἐργασία τῶν βαφέων). The -position of Hierapolis must have been very imposing, -placed as it was on a high piece of ground, “200 paces -wide, and a mile in length.” Abundant ruins still -remain, consisting of the relics of three Christian -churches, one 300 feet long, and of a gymnasium, considered -by Leake to be one of the only three “which -are in a state of preservation sufficient to give any -useful information on the subject of these buildings,” -together with a prodigious number of fallen columns, -in the wildest state of confusion. It seems a pity -<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>that no efficient steps have been taken to excavate -thoroughly such a site as that of Hierapolis, where -monuments of much historical interest, possibly, too, -of surpassing excellence as sculpture, might reasonably -be anticipated. Hierapolis is specially noticed in -St. Paul’s epistle to the Colossians (iv. 13), which -shows clearly that, at that time, there were many converts -to Christianity, probably owing to the zeal of -Epaphras, who had been long a common labourer -with the Apostle. Somewhat later, Hierapolis appears -in Hierocles as the metropolis of Phrygia; and -Arundell gives a list of the bishops of the see -whose names have been preserved. The present -ruins are called <i>Pambouk Kalessi</i>.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f103'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r103'>103</a>. </span>Mr. Hamilton says he could distinctly trace six different -cascades, each of which had left a separate incrustation. The -ancient city itself was built on a terrace entirely formed by this -or similar incrustations. He adds: “But if the appearance of -the encrusted cliff was curious when seen from below, it became -infinitely more so when we looked down upon it from the road, -and the detail of its structure became more apparent. The wavy -and undulating lines of solid matter which extend over the surface -look as if a large river had been suddenly arrested in its -course and converted into stone.”</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Laodicea</span> “<i>ad Lycum</i>” was, in the time of Strabo, -one of the principal places in this province, and the -centre of the Roman power in this part of Asia. Many -men of great wealth, it is said, contributed to its -early magnificence; Strabo noticing Hiero, who, besides -greatly embellishing it during his lifetime, left -to it by will the sum of 2,000 talents, together with -the orator Zeno, and his son Polemo, who was made -by Augustus king of part of Pontus. There are some -difficulties in reconciling the statements of ancient -authors about the rivers that flowed by or close to -this town, and even recent investigations have not -made this matter quite clear. Four rivers are mentioned -in connection with it—the Lycus, Asopus, -Caprus, and the Cadmus. Of these the first is, unquestionably, -the most important, as having given its -name to the town. It is likely these difficulties have -been increased by the earthquakes noticed by Strabo, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>who says that Laodicea, more than any other town, -was subject to their baneful influence. His words -are remarkable (εἰ γάρ τις ἄλλη καὶ ἡ Λαοδίκεια εὕσειστος, -Strab. p. 578). Such earthquakes would, -naturally modify the course of these streams.<a id='r104' /><a href='#f104' class='c016'><sup>[104]</sup></a> Col. -Leake calls especial attention to the importance of a -thorough investigation of the ruins of all these great -towns: so much is still on the surface, that he thinks -there is reasonable hope of the discovery of much -still buried. The same, to a smaller extent, would, -probably, prove true of other cities in the vale of the -Mæander; for Strabo thought that Philadelphia, -Sardes, and Magnesia ad Sipylum were not less -than Laodicea, and had all alike suffered from the -ravages of earthquakes; and this view was completely -supported by Arundell from his own personal observations -at Laodicea (Seven Churches, p. 85).</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f104'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r104'>104</a>. </span>Compare what Tacitus says, Annal. ii. 79, xiv. 97, and -Herodotus’s statement that the Lycus disappeared at Colossæ, -close by, a statement in some degree confirmed by Strabo (xii. -578), and other remarks bearing on the history of this important -town in Polyb. v. 57, 3; Cic. Verr. i. 3; Epist. ad Fam. iii. -5, 7; Tacit. Annal. iv. 55; Philostr. p. 543.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>Laodicea suffered severely at the hands of Mithradates, -but, with the reign of Augustus, its real fame -and prosperity arose and long continued. About A.D. -1097 it was seized by the Turks, and subsequently -was, alternately, in their hands or in those of the Byzantine -emperors. In 1190 the Emperor Barbarossa was -welcomed by the then inhabitants with much kindness, -but, shortly afterwards, it was wholly desolated by -the Turks. The zeal of St. Paul for the Church of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>Laodicea suggests that there must early have been -abundant converts to the new faith in its neighbourhood. -It is, however, also clear that their allegiance -was not very trustworthy, and that they were much -inclined to accept a modified form of Christianity. -St. Paul’s words in his Epistle to the Colossians -(ii. 1) show this plainly enough—“For I would,” says -he, “that ye knew what great conflict I have for you, -and for them at Laodicea, and for as many as have -not seen my face in the flesh.” Again, “When this -epistle is read among you, cause that it be read -also in the Church of the Laodiceans” (iv. 16). -The Book of Revelation contains, also, strong strictures -on the lukewarmness of the Laodiceans. “I -know thy works, that thou art neither cold nor hot; -I would thou wert cold or hot. So then, because -thou art lukewarm, and neither cold nor hot, I will -spue thee out of my mouth” (Rev. iii. 15, 16). Laodicea, -though sometimes called Ladik, is more usually -known as Eski-Hissar, the Turkish form of the -common Levantine title of Palæo-Castro—“Old -Castle.”</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Colossæ</span>, the last of the three towns, has been much -confused with the other two, from the haste and want -of accurate observation of different travellers. Much -time is, indeed, requisite for the comparison of the -brief notes of ancient authors with the existing facts. -It is not certain when Colossæ was founded, or to -what circumstances it owes its name, but it existed -some centuries before the Christian era, as it is mentioned -by Herodotus as a large and flourishing town -of Phrygia when Xerxes passed through it in B.C. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>481, on his way from Cappadocia to Sardes (vii. 30); -nor had it, apparently, at all decayed when visited by -Cyrus the Younger, about eighty years subsequently, -(Xen. Anab. i. 2). Like the people of the adjacent -Laodicea, the Colossians were great growers of wool. -It was nearly destroyed in the days of Nero, but it -survived, at all events, as the name of a Christian -bishopric, till the time of Hierocles’s <i>Synecdemus</i>. -Somewhat later, a new town named Chonas was built -there, the certain identification of its ruins being -mainly due to the fact that Nicetas the Annalist was -born there. St. Paul, as we know, wrote an epistle to -the Colossians, but his words, “Since we <i>heard</i> of -your faith in Christ Jesus,” seem to imply that he was -never there himself. On the other hand, Epaphras, -who was a native of Colossæ, and Onesimus, are -specially noted as having preached there.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Colossæ has been repeatedly visited by travellers, -such as Dr. Smith, Picenini, Pococke, and -Arundell; but to Mr. Hamilton we owe the clearest -notice of it, and the reconciling of many points -not understood by those who preceded him. Herodotus, -as we have remarked, had stated that -there was a χάσμα γῆς (a deep chasm) at Colossæ, -and that the Lycus flowed by a subterranean channel -for half a mile. This chasm Mr. Hamilton traced, -proving how the Lycus may well have been <i>said</i> to -have flowed underground, owing to the great accumulation -of petrifying matter from the stream, now -called <i>Ak Sú</i>, or “White Water.” Mr. Hamilton -quotes, also, a passage from the Byzantine writer, -Curopalates, clearly referring to the same curious -<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>phenomenon. Pliny, too, makes an interesting remark -as to the quality of this water, where he says, -“There is a river at Colossæ which will convert -brick into stone.” Hamilton adds, “The Ak Sú, -which joins the Choruk in the centre of the town, -would soon cover a brick with a thick incrustation, -and even fill the porous interior with the same substance -by means of infiltration.”</p> - -<p class='c015'>The only towns in Galatia we think worthy of any -especial note are <span class='sc'>Ancyra</span>, <span class='sc'>Pessinus</span>, and <span class='sc'>Tavium</span>—in -fact, Galatia, the land of the Asiatic Gauls, -was little more than a dismemberment of the ancient -Phrygia, mainly induced by the invasion of a -portion of the vast horde of Gauls, who, descending -from Pannonia under the second Brennus, B.C. 279, -were, ultimately, induced to cross the Hellespont, on -the invitation of Nicomedes I. of Pergamus. The -general history of Galatia is so well known, we need -not dwell on it here. Suffice it, that the three principal -tribes of these invaders were known as the Tectosages, -the Tolistoboii, and the Trocmi, and that, after many -battles, in which their power was greatly reduced, -they were settled, the first at Ancyra, the second at -Pessinus, and the third at Tavium. Some historical -facts connected with them, it may, however, be as -well to mention; viz., that Antiochus obtained the -name of Soter from the great defeat he inflicted on -them; and that, beaten by Attalus I. and Prusias, -they were most completely subdued by the consul -Manlius in A.D. 189. Gauls are found as mercenaries -in all the wars of the times, and, often, -fighting against one another, being even noticed as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>such in the Maccabees (1. viii. 2). So late as the -fourth century, St. Jerome, who had lived long at -Trèves, states that the common tongue of Galatia was -the same as that of that city. Curiously, only one -name, certainly Celtic, <i>Eccobriga</i>, between Tavium -and Ancyra, has been preserved in the Itineraries. -As a people, they greatly resembled the Gauls Cæsar -describes—“Natio est omnis Gallorum admodum -dedita superstitionibus”; hence, they adopted, at once, -the Phrygian worship of Cybele as “Mater Deorum,”—the -“Galli” of Pessinus being her special priests. -Their leading men, however, soon became wealthy, -and were speedily Hellenized.</p> - -<p class='c015'>The most important place in Galatia was <span class='sc'>Ancyra</span>, -on the Sangarius; traditionally, the foundation of -Midas, the son of Gordius. The anchor he found -there, whence the city’s name, Pausanias says, was, -still, in his day, preserved in the Temple of Jupiter. -The territory round this city was formally created a -Roman province by Augustus, B.C. 25, the epithet -“Tectosagum” being added to its title “Sebaste,” to -distinguish it from Pessinus and Tavium, which bore, -also, the epithets of Sebaste or Augusta. On the coins -of Nero, Ancyra is, also, called Metropolis; and, -though much decayed, is still a considerable place, -with a large population.<a id='r105' /><a href='#f105' class='c016'><sup>[105]</sup></a> In the adjacent plains -occurred the mighty conflict between Bayazíd and -Timúr (Tamerlane), in which the former lost his crown, -and was taken prisoner by the Moghul emperor, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>though the popular legend of the “cage of Bayazíd” -is, probably, as little authentic as the burning of the -library of Alexandria by the orders of Omar.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f105'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r105'>105</a>. </span>In the Jerusalem and Antonine Itineraries we notice one -name, <i>Ipeto-brogea</i>, the latter portion of which is probably Celtic, -like Allo-<i>broges</i>, &c.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>But the most interesting matter, in connection with -Ancyra is the famous Inscription of Augustus<a id='r106' /><a href='#f106' class='c016'><sup>[106]</sup></a> (sometimes -called his “Will”), generally known by scholars -under the title of the “Marmor Ancyranum.” What -was then visible of this Inscription was first copied by -Busbequius, about A.D. 1555, and published in 1579, -at Antwerp, by Andreas Schottus.<a id='r107' /><a href='#f107' class='c016'><sup>[107]</sup></a> At first, the Latin -portion only was obtained, but, by degrees, portions of -the Greek have been recovered, an important addition -having been made by Mr. Hamilton.<a id='r108' /><a href='#f108' class='c016'><sup>[108]</sup></a> A very complete -<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>account of it has been recently published by -Theod. Mommsen, under the title “Res gestæ Divi -Augusti,” Berl. 1865, with very accurate copies of the -Greek legend, specially executed for Napoleon III. -by M. Perrot.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f106'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r106'>106</a>. </span>The whole town of Ancyra swarms with inscriptions. Mr. -Hamilton says: “The collection of inscriptions made during my -stay at Ancyra was very numerous; many of them never before -published. They were met with in all parts of the town,—in -the gateways and courtyards of private houses, but, chiefly, on the -walls of the citadel.”</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f107'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r107'>107</a>. </span>The original inscription was engraved at Rome on brazen -tablets in front of his Mausoleum (Sueton. Aug.), known in -Mediæval times under the name of <i>L’Austa</i>. From an inscription -in Boeckh, C. I. Gr. No. 4,039, we learn that the Ancyran -inscription was placed in the Σεβαστῆον (Augusteum), and on -one of the antæ of the Temple are the words—</p> -<div class='lg-container-l c022'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>Γαλατῶν [τ]ὁ [κοινὸν]</div> - <div class='line'>[ἱε] ρασάμενον</div> - <div class='line'>Θεῷ Σεβαστῷ</div> - <div class='line'>Καὶ Θεᾷ Ῥώμῃ</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c017'>This is probably the temple alluded to in the decree of Augustus, -and referred to by Josephus (Antiq. xvi. 6).</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f108'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r108'>108</a>. </span>Too much credit cannot be given to Mr. Hamilton for his -successful labours in copying the greater part of the Greek -version, which in many instances supplies defects in the Latin -version. “I entered,” says he, “into a negotiation with the -proprietor of the house ... (abutting on the Temple).... In -the course of two days I had the satisfaction of finding that he -had agreed to my proposal. I had hardly dared to hope that -the Mahometan would have allowed a Ghiaour to take down -the wall of his house for such a purpose.”</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>It would be impossible to give here even the -briefest summary of this very interesting and valuable -inscription, which fully deserves the most careful -perusal; but we may mention that, among the historical -events Augustus records, are his crushing the -murderers of Julius Cæsar, when he was only 21,—the -titles conferred on him—the census of his people—the -closing of the Temple of Janus—his great -largesses to the people, agreeably with the will of -Julius Cæsar—with a remarkable list of the monumental -works begun or completed by him in Rome<a id='r109' /><a href='#f109' class='c016'><sup>[109]</sup></a>—a -notice of the highest value to Roman antiquaries, -and, therefore, very properly given by Mr. Parker -in his recent volume on the “Forum Romanum.” -He then recounts his crushing the pirates, noticing -also the Servile war; the effect of the battle of Actium -on Italy; the boundaries of the provinces then subject -<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>to him, and the extension of the Roman arms -to Æthiopia and Arabia; the submission of Tiridates -and Phraates, the kings of Parthia; and of Dubnovelaunus, -king of the Britons. He concludes by -saying, “When I wrote this I was in my seventy-sixth -year,” and very shortly after this he died.<a id='r110' /><a href='#f110' class='c016'><sup>[110]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f109'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r109'>109</a>. </span>An interesting work is extant by Julius Frontinus on the -Aqueducts to the city of Rome, which has been remarkably illustrated -by the recent researches of Mr. J. H. Parker, C.B., on -the spot; see, also, for the “Monumentum Ancyranum,” J. H. -Parker’s “Forum Romanum and Via Sacra,” Pl. xxvii.-ix.; -Lond. 8vo, 1876.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f110'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r110'>110</a>. </span>Mr. Pullan gives a view of the entrance to the Temple.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>The next town of Galatia we notice, <span class='sc'>Pessinus</span>, -was situate near the left bank of the Sangarius, on -the road to Angora. It was the capital of the Gallic -tribe of the Tolistoboii, and celebrated in antiquity -for its worship of the goddess Rhea, or Cybele. The -story went that the original shrine of this goddess was -removed to Rome, towards the close of the second -Punic war, the safety of Italy being said to depend on -this step. It is clear that the people of Pessinus did not -care much about their most sacred shrine—possibly, -however, as King Attalus supported the Roman demand, -they could not help themselves. It is worthy of -note, that, not long after the removal of this shrine, the -Galli became the chief priests of the worship of Cybele, -and, as such, went out to propitiate Manlius, when -about to throw a bridge over the Sangarius (Livy, -xxxviii. 18). Polybius gives the names of these -priests (Polyb. Fragm. 4). Coins of Pessinus exhibit -the worship of Cybele as late as Caracalla, and we -know that Julian the Apostate visited her temple -(Ammian. xxii. 9). One name she bore was that of -Agdistis, Pessinus itself being seated under this -mountain, which was also called Dindymus. M. Texier -seems to have first recognized its ruins at a place now -<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>called Sevrihissar, of which an excellent account is -given by Mr. Hamilton (i. p. 438). “Every step we -advanced,” says he, “gave evidence of the importance -and magnificence of the public buildings with which -this site must once have been adorned.” We may add -that Mr. Hamilton’s further researches enabled him -to reconcile the conflicting accounts of the march of -Manlius in Polybius and Livy, the whole of the course -of the Roman general being, now, fairly traceable.</p> - -<p class='c015'>The last of these Galatian towns, <span class='sc'>Tavium</span>, was the -abode of the third Gallic tribe, the Trocmi, as is shown -by an inscription on a coin, reading ΤΑΟΥΙΑΝΩΝ ΤΡΟ. -The position of this town has been identified by -Mr. Hamilton as that where M. Texier found some -very remarkable sculptures, which he, erroneously, -called Pterium, the site of one of the battles between -Crœsus and Cyrus. It is more probable that -this place was much nearer the shores of the Black -Sea. If Hamilton is right, Boghaz-kieui marks the -site of the old town, which was one of great trade, -and famous for a colossal bronze statue and temple -of Jupiter. The careful measurement of the seven -great roads, recorded as having met at Tavium, -agrees, too, with his view. The bas-reliefs discovered -by M. Texier, about two miles from this temple, are -among the most curious in Asia Minor. Mr. Hamilton -gives a view of them (vol. i. p. 394), whence we -are inclined to think that they must be of Persian -origin. So far as we can judge from the engraving, -the work resembles much that at Behistan; moreover, -two of the figures seem to be standing on lions or -panthers, as on the reliefs found by Mr. Layard at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>Bavian, and to be seen, also, of some of the coins of -Tarsus. The subject appears to be the meeting of -two kings, the principal figures being five feet high. -Two of the figures stand on a kind of double-headed -eagle. Mr. Hamilton suggested a resemblance between -them and those at Persepolis, an appreciation -the more remarkable that when Mr. Hamilton’s work -was published in 1842, none of the Assyrian excavations -had been begun. Considering the great influence -of the Persians after the establishment of the -empire of Darius, the son of Hystaspes, there is no -improbability in the carving being the work of some -powerful satrap, like Pharnabazus, who might easily -have been familiar with the sculptures at Bavian, -Behistan, and Persepolis.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Over the towns in the remaining provinces of Asia -Minor, <i>Cappadocia</i>, <i>Pontus</i>, <i>Paphlagonia</i>, and <i>Bithynia</i>, -it will not be necessary for us to linger at any -length; not because there are not abundant objects -of interest in each of them, but that the remains, -purely Greek, are comparatively few, while the space -we can give for an adequate description of them is -exceedingly limited. We shall, however, notice some -of the chief places, either of Greek origin, or directly -connected with the Greeks, referring to the journals -of the travellers we have so often quoted; and especially -to Mr. Hamilton, for a more full and detailed -account of them.</p> - -<p class='c015'>To take first <i>Cappadocia</i>, which is in this sense -peculiar, that it was for centuries governed, first by -satraps claiming descent from one of the seven -conspirators who aided Darius, and, secondly, by a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>native race of kings, till it became a Roman province. -The great plains of Cappadocia, at an altitude seldom -less than 4,000 feet above the sea, were famous for -the breed of horses they raised; corn, too, and many -excellent fruits found in this province their native -home. Salt, and various kinds of crystal, were also -largely exported from Cappadocia.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Of the towns of Cappadocia, we may mention -<span class='sc'>Nazianzus</span>, a site celebrated as the birthplace of its -famous bishop, Gregory, a great ecclesiastical writer, -a wit and a poet (see his humorous description of -Sasina, the church to which he was first appointed, -Orat. xxv. p. 435, which we wish we had space to -quote). Its ancient position has been accurately determined -by the observations of more than one modern -traveller (Hamilton, ii. p. 228). <i>Mazaca</i>, afterwards -called <span class='sc'>Cæsarea</span> <i>ad Argæum</i>, was for many centuries -the capital of Cappadocia, and is still a place of -some importance. The chief feature of its scenery -was the Mons Argæus (now Erjish Dagh), reputed -the loftiest mountain of Asia Minor, which rises immediately -above it, covered with perpetual snow. The -town itself, though ultimately the capital, appears -to have been for a long time little more than a -camp; indeed, Horace’s description probably tells us -all that “His Majesty” of Cappadocia really required: -“Mancipiis locuples, eget æris Cappadocum -rex” (“Though rich in slaves, the king of Cappadocia -lacks ready money”), (Ep. i. 6, 39). Cappadocian -slaves were abundant in Rome, and had a high reputation -as bakers and confectioners (Plut. Lucull. -Athen. i. 20, &c.). One of the most memorable -<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>events of the history of the town was, its long and -gallant resistance to the Sassanian emperor, in the -war between Valerian and Sapor. In Christian times, -it derived much fame from the fact that St. Basil was -born there, and was, subsequently, for many years its -bishop (Socrat. H. E. v. 8; Hierocl. p. 698). Mr. -Hamilton (ii. pp. 274-281) gives an interesting account -of his ascent of the great mountain near it [the -height of which he found to be about 13,000 feet], a -feat, we believe, he was the first to accomplish.</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Tyana</span>, another Cappadocian town, is chiefly noted -as the birthplace of Apollonius of Tyana, whose -amusing life has been preserved by Philostratus. -From its position on the defiles leading through -Taurus into Cilicia, it must have been a place of -some importance; and hence, probably, the tradition -that it was built by Semiramis (Strab. xii. 537). In -later times it was the seat of a Christian bishopric -(Greg. Naz. Epist. 33). Hamilton thinks that a place -called <i>Iftyan Kas</i> may mark this site. There is near -to it the remains of a fine aqueduct, ascribed by the -natives to Nimrod, but, really, of Roman origin.</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Comana</span>, the only other place in Cappadocia, which -it is necessary to notice, was really the chief town of -a subdistrict called Cataonia. It was chiefly celebrated -for its collection of priests, soothsayers, and -the like, who were devoted to the worship of Mâ (the -Moon), or, as some say, the Cappadocian Bellona. -Strabo asserts that the votaries of this sacred institution -amounted to as many as 6,000 persons, of both -sexes (xii. 535). Some, on the other hand, think this -goddess the Anaitis of the Persians, the Agdistis or -<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>Cybele of the Phrygians. Coins of Comana, of Antoninus -Pius, show that there was a Roman colony there, -which was in existence as late as Caracalla.</p> - -<p class='c015'><i>Pontus</i>, a narrow slip along the shores of the -Black Sea, was chiefly memorable for its great fertility -in the fruits now so common in our western -lands, as cherries (perhaps so named from one of -its towns, Cerasus), peaches, almonds, &c. It was -also very rich in grain, timber, honey, and wax; -while its mineral wealth is strikingly shown by the -fact that one of its tribes, the Chalybes, famous so -early as the time of Xenophon for their skill in -working iron, gave their name to the Greek word for -hardened iron or steel.<a id='r111' /><a href='#f111' class='c016'><sup>[111]</sup></a> <span class='sc'>Trapezus</span> (now Trebisonde), -its only considerable town, was in ancient -days believed to be a colony of Sinope, the foundress -of several other places along the coasts of -the Black Sea. It was evidently a city of note -when Xenophon came there, in B.C. 400, with the -remains of the Ten Thousand, as its citizens hospitably -entertained the Greek host under his command. -We find it, also, in much prosperity when -Arrian was governor of Pontus, under Hadrian. -In later days, Trapezus was the capital of a petty -empire under a branch of the princely house of the -Comneni, its rulers assuming the pompous title of -Emperors of Trebizonde, and claiming, though not -always securing, independence of the Greek Empire. -It is still a place of commercial importance. -We may add that it was not far from this place, near -<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>the town of Zela, that Cæsar defeated the troops of -the despicable traitor Pharnaces so quickly, that he -announced his victory in the famous words, “Veni, -Vidi, Vici” (“I came, I saw, I conquered”) (Hist. -Bell. Alex. c. 72; Plut. Vit. Cæs.; Sueton. Cæs. c. 37). -The history of Pontus is closely interwoven with that -of the famous Mithradates; but, into this, we have -not the space to enter here.</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f111'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r111'>111</a>. </span>Æschylus, Pers., v. 715, speaks of οἱ σιδηροτέκτονες Χάλυβες.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'><i>Paphlagonia</i> is chiefly famous for the vast forests -that clothed the southern and more hilly portions of -its territory, and for its vast herds of horses, mules, -&c. (the former of which are noticed so early as -Homer (Il. ii. 281 and 852)). Its only two towns of -any note were <span class='sc'>Amastris</span>, in the days of Pliny the -Younger a handsome place, with squares and many -public buildings,—and <span class='sc'>Sinope</span>; both towns, certainly, -of remote antiquity, the latter, indeed, attributed by -some to the Argonauts, and by others to the Amazons. -In the days of Xenophon, <span class='sc'>Sinope</span> was a rich and -flourishing city; and then, and for a long time, subsequently, -the navy of Sinope was highly distinguished -among those of the other maritime cities of Greece. -Sinope was also famous, like Byzantium, for the -fishery of the <i>pelamys</i> or tunny-fish; deriving, also, much -of its subsequent wealth from the fact, that it was -selected by the kings of Pontus as their royal residence. -Lucullus first, and Cæsar, subsequently, in -the wars with Mithradates and Pharnaces, respectively, -treated the people with much kindness, and left to -them most of the works of sculpture with which their -town had been embellished by the Pontic monarchs. -Sinope is mentioned as a flourishing place in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>times of Strabo, Trajan, and Arrian, nor did it decay, -till every other place, in like manner and for the same -reasons, decayed on the advent of the barbarians -from Central Asia, under the hoofs of whose horses, -as the proverb says, no grass ever grows again.</p> - -<p class='c015'><i>Bithynia</i>, the last province of Asia Minor to which -we shall have to call attention, was, as we have -remarked before in the case of Mysia, in its population, -largely of Thracian origin. Subsequently to Cyrus -the younger, it was ruled by a series of native kings, -the last of whom, Nicomedes II., bequeathed his -country to the Romans. Many of these rulers were -men of tried valour; thus one defeated a general of -Alexander the Great; and another crushed the invading -Gauls. Pliny the Younger, in his letters, gives -an interesting account of the spread of Christianity -in this province, at the same time showing that his -stern and hardy master, Trajan, was less inclined to -act severely against them than his literary and philosophic -lieutenant. The towns of Bithynia to which -we propose to call attention, are <span class='sc'>Prusa</span>, <span class='sc'>Nicæa</span>, and -<span class='sc'>Nicomedia</span>.</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Prusa</span>, generally distinguished by the epithet <i>ad -Olympum</i>, more clearly to mark its site, is said to have -been built by Hannibal (Plin. v. 2), but was, probably, -much older, though Chrysostom, a native of the town, -does not claim for it any high antiquity (Orat. xliii. -p. 585). It continued to flourish under the Roman -Empire (Plin. Epist. x. 35), and was, also, for a while, -a leading place under the Greek Empire; indeed, it is -still, under the modified name of Broussa, one of the -chief cities of Turkish Anatolia. Its name will, doubtless, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>be fresh in the memory of many of our readers as -the long home of the gallant Abd-el-Kader, and of -more than one of the Hungarian leaders whom the -treachery of Georgey compelled to abandon their native -country. The grand Olympus which overhangs -Broussa was generally termed the Mysian, to distinguish -it from the Olympus of Thessaly. Near it was -the town of Hadriani (now Edrenos), the coins of -which bear the inscription ΑΔΡΙΑΝΕΩΝ ΠΡΟC -ΟΛΥΜΠΙΟΝ.</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Nicæa</span>, so named after his wife by Lysimachus, was -the real capital of Bithynia, and, for a long time, -one of the most important towns of Western Asia. -Pliny the Younger, as governor of the province, undertook -to restore it, and, during the later Byzantine -period it was constantly taken and retaken by the -Greeks and Turks, respectively. Leake and other -travellers show that there are abundant remains of -this famous old town, now called Isnik; not that, under -the Turks, it is, or ever could have become, a great -city. In Ecclesiastical story, Nicæa will ever be memorable -as the site where assembled, in A.D. 325, -the grand body of bishops, so well known as the -<i>Council of Nice</i>, to condemn the Arian heresy. Our -own Church is believed to owe to it its most valuable -“Nicene” Creed. Coins of Nicæa abound even -as late as the time of Gallienus.</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Nicomedeia</span>, as the name implies, the chief residence -of the Bithynian kings of the name of Nicomedes, -was a large and flourishing city, and, as may be -gathered from the letters of Pliny to Trajan, long continued -so; indeed, in later times, when occupied with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>the Parthian or other Eastern wars, it was a convenient -and constant residence for the Roman emperors -(Niceph. Callist. vii.). We have a curious account of -the ruin done to this city by an earthquake in one -of the strange orations of Julian’s friend, the orator -Libanius, entitled μονωδία ἐπὶ Νικομηδείᾳ, in which he -mourns the loss of its public baths, temples, gymnasia, -&c.: some of these were, however, subsequently -restored by Justinian (Procop. Ædif. v. 1). The historian -Arrian was born here, and Constantine the -Great died at his villa Ancyron, hard by.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Having said so much on the subject of the leading -Greek cities of Asia Minor, or rather of some of -them, we shall notice, but as briefly as possible, the -principal islands adjacent to its shores; and as the -space at our disposal compels us to contract our -narrative within the closest limits, we shall refer only -to <i>Lesbos</i>, <i>Samos</i>, <i>Chios</i>, <i>Rhodus</i>, and <i>Cyprus</i>. <i>Crete</i>, -as a matter of fact, is generally attached, geographically, -to the continent of Greece, but, in any case, -would require a volume to itself that adequate justice -should be done to its ancient and modern story.</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Lesbos</span>, which lay off the coast of Mysia, indeed, -about seven miles from Assos, was celebrated in ancient -times for its high cultivation of poetry and music, and -for the many men of literary eminence it produced. -To Lesbos we owe Terpander and Arion of Methymna, -Alcæus, and Sappho; and Pittacus, Theophrastus, -and Cratippus were also born there. More than one -passage in Homer, and especially Il. xx. 544, and -Odyss. iv. 342, show that many of the towns in the -island had large populations, even in remote times, -and owned, also, a considerable extent of territory on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>the mainland opposite. Lesbos displayed a personal -love for freedom, which contrasted well with their -kinsmen on the continent; for, though crushed, for a -while, by Polycrates of Samos, and submitting, perhaps, -wisely, to Harpagus, the general of Cyrus, the -Lesbians were among the most active seconders of the -revolt of Aristagoras, suffering severely in the end, as -did Chios and Tenedos, when the Persians won the day. -So, too, at Salamis, they stoutly supported the Greek -cause. Their subsequent history was that of most of -the islands in the Ægæan. Sometimes they were for, -perhaps more often against, Athens; paying often -dearly enough for their love of freedom; and being, -in the end, chiefly under Athens, which, while strenuously -advocating the so-called sacred cause of freedom, -took good care to divide their lands among her own -citizens. In later days, they struggled against Roman -aggrandisement, but, of course, in vain. The Romans, -however, do not seem to have treated the island -with severity, and, as late as Commodus, we have -a coin reading ΚΟΙΝΟΝ Λεσβίων, which implies some -amount of self-government. We may mention, incidentally, -that, at Lesbos, Julius Cæsar received a civic -crown for saving the life of a soldier (Livy, Epit. 87; -Sueton. c. 2); that, in A.D. 802, Irene, the Byzantine -empress, here ended her strange life; and, that four -centuries later, John Palæologus gave Lesbos, as her -dowry, to his sister, when about to marry Francis -Gateluzio, in whose hands the island remained till -overwhelmed by the Turks.</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Samos</span>, a name said to mean highland, and, doubtless, -deserving this name for its far superior height to -the islands adjacent, bore, like Lesbos, many different -<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>names in antiquity, with a population much intermixed, -the result of successive colonies of Carians, Leleges, -and Ionians. To the last people it chiefly owed -its historic fame, having been, in very early times, an -active member of the Ionian confederacy. As islanders, -the Samians had much credit for their skill in boatbuilding; -indeed, Thucydides (i. 13) goes so far as to -say they were the first boatbuilders, a statement, evidently, -to be accepted with a good deal of allowance. -It seems, however, certain that a citizen of Samos, one -Cælius, was the first to reach the Atlantic by passing -through the Pillars of Hercules, and that Polycrates, -the friend of Anacreon, did much to increase the naval -fame of his island.</p> - -<p class='c015'>After having made treaties with Amasis of Egypt, -and Cambyses of Persia (which alone show the eminence -ascribed to Samos at this early period), we -know further, that, from Samos, as his head-quarters, -Datis sailed for Marathon, the inference being that -Samos at that time was less Greek than perhaps, it -ought to have been; hence too, perhaps, somewhat -later, the severe punishment inflicted on it by Pericles -and Sophocles. From the commencement of the -Roman wars in the East, Samos seems, generally, to -have sided with Rome, becoming, ultimately, part of -the province of “Asia.” Hence, too, probably the -fact that Augustus (or rather as he then was, Octavianus) -spent his winter there after the battle of Actium. -Samos was, in early times, greatly devoted to the -worship of Juno, and Herodotus states that her temple -there was the largest he had seen. It was, however, -never completely finished. According to Virgil, Samos -<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>was the second in the affections of Juno, and, in -Strabo’s time, in spite of the plunder it had suffered -in the Mithradatic war, and, subsequently, by Verres, -her temple was a complete picture-gallery. Here too, -as so often elsewhere, a Sacred Way led from the -temple to the city. Samos was also famous for an -earthenware of a “red lustrous” character. Her art, in -this respect, was copied by the Romans, their common -red ware being popularly called “Samian.” Of this -most Museums have abundant and excellent specimens -(Marryat, “Pottery and Porcelain,” 1850).</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Chios</span>, now <i>Scio</i>, in ancient days known by the -name Pityusa, referring doubtless to its abundant pine-forests, -was nearly as close to the mainland of Asia -Minor as Lesbos, and, in size, rather more than twice -that of the Isle of Wight. It was in character peculiarly -rugged, its epithet in Homer [of whom it claimed -to be the birthplace], of παιπαλοέσσα (the “craggy”), -being literally true. In ancient and in modern times -it has been famed for the beauty of its women; in the -former, also, for the excellence of its wines. In an -oval place, not far from its chief town, stood the temple -of Cybele, whose worship the Chiotes especially affected; -and, that all things might fit properly, the careless -Pococke seeing there her headless statue, which he -describes as that of Homer, with equal judgment converted -the lions between which she is sitting into Muses! -Its present chief town is said, in situation, to resemble -Genoa in miniature. Traditionally, its oldest people -were the Pelasgi; but Ion, a native writer, with better -reason, traces them to Crete. Chios was little injured -by the first Persian conquest, as the Persians, then like -<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>Timúr, eighteen hundred years later, had no fleet; but -it was thoroughly sacked and plundered, subsequently, -for the crime of having sent one hundred ships to fight -off Miletus in aid of the Ionians (Herod. vi. 8, 32).</p> - -<p class='c015'>During the Peloponnesian war, Chios at first supported -the Athenians, but was afterwards ravaged -by them, though they failed to take its capital. -So, in the Mithradatic war, though at first supporting -the king of Pontus, Chios fell under his displeasure, -in that it had allowed Roman “negotiatores” to frequent -and settle in its ports, and had to pay 2,000 -talents, and to suffer still rougher treatment at the -hands of his general, Zenobius. In modern times, Scio -has suffered more perhaps than any other Greek island. -Early in the fourteenth century, the Turks secured -possession of it by a general massacre; in 1346, it was -taken from them by the Genoese, who held it for nearly -two centuries and a half, till it was recaptured by the -Turks. In 1822, having been foolishly over-persuaded—though -then a comparatively flourishing island—to -join in the revolt of the Greeks against the Turks, a -powerful Ottoman fleet attacked it, who, landing, massacred -right and left, enslaved its women and children, -and made, as is their wont, a well-cultivated district a -desert, destroying, too, by fire and sword a town with -thirty thousand inhabitants. No doubt fifty-four years -is a very long time in the eyes of mere politicians; -but historians might have been expected to remember -“Scio,” and to have anticipated similar results at -“Batak,” or wherever else these barbarians are able -to repeat the habits and practices of their fore-fathers.</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span><span class='sc'>Rhodus</span>, an island about ten miles from the south-west -end of Lycia, next claims our attention, as one -of the most important of the Greek settlements of antiquity, -and as retaining still something of its ancient -splendour. In remote ages as the adopted abode -of the Telchines, a celebrated brotherhood of artists, -probably of Phœnician origin, Rhodes soon became -famous for its cultivation of the arts, so imported, leading, -as these did, naturally, to a civilization much -in advance of the people around them. Its early -history abounds with many legendary tales, which we -regret we cannot insert here (but see Pindar Ol. vii.; -Hom. Il. ii. 653). The Rhodians, no doubt from their -early connections with the Phœnicians, were among the -greatest navigators of antiquity, and this, too, earlier -than B.C. 776, when the Olympian games are said to -have been instituted: hence the foundation by them -of very remote colonies in Sicily, Italy, and Spain; in -the latter country, especially <i>Rosas</i>, which, remarkably -enough, retains its ancient name, but slightly modified. -The Rhodian code of naval laws became too, as is -well known, not only the law of the Mediterranean, -but the basis of the law of much more modern times. -The people of this island did not, perhaps, for prudential -reasons, join in the Ionian revolt or in the -Persian war.</p> - -<p class='c015'>In the Peloponnesian war, too, they did not take an -active part, though serving (according to Thucydides), -with reluctance, on the side of Athens, against the -people of Syracuse and Gela. In those days they -were chiefly valued as light troops, especially, as darters -and slingers. In the cause of Darius Codomannus -<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>against Alexander, the Rhodians supported Memnon, -the ablest admiral of the day, whose death, perhaps -more than that of any other individual person, hastened -the downfall of the Persian monarchy; and -somewhat subsequently, their resistance to Demetrius -Poliorcetes, in the memorable siege they underwent, -secured them the highest credit, and the admiration -of their conqueror. Indeed, they were in such esteem -among their neighbours, that (so Polybius states) when -their city had been almost destroyed by an earthquake, -the rulers of Sicily, Asia Minor, Syria, and -Egypt vied with each other in the liberality of the -supplies and presents they sent to repair this calamity. -To the Romans their services were of the highest -value, indeed, it was mainly due to them, that the -naval operations of Livius, the Roman admiral, were -successful in the wars against Philip and Antiochus -(Liv. xxxi. 14; xxxvii. 9, &c.).</p> - -<p class='c015'>But, perhaps, the most interesting matter in connection -with the island of Rhodes is the history of the -researches recently conducted there by Messrs. Biliotti -and Salzmann on the site of Camirus, one of the three -chief original cities of that island, the combining of -which together, about B.C. 408, resulted in the creation -of the capital city, Rhodes. It was natural, therefore, -to expect that any antiquities discovered at these -places would be earlier than this date. The ground all -round is now covered by a pine forest, in the clearing -of which the old necropolis was discovered by a -bullock falling into a tomb. In 1853, Mr. Newton -obtained many <i>terra-cotta</i> vases of a very archaic -type, and other fictile vases from the peasants’ -<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>houses of the adjacent village of Kalaverda. Some -of the <i>pinakes</i> or platters, with geometrical patterns -painted in brown on a pale ground, resembled the -oldest objects of this class from the tombs of Athens -and Melos; the sites, too, of Mycenæ and Tiryns -are also strewn with similar fragments.<a id='r112' /><a href='#f112' class='c016'><sup>[112]</sup></a> Other amphoræ -and oinochoæ, with black figures on a red -ground, or red figures on a black, were also met with.<a id='r113' /><a href='#f113' class='c016'><sup>[113]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f112'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r112'>112</a>. </span>As has been well shown in Dr. Schliemann’s recent researches.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f113'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r113'>113</a>. </span>Travels in the Levant, i. p. 235.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>Shortly after this, a <i>firman</i> was obtained from Constantinople, -empowering Messrs. Biliotti and Salzmann -to make a thorough investigation into this ancient -site, the result of which has been the opening of at -least 275 tombs. From these tombs many precious -works of art in gold, bronze, and glass, with figures in -terra-cotta, and calcareous stones, together with vases -and alabaster jars, have been procured, some of them -probably as old as B.C. 650. The whole may be -grouped under the heads: (1) Asiatico-Phœnician, -or Archaic Greek; (2) Greek of the best and latest -periods; (3) Egyptian, or imitations of Egyptian. -The first is the most important, as comprehending -most of the gold and silver ornaments, with a few -terra-cottas. It has been supposed that the makers -of these objects were Phœnicians of Tyre and Sidon; -but, as many of the specimens betray a marked -Assyrian character and influence, they are more -probably copies, at second hand, of works originally -Assyrian.</p> - -<p class='c015'>On examining these curious works of art, it will be -observed that most of those in gold have been used -<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>either as necklaces or for attachment to other substances, -probably leather, consisting, as they do, for -the most part, of thin pieces or plaques of metal, -averaging from one to two and a half inches in -length, with subjects on them worked up, as a rule, -from behind, after the fashion now called <i>repoussée</i> -work. Thus we meet with standing female figures, -draped to the feet (which are close together), as -on the sculptures from Branchidæ, with long and -elaborately-dressed hair falling on their shoulders and -naked breasts, the arms being raised in a stiff and -formal manner, and the hands partially closed. Another -figure has large wings, almost like a <i>nimbus</i>, -hands crossed, and elbows square; and against the -body of this figure, a rudely-executed animal. A third -holds in each hand a small lion by the tail, just as on -some of the sculptures from Khorsabad. On a fourth -the lions are not held, but are springing up against -the figure.</p> - -<p class='c015'>On another plaque we have nearly the same type, -with this distinction, that the lions stand out in very -high relief, and, curiously enough, are in style almost -identical with those on a <i>fibula</i> obtained from Cervetri -by the late Mr. Blayds. Many instances may be seen -of the <i>narsingh</i>, or man-lion type—a compound figure, -with the head, body, and legs of a man, but attached -to or behind this body, and, as it were, growing out of -it, the body of an animal with hoofs. This monstrous -form occurs, also, on a vase from Athens and on Assyrian -cylinders. There are, also, specimens of winged, -man-headed lions, their wings being thrown back so -as to cover the whole figure, just as on the Assyrian -<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>sculptures. In some cases, we find bronze plated with -gold, the latter having often been forced asunder by -the rust and consequent expansion of the bronze.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Besides these objects, were found, also, small glass -vessels of a rich purple colour with yellow bands, like -those from Cære and other of the oldest cities of -Italy, and a coffin, 6 feet 4 inches long, and 2 feet -1 inch wide, made entirely of <i>terra-cotta</i>. There are -traces of brown and red paint over the whole of it, -and, at one end, lions in red, with floral ornaments, -and, at the other, a black bull between two brown -lions. Many large terra-cotta plates were also found, -with various subjects; such as the combat between -Hector and Menelaus over the body of Euphorbus, -with the names of the combatants written over them, -a drawing of especial interest, from the archaic type -of the superinscribed characters: there were, too, -a Gorgon’s head, sirens, and other strange animals, -and a sphinx and a bull with his horns drawn in -perspective. These plates were probably of local -manufacture. But, besides these curious antique -monuments, the excavations at Camirus brought -to light many objects of very fine work, two of which -must be mentioned. One, a small gold vessel of -exceeding beauty, about an inch in diameter, at one -end of which is a seated Eros or Cupid; on the -other, Thetis on a dolphin, with the arrows Vulcan -had forged for her son Achilles. The other, a magnificent -amphora, with figures in red on a black ground, -the subject being “the surprise of Thetis by Peleus”; -in fact, the same as that on one side of the Portland -vase; thus confirming, in a most unexpected manner, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>the interpretation originally proposed many years ago -by Mr. Millingen. This vase is of the time of Alexander -the Great, and few, if any vases have as yet -been found in the Archipelago exhibiting such free -and masterly drawing as this one from Camirus.</p> - -<p class='c015'>The island of <span class='sc'>Cyprus</span>, which lay off the southern -coast of Asia Minor, was one of the most celebrated -of those generally called the Greek Islands, though -it had, probably, less claim to this designation, and -was more Oriental than any of the others. It was, -as was natural from its position, early settled by the -Phœnicians, Herodotus speaking of the inhabitants -as a very mixed race. It is not possible to determine -which of several of its towns was the most -ancient; but, in the early Jewish Scriptures, we read -of “ships of Chittim,” probably those of Citium, one -of its chief towns. In later days, Paphos, itself of -remote antiquity, became the capital of the island, -and the residence, as we learn from the Acts of the -Apostles, of the Roman proconsul. As the centre of -the worship of Venus, which is noticed so early as -Homer, as well as by many later writers, Paphos was -greatly visited by strangers, among whom Tacitus -mentions, particularly, the Emperor Titus, when on -his way to besiege Jerusalem (Hist. ii. 3-4). Her -symbol, or idol, was a purely Asiatic type, and consisted -merely of an upright, conical, and unsculptured -stone. The history of the island was a very -chequered one, and there were but comparatively -short intervals of time when it was really under its -own native rulers; more frequently it was held -by one or other of the continental empires near it -<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>which happened for the time to be the most powerful. -Thus it was, usually, in the hands of the Persians, -till the overthrow of that power by Alexander, -when it was secured by the Ptolemies, in -whose diadem it was the most precious jewel. In -the end it was, of course, seized by the Romans, becoming -first an Imperial province, and then, by the -arrangement of Augustus, directly under the Senate. -In later times, it was the seat of a bishopric, one of -the most famous of the bishops of Paphos being the -celebrated Epiphanius. During the Crusades, Richard -Cœur de Lion captured the island and gave it to Guy -de Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, whence the title of -kings of Cyprus and Jerusalem, adopted, till recent -times, by some of the monarchs of Western Europe.</p> - -<p class='c015'>In recent times, the Island of Cyprus has proved -one of the most abundant sources of precious remains -of antiquity, excavated chiefly by Mr. R. H. -Lang and General Palma di Cesnola. The former -gentleman has published in the Numismatic Chronicle -(vol. xi. New Series, 1870), an account of the silver -coins, many of native Cypriote manufacture, he -lighted on while digging out an ancient temple at -Dali (Idalium), in 1869. The coins were found at -two several times, and, from the way in which some -of them adhered together, had probably been enclosed -in a bag, though no traces of it were detected. -Mr. Lang believed he could trace from them the -existence of the six or seven distinct kingdoms, which -we know, from other sources, once existed in this -island. The earliest of these coins are, perhaps, as -old as the middle of the sixth century B.C.</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>The most important results of Mr. Lang’s excavations -in this temple are now in the British Museum, -and have been described by him in a paper read -before the Royal Society of Literature (see Transactions, -New Series, vol. xi. pt. i. 1875). In this -memoir, which has been supplemented with some -careful observations by Mr. R. S. Poole, Mr. Lang -has given many interesting details of his excavations. -His first diggings were in 1868, when his men soon -“came upon (as it were) a mine of statues,” several -of them being of colossal proportions, and on two large -troughs, in an outer court, perhaps once employed for -the ablutions connected with the temple, which was -completely “full of the heads of small statues, which, -after being broken from their bodies, had been -pitched pell-mell into the troughs.” Near these troughs -were three rows of statues; some, too, of the chambers -excavated were also full of statuary—and in a -stratum of charcoal were comminuted fragments of -the bones and teeth of several animals; as of bullocks, -sheep, camels, and swine. We can only add, here, -that the treatment of the beard on some of the heads -is remarkably Assyrian; which, indeed, might reasonably -have been expected, as the island was long -subject to that empire,—and, that, besides coins and -sculptures, Mr. Lang procured, also, several Phœnician -inscriptions, not, however, of very early date, -their characters being nearly identical with those on -the well-known inscription in the Bodleian Library -at Oxford, together with one bilingual inscription in -Cypriote and Phœnician writing. The last has proved -of great value, in that it enabled the late Dr. Brandis -<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>and Mr. G. Smith to settle many important points -in connection with the Cyprian alphabet.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Nearly about the same time as Mr. Lang, General -di Cesnola, the American consul in Cyprus, was -commencing a series of excavations, the latest results -of which have, in some respects, far surpassed anything -Mr. Lang achieved. M. Cesnola began digging, -we believe, first about 1867; but his first -important discoveries were in the spring of 1870, -when he found at Golgos the remains of two temples -of Venus, nearly on the spot where, some time before, -the Count de Vogüé had been less fortunate. It was -here that M. di Cesnola formed his first collection, -now for the most part in the museum of New York. -As in the case of Mr. Lang, the statues had all -been thrown down and grievously defaced by “iconoclastic” -hands. Among them, however, were many -which had been simply hurled from their pedestals, -and were, therefore, nearly as fresh as when first made. -One great interest in the collection is, that it is -almost wholly the product of local artists. Naturally -there was in it a large number of statuettes of Venus, -of vases, of lamps, and of objects in glass; the latter, -we believe, chiefly from Idalium. It is said that -altogether there were nearly 10,000 objects, and that -New York secured them for about £1 apiece. We -cannot discuss here the question, much mooted at the -time, whether or not the collection ought to have been -bought by the English Government; but, had it been, -we do not know where it could have been adequately -exhibited. The British Museum seems to be as full -as ever; nor is there any apparent hope of the removal -<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>of the hideous black sheds between the -columns in the front of it, which have now, for these -twenty years, defaced any architectural beauty it may -be supposed to have.</p> - -<p class='c015'>But by far the most remarkable of General di Cesnola’s -discoveries are his most recent ones, the great -results of which are now, we believe, on their way to -New York, the American Government having had the -good sense to supply him with ample means for continuing -his researches in the best manner. These -last, commenced in 1873, have been prosecuted at -various ancient sites, such as those of Golgos, Salamis, -Palæo-Paphos, Soli, and Amathus; Curium -having ultimately proved the most valuable mine -of antiquities. Besides two superb sarcophagi he -had previously secured, M. Cesnola found at Curium -a mosaic pavement, in style, as he calls it, Assyrio-Egyptian, -which had already been partly dug through -by some former excavator, and beneath this, at a -depth of twenty feet, a subterranean passage in -the rock leading into three chambers, communicating -the one with the other. In the first of these -he came upon a great number of small ornaments, -rings, &c., in pure gold; in the second, on a considerable -collection of gilt vases, cups, &c.; and -in the third, on innumerable miscellaneous objects, -comprising vases of alabaster, candelabra, metal -mirrors, daggers, armlets, small statues of animals, -&c. The most valuable individual specimens would -seem to be a crystal vase and a pair of armillæ in -gold, bearing a double Cypriote inscription. What -then is the history of this precious <i>trouvaille</i>? We -<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>venture to think that General di Cesnola’s idea on the -subject is probably the true one,—that it represents -the offerings in a temple now destroyed, and hurriedly -packed away, possibly when it was attacked by -iconoclasts. Some of the bijoux are inscribed with -the names of the owners, and probably donors. Like -the relics from Cameirus, these Cypriote monuments -are of great antiquarian value, as proving the transition -from Eastern to Greek art.</p> - -<p class='c015'>[For further details, see Atti d. Real. Acad. d. -Scien. di Torino, vol. x.; and Ceccaldi, Le ultime -Scoperte nell’ isola di Cipro, 1876.]</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c000' /> -</div> -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span> - <h2 id='ch05' class='c009'><em class='gesperrt'>CHAPTER V</em>.<br /> <br /><span class='c012'>ST. PAUL.</span></h2> -</div> -<p class='c014'><span class='sc'>During</span> previous parts of this work we have, from -time to time, alluded to the presence of St. Paul at -various places we have described; the interest, however, -every one feels in the great Apostle of the -Gentiles induces us to throw together in one chapter -a brief summary of his journeys in Asia Minor; the -more so, that to a Christian, studying the history of -this portion of Western Asia, St. Paul stands out -alone—“none but himself can be his parallel.”</p> -<p class='c015'>St. Paul’s missionary labours commenced from the -period when the Holy Ghost said, “Separate me -Barnabas and Paul for the work whereunto I have -called them” (Acts xiii. 2); an order, doubtless, given -at Antioch in Syria, as they soon after started from -Seleucia, the port of Antioch, for Cyprus, the native -home of Barnabas. Antioch was then the capital of -Northern Syria, and as much, if not more than Jerusalem, -the centre of Christian evangelization. Hence, -the natural reason why at Antioch men were “first -called Christians.” Seleucia, too, at the mouth of -the Orontes, about twenty miles below Antioch, was -the “key of Syria,” and had, recently, obtained -from Pompey the title of a “Free City,” an honour -which it long retained. Dr. Yates (long a resident -in the neighbourhood), in an interesting memoir on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>this city (in the Museum of Classical Antiquities), -mentions that the names of the piers at the mouth of -its harbour still preserve a record of St. Paul’s voyage, -the southern one being called after him, and the -northern after Barnabas. Structures so vast as these -may easily have remained to the present day, for -Pococke states that some of the stones “are twenty -feet long by five deep and six wide, and fastened -together by iron cramps.” The voyage from Seleucia -to Cyprus is, generally, short and easy.</p> - -<p class='c015'>The first place they made in the island was Salamis,<a id='r114' /><a href='#f114' class='c016'><sup>[114]</sup></a> -whence they proceeded right across it to Paphos, -the residence of the Roman governor, Sergius Paulus, -“a prudent man.” Here we have the remarkable -story of Elymas the sorcerer, and of the conversion -of the governor on witnessing the miracle by the hand -of St. Paul. Cyprus was at that time, as may be -gathered from Dio Cassius, under the direct government -of the Emperor of Rome, together with Syria -and Cilicia; but, a little later, this historian adds that -Augustus restored it to the Senate. St. Luke’s title, -therefore, of proconsul is correct, as that invariably -given to the rulers of the provinces belonging to the -Senate. A Cyprian inscription in Boeckh confirms -this view. The occurrence of a person called a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>“sorcerer” at the court of the Roman governor is -quite in accordance with the manners of the times. -Thus, Juvenal sarcastically speaks of the “Orontes -flowing into the Tiber.”<a id='r115' /><a href='#f115' class='c016'><sup>[115]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f114'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r114'>114</a>. </span>Salamis was on the east side of the island, nearly opposite -to Syria; and, in early times, the capital of the island. It was -destroyed by the Romans, but rebuilt with the name of Constantia. -It was a little to the north of Famagousta, the name -of which, curiously enough, is not of Latin origin, as might be -supposed, but a lineal descendant of the original Assyrian Ammochosta.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f115'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r115'>115</a>. </span>Juven. Sat. iii. 60; ib. vi. 584, 589; Horat. Od. i. xi.; -Sat. ii. 1; and Juven. iii. 13, and vi. 542, point out the number of -Jewish impostors of the lowest kind with whom Rome was then -infested: Juvenal, vi. 553, indicates the influence the so-called -Chaldean astrologers possessed there.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>It has been often thought that, from the miracle -over Elymas, dates the change of the name of the -apostle from Saul to Paul, and certain it is that, -subsequently to the words “Then Saul (who is -also called Paul)” (Acts xiii. 9), the first name -does not occur again; moreover, in his fourteen -Epistles the apostle invariably calls himself Paul. So -happened it in earlier days, when Abram was changed -into Abraham. It has been further supposed that, as -Barnabas was a native of Cyprus, the apostles were -induced to visit that island first; but, for their crossing -to Attalia in Pamphylia, in preference to any other -port, no reason can be assigned, though we may conjecture -that they acted on information obtained in -Cyprus. The communication was no doubt easy and -probably constant. Attalia, as we have pointed out, -was then, as now, a place of some consequence, and -almost the only port of southern Asia Minor: thence -they proceeded up the steep and rugged defiles of -the Pamphylian mountains to Perga, and, ultimately, -to Antiochia in Pisidia. The sacred writer records -no event on their route thither, except the secession of -Mark, which probably took place soon after they had -<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>landed; nor has he even given the reason that influenced -Mark; but this may have been as Matthew -Henry has suggested: “Either he (Mark) did not -like the work, or he wanted to go and see his -mother.” St. Paul, we know, felt acutely, what he -might fairly have considered as little short of a desertion; -indeed, this secession led, as we shall see -hereafter, to the separation between himself and -Barnabas on the eve of his second missionary journey.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Whatever Mark’s reasons, certain it is he did depart, -and that St. Paul pushed on with characteristic -bravery through a country the nature of which we -have described when speaking of Cremna, Sagalassus, -and of the probable position of Perge; and -which may be comprehended, in all its fulness, by -those who have time to study the valuable researches -of Leake and Hamilton, Spratt and Forbes, -Arundell and Sir Charles Fellows. It has been -reasonably conjectured that, St. Paul travelling, as he -probably did a little before the full heat of the -summer had commenced, attached his small party to -some large group or caravan travelling inwards and -northwards in the same direction. Many travellers, -and especially Sir Charles Fellows, have pointed out -the annual custom prevailing among the dwellers -along the southern shores of Asia Minor, of leaving -their homes at the beginning of the hot weather, and -of migrating with their cattle and household property -to the cooler valleys of the mountains.</p> - -<p class='c015'>With regard to Antioch in Pisidia, we have already -shown that Mr. Arundell was the first to point out -that some ruins, now called Yalobatch, can scarcely -<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>be any other than those of this Antioch. We need -not, therefore, dwell any longer on this point, simply -adding, that, from its great commercial importance, -St. Paul must have found there many resident Jews, -while we know that there was at least one synagogue.</p> - -<p class='c015'>On arriving at Antioch, the narrative in the Bible -goes on to say that the Apostles “went into the -synagogue on the Sabbath-day, and sat down”; then, -after the reading the Law, as was and still is, the usual -custom, the rulers of the synagogue desired them to -speak, and St. Paul gave one of his most characteristic -addresses, being, at first, well received by his -own countrymen, and, especially so, by those persons -who, having given up idol-worship, were usually -known as proselytes. He was, therefore, invited to -preach on the following Sabbath-day, the intervening -week having been, no doubt, well employed in constant -meetings between St. Paul and these proselytes, -and in earnest addresses and exhortations. Hence, -we are told that, on this second occasion, “came -almost the whole city together to hear the word of -God.” But this was more than the Jews could endure: -so they stirred up the “chief men of the city,” -and the Apostles were soon after (we are not told -how soon) “expelled out of their coasts,” that is, -ordered to go beyond the limits of the Roman colony -of Antioch; though, as they returned to it again, -shortly afterwards, it is likely that no formal decree -of banishment was promulgated against them. On -this “they shook off the dust of their feet against -them.”<a id='r116' /><a href='#f116' class='c016'><sup>[116]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f116'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r116'>116</a>. </span>The action used by the Apostles was, it will be remembered, -in obedience to the direct words of our Lord: “Whosoever,” -said He, “shall not receive you nor hear you, when ye depart -thence, shake off the dust under your feet as a testimony against -them” (Matt. x. 14; Mark vi. 11; Luke ix. 5). It was, in fact, -a symbolical act, implying that the city was regarded as profane. -It may be presumed that the “devout and honourable women” -(Acts xiii. 50) were proselytes.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'><span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>St. Paul’s speech, on the second Sabbath, is worthy -of note as that in which he first definitely stated the -object of his mission; for, when thus attacked by his -own countrymen, he turned upon them with the words, -“It was necessary that the word of God should first -have been spoken to you; but, seeing ye put it from you -and judge yourselves unworthy of everlasting life, we -turn to the Gentiles” (Acts xiii. 46). Strabo (vii. 3) -has pointed out that “feminine influence” was a remarkable -characteristic of the manners of Western Asia -in his day, and of this we find the Jews availing themselves, -on this occasion. Leaving Antioch, then, -the Apostles turned nearly south-east to Iconium, -which, as we have already stated, was, in those days, -the chief town of the sub-district of Lycaonia. The -treatment the Apostles received at Iconium was not very -different from that they had experienced at Antioch. -Here, as there, “the unbelieving Jews stirred up the -Gentiles,” but were not, for some time, successful in -their designs, as the Apostles were able to abide there -a long time, “speaking boldly in the Lord.” In fact, -as at Ephesus, “the multitude of the city was divided, -and part held with the Jews, and part with the -Apostles” (xiv. 4). In the end, however, the Jews -prevailed: so the Apostles had to save themselves -from being stoned, by flight “unto Lystra and Derbe, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>cities of Lycaonia, and unto the region that lieth -round about” (ver. 6), “and there,” it is added, -“they preached the Gospel.”</p> - -<p class='c015'>We have, already, shown that there is some doubt -as to the position of these two towns, but that -Mr. Falkener has probably found Lystra on the side -of a mountain called Karadagh, at a place called by -the Turks Bin-bir-Kalessi, or, the Thousand Churches. -So, too, the site of Derbe has, certainly, not been -yet made out completely; but, from the similarity -of name, it may be at Divle, as suggested by -Hamilton.</p> - -<p class='c015'>The narrative of what took place at Lystra is very -interesting. At first, we may presume that St. Paul -preached to any chance groups that collected around -him: after some time, however, he saw a poor cripple -“who had never walked,” and “perceiving that he -had faith to be healed,” at once cured him, saying to -him with a loud voice, “Stand upright on thy feet.” -Need we wonder that the astonishment of the people -vented itself in the natural exclamation that “the -gods had come to us in the likeness of men.” The -narrative implies the existence, before the walls of -the city, of a temple of Jupiter (Acts xiv. 13), some -traces of which may, perhaps, still remain, and, if -so, will serve, hereafter, for the identification of the -site. Messrs. Conybeare and Howson have pointed -out that the beautiful legend of the visit of Jupiter -and Mercury to the earth, in Ovid’s story of Baucis -and Philemon, belongs to this part of Asia Minor: -the people of Lystra would, therefore, have been prepared -to recognize in Barnabas and Paul the Jupiter -<span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>and Mercury of their own fables. What was the -“speech of Lycaonia” we have no means of telling, -no undoubted words of this dialect having, so far as -we are aware, been preserved.</p> - -<p class='c015'>But the Lycaonians, though, at first, so readily -convinced of the divinity of the Apostles, soon showed -themselves as fickle as the “foolish Galatians.” St. -Luke adding, “and there came thither certain Jews -from Antioch and Iconium and persuaded the people, -and having stoned Paul, drew him out of the city, -supposing that he was dead,” so little lasting was the -impression produced, even by the cure of one born a -cripple. It is, doubtless, to this attack upon him that -St. Paul, subsequently, alludes in the words, “Once -was I stoned” (2 Cor. xi. 25). That he was not -killed, like St. Stephen, as Barnabas and his friends -feared and the Jews hoped, is a miracle in itself. -Any how, he recovered at once as “he rose up -and came into the city,” and departed next day “with -Barnabas to Derbe.” It was at Lystra that St. Paul -made the acquaintance of Timotheus (or Timothy) -his future constant and steadfast companion. With -Derbe ends all that has been recorded of St. Paul’s -First journey. On the return, however, of Paul and -Barnabas, we learn that they fearlessly visited again -all the places where they had previously preached, -“confirming the souls of the disciples, and exhorting -them to continue in the faith.” At the same time, -too, they ordained “elders in every church,” praying -with fasting, and commending “them to the Lord, -on whom they believed.”</p> - -<p class='c015'>The course of the Second missionary journey of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>St. Paul, most of which falls within the limits of this -volume, was probably determined on when the Council -of the Apostles at Jerusalem sent letters “unto -the brethren which are of the Gentiles in Antioch, in -Syria, and in Cilicia” (xv. 23): it was manifestly, also, -St. Paul’s own desire, for he says, “Let us go again -and visit our brethren in every city, where we have -announced the word of the Lord, and see how they -do.” It was, on the proposal of this second journey, -that the famous dispute took place between St. Paul -and Barnabas, the former refusing to take with him -Barnabas’s kinsman Mark, because he had turned -back before. For this journey (at Attalia), therefore, -“Paul chose Silas, and departed, being recommended -by the brethren unto the grace of God; and -he went through Syria and Cilicia confirming the -Churches” (ver. 40). We cannot discuss here the circumstances -of this quarrel between the two “servants -of the Lord,” but one good result from it was, clearly, -a far wider preaching of the Gospel than might -otherwise have occurred; as, by this separation, two -distinct streams of missionary labour were provided -instead of one; Barnabas taking the insular, while -St. Paul took the continental line.</p> - -<p class='c015'>We do not know which way St. Paul went on leaving -Antioch, but it is most likely he passed into Cilicia -by the “Syrian Gates,” now called the pass of Beilan, -the character of which may be fully learnt from Mr. -Ainsworth and other travellers. For some unknown -reason, Sacred history does not give the name of a -single place visited during this confirmatory tour, till -the Apostles reached Derbe and Lystra; though we -may feel sure, especially as the “Gentiles of Cilicia” -<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>are mentioned in the letter of the Apostles, that St. -Paul did not fail to visit his native town, Tarsus, the -“no mean city” of his address to the Roman governor. -At Tarsus, if anywhere in Cilicia, Christians would be -surely found who would be glad of the Apostle’s -“confirming” words. From Tarsus, St. Paul must -have passed from S.E. to N.W., through the great -mountain barrier which separates the central table-land -of Asia Minor from the plain country in which Tarsus -was situated. There are several passes; the nearest -to Tarsus and most direct, being that of the “Cilician -Gates,” a remarkable cleft, about eighty miles -in length. Ascending, probably, by this pass, St. Paul -would reach the plains of Lycaonia, at an altitude of -about 4,000 feet above the sea, in four or five days. -At Lystra (probably) he met again the young disciple -Timotheus, “who was well reported of at Lystra -and Iconium,” and who, at St. Paul’s request, at -once joined him: thence, “as they went through -the cities they delivered them the decrees for to keep -that were ordained by the Apostles and Elders that -were at Jerusalem; and so were the churches -established in the faith, and increased in number -daily.” We are not told that, on this occasion, St. -Paul met with any serious opposition.</p> - -<p class='c015'>The brevity of the account of this journey is most -disappointing, as we do not know whether St. Paul -visited even Antioch in Pisidia: all we learn is that -he was <i>ordered</i> to “go through Phrygia and the region of -Galatia,” altogether new ground, and representing districts -that could not have been evangelized before. Yet -even here the names of no towns are recorded till he -gets to Mysia: on the other hand, he was <i>not permitted</i> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>to preach the “word” in Asia; that is, within Roman -“Asia,” nor to enter Bithynia. Most likely, as suggested -by Messrs. Conybeare and Howson, he followed -the great Roman lines of communication, and -passed by Laodicea, Philomelium, and Synnada.</p> - -<p class='c015'>It has been inferred from his use of the plural, “to -the churches of Galatia,” as the heading of his Epistle -to that people, that there was no one great church -there, as at Ephesus or Corinth; but this seems to us -refining too much. We may, however, suppose that no -special miracles marked this journey, or, at all events, -none which St. Luke thought it necessary to notice. -We learn from St. Paul himself (Galat. iv. 13) that it -was owing to bodily sickness that he preached to the -Galatians in the first instance, it may be, as has been -suggested, on his way to Pontus, from which distant -province we know that some Jewish proselytes had -come to Jerusalem, and were present on the day of -Pentecost (Acts ii. 11): moreover, it is certain, from -his Epistle to the Galatians, that he had been well -received by this inconstant people, a large and mixed -multitude having embraced Christianity.</p> - -<p class='c015'>As, in so many other instances, no clue is given us -as to the further route actually taken by the Apostles -to Troas, but, by the Divine prohibition to them of -preaching in “Asia,” we may conjecture that the time -was not ripe for spreading the Gospel among the great -cities of Ephesus, Smyrna, or Pergamus. It will be -noticed that the Apostles are not forbidden to <i>enter</i> -Asia, as was the case with Bithynia, but only not to -<i>preach there</i>. Indeed, they could not, easily, have got -to Troas without passing through “Asia.”</p> - -<p class='c015'>The first seaport St. Paul reached must have been -<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>Adramyttium, which is not, however, noticed here by -name, though it is subsequently, when on the voyage -to Rome. Of this place we have, already, given some -account: and hence, it would seem, that the Apostle -passed onwards to Assos and Alexandria Troas, where -the remarkable vision appeared to him which is thus -described:—</p> - -<p class='c015'>“And a vision appeared to Paul in the night. -There stood a man of Macedonia and prayed him, -saying, Come over into Macedonia, and help us. -And, after he had seen the vision, immediately we -endeavoured to go into Macedonia, assuredly gathering -that the Lord had called us for to preach the -Gospel unto them. Therefore, loosing from Troas -we came with a straight course to Samothrace....” -(Acts xvi. 9, 10, 11).</p> - -<p class='c015'>Compelled as we are here to compress as much -as possible what must be said, we reluctantly -desist from following St. Paul to Europe. We -need, therefore, only state that, after two years St. -Paul returned to Antioch in Syria and Jerusalem, -passing, on his way, sufficient time at Ephesus, so -that “he himself entered into the synagogue, and -reasoned with the Jews” (xviii. 19), promising, at the -request of the congregation, that he would return to -Ephesus, “if God will.” Having “saluted the -Church” (probably of Jerusalem) he returned to -Antioch, and thence “departed and went over all -the country of Galatia and Phrygia in order, strengthening -all the disciples,”<a id='r117' /><a href='#f117' class='c016'><sup>[117]</sup></a> arriving, ultimately, at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>Ephesus, where he found Apollos, “an eloquent man, -and mighty in the Scriptures” (xviii. 24).</p> - -<div class='fn'> - -<div class='footnote' id='f117'> -<p class='c017'><span class='label'><a href='#r117'>117</a>. </span>The brief statement in the Acts does not tell us anything of -the course St. Paul took on this occasion; but as he went “over -all the country of Galatia and Phrygia in order,” we can have no -doubt that his visitation of the churches was complete, and that -he went to all or most of the places noticed in the previous -journeys.</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c015'>The visit of St. Paul to Ephesus was the period -when it pleased God to do for the later disciples -what had been previously done, twelve or thirteen -years before, on the day of Pentecost: “the Holy -Ghost came on them, and they spake with tongues, -and prophesied.” In the present instance, it is -enough to refer to the words in the narrative as -given in the Acts xix. 2: “He” (St. Paul) “said unto -them, Have ye received the Holy Ghost since ye believed? -And they said unto him, We have not so -much as heard whether there be any Holy Ghost,” -&c.... “When they heard this, they were baptized -in the name of the Lord Jesus; and when Paul laid -his hands upon them, the Holy Ghost came on them, -and they spake with tongues, and prophesied.”</p> - -<p class='c015'>At Ephesus St. Paul dwelt more than two years, -diligently preaching the Gospel, and “disputing daily -in the school of one Tyrannus.” No opposition appears -to have arisen for some time; indeed, for three -months, he was allowed the use of even the synagogue; -but, in the end, the idol-brokers felt their trade was -in jeopardy, and, especially, men, who, like Demetrius, -the silversmith, making the “silver shrines for -Diana, brought no small gain unto the craftsmen.”</p> - -<p class='c015'>As at Corinth, St. Paul at Ephesus was brought, -face to face, with Asiatic superstition, withstanding -even magic arts, as Moses did, Jannes, and Jambres, -and, also, “exorcists.” What this “magic” really -<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>was has been much debated. Anyhow, the Talmud -tells us that a “knowledge of magic” was required as -a necessary qualification for a seat in the Sanhedrin, -so that the councillor might be able to try those accused -of such practices, though some of these need -not, necessarily, have been of evil intention: it is -clear, however, from the case of Sceva (xix. 14), that -many of the “exorcists” made a bad use of any superior -knowledge they possessed or pretended to have. -St. Paul’s success, however, in putting down this -species of knavery, was so complete, that a large -number of the exorcists submitted to him, and burnt -their books, which were valued at a very high price. -The “town-clerk” was, doubtless, as we have remarked -before, a Roman officer, and, as the keeper -of the public records, one of the most important -personages in the town. His language in putting -down the <i>émeute</i> in the theatre clearly shows this; -but, as he evidently refers to others of greater power -than himself, we hardly think, as some have done, that -he was himself one of the “Asiarchs,” or, as our -translation has it, “chiefs of Asia.” His language -shows that he was not unfriendly to St. Paul (though -not necessarily that he was, himself, a Christian); and, -further, that he well knew how to deal with a multitude, -“the more part of whom knew not wherefore -they were come together.”</p> - -<p class='c015'>We have now brought nearly to an end the short -outline we felt it necessary to give of St. Paul’s journeying -in Asia Minor. It is probable that, soon after -the disturbance in the theatre, he left for Macedonia; -so that the rest of his connection with Asia Minor -or with the Greek islands may be summed up in a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>few words. After some time passed in Macedonia, -with a possible journey through Illyricum and Western -Greece, which occupied him for three months (xx. 3), -St. Paul returned to the north, and, passing by -Philippi and Neapolis, crossed the Ægæan to Alexandria -Troas. This second visit to Troas is chiefly -notable for the story of the boy Eutychus, who, -overcome with sleep when St. Paul continued his -speech until midnight, fell to the ground and was -killed. It will be observed, that, in the miracle of -his restoration to life, St. Paul implied the use of -the very words of our Saviour to the young maiden: -“She is not dead, but sleepeth.” Thence he proceeded -alone on foot twenty miles to Assos, through -a district then, as now, richly wooded, but with a good -Roman road, long since in utter decay. It was a -lonely walk the great Apostle pursued then; but solitude -is sometimes required to give greater strength.</p> - -<p class='c015'>From Assos St. Paul took ship to Mytilene, proceeding -onwards to Chios, Samos, Trogyllium, and Miletus. -At this last place, he summoned the elders from Ephesus, -and bade a solemn farewell to the Christians of -Asia, among whom he had laboured so long and so -efficiently; and passing thence by Coos and Rhodes -to Patara, finally entered a ship there, and sailed to -Phœnicia (xxi. 1). At Trogyllium the Admiralty chart -shows a harbour that still bears the name of St. Paul’s -Port. So far as we know, with the exception of touching -at Cnidus on his last voyage to Rome, St. Paul -had no further connection with Asia Minor.</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c000' /> -</div> -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span> - <h2 id='idx' class='c009'><em class='gesperrt'>INDEX</em>.</h2> -</div> -<ul class='index c000'> - <li class='c023'>Abydus, Xerxes builds his bridge near, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Ancyra, temple and inscription of Augustus, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>-<a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Antioch of Pisidia, site of, suggested by Mr. Arundell, proved by Mr. Hamilton, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>-<a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Apamea, and the legend of the ark resting there, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>-<a href='#Page_135'>135</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Argæus, Mt., near Cæsarea, ascended for the first time by Mr. Hamilton, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Asia Minor, size of, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>; - <ul> - <li>less productive than of old, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>;</li> - <li>chief islands of, noticed here, Lesbos, Samos, Chios, Rhodus and Cyprus, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>-<a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c023'>Aspendus, beauty of theatre at, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Assus, importance of the monuments found there, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Attali, gallant character of the family of, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Attalia (now Adalia), important port of, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li> - <li class='c000'>Beaufort, Capt., discovery by of the granary of Trajan at Myra, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Branchidæ, famous oracle and temple at, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>; - <ul> - <li>important excavations at by Mr. Newton, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>-<a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c000'>Chios, through all history, ancient and modern, cruelly</li> - <li class='c023'><span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>treated by its neighbours, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Cnidus, important excavations at by Mr. Newton, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>-<a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Colossæ, satisfactorily identified by Mr. Hamilton, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>-<a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Cyprus, recent valuable researches in by Mr. Lang and General Palma di Cesnola, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>-<a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Cyzicus, position of, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li> - <li class='c000'>Ephesus, one of the most important of the cities of W. Asia, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>; - <ul> - <li>discovery of its famous temple of Diana by Mr. Wood, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>-<a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c000'>Falkener, Mr., interesting notice of Mt. Karadagh and of Bir-bir-Kalisseh, the 1,001 churches, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>.</li> - <li class='c000'>Gomperz, Prof., interpretation by of some inscriptions found by Dr. Schliemann, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li> - <li class='c000'>Hierapolis, remarkable petrifactions near, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Hissarlik, the true site of ancient Troy, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>; - <ul> - <li>as also of new Troy, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c000'>Iconium, its history, ancient and mediæval, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>-<a href='#Page_128'>128</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Isaura, Mr. Hamilton identifies the site of, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>-<a href='#Page_126'>126</a>.</li> - <li class='c000'>Lampsacus, for some time the home of Themistocles, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'><span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>Laodicea (ad Lycum), the chief town of Roman Proconsular Asia, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>-<a href='#Page_141'>141</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Lesbos, general character of its citizens, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>-<a href='#Page_157'>157</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Lystra and Derbe, difficulties in their identification, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>-<a href='#Page_130'>130</a>.</li> - <li class='c000'>Magnesia (the Lydian), legends of Tantalus and Niobe connected with, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Mausoleum, or tomb of Mausolus, excavations at, by Mr. Newton, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>-<a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Miletus, great importance of its position as a port, and the parent of more colonies than any other place in antiquity, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>-<a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Myra, remarkable beauty of its rock-cut tombs at, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>-<a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> - <li class='c000'>Palæ-scepsis, the MSS. of Aristotle discovered there, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Patara, celebrated oracle at, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Paul, St., missionary labours of, in Asia Minor, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>-<a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Philadelphia, famous resistance of, to the Turks in <span class='fss'>A.D.</span> 1390, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Philomelium, the best opium grown round it, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a> (and n.).</li> - <li class='c023'>Phrygians, the ethnological relations of, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>-<a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Physcus (now Marmorice), Lord Nelson anchors his ships there, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Pullan, Mr., discovery by, of a colossal lion near Cnidus, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>-<a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.</li> - <li class='c000'>Rhodus, remarkable excavations in, at Camirus, by Messrs. Biliotti and Saltzmann, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>-<a href='#Page_165'>165</a>.</li> - <li class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>Sagalassus, grand natural position of, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Samos, history of, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>-<a href='#Page_159'>159</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Sardes, importance of in ancient history, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>-<a href='#Page_61'>61</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Sarkophagi, so named from the stone found at Assus, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Schliemann, Dr., remarkable early career of, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>-<a href='#Page_14'>14</a>; - <ul> - <li>excavations by, at Troy, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>-<a href='#Page_24'>24</a>;</li> - <li>his reasons for believing Hissarlik the site of Troy, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a> (n.).</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c023'>Selge, position of, not quite certain, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Selinus (in Cilicia), the death-place of the Emperor Trajanus, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Sinope, the royal residence of the kings of Pontus, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Smyrna, long endurance of, as a great port, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Soli (in Cilicia) and solecisms, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a> (n.).</li> - <li class='c023'>Stratonicea, remarkable inscription of Diocletian thence, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - <li class='c000'>Tarsus, abundant interesting notices of, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>-<a href='#Page_116'>116</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Telmessus, famous for its augurs, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Termessus, remarkable position of, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>.</li> - <li class='c023'>Troy, various theories as to its true position, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.</li> - <li class='c000'>Xanthus, in Lycia, curious story of, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>-<a href='#Page_89'>89</a>; - <ul> - <li>discoveries at, by Sir Charles Fellows, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>-<a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> -</ul> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<hr class='c024' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><span class='small'>WYMAN AND SONS, PRINTERS, GREAT QUEEN ST., LINCOLN’S-INN FIELDS.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c000' /> -</div> -<p class='c015'> </p> -<div class='tnbox'> - - <ul class='ul_1 c000'> - <li>Transcriber’s Notes: - <ul class='ul_2'> - <li>An entry for the <a href='#idx'>Index</a> was added to the <a href='#toc'>Table of Contents</a>. - </li> - <li>Some footnotes did not have a legible number and were renumbered to the best-match - reference number in the text. - </li> - <li>Incorrect Greek accent and breathing marks were silently corrected. - </li> - <li>In cases where the author mis-spelled words in very well-known and well-documented - excerpts from classical works, the incorrect spelling has been corrected - </li> - <li>Typographical errors were silently corrected. - </li> - </ul> - </li> - </ul> - -</div> -<p class='c015'> </p> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANCIENT HISTORY FROM THE MONUMENTS: GREEK CITIES & ISLANDS OF ASIA MINOR ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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