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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ac6c7f6 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #66391 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/66391) diff --git a/old/66391-0.txt b/old/66391-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 07d7695..0000000 --- a/old/66391-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7286 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Book of Marionettes, by Helen Haiman -Joseph - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: A Book of Marionettes - -Author: Helen Haiman Joseph - -Release Date: September 27, 2021 [eBook #66391] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: deaurider, Charlie Howard, and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The Internet - Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A BOOK OF MARIONETTES *** - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes will be found after the Index. - - - - -[Illustration: DRYAD AND TWO FAUNS - -[Puppets of Mr. William Simmonds, London]] - - - - - A BOOK _of_ MARIONETTES - - _by_ - HELEN HAIMAN JOSEPH - - - [Illustration] - - - _New York_ · B. W. HUEBSCH · _Mcmxx_ - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY - B. W. HUEBSCH - - - - - _To my Father_ - - ELIAS HAIMAN - - _With pride and love for the brave simplicity - and gentle nobility of his life_ - - - - -_Note_ - - -The story of the marionette is endless, in fact it has neither -beginning nor end. The marionette has been everywhere and is -everywhere. One cannot write of the puppets without saying more than -one had intended and less than one desired: there is such a piquant -insistency in them. The purpose of this book is altogether modest, but -the length of it has grown to be presumptuous. As to its merit, that -must be found in the subject matter and in the sources from which the -material was gathered. If this volume is but a sign-post pointing the -way to better historians and friends of the puppets and through them on -to more puppet play it will have proven merit enough. - -The bibliography appended is a far from complete list of puppet -literature. It includes, however, the most important works of modern -times upon marionettes and much comment, besides, that is casual or -curious or close at hand. - -The author is under obligation to those friendly individuals who -generously gave of their time and interest and whose suggestions, -explanations and kind assistance have made possible this publication. -There are many who have been gracious and helpful, among them -particularly Mrs. Maurice Browne, Mr. Michael Carmichael Carr, -Professor A. K. Coomaraswamy, Mr. Stewart Culin, Dr. Jesse Walter -Fewkes, Mr. Henry Festing Jones, Dr. Berthold Laufer, Mr. Richard -Laukhuff, Mr. J. Arthur MacLean, Professor Brander Matthews, Dr. Ida -Trent O’Neil, Mr. Raymond O’Neil, Mr. Alfred Powell, Dr. R. Meyer -Riefstahl, Mr. Tony Sarg, and Mr. G. Bernard Shaw. - -Above all, however, acknowledgment is due to the steady encouragement -and interested criticism of Ernest Joseph. Although he did not live -to see the finished volume, his stimulating buoyancy and excellent -judgment constantly inspired the composition of this simple account of -puppets. - - - - -_Contents_ - - - How I Came to Write a Book on Puppets, 9 - - Puppets of Antiquity, 14 - - Oriental Puppets, 24 - - Puppets of Italy and Southern Europe, 50 - - The Puppets in France, 81 - - Puppet Shows of Germany and of other Continental Countries, 113 - - Puppetry in England, 143 - - The Marionettes in America, 164 - - Toy Theatres and Puppet Plays for Children, 192 - - A Plea for Polichinelle, 203 - - Behind the Scenes, 216 - - Construction of a Marionette Stage, 225 - - Bibliography, 229 - - Index, 233 - - - - -_Illustrations_ - - - SHADOW FIGURES DISCOVERED IN EGYPT BY DR. PAUL KAHLE _End-papers_ - - DRYAD AND TWO FAUNS _Frontispiece_ - - JOINTED DOLLS OR PUPPETS 18 - - SIAMESE SHADOWS 22 - - JAVANESE WAYANG FIGURES 24 - - JAVANESE ROUNDED MARIONETTES 26 - - WAYANG FIGURES FROM THE ISLAND OF BALI 28 - - BURMESE PUPPETS 30 - - CINGALESE PUPPETS 32 - - EAST INDIAN PUPPETS 34 - - TURKISH SHADOW FIGURE OF KARAGHEUZ 36 - - CHINESE PUPPETS 38 - - CHINESE SHADOW-PLAY FIGURES 40 - - CHINESE SHADOW-PLAY FIGURES 42 - - OLD JAPANESE PUPPET HEADS 44 - - JAPANESE PRINT 48 - - A WOODEN ITALIAN PUPPET 52 - - MEDIÆVAL MARIONETTES 54 - - ITALIAN FIGURES USED FOR CHRISTMAS CRIB 56 - - PULCINELLA IN ITALY 58 - - ITALIAN PUPPET BALLET 62 - - WOODEN SPANISH PUPPETS 78 - - GEORGE SAND’S PUPPET THEATRE AT NOHANT 92 - - PUPPETS OF GEORGE SAND’S THEATRE AT NOHANT 94 - - PUPPETS OF LEMERCIER DE NEUVILLE 96 - - TABLEAU (CHAT NOIR) 98 - - GUIGNOL AND GNAFRON 110 - - MARIONETTE THEATRE OF MUNICH ARTISTS 130 - - MARIONETTES OF RICHARD TESCHNER, VIENNA 134 - - BOHEMIAN PUPPETS 136 - - PUNCH HANGS THE HANGMAN 148 - - OLD ENGLISH PUPPETS 156 - - GAIR WILKINSON AND ASSISTANT AT WORK ON THE BRIDGE OF THEIR - PUPPET THEATRE 158 - - MARIONETTES EMPLOYED IN CEREMONIAL DRAMA OF THE AMERICAN - INDIANS 166 - - ITALIAN MARIONETTE SHOW 172 - - MARIONETTES AT THE CHICAGO LITTLE THEATRE 174 - - THE DEATH OF CHOPIN 178 - - SHADOWY WATERS 182 - - TONY SARG’S MARIONETTES BEHIND THE SCENES 184 - - A TRICK PUPPET 188 - - GERMAN PUPPET SHOW FOR CHILDREN 196 - - ENGLISH TOY THEATRE 200 - - PATTERNS FOR THE MARIONETTE BODY DRAWN BY MAX KALISH 222 - - DIAGRAMS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF A MARIONETTE STAGE 226 - - - - -_How I Came to Write a Book on Puppets_ - - -We were rehearsing laboriously. Some of our marionettes were finished; -the rest we borrowed from the cast of _Tintagiles_. The effect was -curious with Belangere and Ygraine acting as sentinels in their blue -and green gowns. - -The play we were rehearsing was eventually given up. For various -reasons the little puppets about to be presented to you never displayed -themselves before the public. Undeniable facts, but for my story quite -irrelevant and inconsequential. - -It was late and everyone else in the house had retired. I sat up all -alone, diligently sewing. Alone? Grouped around me in various stages -of completion sat the miniature members of the cast. I worked quietly, -much absorbed. Off in the corner there was a clock, ticking. - -The Chief Prophet of the Stars lay in my hands, impressive by virtue -of his flowing white beard, even without the high purple hat. I rested -a moment, straightening a weary back. One long white arm of his was -pointing at me. He said: “Do not pity yourself. Despite your backache -you are having a lovely time.” I am sure he said this. I did not -answer. How could I? It was true. Near by was the black-robed Priest -with the auburn beard. “Even so,” he agreed, “her fingers are happy: -her tongue may not complain!” - -“It is an honor to be permitted to dress us,” pompously proclaimed the -Chamberlain. He was perched upon the mantel. His queer, stiff beard -having been but recently shellacked was now in the process of drying. -He was a balloon shaped, striking fellow arrayed in orange. - -“She must finish my high hat to-night,” said the Chief Prophet of the -Stars, “and see that my whiskers are decently trimmed. Then she may -retire.” - -“No,” whimpered one of the spotty Spies from the floor, “she promised -to brighten my spots for tomorrow.” Then, in a loud aside, “She will -probably get my strings twisted while painting the spots. Serve her -right. She was too impatient to show me off yesterday. One should -finish the _spots first_, say I.” Ungrateful wretch, to be grumbling! -But he crawled and crept along the stage so wonderfully I hadn’t the -heart to chide him. - -I sat the Chief Prophet upon my knee, crossly. His long arm protested -stiffly. I pulled the high hat down over his ominous brows. “It isn’t -right,” he said. It wasn’t. I took it off. How trying it must be for -him to have so clumsy a handmaiden. “Don’t pin it!” he commanded. “Rip -it and sew it neatly.” I picked up the scissors and ripped. Then I -sewed on in silence. - -The marionettes, however, had many things to say. - -“She is not as thorough as might be desired,” stated the Chamberlain. -“Indeed, I fear that in the manipulating also she is only an amateur -with no profound knowledge of the craft. Here am I, still dissatisfied -with the bow I make to His Majesty. I know just how I should bow. Who -would question my knowledge of etiquette? I shall not be content with -anything but _the correct_ bow, dignified and, in its way, imposing -as the nod of a King. It must be just so and not otherwise but _how -will she do it_? She has tried front strings and back strings and -innumerable petty expedients. She calls herself a puppeteer: let her -devise a way and that shortly! I scorn to display vexation but it -perturbs me not a little as the moment approaches for me to bow and the -bow, ahem ... refuses to function fittingly.” - -“Try on the hat and do not be diverted by such details!” commands the -Chief Prophet. I sit him up seriously. “It will do,” he states; “trim -my whiskers.” I trim them, oh, very carefully. They hang augustly down -over his black stole. I gaze at him, entranced, and at his portrait -painted by a young artist. “I think you have caught the spirit of the -ideal,” he admitted. “Put me on the mantel.” I obey him.[1] - -Next I take up the Spy. He writhes in my hand. I ply the paint brush, -more yellow paint on the yellow spots. True to prediction, his strings -become entangled. “I told you so,” hissed the green and yellow Spy. -“My spots will dry over night. You must arrange my strings tomorrow.” -I set him beside the Chief Prophet where he slinks down and subsides. -“Hee, hee, hee,” snickers the other Spy who has cerise spots of silk on -lavender. He is crouched on the floor in a heap. I raise him and place -him beside his fellow. He reaches out a long brown arm and pokes him -slyly. - -I collect the other dolls. Very crude little rag affairs they seem in -their unfinished condition. The naked, white body of the King I lay -beside that of the Sentinel. One could scarcely tell them apart except -that the feet of the King are already encased in little scarlet boots -which are long and pointed and curled at the tips. The King is a stiff, -unbending person. But the other is a well built fellow fashioned with -exceeding care to stand and walk and sit superbly in a few clothes -holding a long red spear and a shield. Into the box I lay them, white -bodies, blank faces, limber arms and legs. “I shall have to shop again -for the King’s purple robe. What a bore!” I think, as I dump disjointed -priests, children and servants, all on top of His Majesty, and close -the cover of the tin box. - -“You are insolent,” said the Chief Prophet of the Stars. “Well, yes, -perhaps, oh mighty marionette,” I admit, “but I am sleepy. Goodnight.” - -“Fatigue is human,” remarked the black-robed Priest. “We marionettes -transcend such frailty.” - -“We are immortal!!!” boomed forth the Chief Prophet. “So saith Anatole -France, also Charles Magnin, also others.” - -“Hist,” whispered one of the Spies, “it is written in _The Mask_....” -And, as I moved quietly about in the adjoining room I heard them -discussing many matters, concerning themselves, of course. There was -talk of the ancient Indian Ramajana, of the Joruri plays of Japan, -of bleeding Saints and nodding Madonnas in Mediaeval churches. The -conversation veered to Pulcinella, his kinship with Kasper and -Karagheuz and with Punch across the channel. There were murmurings -of the names of Goethe, Voltaire, even Shakespeare to say nothing of -Bernard Shaw, Maeterlinck, Hoffmansthal, Schnitzler, all from the dolls -on the mantel and much, much more besides. Some things I overheard -distinctly before I fell asleep: some I may have dreamed. All that I -could recall I have put into a little book. - - - - -_Puppets of Antiquity_ - - “I wish to discant on the marionette. - One needs a keen taste for it and also a little veneration. - The marionette is august; it issues from a sanctuary....” - - ANATOLE FRANCE - - -Perhaps the most impressive approach to the marionettes is through the -trodden avenue of history. If we travel from distant antiquity where -the first articulated idols were manipulated by ingenious, hidden -devices in the vast temples of India and Egypt, if we follow the -footprints of the puppets through classic centuries of Greece and Rome -and trace them even in the dark ages of early Christianity whence they -emerged to wander all over mediaeval Europe, in the cathedrals, along -the highways, in the market places and at the courts of kings, we may -have more understanding and respect for the quaint little creatures we -find exhibited crudely in the old, popular manner on the street corner -or presented, consciously naïve and precious, upon the art stage of -an enthusiastic younger generation. For the marionette has a history. -No human race can boast a longer or more varied, replete with such -high dignities and shocking indignities, romantic adventure and humble -routine, triumphs, decadences, revivals. No human race has explored so -many curious corners of the earth, adapted itself to the characteristic -tastes of such diverse peoples and, nevertheless, retained its -essential, individual traits through ages of changing environment and -ideals. - -The origin of the puppet is still somewhat of a mystery, dating back, -as it undoubtedly does, to the earliest stages of the very oldest -civilizations. Scholars differ as to the birthplace and ancestry. -Professor Richard Pischel, who has made an exhaustive study of this -phase of the subject, believes that the puppet came into being along -with fairy tales on the banks of the Ganges, “in the old wonderland of -India.” The antiquity of the Indian marionette, indeed, is attested by -the very legends of the national deities. It was the god Siva who fell -in love with the beautiful puppet of his wife Parvati. The most ancient -marionettes were made of wool, wood, buffalo horn and ivory; they seem -to have been popular with adults as well as with children. In an old, -old collection of Indian tales, there is an account of a basketful -of marvellous wooden dolls presented by the daughter of a celebrated -mechanician to a princess. One of these could be made to fly through -the air by pressing a wooden peg, another to dance, another to talk! -Large talking puppets were even introduced upon the stage with living -actors. An old Sanskrit drama has been found in which they took part. -But in India real puppet shows, themselves, seem to have antedated -the regular drama, or so we may infer from the names given to the -director of the actors, which is _Sutradhara_ (Holder of the Strings) -and to the stage manager, who is called _Sthapaka_ (Setter up). The -implication naturally is that these two important functionaries of the -oldest Indian drama took their titles from the even more ancient and -previously established puppet plays. - -There are authorities, however, who consider Egypt the original -birthplace of the marionette, among these _Yorick_ (P. Ferrigni), -whose vivid history of puppets is accessible in various issues of -_The Mask_. Yorick claims that the marionette originated somehow with -the aborigines of the Nile and that before the days of Manete who -founded Memphis, before the Pharaohs, great idols moved their hands and -opened their mouths, inspiring worshipful terror in the hearts of the -beholders. Dr. Berthold Laufer corroborates this opinion. He maintains -that marionettes first appeared in Egypt and Greece, and spread from -there to all countries of Asia. The tombs of ancient Thebes and Memphis -have yielded up many small painted puppets of ivory and wood, whose -limbs can be moved by pulling a string. These are figures of beasts as -well as of men and they may have been toys. Indeed, it is often claimed -that puppets are descended, not from images of the gods, but from “the -first doll that was ever put into the hands of a child.” - -The _Boston Transcript_, in 1904, published a report of an article by -A. Gayet in _La Revue_ which gives a minute description of a marionette -theatre excavated at Antinoë. There, in the tomb of Khelmis, singer -of Osiris, archaeologists have unearthed a little Nile galley or barge -of wood with a cabin in the centre and two ivory doors that open to -reveal a stage. A rod across the front of this stage is supported by -two uprights and from this rod light wires were found still hanging. -Other indications leave little doubt that this miniature theatre was -used in a religious rite, possibly on the anniversary of the death of -the god Osiris, whose father was Ra, the sun, as a sort of passion play -performed by puppets before an audience of the initiated. Mortuary -paintings show us the ritual and tell us the story. As everything -excavated at this site is reported to be of the Roman or Coptic period -this is probably the oldest marionette theatre ever discovered! - -The Chinese puppets and still older _shadows_ of the land as well as -of other Oriental countries are all of considerable antiquity. In -truth, it matters little whence came the first of the puppets, from -India, Egypt or from China, nor how descended, from the idols of -priests or the playthings of children. It is enough to know of their -indisputably ancient lineage and the honorable position granted them in -the legends of gods and heroes. Whatever remains uncertain or fantastic -in the theories of their origin can only add to the aura of romance -surrounding this imperishable race of fragile beings. - - * * * * * - -In the mythology of the Greeks one may find mention of the august -ancestors of the marionettes. Passages in the Iliad describe -the marvellous golden tripods fashioned by Vulcan which moved of -themselves. A host of great articulated idols were to be found in the -temples all over Greece. These were moved, Charles Magnin avers, by -various devices such as quicksilver, leadstone, springs, etc. There was -Jupiter Ammon, borne upon the shoulders of the priests, who indicated -with his head the direction he wished to travel. There were the Apollo -of Heliopolis, the Theban Venus, the statues created by Daedalus and -many others, all manipulated by priests from within the hollow bodies. - -[Illustration: JOINTED DOLLS OR PUPPETS - -Terra-cotta, probably Attic - -[Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]] - -But aside from these inspiring deities, in fact right along with -them, Greek puppetry grew up and flourished. Yorick writes, “Greece -from remotest times of which any accounts have come down to us had -marionette theatres in the public places of all the most populated -cities. She had famous showmen whose names, recorded on the pages of -the most illustrious writers, have triumphed over death and oblivion. -She had her ‘balletti’ and pantomimes exclusively conceived and -preordained for the play of ‘pupazzi,’ etc.” Eminent mathematicians -interested themselves in perfecting the mechanism of the dolls until, -as Apuleius wrote, “Those who direct the movement of the little wooden -figures have nothing else to do but to pull the string of the member -they wish to set in motion and immediately the head bends, the eyes -turn, the hands lend themselves to any action and the elegant little -person moves and acts as though it were alive.” A pleasant hyperbole -of Apuleius perhaps, but some of us credulously prefer to have faith in -it. - -In the writings of the celebrated Heron of Alexandria, living two -centuries before Christ, one can find a very minute description of a -puppet show for which he planned the ingenious mechanism. He explains -that there were two kinds of automata, first those acting on a movable -stage which itself advanced and retreated at the end of the acts and -second, those performing on a stationary stage divided into acts by a -change of scene. The _Apotheosis of Bacchus_ was of the first type, the -action presented within a miniature temple wherein stood the statue -of the god with dancing bacchantes circling around, fountains jetting -forth milk, garlands of flowers, sounding cymbals, all accomplished by -a mechanism of weights and cords. It was an extremely elaborate affair. -Of the second type of puppet show Heron cites as example _The Tragedy -of Nauplius_, the mechanism for which was invented by a contemporary -engineer, Philo of Byzantium. There were five scenes disclosed, one -after the other, by doors which opened and closed: first, the seashore, -with workmen constructing the ships, hammering, sawing, etc.; second, -the coast with the Greeks dragging their ships to the water; third, sky -and sea, with the ships sailing over the waters which begin to grow -rough and stormy; fourth, the coast of Euboë, Nauplius brandishing a -torch on the rocks and shoals whither the Greek vessels steer and -are shattered (Athene stands behind Nauplius, who is the instrument -of her vengeance); fifth, the wreck of the ships, Ajax struggling and -drowning in the waves, Athene appearing in a thunder clap! This play -was probably taken from episodes of the Homeric legend and, although -Heron does not so state, the action of the puppets was most likely -accompanied by a recital of the poem upon which the drama was founded. - -Xenophon describes still another type of show, a banquet at which -the host brought in a Syracusan juggler to amuse the guests with his -dancing marionettes. The best showmen in Greece seem to have been -Sicilians. These peripatetic showmen went from town to town with their -figures in a box. The plays they presented were generally keen, strong -satires on the foibles of human nature, the vices of the times, the -prominent or pompous persons of the day, parodies on popular dramas or -schools of philosophy. They were a favorite diversion of the masses and -of cultured people as well. Even Socrates is reported to have bandied -words with a Sicilian showman, asking him how he made a living in his -profession. To which the showman made reply: “The folly of men is an -inexhaustible fund of riches and I am always sure of filling my purse -by moving a few pieces of wood.” Eventually the puppets usurped a place -upon the classic stage itself, and it is reported that a puppet player, -Potheinus, had a small stage specially erected for his marionettes -on the thymele of the great theatre of Dionysius at Athens where -Euripedes’ plays had been presented. - - * * * * * - -The Romans borrowed marionette traditions from the Greeks as they did -many other art forms. There were large articulated statues of the -gods and emperors in Rome. At Praeneste the celebrated group of the -infants of Jupiter and Juno seated upon the knees of Fortune appears -to have been of this sort; the nurse seems to have been movable. Livy -describes a banquet celebration and the terror of the people and of the -Senate upon hearing that the gods averted their heads from the dishes -presented them. Ovid, also, gives an account of the startling effect -produced upon the beholders when the statue of Servus Tullius moved. -As in Greece, there were special puppet performances given in private -homes as well as the wandering shows along the highways. The latter -were popular with common people, with poets, philosophers and emperors. -Marcus Aurelius wrote about them, Horace and Persius mentioned them. - -The personages of the Roman puppet stage generally represented obvious -and amusing types of humanity; their repertoire consisted chiefly -of bold satire and parodies on popular dramas. The conventionalized -characters of Roman marionette theatres were not at all dissimilar -from the later heroes of the Italian _fantoccini_. A bronze portrait -of Maccus, the Roman buffoon, which was unearthed in 1727, might -serve almost as a statue of Pulcinella, hooked nose, nut-cracker chin, -hunchback and all. In fact it is thought that these Roman mimes or -_sanni_ have lived on in the Italian _burattini_, and in the characters -of the Commedia dell’ Arte. This theory has been criticized by some -who feel that the _personaggi_ such as Arlecchino and Pulcinella grew -out of the mannerisms and characteristics of the Italians, just as -the puppet buffoons of Rome were true offspring of the Roman people, -and that any resemblances between them may be laid at the door of -common frailties existing in humanity of all ages and ever fit subject -for the satirical play of puppets. Nevertheless it is not impossible -to believe that through the curiously confused period in Italy when -Pagan culture was giving way to Christianity, when heathen ideals were -half perishing, half persisting, something of the old was embodied -in, assimilated with the new. And so it may have happened with the -marionettes, Maccus emerging with much of Pulcinella, Citeria appearing -as Columbine. We have Pappus Bruccus and Casnar, the parasite, the -glutton, the fool, passed on somehow. - -[Illustration: SIAMESE SHADOWS - -Belonging to the collection in the Smithsonian Institution, U. S. -National Museum. This collection was presented by the King of Siam in -1876] - -But not alone this. Excavators in the Catacombs have discovered -small jointed puppets of ivory or wood in many tombs. They look like -dolls, but they may have been religious images used by the earliest -Christians. The Iconoclasts in their zeal annihilated everything that -had the appearance of an idol, and many a puppet perished along with -the images of the gods, Maccus as well as Apollo! But soon the -Church saw the wisdom of using concrete, vivid representation instead -of mere abstract symbolism scarcely comprehensible to the simple -minded. “Into the churches crept figures, Jesus’ body on the Cross -instead of the Lamb. To the Apollo of Heliopolis succeeded the crucifix -of Nicodemus, to the Theban Venus the Madonna of Orihuela.” (P. -Ferrigni.) Occasionally these figures were made to move a head or to -gesticulate. And here we find the earliest beginnings of the mysteries -which were later to come out from the churches and monasteries as -precursors not only of our puppet shows but of practically all our -drama. - - - - -_Oriental Puppets_ - - -There are few of us who at times have not unleashed our imaginations, -flung away the reins and bidden our thoughts roam freely beyond the -vision of our straining eyes. Who has not pondered whimsically what -sort of crooked creatures may be shambling over the craters and -crevices of the moon? Similarly the unfamiliar Eastern lands afford -adventure for our Western fancies. How alluring the imaginary sights -and sounds fantastically flavored; glimmer of spangles, daggers, -veils and turbans, camels and busy bazaars and mosques white in the -sun, strumming of curious instruments, gurgle, clatter and patter, -enigmatical whisperings and silences of unknown import. But of all -things so strange what could be fashioned stranger than the puppets -of Eastern peoples? As the dreams and philosophies of the Orient seem -farther away from us than its most distant cities, so these small -symbols of unfamiliar creeds and cultures for us are most amazing. -What skill and artistry is displayed in the creation of them, what -capricious imagery in their conception! Let us consider them. - -[Illustration: JAVANESE WAYANG FIGURES - -[American Museum of Natural History, New York]] - -Probably the Javanese _shadows_ present the most weirdly fascinating -spectacle to our unaccustomed eyes. What singular creatures are -here? Bizarre beyond all description, grotesque forms with long, -lean beckoning arms and incredible profiles, adorned with curious, -elaborate ornamentation. They are made of buffalo skin, carefully -selected, ingeniously treated, intricately cut and chiseled, richly -gilded and cunningly colored, and they are supported and manipulated by -fragile and graceful rods of horn or bamboo. Such are the colorful and -inscrutable little figures of gods and heroes in the _Wayang Purwa_, -ancient and celebrated drama of Java, popular now as in the days of -Java’s independence. - -These shadow-plays are half mythical and religious, half heroic and -national in character, portraying the well-known feats of native gods -and princes, the battles of their royal armies, their miraculous and -preposterous adventures with giants and other fabulous creatures. Each -incident, each character is familiar to the audience. One heroine -is thus described in Javanese poetry. “She was really a flower of -song, the virgin in the house of Pati. She was petted by her father. -Her well-proportioned figure was in perfect accord with her skill in -working. She was acquainted with the secrets of literature. She used -the Kawi speech fluently, as she had practised it from childhood. She -was elegant in the recitation of formulas of belief and never neglected -the five daily prayer hours. She was truly Godfearing. Moreover, she -never forgot her batik work. She wove gilded passementerie and painted -it with figures, etc., etc. She was truly queen of the accomplished, -neat and charming in her manner, sweet and light in her gestures, etc., -etc. - -“She was sprayed with rosewater. Her body was warm and hot if not -anointed every hour. She was the virgin in the house of Pati. Everyone -who saw her loved her. She had only one fault. Later, when she married, -she could not endure a rival mistress. She was jealous, etc.” - -A prose account tells us of the same young lady. It is said of Kyahi -Pati Logender’s youngest child: “This was a daughter called Andjasmara, -beautiful of form. If one wished to do full justice to her appearance -the describer would certainly grow weary before all of her beauty could -be portrayed. She was charming, elegant, sweet, talkative, lovely, -etc., etc. Happy he who should obtain her as a wife.” - -[Illustration: JAVANESE ROUNDED MARIONETTES - -[American Museum of Natural History, New York]] - -The plots are based upon old, old Indian saga, from the _Mahabharata_, -the _Ramayana_, the _Pandji_ legends and also upon native fable such -as the _Manik Muja_. There are several varieties of Wayang play, each -founded upon one or several of these sources. The _Wayang Purwa_ and -the _Wayang Gedog_ are silhouette plays presented by leather figures -behind a lighted screen. Sometimes, however, the women in the audience -are seated on one side of the screen, the men on the other, so that -some see the gray shadows, others the colored figures. The _Wayang_ -Keletik is given not with shadows but with the painted hide figures -themselves displayed to the audience. All these performances are not -ordinary public events, but rather special productions in celebration -of particular occasions. Etiquette at the Wayang demands that regular -rites be observed before the performance, incense burned and food -offered to the gods. - -The _Dalang_, or showman, is a person of great skill and versatility. -He seats himself cross-legged on a mat surrounded by figures; there are -about one hundred and twenty to a complete Wayang set. He directs the -gamelin music of the orchestra which keeps up a tomtom and scraping of -catgut throughout, gives a short preliminary exposition of the plot, -brings on the characters which he holds and manipulates with slender -rods, places them with precision and then the play begins. The Dalang, -as the music softens, speaks for each one of the characters. The -general tone is heroic with comedy introduced upon occasion. There are -struggles, battles, love scenes, dances. The Dalang shuffles with his -feet for the dancing, makes a noise of tramping or fighting, adjusts -the lights on the screen, all the while moving the figures and speaking -feelingly for them. - -Besides these so-called shadows the Javanese have also rounded -marionettes carved out of wood, which have long, slender arms and -fantastic touches revealing kinship with the figures of painted hide. -The play presented by these crude but rather startling dolls is called -_Wayang Golek_. The puppets are moved from below by rods attached to -their bodies and hands as are the shadow figures. Still other types of -plays are the _Wayang Beber_, presented by rolls of pictures, and much -later (eighteenth century) the _Wayang Topang_ in which rigidly trained -human actors, dressed in the conventional costumes of the Wayang -figures, take the parts of the puppets. But here as in the puppet -dramas the Dalang reads all the words. - -On the island of Bali, one of the group of the Indian Archipelago, -Wayang plays are like those of Java. The old figures are very -wonderful, cut out of young buffalo hide, carefully treated and -prepared. The tool formerly used to make them was a primitive pointed -knife. The Wayang sets made to-day, in spite of the superiority of -modern European instruments which are employed, are very crude in -comparison. This is because with the loss of independence the natives -also lost all interest in their own art and culture; indeed new Wayangs -are made only when the old ones are worn out. - - * * * * * - -The shadows of the Siamese _Nang_ are also unusual. This is a -representation of certain scenes from the Indian epic, _Ramayana_, and -depicts the adventures of Prince Rama and his wife Sita. It is given in -private homes for special festivals and is of a serious, poetic nature. -As described by a native of Siam, “It is a show of moving, transparent -pictures over a screen illumined by a strong bonfire behind.” It -is recited by two readers and sometimes requires as many as twenty -operators. The figures more nearly approach the human form than do -those of the Javanese shadows, but their queer, pointed headdress and -strange costuming produce a very striking and highly stylized effect. -They are made of hide which has been previously cut, scraped and -stretched with extreme care. The technique of decorating the figures -is most difficult, for the forms are stenciled and perforated by an -infinite number of pricks, to indicate not only the outlines but also -the nature of the fabric of garments, the jewels, weapons, etc. These -perforations scarcely show unless held before a light, when they give -a very rich and variegated effect. There is great art as well in the -dyeing and fixing of the colors, and in estimating the amount of light -which should be allowed to penetrate so as to give a well-proportioned -aspect to the figure as a whole. In Siam as in Java there are to be -found ordinary dramatic performances by wooden puppets more recent in -origin and not unlike those of Burma. - - * * * * * - -These puppet theatres of Burma exhibit a peculiar combination of -fantastic legend and grotesque, realistic humor. The puppet stage of -the country seems to have been more highly developed than its regular -drama. A visiting company of Burmese marionettes was displayed at -the Folies Bergères in Paris, where they were much admired for their -beautiful costumes, wonderful technical construction, the natural poses -they assumed and the graceful gestures they made. Mr. J. Arthur MacLean -tells of the annual celebration which he witnessed a few years ago at -Ananda, the famous old Buddhist site. It consisted of a performance by -the temple puppets which began early in the evening and lasted all the -night through. The marionettes were the property of the temple and when -not in use were stored away there. They were large and elaborate and -manipulated with strings. The audience comprised the entire population -of the village; every man and woman was present and they had brought -all of their children. The first part of the show was comical for the -sake of the children who, we may presume, fell asleep as the night -progressed. The plays which followed became more and more serious and -were of a religious nature. Some Burmese puppets, however, are very -primitive, being painted wooden dolls, odd and humorous in spirit. The -license of the showman is extreme, but does not seem to offend the -taste of the native audience. - - * * * * * - -In Turkestan and in Central Asia puppet shows are a very popular -diversion along with the feats of jugglers and dancers. There are two -types of puppets existing, one the very diminutive dolls carried about -by ambulant players whose extremely naïve dialogue is composed chiefly -for the amusement of children. The other, on a larger scale, is to be -seen on small stages erected in coffee houses or at weddings and other -private celebrations. - -[Illustration: BURMESE PUPPETS - - _Upper_: Made of rag, cotton and plaster - _Lower_: Made of painted wood - -[American Museum of Natural History, New York]] - -R. S. Rehm gives a description of a crude little marionette theatre in -Samarkand. Out in the crowded narrow streets sounds as terrifying as -the trumpet on the walls of Jericho announced the beginning of the -performance. The interior was a dark hall with a roof of straw matting -through the holes of which mischievous youngsters were continually -peeking until they were chased away. It was called _Tschadar Chajal_, -Tent of Fantasy. The puppets revealed Indian origin, but their huge -heads, with the clothing merely hung upon them, indicated Russian -influences. There was one scene of modern warfare with toy cannons -hauled upon the stage. Then came a play within a play. Yassaul, the -native buffoon, was a sort of master of ceremonies. Various comical -and grotesque marionettes appeared whom he greeted and led to their -places. The King himself entered upon a miniature horse, dismounted -and seated himself on a throne in the tiny audience. The performance -for His Majesty consisted of puppet dancers, puppet jugglers and last -of all, a marionette representing a drunken European dragged away by a -native policeman. At this point the small and also the large audience -expressed great delight. - - * * * * * - -Of the puppets of Persia a very ancient legend tells us how a Chinese -shadow play was performed before Ogotai, successor of Tamerlane. The -artist presented upon his screen the figure of a turbaned old man being -dragged along tied to the tail of a horse. When Ogotai inquired what -this might signify the showman is said to have replied: “It is one of -the rebellious Mohammedans whom the soldiers are bringing in from -the cities in this manner.” Whereupon Ogotai, instead of being angry -at the taunt, had his Persian art treasures, jewels and rich brocades -brought forth, also rare Chinese fabrics and carven stones. Displaying -them all to the showman, he pointed out the beauties in the products of -both lands as well as the natural difference between them. The showman -having learned this lesson of tolerance went away greatly abashed. - -[Illustration: CINGALESE PUPPETS - - _Upper_: Devil and Merchant - _Lower_: King and Queen - -Part of a collection received from the Ceylon Commission of the World’s -Columbian Exposition, 1895, by the Smithsonian Institution. U.S. -National Museum] - -_Shadows_ are mentioned in the works of the Persian poet, Muhammed -Assar, in 1385, when they seem to have been eagerly cultivated. Since -then, however, they have sadly deteriorated. It is said that wandering -jugglers with their primitive dolls scarcely elicit a smile from the -educated Persians, although they are sometimes asked into homes to -amuse guests or children. As a rule they play in open places and after -the show the owner collects the pennies from the audience standing -around, calling down the curse of Allah upon those who walk away -without paying. The comic puppet, according to Karl Friederich Flögel, -is Ketschel, a bald-headed hero “more cultured than all the Hanswursts -in the world.” He spouts poetry, quotes from the Koran, sings of the -houris in Paradise and, when alone, throws aside his wisdom, dances and -gets drunk. - - * * * * * - -Professor Pischel has written that he believes the puppet plays of -India not only to have antedated the regular drama, but also to have -outlived it. He claims moreover that the puppet shows are the -only form of dramatic expression left at the present time. What a -contribution from the marionette to the land of its birth and, on the -other hand, how much the races of India must have given of themselves -and their imaginations to the little wooden creatures; for the interest -of the beholder, alone, is the breath of life which animates them -through the centuries. - -It is amusing to read of the life-sized walking and talking puppets -used in the tenth century by a dramatist, Rajah Gekhara. One doll -represented Sita and another her sister. A starling trained to speak -Prakrit was placed in the mouth of _Sita_ to speak for her. The puppet -player spoke for the other doll as well as for the demon, which part -in the drama he himself enacted and spoke in Sanskrit.[2] In one of -the issues of _The Mask_ there is printed the following account of -religious puppets of the thirteenth century in Ceylon. A great festival -was being solemnized in the temple, which had been richly decorated for -the event and furnished “with numerous images of Brahma dancing with -parasols in their hands that were moved by instruments; with moving -images of gods of divers forms that went to and fro with their joined -hands raised in adoration; with moving figures of horses prancing; ... -with likenesses of great elephants ... with these and divers other -shows did he make the temple exceeding attractive.” (Mahavamsa, ch. -85). - -In quite recent days, P. C. Jinavaravamsa, himself a priest and prince -of Siam, as well as an artist, has written an article attesting the -aesthetic worth and popularity of Indian puppets to-day. “Beautiful -figures, six to eight inches high, representing the characters of -the Indian drama, _Ramayana_, are made for exhibition at royal -entertainments. They are perfect pieces of mechanism; their very -fingers can be made to grasp an object and they can be made to assume -postures expressive of any action or emotion described in poetry; -this is done by pulling strings which hang down within the clothing -or within a small tube attached to the lower part of the figure, with -a ring or a loop attached to each, for inserting the fingers of the -showman. The movements are perfectly timed to the music and recitation -of singing. One cannot help being charmed by these Lilliputs, whose -dresses are so gorgeous and jeweled with the minutest detail. Little -embroidered jackets and other pieces of dress, representing magnificent -robes of a Deva or Yakha, are complete in the smallest particular; the -miniature jewels are sometimes made of real gold and gems.” - -[Illustration: EAST INDIAN PUPPETS - -From an old rest house for pilgrims connected with an old Jain Temple -at Ahmadabad. The figures were attached to a mechanical organ and their -motions followed the music - -[Part of a collection in the Brooklyn Institute Museum]] - -The popular plays of India have never been written down, as were the -classic dramas, but, according to the custom of wandering showmen, -they were handed on from father to son. Thus, much in them has been -lost for us. But Vidusaka, the buffoon, has survived, “as old as -the oldest Indian art,” the fundamental type of comic character, and -possibly the prototype of them all,--Vidusaka, a hunchbacked dwarf with -protruding teeth, a Brahmin with a bald head and distorted visage. He -excites merriment by his acts, his dress, his figure and his speech. -He is quarrelsome, gluttonous, stupid, vain, cowardly, insolent and -pugnacious, “always ready to lay about him with a stick.” Professor -Pischel avers that we can follow this little comedian as he wandered -away with the gypsy showmen whose original home was that of the -marionette, mysterious ancient India. He trails him into Turkey, where -he became metamorphosed into the famous (or infamous) Karagheuz after -having served as a model for the buffoons of Persia, Arabia and Egypt. -But more than this, it is believed that long before Arlecchino and -other offspring of Maccus found their way northward there existed in -the mystery and carnival plays of Germany a funny fellow with all the -family traits of the descendants of the Indian Vidusaka. And it was -probably the gypsies again, coming up from Persia and Turkey through -the Balkan countries and Hungary (where similar types of puppet-clowns -are to be discovered) who carried the cult from far-off times and -introduced into Austria and Germany the ancient ancestor of Hanswurst -and Kasperle. - - * * * * * - -In Turkey, as in so many Oriental countries, the shadow play is the -chief representative of dramatic art. There are several little -tales told concerning the origin of Turkish puppets. One relates how -a Sultan, long ago, commanded his Vizier on pain of death to bring -back to life two favorite court fools whom he had executed, perhaps -somewhat rashly. The Vizier, in this dire dilemma, consulted with a -wise Dervish, who thereupon caught two fish, skinned them and cut out -of the dried skins two figures representing the two dead jesters. These -he displayed to the Sultan behind a lighted curtain, and the illusion -seems to have satisfied that autocratic personage. - -Another story tells that long ago in Stamboul there lived a good man -who grieved daily with righteous indignation over the misrule of the -governing Pashas. He pondered long how to improve conditions and how -to carry the matter to the attention of the Sultan himself. Finally he -decided to establish a shadow play whose fame, he hoped, might lure -the Sultan in to see it. And, indeed, the people thronged to witness -his Karagheuz. But when at last the august Sultan came and took his -place in the audience, Karagheuz had more serious matters to display -than his usual pranks. The Sultan’s eyes were opened to the abuses of -his ministers, whom he removed and justly punished. The founder of -the Karagheuz play, on the other hand, was made Vizier. His show has -remained the favorite diversion of the people. - -[Illustration: TURKISH SHADOW FIGURE OF KARAGHEUZ - -[From Georg Jacob’s _Das Schattentheater_]] - -These Turkish shadows are all centered around the hero, a sort of -native Don Juan, a scamp with a good bit of mother wit; he is called -“Karagheuz” (Black Eye). There are about sixty other characters to a -complete cast, among them Hadji-aivat, representative of the cultured -classes and boon companion of Karagheuz, and Bekri Mustafa, the rich -peasant just come to town, who frequents questionable resorts, gets -drunk and is invariably plundered. There are Kawassan, the rich Jew, -and a Dervish and a romantic robber and the Frank and the wife and -daughter of Hadji-aivat and all sorts of dancers, beggar-women, etc. -George Jacob brings to notice also pathological types such as the -dwarf, the opium fiend, the stutterer and others; also representatives -of foreign nations, the Arabian, the Persian, the Armenian, the Jew, -the Greek, all of whose peculiar accents and mistakes in speaking the -Turkish language form a constant source of merriment to the Turks -themselves. The plot generally consists of the improper adventures of -Karagheuz, his tricks to secure money, his surprising indecencies, -his broad, satirical comment on the life about him. Théophile Gautier -was present at a Karagheuz performance. He writes: “It is impossible -to give in our language the least idea of these huge jests, these -hyperbolical, broad jokes which necessitate to render them the -dictionary of Rabelais, of Beroalde of Eutrapel flanked by the vulgar -catechism of Vade.” - -The extreme beauty of the production, however, and the expertness of -the manipulator somewhat redeem the performances for our Western eyes. -The figures are cut out of camelskin, the limbs skilfully articulated. -Holes in the necks or chests and, for special figures which -gesticulate, also in the hands, enable slender rods to be inserted -at right angles by which they are manipulated. The appearance of the -transparent, brightly colored figures, with heavy exaggerated outlines, -rather resembles mosaic work, while the faces are sometimes done with -the extreme care of portraits. The effect produced by these luminous -forms is truly beautiful; the color is heightened by surrounding -darkness, which tends to increase the seeming size of the figures and -to give them an almost plastic quality. - -[Illustration: CHINESE PUPPETS - - _Upper_: Operated from above with strings - _Lower_: Operated from below with sticks - -[American Museum of Natural History, New York]] - -From an account of F. von Luschan we may imagine the usual Karagheuz -performance to take place in somewhat the following manner. In any -coffee house the rear corner is screened off with a thick curtain -into which is inserted a frame. Over the frame a linen is stretched -taut. Behind it is set a platform or table upon or at which the -operator places himself and his figures. There is little equipment. -Four oil lamps with several wicks are furnished with good olive oil -to distribute an even illumination behind the screen. The manipulator -brings on his characters and talks for them. If two of them gesticulate -simultaneously, he overcomes the difficulty by holding one of the -rods lightly pressed against his body, thus freeing a hand for the -emergency. He must also keep time to the dancing with his castanets, -stamp the floor for marching, smack himself loudly to imitate the -sound of buffets and keep an eye on the lamps which threaten constantly -to set fire to himself and his paraphernalia. - -[Illustration: WAYANG FIGURES FROM THE ISLAND OF BALI - -[Collected by and belonging to Mr. Maurice Sterne, New York]] - -These Karagheuz shows are popular not only throughout Turkey but, more -or less altered, in Syria, Palestine, Arabia, Egypt, Tunis, Tripoli, -and Morocco. It is recorded that in 1557 in Cairo a puppet play was -instrumental in stirring up a revolt and had to be prohibited. In -Arabia the shadows are decidedly debased in character, crude, and -wholly inartistic. In Tunis the performances are said to be mere -conglomerations of obscene incidents. Guy de Maupassant writes in his -_Vie Errante_: “We must not forget that it was only a very few years -ago that the performances of Caragoussa, a kind of obscene Punch and -Judy, were forbidden. Children looked on with their large black eyes, -some ignorant, others corrupt, laughing and applauding the improbable -and vile exploits which are impossible to narrate.” In 1842, however, a -traveller in Algiers witnessed a shadow play presenting incidents from -the _Arabian Nights’ Tales_, in which Karagheuz was a less rude buffoon -than usual. At the end of the play there appeared upon the screen the -illumined inscription: “There is no God but Allah and Mohammed is his -Prophet.” - - * * * * * - -In China the art of the shadow play has long, long ago attained a -degree of perfection as high if not surpassing that of any other -country. The Chinese have quaintly designed marionettes, but in the -magical beauty of their shadows they are without peers. It is only -within the last few decades, in fact, that the artists of Paris with -the shadow plays at the Chat Noir have succeeded in at all approaching -their skill and inspiration. - -[Illustration: CHINESE SHADOW-PLAY FIGURES: COLLECTED BY B. LAUFER IN -PEKIN, 1901 - -[American Museum of Natural History, New York]] - -According to legend one might infer, although scholars deem it -doubtful, that the origin of puppets in the wide dominions of bygone -Emperors, Celestial Ones, dates back to the earliest periods of a -remarkably ancient culture. One story relates that a thousand years -B.C. shadows had grown so popular and famous that King Muh commanded -a famous showman named Yen Sze to come into his palace and amuse him, -his wives and concubines. Yen Sze, thus honored, bestirred himself -to operate the figures in an animated manner and proceeded to make -his little puppets cast admiring glances at the ladies of the Court. -The King became jealously enraged and ordered Yen’s head chopped off. -Poor Yen Sze,--he barely escaped his horrible fate by tearing up his -little figures and proving them harmless creatures of leather, glue and -varnish. Another fable tells us that in the year 262 B.C. an Emperor of -the Han dynasty was being besieged in the City of Ping in the Province -of Schensi by the warrior-wife of Mao-Tun, named O. Now the Emperor’s -adviser, being full of cunning, and having heard of the jealous -disposition of the warlike lady O, devised a scheme for ingeniously -ridding the Emperor of his enemies. He placed upon the walls of the -beleaguered city a gorgeously dressed female puppet and by means of -hidden strings made her dance alluringly upon the ramparts. Lady O, -deceived by the lifelike imitation and fearing, should the city fall, -that her husband, Mao-Tun, might fall in love with this seductive -dancer, raised the siege and withdrew her armies from the Emperor’s -City of Ping in the Province of Schensi. So wonderful, so helpful were -the puppets of China in 262 B.C.! - -In more modern days there are several sorts of Chinese marionettes. In -any open place one might come upon the simple, peripatetic showman with -a gathering of little bald-headed children around him, (hence, they -say, the name Kwo or Mr. Kwo, which means Baldhead). Stepping upon a -small platform the puppeteer dons a sort of sheath of blue cotton, like -a big bag, tight at the ankles and full higher up. He then places his -box on his shoulders with its open stage to the audience. His head is -enclosed behind this stage and his hands are thrust into the dresses of -the dolls and manipulate them, a finger for each arm, and for the head. -The dialogue is rough, realistic humor. When the act is over he places -the puppets and sheath in his box and strolls on with the complete -outfit under his arm. - -In the large stationary marionette theatres a very different state of -affairs exists. Here with expensive and elaborate scenery the puppets -are capable of presenting highly spectacular faeries in the manner of -the later Italian and French fantoccini. The plot is generally the -old one of an enchanted princess guarded by a dragon and rescued -by a prince; their marriage ceremony furnishes the occasion for the -spectacular display. Some dramas of a romantic or historic nature were -composed especially for performances at the court of the Emperor. -Sir Lytton Putney, first British Ambassador to China, has described -the reception accorded him upon his arrival, one event of which was -a marionette play. The chief personage in this piece was a little -comedian whose antics delighted the court. The marionettes belonged to -the Emperor himself, and the very clever manager of the show was a high -official in the palace. - -[Illustration: CHINESE SHADOW-PLAY FIGURES: COLLECTED BY B. LAUFER IN -PEKIN, 1901 - -Entrance to a house; water-wheel and gate to the lower wheel; gate -leading to one of the Purgatories - -[American Museum of Natural History, New York]] - -It is the Chinese shadows, however, which are most famous and most -amazing for their range of subject and variety of appeal. The figures -are of translucent hide, stained with great delicacy. The colors glow -like jewels when the light shines through them, and the combination -of these colors is amazingly beautiful. The repertoire includes -anything and everything in the world of the seen and of the unseen; -street comedies, happenings of everyday life, heroic legend, fables, -historic drama, religious and mystical revelations with all the ghostly -fantasy bred of Taoist teachings (metamorphoses and visions of demons -marvellously produced!). According to the account of Rehm in his -extensive work _Das Buch der Marionetten_, the beauty and power of -these fascinating illusions carry the spectator away into realms of -make-believe. He has given several enthusiastic descriptions of the -productions. The following is one of them: - -“The story is that of a son, sick with longing, who implores the Ruler -of the Shadow-world to show him the spirit of his departed mother. One -sees a landscape bathed in the magic atmosphere of twilight. In the -background there rises a pagoda whose shimmering reflection is mirrored -in the calm lake. All is silence and expectancy. The son appears; he -makes his respectful obeisance before the hallowed spot and brings his -offering. The smoke of the incense rises in small clouds. Suddenly the -silver tones of the wonderful Chinese zither are heard and accompanied -by its strains the transformation takes place. The pagoda vanishes, -luminous circles of color appear out of which the mother emerges. She -speaks to her son, who is trembling with awe; she offers him glimpses -of a hidden world, comforts and strengthens him. One hears her sigh, -recognizes her perturbation by the rising and falling of her breast and -the whole expression of her countenance. The beholders are completely -under the sway of the ghostly apparition. In the end everything resumes -its former aspect, the peace of the night envelops the landscape -resting under the silver moonlight. Swans appear upon the lake bathing -their white plumage in the cool waters and with this poetic impression -the dream-peace is concluded.” - - * * * * * - -In Japanese literature, according to Mr. Henri Joly, one finds the -antiquity of the puppet show traced back into the depths of ages. Thus -the story runs: Hiriuk was a very ugly child, so his parents cast -him adrift in a boat. The boat floated away and was finally stranded -on the shore of Nishinomiya where the boy lived and died. After his -death, however, his restless spirit caused storms to rise and the -fishermen lost their livelihood until a man, Dokun, arrived who built -a temple to the Gods, whereupon the sea became smooth and the fish -plentiful. After Dokun’s death, the inhabitants neglected the temple. -Again gales arose and the fish disappeared. Then came another man -named Hiakudaiyu and made a doll and brought it to the temple. Then -hiding himself he displayed it and called: “I am Dokun, I have come -to greet you.” Whereupon the sea again became calm and fish again -returned. The emperor hearing of it summoned Hiakudaiyu to perform with -his show at court, and after witnessing it he exclaimed: “As Japan is -God’s country, we must, before anything else, entertain the Gods. Let -an office be created!” Hiakudaiyu was officially appointed to travel -from shrine to shrine about the land carrying the box which contained -his puppets. After his death others continued the art. Another -writer claims that Dokun was a Shinto priest, but it matters little. - -[Illustration: OLD JAPANESE PUPPET HEADS - -From a collection in the Brooklyn Institute Museum - -[Founded by Mr. Stewart Culin in Kyoto, 1912]] - -Japan has developed a marionette tradition altogether and amazingly -unique. Indeed so powerful a factor has it been that living actors in -the classic drama have accepted the conventions of the puppet stage and -are trained to the gesture and manner of the ancient marionette. This -does not apply, of course, to the innumerable strolling booths of -the Chinese _linen bag_ variety, but rather to the renowned and long -established stationary theatres for puppets, theatres with exclusive -boxes for the select and well-to-do of the audience and ample seating -capacity for the common people who visit the show in great numbers. - -The dolls are not quite half as tall as a man; they are very -realistically conceived and the mimicry of nature is carried into -the minutest details. Mr. Joly has published some tracings of parts -of these Japanese puppets which indicate how elaborate the inner -mechanism must be; a hand in which each joint of each finger is -articulated, a head in which the eyes move from side to side. Indeed, -these marionettes frequently raise their eyebrows to express scorn -or surprise. The costumes are of rich silk and brocade, profusely -embroidered, often jeweled and always designed with special thought for -their decorative effect. Nay more, when a gown is new or particularly -handsome a boy comes deliberately out and places a lantern directly in -front of the doll so that no elegant detail shall be overlooked by the -audience. The puppets are, necessarily, very costly and they represent -altogether quite a large amount of capital for which the theatres are -often specially taxed. - -The stages are quite large. The puppets are fastened by means of rods -to their stands (all but the spirits and magic figures, which are -worked with wires from above and float through the air). The most -curious feature in the Japanese show is the manner of manipulating. -The operators work on the stage in full view of the audience with the -puppets placed in front of them. They speak no word and are frequently -assisted by similarly mute scholars. These, to make themselves less -conspicuous, often wear black-hooded robes; but the expert and favorite -manipulators themselves are generally very gayly attired and their -entrances are not infrequently greeted with applause. Often there are -more persons working the puppets than there are puppets to be seen on -the stage. - -The words of the drama are read by the _Gidayu_ or chanter, arrayed in -a splendid ceremonial costume and sitting respectfully on a platform -to the left of the stage behind a low stand upon which there rests a -copy of the text. He chants loudly and musically, varying according -to the nature of the account and of the characters. The chanters -are artists of high standing, in fact somewhere in the seventeenth -century they had already established a unique form of elocution. The -reading is generally accompanied by the strains of the samisen, a -three-stringed instrument, played by an artist who sits on the platform -next to the chanter. Sometimes besides the principal Gidayu there are -others who chant as a sort of chorus. In some performances there are -as many as thirty-three Gidayus, twenty-nine samisen players, some -forty manipulators and several cleaners of lamps and stage hands. -The chanter, after an exciting passage, may take a sip of tea or -expectorate into a little bamboo cuspidor, the musicians may emphasize -important lines by warning notes, the operators may jog about; Japanese -audiences are accustomed to these incidental happenings and accept them -with undisturbed equanimity. To Occidental witnesses they are likely to -seem distractions. - -There are several types of classic drama in Japan, one of which is -the _Joruri_, or epical play originally composed expressly for the -marionette stage. The name is derived from a drama written by a clever -and beautiful court lady of Yeddo (1607–1688). It was called _The Story -of The Lady Joruri_ and being tremendously popular was followed by -many similar plays. It was later set to samisen music and during the -Eiroken period a woman singer gave performances of Joruri with puppets -in Kyoto. She was so successful that she was commanded to play before -noble families, finally even before the Emperor himself. - -In these epic dramas there are long, poetic passages as well as -narrative parts. Early in the seventeenth century Takemoto Gidayu, -noted samisen player and puppet showman, invented a more brilliant -presentation of puppet shows to the accompaniment of Joruri recitation -and samisen music. His shows were popular with the nobility, the -populace and the Samurai (who enjoyed the warlike elements in them) and -he, too, was summoned to perform at the palace of the Emperor. In 1685 -he established a stationary marionette theatre in Osaka called Takemoto -Za. For this theatre some of Japan’s best classic dramas were written. -One playwright, Chikamatsu Monzayemon, the Shakespeare of Japan, -together with his pupils, wrote about one hundred pieces for these -puppets. In 1703 a rival theatre was founded in Osaka by a pupil of -Gidayu. It was called Toyotake Za and it also had its able dramatists -and enthusiastic following. The two theatres were at their zenith early -in the eighteenth century; Izuma and Sosuki wrote for them. A few of -their plays were in a realistic vein, such as, _The Woman’s Harakari -at Long Street_, or more frequently they were of a heroic temper, _The -Battle of Kokusenya_, or _The Loyalty of the Five Heroes_, _The Revenge -of the Soga Brothers_, and often they were such romantic affairs as the -hopeless passion of two young lovers with the familiar ending of their -double suicide called _shinju_. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE PRINT (Hokusai) - -Representing the famous actor, Mizuki Tatsunosuke, manipulating a -puppet on a go board] - -Later in the eighteenth century the centre for puppet performances was -transferred to Yeddo and flourished there for half a century in two -large theatres called Hizen Za and Take Za. There were two smaller -theatres, also in Kyoto. At present puppet plays are occasionally -given in Tokyo at Asakusa Park. There are two such theatres also in -Osaka with clever chanters and skilful puppeteers which are among the -greatest attractions of the city. In the land of the cherry blossom, -however, as elsewhere in this modern world, the cinema has, for a while -at least, outrivaled the ancient puppet play in the affection of the -people and, according to Osataro Miyamori, deprived them of a great -part of their audiences. - -But who shall belittle the remarkable achievements of the Japanese -marionette theatre? All in all there have been as many as two hundred -epic poets writing for the puppets and over a thousand dramas have been -composed for them. Moreover, in feudal Japan, where higher education -was confined to the priests and to the Samurai, the Gidayu chanters -were important educators of the masses who derived their conceptions of -patriotism, loyalty and ethics from the impeccable sentiments of the -heroic epic dramas. - - - - -_Puppets of Italy and Southern Europe_ - - “Into whatever country we follow the footprints of the - numerous, motley family of puppets, we find that however exotic - their habits may be on their first arrival in the land they - speedily become reflexes of the peculiar genius, tastes and - characteristics of its people. Thus in Italy, the land of song - and dance, of strict theatrical censorships and of despotic - governments, we find the burattini dealing in sharp but - polished jests at the expense of the rulers, excelling in the - ballet and performing Rossini’s operas without curtailment or - suppression, with an orchestra of five or six instruments and - singers behind the scenes. The Spanish titere couches his lance - and rides forth to meet the Moor and rescue captive maidens, - marches with Cortez to the conquest of Montezuma’s capital or - enacts with more or less decorum moving incidents from Holy - Writ. In the jokken and puppen of Germany one recognizes the - metaphysical and fantastical tendencies of that country, its - quaint superstitions, domestic sprites and enchanted bullets. - And in France, where puppet shows were early cherished and - encouraged by the aristocracy as well as by the people, we need - not wonder to find them elegant, witty and frivolous, modelling - themselves upon their patrons.” - - _Eclectic Magazine_ (1854). - - -Every country of Europe has had marionettes of one type or another -persisting from very early stages through centuries of national -vicissitudes. Italy, however, may be considered the pioneer, the -forerunner of them all. It was wandering Italian showmen who carried -their _castelli dei burattini_ into England, Germany, Spain and France, -and these countries seem to have adopted puppet conventions, devices -and dialogues long established by the Italians, gradually adapting them -to their own tastes. The Italians have always displayed great ingenuity -and perseverance in developing and elaborating their marionettes; -indeed, this may be both cause and result of the perpetual joy they -appear to derive from them. - -There are numerous records in early Italian history of religious images -in the cathedrals and monasteries, marvellous Crucifixes, figures of -the Madonna and of the saints that could turn their eyes, nod their -heads or move their limbs. These were the solemn forebears of the -Italian fantoccini! Moreover very early it became customary for special -occasions to set up elaborate stages in the naves and chapels of the -churches upon which were enacted episodes from the Bible or from the -lives of the martyrs. The performers were large or small figures carved -and painted with rare skill and devotion, sometimes elaborately dressed -and bejeweled and frequently moved by complicated mechanism. It was not -unusual, in the presentation of sacred plays, to utilize both puppets -and human actors together. - -Vasari in his Life of _Il Cecca_ tells us that, “Among others, four -most solemn public spectacles took place almost every year, one -for each quarter of the city with the exception of S. Giovanni for -the festival of which a most solemn procession was held, as will -be told. S. Maria Novella kept the feast of Ignazio, S. Croce that -of S. Bartholomew called S. Baccio, S. Spirito that of the Holy -Spirit and the Carmine those of the Ascension of Our Lord and the -Assumption of Our Lady.” Of the latter he continues, “The festival -of the Ascension, then, in the church of the Carmine, was certainly -most beautiful, seeing that Christ was raised from the mount, which -was very well contrived in woodwork, on a cloud about and amidst -which were innumerable angels, and was borne upwards into a Heaven -so admirably constructed as to be really marvellous, leaving the -Apostles on the mount.” We may read in great detail of the impressive -_Paradiso_, an arrangement of vast wheels moving in ten circles to -represent the ten Heavens. These circles glittered with innumerable -lights arranged in small suspended lamps which represented stars. -From this Heaven or Paradiso there proceeded by means of two strong -ropes, pulleys and counterweights of lead, a platform which held two -angels bound firmly by the girdle to iron stakes. These in due time -descend to the rood-screen and announce to the Savior that He is to -ascend into Heaven. “The whole apparatus,” continues the historian, -“was covered with a large quantity of well-prepared wool and this gave -the appearance of clouds amidst which were seen numberless cherubim, -seraphim and other angels clothed in various colors.” The machines -and inventions were said to have been Cecca’s, although Filippo -Brunelleschi had made similar things long before. - -[Illustration: A WOODEN ITALIAN PUPPET, QUITE OLD - -[Property of Mr. Tony Sarg]] - -“It has been pointed out,” writes E. K. Chambers in the second volume -of his _Mediaeval Drama_, “that the use of puppets to provide a figured -representation of the mystery of the nativity seems to have preceded -the use for the same purpose of living and speaking persons; and -furthermore that the puppet show in the form of the Christmas Crib has -outlived the drama founded upon it and is still in use in all Catholic -countries.” Ferrigni describes a cathedral near Naples where this -ancient custom is still continued, the church being quite transformed -for the occasion, its walls hidden by scenery and an imitation hill -constructed at the top of which stood the Presepio. Moving figures -travelled up the hill toward the manger of Bethlehem, which was -illumined by a great light. I have heard such spectacles described by -travelers with much enthusiasm and not a little awe. Imagine the deep -impression, the reverent delight, produced among the devout worshippers -in mediaeval times! - -It must be admitted that many prelates condemned the use of these -religious fantoccini as smacking sinfully of idolatry. Abbot Hughes of -Cluny denounced them in 1086, Pope Innocent in 1210 and others also, -from time to time. But canons were never able to quite eradicate the -cherished custom, and the little figures always reappeared inside the -churches and in adjacent cloisters and cemeteries for spectacles, -mysteries and masks. The decree of the Council of Trent, however, was -instrumental in forcing most of them out of the churches, so that in -the sixteenth century they were generally to be found roaming about the -countryside and giving performances in the marketplaces and at fairs. - -[Illustration: MEDIAEVAL MARIONETTES - -[From an illustration in a twelfth-century manuscript in the -Strassbourg library]] - -There are many types of Italian pupazzi. They have been called by many -names and exhibited in many manners. They are designed and dressed -and manipulated in innumerable ways. In a twelfth-century manuscript -discovered in the Strasbourg library there is an illustration of very -primitive little _figurini_. They represent a pair of warriors caused -to fight by means of two cords; the action is horizontal. Somewhat -the same principle is employed to operate simple little dolls dancing -on a board, generally a couple of them together, the string tied to -the knee of the puppeteer. He makes the figures perform by moving -his leg and generally plays on a drum or tambourine to accompany the -motion. As a rule the name burattini is applied to the dolls with -heads and hands fashioned of wood or paper-maché and manipulated by a -hand thrust under the empty dress, a finger and a thumb fitted into -the two sleeves to work the arms, another finger used to turn or bow -the head of the doll. These pupazzi were most frequently played in -pairs by travelling showmen with little portable castelli. Fantoccini -are the puppets fashioned more or less after the human figure. They -are made of cardboard or wood and occasionally in part of metal or -plaster. They are sometimes crudely carved, sometimes modelled with -attention to every detail. They are operated by means of wires or -threads connecting them with the control, which is in the hands of the -marionettist standing concealed above. The number and arrangement of -threads and controls may be simple or intricate. Sometimes the limbs -are wired and all the wires except those of the arms are carried out -of the head through an iron tube. Another device is that of wiring the -dolls and manipulating them from below by pedals. There is no end to -the variety of contrivances invented by the makers of marionettes. The -more elaborate dolls are generally exhibited in large and substantial -castelli or on permanent stages constructed in private homes or in -theatres used entirely for fantocinni, the spectacular effects being -carried out on an amazing scale.[3] - -From earliest times the marionettes have been exceedingly popular with -both learned and ignorant. Every village was visited by ambulant shows, -every city had its large castello, frequently many of them, while noble -families had their private puppet theatres and engaged distinguished -writers to compose plays. Lorenzo de Medici is said to have enjoyed -puppet shows and to have given many of them. Cosimo I is reported to -have had the fantoccini in the Palazzo Vecchio, Francesco I in the -Uffizi: Girolamo Cardan, celebrated mathematician and physician wrote -in 1550, “An entire day would not be sufficient in which to describe -these puppets that play, fight, shoot, dance and make music.” Leone -Allaci, librarian of the Vatican under Pope Alexander VII, stopped -nightly to watch the burattini play. Prominent mechanicians and -scientists used their skill to create clever _pupazzi_; artists have -left us charming pictures of groups thronging around the castelli in -the public roads; poets and scholars wrote plays for the marionettes. - -[Illustration: FIGURES USED FOR CHRISTMAS CRIB INSIDE THE CHURCH - -Seventeenth or eighteenth century - -[From the collection of Mr. Sumner Healey, New York]] - -In the beginning the repertory of the pupazzi was derived entirely from -the _sacre rappresentazione_, consisting of scenes from the Old and -the New Testaments, stories of miracles and martyrdoms. Soon a comic -element was allowed to creep in, the better to hold the attention of -the audience. Fables were introduced for variety, and episodes from -heroic tales of chivalry, also satires reminiscent of Roman decadence. -The latter were performed by puppets fantastically dressed and -burlesqueing local types, and, naturally, speaking in the native -dialect of those particular characters. The showman improvised the -dialogue to fit the occasion, using only a skeleton plot to direct the -action just as did the actors of the _Commedia dell’Arte_. “Thus,” -claims an authority on Italian puppetry, “on this humble stage were -born types of the ancient Italian theatre, the immortal masks.” It -might be as difficult to prove as to disprove this statement, but at -any rate the pupazzi had a hand in popularizing and perpetuating the -famous _maschere_. - -At this point it might be well to digress for a moment and to -consider the commedia dell’arte which is so interwoven with the story -of Italian marionettes. Along with the commedia erudita which was -flourishing at the courts of the great Italian princes there developed -an extemporaneous, popular theatre depending greatly for its spirit -upon the invention and talent of the actors. Perhaps the beginnings -of its gay humor may be traced back to the comic and local elements -introduced into the early _sacre rappresentazione_. Perhaps the -characters were copied from the familiar buffoons of Latin comedy. At -any rate, the well-known masks or _personaggi_ of the cast represented -amusing types from all strata of Italian society, and each was -immediately recognizable by a conventionalized and rather grotesque -costume. _Arlecchino_, who originally came from Bergamo, is the chief -personage of this motley group. He is a unique figure in his strange -suit of multi-colored patches, his black mask, his peculiar weapon, -all reminiscent of the Roman _Histrio_. At first conceived as a happy, -simple fellow, he became in time a character of unbridled gayety and -pointed wit. Then there was _Pulcinella_, descended probably from the -Roman _Maccus_, a Neapolitan rogue and merry-maker whose white costume -serves to accentuate the hump in his back and his other physical -peculiarities. There were _Scaramuccia_, also of Naples, false bravo -and coward, _Stentorella_, from Florence, a mean miserly wretch, -_Cassandrino_, the charming fop and braggart, a Roman invention. -_Messer Pantalone_ is a good-natured Venetian merchant deceived by all, -_Scapino_ is the mischief maker apt to lead youth astray, _Constantine_ -of Verona is “said youth.” Then come _Brighella_, _Capitaine_, -_Pierrot_, world renowned, _Columbine_, _Isabella_, and a host of -other Italian conceptions, to say nothing of _Pasquino_, _Peppinno_, -_Ornofrio_ and _Rosina_ who are the masks of Sicily. - -[Illustration: PULCINELLA IN ITALY - -[From original color lithograph]] - -It was customary to have the plot and the principal situations -sketchily outlined for the actors. They then went into the play -supplying dialogue and improvising action and appropriate jests as the -mood of the moment dictated. The humor of the theatre was merry and -spontaneous, though frequently extremely broad and of questionable -taste. But despite this license of manners, the morals and purposes -of the plays were good, levelling shafts of satire against the frauds -and abuses of the age, poking fun and scorn at rogueries, hypocrisies, -weaknesses. The commedia dell’arte flourished brilliantly for a -century or more. Flaminio Scala was the first director who attempted -to systematize it. In 1611 he published a number of scenarii and -detailed directions for the action. However, in time the unbridled wit -degenerated into mere vulgarity, the grace and spontaneity of gesture -into absurd acrobatic tricks and grimacing, the bubbling jests and -startling situations became stale. It was then that Goldoni came to -reform the Italian drama. In his plays, it is true, one may still find -traces of the popular masks, but they are relegated to minor rôles, -subdued and properly clad. They will never wholly die out. - -Through various stages of the Italian drama the marionettes have -trailed gayly along, ever adopting the new without discarding the old. -Their repertoire is all inclusive. They have enacted sacred dramas and -legends of saints, _Sansone e Dalila_, _Sante Tecla_, _Guida Iscaretta_ -and innumerable others. They have made use of the scenarios of old -Latin plays such as _Amor non virtoso_ and _Il Basilico di Berganasso._ -When the bombastic, elaborate plays were discarded by the actors they -came into possession of the puppet showmen. Thereafter the burattini -became grandiloquent, and stalked about as princes and heroes of -tragedy, while their trappings and settings often grew correspondingly -elaborate. To fables of heroes and pastoral scenes, to the romances -of Paladins and Saracens and spectacular tales of brigands, assassins -and tyrants were added the pathetic and romantic melodramas of -foreign lands. _Il Flauto magico_, _La donna Serpente_, _Genovieffa -di Brabante_, _Elizabetta Potowsky_, everything was to be seen in the -castelli of the fantoccini, even the military plays of Iffland and -Kotzebue. Moreover Arlecchino and his band were always allowed to enter -at any time, into any situation. Indeed, when the commedia dell’arte -became at last discredited on the larger stage it sought shelter with -the puppets. Thus in the puppet booths the popular old personaggi were -kept alive among the people, where they had, indeed, been ever very -much at home. - -These old masks continue to be found to-day in the puppet shows of -Italy, as are also the melodramatic tragedies popular with the masses -and the clever, satirical comedies given in more intellectual circles. -Stendhal (Marie Henri Beyle), in his _Voyage en Italie_, reports -that in Rome he witnessed a wonderful performance of Machiavelli’s -_Mandragore_ performed for a select and highly cultured circle by -marvellous little marionettes on a stage scarcely five feet wide but -perfect in every detail. Rome has always abounded in puppet theatres. -Ernest Peixotto writes in 1903 that noblemen were in the habit of -giving plays acted by fantoccini in their palaces, plays reeking with -escapades and political satire that dared not show its face on the -public boards. Stendhal wrote also that he found Cassandrino at the -_Teatro Fiano_ very much the vogue, presented as a fashionable man of -the world falling in love with every petticoat. Teoli, who had made -the part famous, was an engraver by profession as well as an expert -marionettist. His delightful little Cassandrino was sometimes allowed -to appear in a three-cornered hat and scarlet coat suggesting the -cardinal, sometimes as a foppish Roman citizen, clever and experienced -but still with a weakness for the ladies. He was a charming instrument -for voicing popular criticism against the ecclesiastics and the -government. What wonder that Teoli’s theatre was sometimes closed and -he himself imprisoned? But Gregory XVI reopened the theatre and long -after Teoli’s death it remained in the hands of his family. - -At the present time in what was formerly this very Fiano theatre, -in the Piazza S. Apollinare, there still exists a prominent show of -fantoccini. Here the small auditorium is perfectly fitted out for the -accommodation of the very respectable middle-class audience with a -sprinkling of the aristocracy. The stage is well lighted, there is an -orchestra, the dolls are beautifully, nay, elegantly dressed. Here we -find Pulcinella entering into the plays, a well-mannered, dexterous -Pulcinella. The ballet is amazingly graceful, often ending with a -tableau or even fireworks. - -The most popular puppet theatre in Rome to-day, however, seems to be -that in the Piazza Montanara. Here the rather primitive fantoccini -present, most frequently, the ancient tales of chivalry from Ariosto -but their repertory also includes such diverse dramatic material -as _Aeneas, King of Tunis_ and _The Discovery of the Indies by -Christopher Columbus_. The audience sitting in the pit is composed -chiefly of rough, bronzed working men with thick, unkempt hair, a noisy -crowd all eating cakes or cracking pumpkin seeds between their teeth. -A spectator thus describes a performance: “To-day they are to perform -the lovely tale of _Angellica and Medoro_, or _Orlando Furioso and the -Paladins_. The curtain rises and the marionettes appear. The valiant -Roland and Pulcinella, his squire, come forth with a bound and neither -of them touches the ground. Roland is covered with iron from head to -foot and holds in his hand the Durlindana, [his sword]. Pulcinella has -white stockings, a white costume, with wide sleeves, and a white cap -with a tassel. The marionettes are two feet high, their limbs perfectly -supple, and lend themselves to any movement, etc. etc.” - -The same account tells us that the play of _Christopher Columbus_ -had been given here fourteen evenings in succession, three times an -evening. In it the Indians excited special curiosity, decked out with -splendid plumes. - -[Illustration: ITALIAN PUPPET BALLET - -[From a drawing in Hermann S. Rehm’s _Das Buch der Marionetten_]] - -In 1912 Mr. W. Story visited a similar theatre of fantoccini in Genoa -where elaborate productions (usually of the wars of the Paladins) were -presented to an ever-receptive audience. “What is that great noise of -drums inside?” inquired Mr. Story of the ticket seller. “Battaglio,” -was the reproving reply, “E sempre battaglie!” (Always battle!) -Although this perpetual fray was rather crude, it was followed by an -excellent ballet which danced the most intricate steps with masterly -ease and grace. - -There is an account by Charles Dickens of the show which he witnessed -in Genoa. It is too entertaining to be omitted. - -“The Theatre of Puppets, or _Marionetti_, a famous company from Milano, -is, without any exception, the drollest exhibition I ever beheld in my -life, etc. - -“The comic man in the comedy I saw one summer night, is a waiter at a -hotel. There never was such a locomotive actor since the world began. -Great pains are taken with him. He has extra joints in his legs, and -a practical eye, with which he winks at the pit, in a manner that -is absolutely insupportable to a stranger, but which the initiated -audience, mainly composed of the common people, receive (as they do -everything else) quite as a matter of course, and as if he were a man. -His spirits are prodigious. He continually shakes his legs, and winks -his eye. - -“There is a heavy father with grey hair, who sits down on the regular -conventional stage-bank, and blesses his daughter in the regular -conventional way, who is tremendous. No one would suppose it possible -that anything short of a real man could be so tedious. It is the -triumph of art. - -“In the ballet, an Enchanter runs away with the Bride, in the very hour -of her nuptials. He brings her to his cave, and tries to soothe her. -They sit down on a sofa (the regular sofa! in the regular place, O. P. -Second Entrance!) and a procession of musicians enter; one creature -playing a drum, and knocking himself off his legs at every blow. These -failing to delight her, dancers appear. Four first; then two; the -two; the flesh-coloured two. The way in which they dance; the height -to which they spring; the impossible and inhuman extent to which they -pirouette; the revelation of their preposterous legs; the coming down -with a pause, on the very tips of their toes, when the music requires -it; the gentleman’s retiring up, when it is the lady’s turn; and the -lady’s retiring up when it is the gentleman’s turn; the final passion -of a pas-de-deux; and going off with a bound! I shall never see a real -ballet, with a composed countenance, again. - -“I went, another night, to see these Puppets act a play called ‘St. -Helena, or the Death of Napoleon.’ It began by the disclosure of -Napoleon, with an immense head, seated on a sofa in his chamber at St. -Helena; to whom his valet entered, with this obscure announcement: - -“‘Sir Yew ud se on Low!’ (The ow, as in cow). - -“Sir Hudson (that you could have seen his regimentals!) was a perfect -mammoth of a man, to Napoleon; hideously ugly; with a monstrously -disproportionate face, and a great clump for the lower-jaw, to express -his tyrannical and obdurate nature. - -“He began his system of persecution by calling his prisoner ‘General -Buonaparte’; to which the latter replied, with the deepest tragedy, -‘Sir Yew ud se on Low, call me not thus. Repeat that phrase and leave -me! I am Napoleon, Emperor of France!’ Sir Yew ud se on, nothing -daunted, proceeded to entertain him with an ordinance of the British -Government, regulating the state he should preserve, and the furniture -of his rooms; and limiting his attendants to four or five persons. -‘Four or five for me!’ said Napoleon. ‘Me! One hundred thousand men -were lately at my sole command; and this English officer talks of four -or five for me!’ - -“Throughout the piece, Napoleon (who talked very like the real -Napoleon, and was forever having small soliloquies by himself) was very -bitter on ‘these English soldiers’ to the great satisfaction of the -audience, who were perfectly delighted to have Low bullied; and who, -whenever Low said ‘General Buonaparte’ (which he always did; always -receiving the same correction) quite execrated him. It would be hard to -say why; for Italians have little cause to sympathize with Napoleon, -Heaven knows. - -“There was no plot at all, except that a French officer, disguised as -an Englishman, came to propound a plan of escape, and being discovered -(but not before Napoleon had magnanimously refused to steal his -freedom), was immediately ordered off by Low to be hanged, in two very -long speeches, which Low made memorable, by winding up with ‘Yas!’ to -show that he was English, which brought down thunders of applause. -Napoleon was so affected by this catastrophe, that he fainted away on -the spot, and was carried out by two other puppets. - -“Judging from what followed, it would appear that he never recovered -from the shock; for the next act showed him, in a clean shirt, in his -bed (curtains crimson and white), where a lady, prematurely dressed in -mourning, brought two little children, who kneeled down by the bedside, -while he made a decent end; the last word on his lips being ‘Vatterlo.’ - -“Dr. Antommarchi was represented by a puppet with long lank hair, -like Mawworm’s, who, in consequence of some derangement of his wires, -hovered about the couch like a vulture, and gave medical opinions in -the air. He was almost as good as Low, though the latter was great -at all times, a decided brute and villain, beyond all possibility of -mistake. Low was especially fine at the last, when, hearing the doctor -and the valet say, ‘The Emperor is dead!’ he pulled out his watch, and -wound up the piece (not the watch) by exclaiming, with characteristic -brutality, ‘Ha! ha! Eleven minutes to six! The General dead! and the -spy hanged!’ - -“This brought the curtain down, triumphantly.” - -Goethe was greatly interested by the shows in Naples where every event -of local interest was introduced upon the puppet stage. The humor of -the Neapolitan Pulcinella was often vulgar; ladies were not supposed -to visit the shows, although they were frequently given in fine -society. On the street where they were most popular, however, they drew -about them picturesque audiences reminiscent of Hogarth’s sketches. -Pulcinella was made to speak with a squeaky voice by means of the -pivetta, a little metal contrivance placed in the mouth of the actor. -It is formed of two curved pieces of tin or brass, bound together and -hollow inside. The voice, passing through this, acquired a shrill and -ridiculous sound. - -Until the eighteenth century the puppets enjoyed celebrity and prestige -in Venice. Vittorio Malmani tells us that from the sixteenth century -when they became the vogue among Italian nobility, Venetian patricians -were accustomed to build elaborate little puppet theatres in their -palaces. One example of this was that of Antonio Labia, who exactly -reproduced in miniature the huge theatre, S. Giovanni Grisostomo, -famous throughout Europe, stage, boxes, decorations, machinery, -lighting facilities, costumes--everything precisely imitated the larger -theatre. The actors were figurines of wax and wood. The first drama -produced here was _Lo Starnuto d’Ercole_ (The Sneeze of Hercules) which -we may find described in Goldini’s memoirs. - -In the Piazza of San Marco and in the Piazzetta until the fall of the -Republic, so Malamani tells us, the castelli of the burattini were -numerous during carnival time. In the eighteenth century the _casotti_ -of Paglialunga and Bordogna were great rival attractions until the -former showman died and his little actors went to swell the company -of Bordogna, whose descendants continued the theatre throughout the -eighteenth century. The casotto of Bordogna has been painted by the -brush of Longhi, standing near the great dove of the Ducal Palace. - -A. Calthrop tells of his recent visit to a rough little place, -_Teatro Minerva_, where three-foot burattini, looking life size, were -manipulated crudely to the intense satisfaction of the audience. He -mentions a well-managed maschere, Guillette and her lover, a clownish -dwarf, both speaking in the Venetian dialect, and after the play, the -marionette ballet. Another account tells of a pretty little puppet -theatre with boxes, galleries and parquet where dolls thirty-five -inches high play classic tragedy of four or five acts and comedy -and pantomime, including always a marvellous ballet. Here the most -admired puppet receives encores, even bouquets and very properly bows -in response. The stages of such little theatres are as complete as -the most luxurious real stages. The figures can sit on chairs, open -bureau drawers, carry objects, and they are carefully and beautifully -costumed. The dialogue and subjects are far removed from the triviality -of the crude castelli, where the pupazzi are manipulated on the fingers -of the showman. It is not unusual to witness _Nebuccodnoser_ performed -by fantoccini or Rossini’s operas. - -In recent issues of _The Marionette_ one will find an enthusiastic -eulogy of a remarkable puppet theatre in Torino, the proprietors of -which were the Lupi brothers. They had inherited their profession from -their grandfather, a wandering showman of Ferrara, and from their -father, a man of lively talent who had established the present theatre. -The two brothers were named Luigi I and Luigi II, respectively; -only one is still living. Their show has been taken far and wide. -It travelled from Buenos Aires to London, from Chicago to Venice, -and has gained as great applause as did the puppets of the famous -Prandi brothers of Brescia in their day. The repertory embraces the -universe in time and space, extends from the flood to the siege of -Makalle; comprises mythology, natural history and city news; stretches -from China to California, from Cafrena to Greenland, from spaces in -the air to abysses of ocean, from the circles of Paradise to the -caverns of Hell. It includes the old commedia dell’arte, dramas from -all literatures, the ballets of Pratesi and Manzotti, the operas of -Meyerbeer and Verdi, all the military glories of the nation from -the battle of Goito to the occupation of Rome, all the congresses, -earthquakes, epidemics, floods, coronations, exhibitions, etc. - -In Bologna flourished the show founded by Filippo Cuccoli, whose clever -invention of the character Sandrone became so popular. In the hands of -the son, Angelo Cuccoli, the puppets continued until 1905, delighting -the public with their sprightly gayety. - -In Bologna, too, lived the marionettist whom Gordon Craig designates -simply but reverently as _Maestro_. His trade was that of a watchmaker, -but he was a master showman of burattini, and the shows in his -unpretentious castello are the true evidences of his devotion and deep -understanding of the art of the marionette. - -There are, it is claimed, over four hundred edifizi for marionettes, -large and small, in Italy, to say nothing of the wandering booths -of which there are two or three times as many. The large mechanical -theatres compete with regular players. - -The most modern maschere on the puppet stage has changed a little in -appearance, if not in spirit from the ancient masks. We are told of a -miniature Tartaglia, who twists his lips into a grimace; of a puppet, -Rogantino, who grinds his teeth; of Stenterello, who can put his finger -to his nose and scratch it; and of the newer mask, Carciofo, who has -a hollow metallic case for a body which enables him to eat macaroni, -drink and smoke. He can also undress himself! In North Italy, Gian Duja -is a puppet hero whose exploits delight the public almost as much as -those of the Paladins. He is of Piedmontese origin. He slays whomever -he encounters, modern politics being mixed up with his various and -mighty adventures. - - * * * * * - -The marionettes are an absorbing interest for the people of Sicily. -There is something appealing about the audiences of the usual modest -theatrino. It is composed entirely of men and boys; many of them may -have eaten dry bread without cheese or onions to save the small sum -required for admission. The people of the country are very poor, -but this is their favorite diversion. So they sit crowded into a -dark little hall, spellbound for hours, transported into a world -of romance which their spirits crave. It may be filled with crude, -primitive puppets, but it is glorified by the vivid intensity of their -imaginations. - -The Sicilian shows are not very unlike the Italian. One finds farces -with local maschere, grotesque comedy, passion-plays, tragedies and -occasional ballets. But of all plays those forever and most intensely -adored are the ones founded upon the episodes of Ariosto’s _Orlando -Furioso_. Night after night the successions of thrilling adventures -proceed. Year after year the same dramas are presented, regardless of -historic veracity or of the artistic unities; their spell remains the -same. Time cannot wither nor custom stale their infinite invariability. -The spectators recognize (nay, they anticipate) each puppet hero or -villain as he enters. They know every detail of every character’s -costume. They have the order of events by heart. - -Mr. Henry Festing Jones, wandering delightfully in Sicily, visited a -show in Trapani where the burattini were presenting some version of the -Paladins of France. Before entering, his guide, Pasquale, informed him: -“She will die to-night.” He referred to Bradamante. Mr. Jones expressed -regret and asked for particulars, whereupon Pasquale elucidated: “She -will die of grief at the loss of her husband.” And so, indeed, she -did. It proved an affecting scene and was read with deep pathos. The -Empress Marfisa, searching for Bradamante in the woods, finds her -prostrate in a grotto. “Farewell, sister, I am dying.” Then she dies. -An angel flutters down and receives her soul from her lips. - -More thrilling, of course, was the fighting of the red-eyed Ferrain, -performed the same night (red-eyed, incidentally, “because he was -always in a rage”). The first episode presented Ferrain and Angelica -whose husband he killed. “He cut off Duca d’Anela’s head, which rolled -about on the stage. Immediately there came three Turks. Ferrain stabbed -each as he entered, one, two, three, and their bodies encumbered the -ground as the curtain fell. - -“It rose as soon as the bodies had been removed, Ferrain stamping about -alone. There came three more Turks. He stabbed them as they came, one, -two, three, and their bodies encumbered the ground. To them there came -three knights in armour; Ferrain fought them all three together for a -very considerable time and it was deafening. He killed them all. Their -bodies, etc., together with those of the three Turks. A bloody sight.” - -These fantoccini of Trapani were large and crude, dressed in heavy -armor. An iron rod, extending up from the head, another attached to the -sword hand served for the moving and manipulating of them. Strings were -employed to raise the vizier, etc. The legs and arms were apt to swing -rather wildly in the heat of the fray, the combatants often sweeping -off their feet through the air. Then armor clashed against armor, -body against body, swords shivering against shield. Truly, an amazing -display! - -However naïve or even childishly absurd some of these exaggerated -episodes may appear, viewed with a sympathetic eye they become -manifestations of unconscious romance in the spirit of the Sicilian -people, a curiously mingled heritage which is theirs. While the -Paladins and Saracens heroically stamp across the boards of the puppet -show, one may sit back and recall the many great races dwelling about -the Mediterranean, which have had their influence in Sicily from the -Phoenicians and Greeks, Normans and Saracens down. One remembers the -reign of the Emperor Frederick II, the strange blending of East and -West, the Christian cathedrals of Moslem design and decoration, a -time inspired by the songs of the troubadours wandering through the -blossoming land and spreading their spell of Carolingian chivalry and -romance. - -The familiarity of the people with the long and intricate legends they -love so well is humorously portrayed by Mr. Henry Festing Jones. This -author was particularly fortunate in having formed a friendship with -a very busy _buffo_ of Palermo and with his entire family. Hence the -illuminating intimacy of his visits behind the scenes. In a letter -anticipating Mr. Jones’ visit, the buffo writes concerning his show -that the marionettes had just produced _Samson_ and that, “just now -in _The Story of the Paladine_, Orlando is throwing away his arms and -running about naked in the woods, mad for the love of Angelica, and -soon we shall have the burning of Bizerta and the destruction of the -Africans. This will finish in July and then we shall begin _The Story -of Guido Santo_.” This programme appears to have been carried out in -order, for Mr. Jones, arriving at the _teatrino_, found the performance -of _Guido Santo_ in full swing. - -“The buffo,” he writes, “took me into his workshop to show me two -inflammable Turkish pavilions which he was making. Ettorina in her -madness was to fire them in a few days, one in the afternoon, the -other at the evening repetition, as a conclusion to the spectacle. I -inquired, ‘Who was Ettorina and why did she go mad?’ It appeared, at -great length, that she went mad for love of Ruggiero Persiano. - -“Next morning,” continues the narrator, “I called on the buffo in his -workshop. The two inflammable Turkish pavilions were finished, ready -to be fired by Ettorina, and he was full of his devils.” This led to -another question: “I never heard of Argantino before. Did you say he -was the son of Malagigi?” - -“That is right. He did not happen to be at Roncesvalles, so he was not -killed with Orlando and the other paladins. An angel came to him and -said, ‘Now the Turks will make much war against the Christians and, -since the Christians always want a magician, it is the will of Heaven -that you shall have the rod of Malagigi, who is no longer here, and -that Guido Santo shall have la Durlindana, the sword of Orlando.’ And -it was so, and Argantino thereafter appeared as a pilgrim.” - -“I remember about Malagigi; he made all of Rinaldo’s armor.” - -“Excuse me, he made some of his armor; but he did not make his helmet, -nor his sword Fusberta, nor his horse Baiardo. First you must know that -Rinaldo was one of the four brothers, sons of Amone, and their sister -was Bradamante.” - -“I saw her die at Trapani. The Empress Marfisa came and found her dying -of grief in a grotto for loss of her husband, Ruggiero da Risa.” - -“Precisely; she was Marfisa’s sister-in-law because she married -Marfisa’s brother, Ruggiero da Risa.” - -“Then who was the cavaliere errante, Ruggiero Persiano?” - -“He was the son of Marfisa and Guidon Selvaggio, and this Guidon -Selvaggio was the son of Rinaldo.” - -“Had Bradamante no children?” - -“Guido Sante is the son of Bradamante and Ruggiero da Risa.” - -“I heard something about Guido Sante in Castellinaria the other day. -Let me see, what was it? Never mind. I hope he left children.” - -“I told you last year that he never married.” - -“Oh, yes, of course; what was I thinking of? One cannot remember -everything at once and pedigrees are always confusing at first. Then -it was for love of Bradamante’s nephew by marriage, Ruggiero Persiano, -that Ettorina has now gone mad?” - -“Bravo. And Malagigi was Bradamante’s cousin.” The buffo then -continued to tell the story of Malagigi and Argantino. How Malagigi, -the sorcerer, albeit a Christian, began to have fears of not getting -into Heaven when he died, hence decided to repent and burn all his -magic books but one. After having accomplished this, he summoned his -confidential and private devil and commanded, “Convey me to some -peaceful shore where I may repent of my sins and die of grief in a -grotto.” - -Here his friend objected that this made “consecutive fifths” with -his cousin Bradamante dying of grief in a grotto in Trapani. The -buffo admitted it would have been better if one of them had had the -originality to die in bed as a Christian, but that it was the will -of Heaven and could not be altered; besides the people who missed -the death of Bradamante would be pleased to see Malagigi die. After -repenting like S. Gerolamo in his grotto, Malagigi died there. A long -time after his son Argantino and his second cousin Guido Santo were -travelling in Asia and found the tomb. Guido knelt down, saying, “I -perceive here a sepulchre.” - -Presently the tomb opened and Malagigi’s skeleton rattled up and spoke -to them. He gave his magic book to Argantino, the horse Sfrenato to -Guido and made them swear to preserve the faith. After his skeleton -retired to the tomb it closed by a miracle while a ball of fire ran -over the stage. “And all this,” said the buffo, “happened only last -Friday. Why did you not come in time to see it? It was very emotional.” - -Later the buffo gave a private performance of this emotional scene and -then “to take the taste of the skeleton out of our mouths,” as Mr. -Jones puts it, he brought forth a _Ballo Fantastico_. It was done by -a heavy Turk who danced himself to pieces, each limb falling off and -being changed into a little devil, the head into a wizard and so on, -until there were sixteen different devils, wizards, serpents, etc., -from the one original Turk. After this there came on a marvellous -rope-dancer, extraordinarily lifelike and amusing. - -At Catania, at the _Teatro Sicilia_ of Gregorio Grasso, Mr. Jones -saw _The Passion_ performed by puppets during Holy Week. Every scene -was presented in detail, from the meeting of the Sanhedrin and the -conspiracy between Annas and Caiaphas to destroy the Nazarene to the -Resurrection and the Ascension. The figures were all newly costumed -for this occasion and their faces freshly painted, but there lingered -about the soldiers a flavor reminiscent of the Paladins. The scenes -were arranged quite in the manner of the paintings of old masters. The -table set for the Last Supper and the puppets seated around it strongly -suggested Leonardo da Vinci. The figure of Jesus, although not wholly -successful, was manipulated with great understanding. It moved but -little, and then with simple, slow gestures; it was allowed to speak -only the few words given to Christ in the Gospels. When it caused a -miracle, a great light appeared and there was music. The puppets here -also performed the _Nativita_ at Christmas. For the rest they had the -usual Sicilian repertory. - - * * * * * - -In Spain, as in Italy, one may trace the beginnings of puppetry back -to the ecclesiastic ceremonies in churches and monasteries where -articulated figures presented scenes from Holy Writ and legends of -saints and martyrs,--all this notwithstanding repeated canonical -prohibitions. These little figures remained as late as the sixteenth -century in the churches of Seville. We are told by Charles Magnin that -at the commencement of the seventeenth century a synod was held at -Orhuela, a little Valencian bishopric which solemnly forbade “admission -into churches of small images of the Virgin and female saints, curled, -painted, covered with jewels and dressed in silks and resembling -courtesans.” - -[Illustration: WOODEN SPANISH PUPPETS - -Part of a large and elaborate set - -[Courtesy of the Bradlay Studios, New York]] - -The emperor, Charles V, had a great love for curious and ingenious -mechanical toys, and with such encouragement many mechanicians applied -themselves to the invention of automatic contrivances. Giovanni -Torriani is said to have won favor by constructing a very wonderful -clock. When Charles V abdicated his throne and retired to the monastery -of Cremona, the loyal Torriani followed him to his retreat, and many an -hour this famous mathematician spent distracting the saddened monarch -with marionette shows. He constructed marvellous _titeres_, as the -Spanish puppets are called, little armed men who blew horns, beat -drums, and fought; little horses and even miniature bull-fights. - -At the marriage festival of Louis XIV and the Infanta Maria Teresa a -feature in the procession which welcomed Mazarin’s arrival in Spain was -a group of mammoth Moors and their wives, which moved ponderously along -by means of very intricate internal mechanisms. - -There had previously been theatrical puppets in Spain, but these -mechanical improvements were soon adopted by the popular _titereros_, -showmen, and the marionettes sprung up in all public places, in cities, -villages, fairs, even at court. - -The characters and repertories of the titeres were always strictly -national, although the exhibitors were frequently foreigners. Moors, -knights, giants, enchanters, conquerors of the Indies, saints, hermits, -bull-fighters, characters from the old and new testaments, all were -displayed in the puppet castello. The Spanish _Grazioso_, costumed -somewhat in the fashion of Pierrot, was never a very prominent -puppet; he later acquired the name of Don Christobal Pulichinela. A -well-known type of wandering show consisted of a blind man, led by a -boy, with a mule and wagon to carry the castello and equipment. The -blind man generally recited the text of the play, the boy operated the -puppets. Cervantes depicts a Spanish show for us where Don Quixote -and Sancho Panza saw performed, “The manner in which Signor Gayferos -accomplished the deliverance of his spouse Melisandra,” and he relates -with much spirit how Don Quixote’s chivalrous zeal interfered with the -performance of Master Peter’s puppets. Since that time, over three -hundred years, there has been little change in the titeres of Spain. - -In 1877 in Madrid Molière’s _Monsieur Pourceaugnac_ was presented by -marionettes. In 1808 a French savant was present at a Valencian puppet -show when the _Death of Seneca_ was performed. The account tells us -that, “In the presence of the audience the celebrated philosopher ended -historically by opening his veins in a bath. The streams of blood that -flowed from his arms were simulated cleverly enough by the movement of -red ribbon. An unexpected miracle, less historic than the mode of his -death, wound up the drama. Amidst the noise of fireworks the pagan sage -was taken up into Heaven in a _glory_, pronouncing, as he ascended, the -confession of his faith in Jesus Christ to the perfect satisfaction of -the audience. Spain, a country of anomalies, is not to be disconcerted -by an anachronism.” - -In Portugal the titeres were used so frequently to represent hermits -and monks in monkish garb that they come to be called _Bonifrates_. -They were quite similar to the Spanish marionettes. - - - - -_The Puppets in France_ - - “Ainsi font font font - Les petites marionettes - Elles font font - Trois petits tours et puis s’en vont.” - - -The French, scarcely less than the Italians, are devotees of the -diminutive Polichinelle. Moreover in France this devotion is -particularly noticeable in the upper classes. Perhaps it is this -interest of aristocratic and cultured circles or possibly the happy -genius and good taste of the people themselves which have endowed -the marionettes of France with such undeniable charm, a sort of chic -cleverness and at times a rare and finished beauty. - -The ancient Gauls, before their conquest by the Romans, had great -Druid gods, Belen, Esus, Witolf, Murcia, represented by huge and -fearful idols which were operated by means of internal mechanism to -terrorize into submission the fierce, barbaric worshipers who beheld -their solemn gestures. After the conquest Greek and Roman practices -were intermingled with barbarian rites and, eventually, the doctrine -of Christianity was infused into the mass of strange beliefs and -superstitions. But even in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, -after the new religion had become established in the land, its -priests continued to employ the moving images as they had done in the -churches of Italy. Similarly too, we find the sacred representations -and religious rites within the churches giving birth to the mysteries -and morality plays just outside which gradually spread to booths in -the market places and roamed the countryside under the guidance of -ambulant showmen. In the Provençal cribs, the _Crèches parlantes_ of -the southern cities at Christmas time, there are to-day many qualities -remaining from these old mysteries; the large decorated stages, the -technical devices, the transformations, the beautifully dressed, -articulated dolls, the music and recitations. - -One characteristic of the great French _mitouries_ was the use, -frequently and openly, of human actors along with marionettes. Many -records of such performances have been preserved, among them a -description of one celebrated annually at Dieppe on the first day -of August by a company of clergy and laity supported by several -figures set in motion by means of strings and counterweights. In the -open space before the Church of St. James there was represented the -_Mystery of the Assumption_. Four hundred _personaggi_ participated -and the marvellous spectacle attracted throngs of strangers to the -city of Dieppe. Similar performances at Christmas, Easter, or at other -times were given in all the larger cities of France, in Rouen, Lyons, -Paris, Marseilles. The plays were of a religious character. Notable as -late as the seventeenth century were the spectacles produced by the -monks of the Order of Théatines with clever movable figures upon the -presepio they constructed before their convent door. These monks won -the favor of no less a personage than Jules Mazarin, who had them give -performances in Paris. - -But, as these religious puppets ventured out from the jeweled twilight -of the cathedrals into the bright sunshine they were accosted by -flippant crews of wanderers from the South, Pulcinella, Arlecchino, -Dottore, Cassandrino, Columbine, and other protagonists of Italian -puppet drama, exploring in their castelli the highroads and villages -of a new country. The merry foreigners intermingled happily with -the native _fantoches_; they altered their names and their natures -with easy adaptability and upon the French puppet stage appeared in -sprightly guise _Polichinelle_, _Harlequin_, _Pierrot_. - -French theatrical puppets must have become established in the sixteenth -century for we find them mentioned in a work entitled _Serées_ -published 1584, by Guillaume Bouchet, juge et consul des marchands à -Poitier. Polichinelle first presented himself to the Parisian public -about 1630 and although not yet at the height of his glory he was -completely changed into a buffoon of Gascony. In 1649 the marionettes -entered into the first permanent stage erected in Paris for the _jeu -des marionettes_, by the side of the Porte de Nesle. The proprietors -of this theatre were two brothers (or father and son as some prefer -to consider them) from Bologna, Giovanni and Francesco Briocci, the -name changed by the French to Brioché. It is said that Brioché first -displayed his dolls to attract clients for himself as he originally -plied the trade of dentist. At any rate Francesco carved the dolls and -Giovanni improvised the dialogue in French interspersed with quaint -Italian or Latin sayings. So amusing were these burattini that they -became tremendously the rage. We find Brioché mentioned in the works of -the academician, Perrault, and in 1677 Nicolas Boileau speaks of him as -a well known figure in the Parisian streets, “Là non loin de la place -où Brioché préside, etc.” - -There is a well known story concerning Cyrano de Bergerac and a -trained ape of Brioché, _Fagotin_ by name. A contemporary account of -the incident thus describes the animal: “He was as big as a little -man and a devil of a droll. His master had put on him an old Spanish -hat whose dilapidations were concealed by a plume: round his neck was -a frill à la Scaramouche; he wore a doublet with six movable skirts -trimmed with lace and tags,--a garment that gave him rather the look -of a lackey,--and a shoulder belt from which hung a pointless blade.” -One day Cyrano saw the monkey arrayed in this livery wandering and -grimacing about the puppet booth. But the poet, whose sensitiveness had -been the cause of many a duel, imagined that the poor animal was making -faces at his large nose. He grew excited and drew his sword. Thereupon -the monkey, for whom this was a well-rehearsed trick, drew forth his -tiny wooden weapon in imitation. Cyrano was infuriated beyond reason -and rushing at the creature he killed it with his sword. All Paris -heard of the event and an anonymous pamphlet was published concerning -it in 1655 called “Combat de Cyrano de Bergerac contre le singe de -Brioché.” - -Another amusing tale is told of an Italian showman, supposed to have -been Brioché himself, who wandered into Switzerland where puppets -had seldom been seen. There this venturesome fellow narrowly escaped -being burned at the stake by the simple-minded inhabitants who swore -they had heard the little figures jabber, hence knew they were little -devils summoned by evil methods to do their master’s bidding. He, poor -man, was compelled to save his life by stripping the puppets naked and -displaying before his judges their small crude bodies of wood and rags -and paper. - -However, in France the puppet show gained such popularity and fame -that in 1669 Brioché was summoned to the court to amuse the royal -Dauphin, son of Louis XIV. Thus Polichinelle makes his bow in the -palace as the records of the royal accounts attest: “A Brioché, joueur -de marionettes, pour le séjour qu’il a fait à Saint Germain en Laye -pendant les mois de septembre, octobre et novembre pour divertir les -Enfants de France, 1365 livres.” The following year a French showman, -Francesco Datelin, was similarly summoned to entertain the Dauphin -with his puppets, “à raison de 20 livres par jour.” The royal interest -in marionettes extended still farther for, some years later, Francesco -Brioché and his little wooden figures were protected by a special order -of the King himself to the Lieutenant General of Police. And indeed, -they probably needed such protection, for their popularity seems to -have stirred up enmity against them. Besides they were often meddlesome -and impertinent and deserved the wrath they incurred. - -Under such favorable conditions companies of marionettes sprang up -all over France. They attracted the attention of many writers of the -day in whose works we may find them often and favorably mentioned, -Gacon, Scarron, La Bruyère, Lemierre, Arnaud. Most ambitious among the -immediate successors of the Briocci was the French showman, Bertrand, -with his audacious puppets who never hesitated to poke their wooden -noses into matters of gravest import. The revocation of the Edict of -Nantes furnished one well known occasion. The puppets took sides, -representing Catholics and Protestants upon their little stages. -Pantalone was in one faction, Harlequin in another and Polichinelle, -as Ferrigni describes him, “always something of an unbeliever, is -ready at all times to pour ridicule upon the hypocrisy of bigots and -the libertism of reformers.” The play drew crowds of all classes until -it was finally stopped by the authorities who had been notified of -it in this manner: “To M. de la Raynie, Councillor of the King in -Council. It is said this morning at the Palace that the marionettes -at the Fair of Saint Germain are representing the destruction of the -Huguenots and, as you will probably find this a serious matter for -the marionettes, I have deemed it right to give you the information -thereof so that you may make use of it according to your discretion.” -But despite an occasional rebuff, the marionettes became more and more -firmly established in the two Fairs of Saint Laurent and Saint Germain. -What clever shows, what ingenious and indefatigable showmen! Bienfait, -Gillot, Tiquet, Maurice, De Selles, Francesco Bodinière, the brothers -Ferron at _The Sign of the Giglio_, the _Théâtre des Pygmées_ of La -Grille, the show in the Rue Marais du Temple, _Il Gallo_ and many -others. - -Now indeed the emboldened fantoches began to wage a most amazing battle -royal, their opponents being no other than the managers, actors and -singers of the contemporary stage. The three great theatres alone at -this time had the privilege of representing musical opera, tragedy, -or commedie nobili. The puppets were restricted to mere farces of -one scene for not more than two characters, only one of whom was -allowed to speak and that “par le sifflet, de la pratique,” a little -contrivance which the showman put into his mouth when reciting to -produce the shrill squeak characteristic of Polichinelle from time -immemorial. But these showmen circumvented such limitations with many -devices,--pantomimes with musical interludes and figures with printed -cards hung up to explain the action, even living children combined with -puppet play. - -The large marionettes of La Grille, manipulated by wires sliding on -rails and held upright by weights and counterweights, were claimed by -their owner to be a new invention, despite the fact that similar dolls -were not unusual in Italy. At any rate they were a novelty in France -and to them King Louis XIV accorded special privileges. Nevertheless -before long they had over-stepped them and trespassed upon the rights -of the actors of the opera. The latter complained to the King. He -issued fresh interdictions. The marionettes subsided: only to break -forth again. In 1697 the Italian actors in the _Hôtel de Bourgogne_ -incurred disfavor at court and were temporarily put out of their -theatre. Bertrand immediately installed his puppets in triumph upon -their vacated stage which he, in turn, was eventually enjoined to quit -by a subsequent order of the King. Thus the struggle continued. - -In 1720 further privileges were obtained by the marionettes, six or -seven at a time being allowed to sing, dance or recite upon the stage. -Immediately the famous showman, Francisque, engaged three prominent -poets to write new plays for his burattini, Fuzilier, Lesage, and -d’Orneval. They set about creating a quite new form of dramatic art, -a master stroke which has persisted ever since, the well known _opéra -comique_. The first one, _L’ombre du cocher poète_, was given in a -booth in the Foire Saint Germain and was so enthusiastically received -that the jealous antagonism of directors and singers of the opera -was aroused more violently than ever, but the opéra comique remained -popular. Piron composed for the burattini an opéra bouffe, La Place, -Dolet, Carolet, all invented puppet parodies on the plays and actors -of the day. Favert composed his first drama for the pupazzi and Valois -d’Orville inaugurated the _Revues de fin d’année_, a criticism of the -year’s dramatic production by the mocking marionettes. - -The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are quite rightly called the -golden age of marionettes. The puppets were executed and managed with -utmost skill, the mise-en-scène imitated the magnificence of the larger -theatres. The greater the impertinences the greater the popularity -of the puppets,--what wonder that the Comédie Française complained -of them as a “concurrence déloyale.” But with the entrance into the -puppet shows of the spectacular, the decline of the French marionettes -began. It is true that despite his crude and rather broad repartee so -popular in the two fairs, his jokes of doubtful taste relished upon -the boulevards, Polichinelle continued to be the vogue among the upper -classes. He was called to perform in the salon of the Duc de Bourbon, -of the Duc de Bourgogne, of the Duchesse de Berry, and of the Duc de -Guise at Meudon. At one time, indeed, the Duchesse de Maine had a -puppet stage built at her chateau of Sceaux and plays and epigrams -written for it by her friend and secretary, the academician Malezieu, -which finally involved an altercation between Polichinelle and the -Academy. At the same Castle of Sceaux in 1746 the Comte d’Eu had a -company of marionettes brought in and he operated and spoke for them -himself. Voltaire, present at this occasion, forgot his quarrel with -the burattini for having poked fun at his _Mérope_ and _Oreste_ and -took a hand himself at the manipulating. Eventually he found himself -composing for them and inviting them into his own castle, Cirey, where -he may have learned many things about the traditional Italian drama -from studying the personaggi of the puppet stage. - -At this time, indeed, Fourre, Beaupré, Audinot, Nicolet and Servandoni -were making lasting names for themselves as directors of marionette -theatres but it gradually came to pass that, as the audiences grew -cold, witty jests were replaced by spectacular surprises such as the -mechanical triumphs achieved by the puppets of Bienfait. We read of -M. Pierre’s show. “Here are to be seen in every detail, mountains, -castles, marine views; also figures that perfectly imitate all natural -movements without being visibly acted upon by any string, storm, -rain, thunder, vessels perishing, soldiers swimming.” We hear of -Audinot’s exhibition of life-sized _bamboches_ imitating with striking -resemblance celebrities of the day, displaying the follies and vices of -the eighteenth century courts. Children were seen acting with puppets -and there were innumerable military pieces such as, _The Bombardment of -Antwerp_, or _The Taking of Charleroi_. Poor Polichinelle, indeed! We -will scarcely be surprised to find him struggling along as best he can -and finally suffering a last indignity by losing his little wooden head -for the edification of the Parisian mob on the very day, at the very -hour, when the unfortunate monarch Louis XVI was guillotined. - -Everywhere puppets have originated among the common people: they are -primarily an expression of popular taste. Nevertheless, this rude show -of the masses has frequently aroused the curiosity of artists and some -of them have found in the very naïveté of the dolls unexpected artistic -possibilities. The delightful potentialities have been developed into -an exquisite and unique art genre in many countries, particularly in -France. - -We have seen the kings and courts entranced by the burattini of -Brioché and his followers. Lesage, Piron and other dramatists were -engaged in writing plays for the fantoches; even the great Voltaire -entertained his distinguished guests at Cirey with his own puppet -shows. Rousseau was interested in them. Gounod wrote “The Funeral -March of a Marionette.” Charles Magnin, learned member of the Académie -Française, devoted himself to the task of chronicling the long history -of puppetry. Charles Nodier, persistent visitor of the Parisian shows, -is called by some Polichinelle’s laureate for the many sparkling pages -in his works that are devoted to the marionette. - -We shall not be so greatly surprised, therefore, to learn that George -Sand had her own puppet theatre at her estate, Nohant, where for thirty -years she herself arranged the plays and dressed the dolls while her -son, Maurice, sculptured them and acted as director. It was called, -_Théâtre des amis_ and the first performance was given in 1847. This -was a very crude affair got up by Maurice Sand and Eugene Lambert -(painter of cats) for themselves and a circle of intimate friends. The -stage itself was merely a chair with its back turned to the audience, a -cardboard frame arranged in front of it with a curtain to be rolled up -and down. The operator knelt upon the seat of the chair, on his hands -were placed the puppets, which consisted merely of dresses hung upon -sticks of wood for the head, scarcely carved at all. Being tremendously -successful, this performance was followed by others. Thus the theatre -grew. - -[Illustration: GEORGE SAND’S PUPPET THEATRE AT NOHANT - -[From Ernest Maindron’s _Marionettes et Guignols_]] - -George Sand developed very decided theories about her little dolls. -She writes that she prefers the sort which may be manipulated on three -fingers to those moved by means of wires. Her feeling was that when -she thrust her hands into the empty skirts of the inanimate puppet -it became alive with her soul in its body, the operator and puppet -completely one. She disapproved of realistic puppets. The faces of her -dolls were carved with great skill but purposely left crude, painted -in oil without varnish to get the strongest effect, with real hair and -beards and special attention given to getting light into the eyes. -There were, eventually, over one hundred dolls including such as -Pierrot, Guignol, Gendarme, Isabelle della Spade, Capitaine, also well -known types and personages of the day. Very popular and subsequently -famous was the _Green Monster_ at Nohant. It appears that in one of the -early plays the cast called for a green monster. Upon the maker of the -marionettes devolved the task of supplying one. Madame Sand, nothing -daunted, discovered an old felt slipper. By using the opening as the -wide jaws of the dragon and lining it with red to represent the inside -of the mouth, a very effective, long snout was presented which, with -a hand slipped inside, could be opened and closed most fearfully and -threateningly. It was a highly successful _green monster_. Whenever it -appeared there was much applause, and nobody ever seemed to notice or -to care that it had been manufactured out of _blue_ felt. - -The repertoire of the Théâtre des amis was varied, sometimes fantastic -whimsies, sometimes travesties on daily events; sometimes the managers -grew ambitious and presented spectacular scenes with ballets; the -literary side of the production was always emphasized. These shows, -the best of their sort, continued through most troublesome times of -political upheaval and George Sand has written some touching paragraphs -upon the fact that hearts sorely grieved by these national trials, -could find distraction and a moment’s respite with the marionettes. - -The puppets, too, had their vicissitudes. At one time, Victor Borie, -who was assisting, in attempting to represent a fire, burnt down -the whole stage. It was built up anew with more puppets and better -equipment. Madame Sand dressed the new dolls as she had the old. More -helpers had to be called in, all talented persons who entered into -the work with enthusiasm. The audience always contained celebrated -people, representatives of literature, art, music and statesmanship. -Once when the puppets presented a parody upon _La Dame aux Camellias_ -(presumably not for young ladies) Dumas, fils, came to see and enjoy -the production. In 1880 the puppets moved from Nohant to Passy to the -home of Maurice Sand, where a large theatre had been prepared for them. -Here there were over four hundred elaborate dolls. But in 1889 Maurice -Sand died and the Théâtre des amis disappeared. A book written about it -was published in 1890. - -[Illustration: PUPPETS OF GEORGE SAND’S THEATRE AT NOHANT - -[From Ernest Maindron’s _Marionettes et Guignols_]] - -Equally illustrious and possibly more exquisite, more precious, -were the puppets of the _Erotikon theatron de la rue de la Santé_, -established in 1862. Here it is said puppetry was raised to an ideal -level. Here, an enthusiastic press of the day proclaimed, here was -the proof of how highly developed a naïve and simple art may become -in the hands of rare spiritual and æsthetic personalities. Another -journal, _Le Boulevard_, exclaimed, “Again a new theatre! An intimate -theatre, Erotikon theatron, that is to say _Theatre of Amorous -Marionettes_. Reassure yourselves, everything that transpires is most -conventional; the blows of the cudgel are always protectors of -morality and if a mother would not see fit to bring her daughter, on -the other hand, painters and literateurs of talent take delight in it.” - -It was indeed an exceptional experiment, a gathering of artists, -sculptors, musicians, actors, authors; Lemercier de Neuville, the -guiding spirit, assisted in his efforts by Carjat and Gustave Doré, -and also by Amedée Rolland, Jean Dubois, Henri Monnier, Théodore de -Banville, Bizet, Poulet Malasses, Champfleury, Duranty, Henri Dalage -and others, each contributing something toward the perfection of the -whole. M. Lemercier de Neuville was in the beginning architect, mason, -painter, machinist, carpenter, decorator, hairdresser and tailor, -actor, singer, dancer and imitator. Alfred Delvau has written an -entertaining history of this bizarre little theatre. The project seems -to have been suggested informally at the home of M. Amedée Rolland, by -a group of distinguished men of letters who had been lunching together, -among them De Neuville, who proceeded to transform the idea thus -lightly suggested into a concrete reality. - -The auditorium seated only twenty people; its walls were painted with -mural decorations by artists of the group, as was the proscenium arch -of the stage. The stage itself was only a trifle over two yards wide, -but it was well equipped for the presentation of quite elaborate -faeries. For the most part, however, there were merely the pupazzi upon -the stage, which M. de Neuville worked himself upon his fingers. Their -faces were modelled with unsurpassed refinement and animation, their -creator having lavished his heart and talent in the making of them. -His _Pierrot Guitariste_ was, according to Maindron, the most charming -of all puppets, in gesture and bearing a masterpiece of mechanical and -plastic art. Others have called it the most highly perfected puppet -ever created. Another remarkable doll was the violoncellist who could -enter, bow in one hand, instrument in the other, seat himself, tune up -and play. There was a Spanish dancer particularly graceful and alluring -as well as a wonderful ballet, worked on one horizontal string, which -glided in and out and back and forth. Sarah Bernhardt was represented -among these fascinating pupazzi and Jules Simon, Coquelin, cadet, and -other celebrities familiar in Paris. As de Neuville lived among the -individuals he was representing what wonder that his mimicry was close -to perfection? - -This altogether rare little theatre unfortunately endured for only -a year and produced in all but six or seven delightful if slightly -shocking pieces, although more had been written for it. Perhaps the -dissimilarity of talents comprising it was too great, but at least its -inspired cynicisms, amusing audacities and exquisite spectacles have -won the lasting acclamations of the French press, of royalty and of the -greatest geniuses of the day. - -[Illustration: - - SIVORI - PIERROT GUITARISTE - COQUELIN CADET - -Puppets of Lemercier de Neuville, Erotikon theatron de la rue de la -Santé - -[Reproduced from Ernest Maindron’s _Marionettes et Guignols_]] - -In the shadow play, as well as in the play of pupazzi, French artists -have attained great successes. The first _Ombres Chinoises_, so -called, of importance started simply enough about 1770 when Dominique -Seraphin, a young man of twenty-three, established his little show in -Versailles. In the beginning for the amusement of children, little -comical dialogues such as _The Broken Bridge_, or _The Imaginary -Invalid_ (from Molière), were presented by silhouette figures with -articulated limbs. In 1774 after a few years of unusual success, -Seraphin moved to Paris where, under royal protection, his little -shadows became very well established. Although they had been ensconced -in the Palais Royal by favor of the king yet they managed through the -cleverness of Seraphin to sustain themselves in popular favor after the -overthrow of royalty. Indeed they were said to be the first to avail -themselves of advertisements in the form of posted placards. - -The advertisement was rather charming: - - “Venez, garçon, venez fillette, - Voir Momus à la silhouette. - Qui, chez Seraphin, venez voir - La belle humeur en habit noir. - Tandis que ma salle est bien sombre - Et que mon acteur n’est que l’ombre - Puisse, Messieurs, votre gaîté - Devenir la réalité.” - -Long after the death of Seraphin, until 1870 in fact, the show -continued in the hands of his descendants, presenting pieces especially -written for it, with music composed to accompany the shadows. - -It was the art critic, Paul Eudel, who first published an illustrated -volume of such fairy pieces and melodramas composed by his grandfather -in the first quarter of the nineteenth century. Half a century later -Lemercier de Neuville, who was interested in _pupazzi noir_ as well as -in other puppets, published another collection of little plays with -fifty illustrations and with explanations of designs and methods of -producing the shadows. De Neuville had enlarged the scope but had not -changed the principles of the art. He presented animals who opened -their jaws, processions and caricatures of celebrities such as Sarah -Bernhardt, Zola, and others. - -[Illustration: TABLEAU - -From a shadow play of _The Prodigal Son_ at the Chat Noir - -[Designed by Henri Rivière]] - -Then a little later came the wonderful shadows, now designated as -_Ombres Françaises_, and shown at the Chat Noir, famous cabaret of -Montmartre where gathered literary and artistic Bohemia. “The Chat Noir -has an art of its own,” writes Anatole France, “that is at once mystic -and impious, ironical, sad, simple and profound, but never reverential. -It is epic and mocking in the hands of the precise Caran d’Ache. It has -a bland and melancholy viciousness in Willette, who is, as it were, -the Fra Angelico of the cabarets. It is symbolic and naturalistic with -the very capable Henri Rivière. The forty scenes of the ”Tentation“ -of St. Anthony amaze me. They exhibit lovely coloring, daring fancy; -impressive beauty and forcible meaning. I put them far above the -imps depicted by the austere Callot.” These comedies, spectacles, -military epics, oratorios, mysteries, Greek scenes, burlesques and -pantomimes, were indeed conceived with a certain large poetic glamour. -It was Caran d’Ache who made the great artistic contribution of giving -up articulation of individual figures, for the most part, to move great -numbers of them along. He invented perspective in shadows, using masses -of figures in different planes and producing a sense of solidarity -and immensity. His masterpiece, _Epopée_, the evocation of the Grand -Army of Napoleon, presented with epic grandeur company after company -of cuirassiers in long lines, the profiles diminishing in height as -the figures receded from the eyes. It conveyed, as one critic avers, -the idea of great space and of a vast army of men marching in serried -ranks “to victory or to death.” A few single figures were allowed to -stand out distinctly like the Little Corporal on horseback, there was -little speech only music and an occasional command. The effect of this -military silhouette was most impressive. - -Next came Henri Rivière, who added the variety of color to the shadows, -and furthermore, by the use of two magic lanterns, created dissolving -views so that the background might be altered at will. The subjects -of his elaborate pantomimes were such as _The Wandering Jew_, _The -Prodigal Son_, and _The Temptation of St. Anthony_. Of the latter, -Rehm has given us an admiring appreciation. “We saw the sun setting -into the sea, the forests trembling in the morning breeze; we saw -deserts stretching out into the infinite, the oceans surging, great -cities flaming up in the evening with artificial lights and the moon -silvering the ripples of the rivers upon which barges were silently -and slowly gliding along. He (Rivière) employs everything from the -picturesque style of watercolor spread on with a brush to the imitation -of Japanese color prints, pen sketch and poster style, Gothic or -Pre-Raphaelite characteristics and naturalistic impressionism. In _The -Sphinx_ where the conquerors of all centuries, from the Pharaohs to -Napoleon, file past this monument of eternity; in his _March of the -Stars_ where shepherds and their flocks, beggars, slaves and fishermen, -and the Wise Men from the East make their pilgrimage to the Virgin -with the Divine Child; in the _Enfant Prodigue_ where the son of the -patriarch sets out for Egypt accompanied by his herds, his caravan, his -riders,--to return, a beggar,--everywhere we see this art, dreamlike -and philosophic, legendary, fantastic, sublime, creating ecstatic -illusions.” Of _The Sphinx_, a collaboration of Rivière and Caran -d’Ache, Jules Lemaître writes, “Here we have a true epic poem, simple -yet grandiose.” - -Thus the magic touch of genius has transformed naïve shadows into -something altogether wonderful while crude pupazzi, animated with -thumb and fingers of the artist, have grown gloriously sophisticated. -The marionettes that are moved by wire or string also had their -renaissance in the sympathetic, stimulating atmosphere of Paris. Their -technical development J. M. Petite has called a veritable triumph of -ingeniousness, of prestidigitation, and of mechanics. The first of the -_Operator-Magicians_ was Thomas Holden, who came to Paris around 1875. -His puppets performed the most perilously difficult feats. Following in -his footsteps came two brothers who rivalled him in skill; Alfred and -Charles de Saint-Genois, who took the names of Dickson and John Hewelt -respectively. The puppets of Dickson are said to have operated as if -by magic. They were mute and appeared on the stage singly, but the -perfect elasticity and the winged grace of their gestures seemed truly -supernatural. They were displayed at the celebrated theatre of Robert -Houdin. - -John Hewelt gave productions of quite a different nature. He -constructed not only a marionette stage for his actors, but an -orchestra of puppets with an animated little leader, and diminutive -spectators in the front boxes, a little lady with an opera glass, -another with a fan, perfectly gowned in the latest fashions, applauding -or chatting after the approved manner. Upon the stage appeared -startlingly lifelike figures impersonating Yvette Guilbert and other -celebrated actresses and actors of the day. Hewelt stood concealed on -a platform overlooking and manipulated his puppets by three controls, -with his feet as well as his hands. But despite his unsurpassed -inventiveness, his production did not quite satisfy the spirit. One -marvelled at the difficulties overcome more than at the beauty of the -performance. - -As ingenious mechanically as the shows of John Hewelt and Dickson, but -conceived and carried out in a far more inspired and artistic manner, -were the puppets of the Galérie Vivienne. _Le Petit Théâtre de M. Henri -Signoret_ (1888–1892) has been immortalized in the writings of Anatole -France, most rare and delicate critic. It was an undertaking seriously -entered upon by some of the artistic spirits in Paris who desired to -witness intelligent and sympathetic performances of the classic drama -of all lands; Greek plays, the mysteries of the Middle Ages, Italian -and Spanish comedy of the sixteenth century. Apparently the stage of -the day did not satisfy this desire. After encountering insurmountable -difficulties in assembling an adequate cast of good actors, it was -decided to use marionettes. Forty friends, all artists, combined to -help the director, who was the fastidious literateur, M. Signoret. The -result was a brilliant success. - -The theatre was like a little jewel case in its delicate detail; -it seated only two hundred and fifty people. The puppets were most -carefully constructed. The same skeleton framework was used for them -all but individual heads, hands and chests were put on each frame -which was finally costumed according to design. Both the modelling of -the faces and the costuming were the inspired creations of artists. -The marionettes were moved on rails in grooves or slides, the arms -and neck being wired and manipulated by pedals from underneath. The -audience was seated low so that the mechanism was invisible. The -public who patronized this marionette theatre, indeed, consisted -of such interesting people as Jules Lemaître, Émile Faguet, Anatole -France, Hugues Leroux, and they were unanimous in their approval. -The repertoire included classic drama of every epoch: _The Birds_ by -Aristophanes, _Abraham_ by the Abbess Hrotswitha, _Gardien Vigilant_ -by Cervantes, _The Tempest_ by Shakespeare, _Tobie_ and _The Legend of -St. Cecelia_ by M. Boucher, _L’Amour dans les Enfers_ by Amédée Pigeon -written expressly for the marionettes of M. Signoret. - -But let the fluent pen of the illustrious and enthusiastic witness -picture them to you. “I have already made the avowal,” declares Anatole -France, “I love the marionettes and those of M. Signoret please me -particularly. These marionettes resemble the Egyptian hieroglyphics, -that is to say, something mysterious and pure and when they represent a -drama of Shakespeare or Aristophanes I think I see the thoughts of the -poet being unrolled in sacred characters upon the walls of the temple.” -Of the representation of _The Tempest_ he writes: “M. Signoret’s -marionettes have just acted Shakespeare’s _Tempest_. It is hardly an -hour since the curtain of the little theatre fell on the harmonious -group of Ferdinand and Miranda. I am still under the charm; as Prospero -says, ‘I do yet taste some subtleties of the Isle.’ What a delightful -play! And how true it is that exquisite things are doubly exquisite -when they are unaffected.... - -“Look at the marionettes of _The Tempest_. The hand that carved them -imprinted on them the features of the ideal, whether it be tragic -or comic. M. Belloc, a pupil of Mercie, has modelled for the little -theatre heads which are either powerfully grotesque or of a charming -purity. His Miranda has the subtle grace of a figure of the early -Italian Renaissance and the virginal fragrance of that fortunate -fifteenth century which made beauty bloom a second time in the world. -His Ariel in his gauze tunic spangled with silver reminds one of a -miniature Tanagra figure, doubtless because aerial elegance of form is -a particular attribute of Hellenic art in its decline. - -“These two pretty puppets spoke with the clear voices of Mesdemoiselles -Paule Verne and Cecile Dorelle. As for the more masculine parts in -the drama, Prospero, Caliban, and Stephano, poets such as MM. Maurice -Bouchor, Raoul Ponchan, Amédée Pigeon, Felix Rabbé spoke for them. Not -to mention Coquelin, cadet, who did not disdain to repeat the prologue -as well as the amusing part of Trinculo, the clown. - -“The decorations also had their poetry. M. Lucien Doucet represented -Prospero’s cave with that cunning grace which is one of the -characteristics of his talent, etc.” - -Again: “In the meantime I have seen the marionettes of the Rue Vivienne -twice and I have enjoyed them very much. I am infinitely thankful to -them for having replaced living actors. - -“They are divine, these dolls of M. Signoret and worthy of giving form -to the dreams of the poet whose mind Plato says, was ‘the sanctuary of -the Graces.’ - -“Thanks to them we have Aristophanes in miniature. When the curtain has -risen on an aerial landscape and we have watched the two semicircles -of birds taking their places on either side of the sacrifice, we -have formed some idea of the theatre of Bacchus. What a delightful -representation! One of the two leaders of the birds turning to the -spectators utters these words: ‘Feeble men, like unto the leaf, vain -creatures fashioned out of clay and wanting wings, unhappy mortals -condemned to an ephemeral and fugitive life, shadows, baseless -dream....’ It is the first time, I think that marionettes have spoken -with this melancholy gravity.” - -All this is very interesting and very serious, no doubt, but what -of the piping, impertinent voice of Polichinelle? And of this merry -Guignol who makes the children laugh? It may seem odd to insert these -slapstick buffoons into the midst of aristocratic literary puppets, -but after all Guignol was growing and thriving contemporaneously with -them and the hardy little fellow has outlived the most of them. Less -elaborate and socially less select than those others installed in their -artistic theatres, these al fresco performances in the Champs Élysées, -in the gardens of the Tuileries and Luxembourg follow the traditional -custom of their kind. The _castellet_ of Guignol is little different -from Punch’s booth, the dolls are most often simple creatures worked -on the fingers, squeaking extemporary dialogue such as one might hear -from the pupazzi of Italy or the figures of the Chinese peripatetic -showman swathed in his linen bag. - -Polichinelle has been through difficult times. The French Revolution -found him obscure but a patriot, rejoicing at the new order of things. -Later he was discovered amusing Emperor Napoleon the Third at the -Tuileries Palace. In 1854 the French Zouaves and Grenadiers in the -Crimea took Polichennello along with them and he loyally followed up to -the very battlefield. But oftenest he was to be seen, through the long -lapse of years, humiliated, humbled,--dancing on a board at the twitch -of a horizontal string tied to the knee of some little Savoyard boy who -beat a tambourine or blew upon a pipe and sang a pathetic song as he -journeyed on to Paris. And there, too, on sidewalks and, when the wind -blew cold, in the shelter of arches puppets danced on the board and the -little boy gathered his pennies to send back home to his mother. - -Thus Polichinelle has pursued his incredible career until we find him -to-day with a devoted wife La Mère Gigogne and many well known if -less popular fellows, such as Pierrot, and Harlequin, to say nothing -of his many delightful and successful offspring. There is Lafleur -the Polichinelle of Picardy, favorite of Amiens, a handsome peasant -fellow always pleasant spoken even when beating up the policeman. -Jacques is a little buffoon who entertains the public of Lille in his -modest basement theatre. There in _Joseph sold by his Brothers_, or -_Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves_ he performs the principal parts (“la -comédie pour un sou”). Most prominent of the progeny of Polichinelle is -Guignol. Indeed he somewhat over-shadows his sire. - -Although he has established himself so thoroughly in Paris, Guignol -first came from Lyons. His creator was the modest but expert -marionettist, Laurent Mourguet. It is he who is reported to have -said to the friends weeping at his deathbed, “I shall never make -you cry as much as I have made you laugh.” Guignol originated in a -picturesque but humble cellar show. Although he has now moved into -new and finer quarters, he remains a modest workman simply dressed, -perpetually harried by his landlord and always with insufficient funds -to pay his rent. He has a wife, long suffering _Madelon_, and a wild -and wicked son _Guillaume_ and along with them one finds _Gnaffron_, -_Gringellet_, _Bobine_, _Bambochnette_, _le Gendarme_, _le Médecin_, -_le Propriétaire_, _le Juge_, all these and many others. - -In the Gardens of the Luxembourg, on the Champs Élysées or elsewhere -in Paris, one may come upon these little actors merrily performing -on small stages erected for them, and with an audience of spellbound -children and nursemaids sitting before the castellet. - -Most celebrated of these Parisian theatres is that of the _Vrai -Guignol_ in the Champs Élysées. M. Anatole, the founder of it, was -the first who undertook to expand the repertoire of Guignol and to -introduce pieces of adventure whose very names delight one: _The -Brigands of the Black Forest_, _The Enchanted Village_, _Mother -Michel and her Cat_, _The Temptation of St. Anthony_, and many more. -Unfortunately for M. Anatole there was no copyright law for puppet -plays and when a rival showman wanted to give a new play he merely -went to see Anatole’s performance and then reproduced it. But Anatole -himself deserves his reputation. He was an artist with prodigious -ingenuity: he wrote his own pieces, he could give twenty distinct -voices in one show as well as manipulate the dolls. He himself carved -the puppets’ heads while his wife made the costumes. - -Inspired by his success a young literateur, Charles Duranty, attempted -in 1862 to _uplift_ Guignol. He had an elegant little castellet erected -and he spent months preparing the plays, giving them style and some -sort of philosophical turn. His figures were created by artists. -The prologue, it is said, was composed by a poet. The result was--a -failure. His show appealed to too limited an audience; it was too -artistic for the nursemaids and soldiers. The Tuileries were not for -philosophy. The scenes soon were left to Guignol and the Commissaire -who are so dear and delightful to their Parisian public. And again -recently, a version of Rostand’s _Chantecler_ was given by the puppets. -There were to be seen chickens, peacocks, dogs, even a magnificent -rooster, but Guignol and Guillaume were wanting. Surprised at first, -before long the children began to clamor for their heroes,--and they -had to be satisfied. - -On the steamship La France, now sailing back and forth across the -ocean, one may find a little theatre for Guignol in the children’s -room. It is operated every day by Paul Boinet who is considered one of -the best Guignol experts in France and was specially engaged by the -French Line for that reason. He operates plays, we are told, in which -there are sometimes as many as fifteen actors and to each puppet’s -voice he manages to give a different intonation. The children’s room of -the steamer holds about fifty people and is filled to capacity at each -performance not only with children but with grown-up people. - -Meanwhile literary puppets continue to afford pleasure in the artistic -salons or in semi-public productions throughout Paris. It would be vain -to attempt to mention them all. They are of every type. The artists -of France have the _habit_ of the marionette, they express themselves -spontaneously and gladly in this métier and hence we find them giving -more or less informal presentations of poetic or satiric drama here -and there, from year to year. M. Émile Renie had _le théâtre des -marionettes de la Rue des Martyrs_; Cayot established a _théâtre des -pupazzi_ in his photographic studio. At the Paris Exposition of 1900 -there flourished a marionette theatre with a troupe of 4,000 dolls of -whom the leading actors were marvels of mechanical perfection. Quite -recently a show was installed at the Musée Grevin with decorations by -Jules Cheret. It was not a great financial success and was obliged -to close its doors. In 1896 in the Salons of _la Plume_, Lugné Poë -(Director of L’Œuvre) produced a marionette play of Alfred Jarry and -Claude Terrasse entitled _Ubu Roi_. The former also made the drawings -for two programmes, the latter was the leader of his orchestra. - -Jules Lemaître in his _Impressions de Théâtre_ portrays with great -interest several puppet productions witnessed by him. One was the chic -Revue in four tableaux given in 1889 at the Salon de Helder by the well -known authoress, Gyp. It was called _Tout à l’égout_, a very clever -and original parody of the season past. There Gyp had represented the -type for which she has grown famous, Lou-lou the pert little French -miss as seen on the Champs Élysées. There also promenaded the literary -and political celebrities satirized in the inimitable style of the -keen-eyed Gyp. The parts were read by amateurs, effectively but with no -attempt at eloquence. - -[Illustration: GUIGNOL AND GNAFRON - -Presented by Pierre Rousset, French showman - -[From Ernest Maindron’s _Marionettes et Guignols_]] - -Very different in spirit was the puppet drama, _Noël ou le Mystère de -la Nativité_, by the poet Maurice Bouchor who had been active also in -the Erotikon theatron and that of M. Signoret. It was written in four -tableaux, in verse. The music for this delicate little mystery was -composed by Paul Vidal, the dolls were designed by MM. Henri Lombard -and J. Belloc, scenery by Félix Bouchor, brother of the poet, Henri -Lerolle and Marcelle Rieder. Lemaître described the performance as a -masterpiece of grace and beauty, particularly the last tableau of -the Adoration. “The music of the lullaby, rarely exquisite, soft and -celestial, etc. The Virgin puppet, almost immobile, merely inclining -slightly forward toward the Infant while singing, had the candor of a -lily and appeared as beautiful in the light in which she was bathed -as the purest and most naïve Virgin of the primitive painters.” -Another play by the same poet was given in 1894. It was in verse, five -tableaux. M. Lemaître considered it even superior as a drama to _Noël_ -though possibly a bit strong for the puppets in its philosophy. It was -the last performance, unfortunately, of the “delicious marionettes of -Maurice Bouchor.” - -The latest word I have heard of French puppets comes from the war zone. -Mr. Henry S. West has written in a recent number of the _Literary -Digest_ of French troops in the forests of Champenoux and Parroy who -had taken an oath “never to retreat from Lorraine.” Hence they have -made themselves a comfortable park with flower beds, gravel paths, -rustic bench, all in their _Parc des Braves_. Most diverting, however, -are their elaborately constructed scenes of puppet warfare. The most -famous of these is _The Seven Chasseurs of Domèvre_. It appears that -seven French soldiers at Domèvre held a bridge against a small horde -of Germans. It was a brave deed which resounded through Lorraine. Some -clever lad wrote several stanzas about it and tacked them up on trees. -This gave the idea to a dramatic critic who was off active duty for -the time. He and his friends worked together and in a week completed -the little show and placed it where it could be seen by every soldier -passing on his way to battle. - -A grassy knoll was chosen. An arched bridge of two feet was erected -under which real water was made to flow. On one side of the bridge were -piled tiny logs and trees behind which were the seven Chasseurs eight -inches high dressed in the old red and blue French uniform, little caps -on their heads, wooden guns in their hands. Twenty Germans in real -field-grey were attempting to charge. Some were dead, others falling, -three running away, all with scared expressions carved upon their -little wooden faces. The verses were nailed up near by: - - “There were seven Chasseurs of Domèvre - Who were so exceedingly brave - When the Germans attacked - They got thoroughly whacked, - ‘Voila!’ said the men of Domèvre.” - - - - -_Puppet Shows of Germany and of Other Continental Countries_ - - -Perhaps it was the luxuriant forests of Germany offering abundant -material and opportunity which encouraged the native aptitude, at any -rate the inhabitants of the land have at all times been noted for their -skill in wood carving. Moreover they appear to take a certain delight -in mechanical devices. From very early times these interests were -applied to the making of mechanical toys and dramatic puppets. - -In the dark ages we find the people of the country carving a grotesque -sort of wooden doll, called _Kobold_ or _Tattermann_ which they set up -in the chimney and worshipped as a heathen household deity. Later these -little figures came to be worked by wires. As far back as the twelfth -century and according to Charles Magnin even in the tenth century, the -word _Tocha_ or _Docha_ was used to signify a kind of puppet. One of -the earliest Minnesingers mentions _Tokkenspil_ in his poem and another -speaks of the _Jongleuren_ attracting their audiences by displaying -little dolls which they pulled out at any time from under their -mantles. - -The subject of the early Tokkenspiel seems to have been gathered -chiefly from the legends of the _Edda_, and from the _Hildebrandslied_ -and the _Niebelungenlied_. Praetorius mentions: “Foolish jugglers’ -tents where old Hildebrand and such _Possen_ are played with _Dokken_, -called puppet comedies.” Later the mystery play appeared and the -automatic _Kruppenspiel_, religious drama here as elsewhere opening -up a path for the profane. These plays were founded upon such themes -as, _The Fall of Adam and Eve_, _Goliath and David_, _Judith and -Holofernes_, _King Herod_ or _The Siege of Jerusalem_. - -Of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries we have little positive -data. Romantic subjects appear to have been used for the puppets, also -history and fable such as _The Four Sons of Aymon_, _Genevieve of -Brabante_, _The Lady of Roussillon_, and even _Joan of Arc_ which was -quoted in another piece performed in 1430. - -Invariably the comic element appears in the puppet shows of all -nations. In Germany and Austria the buffoon has always been a part of -even the most tragic dramas, lending variety and relief by his good -natured, if somewhat obvious jests. The first names by which he was -known in Germany may have been Meister Eulenspiegel or Hemmerlein, -later it became Hanswurst and Kasperle. The name Kasperle, so Rabe -claims, came through Austria and Professor Pischel goes still further -in his assertion that the prototype for Kasperle was brought into the -land over two thousand years ago from India. Later, of course, Italian -and French players introduced Pulcinella and Arlecchino with their -merry company. - -In Hamburg puppets have been popular from earliest times. It was in -1472 that a showman announced _The Public Beheading of the Virgin -Dorothea_. This theme remained a favorite in the puppet plays of that -city for centuries, while the long suffering martyr continued to be -ever more and more elaborately but neatly beheaded, in full view of -the audience. In the eighteenth century an announcement proclaimed: -“Exceptional marionette players with large figures and, accompanied by -lovely singing, the execution of Dorothea.” The play of _The Prodigal -Son_ was another great favorite. It gradually lost its religious -character and became a rather gruesome affair producing with ingenious -mechanical appliances metamorphoses of which the country has always -been particularly fond. For instance, Reibehand, a tailor who set -up a booth in the horse market of Hamburg, advertised in 1752: “The -Arch-prodigal chastened by the four elements, with Harlequin a joyous -companion of the great criminal.” This _extra-moral_ piece, given in -great style, displays the prodigal about to partake of fruit which -turns into skulls in his hands, then water becomes transformed into -fire, rocks rend apart disclosing a corpse hanging from a gallows. As -it swings in the wind, the limbs fall off and then collect again, on -the ground, and arise to pursue the prodigal, and so on with similarly -pleasing surprises. - -In 1688 another showman, Elten, advertised _Adam and Eve_ and following -it _Jackpudding in a Box_ and later another announces: _Elijah’s -Translation into Heaven_, or _The Stoning of Naboth_, followed by a -farce, _The Schoolmaster Murdered by Jackpudding_ or _The Baffled Bacon -Thieves_. - -There had been in Hamburg, however, French marionette troupes which -gave very artistic puppet operas based upon mythological subjects, -such as _Medea_, including in one of its casts a puppet who smoked! -These plays were produced in combination with acts by living actors, -jugglers, acrobats, and trick horses. - -As far back as the sixteenth century scepticism and sorcery had become -the order of the day with the Germans who have naturally a tendency -toward philosophical reflections, as well as a leaning toward the -occult and supernatural. It was then that _Faust_, embodying both of -these tendencies, first appeared upon the puppet stage, with most -significant consequences for German literature. - -This puppet play might be sufficiently interesting in itself, but the -fact that it became the inspiration for one of the world’s greatest -dramas may lend an added justification for pausing a moment to trace -its curious history. Early in the sixteenth century it is said that the -Tokkenspieler presented, at the Fairs, _The Prodigious and Lamentable -History of Doctor Faustus_. In 1587 the famous _Spiesische Faust -Buch_ was published in Frankfurt and recorded the adventures of a -semi-historical charlatan who had wandered through Germany in the early -sixteenth century. He was famous not only for his skill in medicine but -in necromancy and other similar arts. He may have been identical with -Georgius Sabellicus who called himself Faustus Junior, implying that -there had been a still earlier Faust. He may possibly have been the -Bishop Faustinus of Diez, seduced from the right path by Simon Magus, -or the printer of Mainz, Johann Faust, who was declared to have been a -sorcerer. Whoever he was, the disreputable conjurer tricked fate into -granting him an immortal name. In 1588 two students of Tübingen and a -publisher were punished for putting forth a puppet play based upon this -Spies book. There are other versions of the Faust puppet show, that -played at Strassburg, that of Augsburg, of Ulm and of Cologne, each -varying slightly from the others. They were all first produced about -the time of Marlowe’s famous drama on the same theme or only a trifle -later. - -The story of the Faust play has a tremendous appeal; it is a picture -of man’s vain desires and vain regrets. We find the scholar Faust -alone in his study, meditating over the wasted years of research and -the wisdom of this world which is so limited at best. He turns to the -black arts and summons up an evil spirit to serve him. In one version -of the puppet play Faust calls up numerous devils and decides to select -as his own particular servant the swiftest. Thereupon the evil spirits -describe their speed. One claims to be “as swift as the shaft of -pestilence”; the next is “as swift as the wings of the wind”; another -“as a ray of light”; the fourth “as the thought of man”; the fifth “as -the vengeance of the Avenger.” But the last, who is Mephistopheles, -is as swift “as the passage from the first sin to the second.” Faust -replies: “That is swift indeed. Thou art the devil for me.” Then he -signs the pact with his blood. A raven flies in and carries away the -message. Mephistopheles is bound for twenty-four years to provide Faust -with all the pleasures of this world and also _to answer truthfully -every question asked him_. In return Faust pledges his soul to the -devil at the expiration of the time. - -Mephistopheles carries Faust to the court of the Count of Parma where -he entertains the count and countess with magical shows, calling up -Samson and Delilah, David and Goliath, Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. -Throughout the play Faust is always taken seriously; Kasperle supplies -the ludicrous element. His buffoonery is at times really amusing. As -an assistant of Faust’s servant Wagner, he meddles with magic, on his -own responsibility. Having picked up a few words of incantation, he -uses them according to his own pleasure; but Kasperle is wiser than his -master for he very shrewdly refuses to sign away his soul. However, he -has discovered that by pronouncing the potent syllables “Perlippe” he -can summon up demons and by saying “Perlappe” he can make them vanish. -Thereupon he amuses himself (and the audience) by reciting “Perlippe, -perlappe, perlippe, perlappe,” so often and in such quick succession -that the poor demons get quite out of breath and very irritable. - -In the last act we find Faust back after twelve years at his study in -Wittenburg. He has had his fill of pleasures and is sick at heart and -repentant. He asks Mephistopheles whether there would be a chance of -a sinner like himself coming to God. Mephistopheles, compelled by his -oath to answer truthfully, vanishes with a cry of terror which is an -admission of the possibility. Faust, with new hope in his heart, kneels -before the image of the Virgin in supplication. But Mephistopheles -reappears with a vision of Helen of Troy to tempt Faust, who resists -but finally succumbs. Forgetting the Virgin he rushes out with Helen -in his arms. Immediately he returns and reproaches Mephistopheles for -deceiving him, because the vision has turned into a serpent in his -embrace. “What else did you expect from the devil?” asks Mephistopheles. - -Faust realizes he is lost. Moreover his time is up, for the devil -having served him both night and day considers that he has done -twenty-four years work in twelve. Wandering the streets in despair -Faust comes upon Kasperle, now the nightwatchman, and tries naïvely -to cheat the devil by offering Kasperle his own coat. But the shrewd -fellow is too keen to be thus taken to eternal torture in another’s -place. Ten o’clock strikes, then eleven. “Go,” says Faust to Kasperle, -“go and see not the dreadful end to which I hasten.” Kasperle goes out. -Twelve o’clock strikes and Faust hears the terrible sentence pronounced -upon him: “Accusatus est, judicatus est, condamnatus est.” The fiends -appear amidst flames and smoke and drag him away to his horrible fate. -Kasperle returning and finding him gone, exclaims: “Poof! What a smell -of brimstone!” - -Even the briefest review of the plot cannot fail to move one somewhat -for there is in this crude puppet show a deep and general human -appeal. An earnest and anxious man to whom life has not been over-kind -stakes all in his eagerness and craving for truth. Despite the naïve -superstitions and the childish humor scattered throughout the play the -tragic seeking of a human soul, the struggle between Mephistopheles -and Faust demands our sympathy. In this respect there is more dramatic -intensity and more human interest to the puppet show than one finds in -either Marlowe’s play or even Goethe’s. In the former Faust is pictured -with a desire to _possess_ and we know that he is lost from the -beginning; in Goethe’s drama Faust is consumed with a desire to _live_ -and we know throughout that he will be saved by his very struggles. In -the puppet play Faust is finally condemned, but until the very end, by -Mephistopheles’ own admission, he might have been saved. - -The play was tremendously popular all over Germany. In 1705 the -puppets got themselves into trouble with the clergy by a performance -brought from Vienna to Berlin where it was announced, _Vita, Geste -e Descesa all’ Inferno del dottore Giovanni Faust_. Because of the -storm of approval aroused by the impious passages in the drama the -performance was finally prohibited in Berlin. But elsewhere productions -of _Faustus_ flourished. In 1746 in Hamburg an amusing announcement -proceeded to allay the fears of timid folk in the following manner: -“History of the Arch-sorcerer Doctor Johannes Fauste. This tragedy -is presented by us, _not_ so fearfully as it has been previously by -others, but so that everyone can behold it with pleasure.” - -Half a century later Schutz and Dreher, very successful showmen of -Berlin with a splendidly equipped puppet stage, presented among -numerous old pieces of knightly romance, mythology and biblical -legend, the tragedy of _Faust_. It was acclaimed by high and low. -Then Geisselbrecht, a rival showman of Vienna, strove to outdo this -production and gave an elaborate Faust play with little figures whom -he made lift and cast down their eyes, even cough and spit very -naturally,--a feat which Kasperle was nothing loath to perform over -and over again as we may imagine. It was this very Geisselbrecht who -served as a model for _Pole Poppenspäler_, the delightful little novel -which Theodor Storm has written around the figure of a wandering puppet -showman. Geisselbrecht toured with his puppets and gave performances -all over the country, in Frankfurt among other places. The crowning -significance of his _Faust_ production was the fact that young Goethe, -who was very fond of puppet shows, is supposed to have seen this play -and to have drawn from it the first inspiration for his masterpiece, -_Faust_. - -In his childhood Goethe had always manifested great interest in toy -theatres and puppets. At twenty years of age he wrote for his own -amusement, _The Festival of Plundersweilen_, a satire on his audience -of friends and family to be performed by marionettes. Later he -perfected it and produced it on a puppet stage specially erected for -the purpose at Weimar. There also he composed another puppet play to -celebrate the marriage festivities of Princess Amelia. Both of these -dramas are included in his works. In _Wilhelm Meister_ and in the -_Urmeister_ we find many paragraphs devoted to the toy theatre of his -childhood. But more important than this was the contribution of the -little _Puppen_ toward his immortal _Faust_. They not only suggested -the theme but offered models for the treatment of it which Germany’s -great genius was not too proud to follow.[4] - -The unprecedented prominence of the Puppenspiel during the seventeenth -century was brought about by the long theological strife between the -clergy and the actors of the legitimate stage. The preachings and -denunciations of Martin Luther had put an end to dramatic church -ceremonies of which there seem to have been many. It went so far that -the ministers refused to administer the sacraments to actors. The -latter protested and appealed, but the people were restrained through -their fear of the Church. Consequently the profession fell into such -disrepute that the number of regular theatres rapidly decreased and -troupes were disbanded, while the humiliated and neglected players were -forced to join puppet companies and read for the marionettes to earn a -living. - -It was a great opportunity for the marionettes. After the Thirty Years’ -War showmen came into Germany from England, France, Holland, Italy, -even from Spain. To add to the attraction of their productions they -combined with the plays dancers, jugglers, trained bears and similar -offerings. In 1657 in Frankfurt Italian showmen established the first -permanent theatre for puppets. In 1667 a similar theatre was erected -for marionettes in the Juden Markt of Vienna where it remained for -forty years. In Leopoldstadt in the Neu Markt _Pulzinellaspieler_ -gave performances in the evenings except Fridays and Saturdays, after -_angelus domini_. Even the Emperor Joseph II is said to have visited -this _Kaspertheater_ in Leopoldstadt. - -A curious dramatic medley began to be presented. “At the end of the -seventeenth century,” writes Flögel, “the _Hauptundstaatsactionen_ -usurped the place of the real drama.” These were melodramatic plays -with music and pantomime, requiring a large cast composed partly of -mechanical dolls, partly of actors. It was only timidly that the actors -thus ventured to return to the stage in the rôles of virtuous people -(to be sure of the sympathy of the audience). The famous showmen Beck -and Reibehand were noted for these performances, the subjects of which -were martyrdoms of saints, the slaughter in the ancient Roman circuses -and the gory battles of the Middle Ages (in all of which, needless to -say, the puppets performed the parts of the slaughtered and martyred, -as when the ever popular _Santa Dorotea_ was decapitated and applauded -so vigorously that the showman obligingly stepped out, put the head -back on the body and repeated the execution). In 1666 in Lüneberg, -Michael Daniel Treu gave the following _Demonstratioactionum_: “I: the -History of the city of Jerusalem with all incidents and how the city -fell is given naturally with marvellous inventions openly presented in -the theatre; II: of King Lear of England, a matter wherein disobedience -of children against the parent is punished, the obedience rewarded; -III: of Don Baston of Mongrado, strife between love and honor, etc., -etc.” Then there followed in the list of plays _Alexander de Medici_, -_Sigismundo, tyrannical prince of Poland_, _the Court of Sicily_, -_Titus Andronicus_, _Tarquino_, _Edward of England_ and, of course, -_Doctor Johanni Fausto, Teutsche Comedi_ (to distinguish it from -Marlowe’s tragedy). - -When one considers that these plays with all the necessary business -were long and complicated, one may imagine the difficulty of the -art of puppet showmen. Everything connected with the presentation, -the settings, directions and the plays themselves had to be learned -by heart. Young boys generally attached themselves to showmen as -apprentices and observed and studied for years before they were even -allowed to speak parts. These had to be acquired by listening, for -although the owner of the puppets generally had a copy of the play it -was so precious a possession that he guarded it most carefully. - -The amazing repertory of the Puppenspiel during the seventeenth and -eighteenth centuries ranged from myth and history to any event of the -day of intrinsic interest. In 1688 we find the marionette manager, -Weltheim, giving translations of Molière, also the old _Adam and Eve_ -followed by a buffoonery called _Jack Pudding in Punch’s Shop_ and the -strange assortment of _Asphalides, King of Arabia_, _The Lapidation of -Naboth_, _The Death of Wallenstein_. Weltheim used students of Jena and -Leipsig to read for his puppets. - -When in 1780 Charles XII of Sweden fell dead in the trenches of -Friedrichschall, slain (so popular tradition averred) by an enchanted -bullet, his death was immediately dramatized and produced on the puppet -stage. In 1731 the disgrace of Menschikoff was made into a drama -performed in German by the English puppets of Titus Maas, privileged -comedian of the court of Baden Durlach,--“With permission, etc., etc., -there will be performed on an entirely new theatre and with good -instrumental music, a Hauptundstaatsaction recently composed and worthy -to be seen, which has for title--The Extraordinary vicissitudes of good -and bad fortune of Alexis Danielowitz, Prince Menzikoff, great favorite -of the Czar of Moscow, Peter I of glorious memory, to-day a real -Belisarius, precipitated from the height of his greatness into the most -profound abyss of misfortune; the whole with Jackpudding, a pieman, a -pastry-cook’s boy and amusing Siberian poachers.” Although Titus Maas -had permission to perform in Berlin his show was quickly stopped for -political reasons. - -The undisputed predominance of puppets upon the German stage gradually -subsided in the eighteenth century as Gottsched and Lessing revived -the art of poetry and drama. The actors assumed their own place in -the theatre; the Puppen returned to a more modest sphere. But they -continued to be popular. After Schutz und Dreher in Berlin came Adolf -Glasheimer’s humorous satires of which the hero was _Don Carlos_, with -Kasperle to amuse the children, the whole arrangement conducted in -connection with a _Conditerei_. In 1851 a revival of marionettes in -cultural circles occurred and people streamed to see the clever show in -Kellner’s Hotel at Christmas time. Richter, Freudenberg and Linde were -three other favorite showmen of Berlin. - -There had been, indeed, some very exclusive and artistic marionettes -at the castle of Eisenstadt in Hungary. Here Prince Nicholas Joseph -von Esterhazy had his own very elegant stage with dolls exquisitely -perfect and magnificently dressed. He even assembled an orchestra for -them, the leader of which was no other than Joseph Haydn himself. This -great musician did not scorn composing symphonies for the puppets, _The -Toy Symphonies_ and _The Children’s Fair_, both charmingly playful -compositions. He also wrote five operas for these distinguished -marionettes, _Filemon and Baucis_, _Genievre_, _Didone_, _Vendetta_, -_The Witches’ Sabbath_. But it was not his noble patron alone who -influenced Haydn to compose for the puppets. Previously he had become -interested and had written an opera called _The Lame Devil_ for the -burattini of an Italian puppet player, Bernardoni, in Vienna. - -The marionettes have likewise attracted genius in other fields. The -Romanticists, Arnim and Brentano, as well as the poets Kerner, Uhland -and Mörike had interested themselves in shadow plays rather than puppet -shows. But Heinrich Kleist wrote a very sympathetic and profound little -essay called _Concerning the Marionette Theatre_. He seeks to discover -the mysterious charm in puppet gesture and he suggests that the great -dramatists must have watched the puppet plays with unusual interest and -that artists of the dance might well learn the art of pantomime from -the little figures. - -In Cologne there has been developed a very unique, local puppet show -called the _Kölner Hanneschen Theater_. The originator was Christoph -Winter who invented the characters, established the standing theatre -and remained for fifty years its director. Upon his small stage -there appeared not only Kasperle, but a whole row of funny folk -types, mirroring in their little scenes the bubbling love of living -characteristic of the people they represent. The ingenious showman -had a saying that whatever type of man one had to deal with, give him -the sort of sausage he most enjoys. In accordance with this idea he -provided three shows, one for children, which was amusing but harmless, -one for the usual adult audience, which was more sophisticated, and -one especially suited to the rough Sunday crowd of laboring men who -thronged into the show, which, needless to say, was as vulgar as -possible. Hanneschen, Mariezebill, Neighbor Tünnes and his wife, -the village tailor and a host of others were always introduced and -furthermore any person in the vicinity who had made himself unpopular -was sure to be caricatured. Neither rank nor age was a protection. -Another unvarying principle was the happy ending; even _Romeo and -Juliet_ was altered to comply with the rule. - -It is difficult now, perhaps, to think of Munich as it was just before -the war, a joyous center of literature and art. It was, however, in -this happy environment that the puppets rose to the very summit of -their honors and successes. In Munich one may find two charming little -buildings which were erected and maintained solely for the marionettes. -The oldest of these was built for the old showman, fondly called Papa -Schmidt by his devoted public. His career was a long one, terminating -with gratifying appreciation which many another worthy marionettist -has unfortunately failed to receive. It was in 1858 that the actor, -Herr Schmidt, took over a complete little puppet outfit of the retired -General von Heydeck who had been entertaining King Louis and his court -with satirical little puppet parodies. Installing these dolls in a -_Holzbaracke_ he opened a permanent theatre there for which Graf Pocci, -his constant advisor and friend, wrote the first play based upon the -tale of _Prinz Rosenrot und Prinzessin Edelweiss_. Graf Pocci continued -all his life to write little fairy plays for these puppets, over fifty -in all. The subjects were well known fairy tales, Undine, Rapunzel, -Schneewitschen, Der Rattenfänger von Hamlin, Dornröschen, and all the -others. The children loved them and the merry little Kasperle whose -humor, if a bit clumsy, was altogether clean and wholesome. Encouraged -by his initial success, Schmidt went to great expense and pains to -enlarge and elaborate his cast. His daughter, an assiduous helper, was -kept busy dressing the dolls of which there were eventually over a -thousand. - -After long years of success, Papa Schmidt experienced some difficulties -due to moving his puppet show and decided to retire. To the honor of -Munich be it said, however, that he was not allowed to do so. The city -magistrates who, as youngsters, had adored the antics of Kasperle, -voted unanimously to build a municipal puppet theatre and to rent it to -old Papa Schmidt for his marionette shows. This was done and in a small -comfortable building situated in one of the parks, with an adequate -auditorium and stage, with space for the seven operators who guide the -wires and manage the complicated mechanism for _transformations and -surprises_, with trained readers to speak the parts behind the scenes, -with choruses and music whenever they were required, the ninety-four -year old showman worked with his dolls until the end of his life, -furnishing happy hours to countless children. - -[Illustration: MARIONETTE THEATRE OF MUNICH ARTISTS - - _Upper_: Scene from Maurice Maeterlinck’s _The Death of Tintagiles_ - _Lower_: Scene from Arthur Schnitzler’s _The Gallant Cassian_ -] - -The celebrated _Marionette Theatre of Munich Artists_, although -inspired by the example of Papa Schmidt, was founded upon an altogether -different basis and with other aims and ideals. Paul Brann, an author -of local fame, was the instigator of it as well as its director. This -small but elaborate modern theatre was built by Paul Ludwig Troost, -and decorated elegantly but with careful taste, by other artists -interested in the enterprise. The stage itself is equipped with every -possible device useful to any modern theatre. There is a revolving -stage such as that used by Reinhardt, and a complicated electrical -apparatus which can produce the most exquisite lighting effects. The -expensive furniture is often a product of the _Königlichen Porcellan -Manufactur_. The mechanism for operating the figures is very perfect, -the dolls themselves as well as the costumes, scenery, curtains, -programs, etc., are all designed and executed by well known artists -such as Joseph Wackerle and Taschner, Jacob Bradle, Wilhelm Schulz, -Julius Dietz and many others. Indeed the scenic effects produced at -this little marionette theatre have given it the reputation of a model -in modern stagecraft. - -The triumphs of these Munich puppets, however, do not depend altogether -on pictorial successes. Upon the miniature stage there are presented -dramas of the best modern poets as well as the older classic plays and -the usual Kasperle comedies. Puppets must remain primitive or they lose -their own peculiar charm, but the primitive quality may be ennobled. -Brann does not in the least detract from the innate simplicity which -the marionettes possess. Indeed, he considers this not a limitation but -a distinguishing trait. However, he has added poetic art to the old -craft and has expanded the sphere of the puppets. He has proven their -poetic possibilities and justified their claim to the consideration -of cultured audiences. The repertory has been specially selected to -suit his particular dolls, somewhat pantomimic, on the whole, with a -great deal of music. Generally the plays deal with incidents unrelated -to everyday life and these marionettes convey their audiences with -unbelievable magic to arcadian lands of dream and wonder. Graf Pocci’s -little Kasperle pieces were not scorned by these artistic marionettes -nor the old Faustspiel, Don Juan and the Prodigal Son, nor the -folk-plays of Hans Sachs. To these were added a rich variety, including -many forgotten operettas of Gluck, Adam, Offenbach, Mozart and others, -Schnitzler’s _Der Brave Cassian_, Maeterlinck’s _Death of Tintagiles_, -and _Sister Beatrice_, and dramas of Hoffmansthal. The popularity of -these puppet productions in Munich, and their success all over the -world, where they have been taken travelling into foreign lands, attest -the worth and value of the interesting experiment. For art, music and -literature a new medium has been discovered, or rather an old one -re-adapted to suit the requirements of the modern poetic drama. - -Of recent years the shadow play has not been altogether overlooked in -Munich. In a 1909 issue of the _Hyperion_, Franz Blei, æsthete and -critic, describes two exquisite shadow plays performed in the salon of -Victor Mannheimer. The figures and scenery were the work of a young -architect, Höne; actors read the text, and Dr. Mannheimer directed. -“One thing,” writes Blei, “I believe was clear to all present: that -both of the plays thus presented, unhampered by perspiring, laboring -and painted living actors, appealed more strongly to the inner ear than -they could possibly have done in any other theatre. The author was -allowed to express himself, rather than the actor. The stage setting -and the outlines of the shadows, very delicately cut in accordance -with the essential traits of the characters, presented no more than -a delightful resting place for the eye and the imagination of the -beholder was unrestricted in supplying the features while lingering -on the extreme simplicity of the picture.” Elsewhere too in Germany -one finds appreciation of the possibilities of the shadow play, in its -simplest form as well as in its sophisticated uses. - -Exotic and rare are the dainty marionette figures fashioned by Richard -Teschner in Vienna. From a performance of Javanese shadows witnessed -in Munich the artist received the first suggestion for these delicate, -precious creations. The thin, flexible limbs give us the feeling of -the Eastern Wayangs. To this Teschner has gradually added a bit of the -German folk spirit, quite noticeable in his society dramas where the -little dolls resemble comfortable, bourgoisie Germans and only their -fleshlessness reminds us of the Javanese origin. In other plays the -Eastern flavor is purposely maintained. There is, for instance, the -strange magician with the Assyrian headdress, or the enchantress in -gorgeous stiff robes with menacing eyebrows, altogether oriental, and -strange and beautiful. The grotesque and curiously misshapen animal -forms conceived by Teschner remind us of deep-sea monsters similar to -Hauptmann’s Nickelmann and of early Christian conceptions of Infernal -frightfulness to be found in the Witches’ Kitchen of Faustus, or in -the Temptations of St. Anthony. The smoothly finished, carefully -fashioned naked figures have a rather brazen daintiness, permissible -on the puppet stage alone. They offend perhaps at first sight by their -deliberate daring but they possess a certain precise charm, a rather -winning, rather quaint appeal. These precious little marionettes have -been exhibited in private circles only. - -[Illustration: MARIONETTES OF RICHARD TESCHNER, VIENNA - -[Reproduced from _Deutsche Kunst und Dekoration_]] - -In Baden-Baden just before the war a quite remarkable and thriving -puppet show was to be found, belonging to Ivo Pühony. These clever -dolls were carved out of wood and were most adroitly manipulated, -marvellously so, we are told. The repertory of the puppets was very -extensive and ambitious. At the outbreak of the war Ivo Pühony -packed his dolls away in cases and left them in Baden-Baden. In -1914 Ernest Ehlert, actor and manager, and Fräulein E. Weissmann -took the neglected little creatures to Berlin where they performed -with tremendous success. They produced, among other things, _Doctor -Sassafras_, a puppet play by Pocci and no less ambitious a drama than -Goethe’s _Faust_. The latter received a real ovation as a serious, -artistic interpretation of the masterpiece; many witnesses declared the -production more effective than when given upon the larger stage. The -_Frankfürter Zeitung_ contained this description of the performance: -“The drama had a much purer and stronger emotional effect in this -symbolic, miniature presentation with its modest and reliable lighting -effects than is possible in the hard reality of the larger stage. The -circle of the heavenly army shimmering in magic red reminding one of -the pious fantasies of Beato Angelico; the voices of the archangels -sounding from above; the gleam of white light when the voice of the -Lord was heard; the dark chasm leading to the depths of the earth, out -of which the wonderful little figure of Mephistopheles appeared -and then, blinded by the radiance of Divinity, turned aside and -covered himself with his bat’s wing: all this provided a pure artistic -satisfaction which called forth enthusiastic applause.” - -Less serious in nature but very remarkable were the famous _Two Dancing -Chinamen_ in the troupe of puppet actors. These agile little dolls, -like figures from a Russian ballet, danced to the music of a phonograph -with perfectly captivating antics. One witness has written: “It is hard -to imagine how perfectly the slightly mechanical tone of the phonograph -combines with the slightly mechanical motion of the figures to give an -expression of what the fashionable philosopher of our day calls the -_élan vital_.” The last heard of Pühony’s puppets was a prospective -trip they were to take to the front for entertaining the soldiers and -the grave problem of whether it would be wise to allow the erstwhile -favorite marionette _Caruso_ to go along, considering that, despite his -power to amuse, he was after all a representative of the enemy. - -Less excellent, crude puppet shows have gone wandering from village -to village through Germany and Austria in recent years, but they -have become more and more rare. These shows perform generally in the -little town halls, with the villagers, high and low, crowding in to -see performances of _Faust_ (ever welcome) or Hamlet (with a happy -ending), or, favorite of all, the life and death of the famous brigand -_Schinder Hannes_. The love of the Germans for puppet entertainment is -also constantly expressed in the little private puppet shows and shadow -plays given by or for the children in their homes, usually gotten up -for Christmas or birthday festivities. - - * * * * * - -In most Continental countries there may still be found traces and -survivals of the old style puppet show and occasionally experiments -with marionettes in the new manner. It is said that in Bohemia the -marionette plays are the only form of drama now given in the native -tongue. A very famous showman of Bohemia was Kopecki who travelled -about with his show from town to town. A prominent Bohemian minister -now residing in New York relates that he remembers these puppets and -the terror which clutched his boyish heart whenever the little wooden -devil appeared, opening and closing his horrible mouth and emitting the -most inhuman and frightful noises. He remembers the comic characters -of the shows, a rude peasant and his wife. The peasant always wielded -a stick and there were many threatened beatings, but they never took -place. In 1885 the names of Kopecki and of another showman, Winizki, -were made doubly prominent by the publication of a book of their -old puppet plays taken down in shorthand by two Viennese authors -from performances they witnessed and written finally in wonderful -Hoch-Deutsch. - -[Illustration: BOHEMIAN PUPPETS - - _Upper_: Devil, Priest, Peasant - _Lower_: Soldier, King and Queen - -[Property of the Reverend Vincent Pisek, New York]] - -In Hungary the gypsies have always been the puppeteers, travelling -about with their rough little figures and accompaniment of music. From -Moldavia comes a report of gypsy players at Christmas time in the -olden days, one man crying out through the streets, “To the puppets, -to the puppets!” followed by two other gypsies with a little theatre -of marionettes. In these shows at the time of the Turkish wars in 1829 -miniature Turks and Cossacks were made to belabor each other. - -In Russia religious puppet plays were very common. There used to be -in Moscow a regular mystery performed by marionettes on the Sunday -before Christmas. It represented three Christian martyrs thrown into -a fiery furnace and was performed in front of the great altar of the -Moscow cathedral. Crude popular shows also wandered about and in 1812 -Mr. Daniel Clarke discovered in Tartary, among the wandering Cossacks -of the Don, common little dolls made to dance on a board by means of a -string tied to the knees of a boy. These had probably been introduced -and become established back in the remote ages in this out-of-the-way -location. - -Mr. Alexander Zelenko, formerly a professor at the University of -Moscow, has written some interesting facts concerning modern Russian -puppets. He says: “There still are travelling comedians who wander -all over the country with their little outfits of dolls and folding -screens. In most cases a so-called hand organ is used, and very often -a monkey or a bird picks out the tickets of happiness. The performer -uses a contrivance in his mouth to alter his voice for the different -impersonations. The principal hero is ‘Petrouchka’ or ‘Diminutive -Peter,’ the same as German ‘Kasperle’ and English ‘Punch.’ The hero -makes much mischief in a horse trade with a gypsy or with a German -doctor, a policeman or a recruiting officer. For such mischief the -devil takes his body into hell. - -“Even now, as in the olden times, satires on social endeavor are very -often introduced, but only the common street-class enjoy them. From -time to time the educators take part in this movement and try to raise -the standard and to introduce the puppets into the school festivals. - -“Some of these plays came into Russia from the West through Austria -and Poland,--old Christmas beliefs connected with religious or -nationalistic traditions. These Christmas Crib plays are mostly seen -in Southern and Western Russia and Poland. Some of the Russian artists -have been interested in the production and have given very fine -performances. I myself introduced many of this kind of marionettes into -the activities of the Children’s Clubs in Moscow. Very interesting -articles about the ethnographic and folklore value of these plays have -been written in Russian scientific magazines.” - -In Poland, until the middle of the eighteenth century, there were -frequent puppet performances given in churches and monasteries around -Christmas time to amuse the people between mass and vespers. In the -play of _Szopka_ (stable) M. Magnin tells us there were little dolls -of wood or cardboard representing Mary, Jesus, Joseph, the angels, -the shepherds, the three Magi on their knees with offerings of gold, -incense and myrrh, not forgetting the ox and the ass and Saint John’s -lamb. There generally followed after this the massacre of the innocents -in the midst of which Herod’s own son perished by mistake. The wicked -prince, in his despair, called upon Death who soon appeared in the -form of a skeleton and cut off Herod’s head with a scythe. Then a -black devil with a red tongue, pointed horns and a long tail, ascended -and picked up the King’s body on his pitchfork and bore it off to -perdition. To this peculiar performance were often added indecorous -variations, despite the holy place in which it was performed. After -being finally expelled from the interior of the churches, it continued -to be popular for over a century, delighting both the rural and -the urban population of Poland from Christmas to Shrove Tuesday. -To this day performances of the Crib, or _Szopka_, are given by -ambulant puppet shows. The text is sung and spoken: the figures, -moving in pairs, represent characters of the old mysteries, also folk -types, heroes, spirits, etc. The stage for these shows appears to -be prescribed by tradition, of a certain structure, with intricate -national architectural details. It is not surprising to learn that -Stanislaw Wyspianski, Poland’s great dramatic and poetic genius, was -strongly interested in and influenced by this national type of puppet -stage which seems to have been the original inspiration for his later -strongly patriotic productions. - -In Denmark, the puppets have pushed their way into literature. We find -that Johan Ludvig Heiberg, a prominent Danish dramatist, has written -several satirical marionette plays. - -In Holland where _Jan-Classenspiel_ have been long established, the -puppet stage is a favorite diversion. Powel wrote in 1715 of its long -standing popularity with the people and we are told that the cultured -classes also found relaxation in the marionettes. Beyle states that -during his studies at Rotterdam he always left his book at the sound of -the showman’s trumpet. - -The little Polichinelle of Belgium is called _Woltje_ which signifies -little Walloon and he has many clownish but harmless tricks with which -to delight his public. The popularity of the _Poechelnellespiel_ -in Brussels may be imagined from the fact that, prior to the war, -there were fifteen standing puppet theatres offering every possible -enticement. Two very famous showmen were Toone and Machieltje who for -forty years gave performances to every class of audience, Machieltje -specializing on the popular plays, Toone giving private performances. -The successor of Toone was George Hembauf while the show of Machieltje -descended to Laurent Broeders, who have a wonderfully equipped theatre -in the suburbs. They possess over six hundred marionettes whose elegant -costumes can be changed (there are over eleven hundred of these -elaborate costumes). The Laurent Broeders do all the speaking for -their dolls and the repertoire includes a wide range of subjects from -important events in Flemish history to Dumas, adapted for puppets, and -the old play of _Les Quatre Fils Aymon_. Another large puppet show is -that of Pieter Buelens. He has four hundred puppets consisting chiefly -of officers, chevaliers and kings, each knight so richly dressed that -his robes cost from thirty to forty francs apiece. The dolls are about -a metre high, made of cardboard and carefully articulated so that the -gestures are extremely graceful. The scenery is naïve but picturesque; -eight complete sets including two palace scenes, two wood scenes (one -Winter, one Summer), two rooms, a prison, a rock, etc. The latest and -most modern theatre for marionettes is the _Petit Théâtre_ founded by a -group of æsthetes,--Louis Picard, James Ensor, Thomas Braun, Gregoire -le Roy,--and devoted to a naïvely refined art of puppetry. It was -opened with the pastoral opera of Mozart, _Bastien et Bastienne_, the -poetic version by Gautier-Villars. - -In Antwerp the puppet shows are less elaborate and are generally -to be found off in inconspicuous corners around the wharves where -they are frequented chiefly by the laboring classes. There the -drama varies from mockery of local occurrences to tales of Turks, -bandits, kings, shepherds, sailors. One of these shows was the famous -_Poesjenellenkelder_, the cave of the Polichinelles, where in a dark, -gloomy cellar by the glimmer of a few smoking oil lamps the old and -ever moving romantic dramas of the puppet show were performed for an -appreciative and unspoiled audience. Hendrik Conscience, the Flemish -novelist, has described how in his boyhood he often spent his last -penny to witness the sufferings of the patient Genoveva or some -similarly affecting performance. This old underground theatre, we are -told, was open until the outbreak of the war. - - - - -_Puppetry in England_ - - “Triumphant Punch! with joy I follow thee - Through the glad progress of thy wanton course.” - - -Thus exclaims Lord Byron, and he is but one of the long list of English -poets, dramatists and essayists who have found delight and inspiration -at the puppet booth. “One could hardly name a single poet from Chaucer -to Byron, or a single prose writer from Sir Philip Sidney to Hazlitt -in whose works are not to be found abundant information on the subject -or frequent allusions to it. The dramatists, above all, beginning with -those who are the glory of the reigns of Elizabeth and James I, supply -us with the most curious particulars of the repertory, the managers, -the stage of the marionettes.” With this introduction M. Magnin brings -forward a brilliant array of English authors in whose works we may find -traces of the puppets, Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Beaumont and Fletcher, -Milton, Davenant, Swift, Addison, Steele, Gay, Fielding, Goldsmith, -Sheridan and innumerable others. - -In _The Winter’s Tale_ Autolycus remarks: “I know this man well. He -hath been a process server, a bailiff, then he compassed a motion of -_The Prodigal Son_.” Many other dramas of Shakespeare have similar -allusions. Milton’s _Areopagitica_ contains these lines: “When God gave -Adam reason, he gave him freedom to choose: he had else been a mere -artificial Adam, such an Adam as seen in the motions.” - -Perhaps the casual mention of a popular diversion in the literature -of a nation is not as impressive as the fact that it has served to -suggest the themes of numberless dramas and poems. Shakespeare is said -to have taken the idea for _Julius Cæsar_ from the puppet play on the -same subject which was performed near the Tower of London in his day; -Ben Jonson’s _Everyman Out of his Humour_, Robert Greene’s _Orlando -Furioso_, Dekker’s best drolleries and certainly _Patient Grissel_ -in the composition of which he had a hand, Marlowe’s _The Massacre -at Paris_ and many others may safely be said to have been suggested -by the puppets. There are marionettes in Swift’s _A Tale of a Tub_, -illustrated by Hogarth. - -Some authorities claim that Milton drew the argument for his great -poem from an Italian marionette production of _Paradise Lost_ which -he once witnessed. Byron is supposed to have found the model for his -_Don Juan_ in the popular play of Punch’s, _The Libertine Destroyed_. -Hence it cannot be an exaggeration to state that even in England, where -the puppets are not supposed to have attained such prestige as on -the Continent, they were, nevertheless, not wholly insignificant nor -without weight. - -As is usually the case, the puppets in England appear to have had a -religious origin. Magnin mentions as an undoubted fact the movement -of head and eyes on the Crucifix in the monastery of Boxley in Kent, -and one hears not only of single articulated images but of passion -plays performed by moving figures within the sacred edifices. E. K. -Chambers has found the record of a Resurrection Play in the sixteenth -century by “certain small puppets, representing the Persons of Christe, -the Watchmen, Marie and others.” This was at Whitney in Oxfordshire, -“in the days of ceremonial religion,” and one of these puppets which -clacked was known as _Jack Snacker of Whitney_. It is certain that -similar motions of sacred dramas and pageants given by mechanical -statuettes were not unusual within the Catholic churches, and that -during the reign of Henry VIII they were destroyed, as idols. Under -Elizabeth and James, religious puppet-shows went wandering about the -kingdom, giving the long drawn out moralities and mysteries, _The -Prodigal Son_, _The Motion of Babylon_ and _Nineveh with Jonah and the -Whale_, a great favorite. - -These early motions or drolls were a combination of dumb show, masques -and even shadow play. Flögel explains that the masques were sometimes -connected with the puppets or given sometimes as a separate play. -“These masques,” he writes, “consist of five tableaux or motions which -take place behind a transparent curtain, just as in Chinese shadows. -The showman, a silver-covered wand in his hand and a whistle for -signalling, stands in front of the curtain and briefly informs the -audience of the action of the piece. Thereupon he draws the curtain, -names each personage by name as he appears, points out with his wand -the various important actions of his actors’ deeds, and relates the -story more in detail than formerly. Another masque which Ben Jonson’s -_Bartholomew Fair_ describes is quite different, for here the puppets -themselves speak, that is, through a man hidden behind the scenes, who -like the one standing out in front is called the interpreter.” - -As early as 1575 Italian pupazzi appeared in England and established -themselves there. An order of the Lord Mayor of London at the time -authorizes that, “Italian marionettes be allowed to settle in the city -and to carry on their strange motions as in the past and from time -immemorial.” Piccini was a later Italian motion-man, but very famous, -giving shows for fifty years and speaking for his _Punch_ to the last -with a foreign accent. - -There is little doubt, despite much discussion, that the boisterous -English Punch is a descendant of the puppet Pulcinello, brought over by -travelling Italian showmen. Isaac d’Israeli writes of his ancestry, in -the second volume of _Curiosities of Literature_, “Even Pullicinella, -whom we familiarly call Punch, may receive like other personages of -not greater importance, all his dignity from antiquity: one of his -Roman ancestors having appeared to an antiquary’s visionary eye in a -bronze statue: more than one erudite dissertation authenticates the -family likeness, the long nose, prominent and hooked; the goggle eyes; -the hump at his back and breast; in a word all the character which so -strongly marks the Punch race, as distinctly as whole dynasties have -been featured by the Austrian lip or the Bourbon nose.” - -The origin of the name _Punch_ has given rise to various theories. Some -claim it is an anglicizing of Pulcinello, Pulchinello or Punchinello; -others that it is derived as is Pulcinello from the Italian word -_pulcino_, little chicken, either, some say, because of the squeak -common to Punch and to the chicken or, others aver, because from little -chicken might have come the expression for little boy, hence puppet. -Again, it is maintained that the origin is the English provincialism -_punch_ (short, fat), allied to _Bunch_. - -The older Punchinello was far less restricted in his actions and -circumstances than his modern successor. He fought with allegorical -figures representing want and weariness, as well as with his wife -and the police. He was on intimate terms with the Patriarchs and the -champions of Christendom, sat on the lap of the Queen of Sheba, had -kings and lords for his associates, and cheated the Inquisition as well -as the common hangman. After the revolution of 1688, with the coming -of William and Mary, his prestige increased, and Mr. Punch took Mrs. -Judy to wife and to them there came a child. The marionettes became -more elaborate, were manipulated by wires and developed legs and -feet. Queen Mary was often pleased to summon them into her palace. -The young gallant, Punch, however, who had been but a garrulous -roisterer, causing more noise than harm, began to develop into a -merry but thick-skinned fellow, heretical, wicked, always victorious, -overcoming Old Vice himself, the horned, tailed demon of the old -English moralities. A modified Don Juan, when Don Juan was the vogue, -he gradually became a vulgar pugnacious fellow to suit the taste of the -lower classes. - -During the reign of Queen Anne he was high in popular favor. _The -Tatler_ mentions him often, also _The Spectator_; Addison and Steele -have both aided in immortalizing him. Famous showmen such as Mr. Powell -included him in every puppet play, for what does an anachronism matter -with the marionettes? He walked with King Solomon, entered into the -affairs of Doctor Faustus, or the Duke of Lorraine or Saint George in -which case he came upon the stage seated on the back of St. George’s -dragon to the delight of the spectators. One of his greatest successes -was scored in _Don Juan or The Libertine Destroyed_ where he was in his -element, and we find him in the drama of Noah, poking his head from -behind the side curtain while the floods were pouring down upon the -Patriarch and his ark to remark, “Hazy weather, Mr. Noah.” In one of -Swift’s satires, the popularity of Punch is declared to be so enormous -that the audiences cared little for the plot of the play, merely -waiting to greet the entrance of their beloved buffoon with shouts of -laughter. - -[Illustration: PUNCH HANGS THE HANGMAN - -From a Cruikshank illustration of Payne-Collier’s _Tragical Comedy of -Punch and Judy_] - -At the beginning of the nineteenth century when Lord Nelson, as the -hero of Abukir, was represented upon every puppet stage, he and Mr. -Punch held the following dialogue: - -“Come to my ship, my dear Punch, and help me defeat the French. If you -like I will make you a Captain or a Commodore.” - -“Never, never,” answered Punch. “I would not dare for I am afraid of -being drowned in the deep sea.” - -“But don’t have such absurd fears,” replied the Admiral. “Remember that -whoever is destined from birth to be hanged will never be drowned.” - -Gradually a sort of epic poem of Punch grew up, and there were regular -scenes where the dissolute, hardened fellow beats his wife and child, -defies morality and religion, knocks down the priest, fights the -devil and overcomes him. In 1828 Mr. Payne-Collier arranged a series -of little plays called _The Tragical Comedy of Punch and Judy_. In -this labor he was assisted by the records of the Italian, Piccini, -who, after long years of wandering through England, had established -his Punch and Judy show in London. The series was profusely and -delightfully illustrated by Cruikshank. These pictures and those of -Hogarth have perpetuated for all times the funny features of Punch and -Judy. - -“With real conservatism,” writes Maindron, “the English have preserved -the figure and repertory of Punch almost as it was in the oldest days -of Piccini and his predecessors.” And it is thus one might find Punch -on the street corner to-day, maltreating his long-suffering wife, -teasing the dog, hanging the hangman. Mr. W. H. Pollock tells us of -stopping with Robert Louis Stevenson to watch a Punch and Judy show -given by a travelling showman in “bastard English and slang of the -road.” Stevenson delighted in it, and Mr. Pollock himself exclaimed: -“Everybody who loves good, rattling melodrama with plenty of comic -relief must surely love that great performance.” - -But to return to the shows and showmen of other times. In the -Elizabethan period the motions were very prominent. The puppets -sometimes took over plays of the day, and satirized them cleverly -upon their own stages, the dolls costumed as nearly as possible like -the prominent actors whom they imitated. Later, when for a time the -Puritans abolished the theatres, the marionettes were allowed to -continue their shows, and thus the entire repertory of the real stage -fell into their hands. Permanent puppet stages grew up all over London: -people thronged to the puppets. - -In Ben Jonson’s _Bartholomew Fair_ he allows the showman, Lanthorn -Leatherhead, to describe his fortunes: “Ah,” he said, “I have made -lots of money with _Sodom and Gomorrah_ and with the _City of Norwich_ -but _Gunpowder Plot_, that was a veritable gift of God. It was that -that made the pennies rain into the coffers. I only charged eighteen -or twenty pence per head for admission, but I gave sometimes nine or -ten representations a day.” Captain Pod, a seventeenth century showman -mentioned in other writings of Ben Jonson, had a large repertory -including, among other plays, _Man’s Wit_, _Dialogue of Dives_, -_Prodigal Son_, _Resurrection of the Saviour_, _Babylon_, _Jonah and -the Whale_, _Sodom and Gomorrah_, _Destruction of Jerusalem_, _City of -Nineveh_, _Rome and London_, _Destruction of Norwich_, _Massacre of -Paris with the Death of the Duke de Guise_ and _The Gunpowder Plot_. -In 1667 Pepys records in his _Diary_ that he found “my Lady Castlemane -at a puppet play, Patient Grizell.” _The Sorrows of Griselda_, indeed, -was very popular at the time, also _Dick Whittington_, _The Vagaries of -Merry Andrew_ and _The Humours of Bartholomew Fair_. The marionettes, -indeed, grew so much the vogue, and the rivalry was felt so keenly -by the regular theatres, that in 1675 the proprietors of the theatre -in Drury Lane and near Lincoln’s Inn Fields formally petitioned that -the puppets in close proximity be forbidden to exhibit, or be removed -to a greater distance, as they interfered with the success of their -performances. - -But not alone the theatres objected to the competition of the puppets. -One may read in _The Spectator, XVI_, that _young Mr. Powell_ made his -show a veritable thorn in the flesh of the clergy. It was stationed in -Covent Garden, opposite the Cathedral of St. Paul, and Powell proceeded -to use the church bell as a summons to his performances, luring away -worshippers from the very door of the church. Finally the sexton was -impelled to remonstrate. “I find my congregation taking the warning -of my bell, morning and evening, to go to a puppet show set forth by -one Powell, under the Piazzas, etc., etc. I desire you would lay this -before the world, that Punchinello may choose an hour less canonical. -As things are now, Mr. Powell has a full congregation while we have a -very thin house.” - -This same Powell was the most successful motion maker of his day. He -originated the _Universal Deluge_ in which Noah and his family enter -the ark, accompanied by all the animals, two and two. This show was -given fifty-two consecutive nights, and was repeated two centuries -later by the Prandi brothers in Florence. Powell had booths in -London, Bath and Oxford, and played to most fashionable audiences. -_The Tatler_ and _The Spectator_ mention him frequently. It was his -Punch who sat on the Queen of Sheba’s lap, who danced with Judy on -the Ark, and made the famous remark to Noah concerning the weather. -He gave numerous religious plays, such as the “Opera of Susannah or -Innocence Betrayed,--which will be exhibited next week with a new pair -of Elders.” In 1713 he presented _Venus and Adonis or The Triumphs of -Love_, a mock opera. As another attraction to his shows, the ingenious -marionettist invented a fashion model, the little puppet, _Lady Jane_, -who made a monthly appearance, bringing the latest styles from Paris. -The ladies flocked to the puppets when she was announced on the bills. - -A well known competitor of Powell was Pinkethman, in whose scenes the -gods of Olympus ascended and descended to strains of music. Crawley -was another rival. He advertised his show as follows: “At Crawley’s -Booth, over against the Crown Tavern in Smithfield, during the time -of Bartholomew Fair, will be presented a little opera called the Old -Creation of the World, yet newly revived, with addition of Noah’s -Flood, also several fountains, playing water during the time of the -play. The last scene does present Noah and his family coming out of the -Ark with all the beasts, two and two, and all the fowls of the air seen -in a prospect sitting upon trees: likewise over the Ark is seen the sun -rising in a glorious manner; moreover a multitude of angels will be -seen in a double rank, which presents a double prospect, one for the -sun, the other for the palace where will be seen six Angels ringing -bells. Likewise Machines descend from above, double and treble, with -Dives rising out of Hell and Lazarus seen in Abraham’s bosom, besides -several figures dancing jigs, sarabands, and country dances to the -admiration of the spectators: with the merry conceits of Squire Punch -and Sir John Spendall.” - -After these motion makers, came other showmen with many inventions. -Colley Cibber wrote dramas for marionettes, and his daughter, the -actress, Charlotte Clarke, founded a large puppet theatre. Russell, -the old buffoon, is said to have been interested in this project also, -but it finally failed. When the Scottish lords and other leaders of -the Stuart uprising of 1745 were executed on Tower Hill, the beheading -was made a feature by the puppet exhibitions at May Fair and was -presented for many years after. Later Clapton’s marionettes offered a -play of Grace Darling rescuing the crew of the Forfarshire, “with many -ingenious moving figures of quadrupeds.” Boswell tells us in his _Life -of Johnson_ about Oliver Goldsmith, who was so vain he could not endure -to have anyone do anything better than himself. “Once at an exhibition -of the fantoccini in London, when those who sat next to him observed -with what dexterity a puppet was made to toss a pike, he could not -bear that it should have such praise, and exclaimed with some warmth, -‘Pshaw! I could do it better myself!’” Boswell adds in a note, “He -went home with Mr. Burke to supper and broke his shin by attempting -to exhibit to the company how much better he could jump over a stick -than the puppets.” Dr. Johnson was a great admirer of the fantoccini -in London, and considered a performance of _Macbeth_ by puppets as -satisfactory as when played by human actors. - -At the end of the eighteenth century, Flockton’s show displayed five -hundred figures at work in various trades. Browne’s _Theatre of Arts_, -1830–1840 travelled about at country fairs showing _The Battle of -Trafalgar_, _Napoleon’s Army Crossing the Alps_ and the _Marble Palace -of St. Petersburg_. Some marionettes of the nineteenth century became -satirical, attacking literature and politics with mischievous energy. -Punch assumed a thousand disguises; he caricatured Sheridan, Fox, Lord -Nelson. William Hazlitt wrote seriously in praise of puppet shows. - -There are gaps in the history of English puppets which seem to imply a -decline in the popularity of that amusement. One comes upon occasional -records of shows straggling through the countryside, and giving the -old, timeworn productions of _Prodigal Son_ or _Noah_, or _Pull Devil_, -_Pull Baker_. During the reign of George IV, puppets were found at -street corners, dancing sailors, milkmaids, clowns, but Punch, as ever, -the favorite. - -Even now, puppets on boards may be seen in the streets of London. Of -the old shows, one resident of that city relates: “When I was a child, -marionettes used to go about the streets of London in a theatre on -wheels about as big as a barrel organ, but I dare say I am wrong about -size, because one cannot remember these things. I remember particularly -a skeleton which danced and came to pieces so that his bones lay about -in a heap. When I was properly surprised at this he assembled himself -and danced again. I was so young that I was rather frightened.” - -There is to-day one of the old professional marionette showmen -wandering about in England, Clunn Lewiss, who still has a set of -genuine old dolls, bought up from a predecessor’s outfit. For fifty -years he has been traveling along the roads, like a character strayed -out of Dickens. He has interested members of artistic coteries in -London, who have been moved by the old man’s appeals for help, and some -attempts have been made to revive interest in his show. Surely Clunn -Lewiss deserves some recognition. - -Altogether unconnected with popular puppets were the highly complicated -mechanical exhibitions of Holden’s marionettes. The amazing feats -performed by Holden’s puppets astonished not only England, but all the -large Continental and American cities where they were displayed. They -were tremendously admired. The surprising dexterity of manipulation, -and the elegance of the settings had never been surpassed. In Paris, -however, de Goncourt wrote of them: “The marionettes of Holden! These -creatures of wood are a little disquieting. There is a dancer turning -on the tips of her toes in the moonlight that might be a character of -Hoffman, etc. - -“Holden was more of an illusionist than a true marionettist. He -produced exact illusions of living beings, but he was lacking in -imagination. The fantoches of Holden were certainly marvels of -precision, but they appeal to the eye and not to the spirit. One -admired, one did not laugh at them. They astonished, but they did not -charm.” - -[Illustration: OLD ENGLISH PUPPETS - -Used by Mr. Clunn Lewiss in his wandering show - -[Courtesy of Mr. Tony Sarg]] - -There have been several interesting amateur marionette shows within -the last decade. There are the Wilkinsons, two clever modern painters -who have taken their puppets from village to village in England and -also in France. They traveled about with their family in a caravan and -wherever they wished to give a show, they halted and drew forth a -stage from the rear end of the wagon. Their dolls are eight inches high -or more and they require four operators. They are designed with a touch -of caricature, and they perform little plays and scenes invented by the -Wilkinsons, very amusing and witty. Not long ago Mr. Gair Wilkinson -gave a very successful exhibition of his show at the Margaret Morris -Theater in Chelsea for a short season. - -The Ilkely Players, of Ilkely, Yorkshire, are a group of young women -who produced puppet plays for some five or six years, touring through -England. Their dolls were rather simple, mechanically; only the arms -were articulated, for the most part; the heads were porcelain dolls’ -heads. Nevertheless this group of puppeteers deserves the credit -they attained by reviving the classic old show of _Doctor Faustus_, -at Clifford’s Inn Hall, Chelsea. They also gave very interesting -productions of Maeterlinck’s _The Seven Princesses_, and Thackeray’s -_The Rose and the Ring_, dramatized by Miss Dora Nussey, who was the -leader of the group. Inspired by their success, Miss Margaret Bulley -of Liverpool produced a puppet play of Faustus before the Sandon -Studio Club. Miss Bulley’s puppets were quite simple wooden dolls with -papier-maché heads and tin arms and legs, each worked with seven black -threads. The costumes were copied after old German engravings of the -eighteenth century and the production proved very effective. - -Most highly perfected, and most exquisite of English puppets to-day -are those of the artist, Mr. William Simmonds, in Hampstead. They -originated in a village in Wiltshire as an amusement at a Christmas -party given by Mr. and Mrs. Simmonds every year to the village -children. The audience was so delighted that the next year more -puppets were made with a more attractive setting. Friends then became -so enthusiastic that the creators of the puppets realized what might -be done, and in London, the following Spring, they began giving small -private shows. - -[Illustration: MR. GAIR WILKINSON AND ASSISTANT AT WORK ON THE BRIDGE -OF THEIR PUPPET THEATRE [Reproduced from _The Sketch_, 1916]] - -The productions are only suited to a small audience of forty or -fifty. The puppets are mostly fifteen inches high, some smaller; the -stage is nine feet wide, six deep, and a little over two feet high. -The scenery is painted on small screens. At present there are three -scenes, a Harlequinade, a Woodland Scene and a little Seaport Town. -The puppets are grouped to use one or the other of these scenes. They -do not do plays but seem to find their best expression in songs and -dances connected with various by-play and “business” and a slight -thread of episode which is often varied, never twice alike. Mr. -Simmonds manipulates the puppets entirely alone and cannot work with -anyone close. He frequently operates a puppet in each hand, all with -the utmost dexterity and delicacy, and manages others by means of -hanging them up and moving them slightly at intervals, at the same time -singing, whistling, improvising dialogue or imitating various noises! -People generally expect to find half a dozen manipulators behind the -scenes. - -Mr. Simmonds himself carves the heads, hands and feet of his -marionettes in wood (usually lime) and paints them in tempera to avoid -shine. They are beautifully done. Some are dressed, some have clothes -painted on them. Some are quite decorative, others impressionistic or -frankly realistic. Not contented with the little-bit-clumsy doll, Mr. -Simmonds has perfected his puppets with great technical skill until -they move with perfect naturalness, some with dignity, some with grace, -some with humor, each according to its nature. - -In the Harliquinade the scene is hung with black velvet, lighted from -the front, which gives the effect of a black void against which the -figures of Harlequin, Columbine, Clown, Pantaloon and others appear -with sparkling brilliancy and vivid color. In the Seaport Town, a -medley of characters appear,--a sailor, a grenadier, a fat woman, -an old man, the minister, etc. There are songs used in this to give -variety. Particularly clever is an English sailor of the time of Nelson -who comes out of a public house and dances a jig, heel-tapping the -floor in perfect time, his hands on his hips and his body rollicking in -perfect character while he sings, “On Friday morn when we set sail.” -Another excellent dancing doll is the washerwoman of the old sort, -short and stout and great-armed, jolly and roughfaced. - -In the Woodland Scene, creatures of the wood appear,--faun, dryad, -nymph, young centaurs, baby faun, hunted stag, a forester, a dainty -shepherd and a shepherdess, etc. The little sketch is entirely -wordless, having only musical accompaniment played by Mrs. Simmonds -upon a virginal or a spinet, or an early Erard piano (date 1804). The -sound is just right in scale for the puppets; anything else would -seem heavy. The fauns in this scene are most popular, particularly -the _Baby_ who has an extraordinary tenderness, and skips and leaps -with the agility of a live thing. The act of extreme dreaminess and -beauty is described thus by one who was privileged to witness it. -“In one scene a man went out hunting. He hid behind a bush. A stag -came on. He shot the stag which lay down and died. Then there came -one or two creatures of the wood, who could do nothing, and at last -a very beautiful nymph, lightly clothed in leaves. She succeeded in -resuscitating the stag, who got up and bounded away. When they had -gone, the hunter who had watched it all from behind the bush came out, -and that was all. Music all the time. No words. The stag was quite -astonishing.” - -Although he is now living and working in Florence, Mr. Gordon Craig -must not be omitted from any account of English marionettes and -advocates of the puppets. Quite apart from the class of artistic -amateurs and equally remote from the usual professional marionettist of -to-day, Mr. Craig stands rather as a new prophet of puppetry, recalling -in stirring terms the virtues of the old art, and adding his new and -individual interpretation of its value. - -Puppets are but a small portion of the dramatic experiment and -propaganda which Mr. Craig is so courageously carrying on in Florence. -But they are not the least interesting branch of his undertakings. He -has assembled a veritable museum of marionette and shadow play material -from all over the world. Pictures of some parts of his collection -appear regularly in “The Marionette.” There are also delightful puppet -plays appearing in this pamphlet. But this is not all. - -With the marionette used as a sort of symbol, Mr. Craig has been -conducting research into the very heart of dramatic verities, and -producing dramatic formulas which should apply on any stage at any -time. He has invented his marionettes to express dramatic qualities -which he deems significant, and in his puppets he has attempted to -eliminate all other disturbing and unnecessary qualities. Thus he -creates little wooden patterns or models for his artists of the stage, -and he applies in actual usage Goethe’s maxim: “He who would work for -the stage ... should leave nature in her proper place and take careful -heed not to have recourse to anything but what may be performed by -children with puppets upon boards and laths, together with sheets of -cardboard and linen.” - -At the beginning of his experiments with marionettes Mr. Craig and his -assistants constructed one large and extremely complicated doll which -was moved on grooves and manipulated by pedals from below, with a small -_telltale_ to indicate to the operator the exact effect produced. But -this marionette was not satisfactory for Mr. Craig’s purposes. - -He then directed his energies in an exactly opposite direction, toward -simplification. The result was small, but very impressive dolls, carved -out of wood and painted in neutral colors,--the color of the scenes in -which they moved, to allow for the fullest and most variable effects -produced by lighting. Most interesting, too, the manner in which -Mr. Craig applied his theories concerning gesture with these little -puppets. Each marionette was allowed to make one or two gestures,--no -more. But these gestures had to be exact, invariable, and the perfect -indication of whatever meaning they were intended to convey. Before -inventing the action of a puppet, Mr. Craig would study, for days or -weeks, watching various people making the movement and expressing -the emotion he desired to portray. Then he would extract from these -observations the general and essential qualities of this particular -gesture; all else, due to the peculiarities of individuals, was left -out as irrelevant for the stage. Hence when Mr. Craig’s puppet moves, -it moves simply, significantly and--one more essential--surely. For -nothing is left to chance. The gesture, once selected, is produced with -infinite care and is made invariable. No whim of the manipulator, no -accident of chance, can alter it. One motion of the finger operates -the figure, and the result is assured. - -Naturally a character may be required to exhibit varied succeeding -emotions, not encompassed by one or two motions. In that case the -figure is taken off the stage and replaced by another similar in -appearance but differently articulated for a different purpose. There -are sometimes as many as six or eight puppets for one character. -Mr. Craig has experimented with his marionettes in many plays, some -comedy, some tragedy. It is not recorded whether he has ever given one -finished puppet production: it is immaterial. The idea embodied in -these little puppets is immense,--a valuable and lasting contribution -to constructive dramatic criticism. - - - - -_The Marionettes in America_ - - “They come from far away. They have been the joy of innumerable - generations which preceded our own; they have gained, with our - direct ancestors, many brilliant successes; they have made them - laugh but they have also made them think; they have had eminent - protectors; for them celebrated authors have written. At all - times they have enjoyed a liberty of manners and language which - has rendered them dear to the people for whom they were made.” - - ERNEST MAINDRON - - -How old are the marionettes in America? How old indeed! Older than the -white races which now inhabit the continent, ancient as the ancient -ceremonials of the dispossessed native Indians, more indigenous to -the soil than we who prate of them,--such are the first American -marionettes! - -Dramatic ceremonials among the Indians are numerous, even at the -present time. Each tribe has its peculiar, individual rites, performed, -as a rule, by members of the tribe dressed in prescribed, symbolic -costumes and wearing often a conventionalized mask. Occasionally, -however, articulated figures take part in these performances along with -the human participants. Dr. Jesse Walter Fewkes has published a minute -description of a theatrical performance at Walpi which he witnessed in -1900, together with pictures of the weird and curious snake effigies -employed in it. - -The Great Serpent drama of the Hopi Indians, called _Palü lakonti_, -occurs annually in the March moon. It is an elaborate festival, the -paraphernalia for which are repaired or manufactured anew for days -preceding the event. There are about six acts and while one of them is -being performed in one room, simultaneously shows are being enacted -in the other eight _kivas_ on the East Mesa. The six sets of actors -pass from one room to another, in all of which spectators await their -coming. Thus, upon one night each performance was given nine times and -was witnessed by approximately five hundred people. The drama lasts -from nine P.M. until midnight. - -Dr. Fewkes gives us the following description of the first act: “A -voice was heard at the hatchway, as if some one were hooting outside, -and a moment later a ball of meal, thrown into the room from without, -landed on the floor by the fireplace. This was a signal that the first -group of actors had arrived, and to this announcement the fire tenders -responded, ‘Yunya ai,’ ‘Come in,’ an invitation which was repeated by -several of the spectators. After considerable hesitation on the part -of the visitors, and renewed cries to enter from those in the room, -there was a movement above, and the hatchway was darkened by the form -of a man descending. The fire tenders arose, and held their blankets -about the fire to darken the room. Immediately there came down the -ladder a procession of masked men bearing long poles upon which was -rolled a cloth screen, while under their blankets certain objects were -concealed. Filing to the unoccupied end of the kiva, they rapidly set -up the objects they bore. When they were ready a signal was given, and -the fire tenders, dropping their blankets, resumed their seats by the -fireplace. On the floor before our astonished eyes we saw a miniature -field of corn, made of small clay pedestals out of which projected corn -sprouts a few inches high. Behind this field of corn hung a decorated -cloth screen reaching from one wall of the room to the other and from -the floor almost to the rafters. On this screen were painted many -strange devices, among which were pictures of human beings, male and -female, and of birds, symbols of rain-clouds, lightning, and falling -rain. Prominent among the symbols was a row of six circular disks the -borders of which were made of plaited corn husks, while the enclosed -field of each was decorated with a symbolic picture of the sun. Men -wearing grotesque masks and ceremonial kilts stood on each side of this -screen. - -[Illustration: MARIONETTES EMPLOYED IN CEREMONIAL DRAMA OF THE AMERICAN -INDIANS - -_Upper_: Serpent effigies, screen and miniature corn field used in Act -I of the _Great Serpent Drama_ of the Hopi Katcinas - -[From _A Theatrical Performance at Walpi_, by J. Walter Fewkes, in the -Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 1900, Vol. II] - -_Lower_: Drawing by a Hopi Indian of articulated figurines of corn -maidens and birds - -[From _Hopi Katcinas_, by J. Walter Fewkes]] - -“The act began with a song to which the masked men, except the -last mentioned, danced. A hoarse roar made by a concealed actor -blowing through an empty gourd resounded from behind the screen, and -immediately the circular disks swung open up-ward, and were seen to be -flaps, hinged above, covering orifices through which simultaneously -protruded six artificial heads of serpents, realistically painted. -Each head had protuberant goggle eyes, and bore a curved horn and a -fan-like crest of hawk feathers. A mouth with teeth was cut in one -end, and from this orifice there hung a strip of leather, painted red, -representing the tongue. - -“Slowly at first, but afterwards more rapidly, these effigies were -thrust farther into view, each revealing a body four or five feet long, -painted, like the head, black on the back and white on the belly. -When they were fully extended the song grew louder, and the effigies -moved back and forth, raising and depressing their heads in time, -wagging them to one side or the other in unison. They seemed to bite -ferociously at each other, and viciously darted at men standing near -the screen. This remarkable play continued for some time, when suddenly -the heads of the serpents bent down to the floor and swept across the -imitation corn field, knocking over the clay pedestals and the corn -leaves which they supported. Then the effigies raised their heads and -wagged them back and forth as before. It was observed that the largest -effigy, or that in the middle, had several udders on each side of the -belly, and that she apparently suckled the others. Meanwhile the roar -emitted from behind the screen by a concealed man continued, and wild -excitement seemed to prevail. Some of the spectators threw meal at the -effigies, offering prayers, amid shouts from others. The masked man, -representing a woman, stepped forward and presented the contents of -the basket tray to the serpent effigies for food, after which he held -his breasts to them as if to suckle them. - -“Shortly after this the song diminished in volume, the effigies were -slowly drawn back through the openings, the flaps on which the sun -symbols were painted fell back in place, and after one final roar, made -by the man behind the screen, the room was again silent. The overturned -pedestals with their corn leaves were distributed among the spectators, -and the two men by the fireplace again held up their blankets before -the fire, while the screen was silently rolled up, and the actors with -their paraphernalia departed.” - -There are some acts in the drama into which the serpent effigies do -not enter at all. In the fifth act these Great Snakes rise up out of -the orifices of two vases instead of darting out from the screen. This -action is produced by strings hidden in the kiva rafters, the winding -of heads and struggles and gyrations of the sinuous bodies being the -more realistic because in the dim light the strings were invisible. - -In the fourth act two masked girls, elaborately dressed in white -ceremonial blankets, usually participate. Upon their entrance they -assume a kneeling posture and at a given signal proceed to grind -meal upon mealing stones placed before the fire, singing, and -accompanied by the clapping of hands. “In some years marionettes -representing Corn Maids are substituted for the two masked girls,” -Dr. Fewkes explains, “in the act of grinding corn, and these two -figures are very skillfully manipulated by concealed actors. Although -this representation was not introduced in 1900, it has often been -described to me, and one of the Hopi men has drawn me a picture of the -marionettes.” - -“The figurines are brought into the darkened room wrapped in blankets, -and are set up near the middle of the kiva in much the same way as the -screens. The kneeling images, surrounded by a wooden framework, are -manipulated by concealed men; when the song begins they are made to -bend their bodies backward and forward in time, grinding the meal on -miniature metates before them. The movements of girls in grinding meal -are so cleverly imitated that the figurines moved by hidden strings at -times raised their hands to their faces, which they rubbed with meal as -the girls do when using the grinding stones in their rooms. - -“As this marionette performance was occurring, two bird effigies were -made to walk back and forth along the upper horizontal bar of the -framework, while bird calls issued from the rear of the room.” - -The symbolism of this drama is intricate and curious. The effigies -representing the Great Serpent, an important supernatural personage in -the legends of the Hopi Indians, are somehow associated with the Hopi -version of a flood; for it was said that when the ancestors of certain -clans lived far south this monster once rose through the middle of the -pueblo plaza, drawing after him a great flood which submerged the land -and which obliged the Hopi to migrate into his present home, farther -North. The snake effigies knocking over the cornfields symbolize -floods, possible winds which the Serpent brings. The figurines of the -Corn Maids represent the mythical maidens whose beneficent gift of corn -and other seeds, in ancient times, is a constant theme in Hopi legends. - -The effigies which Dr. Fewkes saw used were not very ancient, but in -olden times similar effigies existed and were kept in stone enclosures -outside the pueblos. The house of the _Ancient Plumed Snake of Hano_ is -in a small cave in the side of a mesa near the ruins of Turkinobi where -several broken serpent heads and effigy ribs (or wooden hoops) can now -be seen, although the entrance is walled up and rarely used. - -The puppet shows commonly seen to-day in the United States are of -foreign extraction or at least inspired by foreign models. For many -years there have been puppet-plays throughout the country. Visiting -exhibitions like those of Holden’s marionettes which Professor Brander -Matthews praises so glowingly are, naturally, rare. But one hears of -many puppets in days past that have left their impression upon the -childhood memories of our elders, travelling as far South as Savannah -or wandering through the New England states. Our vaudevilles and -sideshows and galleries often have exhibits of mechanical dolls, such -as the amazing feats of _Mantell’s Marionette Hippodrome Fairy-land -Transformation_ which advertises “Big scenic novelty, seventeen -gorgeous drop curtains, forty-five elegant talking acting figures in -a comical pantomime,” or _Madam Jewel’s Manikins_ in Keith’s Circuit, -Madam Jewel being an aunt of Holden, they say, and guarding zealously -with canvas screens the secret of her devices, even as Holden himself -is said to have done. - -Interesting, too, is the story of the retired marionettist, Harry -Deaves, who writes: “I have on hand forty to fifty marionette figures, -all in fine shape and dressed. I have been in the manikin business -forty-five years, played all the large cities from coast to coast, -over and over, always with big success; twenty-eight weeks in Chicago -without a break with Uncle Tom’s Cabin, a big hit. The reason I am -selling my outfit is,--I am over sixty years of age and I don’t think -I will work it again.” How one wishes one might have seen that _Uncle -Tom’s Cabin_ in Chicago! In New York at present there is Remo Buffano, -reviving interest in the puppets by giving performances now and then in -a semi-professional way with large, simple dolls resembling somewhat -the Sicilian burattini. His are plays of adventure and fairy lore. - -Then, too, in most of our larger cities from time to time crude popular -shows from abroad are to be found around the foreign neighborhoods. It -is said that at one time in Chicago there were Turkish shadow plays in -the Greek Colony; Punch and Judy make their appearance at intervals, -and Italian or Sicilian showmen frequently give dramatic versions of -the legends of Charlemagne. - -In Cleveland two years ago a party of inquisitive folk went one night -to the Italian neighborhood in search of such a performance. We found -and entered a dark little hall where the rows of seats were crowded -closely together and packed with a spellbound audience of Italian -workingmen and boys. Squeezing into our places with as little commotion -as possible we settled down to succumb to the spell of the crude -foreign fantoccini, large and completely armed, who were violently -whacking and slashing each other before a rather tattered drop curtain. -Interpreted into incorrect English by a small boy glued to my side, -broken bits of the resounding tale of _Orlando Furioso_ were hissed -into my ear. But for these slangy ejaculations one might well have -been in the heart of Palermo. A similar performance is described by -Mr. Arthur Gleason. It was a show in New York, the master of which was -Salvatore Cascio, and he was assisted by Maria Grasso, daughter of the -Sicilian actor, Giovanni Grasso of Catania. - -[Illustration: ITALIAN MARIONETTE SHOW Operated in Cleveland for a -season. Proprietor, Joseph Scionte [Courtesy of Cleveland _Plain -Dealer_]] - -“For two hours every evening for fifty evenings the legends unrolled -themselves, princes of the blood and ugly unbelievers perpetually -warring.” There was, explains Mr. Gleason, some splendid fighting. -“Christians and Saracens generally proceeded to quarrel at close -range with short stabbing motions at the opponent’s face and lungs. -After three minutes they swing back and then clash!! sword shivers -on shield!! Three times they clash horridly, three times retire to -the wings, at last the Christian beats down his foe; the pianist -meanwhile is playing violent ragtime during the fight, five hidden -manipulators are stamping on the platform above, the cluttered dead are -heaped high on the stage.” When one considers that such puppets are -generally about three feet high and weigh one hundred pounds, armor and -all, and are operated by one or two thick iron rods firmly attached to -the head and hands, what wonder that the flooring of the stage is badly -damaged by the terrific battles waged upon it and has to be renewed -every two weeks! - -Far removed from these unsophisticated performances, however, are the -poetic puppets of the Chicago Little Theatre. I use the present tense -optimistically despite the sad fact that the Little Theatre in Chicago -has been closed owing to unfavorable conditions caused by the war. But -although “Puck is at present cosily asleep in his box,” as Mrs. Maurice -Browne has written, we all hope that the puppets so auspiciously -successful for three years will resume their delightful activities, -somehow or other, soon. - -At first the originators of the Chicago marionettes travelled far -into Italy and Germany, seeking models for their project. Finally in -Solln near Munich they discovered Marie Janssen and her sister, whose -delicate and fantastic puppet plays most nearly approached their own -ideals. They brought back to Chicago a queer little model purchased in -Munich from the man who had made Papa Schmidt’s Puppen. But, as one -of the group has written, the little German puppet seemed graceless -under these skies. And so, Ellen Van Volkenburg (Mrs. Maurice Browne) -and Mrs. Seymour Edgerton proceeded to construct their own marionettes. -Miss Katherine Wheeler, a young English sculptor, modelled the faces, -each a clear-cut mask to fit the character, but left purposely rough in -finish. Miss Wheeler felt that the broken surfaces carried the facial -expression farther. The puppets were fourteen inches high, carved in -wood. The intricate mechanism devised by Harriet Edgerton rendered -the figures extremely pliable. Her mermaids, with their serpentine -jointing, displayed an uncanny sinuousness. Miss Lillian Owen was -Mistress of the Needle, devising the filmy costumes, and Mrs. Browne -with fine technique and keen dramatic sense took upon herself the task -of training and inspiring the puppeteers as well as creating the poetic -ensemble. - -[Illustration: MARIONETTES AT THE CHICAGO LITTLE THEATRE - -Production of _Alice in Wonderland_ under Mrs. Maurice Browne’s -direction - -_Upper_: The Duchess’s Kitchen - -_Lower_: The White Rabbit’s House] - -The Chicago puppets are neither grotesque nor humorous and they have -little in common with the puppet of tradition. Theirs is an element -of exquisite magical fairy-land, with dainty beings moving about in -it, who can express beauty, tragedy and tenderness. Their repertoire -consists for the most part of fantasies written or adapted by members -of the group. The first was a delicious fairy adventure, a play for -children, _The Deluded Dragon_, founded upon an old Chinese legend, -wherein a lovely Prince seems to follow a Wooden Spoon down the River -certain that he will chance upon Adventure, which he does. The play -was decidedly successful, despite a most unfortunate accident at the -first performance caused by the impetuosity of the somewhat hurried -puppeteers. To be more explicit, “the fierce but fragile dragon parted -in the middle, his five heads swinging free of his timorously lashing -tail.” “The same year,” continues Miss Hettie Louise Mick, herself -puppeteer and composer of marionette plays, “Reginald Arkell’s charming -fantasy, _Columbine_, was produced with more patience and proved a -wholly delightful and almost finished thing.” - -The next year two fairy tales were presented, _Jack and the Beanstalk_ -and _The Little Mermaid_, both dramatized by the puppeteers. Great -technical advances had been made in the latter play and a delicate, -fantastic effect attained, approaching the ideals of the founders. The -last and most ambitious performance of this season was Shakespeare’s -_A Midsummer Night’s Dream_, given not only for children but openly -for the grown-ups. Of this production Miss Mick has written: “Puck, -who had been known formerly as the rather stiff little fairy who -introduced and closed each play in rhyme, now became his romping, -pliant self, tumbling through the air, doubling up in chortling -glee upon his toadstool and pushing his annoying little person into -every disconcerted mortal’s way. Titania emerged, a glowing queen of -filmy draperies, attended by flitting elves, and Oberon resumed his -crafty, flashing earth-character, his attendants being two inflated -and wholly impudent bugs. The Mechanicals, while clumsy, fulfilled -their parts well and brought the outworn humor of Shakespeare into -hilarious reality, the scene between Pyramus and Thisbe never failing -to bring roars of appreciation from the audience. Only the Greeks -were a dank and dismal failure. Hurriedly constructed to meet the -rapidly approaching production date, they were awkward, long-headed, -stiff-jointed creatures highly unlike their graceful originals. But -the lighting and settings, and the prevailing atmosphere of exquisite -unreality were such that the audience came night after night for five -weeks, and at the end of that time, when the theatre closed for the -season, demanded more.” - -Mrs. Browne, in an informal letter about her puppets, has written -concerning this performance: “I don’t think I ever have seen such -delicate beauty as was achieved at the end of the Midsummer: I say it -in all simplicity because I have a curious, Irish feeling that the -little dolls took matters into their own hands and for once allowed us -a glimpse into their own secret world. The audience, whether of adults -or of children, never failed to respond with a sudden hush and the -poor, tired girls who had been working in great heat over the colored -lights for two hours never failed to get their reward.” Mrs. Browne -then proceeded to give an idea of the patient toil behind the scenes. -“We rehearsed six hours a day for about seven weeks to prepare the -play. Six girls worked the puppets; there were about thirty of them, -so you can see how many characters each girl had to create and how -many dolls she had to work (my puppeteers spoke for each puppet they -handled). Besides the actual workers, I had an understudy whose duty it -was to stand on the platform back of the girls to take their puppets -from them when the scenes were moving quickly and many characters were -leaving the stage at once; she then hung the puppets where they could -be easily reached for their next entrance. Hers was, of course, the -most thankless task of all because she had none of the pleasure, and -the accuracy of the performance depended upon her efficiency. None who -have not worked with puppets can understand the nervous strain of these -performances.” - -The third year of the Chicago puppets saw progress in many directions. -The enthusiasm of the puppeteers had finally been aroused to the -point where each contributed suggestions in the line of mechanical -construction or the adapting of plays. Mr. H. Carrol French of the -South Bend Little Theatre came to be puppet manager and added many -improvements to the mechanism of the dolls, constructing the bodies of -wire instead of wood (some suggestions for which he received through -the courtesy of Mr. Tony Sarg). The new dolls were more sensitive to -manipulation than the old, and more individual in their gestures. The -repertoire for this season consisted of two little fairy plays, _The -Frog Prince_ and _Little Red Riding Hood_, adaptations of Miss Mick, -and then _Alice in Wonderland_, made into a play by Mrs. Browne. -While this play never wove so strong a poetic spell as _A Midsummer -Night’s Dream_, it marked great strides in skill on the part of the -manipulators. This same year the little puppets went on a tour, not -only into the suburbs of Chicago but, under the auspices of the -Drama League, as far as St. Louis. Let us hope that at some not too -distant date Puck, moving sprite among this brave and poetic band of -marionettes, will gaily revive and travel farther with his troupe so -that we all may witness and enjoy his fairy charms.[5] - -[Illustration: MARIONETTES AT THE CLEVELAND PLAY HOUSE - -Presenting _The Life of Chopin_ - -Puppets and scenery designed by Carl Broemel] - -The Cleveland Playhouse has had its puppet stage from the very -beginning of the organization. Mr. Raymond O’Neil, the director, -has always taken a great interest in the puppets. He believes, with -Mr. Gordon Craig, that they might well serve as models in style, -simplicity and impersonality for living actors, but he also avers that -they are capable of presenting certain types of drama as effectively -if not more satisfactorily than the best of actors, and certainly -better than any second-rate performers. When the Cleveland Playhouse -was still a very small, informal group it was decided to produce a -serious marionette play. The director selected for this purpose _The -Death of Tintagiles_, written by Maeterlinck expressly for puppets. A -Cleveland artist, Mr. George Clisby, worked out the proper proportions -for the marionettes and the stage and their relation to each other. -It is recognized by all who witness them that the effectiveness and -success of the Cleveland productions are due in great part to the happy -proportions prevailing in the marionette scenes and the sense of a -complete, harmonious whole which they create. - -Mr. Clisby also designed the costumes for the first dolls, and the -scenery. Only the significant and essential was allowed upon his -little stage, strong, simple lines and colors, a few poplar trees upon -a hilltop in the blue dusk of the evening, or plain, gloomy chambers -with high arches leading away into mysterious passages, or at the very -last, merely a door, a massive, closed iron door set in bare walls. The -figures were planned in the same spirit. Being very small they were -given practically no features, a scowling eyebrow, a dignified beard, -long hair or short, stiff or flowing, being sufficient indication of -the type represented. - -Miss Grace Treat, who made and dressed most of the marionettes, caught -and embodied the artist’s ideal in strange, tall puppets, naïve but -marvelously impressive. The construction of these puppets, although -extremely simple, had to be planned and executed patiently. Often a -marionette was taken apart and made over again until the right effect, -or the proper gesture, was obtained. The puppets are somewhat like rag -dolls, of a soft material, stuffed with cotton or scraps, weighted and -carefully balanced with lead. Five and at most seven strings are used -and the control is very primitive. This studied simplicity in structure -and in costume has given the Cleveland puppets a naïve style,--their -limitations both defining and emphasizing the significance of each -little figure. Miss Treat was also the master-manipulator of the -puppets and in her hands the stiff little Ygraine took on heroic and -tragic proportions. - -For many months a small group of faithful enthusiasts struggled to -attain the standard set for them by director and artist. The play was -finally given before an audience of Playhouse members. Mr. O’Neil -produced the strangely beautiful lighting with the crudest facilities -imaginable. The parts were read by members of the group who had been -working along patiently with the manipulators until words, settings and -action had grown perfectly harmonious. Those who were privileged to -witness this first production were deeply thrilled by the poetic beauty -of it, and still mention it as an unusual experience. - -Encouraged by this initial success, the group determined to continue -with marionettes. But the Playhouse itself was going through a winter -of vicissitudes and the puppeteers were compelled to endure and suffer -many delays and disappointments. Rehearsing in a rear room of an empty -house loaned for the season (and often fabulously cold!) with readers -and operators dropping out one by one from sheer discouragement or -because of war work, trying out several plays which for one reason or -another proved impossible, still a nucleus of the old group, with the -addition of a few new workers, held on, held out through this second -season under the ever optimistic leadership of Grace Treat. After -moving into other temporary quarters, to be exact, into the high and -dingy little ball-room of an old residence turned boarding-house, the -group produced a very successful repetition of _Tintagiles_.[6] - -Meanwhile the Playhouse had purchased a little church which it -remodeled, decorated and equipped as a permanent theatre. During this -time, and under most trying circumstances brought about by the war, the -director contrived to present several productions for the first Winter -in the new playhouse, among them two marionette performances. Most of -the puppeteers and readers for both of these plays were new at the work -and had to be trained from the very beginning. The stage, too, had been -altered to admit of a cyclorama, improved lighting arrangements and, -quite incidentally, a stronger and safer _bridge_. Nevertheless certain -methods and principles of manipulating were evolved which somewhat -raised the dexterity of the group as a whole. - -One of the plays we produced was _Shadowy Waters_ by Yeats, a dreamy, -far-away, old Irish drama which lent itself beautifully to our type of -poetic puppets. Mr. John Black designed the colorful costumes and the -scene upon the deck of a vessel. The pleasure of making and dressing -the impressionistic dolls was delegated to me, but all willing members -of the group were allowed to share in this privilege. There were five -long-suffering readers and four patient operators, besides the director -of the group, who also manipulated, with extra assistance, at the -very end, to carry the marionettes back and forth behind the scene. -Mr. O’Neil also generously helped in staging the production. Many and -varied were the rehearsal evenings we spent together. But, when at -last the curtain slowly fell upon the Queen in her turquoise gown with -“hair the color of burning” and her dark, melancholy lover beside her, -deserted by the sailors and drifting away over shadowy blue waters -to the strains of the magic harp, we all felt that we had created -something of beauty, despite our inexperience and obvious shortcomings. - -[Illustration: MARIONETTES AT THE CLEVELAND PLAY HOUSE - - Production of _Shadowy Waters_ by W. B. Yeats - Puppets and scenery designed by John Black -] - -The other puppet play was somewhat in the nature of a departure at -the Playhouse. A little narrative of the life of Chopin, written by -Mr. Albert Gehring, was read to the accompaniment of piano selections -from Chopin’s music while dainty little figures of the period, gently -moving, enacted the scenes in the story as it proceeded. This method -has had many and ancient precedents in the ambulent puppet shows of -the Middle Ages. The success of the experiment has suggested to some -puppeteers in the group the idea of further attempts in this manner. -Mr. Carl Broemel was the artist who designed the elegantly clad and -exquisite little dolls, as well as the setting for the play. The latter -was a remarkable example of a miniature interior which, despite its -diminutive furnishings, had nothing petty about it but gave one the -unified, powerful effect of a dignified painting, poetically and simply -conceived. - -Thus the Cleveland puppets have struggled along through hard days of -war and worries, very much alive although perhaps less active than -they may hope some day to be. Plans have been made to start rehearsing -a play longer and more important than the recent endeavors, (possibly -Hauptmann’s _Hannele_). The problem of a permanent marionette theatre -depending upon volunteer workers is unbelievably difficult, but we feel -that with time the solution can be found not only for our group but for -other communities as well who may venture upon this fascinating minor -branch of dramatic endeavor.[7] - -To New York accrues the credit of having to-day professional -marionettes on exhibition in a theatre on Broadway. Created by -the inventive genius of Mr. Tony Sarg, and sustained through the -sympathetic interest of Mr. Winthrop Ames, these most accomplished and -amazing dolls made their debut at the Neighborhood Playhouse over a -year ago, whence, after, arousing great enthusiasm, they moved into the -Punch and Judy Theatre. There, before an audience of appreciative big -and little folk, they performed three tales of fable and fantasia, or -as the headlines of a newspaper described it, after the manner of the -old advertisements: “Master marionettes of new Refinements. Strangely -Human Semblance and Various Illusion ... Tale and Whimsey.” - -The story of these marionettes began over five years ago in London, -where Mr. Sarg had his studio in _The Old Curiosity Shop_, made famous -by Dickens. There he worked at his illustrating and played with his -puppets. The performances he gave for the amusement of himself and -his friends encouraged him in becoming more and more absorbed in -the miniature stage. After the war had broken out, Mr. Sarg came to -New York and brought his marionettes along. Here he continued his -professional activities, illustrating diligently and most successfully, -with interludes of puppet play. When, finally, Mr. Ames became -interested in presenting these puppets to the public, it was found -necessary to enlarge and elaborate upon the original pattern, and after -many months of experimenting, patient labor and happy inspiration, Mr. -Sarg perfected the ingenious, three-foot marionettes used in these -first public productions. - -[Illustration: MR. TONY SARG’S MARIONETTES BEHIND THE SCENES] - -Each of his thirty-six or more little figures was designed with an -eye to its special uses; some require as many as twenty-four strings -for the manipulating. One of the little figures is a masterpiece of -flexibility. Of her it has been written: “This doll is an Oriental -dancer. Her contortions and posturings are in perfect imitation of the -living Nautch-girl and it is safe to say that nothing ever seen on -the puppet stage of America at least can surpass the ease and grace -with which her little body sways backward in an inverted crescent, the -ethereal lightness of her circling about the stage and the abandon of -her attitudes in the dance.” Another critic comments with an almost -audible chuckle: “... a nine days’ marvel and most improper. She pains -and shocks all right thinking people by her shameless display of those -allurements against which all the prophets have warned the sons of men.” - -I myself was even more impressed by Mr. Sarg’s puppet-juggler. He is -an adorable little expert, tossing and catching his many golden balls -with such tense, nervous concern, jerking his head left and right to -watch first this hand, then that, then a ball high in air and, having -accomplished his trick, he stands with such justifiable pride and -swelling of chest to receive the well-earned plaudits of the audience! -It was a quite irresistible bit of mimicry. There is, indeed, a nice -humor and an enjoyable but not overemphasized flavor of the grotesque -in these marionettes. Heads, hands and feet are a little exaggerated -in proportion to the rest of the body; added to this, the ease with -which they accomplish the humanly impossible and the difficulty with -which they perform some very trivial and ordinary human acts all bring -about a curious absurdity which is highly amusing. - -Of the three plays presented the opening season, the first was _The -Three Wishes_, an old fairy tale dramatized by Count F. Pocci for the -marionette theatre of Papa Schmidt in Munich and re-adapted by Mr. -Ames. “The tiny stage,” writes Miss Anne Stoddard, “is set in a shadow -box; the curtain rises on a sunny knoll with a glimpse of red roofs -in the valley below; bright butterflies flutter above the grass; a -saucy Molly cotton-tail bobs across the hillside.” Another witness of -the performance continues: “The supernatural is a ready aid to the -marionette drama. Hence one is not surprised to find in the first play -of Mr. Sarg’s entertainment a fairy being released from an imprisoning -tree by an old woodcutter and offering her liberator the familiar -three wishes. The tale bears one of the morals familiar in German -folklore. The woodcutter, having received his wish-ring, is awed by -the responsibility which rests upon him and rushes to consult with the -wife of his bosom. She is equally perturbed, but guards the ring for -him while he departs to hold conference with the schoolmaster, but how -perverse is human nature! The wife, entertaining a neighbor during his -absence, casually expresses the wish for a plate of sausages. Presto, -sausages hot and tempting appear before her. The woodcutter, returning -and discovering what use his wife has made of the first wish, angrily -wishes the sausages were growing at the end of her nose, and lo, so -they are. The third wish still remains. But what will avail all the -honor and wealth in the world if one’s wife is to make one ridiculous -by carrying sausages on the end of her nose? Clearly there is nothing -to be done but to utilize the third wish in wishing the sausages off -again. And, this accomplished, the fairy appears to preach a homely -sermon, pointing out how vain are human wishes and ambitions. Let each -gain what he would have by his own will and industry and be contented -with the lot he carves for himself. - -“The edifying import of this tale is no less impressive than the -spirited enactment of it,--the grace of the fairy, the ardor of the -woodcutter, the nagging of the wife, the fervent emotion displayed -by the housedog at the smell of the sausages. Such a mingling of -fable, parable and sermon, of petty human nature with the inscrutable -supernatural which hedges us all in is the authentic material of -puppet-drama.” - -The other two plays, expertly written by Mrs. Hamilton Williamson, -displayed to the greatest advantage the particular talents of the -puppet virtuosi. It is thus that she depicts the task of the marionette -dramatist. “When Mr. Sarg first told me he wanted a snake-charmer, a -juggler, an Oriental dancer, an elephant and a donkey in one play, I -thought I couldn’t possibly get them together; but, you see, I did.” -Yes, indeed, and more besides in the way of adventure, mystery and -humor, very cleverly devised in the energetic, simple language best -suited to the naïve audience of puppet actors. Nor did the duties of -Mrs. Williamson end with her literary labors. Many and inspired were -her humbler but equally arduous and indispensable achievements for -these puppets. - -A similar versatility was displayed by the young women who operated the -puppets. Aside from the laboriously acquired precision essential in -mastering the intricate controls devised for the dolls, each puppeteer -has interested herself in other phases of the ancient craft. Some of -them made the elaborate and colorful costumes for the dolls. Some -helped manufacture the properties, tiny but complete and delightful. -My very first glimpse of the marvelous puppets, indeed, was when, led -by Mrs. Williamson, I came to a very dirty brownstone house not far -from Washington Square, and, entering a gloomy hallway, penetrated -through into the dark rear room where the puppeteers were at work, -all in overalls, all very busy, all very amiable. Someone was sawing -wood, someone was hammering, someone was up on the bridge practicing -the donkey and there was a tiny, live monkey perched on the lumber -which littered the floor. Puppets and monkey ... of course!--following -the example of Brioché and his Fagotin and perfectly true to the best -traditions! - -[Illustration: A TRICK PUPPET - -In Mr. Tony Sarg’s production, _The Rose and the Ring_; showing how -Gruffanuff becomes instantly beautiful upon finding the magic ring] - -It is Mr. Sarg who has trained and inspired all of his workers, who -has designed the costumes as well as the faces and hands of the dolls, -modeled after his drawings, who has invented the clever mechanism -and most of the scenery and ingenious “business” of the stage, who -has directed the actors’ interpretation of the lines, selected the -incidental music, superintended the lighting effects, all with an easy -air of merely enjoying his little hobby. - -The play selected by Mr. Sarg for his puppets during their second -season was a very fortunate choice. It was Thackeray’s little fairy -story, _The Rose and the Ring_, made into a drama by one of the -puppeteers, Miss Hettie Louise Mick, who had dramatized other tales -for marionettes when she was working with the Chicago puppets. -Nothing could have been better suited to the nature of Mr. Sarg’s -dolls, humorous, dainty, delicious, all in quaint trappings, and with -divertingly elaborate settings suggestive of the Victorian era quite -proper to the story. To add to the excellence of his production, -Mr. Sarg secured Mrs. Browne to advise in staging and to direct the -rehearsing. She applied her usual methods, training the puppeteers -first through having them act out and speak the lines themselves before -operating the dolls. The manipulators always talk for the marionettes -they operate. - -To facilitate in taking the show about the country a collapsible stage -was constructed and the puppets were reduced in size. This diminution -of stature brought about a new refinement, a more mincing manner and -a more piquant facial eccentricity. Early in Spring, _The Rose and -The Ring_ went on a Western tour, visiting Detroit, Ann Arbor and -Cleveland. Mr. Sarg had a group of six manipulators, including Miss -Lillian Owen, mistress of the wardrobe and a sort of right-hand man, -and Mr. Searle, master stage mechanic and constructor of clever scenery -and properties, another right-hand man in fact, and Miss Mick, who -wrote the play. A musician also came along and produced the tinkly, -tinny, toy music so properly attuned to the puppet play. The production -abounded in pretty surprises, horrible suspenses, fairy magic, -transformations, shadow play, dancing dolls, piano playing puppets, -knights in armor, animals, everything desirable! Throughout there was -the flow of Thackeray’s inimitable, good-natured satire, skillfully -preserved by Miss Mick. After enthusiastic receptions wherever he -visited with them, Mr. Sarg returned to New York with his marionettes -and installed them in the Punch and Judy theatre, where they continued -to enjoy their usual popularity. - -Mr. Sarg has been asked why he does not attempt poetic drama with his -marionettes. He is faced, of course, with the problem which confronts -all the puppet showmen here in America of finding material suitable for -a given type of doll and also acceptable to local audiences, hitherto -unacquainted with the characteristics and traditions of the burattini. -Concerning a possible performance of one of Maeterlinck’s dramas by the -marionettes, Mr. Sarg has said: “I am turning that over in my mind. -The practicable difficulty is the exaggerated walk of the dolls, which -always brings laughter from the audience. But I dare say I can manage -that all right when I have a chance to work over it a bit.” Let us -hope that this minor difficulty will not prove insurmountable, for, as -Mr. H. K. Moderwell in the _Boston Transcript_ has so aptly written: -“If he will draw further from the ancient and noble sources of puppet -literature, if he will bid his dolls enact some of those dramas which -have made the art of the marionette an inspired art, he will merit the -plaudits of all puppet-starved America.” - - - - -_Toy Theatres and Puppet Shows for Children_ - - -Whether, out of their infinite variety, the puppets please or fail to -satisfy us, there is one audience invariably eager for them. Puppet -shows for children, toy theatres managed by children, what could be -more fitting? Specially adapted, professional performances such as the -Guignol and Casperle plays have ever catered to youthful tastes with -astonishing and perennial success. The home-made booths for simple -dolls worked on the fingers are so quickly contrived. Little stages for -marionettes are easy to construct out of ordinary kitchen tables. Mr. -Gordon Craig gives explicit directions as well as an excellent drawing -in his letter, _The Game of Marionettes_, which is published in _The -Mask_, volume five. Shadow plays can be arranged by merely stretching -a sheet across a door with a cardboard frame and cardboard figures -pressed behind it and a light to illuminate the silhouettes. How much -fun to have Red Riding Hood thus portrayed, for a birthday party or the -shadow of Santa Claus with his reindeer sailing over the shadow gables -and down the shadow of the chimney on Christmas eve! - -The _Juvenile Drama_ of Skelt and his successors, Park, Webb, Redington -and Pollock, has been immortalized by Stevenson in his little essay, _A -Penny Plain and Twopence Colored_. Printed on thin sheets of cardboard -to be cut out and colored by the youthful stage manager (unless he -bought, oh shame! the _Twopence Colored_), were characters and scenes -for the most exciting plays. Special properties for illuminating and -coloring could be acquired also, at extra expense. The words of the -drama, plus directions, were printed in a pamphlet. They were based -upon thrilling old English melodramas; they presented startling and -highly theatrical situations. - -“In the Leith Walk window all the year round, there stood displayed a -theatre in working order, with a _Forest Set_, a _Combat_, and a few -_Robbers Carousing_ in the slides; and below and about, dearer tenfold -to me! the plays themselves, those budgets of romance, lay tumbled -one upon the other. Long and often have I lingered there with empty -pockets. One figure, we shall say, was visible in the first plate -of characters, bearded, pistol in hand, or drawing to his ear the -clothyard arrow. I would spell the name: was it Macaire or Long Tom -Coffin, or Grindoff, 2d dress? Oh, how I would long to see the rest! -How--if the name by chance were hidden--I would wonder in what play he -figured and what immortal legend justified his attitude and strange -apparel! And then to go within to announce yourself as an intending -purchaser, and, closely watched, be suffered to undo those bundles and -to breathlessly devour those pages of gesticulating villains, epileptic -combats, bosky forests, palaces and warships, frowning fortresses and -prison vaults--it was a giddy joy.” - -“And when at length the deed was done, the play selected and the -impatient shopman had brushed the rest into the gray portfolio, and -the boy was forth again, a little late for dinner, the lamps springing -into light in the blue winter’s even, and _The Miller_, or _The -Rover_, or some kindred drama clutched against his side, on what gay -feet he ran, and how he laughed aloud in exultation!” And Stevenson -confesses: “I have, at different times, possessed _Aladdin_, _The Red -Rover_, _The Blind Boy_, _The Old Oak Chest_, _The Wood Daemon_, _Jack -Shepard_, _The Miller and His Men_, _Der Freischuetz_, _The Smuggler_, -_The Forest of Bondy_, _Robin Hood_, _The Waterman_, _Richard I._, -_My Poll and my Partner Joe_, _The Inchcape Bell_ (imperfect), and -_Three-fingered Jack the Terror of Jamaica_; and I have assisted -others in the illumination of the _Maid of the Inn_ and _The Battle of -Waterloo_. In this roll-call of stirring names you read the evidences -of a happy childhood.”[8] - -In Germany, also, toy theaters abound, better equipped possibly, and -more carefully constructed, but lacking somewhat the quaint and fiery -delightfulness of the English juvenile drama. - -There could be no more spontaneous testimonial of the love of children -for the puppets than the throngs who crowded into Papa Schmidt’s -Kasperle theatre to witness his familiar, jolly little shows of -fairy-tale and folklore. In striving to meet the tastes and needs of -children, Schmidt earned the reward of becoming the best beloved man -in the city. It is interesting to note that when, once, he became -discouraged and wished to retire, the city magistrates, urged by the -_superintendent of the schools_, unanimously voted to build him a -permanent little theatre. - -And Goethe, that German genius of most universal appeal, records that -he devoted many hours of his childhood to puppet play. Kept at home -during the dreary days of the Seven Years’ War when Frankfurt was -occupied by the French, he diverted not only himself but his family -with the little marionette theatre which he had received as a Christmas -gift. It is thus that he describes his introduction to the puppets who -were to delight his boyhood, to amuse his youth and to inspire him -eventually with the suggestion for his great Faust drama. - -“I can still see the moment--how wonderful it seemed--when, after the -usual Christmas presents, we were told to sit down before a door which -led from one room into another. It opened, but not merely for the -usual passing in and out; the entrance was filled with an unexpected -festiveness. A portal reared itself into the heights which was covered -by a mystic curtain. At first we marvelled from a distance and as our -curiosity became greater to see what glittering and rustling things -might be concealed behind the half-transparent drapery, a little chair -was assigned to each of us and we were told to wait in patience. - -“So then we all sat down and were quiet. A whistle gave signal, the -curtain rose and disclosed a scene in the Temple, painted bright red. -The High Priest Samuel appeared with Jonathan, and their curious -dialogue seemed most admirable to me. Shortly thereafter Saul came upon -the scene in great distress, over the insolence of the heavy-weight -warrior who had challenged him and his followers to combat. How -relieved I was when the diminutive son of Jesse sprang forth with -shepherd’s crook, wallet and sling and spoke thus: ‘Almighty King -and great Lord! Let none despair because of this. If your Majesty -will permit me, I will go forth and enter into combat with the mighty -giant.’ The first act was ended and the audience extremely desirous to -learn what would happen next,” etc., etc. - -[Illustration: GERMAN PUPPET SHOW FOR CHILDREN - -Designed for use in the home - -[Reproduced from _Kind und Kunst_]] - -The puppets may indeed boast of having delighted child geniuses of -every country and of having inspired their later years. We are told -that at the age of eleven Stanislaw Wyspianski, the great poet, -painter and dramatist of Poland, built himself a large stage or -_Crib_ imitating architecturally the Castle of Wawel. On this stage -he produced various dramas based upon the history of that royal burg, -with the help of figures which he himself invented. “Perhaps,” his -biographer suggests, “already there was germinating in his boyish soul -the idea of the Theatre-Wawel which in his manly productiveness brought -forth manifold fruits.” (L. de Schildenfeld Schiller.) In Italy, too, -we find the great dramatist Goldoni devoted to puppet play as a child -and writing dramas for the burattini which he is said to have adapted -later, with great success, for the larger stage. - -Most famous, perhaps, of all popular puppets for children to-day are -the Guignols in Paris. A typical performance might be found in the -garden of the Luxembourg, where a little stage has been erected. One -has the privilege of standing outside the roped-off space with passing -pastry cooks, milliners’ girls and street urchins, or one may pay to -enter and sit down on a chair among the children and nurses. Coachmen -rein up and watch from their high perches at the curb. Polichinelle -first comes upon the stage with his piping voice, or the Director, a -doll in evening dress with waxed mustachios, welcomes the audience. -Then Guignol and the terrifying family scenes! - -Mr. W. Caine has given a very illuminating analysis of the guignols. -“But who are all these people? Guignol, Guillaume, the Judge, the -Patron, the Nurse? You might know that Guignol is Guillaume’s father, -while Guillaume is the son of Guignol. The Gendarme, on the other hand, -is the Gendarme, while the Judge, similarly, is the Judge. The Patron -is none other than the Patron, and who should the Nurse be, in the -name of common sense, but the Nurse? The Gendarme is always killed, -always. The Judge expends his wrath impotently, always. The Patron is -invariably worsted, the Nurse has no sort of luck. Guignol represents -the proletariat. He wears a dark green jacket and a black hat.... -His face is large and foolish, for he is what is known as a benet, a -simpleton.... He tries to give his own baby its dinner by thrusting -it head-first into a stewing pan. Guillaume wears a red hat and pink -blouse.... Guillaume is, in one word, a rascal. It is certain when once -Guillaume gets hold of a stick, or musket, or a stewing-pan (anything -will do) that somebody will bite the dust.” - -The enthusiasm of the juvenile audience grows most intense over the -exploits of this favorite, and it is not unusual when Guillaume is -sore put to it and the Gendarme is about to pounce upon him, to -hear a shrill little voice from the audience cry out, ‘Take care, -Guillaume, the Gendarme is behind the door!’ When for the first time -the adventurous Guillaume ascended in an aeroplane, so great was his -success that the price of seats in the Champs Élysées went from 10 -centimes to 25!!” - -Guignol is often to be found during the season at bathing resorts and -at the seashore. Each of the larger shows in Paris has a portable booth -belonging to it wherein its little cast can be sent out to perform at -private entertainments. It is not uncommon for the play to be sent to -the orphans and waifs in this manner as a special treat for fête days. - -We find the puppets equally beloved by the children of Italy. In _The -Marionette_ there is a sympathetic picture of a juvenile audience at -the theatre of the Lupi family in Torina. “On the evenings of ordinary -days the auditorium does not differ in aspect from that of the other -theatres. To see it in its especial beauty one must go to the Sunday -afternoon performance, when hundreds of boys and girls fill the seats -and benches, and form, in the _platea_ and the boxes, so many bouquets, -garlands of blond heads; and the variety of light bright colors of -their clothes give it the appearance of a sala decked with flowers and -flags for a fête. - -“On the rising of the curtain one may say that two performances begin. -It is delightful, during a spectacular scene, to see all those eyes -wide open as at an apparition from another world--those expressions of -the most supreme amazement, in which life seems suspended--those little -mouths open in the form of an O, or of rings and semicircles--those -little foreheads corrugated as if in a tremendous effort of philosophic -cogitation, which then relax brusquely as on awaking from a dream. -Then, all at once, at a comic scene, at a funny reply or action of one -of the characters, whole rows of little bodies double up with laughter, -lines of heads are thrown back, shaking masses of curls, disclosing -little white necks, opening mouths, like little red caskets full of -minute pearls; and in the impetus of their delight some embrace their -brother or sister, some throw themselves in their mother’s arms, and -many of the smallest fling themselves back in their seats with their -legs in the air, innocently disclosing their most secret _lingerie_. -And then, to see how in the passion of admiration they furiously push -aside the importunate handkerchief which seeks their little noses, or -deal a blow without preface to whoever hides from them the view of the -stage! There are three hundred pairs of hands that applaud with all -their might, and that, among them all, do not make as much noise as -four men’s hands; one seems to see and to hear the flutter of hundreds -of rosy wings, held by so many threads to the seats. - -“And the admiring and enthusiastic exclamations are a joy to hear. At -the unexpected opening of certain scenes, at the appearance of certain -lambs or little donkeys or pigs that seem alive, there are outbursts -of ‘Oh!’ and long murmurs of wonder, behind which comes almost always -some solitary exclamation of a little voice which resounds in the -silence like a sigh in a church, and ... ‘Ah, com’e bello!’ ... that -breaks from the depths of the soul, that expresses fulness of content, -a celestial beatitude.” - -[Illustration: ENGLISH TOY THEATRE - - _Upper_: Figures to be cut out for the Juvenile Dramas - _Lower_: Back scene for _Timour the Tartar_ - -[Courtesy of B. Pollock, 73 Hoxton Street, London]] - -When Mr. Tony Sarg brought _The Rose and The Ring_ west it was a rare -privilege for the children of Cleveland to see this winsome puppet play -and an equal pleasure for those elders who witnessed the performance -with them. _What_ was behind the little curtain? A few boys and girls -went tiptoe up to peek. Then, listen! there is music and then, oh! the -funny little man singing a song, and oh! the long-nosed little King -snoring on his throne, and the funny soldier, Hedsoff, saluting so -briskly, and the ugly old Lady Gruffanuff! And see the Fairy Blackstick -come floating in and do things and say things to people and Princess -Angelica playing piano and dancing. How can she, so little and only a -dolly? What a fat Prince Bulbo and oh, the armoured men on horseback -fighting! (“Why ha’ dey dose knives, Mudda?” questioned one little -girl, aloud, all unacquainted with the days of Chivalry). And then the -roaring Lion! My four-year-old daughter still calls the lion a bear: -but it pleased her notwithstanding, particularly the _roar_ of it. -“Oh, I just juve Mr. Sarg’s ma-inette dolls, Mudda,” she exclaimed, a -day after the blissful event. “Why don’t we have ma-inette dolls many -times?” Why indeed, or, why not?! - -Elnora Whitman Curtis, in her book _The Dramatic Instinct in -Education_, emphasizes the educational value of puppets. She would have -shows in the schools, or better yet, in playgrounds with the advantage -of fresh air. Subjects, she claims, could be vivified, literature and -history lessons more deeply impressed upon the great number of pupils -who never get beyond the grades. And for older children there would -be the training in the writing of dialogues, in the declaiming of -them, practice in fashioning the puppets, the costumes, the scenery, -the properties and in operating and directing. Miss Curtis concludes: -“Anyone who has watched a throng of small boys and girls as they sit -in the tiny, roped-off square before a little chatelet in Paris on -the Champs Élysées, or those that gather in Papa Schmidt’s exquisite -little theatre in Munich, or before the tiny booths at fairs and -exhibitions anywhere in Italy, must have noticed the rapturous delight -of these small people. The tiny stage, its equipment, accessories, -the diminutive garments and belongings of the puppets satisfy the -childish love of the miniature copies of things in the grown-up world. -Their animistic tendencies make it easy to endow the wooden figures -with human qualities and bring them into close rapport with their own -world of fancy. The voice coming from some unknown region adds the -mystery which children dearly love, and before the magic of fairy-tales -their eyes grow wide with wonder. The stiff movement of the puppets, -their sudden collapses from dignity, are irresistibly funny to the -little people and the element of buffoonery is doubly comical in its -mechanical presentation.” - -Less specifically, but with equal conviction of their deep educational -importance, Gordon Craig proclaims: “There is one way in which to -assist the world to become young again. It is to allow the young mind -to learn nearly all things from the marionette.” - - - - -_A Plea for Polichinelle_ - - -I am making a plea for Polichinelle and I hope I shall be pardoned for -summoning to my assistance some of his more eloquent and illustrious -admirers. We have seen that the past has eminently honored him, but -there is also ample testimony that he can adapt himself to our present -time and taste, nay more, to the various tastes and tempers of this -modern day. For there are divers theories and principles among critics -of the puppets, but the puppets are so versatile they can play many -parts in many manners. “Chacun a son gout!” quoth Polichinelle with a -flourish. - -There are those who believe that the grotesque is an inherent, -indispensable trait of the marionette; that, as Flögel claims, -Kasperle, quintessence of grotesque comedy, belongs inseparably to the -marionette stage and that everything else is meaningless, insipid, -and merely experimental. Similarly, Professor Wundt asserts that -the ministration to the sense of the comic is the chief function of -the puppets and perhaps the greatest factor in their popularity. He -mentions their mirth-provoking superiority to the situation, the -element of the unexpected, heightened enormously by wooden creatures -who imperturbably proceed upon occasions to contradict the very law -of gravity. These traits, he feels, are essential and distinguishing -characteristics of marionettes. - -In comparing the merry Kasperle theatre of Munich with the serious -puppet theatre established by the young artists of that city, Wilhelm -Michel emphasizes this point of view. “Pure tragic effects cannot -emanate from the marionette stage because, in the first place, there -are no human beings acting upon it but rather ironies of humanity, -mockeries of men; suffering cannot be given upon it, only travesties of -suffering. If this constitutional irony of the puppet is not handled -in an artistic spirit, unbearable dissonances occur.... The working of -the marionette stage is pure, unmixed gayety. The dolls are not, as -our young poets imagine, representatives and agents of submission, but -rather delightful little liberators, amiable, amusing victors over the -petty doubts which we all carry about with us in unobserved corners of -our souls.” - -This opinion is undeniably supported by traditional usage. Humor may -vary from the buffoonery of Hanswurst to the satirical subtleties of De -Neuville’s pupazzi, but the spirit of comedy has had a representative -on the puppet stage in every land. What a long list might be compiled, -starting with the hunchback Vidusaka of ancient India, then on through -Semar of Javanese comedy, Karagheuz of Turkey, Pahlawan of Persia -(squeaking in the same feigned voice as the English Punch), to say -nothing of Maccus, the Roman Puppet, and Arlecchino, and Pulcinella -with their merry train from all over Italy, even including the later -Signor Macaroni. There are the German and Austrian Hanswurst and -Kasperle, Jackpudding and Punch in England, Polichinelle, Harlequin, -Jean Potage, and even more recently Guignol and Guillaume in France, -Paprika, Jancsi of Hungary, Picklehoerring of Holland and ever so many -more, rollicking and indispensable humorists of the puppet theatre. -M. Charles Magnin, most distinguished historian of the marionette, -proclaims his unalterable faith in Polichinelle: “Do you know, then, -what Polichinelle is? He is the good sense of the people, the brisk -sally, the irrepressible laughter. Yes, Polichinelle will laugh and -sing as long as the world contains vices, follies and things to -ridicule. You see very well that Polichinelle is not near his death. -Polichinelle is immortal!” - -Professor Pischel agrees that the puppet play is the favorite child -of the people and merely the step-child of the cultured because it -owes its origin to the common people and is a clearer mirror of their -thoughts and feelings than any more finished poetry. Mr. Howard, -too, in the _Boston Transcript_, somewhat resents the marionette -performances in the new manner, feeling that the old traditional shows -were “more childlike, more simple, more human.” - -Innumerable artists of the last few decades, however, esteem the -marionette as an excellent medium of serious dramatic expression, -possessing a poetic style and a conventionalized, impersonal -symbolism. Ernst Ehlert, himself an actor as well as lover of puppets, -writes thus of Pühony’s marionettes: - -“The object of every work of art, the thing that makes it truly -artistic, is the attainment of the greatest possible emotional effect -with the simplest possible means. What makes a work of art a real -delight is that it does not fully express but merely suggests and -excites the imagination of the observer to help in the presentation -of the reality. That is why a puppet play is not only more amusing -but more artistic than a real one.” He continues: “Puppets, moreover, -have style. They are cut out sharply to represent their particular -characteristics, and those characteristics are pronounced. The manager -of a puppet show has a free hand in the fashioning of such a company -as best carries out his creative impulse. But with real actors it -is impossible to make them other than they are, to subordinate them -entirely to the manager’s will. I have been an actor, both in Germany -and in Russia ... so I know.” - -Again, Mr. Arthur Symons, after witnessing the fantoccini of the -Cortanzi theatre in Rome, expresses the following belief in the -art-marionette: “Gesture on the stage is the equivalent of rhythm in -verse. In our marionette, then, we get personified gesture, and the -gesture, like all forms of emotion, generalized. The appeal in what -seems to you these childlike manoeuvers is to a finer because to a more -intimately poetic sense of things than the merely rationalistic appeal -of our modern plays.” Furthermore, he adds concerning the puppet: “As -he is painted so he will smile, as the wires lift or lower his hands so -will his gestures be and he will dance when his legs are set in motion. -There is not, indeed, the appeal to the senses of the first row in the -stalls at a ballet of living dancers. But why leave the ball-room? It -is not nature one looks for on the stage in this kind of a spectacle, -and our excitement in watching it should remain purely intellectual. -This is nothing less than a fantastic and direct return to the masks of -the ancient Greeks, that learned artifice by which tragedy and comedy -were assisted in speaking to the world in the universal voice by this -deliberate generalizing of emotions.” - -The marionettes of M. Signoret, as we have seen, from Anatole France’s -enthusiastic account, presented the classic drama of all epochs to the -satisfaction of the most acutely sensitive critics of Paris. M. Paul -Margueritte brilliantly eulogizes them in the following discussion: -“They are indefatigable, always ready. And while the name and too -familiar face of a living actor imposes upon the public an obsession -which renders illusion impossible or very difficult, the puppets being -of wood or cardboard possess a droll, mysterious life. Their truthful -bearing surprises, even disquiets us. In their essential gestures there -is the complete expression of human feelings. We had it proved at the -representations of Aristophanes; real actors would not have produced -this effect. In them the foreshortening aided the illusion. Their masks -in the style of ancient comedy, their few and simple movements, their -statuesque poses, gave a singular grace to the spectacle.” - -This leads us to the well-known name of Gordon Craig and to his -inspired, emphatic utterances concerning the actor and the marionette. -No one of late has done as much as he toward reviving the interest in -puppets and stimulating curiosity concerning them. His collection of -puppets and shadow figures forms a veritable museum of marionettes -from all parts of the world. His many articles in _The Mask_ and in a -later publication called _The Marionettes_, both published in Florence -at the Arena Goldoni, direct attention to the puppet;--more, it must -be admitted, as a model or suggestion to the actor, than as a minor -art-form in itself. Recognizing its many merits, Mr. Craig would send -the modern actor to the school of the burattini to learn virtues of -silence, obedience, “to learn how to indicate instead of imitate.” He -deems the stage of to-day devoid, in great part, of genuine dramatic -value, filled up with much meaningless realistic detail, inartistic -and irritating gestures, and prominent players exhibiting their own -peculiar personalities more or less attractively in various rôles. He -would agree with Anatole France: “The actors spoil the play for me. I -mean good actors,--their talent is too great; it covers everything. -There is nothing left but them. Their personality effaces the work -which they represent.” Indeed, Gordon Craig boldly proclaims: “The -actor must go and in his place comes the inanimate figure, the -Über-marionette we may call him until he has won for himself a better -name.” And in _The Promise of a New Art_ he has written: “What the -wires of the Über-marionette shall be, who shall guide him?--The wires -which stretch from Divinity to the soul of the poet are wires which -might command him.” - -These sentiments are familiar to those acquainted with the art and -writings of Mr. Craig, but it is indeed interesting to find somewhat -similar ideas expressed in the delightful but “different” manner -of a most eminent contemporary, Mr. G. Bernard Shaw. In a letter -concerning the puppets of his acquaintance, Mr. Shaw has written: “In -my youth (say 1865–75) there was a permanent exhibition in Dublin, the -proprietor of which was known as Mons Dark, which is Irish for Monsieur -d’Arc. From that show I learned that marionettes can produce a much -stronger illusion than bad actors can; and I have often suggested that -the Academy of Dramatic Art here try to obtain a marionette performance -to teach the students that very important part of the art of acting -which consists of not acting: that is, allowing the imagination of the -spectator to do its lion’s share of the work.” - -Aside, however, from this not insignificant value as an example to -the actor of the future, the marionette has a positive and individual -contribution to make in the field of drama, a contribution which -the marionette alone can provide. There seem to be certain types -of plays more advantageously presented by puppets or shadows than -by human beings. These little creatures of wood or cardboard have -naturally that “sense of being beyond reality” which, according to -John Balance, “permeates all good art.” There is an article in the -_Hyperion, 1909_, by Franz Blei, critic and aesthete. He states: “I -believe there will always be certain dramatic poetry whose beauty -can be more significantly and effectively revealed by shadows than -by living actors. The shadow play will supplement the theatre of -living actors on one side as the marionette stage already does on the -other, in Paul Brann’s very brilliant productions, for example. With -shadows, the forcefulness of the verse and the emotional element is -very much heightened in effect; with marionettes the significance of -the action is intensified to a far greater degree than is attainable -by human beings, a point to which H. V. Kleist has already drawn -attention in praise of marionettes. With shadow plays, as with puppet -performances, the readers should not be professional actors, for their -very way of speaking invariably mimics the mannerisms of the man. The -limited movements of the shadows, however, suffer from this and also -the gestures of the marionettes which have a wider range but which -do not in the least resemble the customary stage gestures. Talented -dilettantes with good taste are more apt to strike the right note. I -fancy that the shadows and marionettes might please some people who had -not visited the theatre for quite a while, because they were unwilling -to waste their time on highly lifelike but utterly lifeless theatrical -productions.” - -Professor Brander Matthews, in his _Book about the Theatre_, also -insists upon the adaptability of the marionettes for certain types of -drama unsatisfactory when performed by living actors. He suggests that -a passion play or any form of drama in which Divinity has perforce to -appear is relieved in the puppet show of any tincture of irreverence, -all personages of the play, whether heavenly or earthly, appearing -equally remote from common humanity upon the miniature stage. The -religious plays of Maurice Bouchor, artistic and reverent productions -in every detail, beautifully illustrate this point. The atmosphere -M. Jules Lemaître describes as “far away in time and space,”--this -of the mystery play, _Noël_. Again Professor Matthews maintains that -when _Salome_ was performed by Holden’s marionettes and created the -sensation of the season, all vulgarity and grossness which might have -been offensive either in the play or in the dance of the seven veils -was purged away by the fact that the performers were puppets. “So -dextrous was the manipulation of the unseen operator who controlled -the wires and strings which gave life to the seductive Salome as she -circled around the stage in a most bewitching fashion; so precise -and accurate was the imitation of a human dancer, that the receptive -spectator could not but feel that here at last a play of doubtful -propriety has found its only fit stage and its only proper performance. -The memory of that exhibition is a perennial delight to all those who -possess it. A thing of beauty it was and it abides in remembrance as a -joy forever. It revealed the art of the puppet show at its summit. And -the art itself was eternally justified by that one performance of the -highest technical skill and the utmost delicacy of taste.” - -There are other spheres also in which the puppets have an advantage -over mere mortal actors. Fairy stories, legends of miraculous -adventure, metamorphoses are tremendously heightened by the quality -of strangeness inherent in the marionettes. “For puppet plays,” says -Professor Pischel, “are fairy-tales and the fairy-tale is nourished by -strangeness.” Transformations, animal fables, fairy flittings in scenes -of mysterious glamour are obviously more easily presented by fleshless -dolls than by heavy, panting and perspiring actors tricked out in -unnatural and unearthly raiment. - -Even horseplay humor of the Punch and Judy variety is unobjectionable -with puppets where the whacking and thwacking is done by and upon -jolly, grotesque little beings who are neither pained nor debased by -the procedure. With some such idea William Hazlitt has written: - -“That popular entertainment, Punch and the Puppet-show, owes part -of its irresistible and universal attraction to nearly the same -principle of inspiring inanimate and mechanical agents with sense and -consciousness. The drollery and wit of a piece of wood is doubly droll -and farcical. Punch is not merry in himself, but ‘he is the cause of -heartfelt mirth in other men.’ The wires and pulleys that govern his -motion are conductors to carry off the spleen, and all ‘that perilous -stuff that weighs upon the heart.’ If we see numbers of people turning -the corner of a street, ready to burst with secret satisfaction, and -with their faces bathed in laughter we know what is the matter--that -they are just come from a puppet-show. - -“I have heard no bad judge of such matters say that ‘he liked a comedy -better than a tragedy, a farce better than a comedy, a pantomime better -than a farce, but a peep-show best of all.’ I look upon it that he who -invented puppet shows was a greater benefactor to his species than he -who invented Operas!” - -The marionette has come to America. Some of the more venturesome of -this wandering race have crossed the high seas and entered hopefully -into our open country. Are we not to welcome these immigrants? Can -we not possibly assimilate them into our national life? Might we not -benefit by their contribution? I make a plea for Polichinelle in the -United States, the pleasant hours, the joyous moments of his bestowing. - -How excellent if schools and playrooms might have their puppet booths -for the happier exposition of folk and fairy tales or even for -patriotic propaganda! I can see innumerable quaint silhouettes of -_Pilgrim Fathers_ bending the knee and giving thanks, or of _Indian -Chiefs_, all feathery, in solemn conclave, with Pocahontas dashing -madly forward to save the life of Captain John Smith. It would be -delicious to witness _George Washington_, in shadows, chopping down his -father’s little cherry tree: and as for _Lincoln and Slavery_ ... it -actually happened that in 1867 Benedict Rivoli produced _Uncle Tom’s -Cabin_, with a company of puppets; it has happened in our vaudeville -houses often, why not once in a while in our schools? Small groups of -grown folks, too, in city or village, might easily build their own -marionette stages and attempt to produce dramas of all times; humorous, -satirical, poetic or mystical, each to his taste and independent of -the whim of a Broadway manager or the peculiarities of a popular star. -It is such a naïve and simple pastime and sometimes so delightful. I -should like to suggest it as an antidote for the overdose of moving -pictures from which an overwhelming number of us are unconsciously -suffering atrophy of the imagination, or a similar insidious malady.[9] - -One must be quite unsophisticated to enjoy the marionettes, or quite -sophisticated. Plain people, children and artists, seem to take -pleasure in them. One must have something childlike, or artistic, in -one’s nature, perhaps merely a little imagination in an unspoiled, -vigorous condition. Of course the stiff little figures, the peculiar -conventions of the puppet stage are strange to us in America. There are -those who do not _like_ puppets and those who _do_ not _can_ not, I -suppose. No one _must_ like them: but none should scorn them. To scorn -them is, somehow, to show too great disregard and lack of knowledge. -And we, over here, who have not as youngsters laughed aloud at the -drolleries of Guignol, who have not learned our folk-tales interspersed -with the antics of some local Kasperle, who are not surprised by Punch -and Judy at a familiar street corner, now and then, who have not been -privileged to witness the spectacular faeries of Italian fantoccini, -the exquisite shadows of the Chat Noir, the elaborate modern plays at -the Munich art-theatre,--how can we really say _what_ we think of the -marionette? If we see more of him first; if we give our puppeteers -(professional and amateur) more time to master their craft, perhaps, -who knows, something nice may come of it all. There are some great -words I should like to quote for little Polichinelle, artificial -or strange as he may seem. “And therefore, as a stranger, give him -welcome.” - - - - -_Behind the Scenes_ - - -FOR THE FUN OF IT - -But why prate of benefit or pleasure to past or present audiences of -the marionette when the best reason for the pupazzi, the true reason -I do believe, for their continuance and longevity is the _fun_ of -puppet-playing? I confess it: nay, I proclaim it the foundation for -my deep affection. And who shall find a firmer basis for any love -than this,--interest, amusement, stimulation? Reverence or even -understanding are far less vital, less compelling motives. Of course -this applies to puppets. Everything applicable to humanity fits the -burattini, for we are all so much the dancing dolls of destiny, satiric -or serious, crude or precious puppets, all of us. One should truly have -a fellow feeling for Punch and Judy. - -As to the fun, however, of making puppets and of tinkering with the -mechanical contrivances, the total absorption with such problems and -the elation in overcoming absurd but seemingly insurmountable technical -difficulties; the delight in carving and cutting, in designing -costumes and then in sewing, glueing, painting, patching them into -proper semblance of the original design: the art required properly to -conceive a setting for dolls, the ingenuity exerted to decorate the -stage, the delicious Lilliputian proportions of things, the charming -effects contrived out of almost anything or nothing at all; and, in -manipulating, the thrill of acquiring after long effort a full control -of the doll at the end of the wires, of telegraphing one’s emotions -down into the responsive little body; and the whimsical delight in -writing for puppets (one dare be so impudent, being so impersonal and -unpretentious!)--who shall say that such an aggregate of wholesome, -creative enjoyment to an entire group of childlike grown-up folk is -not sufficient vindication for Polichinelle and his kind? With so -much bubbling enthusiasm behind the scenes, how can a proper audience -be altogether bored? If they are bored it is a sure sign they are no -proper audience! - - -WRITING FOR THE PUPPETS - - “The life of man to represent - And turn it all to ridicule, - Wit did a puppet-show invent, - Where the chief actor is a fool.” - - JONATHAN SWIFT. - -No one appreciates how funny people are until he has written a play -for puppets. There’s nothing any person has ever said which isn’t -amusing, honestly and truly amusing, when transferred to the mouth of a -marionette. Try it and see. - -Take any conversation you may have overheard. Take as many puppets as -there were people talking. Dress them to indicate the characters, try -to imitate the most pronounced gestures and postures of your people -... and let them speak, verbatim, the words that have been spoken. - -It is simply funny, a sort of unconscious, undeniable criticism of the -manners of men. There will always be a _point_, too, a sort of moral -at the minimum. No one can fail to see it, either in the words or the -gestures or the situations. The puppets will find it and bring it out. -Produce the puppets and try it! - -I frankly confess I shudder to imagine myself _done in puppet_. What a -cure for idiosyncrasies and affectations! - - -A REHEARSAL OF TINTAGILES - -In all the lack-luster of realism we “stood on the bridge at midnight.” -Four of us stood on the bridge and we were very weary. It was the -bridge of our marionette stage over which we had been bending for -hours. From out in front somewhere the director spoke: “Now, once more -the third act ... and remember they must lean _against_ the door when -it opens as if they were trying desperately to hold it. See that the -strings do not catch. Readers, please watch the figures and give them -plenty of time.... Ready?” We were, tensely so. - -The beautiful, sad voice of Ygraine gave us the mood. “I have been to -look at the doors ... there are three of them....” Aglovale (old and -tremulous): “I will go seat myself upon the step, my sword upon my -knee....” - -“Aglovale, lean back farther against the step; don’t perch on the -edge.” (This from the front.) Aggie (as we familiarly called him) -thereupon proceeded to jerk up and sit down deliberately a couple of -times, then followed a twitching, collapsing, stiffening process.... -“Sorry, it’s the little hump in his shoulders and the step is so -narrow!” wailed a tired unseen operator. During the struggle Belangere -flopped inelegantly on the floor, her manipulator resting a weary -wrist. Clearing of throats, scraping of chairs from the readers in the -wings. - -Patient director: “Well, let it go for to-night. You may have to remove -the hump. Are we ready?” We were. - -The play proceeded. On the miniature stage in dim, high-arched rooms, -bare and gloomy, slender, strange little creatures moved with stiff, -imposing gestures. It is an ominous world, the atmosphere vibrating -with hidden terror, tense emotions and lonely overtones. Princess -Ygraine, to the little Tintagiles: “There, you see...? Your big sisters -are here ... they are close to you ... we will defend you and no evil -can come near.” - -Oh, the tenderness, the dauntlessness, the pathos ... high hearts -encircled by creeping, inevitable doom. - -Then the old man, mumbling at his own bewildered futility: “My soul is -heavy to-day.” (A hand is raised, an old hand, tremblingly.) “What is -one to do...? Men needs must live and await the unforeseen.... And -after that they must still act as if they hoped....” (The arm drops, -heavy ... a silence.) “There are sad evenings when our useless lives -taste bitter in our mouths ... etc.” - -The scene proceeds, on and on in ascending tensity, readers sitting at -the wings, puppeteers operating the wires high up, the director off -at his desk in the dark, ... and the marionettes animated into vital -significance, symbols of supreme and simplified fervor ... dread, love, -courage.... - -“They are shaking the door, listen. Do not breathe. They are whispering. - -“They have the key.... - -“Yes, yes, I was sure of it.... Wait....” - -Old Aglovale faces the slowly opening door, his sword outstretched; the -others stand rigid with terror. - -“Come! Come both....” - -They face the door, they hold it. Their watchfulness avails for the -time being. The door closes. - -“Tintagiles!” - -Aglovale, waiting at the door: “I hear nothing now....” - -Ygraine, wild with joy. “Tintagiles, look! Look!... He is saved!... -Look at his eyes.... You can see the blue.... He is going to speak.... -They saw we were watching.... They did not dare.... Kiss us!... Kiss -us, I say!... All, all!... Down to the depths of our soul!...” - -A silence, a long silence. Then ... the boards creak as the operators -stand up to rest their aching backs. - -“Well, Belangere mounted the steps pretty well that time. But don’t -forget to take a stitch in her left leg; she still has a tendency to -pivot.” - -“Yes, I’ll do it and I’ll lengthen her back string; I think that’s it -... and take away some of Aggie’s hump.” - -From the sublime to the absurd, no doubt. But there are the puppets -hung up ... quietly and sternly gazing, each little character. - -No, they are not absurd, patiently, almost scornfully awaiting the -subtler grasp of some master hand to bring out the rare potentialities -sleeping within them. Awkward, silly dolls they may appear in a clumsy -hand, but even we amateurs who serve them faithfully sense more than -this in them. So, while we pull the strings and move these singular, -small creatures in measured gestures we feel that we are handling crude -but expressive symbols of large, fine things. - - -THE MAKING OF A MARIONETTE - -The puppets used in the Cleveland Playhouse are neither realistic, -humorous, nor clever. They are very simple, somewhat impressionistic -and quite adequate and effective for certain types of drama. They -appeal to the imagination of the spectator. Under favorable conditions -one forgets their diminutive size, their crude construction, even their -lack of soul. - -[Illustration: PATTERNS FOR THE MARIONETTE BODY DRAWN BY THE SCULPTOR, -MR. MAX KALISH] - -These patterns for the marionette body were drawn by the sculptor, -Mr. Max Kalish, especially for figures which were shown with little -clothing on. If the dolls are to be dressed it is better to make -separate upper and lower arms and legs, and to join them flexibly or -stiffly, as the action of the particular puppet requires. - -The material we have used is soft white woven stuff (stockings from the -ten-cent store!), which can be painted with tempera any color desired. -The patterns shown allow for a good seam. The front and back are alike, -also right and left limbs. Each marionette will need some adjusting -which one discovers as one works along. We have used a narrow tape to -join the arms and legs. - -The dolls are stuffed with soft rags or cotton. The limbs must be -stiffly filled out and firm, the chest also. The lower part of the -torso should be left softer. In the hands we insert cardboard to -stiffen the wrists. - -We use lead to weight the dolls. Small shot is good for filling up -the hands and feet. Larger pieces of lead are used for the torso, -lower arm and lower leg. No lead is put in the upper arm or upper -leg. The reasons for this will be discovered as soon as one practices -manipulating the figures. Care must be used to have the body properly -balanced and to have the feet heavy. - -The control is a simple piece of wood with five screw eyes to which the -strings are tied. More may be added to operate the feet or for other -purposes. When using these extremely crude little dolls, however, it -is best to depend upon simple means and a few gestures. The strings can -be of heavy black thread or fishing cord, the latter is not so apt to -become twisted. The strings are attached to the hands, the shoulders, -and the center of the back. The hand strings should be loose, the -others carefully measured to balance the doll evenly. - -In dressing the puppets one must allow plenty of room at the elbow, -knee, etc., for free action. We have kept our dolls very simple, the -faces and hands painted over, the hair of wool or cotton. - -Of the manipulating little can be said. There is no way to learn -except by getting up on the bridge and _doing_ it. Too much petty -gesticulation in these dolls is ineffective. It is better to hold the -gesture. Deliberation and patience are the chief requirements for a -successful operator, given a certain natural deftness of hand which is -primarily essential. - - - - -_Construction of a Marionette Stage_ - -BY RAYMOND O’NEIL - - -The marionette stage shown in the diagram has a proscenium opening -six feet long by four feet high and is meant for productions that use -marionettes from twelve to fourteen inches in height. It is a stage -that can be built even by amateurs both readily and cheaply. It is, -of course, necessary that some one who is familiar with the electric -wiring should be consulted in that part of the work. - -The stage is in two sections: the stage floor proper, to which is -attached the footlight box, and the proscenium arch, which is made to -be demounted and is held to the stage floor by right angle braces. The -stage floor itself is made of ⅞″ stock which may run from eight to -twelve inches in width. These boards are fastened to 2×4’s which run -from the front to the back of the stage. Three lengths of these 2×4’s -are all that are necessary. The box which holds the footlights may -be made of ½″ stock which should be just deep enough to hold 60-watt -lamps. Three circuits should be run into this box to provide for red, -blue and green lamps. The diagram shows only one lamp to each color -placed in the box, but to obtain the best results three or four lamps -should be used on each circuit. Small stage connectors which can be -obtained at any electrical dealer’s should be placed in the floor to -take care of the lines that run to No. 1 border, No. 2 border and to -the various other lamps such as small floods and small spotlights, -which will be found necessary for different effects. Both No. 1 and No. -2 borders should have three circuits running into them for red, blue -and green lamps, and there should be from four to six lamps on each -circuit. These borders may be placed in any position from the front -to the back of the stage that the setting may demand. A convenient -place from which to suspend them is from the operating platform which -is built over the complete length of the stage at such a height as to -clear any set that may be used. - -The proscenium arch should be built of ⅞″ stock, preferably of white -wood, because of the fine surface which it presents, if it is to be -decorated. The upright sections of the arch should be at least as -wide as those shown in the diagram, because they must carry the three -circuits for the proscenium lights, the belt that raises and lowers -the curtain, and also special lamps and appliances that will be found -necessary for various types of production. The diagram shows one green, -one blue, and one red outlet on the two sections on the top section of -the arch, but it will be found very convenient to have at least two -outlets for each of these colors on each of the three sections of the -arch. - -[Illustration: DIAGRAMS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF A MARIONETTE STAGE] - -The curtain can be the ordinary window shade. After removing the -spring, attach it to the face of the proscenium arch with ordinary -window shade fixtures. It should be wide enough to lap well over -each side of the arch, and the end which extends to the right of the -proscenium opening should be sufficiently long to carry a 2″ belt for -raising and lowering it. This belt can be of webbing and should be held -taut near the bottom of the proscenium arch by a small roller, as shown -in the diagram. It is necessary that this belt should be far enough to -the right of the proscenium arch opening so the hand which raises and -lowers the curtain will not be seen by the audience. - -The outlets for the various circuits on this arch may be either keyed -sockets or porcelain receptacles fastened to the face of the arch. - -Both for the sake of the better framing of the settings to be used on -this stage and for more effectively masking off the sides and the top -of the stage, it is a good plan to build all around the opening of the -proscenium arch at right angles to it an inner proscenium which may -run from 6 to 9 inches in width. This inner proscenium may be made of -half-inch stock. If the inner proscenium is used, it will be necessary -to hang the curtain sufficiently behind the face of the main proscenium -so that it will clear the inner proscenium as it rises and falls. - -All circuits should lead to a switch-board on which small knife -switches may be used. This switch-board should also carry several -rheostats or dimmers. The more dimmers that are used the greater will -be the possibilities in lighting. These dimmers can be made of special -high wattage resistance wire, which can be obtained or ordered from any -electrical dealer. In the making and wiring of the switch-board, it is, -of course, necessary to obtain either a professional electrician or at -least professional advice. - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - - - BADIN, ADOLPHE. Les Marionettes de Maurice Sand. L’Art, 1885. - - CAINE, WILLIAM. Guignols in the Luxembourg. Oxford and - Cambridge Review, 1910. - - CALTHROP, A. An Evening with the Marionette. The Theatre, 1884. - - CALVI, EMILIO. Marionettes of Rome. The Bellman, 1917. - - CHAMBERS, E. K. The Mediaeval Stage. Vol. II. - - COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE. The Tragical Comedy of Punch and Judy. - - CRAIG, GORDON. Articles in “The Mask” and “The Marionette.” - - CURTIS, ELNORA WHITMAN. Dramatic Instinct in Education. - - DELVAU, ALFRED. Le Théâtre Érotique Français sous le Bas-empire. - - DURANTY, LOUIS ÉMILE EDMOND. Théâtre des Marionettes du Jardin - des Tuileries. - - ENGEL, CARL. Johann Faust. - - FEISE, E. The German Puppet Theatre. - - FERRIGNI, P. Storia dei Burattini. The Mask. - - FEWKES, JESSE WALTER. A Theatrical Performance at Walpe. Hopi - Katchinas. - - FLÖGEL, KARL FRIEDERICH. Geschichte des Grotesk-Komischen. - - FRANCE, ANATOLE. On Life and Letters. II Series. - - GAYET, A. Oldest of Puppet Shows. Boston Transcript, Nov. 2, - 1904. - - GLEASON, A. W. Last Stand of the Marionettes. Collier’s Weekly, - 1909. - - HIRSCH, GILBERT. A Master of Marionettes. Harper’s Weekly, 1912. - - IRWIN, E. Where Players are Marionettes. The Craftsman, 1907. - - JACKSON, F. NEVILL. Toys of Other Days. - - JACOB, GEORG. Das Schattentheater in seiner Wanderung vom - Morgenland zum Abendland. - - JEROME, L. B. Marionettes of Little Sicily. New England - Magazine, 1910. - - JOLY, HENRI L. Random Notes on Dances, Masks, and the Early - Forms of Theatre in Japan. - - JONES, HENRY FESTING. Diversions in Sicily, Castellinaria, or - other Sicilian Diversions. - - KLEIST, HEINRICH VON. Über das Marionetten Theater. Berliner - Abendblätter. - - KOLLMAN, ARTHUR. Deutsche Puppenspieler. - - LEE, VERNON. Studies in the Eighteenth Century in Italy. - - LEMAÎTRE, JULES. Impressions du Théâtre. Vols. IV and VI. - - MACDOWALL, H. C. The Faust of the Marionettes. MacMillan’s - Magazine, 1901. - - MAGNIN, CHARLES. Histoire des Marionettes en Europe. - - MAINDRON, ERNEST. Marionettes et Guignols. - - MATTHEWS, BRANDER. A Book about the Theatre. Puppet plays, old - and new. The Bookman. - - MICHEL, WILHELM. Marionetten. Dekorative Kunst, 1910. - - MICK, HETTIE LOUISE. Puppets of the Chicago Little Theatre. - Theatre Arts Magazine, 1917. - - MIYAMORI, OSATARO. Tales from Old Japanese Drama. - - MODERWELL, HIRAM K. The Marionettes of Tony Sarg. Boston - Transcript, 1918. - - MOULTON, R. H. Teaching Dolls to act for Moving Pictures. - Illustrated World, 1917. - - NICHOLS, FRANCIS H. A Marionette Theatre in New York. Century - Magazine, 1892. - - PEIXOTTO, ERNEST C. Marionettes, and Puppet Shows, Past and - Present. Scribner’s Magazine, 1903. - - PETITE, J. M. Guignols et Marionettes. - - PISCHEL, RICHARD. The Home of the Puppet Play. (Translated by - Mildred C. Tawney.) - - POCCI, FRANZ VON. Lustiges Komödienbüchlein. - - POLLOCK, W. H. Punch and Judy. Saturday Review, 1900. - - REHM, HERMANN SIEGFRIED. Das Buch der Marionetten. - - SERRURIER, L. De Wajang Poerwa. - - SERVAES, FRANZ. Neue Theaterpuppen von R. Teschner. - - SPERANZA, GINO CHARLES. Marionette Theatre in New York. - Saturday Evening Post, 1916. - - STARR, LAURA B. The Doll Book. - - STEVENSON, ROBERT LOUIS. Essays. - - STODDARD, ANNE. The Renaissance of the Puppet Play. Century - Magazine, 1918. - - STORM, THEODOR. Pole Poppenspäler. - - STRUTT, JOSEPH. Sports and Pastimes of the People of England. - - SYMONS, H. An Apology for Puppets. Saturday Review, 1897. - - VASARI. Life of Il Cecca. - - VISAN, TANCRÈDE DE. Le Théâtre de Guignol. Nouvelle Revue, - 1909. - - WEED, INIS. Puppet Plays for Children. Century Magazine, 1916. - - WEST, HENRY SUYDAM. Puppet Warfare in France. Literary Digest, - 1915. - - WESTWOOD, J. O. Notice of Medieval Mimic Entertainment. - Archeological Journal, Vol. V. - - WITKOWSKI, GEORG. Introduction to Goethe’s Faust. - - WOLF, GEORG JACOB. Das Marionetten Theater Münchner Künstler. - Dekorative Kunst, 1911. - - YOUNG, S. G. Guignol. Lippincott’s Magazine, 1879. - - ZIEGLER, FRANCIS J. Puppets, Ancient and Modern. Harper’s - Magazine, 1897. - - * * * * * - - _All the Year_, 1894. Greek Puppet Show. From the Works of - Heron of Alexandria. - - _Current Opinion_, 1916. Paradox of the Puppet. - - _Current Opinion_, 1913. Return of the Marionettes. - - _Eclectic Magazine_, 1854. Puppets of All Nations. - - _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Vol. 17: 723. - - _Illustrated London News_, 1911. A Javanese Topeng Dalang. - - _Kind und Kunst._ Vol. III. Illustrations of Puppet Shows. - - _Scientific American_, 1902. Puppet Shows of the Paris - Exposition. - - _The Marionette._ Vol. I. - - _The Mask._ Vols. I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII. - - _The Sketch_, 1916. Illustration of the Gair Wilkinsons’ - Puppets. - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[1] Oh, ladies and gentlemen, patient sitters for portraits, what if -the puppets do reverse the usual order of things? Must you not envy -them? Think of having your portrait painted first, the portrait of -the _ideal you_ by an artist, and then having a complaisant Creator -fashioning your features into the nearest possible semblance of what -you might wish to be! Think of it. How delightful for you and how -simple for the portrait painter! - -[2] Only the principal male parts were allowed to speak Sanskrit -according to the conventions of Hindu dramaturgy. Lesser male and all -female parts were spoken in Prakrit. - -[3] There are many Italian names for the puppets. From _pupa_, meaning -doll, is derived _pupazzi_. From _fantoccia_, also signifying doll, we -have _fantoccini_, or little dolls. From _figura_, statue or figure, -comes _figurini_, statuettes or little figures. _Burattini_ comes -from _buratto_, cloth, being made mostly of cloth. _Marionette_ is a -modification of _Maria_, the Virgin, meaning little Maries from the -early statuettes in churches. Another explanation is found in the tenth -century Venetian _Festival of the Maries_. Upon one occasion Barbary -pirates carried off twelve Venetian maidens in their bridal procession. -The rape of the affianced Virgins was avenged by Venetian youths and -thereafter celebrated annually by a procession of richly dressed girls. -These later were replaced by elaborately gowned figures carried year by -year in the procession--hence Marionetti, little Maries. - -[4] The research of scholars has discovered in the Ulm versions of the -Faustspiel the suggestion for the _Prologue in Heaven_, although in the -puppet play it was held in the Inferno before Satan, not before Die -Padre. _Faust’s Monologue_ seems patterned after that in the Tübingen -play or that of Frankfurt am Main. The metaphysical debate between -Faust and Mephistopheles has its prototype in the Augsburg Faustus. The -tavern scene may have been drawn from a similar scene in the Cologne -play. Similarly the Phantasmagoria of Blocksberg and other arrangements -may be traced back to the old puppet show Faust. - -[5] Mrs. Browne, in any case, has not been discouraged. In 1918 she -instructed her class in the dramatic department of the University of -Utah in the principles and methods of marionette play, developing -possible puppeteers for the future. The next spring we find her -assisting Mr. Sarg in directing and staging his little puppet drama, -_The Rose and the Ring_. - -[6] At the same time a less successful and quite unfinished dress -rehearsal of another drama was performed; but this play on which the -manipulators had labored for many months was abandoned because of too -great difficulty in manipulating ... and because of other complications -which shall be nameless. - -[7] Mr. Alfred Kreymborg informs me that _Lima Beans_, one of his -amusing little poem-mimes, was played by puppets in Los Angeles, under -the direction of Miss Vivian Aiken. Mr. Kreymborg has written that he -considers “the only possible approach to a Synthetic stage is derived -from the marionette performance.” Of the puppeteers in Los Angeles, one -would like to hear more. - -[8] Mr. B. Pollock, 73 Hoxton St., London, writes: “I still publish -Juvenile Plays and also supply foot lights and tin slides which are -used with the theatre. I have now been carrying on the business for -forty-two years and my father-in-law about thirty-eight years before -me.” - -[9] Mr. G. Bernard Shaw has written of England: “The old professional -marionette showmen have been driven off the road by the picture -theatre. I am told that on the Continent where marionettes flourish -much more than here, they have suffered the same way from the -competition of the irresistible pictures. And I doubt whether they will -recover from the attack. I am afraid there is no use pretending that -they deserve to.” - -How consoling to turn to Mr. Gordon Craig, who has prophesied -optimistically in _The Marionette_: “Burattini are magical, whereas -Cinema is only mechanical. When a framework of a film machine is one -day found by curiosity-hunters in the ruins of a cellar and marvelled -over, the Burattini will still be alive and kicking.” - - - - -_Index_ - - - Ache, d’, Caran, designs silhouettes for _Chat Noir_, 98–99. - - Actors, used with marionettes, in Italian church festivals, 51; - in medieval French churches, 82; - in Germany in seventeenth century, 123–125. - - Aiken, Vivian, 183. - - _Alice in Wonderland_, in Chicago, 178. - - America, marionettes in, 163–191. - - American Indians, use of articulated images in ceremonials, 164–170. - - Ames, Winthrop, interest in marionettes, 184–185. - - Ananda, annual performance in temple, 30. - - Anatole, M., founder of the Vrai Guignol, 107–108. - - Antinoë, excavation of marionette theatre in, 16–17. - - Antiquity of puppets, 15. - - Antwerp, underground theatre in, 141–142. - - _Apotheosis of Bacchus_, representative Greek show, 19. - - _Apuleius_, quoted on Greek puppets, 18. - - Ariosto’s _Orlando Furioso_ in Sicily, 71–76. - - Aristophanes’ _The Birds_ in puppet performance, 105. - - Arlecchino, Italian puppet character, 22, 57. - - - Baden-Baden, puppet show of Ivo Pühony, 134. - - Bali, Wayang plays in, 28. - - Belgium, puppets in, 140–142. - - Bergerac, Cyrano de, duel with ape, 84. - - Berlin, production of _Doctor Sassafras_ and _Two Dancing Chinamen_, - 134–135. - - Bertrand, French showman, 86–87. - - _Birds_ of Aristophanes produced, 105. - - Black, John, 182. - - Blei, Franz, quoted on shadow play in Munich, 132; - on types of plays for puppets, 210–211. - - Bohemia, puppet plays in, 136. - - Boinet, Paul, operator on _La France_, 109. - - Bologna, theatres in, 69. - - _Bonifrates_, definition, 80. - - Boswell, quoted, 154. - - Bouchor, Maurice, presents _Noël ou le Mystère de la Nativité_, - 110–111. - - Brann, Paul, founder of theatre in Munich, 130. - - Briocci. _See_ Brioché. - - Brioché, Giovanni and Francesco, famous 17th century showmen, 84–86. - - Broemel, Carl, 183. - - Browne, Mrs. Maurice, founder of Chicago Little Theatre, 173–178. - - Buelens, Pieter, Belgian showman, 141. - - Buffano, Remo, 171. - - Bulley, Margaret, 157. - - _Burattini_, description, 54; - derivation of name, 55. - - Burma, development of puppet stage, 29–30. - - - Caine, W., quoted on Paris Guignols, 197–198. - - Calthrop, A., on modern Venetian show, 68. - - Cardboard plays, 192–194. - - Cascio, Salvatore, 172. - - Cassandrino, Italian puppet character, 58, 60. - - Catacombs, jointed images in tombs, 22. - - Catania, religious plays in, 77–78. - - Cecca, mediæval Italian mechanician, 51–52. - - Central Asia, two types of puppets, 30. - - Ceylon, early religious puppets, 33. - - Chambers, E. K., quoted on use of puppets in churches, 53. - - Champs Élysées, home of the Vrai Guignol, 107–108; - performances, 197–198. - - Character types. _See_ Types. - - Charles V of Spain, 78. - - _Chat Noir_, home of _Ombres Françaises_, 98–100. - - Chicago Little Theatre, successful performances in, 173–178. - - Children’s productions, 192–194. - - Chopin, life enacted by Cleveland puppets, 182. - - Christmas plays. _See_ Religious plays. - - Church festivals, in Italy, 51–52. _See also_ Passion play; Religious - plays. - - Cibber, Colley, writes for marionettes, 153. - - Cleveland, Italian performance in, 172; - Playhouse, puppet productions, 178–183; - performance of _The Rose and the Ring_, 200–201; - construction of dolls, 221–224. - - Clisby, George, 179. - - Cologne, home of Kölner Hanneschen Theatre, 128. - - Comic element in puppets, 203–205. - - _Commedia dell’Arte_, influence on Italian marionettes, 57–59. - - Constantine, Italian puppet character, 58. - - Construction of marionettes, 221–224. _See also_ Materials; Mechanism. - - Construction of marionette stage (O’Neil), 226–229. - - Craig, Gordon, experiments with puppets, 160–163; - _Game of Marionettes_, 192; - on educational importance of puppets, 202; - on actor and marionette, 208–209; - on future of puppet plays, 214. - - Crawley, London showman, 153. - - Cruikshank, pictures of Punch and Judy, 149. - - Cuccoli, Filippo, 69. - - Curtis, Elnora Whitman, on educational value of puppets, 201–202. - - - Dalang, definition, 27. - - _Dame aux Camellias (La)_, parody on by George Sand, 94. - - _Death of Tintagiles_, production in Cleveland, 179–180; - rehearsal of, 218–221. - - Deaves, Harry, retired American marionettist, 171. - - _Deluded Dragon_, produced at Chicago Little Theatre, 174–175. - - Denmark, puppets in literature, 140. - - Dickens, Charles, quoted on puppet shows in Genoa, 63–66. - - Dickson (pseud.), operator-magician, 101. - - Dieppe, annual _Mystery of the Assumption_, 82–83. - - _Docha_, definition, 113. - - _Doctor Sassafras_, artistic production in Berlin, 134–135. - - Dolls, mechanical, in vaudeville, 170–171. - - _Domèvre, The Seven Chasseurs of_, 111–112. - - Don Quixote and the puppets, 79. - - Dorothea, popular puppet character of Hamburg, 115. - - Drama, poetic, difficulties of production, 190–191. _See also_ Plays. - - Drama, varied repertory of Italian marionettes, 59–62; - classic, given at _Le Petit Théâtre de M. Henri Signoret_, 102–105. - - Duranty, Charles, attempt to uplift Guignol, 108. - - - Edgerton, Mrs. Seymour, 174. - - Educational value of puppets, 195, 201–202, 213–214. - - Egypt, possible birthplace of marionettes, 16. - - Ehlert, Ernest, gives shows in Berlin with Pühony’s puppets, 134–135; - on Pühony’s marionettes, 206. - - Elizabethan period, popularity of puppets, 150–154. - - England, puppets in, 143–163; - toy theatres in, 193–194. - - English literature full of allusions to puppets, 143–144. - - _Epopée_, produced at _Chat Noir_, 99. - - _Erotikon Theatron de la rue de la Santé_, sketch of, 94–96. - - Eudel, Paul, first publishes shadow plays, 98. - - Excavations reveal ancient puppets, 16–17. - - - Fairy plays, in the _Ombres Chinoises_ at Versailles, 97–98; - in the _Vrai Guignol_, 108; - in Munich, 129; - at Chicago Little Theatre, 174–178; - produced by Tony Sarg, 186–187, 189; - specially suited to puppets, 212. - - Fantoccini, description, 54; - derivation of name, 55. - - Fashion puppet, Lady Jane, 152. - - Faust, history of character, 116–122. - - Ferrigni, P., on introduction of figures into Christian churches, 23. - _See also_ Yorick. - - Fewkes, Dr. Jesse Walter, quoted on Indian ceremonial drama, 164–170. - - Fiano Theatre, Rome, 60–61. - - _Figurini_, derivation of name, 55. - - Flögel, quoted on English masques, 145–146; - preference for grotesque comedy, 203. - - France, Anatole, writes on the _Chat Noir_, 98; - quoted on _Le Petit Théâtre de M. Henri Signoret_, 103–105. - - France, puppets in, 81–112. - - Francisque, French showman introducing _opéra comique_, 88–89. - - French writers and musicians, show interest in puppets, 89–96. - - Fun in puppet-playing, 216–218. - - - Gautier, Théophile, on Turkish puppets, 37. - - Gayet, A., on puppet theatre excavated at Antinoë, 16–17. - - Gehring, Albert, 182. - - Geisselbrecht, Viennese showman, 121. - - Genoa, elaborate productions in, 62–66. - - Germany, puppet shows in, 113–136; - toy theatres in, 194–196. - - _Gidayu_, definition, 46. - - Gidayu, Takemoto, 16th century showman, 47–48. - - Glasheimer, Adolf, Berlin showman, 126. - - Gleason, Arthur, describes Italian show in New York, 172–173. - - Goethe, interest in puppets, 122; - maxim on stagecraft, 161; - quoted on his introduction to puppets, 195–196. - - Golden age of marionettes, 89. - - Goldoni, interest in puppets, 197. - - Goldsmith, Oliver, at marionette show, 154. - - Grasso, Maria, 172. - - Greece, articulated idols in, 17; - development of puppetry in, 18–21. - - “Green monster” of George Sand, 93. - - Grotesqueness in puppets, 203. - - Guignol, originated in Lyons, 107; - in Paris, 107–108; - on steamship _La France_, 109; - performances in Paris, 197–198. - - Gyp, presents _Tout à l’égout_, 110. - - - Hamburg, long popularity of puppets in, 115–116. - - Hanswurst, German puppet buffoon, 114. - - _Hauptundstaatsactionen_, description of, 124–125. - - Haydn, Joseph, composes music for marionettes, 127. - - Hazlitt, William, on Punch and Judy shows, 212–213. - - Hembauf, George, Belgian showman, 140. - - Heron of Alexandria, on early Greek puppet mechanism, 19. - - Hewelt, John (pseud.), operator-magician, 101. - - Holden, Thomas, operator-magician, 101; - marionettes, 156. - - Holland, puppets in, 140. - - Hopi Indians, Great Serpent drama, 165–170. - - Humor in puppet plays, 203–205. - - Hungary, gypsy puppeteers, 136. - - - Idols, animated, in Egypt, 16; - in Greece, 18; - in Rome, 21; - of ancient Gauls, 81. - _See also_ Images; Religious puppets; Statues. - - Ilkely Players, amateur English marionettists, 157. - - Images, jointed, found in Catacombs, 22; - religious, in Italy, 51–54; - articulated, used in mediæval French churches, 81–82; - in English churches, 145; - articulated, used by American Indians, 164–170. - _See also_ Idols; Religious puppets; Statues. - - India, antiquity of puppets, 15; - development of puppets in, 32–35. - - Israeli, d’, Isaac, writes of Punch, 146–147. - - Italy, evolution of puppetry, 22; - its development, 50–78; - Goldoni’s interest in puppets, 197; - puppets beloved by children, 199–200. - - - Japan, origin and development of puppet shows, 43–49. - - Java, shadow-plays, 24–28. - - Jinavaravamsa, P. C., on Indian puppets to-day, 34. - - Joly, Henri, on antiquity of Japanese shows, 43–44. - - Jones, Henry Festing, quoted on Sicilian shows, 71–77. - - Jonson, Ben, mentions puppets in many writings, 150–151. - - _Joruri_, Japanese epic play, 47. - - Juvenile drama, 193–194. - - - Karagheuz, Turkish puppet hero, 37. - - Kasperle, German puppet buffoon, 114; - in Faust play, 118–120. - - Ketschel, Persian comic puppet, 32. - - _Kobold_, definition, 113. - - _Kölner Hanneschen Theater_, 128. - - Kopecki, Bohemian showman, 136. - - Kreymborg, Alfred, 183. - - - La France, puppet theatre on, 109. - - La Grille’s _Théâtre des Pygmées_, 87–88. - - Laufer, Dr. Berthold, on marionettes in Egypt, 16. - - Laurent Broeders, Belgian showmen, 140–141. - - Lemaître, Jules, describes several productions, 110–111. - - Lewiss, Clunn, wandering English showman, 155–156. - - Lighting a puppet stage, 227–229. - - _Lima Beans_, given in Los Angeles, 183. - - Literary puppets in Paris, 109–111. - - Little Theatre, Chicago, history of, 173–178. - - London, Italian puppets in, 146; - present-day street puppets, 155. - - Los Angeles, puppets in, 183. - - Louis XIV, puppets a feature of marriage procession, 79; - gives special privileges to La Grille, 88. - - Lupi brothers, Italian showmen, 68–69; - description of performance for children, 199–200. - - Luschan, von, F., on puppet plays in Turkey, 38. - - Luther, Martin, denunciations against actors, 123. - - - Maccus, Roman buffoon, 21. - - Machieltje, Belgian showman, 140. - - MacLean, J. Arthur, on puppet performance at Ananda, 29–30. - - Maeterlinck’s _Death of Tintagiles_ produced in Cleveland, 179–180; - rehearsal of play, 218–221. - - Magnin, Charles, on Greek articulated idols, 18; - on Polichinelle, 205. - - _Mahabharata_, basis of Javanese plays, 26. - - Making a marionette, 221–224. _See also_ Materials; Mechanism. - - _Manik Muja_, basis of Javanese plays, 26. - - Margueritte, Paul, describes M. Signoret’s puppets, 207. - - Marionette, derivation of name, 55. - - Marionette Theatre of Munich Artists, 130–131. - - Masques, English, 145–146. - - Materials, used in ancient Indian puppets, 15; - in Javanese shadows, 25; - in Siamese shadows, 29; - in Cleveland Playhouse puppets, 179–180; - making a marionette to-day, 221–224. - - Matthews, Brander, on types of plays for puppets, 211–212. - - Maupassant, de, Guy, on Karagheuz plays, 39. - - Mechanical dolls in vaudeville, 170–171. - - Mechanism, of early Greek puppets, 18; - of Javanese shadows, 27; - of modern Indian puppets, 34; - of Turkish puppets, 38; - intricacy of in Japanese puppets, 45–46; - of Italian puppets, 54–55; - intricate, in modern Italian puppets, 70; - increasing intricacy in France, 90; - of _Le Petit Théâtre de M. Henri Signoret_, 102–103; - perfection in Tony Sarg’s puppets, 185–186; - simple, in Cleveland Playhouse dolls, 221–224. - - Michel, Wilhelm, on comic function of puppets, 204. - - Mick, Hettie Louise, writes on plays at Chicago Little Theatre, - 175–176. - - _Midsummer Night’s Dream_, production at Chicago Little Theatre, - 175–177. - - Molière’s _Monsieur Pourceaugnac_ in Madrid, 80. - - Monzayemon, Chikamatsu, Japanese playwright, 48. - - Mourguet, Laurent, originator of Guignol, 107. - - Munich, home of best German puppet shows, 128–133. - - Musée Grevin, theatre in, 109. - - - Nang, Siamese shadow play, 28–29. - - Nantes, revocation of Edict made into play, 86–87. - - Napoleon, death of, puppet play described by Dickens, 64–66. - - Nelson, Lord, imaginary dialogue with Punch, 149. - - Neuville, de, Lemercier, guiding spirit of _Erotikon Theatron_, 95–96; - interest in shadow plays, 98. - - New York, Italian show described by Arthur Gleason, 172–173; - puppets of Tony Sarg, 183–191. - - _Noël_, by Bouchor, 110–111. - - - Ogotai, legend of, 31. - - _Ombres Chinoises_, French shadow plays, 97. - - _Ombres Françaises_, at the _Chat Noir_, 98–100. - - _Ombre du cocher poète, L’_, first _opéra comique_, 88–89. - - O’Neil, Raymond, director Cleveland Playhouse, 178; - “Construction of Marionette Stage,” 226–229. - - _Opéra comique_, origin, 88–89. - - Operator-magicians, 101. - - Origin of puppets, theories of scholars, 15–16; - Persian legend, 31–32; - Turkish tales, 36; - Chinese legends, 40–41; - Japanese stories, 44. - - _Orlando Furioso_ in Sicily, 71–76. - - Osaka, puppet plays in, 48. - - Owen, Lillian, 174. - - - Pandji legends, basis of Javanese plays, 26. - - Pantalone, Italian puppet character, 58. - - Paris, first permanent puppet stage erected, 83; - George Sand’s theatre, 92–94; - _Erotikon Theatron de la rue de la Santé_, 94–96; - the _Chat Noir_, 98–100; - the operator-magicians, 101; - _Le Petit Théâtre de M. Henri Signoret_, 102–105; - the _Vrai Guignol_ in the Champs Élysées, 107–108; - literary puppets, 109–111; - marionette theatre at 1900 Exposition, 109; - Guignol performances, 197–198. - - Passion play, at Catania, 77–78. - - Pathological types of Turkish puppets, 37. - - Payne-Collier, arranges _Tragical Comedy of Punch and Judy_, 149. - - Persia, puppetry in, 31–32. - - _Petit Théâtre_ in Belgium, 141. - - Piccini, Italian showman in England, 146. - - Pierrot Guitariste, puppet by De Neuville, 96. - - Pinkethman, London showman, 153. - - Pischel, Prof. Richard, on origin of puppets, 15–16; - on puppet plays of India, 32–33. - - _Pivetta_, definition, 67. - - Playhouse, in Cleveland, gives puppet plays, 178–183; - construction of dolls, 221–224. - - Plays, suited to puppets, 210–214. - - Pocci, Graf, writer of fairy plays for puppets, 129; - _Three Wishes_ produced by Tony Sarg, 186–187. - - Poetic drama, difficulties of production, 190–191. - - Poland, religious plays in, 138–139; - Wyspianski’s interest in puppets, 196–197. - - Polichinelle, French puppet character, 83; - varied career, 106–107; - plea for, 203–215. - _See also_ Pulcinella; Punch; Punchinello. - - Pollock, B., publisher of juvenile plays, 193–194. - - Portugal, puppets in, 80. - - Powell, clever London motion maker, 151–152. - - _Prodigal Son_, popular play in Hamburg, 115. - - Producing a play, in Java, 26; - in India, 34; - in Turkey, 38; - in China, 41–43; - in Japan, 45–47; - French restrictions in 17th century, 87–88; - _Midsummer Night’s Dream_ in Chicago, 176–177; - behind the scenes, 216–224; - construction of stage, 226–229. - - Pühony, Ivo, puppet maker, 134; - his marionettes, Ernst Ehlert quoted, 206. - - Pulcinella, Italian puppet character, 22, 58. _See also_ - Polichinelle; Punch; Punchinello. - - Punch, origin of name, 146–147. _See also_ Polichinelle; Pulcinella. - - Punchinello, his prestige and prowess, 147–150. _See also_ - Polichinelle; Pulcinella; Punch. - - _Pupazzi_, derivation of name, 55. - - - Ramayana, basis of Javanese plays, 26; - basis of Siamese _Nang_, 28; - modern production of in India, 34. - - Rehearsal of play, 218–221. - - Rehm, R. S., on puppet show in Samarkand, 30–31; - on Chinese shadows, 42–43; - on Rivière’s shadow pantomimes, 99–100. - - Religious plays, at Catania, 77–78; - in Spain, 78; - revocation of Edict of Nantes produced, 86–87; - in Russia, 137–139; - in Poland, 138–139; - in England, 145; - specially suited to marionettes, 211. - _See also_ Passion play. - - Religious puppets, at Antinoë, 17; - in Greece, 18; - in Rome, 21; - in Catacombs, 22; - in Burma, 30; - in Ceylon, 33. - _See also_ Idols; Images; Statues. - - Repertory, varied in Italian puppet shows, 56–62; - varied in medieval Germany, 123–125; - in Munich theatres, 131–132. - - Restrictions on production, in 17th century France, 87–88. - - Rivière, Henri, makes pantomimes for _Chat Noir_, 99–100. - - Rome, ancient, articulated statues, 21; - Rome, modern, many puppet theatres in, 60–62. - - _Rose and the Ring_ produced by Tony Sarg, 189–190; - account of Cleveland performance, 200–201. - - Russia, puppet plays in, 137–139. - - - Saint-Genois, de, Alfred and Charles, 101. - - Saint Germain Fair, puppet shows at, 87. - - Saint Laurent Fair, puppet shows at, 87. - - _Salome_, in puppet performance, 211–212. - - Samarkand, performance of _Tschadar Chajal_ in, 30–31. - - Sand, George, establishes _Théâtre des Amis_, 92–94. - - Sanskrit, restriction in use of, 33. - - Sarg, Tony, experiments with marionettes in London and New York, - 184–191; - takes _The Rose and the Ring_ to Cleveland, 200–201. - - Scala, Flaminio, 17th century director, 59. - - Scapino, Italian puppet character, 58. - - Scaramuccia, Italian puppet character, 58. - - Sceaux, puppet stage in chateau, 89–90. - - Schmidt, “Papa,” beloved Munich showman, 129–130; - appreciation of work, 195. - - Schutz and Dreher, showman of Berlin, 121. - - Seneca, death of, shown in Valencia, 80. - - Seraphin, Dominique, producer of shadow plays, 97. - - Shadow plays, in France, 96–100; - in Munich, 132. - - “Shadows,” Javanese, how made, 25; - of Siamese _Nang_, 28–29; - Turkish, origin and excellence of, 36–39; - Chinese development, 39–43. - - _Shadowy Waters_ produced by Cleveland puppets, 182. - - Shakespeare, _Tempest_ produced by M. Signoret, 103–104; - allusions to puppet shows, 143–144; - _Midsummer Night’s Dream_ in Chicago, 175–177. - - Shaw, G. Bernard, on marionettes and acting, 209; - on future of puppet shows, 214. - - Siam, unusual shadows of the _Nang_, 28–29. - - Sicily, great popularity of marionettes in, 70–78. - - _Signoret, Henri, le Petit Théâtre de_, 102–103; - puppets described by Paul Margueritte, 207–208. - - Simmonds, William, artist and amateur puppeteer, 158–160. - - Simplification of puppets by Gordon Craig, 162–163. - - Socrates and the showman, 20. - - Spain, history of puppets in, 78–80. - - _Spectator_, frequent mention of puppets, 151–152. - - Stage, construction of (O’Neil), 226–229. - - Statues, articulated, in Rome, 21. _See also_ Idols; Images; - Religious puppets. - - Stentorella, Italian puppet character, 58. - - Stevenson’s _A Penny Plain and Twopence Colored_, quoted, 193–194. - - _Sthapaka_, definition, 16. - - Stoddard, Anne, describes production of _Three Wishes_, 186–187. - - _Sutradhara_, definition, 16. - - Symons, Arthur, on art of marionette, 206–207. - - - Tattermann, definition, 113. - - Technique of production. _See_ Producing a play. - - _Tempest_, production described by Anatole France, 103–104. - - _Temptation of St. Anthony_, by Rivière, 99–100. - - Teoli, Italian marionettist, 61. - - Teschner, Richard, marionette maker in Vienna, 133. - - Thackeray’s _Rose and the Ring_ produced, 189–190, 200–201. - - Théatines, order of monks, give spectacles, 83. - - _Théâtre des amis_, history of, 92–94. - - _Three Wishes_, produced by Tony Sarg, 186–187. - - _Tintagiles._ _See_ _Death of Tintagiles_. - - _Titeres_, Spanish puppets, 79. - - _Tocha_, definition, 113. - - _Tokkenspiel_, early subject matter, 114. - - Tokyo, puppet plays in, 48. - - Tombs, Egyptian, puppets found in, 16; - jointed images found in Catacombs, 22. - - Toone, Belgian showman, 140. - - Torino, famous theatre in, 68–69; - description of performance at Lupi theatre, 199–200. - - Torriani, Giovanni, inventor, 78. - - Toy theatres, 192–197. - - _Tragedy of Nauplius_, representative Greek show, 19–20. - - Travelling showmen, in Greece, 20; - in Rome, 21; - in China, 41; - in Spain, 79; - in Russia, 137–138; - in London and rural England, 155. - - Treat, Grace, 179. - - _Tschadar Chajal_, puppet play of Turkestan, 30–31. - - Turkestan, two types of puppets, 30. - - Turkey, legends of origin of puppets, 36. - - Types of puppets, on early Roman stage, 21; - in Turkey, 37; - in Italy, 54, 57–58. - - - Van Volkenburg, Ellen, 174. - - Variety bills follow Thirty Years’ War in Germany, 123–125. - - Vasari, quoted, on church spectacles, 51–52. - - Venice, medieval puppets in, 67. - - Vidusaka, Indian puppet buffoon, 34. - - Vienna, the dolls of Richard Teschner, 133. - - Voltaire’s interest in puppets, 90. - - - War zone, French puppets in, 111–112. - - _Wayang_ dramas, Javanese shadow plays, 25–28. - - Wheeler, Katherine, 174. - - Wilkinsons, amateur English marionettists, 156–157. - - Williamson, Mrs. Hamilton, 187–188. - - Winter, Christoph, Cologne showman, 128. - - Woltje, Belgian puppet buffoon, 140. - - Writing for puppets, 217–218. - - Wundt, Prof., on comic function of puppets, 203. - - Wyspianski, Stanislaw, early plays with puppets, 196–197. - - - Yeats’ _Shadowy Waters_ produced in Cleveland, 182. - - Yeddo, 18th century centre for puppet drama, 48. - - Yorick (pseud.), on puppets in Egypt, 16; - on growth of Greek puppetry, 18. - _See also_ Ferrigni. - - - Zelenko, Alexander, quoted on modern Russian puppets, 137–138. - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - -Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a -predominant preference was found in the original book; otherwise they -were not changed. - -Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced quotation -marks were remedied when the change was obvious, and otherwise left -unbalanced. - -Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs -and outside quotations. 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padding-left: 0;} - li {list-style-type: none; padding-left: 1em; text-indent: -1.5em;} - - .blockquot {margin: 1.5em 3% 1.5em 3%;} - .poetry-container {text-align: center;} - .poetry {display: block; text-align: left; margin-left: 10%;} - .poetry .attrib {text-align: right; margin-right: 0;} - .poetry .stanza {page-break-inside: avoid;} - - .hang {margin: .5em 3% 2em 3%;} - - .transnote { - page-break-inside: avoid; - margin-left: 2%; - margin-right: 2%; - margin-top: 1em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - padding: .5em; - } - - .index {margin-left: 0;} - - .covernote {visibility: visible; display: block; text-align: center;} -} - - </style> - </head> - -<body> - -<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Book of Marionettes, by Helen Haiman Joseph</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: A Book of Marionettes</p> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Helen Haiman Joseph</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: September 27, 2021 [eBook #66391]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: deaurider, Charlie Howard, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A BOOK OF MARIONETTES ***</div> - -<div class="transnote"> -<p class="center larger">Transcriber’s Note</p> - -<p>Larger versions of most illustrations may be seen by right-clicking them -and selecting an option to view them separately, or by double-tapping and/or -stretching them.</p> - -<p class="covernote">Cover created by Transcriber -and placed into the Public Domain.</p> - -<p>Other <a href="#Transcribers_Notes">Notes</a> will be found after the Index.</p> -</div> - -<div id="i_001" class="newpage figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> - <img src="images/i_001.jpg" width="3011" height="1990" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Dryad and Two Fauns</span></p> - -<p>[Puppets of Mr. William Simmonds, London]</p></div></div> - -<div class="newpage p2 center larger vspace wspace"> - -<h1> -<span class="smcap">A Book</span> <i>of</i> <span class="smcap">Marionettes</span></h1> - -<p class="p2"><i>by</i><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Helen Haiman Joseph</span></p> - -<div id="i_002" class="figcenter tp" style="max-width: 4em;"> - <img src="images/i_002.png" width="316" height="498" alt="" /></div> - -<p><i>New York</i> · <span class="smcap">B. W. Huebsch</span> · <i>Mcmxx</i> -</p> - -<hr /> - -<p class="newpage p4 xsmall"> -COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY<br /> -B. W. HUEBSCH -</p> - -<hr /> - -<p class="newpage p4"> -<i>To my Father</i><br /> - -<span class="smcap larger">Elias Haiman</span><br /> - -<i>With pride and love for the brave simplicity<br /> -and gentle nobility of his life</i> -</p> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Note"><i>Note</i></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">The</span> story of the marionette is endless, in fact it has -neither beginning nor end. The marionette has been -everywhere and is everywhere. One cannot write of -the puppets without saying more than one had intended -and less than one desired: there is such a -piquant insistency in them. The purpose of this -book is altogether modest, but the length of it has -grown to be presumptuous. As to its merit, that must -be found in the subject matter and in the sources -from which the material was gathered. If this volume -is but a sign-post pointing the way to better historians -and friends of the puppets and through them on to -more puppet play it will have proven merit enough.</p> - -<p>The bibliography appended is a far from complete -list of puppet literature. It includes, however, the -most important works of modern times upon marionettes -and much comment, besides, that is casual or -curious or close at hand.</p> - -<p>The author is under obligation to those friendly -individuals who generously gave of their time and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span> -interest and whose suggestions, explanations and -kind assistance have made possible this publication. -There are many who have been gracious and helpful, -among them particularly Mrs. Maurice Browne, Mr. -Michael Carmichael Carr, Professor A. K. Coomaraswamy, -Mr. Stewart Culin, Dr. Jesse Walter Fewkes, -Mr. Henry Festing Jones, Dr. Berthold Laufer, Mr. -Richard Laukhuff, Mr. J. Arthur MacLean, Professor -Brander Matthews, Dr. Ida Trent O’Neil, Mr. Raymond -O’Neil, Mr. Alfred Powell, Dr. R. Meyer Riefstahl, -Mr. Tony Sarg, and Mr. G. Bernard Shaw.</p> - -<p>Above all, however, acknowledgment is due to the -steady encouragement and interested criticism of Ernest -Joseph. Although he did not live to see the finished -volume, his stimulating buoyancy and excellent judgment -constantly inspired the composition of this -simple account of puppets.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Contents"><i>Contents</i></h2> -</div> - -<table id="toc" class="larger" summary="Contents"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">How I Came to Write a Book on Puppets,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_9">9</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Puppets of Antiquity,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_14">14</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Oriental Puppets,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_24">24</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Puppets of Italy and Southern Europe,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_50">50</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Puppets in France,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_81">81</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Puppet Shows of Germany and of other Continental Countries,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_113">113</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Puppetry in England,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_143">143</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Marionettes in America,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_164">164</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Toy Theatres and Puppet Plays for Children,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_192">192</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">A Plea for Polichinelle,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_203">203</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Behind the Scenes,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_216">216</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Construction of a Marionette Stage,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_225">225</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Bibliography,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_229">229</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Index,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_233">233</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Illustrations"><i>Illustrations</i></h2> -</div> - -<table id="loi" summary="Illustrations"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Shadow Figures Discovered in Egypt by Dr. Paul Kahle</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><i>End-papers</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Dryad and Two Fauns</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_001"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Jointed Dolls or Puppets</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_018">18</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Siamese Shadows</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_022">22</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Javanese Wayang Figures</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_024">24</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Javanese Rounded Marionettes</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_026">26</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Wayang Figures from the Island of Bali</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_028">28</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Burmese Puppets</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_030">30</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Cingalese Puppets</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_032">32</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">East Indian Puppets</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_034">34</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Turkish Shadow Figure of Karagheuz</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_036">36</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Chinese Puppets</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_038">38</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Chinese Shadow-play Figures</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_040">40</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Chinese Shadow-play Figures</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_042">42</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Old Japanese Puppet Heads</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_044">44</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Japanese Print</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_048">48</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Wooden Italian Puppet</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_052">52</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Mediæval Marionettes</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_054">54</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Italian Figures used for Christmas Crib</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_056">56</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Pulcinella in Italy</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_058">58</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Italian Puppet Ballet</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_062">62</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Wooden Spanish Puppets</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_078">78</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">George Sand’s Puppet Theatre at Nohant</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_092">92</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Puppets of George Sand’s Theatre at Nohant</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_094">94</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Puppets of Lemercier de Neuville</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_096">96</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Tableau (Chat Noir)</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_098">98</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Guignol and Gnafron</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_110">110</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Marionette Theatre of Munich Artists</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_130">130</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Marionettes of Richard Teschner, Vienna</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_134">134</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Bohemian Puppets</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_136">136</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Punch Hangs the Hangman</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_148">148</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Old English Puppets</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_156">156</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Gair Wilkinson and Assistant at Work on the Bridge of their Puppet Theatre</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_158">158</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Marionettes Employed in Ceremonial Drama of the American Indians</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_166">166</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Italian Marionette Show</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_172">172</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Marionettes at the Chicago Little Theatre</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_174">174</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Death of Chopin</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_178">178</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Shadowy Waters</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_182">182</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Tony Sarg’s Marionettes behind the Scenes</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_184">184</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Trick Puppet</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_188">188</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">German Puppet Show for Children</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_196">196</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">English Toy Theatre</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_200">200</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Patterns for the Marionette Body Drawn by Max Kalish</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_222">222</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Diagrams for the Construction of a Marionette Stage</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_226">226</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_9" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="How_I_Came_to_Write_a_Book"><i>How I Came to Write a Book -on Puppets</i></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">We</span> were rehearsing laboriously. Some of our -marionettes were finished; the rest we borrowed from -the cast of <i>Tintagiles</i>. The effect was curious with -Belangere and Ygraine acting as sentinels in their blue -and green gowns.</p> - -<p>The play we were rehearsing was eventually given -up. For various reasons the little puppets about to -be presented to you never displayed themselves -before the public. Undeniable facts, but for my -story quite irrelevant and inconsequential.</p> - -<p>It was late and everyone else in the house had -retired. I sat up all alone, diligently sewing. Alone? -Grouped around me in various stages of completion -sat the miniature members of the cast. I worked -quietly, much absorbed. Off in the corner there was -a clock, ticking.</p> - -<p>The Chief Prophet of the Stars lay in my hands, -impressive by virtue of his flowing white beard, even -without the high purple hat. I rested a moment, -straightening a weary back. One long white arm of -his was pointing at me. He said: “Do not pity yourself. -Despite your backache you are having a lovely -time.” I am sure he said this. I did not answer. -How could I? It was true. Near by was the black-robed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> -Priest with the auburn beard. “Even so,” he -agreed, “her fingers are happy: her tongue may not -complain!”</p> - -<p>“It is an honor to be permitted to dress us,” -pompously proclaimed the Chamberlain. He was -perched upon the mantel. His queer, stiff beard -having been but recently shellacked was now in the -process of drying. He was a balloon shaped, striking -fellow arrayed in orange.</p> - -<p>“She must finish my high hat to-night,” said the -Chief Prophet of the Stars, “and see that my whiskers -are decently trimmed. Then she may retire.”</p> - -<p>“No,” whimpered one of the spotty Spies from the -floor, “she promised to brighten my spots for tomorrow.” -Then, in a loud aside, “She will probably get -my strings twisted while painting the spots. Serve -her right. She was too impatient to show me off -yesterday. One should finish the <i>spots first</i>, say I.” -Ungrateful wretch, to be grumbling! But he crawled -and crept along the stage so wonderfully I hadn’t the -heart to chide him.</p> - -<p>I sat the Chief Prophet upon my knee, crossly. -His long arm protested stiffly. I pulled the high hat -down over his ominous brows. “It isn’t right,” he -said. It wasn’t. I took it off. How trying it must -be for him to have so clumsy a handmaiden. “Don’t -pin it!” he commanded. “Rip it and sew it neatly.” -I picked up the scissors and ripped. Then I sewed on -in silence.</p> - -<p>The marionettes, however, had many things to say.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span></p> - -<p>“She is not as thorough as might be desired,” -stated the Chamberlain. “Indeed, I fear that in the -manipulating also she is only an amateur with no -profound knowledge of the craft. Here am I, still -dissatisfied with the bow I make to His Majesty. -I know just how I should bow. Who would question -my knowledge of etiquette? I shall not be content -with anything but <i>the correct</i> bow, dignified and, in -its way, imposing as the nod of a King. It must be -just so and not otherwise but <i>how will she do it</i>? She -has tried front strings and back strings and innumerable -petty expedients. She calls herself a puppeteer: -let her devise a way and that shortly! I scorn to -display vexation but it perturbs me not a little as -the moment approaches for me to bow and the bow, -ahem ... refuses to function fittingly.”</p> - -<p>“Try on the hat and do not be diverted by such details!” -commands the Chief Prophet. I sit him up seriously. -“It will do,” he states; “trim my whiskers.” -I trim them, oh, very carefully. They hang augustly -down over his black stole. I gaze at him, entranced, -and at his portrait painted by a young artist. “I -think you have caught the spirit of the ideal,” he -admitted. “Put me on the mantel.” I obey him.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span></p> - -<p>Next I take up the Spy. He writhes in my hand. -I ply the paint brush, more yellow paint on the yellow -spots. True to prediction, his strings become -entangled. “I told you so,” hissed the green and -yellow Spy. “My spots will dry over night. You -must arrange my strings tomorrow.” I set him beside -the Chief Prophet where he slinks down and -subsides. “Hee, hee, hee,” snickers the other Spy -who has cerise spots of silk on lavender. He is -crouched on the floor in a heap. I raise him and -place him beside his fellow. He reaches out a long -brown arm and pokes him slyly.</p> - -<p>I collect the other dolls. Very crude little rag -affairs they seem in their unfinished condition. The -naked, white body of the King I lay beside that of -the Sentinel. One could scarcely tell them apart -except that the feet of the King are already encased -in little scarlet boots which are long and pointed and -curled at the tips. The King is a stiff, unbending -person. But the other is a well built fellow fashioned -with exceeding care to stand and walk and sit superbly -in a few clothes holding a long red spear and a shield. -Into the box I lay them, white bodies, blank faces, -limber arms and legs. “I shall have to shop again for -the King’s purple robe. What a bore!” I think, as I -dump disjointed priests, children and servants, all on -top of His Majesty, and close the cover of the tin box.</p> - -<p>“You are insolent,” said the Chief Prophet of the -Stars. “Well, yes, perhaps, oh mighty marionette,” -I admit, “but I am sleepy. Goodnight.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span></p> - -<p>“Fatigue is human,” remarked the black-robed -Priest. “We marionettes transcend such frailty.”</p> - -<p>“We are immortal!!!” boomed forth the Chief -Prophet. “So saith Anatole France, also Charles -Magnin, also others.”</p> - -<p>“Hist,” whispered one of the Spies, “it is written -in <i>The Mask</i>....” And, as I moved quietly about -in the adjoining room I heard them discussing many -matters, concerning themselves, of course. There -was talk of the ancient Indian Ramajana, of the -Joruri plays of Japan, of bleeding Saints and nodding -Madonnas in Mediaeval churches. The conversation -veered to Pulcinella, his kinship with Kasper and -Karagheuz and with Punch across the channel. There -were murmurings of the names of Goethe, Voltaire, -even Shakespeare to say nothing of Bernard Shaw, -Maeterlinck, Hoffmansthal, Schnitzler, all from the -dolls on the mantel and much, much more besides. -Some things I overheard distinctly before I fell asleep: -some I may have dreamed. All that I could recall -I have put into a little book.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_14" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Puppets_of_Antiquity"><i>Puppets of Antiquity</i></h2> -</div> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indentq">“I wish to discant on the marionette.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">One needs a keen taste for it and also a little veneration.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The marionette is august; it issues from a sanctuary....”</div> - </div> - <div class="attrib"><span class="smcap">Anatole France</span></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">Perhaps</span> the most impressive approach to the marionettes -is through the trodden avenue of history. If -we travel from distant antiquity where the first articulated -idols were manipulated by ingenious, hidden -devices in the vast temples of India and Egypt, if -we follow the footprints of the puppets through classic -centuries of Greece and Rome and trace them even -in the dark ages of early Christianity whence they -emerged to wander all over mediaeval Europe, in -the cathedrals, along the highways, in the market -places and at the courts of kings, we may have more -understanding and respect for the quaint little creatures -we find exhibited crudely in the old, popular -manner on the street corner or presented, consciously -naïve and precious, upon the art stage of an enthusiastic -younger generation. For the marionette has -a history. No human race can boast a longer or -more varied, replete with such high dignities and -shocking indignities, romantic adventure and humble -routine, triumphs, decadences, revivals. No human<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> -race has explored so many curious corners of the -earth, adapted itself to the characteristic tastes of -such diverse peoples and, nevertheless, retained its -essential, individual traits through ages of changing -environment and ideals.</p> - -<p>The origin of the puppet is still somewhat of a -mystery, dating back, as it undoubtedly does, to the -earliest stages of the very oldest civilizations. Scholars -differ as to the birthplace and ancestry. Professor -Richard Pischel, who has made an exhaustive -study of this phase of the subject, believes that the -puppet came into being along with fairy tales on the -banks of the Ganges, “in the old wonderland of India.” -The antiquity of the Indian marionette, indeed, is -attested by the very legends of the national deities. -It was the god Siva who fell in love with the beautiful -puppet of his wife Parvati. The most ancient marionettes -were made of wool, wood, buffalo horn and ivory; -they seem to have been popular with adults as well as -with children. In an old, old collection of Indian -tales, there is an account of a basketful of marvellous -wooden dolls presented by the daughter of -a celebrated mechanician to a princess. One of -these could be made to fly through the air by -pressing a wooden peg, another to dance, another to -talk! Large talking puppets were even introduced -upon the stage with living actors. An old Sanskrit -drama has been found in which they took part. But -in India real puppet shows, themselves, seem to -have antedated the regular drama, or so we may infer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span> -from the names given to the director of the actors, -which is <i>Sutradhara</i> (Holder of the Strings) and to the -stage manager, who is called <i>Sthapaka</i> (Setter up). -The implication naturally is that these two important -functionaries of the oldest Indian drama took their -titles from the even more ancient and previously -established puppet plays.</p> - -<p>There are authorities, however, who consider Egypt -the original birthplace of the marionette, among these -<i>Yorick</i> (P. Ferrigni), whose vivid history of puppets -is accessible in various issues of <i>The Mask</i>. Yorick -claims that the marionette originated somehow with -the aborigines of the Nile and that before the days -of Manete who founded Memphis, before the Pharaohs, -great idols moved their hands and opened their mouths, -inspiring worshipful terror in the hearts of the beholders. -Dr. Berthold Laufer corroborates this opinion. -He maintains that marionettes first appeared in Egypt -and Greece, and spread from there to all countries -of Asia. The tombs of ancient Thebes and Memphis -have yielded up many small painted puppets of ivory -and wood, whose limbs can be moved by pulling a -string. These are figures of beasts as well as of men -and they may have been toys. Indeed, it is often -claimed that puppets are descended, not from images -of the gods, but from “the first doll that was ever -put into the hands of a child.”</p> - -<p>The <i>Boston Transcript</i>, in 1904, published a report -of an article by A. Gayet in <i>La Revue</i> which gives a -minute description of a marionette theatre excavated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span> -at Antinoë. There, in the tomb of Khelmis, singer -of Osiris, archaeologists have unearthed a little Nile -galley or barge of wood with a cabin in the centre and -two ivory doors that open to reveal a stage. A rod -across the front of this stage is supported by two uprights -and from this rod light wires were found still -hanging. Other indications leave little doubt that this -miniature theatre was used in a religious rite, possibly -on the anniversary of the death of the god Osiris, whose -father was Ra, the sun, as a sort of passion play performed -by puppets before an audience of the initiated. -Mortuary paintings show us the ritual and tell us the -story. As everything excavated at this site is reported -to be of the Roman or Coptic period this is probably -the oldest marionette theatre ever discovered!</p> - -<p>The Chinese puppets and still older <i>shadows</i> of the -land as well as of other Oriental countries are all of -considerable antiquity. In truth, it matters little -whence came the first of the puppets, from India, -Egypt or from China, nor how descended, from the -idols of priests or the playthings of children. It is -enough to know of their indisputably ancient lineage -and the honorable position granted them in the legends -of gods and heroes. Whatever remains uncertain or -fantastic in the theories of their origin can only add -to the aura of romance surrounding this imperishable -race of fragile beings.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>In the mythology of the Greeks one may find mention -of the august ancestors of the marionettes. Passages<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span> -in the Iliad describe the marvellous golden tripods -fashioned by Vulcan which moved of themselves. -A host of great articulated idols were to be found in -the temples all over Greece. These were moved, -Charles Magnin avers, by various devices such as -quicksilver, leadstone, springs, etc. There was Jupiter -Ammon, borne upon the shoulders of the priests, -who indicated with his head the direction he wished -to travel. There were the Apollo of Heliopolis, the -Theban Venus, the statues created by Daedalus and -many others, all manipulated by priests from within -the hollow bodies.</p> - -<div id="i_018" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_022.jpg" width="2014" height="2986" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Jointed Dolls or Puppets</span></p> - -<p>Terra-cotta, probably Attic</p> - -<p>[Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]</p></div></div> - -<p>But aside from these inspiring deities, in fact right -along with them, Greek puppetry grew up and flourished. -Yorick writes, “Greece from remotest times -of which any accounts have come down to us had -marionette theatres in the public places of all the -most populated cities. She had famous showmen whose -names, recorded on the pages of the most illustrious -writers, have triumphed over death and oblivion. -She had her ‘balletti’ and pantomimes exclusively -conceived and preordained for the play of ‘pupazzi,’ -etc.” Eminent mathematicians interested themselves -in perfecting the mechanism of the dolls until, -as Apuleius wrote, “Those who direct the movement -of the little wooden figures have nothing else to do -but to pull the string of the member they wish to -set in motion and immediately the head bends, the -eyes turn, the hands lend themselves to any action -and the elegant little person moves and acts as though<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> -it were alive.” A pleasant hyperbole of Apuleius -perhaps, but some of us credulously prefer to have -faith in it.</p> - -<p>In the writings of the celebrated Heron of Alexandria, -living two centuries before Christ, one can -find a very minute description of a puppet show for -which he planned the ingenious mechanism. He explains -that there were two kinds of automata, first -those acting on a movable stage which itself advanced -and retreated at the end of the acts and second, those -performing on a stationary stage divided into acts -by a change of scene. The <i>Apotheosis of Bacchus</i> -was of the first type, the action presented within a -miniature temple wherein stood the statue of the god -with dancing bacchantes circling around, fountains -jetting forth milk, garlands of flowers, sounding -cymbals, all accomplished by a mechanism of weights -and cords. It was an extremely elaborate affair. -Of the second type of puppet show Heron cites as -example <i>The Tragedy of Nauplius</i>, the mechanism -for which was invented by a contemporary engineer, -Philo of Byzantium. There were five scenes disclosed, -one after the other, by doors which opened -and closed: first, the seashore, with workmen constructing -the ships, hammering, sawing, etc.; second, -the coast with the Greeks dragging their ships to -the water; third, sky and sea, with the ships sailing -over the waters which begin to grow rough and stormy; -fourth, the coast of Euboë, Nauplius brandishing a -torch on the rocks and shoals whither the Greek<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span> -vessels steer and are shattered (Athene stands behind -Nauplius, who is the instrument of her vengeance); -fifth, the wreck of the ships, Ajax struggling -and drowning in the waves, Athene appearing -in a thunder clap! This play was probably taken -from episodes of the Homeric legend and, although -Heron does not so state, the action of the puppets -was most likely accompanied by a recital of the poem -upon which the drama was founded.</p> - -<p>Xenophon describes still another type of show, a -banquet at which the host brought in a Syracusan -juggler to amuse the guests with his dancing marionettes. -The best showmen in Greece seem to have -been Sicilians. These peripatetic showmen went from -town to town with their figures in a box. The plays -they presented were generally keen, strong satires -on the foibles of human nature, the vices of the times, -the prominent or pompous persons of the day, parodies -on popular dramas or schools of philosophy. -They were a favorite diversion of the masses and of -cultured people as well. Even Socrates is reported -to have bandied words with a Sicilian showman, -asking him how he made a living in his profession. -To which the showman made reply: “The folly of -men is an inexhaustible fund of riches and I am always -sure of filling my purse by moving a few pieces -of wood.” Eventually the puppets usurped a place -upon the classic stage itself, and it is reported that a -puppet player, Potheinus, had a small stage specially -erected for his marionettes on the thymele of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> -great theatre of Dionysius at Athens where Euripedes’ -plays had been presented.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>The Romans borrowed marionette traditions from -the Greeks as they did many other art forms. There -were large articulated statues of the gods and emperors -in Rome. At Praeneste the celebrated group -of the infants of Jupiter and Juno seated upon the -knees of Fortune appears to have been of this sort; -the nurse seems to have been movable. Livy describes -a banquet celebration and the terror of the -people and of the Senate upon hearing that the gods -averted their heads from the dishes presented them. -Ovid, also, gives an account of the startling effect -produced upon the beholders when the statue of -Servus Tullius moved. As in Greece, there were -special puppet performances given in private homes -as well as the wandering shows along the highways. -The latter were popular with common people, with -poets, philosophers and emperors. Marcus Aurelius -wrote about them, Horace and Persius mentioned -them.</p> - -<p>The personages of the Roman puppet stage generally -represented obvious and amusing types of humanity; -their repertoire consisted chiefly of bold -satire and parodies on popular dramas. The conventionalized -characters of Roman marionette theatres -were not at all dissimilar from the later heroes -of the Italian <i>fantoccini</i>. A bronze portrait of Maccus, -the Roman buffoon, which was unearthed in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span> -1727, might serve almost as a statue of Pulcinella, -hooked nose, nut-cracker chin, hunchback and all. -In fact it is thought that these Roman mimes or -<i>sanni</i> have lived on in the Italian <i>burattini</i>, and in -the characters of the Commedia dell’ Arte. This -theory has been criticized by some who feel that the -<i>personaggi</i> such as Arlecchino and Pulcinella grew -out of the mannerisms and characteristics of the -Italians, just as the puppet buffoons of Rome were -true offspring of the Roman people, and that any -resemblances between them may be laid at the door -of common frailties existing in humanity of all ages -and ever fit subject for the satirical play of puppets. -Nevertheless it is not impossible to believe that -through the curiously confused period in Italy when -Pagan culture was giving way to Christianity, when -heathen ideals were half perishing, half persisting, -something of the old was embodied in, assimilated -with the new. And so it may have happened with -the marionettes, Maccus emerging with much of -Pulcinella, Citeria appearing as Columbine. We have -Pappus Bruccus and Casnar, the parasite, the glutton, -the fool, passed on somehow.</p> - -<div id="i_022" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> - <img src="images/i_028.jpg" width="3010" height="2006" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Siamese Shadows</span></p> - -<p>Belonging to the collection in the Smithsonian Institution, U. S. National Museum. This collection was -presented by the King of Siam in 1876</p></div></div> - -<p>But not alone this. Excavators in the Catacombs -have discovered small jointed puppets of ivory or -wood in many tombs. They look like dolls, but they -may have been religious images used by the earliest -Christians. The Iconoclasts in their zeal annihilated -everything that had the appearance of an idol, -and many a puppet perished along with the images<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> -of the gods, Maccus as well as Apollo! But soon the -Church saw the wisdom of using concrete, vivid -representation instead of mere abstract symbolism -scarcely comprehensible to the simple minded. “Into -the churches crept figures, Jesus’ body on the Cross -instead of the Lamb. To the Apollo of Heliopolis -succeeded the crucifix of Nicodemus, to the Theban -Venus the Madonna of Orihuela.” (P. Ferrigni.) -Occasionally these figures were made to move a head -or to gesticulate. And here we find the earliest beginnings -of the mysteries which were later to come -out from the churches and monasteries as precursors -not only of our puppet shows but of practically all -our drama.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_24" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Oriental_Puppets"><i>Oriental Puppets</i></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">There</span> are few of us who at times have not unleashed -our imaginations, flung away the reins and bidden -our thoughts roam freely beyond the vision of our -straining eyes. Who has not pondered whimsically -what sort of crooked creatures may be shambling -over the craters and crevices of the moon? Similarly -the unfamiliar Eastern lands afford adventure -for our Western fancies. How alluring the imaginary -sights and sounds fantastically flavored; glimmer of -spangles, daggers, veils and turbans, camels and busy -bazaars and mosques white in the sun, strumming of -curious instruments, gurgle, clatter and patter, enigmatical -whisperings and silences of unknown import. -But of all things so strange what could be fashioned -stranger than the puppets of Eastern peoples? As -the dreams and philosophies of the Orient seem farther -away from us than its most distant cities, so these -small symbols of unfamiliar creeds and cultures for -us are most amazing. What skill and artistry is -displayed in the creation of them, what capricious -imagery in their conception! Let us consider them.</p> - -<div id="i_024" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> - <img src="images/i_032.jpg" width="3032" height="1730" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Javanese Wayang Figures</span></p> - -<p>[American Museum of Natural History, New York]</p></div></div> - -<p>Probably the Javanese <i>shadows</i> present the most -weirdly fascinating spectacle to our unaccustomed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span> -eyes. What singular creatures are here? Bizarre -beyond all description, grotesque forms with long, -lean beckoning arms and incredible profiles, adorned -with curious, elaborate ornamentation. They are made -of buffalo skin, carefully selected, ingeniously treated, -intricately cut and chiseled, richly gilded and cunningly -colored, and they are supported and manipulated -by fragile and graceful rods of horn or bamboo. -Such are the colorful and inscrutable little figures of -gods and heroes in the <i>Wayang Purwa</i>, ancient and -celebrated drama of Java, popular now as in the days -of Java’s independence.</p> - -<p>These shadow-plays are half mythical and religious, -half heroic and national in character, portraying -the well-known feats of native gods and princes, -the battles of their royal armies, their miraculous -and preposterous adventures with giants and other -fabulous creatures. Each incident, each character -is familiar to the audience. One heroine is thus -described in Javanese poetry. “She was really a -flower of song, the virgin in the house of Pati. She -was petted by her father. Her well-proportioned -figure was in perfect accord with her skill in working. -She was acquainted with the secrets of literature. -She used the Kawi speech fluently, as she had practised -it from childhood. She was elegant in the -recitation of formulas of belief and never neglected -the five daily prayer hours. She was truly Godfearing. -Moreover, she never forgot her batik work. -She wove gilded passementerie and painted it with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span> -figures, etc., etc. She was truly queen of the accomplished, -neat and charming in her manner, sweet -and light in her gestures, etc., etc.</p> - -<p>“She was sprayed with rosewater. Her body was -warm and hot if not anointed every hour. She was -the virgin in the house of Pati. Everyone who saw -her loved her. She had only one fault. Later, -when she married, she could not endure a rival mistress. -She was jealous, etc.”</p> - -<p>A prose account tells us of the same young lady. -It is said of Kyahi Pati Logender’s youngest child: -“This was a daughter called Andjasmara, beautiful -of form. If one wished to do full justice to her appearance -the describer would certainly grow weary -before all of her beauty could be portrayed. She -was charming, elegant, sweet, talkative, lovely, etc., -etc. Happy he who should obtain her as a wife.”</p> - -<div id="i_026" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> - <img src="images/i_036.jpg" width="3037" height="2022" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Javanese Rounded Marionettes</span></p> - -<p>[American Museum of Natural History, New York]</p></div></div> - -<p>The plots are based upon old, old Indian saga, from -the <i>Mahabharata</i>, the <i>Ramayana</i>, the <i>Pandji</i> legends -and also upon native fable such as the <i>Manik Muja</i>. -There are several varieties of Wayang play, each -founded upon one or several of these sources. The -<i>Wayang Purwa</i> and the <i>Wayang Gedog</i> are silhouette -plays presented by leather figures behind a lighted -screen. Sometimes, however, the women in the audience -are seated on one side of the screen, the men -on the other, so that some see the gray shadows, others -the colored figures. The <i>Wayang</i> Keletik is given not -with shadows but with the painted hide figures themselves -displayed to the audience. All these performances<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span> -are not ordinary public events, but rather -special productions in celebration of particular occasions. -Etiquette at the Wayang demands that regular -rites be observed before the performance, incense -burned and food offered to the gods.</p> - -<p>The <i>Dalang</i>, or showman, is a person of great skill -and versatility. He seats himself cross-legged on a -mat surrounded by figures; there are about one -hundred and twenty to a complete Wayang set. He -directs the gamelin music of the orchestra which -keeps up a tomtom and scraping of catgut throughout, -gives a short preliminary exposition of the plot, -brings on the characters which he holds and manipulates -with slender rods, places them with precision -and then the play begins. The Dalang, as the music -softens, speaks for each one of the characters. The -general tone is heroic with comedy introduced upon -occasion. There are struggles, battles, love scenes, -dances. The Dalang shuffles with his feet for the -dancing, makes a noise of tramping or fighting, adjusts -the lights on the screen, all the while moving -the figures and speaking feelingly for them.</p> - -<p>Besides these so-called shadows the Javanese have -also rounded marionettes carved out of wood, which -have long, slender arms and fantastic touches revealing -kinship with the figures of painted hide. The -play presented by these crude but rather startling -dolls is called <i>Wayang Golek</i>. The puppets are moved -from below by rods attached to their bodies and hands -as are the shadow figures. Still other types of plays<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> -are the <i>Wayang Beber</i>, presented by rolls of pictures, -and much later (eighteenth century) the <i>Wayang -Topang</i> in which rigidly trained human actors, dressed -in the conventional costumes of the Wayang figures, -take the parts of the puppets. But here as in the -puppet dramas the Dalang reads all the words.</p> - -<p>On the island of Bali, one of the group of the -Indian Archipelago, Wayang plays are like those of -Java. The old figures are very wonderful, cut out -of young buffalo hide, carefully treated and prepared. -The tool formerly used to make them was a -primitive pointed knife. The Wayang sets made -to-day, in spite of the superiority of modern European -instruments which are employed, are very crude in -comparison. This is because with the loss of independence -the natives also lost all interest in their -own art and culture; indeed new Wayangs are made -only when the old ones are worn out.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>The shadows of the Siamese <i>Nang</i> are also unusual. -This is a representation of certain scenes from the -Indian epic, <i>Ramayana</i>, and depicts the adventures -of Prince Rama and his wife Sita. It is given in -private homes for special festivals and is of a serious, -poetic nature. As described by a native of Siam, -“It is a show of moving, transparent pictures over a -screen illumined by a strong bonfire behind.” It is -recited by two readers and sometimes requires as -many as twenty operators. The figures more nearly -approach the human form than do those of the Javanese<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span> -shadows, but their queer, pointed headdress and -strange costuming produce a very striking and highly -stylized effect. They are made of hide which has -been previously cut, scraped and stretched with -extreme care. The technique of decorating the figures -is most difficult, for the forms are stenciled and perforated -by an infinite number of pricks, to indicate -not only the outlines but also the nature of the fabric -of garments, the jewels, weapons, etc. These perforations -scarcely show unless held before a light, -when they give a very rich and variegated effect. -There is great art as well in the dyeing and fixing -of the colors, and in estimating the amount of light -which should be allowed to penetrate so as to give a -well-proportioned aspect to the figure as a whole. -In Siam as in Java there are to be found ordinary -dramatic performances by wooden puppets more recent -in origin and not unlike those of Burma.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>These puppet theatres of Burma exhibit a peculiar -combination of fantastic legend and grotesque, realistic -humor. The puppet stage of the country seems -to have been more highly developed than its regular -drama. A visiting company of Burmese marionettes -was displayed at the Folies Bergères in Paris, where -they were much admired for their beautiful costumes, -wonderful technical construction, the natural -poses they assumed and the graceful gestures they -made. Mr. J. Arthur MacLean tells of the annual -celebration which he witnessed a few years ago at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span> -Ananda, the famous old Buddhist site. It consisted -of a performance by the temple puppets which began -early in the evening and lasted all the night through. -The marionettes were the property of the temple -and when not in use were stored away there. They -were large and elaborate and manipulated with -strings. The audience comprised the entire population -of the village; every man and woman was present -and they had brought all of their children. The -first part of the show was comical for the sake of -the children who, we may presume, fell asleep as the -night progressed. The plays which followed became -more and more serious and were of a religious nature. -Some Burmese puppets, however, are very primitive, being -painted wooden dolls, odd and humorous in spirit. -The license of the showman is extreme, but does not -seem to offend the taste of the native audience.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>In Turkestan and in Central Asia puppet shows are -a very popular diversion along with the feats of jugglers -and dancers. There are two types of puppets -existing, one the very diminutive dolls carried about -by ambulant players whose extremely naïve dialogue -is composed chiefly for the amusement of children. -The other, on a larger scale, is to be seen on small -stages erected in coffee houses or at weddings and -other private celebrations.</p> - -<div id="i_030" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_042.jpg" width="2074" height="3055" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Burmese Puppets</span></p> - -<p> -<span class="in2"><i>Upper</i>: Made of rag, cotton and plaster</span><br /> -<span class="l2"> <i>Lower</i>: Made of painted wood</span> -</p> - -<p>[American Museum of Natural History, New York]</p></div></div> - -<p>R. S. Rehm gives a description of a crude little -marionette theatre in Samarkand. Out in the -crowded narrow streets sounds as terrifying as the -trumpet on the walls of Jericho announced the beginning<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span> -of the performance. The interior was a dark -hall with a roof of straw matting through the holes of -which mischievous youngsters were continually peeking -until they were chased away. It was called -<i>Tschadar Chajal</i>, Tent of Fantasy. The puppets -revealed Indian origin, but their huge heads, with the -clothing merely hung upon them, indicated Russian -influences. There was one scene of modern warfare -with toy cannons hauled upon the stage. Then -came a play within a play. Yassaul, the native -buffoon, was a sort of master of ceremonies. Various -comical and grotesque marionettes appeared whom -he greeted and led to their places. The King himself -entered upon a miniature horse, dismounted and -seated himself on a throne in the tiny audience. The -performance for His Majesty consisted of puppet -dancers, puppet jugglers and last of all, a marionette -representing a drunken European dragged away by a -native policeman. At this point the small and also -the large audience expressed great delight.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>Of the puppets of Persia a very ancient legend -tells us how a Chinese shadow play was performed -before Ogotai, successor of Tamerlane. The artist -presented upon his screen the figure of a turbaned -old man being dragged along tied to the tail of a -horse. When Ogotai inquired what this might signify -the showman is said to have replied: “It is one of -the rebellious Mohammedans whom the soldiers are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span> -bringing in from the cities in this manner.” Whereupon -Ogotai, instead of being angry at the taunt, had -his Persian art treasures, jewels and rich brocades -brought forth, also rare Chinese fabrics and carven -stones. Displaying them all to the showman, he -pointed out the beauties in the products of both -lands as well as the natural difference between them. -The showman having learned this lesson of tolerance -went away greatly abashed.</p> - -<div id="i_032" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 23em;"> - <img src="images/i_046.jpg" width="1775" height="3289" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Cingalese Puppets</span></p> - -<p> -<span class="in1"><i>Upper</i>: Devil and Merchant</span><br /> -<span class="l1"> <i>Lower</i>: King and Queen</span> -</p> - -<p>Part of a collection received from the Ceylon Commission of the -World’s Columbian Exposition, 1895, by the Smithsonian -Institution. U.S. National Museum</p></div></div> - -<p><i>Shadows</i> are mentioned in the works of the Persian -poet, Muhammed Assar, in 1385, when they seem to -have been eagerly cultivated. Since then, however, -they have sadly deteriorated. It is said that wandering -jugglers with their primitive dolls scarcely elicit -a smile from the educated Persians, although they -are sometimes asked into homes to amuse guests or -children. As a rule they play in open places and -after the show the owner collects the pennies from -the audience standing around, calling down the curse -of Allah upon those who walk away without paying. -The comic puppet, according to Karl Friederich -Flögel, is Ketschel, a bald-headed hero “more cultured -than all the Hanswursts in the world.” He -spouts poetry, quotes from the Koran, sings of the -houris in Paradise and, when alone, throws aside his -wisdom, dances and gets drunk.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>Professor Pischel has written that he believes the -puppet plays of India not only to have antedated -the regular drama, but also to have outlived it. He -claims moreover that the puppet shows are the only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span> -form of dramatic expression left at the present time. -What a contribution from the marionette to the land -of its birth and, on the other hand, how much the -races of India must have given of themselves and -their imaginations to the little wooden creatures; for -the interest of the beholder, alone, is the breath of -life which animates them through the centuries.</p> - -<p>It is amusing to read of the life-sized walking and -talking puppets used in the tenth century by a dramatist, -Rajah Gekhara. One doll represented Sita -and another her sister. A starling trained to speak -Prakrit was placed in the mouth of <i>Sita</i> to speak for -her. The puppet player spoke for the other doll as -well as for the demon, which part in the drama he -himself enacted and spoke in Sanskrit.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> In one of -the issues of <i>The Mask</i> there is printed the following -account of religious puppets of the thirteenth century -in Ceylon. A great festival was being solemnized -in the temple, which had been richly decorated for -the event and furnished “with numerous images of -Brahma dancing with parasols in their hands that -were moved by instruments; with moving images -of gods of divers forms that went to and fro with their -joined hands raised in adoration; with moving figures -of horses prancing; ... with likenesses of great elephants -... with these and divers other shows did<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> -he make the temple exceeding attractive.” (Mahavamsa, -ch. 85).</p> - -<p>In quite recent days, P. C. Jinavaravamsa, himself -a priest and prince of Siam, as well as an artist, has -written an article attesting the aesthetic worth and -popularity of Indian puppets to-day. “Beautiful figures, -six to eight inches high, representing the characters -of the Indian drama, <i>Ramayana</i>, are made for -exhibition at royal entertainments. They are perfect -pieces of mechanism; their very fingers can be -made to grasp an object and they can be made to -assume postures expressive of any action or emotion -described in poetry; this is done by pulling strings -which hang down within the clothing or within a -small tube attached to the lower part of the figure, -with a ring or a loop attached to each, for inserting -the fingers of the showman. The movements are -perfectly timed to the music and recitation of singing. -One cannot help being charmed by these Lilliputs, -whose dresses are so gorgeous and jeweled with -the minutest detail. Little embroidered jackets and -other pieces of dress, representing magnificent robes -of a Deva or Yakha, are complete in the smallest -particular; the miniature jewels are sometimes made -of real gold and gems.”</p> - -<div id="i_034" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> - <img src="images/i_050.jpg" width="3025" height="1817" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">East Indian Puppets</span></p> - -<p>From an old rest house for pilgrims connected with an old Jain Temple at Ahmadabad. The figures were attached to a -mechanical organ and their motions followed the music</p> - -<p>[Part of a collection in the Brooklyn Institute Museum]</p></div></div> - -<p>The popular plays of India have never been written -down, as were the classic dramas, but, according to -the custom of wandering showmen, they were handed -on from father to son. Thus, much in them has been -lost for us. But Vidusaka, the buffoon, has survived,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span> -“as old as the oldest Indian art,” the fundamental -type of comic character, and possibly the prototype -of them all,—Vidusaka, a hunchbacked dwarf with -protruding teeth, a Brahmin with a bald head and -distorted visage. He excites merriment by his acts, -his dress, his figure and his speech. He is quarrelsome, -gluttonous, stupid, vain, cowardly, insolent and -pugnacious, “always ready to lay about him with a -stick.” Professor Pischel avers that we can follow -this little comedian as he wandered away with the -gypsy showmen whose original home was that of the -marionette, mysterious ancient India. He trails him -into Turkey, where he became metamorphosed into -the famous (or infamous) Karagheuz after having -served as a model for the buffoons of Persia, Arabia -and Egypt. But more than this, it is believed that -long before Arlecchino and other offspring of Maccus -found their way northward there existed in the -mystery and carnival plays of Germany a funny -fellow with all the family traits of the descendants of -the Indian Vidusaka. And it was probably the -gypsies again, coming up from Persia and Turkey -through the Balkan countries and Hungary (where -similar types of puppet-clowns are to be discovered) -who carried the cult from far-off times and introduced -into Austria and Germany the ancient ancestor -of Hanswurst and Kasperle.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>In Turkey, as in so many Oriental countries, the -shadow play is the chief representative of dramatic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span> -art. There are several little tales told concerning -the origin of Turkish puppets. One relates how a -Sultan, long ago, commanded his Vizier on pain of -death to bring back to life two favorite court fools -whom he had executed, perhaps somewhat rashly. -The Vizier, in this dire dilemma, consulted with a -wise Dervish, who thereupon caught two fish, skinned -them and cut out of the dried skins two figures representing -the two dead jesters. These he displayed -to the Sultan behind a lighted curtain, and the illusion -seems to have satisfied that autocratic personage.</p> - -<p>Another story tells that long ago in Stamboul -there lived a good man who grieved daily with righteous -indignation over the misrule of the governing -Pashas. He pondered long how to improve conditions -and how to carry the matter to the attention -of the Sultan himself. Finally he decided to establish -a shadow play whose fame, he hoped, might -lure the Sultan in to see it. And, indeed, the people -thronged to witness his Karagheuz. But when at -last the august Sultan came and took his place in -the audience, Karagheuz had more serious matters -to display than his usual pranks. The Sultan’s eyes -were opened to the abuses of his ministers, whom he -removed and justly punished. The founder of the -Karagheuz play, on the other hand, was made Vizier. -His show has remained the favorite diversion of the -people.</p> - -<div id="i_036" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_054.jpg" width="2026" height="2999" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Turkish Shadow Figure of Karagheuz</span></p> - -<p>[From Georg Jacob’s <i>Das Schattentheater</i>]</p></div></div> - -<p>These Turkish shadows are all centered around -the hero, a sort of native Don Juan, a scamp with a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> -good bit of mother wit; he is called “Karagheuz” -(Black Eye). There are about sixty other characters -to a complete cast, among them Hadji-aivat, representative -of the cultured classes and boon companion -of Karagheuz, and Bekri Mustafa, the rich peasant -just come to town, who frequents questionable resorts, -gets drunk and is invariably plundered. There are -Kawassan, the rich Jew, and a Dervish and a romantic -robber and the Frank and the wife and daughter -of Hadji-aivat and all sorts of dancers, beggar-women, -etc. George Jacob brings to notice also pathological -types such as the dwarf, the opium fiend, the stutterer -and others; also representatives of foreign nations, the -Arabian, the Persian, the Armenian, the Jew, the -Greek, all of whose peculiar accents and mistakes in -speaking the Turkish language form a constant source -of merriment to the Turks themselves. The plot -generally consists of the improper adventures of -Karagheuz, his tricks to secure money, his surprising -indecencies, his broad, satirical comment on the life -about him. Théophile Gautier was present at a -Karagheuz performance. He writes: “It is impossible -to give in our language the least idea of these -huge jests, these hyperbolical, broad jokes which -necessitate to render them the dictionary of Rabelais, -of Beroalde of Eutrapel flanked by the vulgar -catechism of Vade.”</p> - -<p>The extreme beauty of the production, however, -and the expertness of the manipulator somewhat -redeem the performances for our Western eyes. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> -figures are cut out of camelskin, the limbs skilfully -articulated. Holes in the necks or chests and, for -special figures which gesticulate, also in the hands, -enable slender rods to be inserted at right angles by -which they are manipulated. The appearance of -the transparent, brightly colored figures, with heavy -exaggerated outlines, rather resembles mosaic work, -while the faces are sometimes done with the extreme -care of portraits. The effect produced by these -luminous forms is truly beautiful; the color is heightened -by surrounding darkness, which tends to increase -the seeming size of the figures and to give them an -almost plastic quality.</p> - -<div id="i_038" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img src="images/i_058.jpg" width="1989" height="2736" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Chinese Puppets</span></p> - -<p> - <i>Upper</i>: Operated from above with strings<br /> -<i>Lower</i>: Operated from below with sticks -</p> - -<p>[American Museum of Natural History, New York]</p></div></div> - -<p>From an account of F. von Luschan we may imagine -the usual Karagheuz performance to take place in -somewhat the following manner. In any coffee house -the rear corner is screened off with a thick curtain -into which is inserted a frame. Over the frame a -linen is stretched taut. Behind it is set a platform -or table upon or at which the operator places himself -and his figures. There is little equipment. Four -oil lamps with several wicks are furnished with good -olive oil to distribute an even illumination behind the -screen. The manipulator brings on his characters -and talks for them. If two of them gesticulate simultaneously, -he overcomes the difficulty by holding -one of the rods lightly pressed against his body, thus -freeing a hand for the emergency. He must also -keep time to the dancing with his castanets, stamp the -floor for marching, smack himself loudly to imitate -the sound of buffets and keep an eye on the lamps<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span> -which threaten constantly to set fire to himself and -his paraphernalia.</p> - -<div id="i_028" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 33em;"> - <img src="images/i_059.jpg" width="2619" height="2111" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Wayang Figures from the Island of Bali</span></p> - -<p>[Collected by and belonging to Mr. Maurice Sterne, New York]</p></div></div> - -<p>These Karagheuz shows are popular not only -throughout Turkey but, more or less altered, in Syria, -Palestine, Arabia, Egypt, Tunis, Tripoli, and Morocco. -It is recorded that in 1557 in Cairo a puppet play was -instrumental in stirring up a revolt and had to be -prohibited. In Arabia the shadows are decidedly -debased in character, crude, and wholly inartistic. -In Tunis the performances are said to be mere conglomerations -of obscene incidents. Guy de Maupassant -writes in his <i>Vie Errante</i>: “We must not -forget that it was only a very few years ago that the -performances of Caragoussa, a kind of obscene Punch -and Judy, were forbidden. Children looked on with -their large black eyes, some ignorant, others corrupt, -laughing and applauding the improbable and vile -exploits which are impossible to narrate.” In 1842, -however, a traveller in Algiers witnessed a shadow -play presenting incidents from the <i>Arabian Nights’ -Tales</i>, in which Karagheuz was a less rude buffoon -than usual. At the end of the play there appeared -upon the screen the illumined inscription: “There -is no God but Allah and Mohammed is his Prophet.”</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>In China the art of the shadow play has long, long -ago attained a degree of perfection as high if not -surpassing that of any other country. The Chinese -have quaintly designed marionettes, but in the magical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> -beauty of their shadows they are without peers. It -is only within the last few decades, in fact, that the -artists of Paris with the shadow plays at the Chat -Noir have succeeded in at all approaching their skill -and inspiration.</p> - -<div id="i_040" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37em;"> - <img src="images/i_062.jpg" width="2919" height="1999" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Chinese Shadow-play Figures: collected by B. Laufer in Pekin, 1901</span></p> - -<p>[American Museum of Natural History, New York]</p></div></div> - -<p>According to legend one might infer, although -scholars deem it doubtful, that the origin of puppets -in the wide dominions of bygone Emperors, Celestial -Ones, dates back to the earliest periods of a remarkably -ancient culture. One story relates that a thousand -years <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> shadows had grown so popular and -famous that King Muh commanded a famous showman -named Yen Sze to come into his palace and -amuse him, his wives and concubines. Yen Sze, thus -honored, bestirred himself to operate the figures in an -animated manner and proceeded to make his little -puppets cast admiring glances at the ladies of the -Court. The King became jealously enraged and ordered -Yen’s head chopped off. Poor Yen Sze,—he -barely escaped his horrible fate by tearing up his little -figures and proving them harmless creatures of leather, -glue and varnish. Another fable tells us that in the -year 262 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> an Emperor of the Han dynasty was -being besieged in the City of Ping in the Province of -Schensi by the warrior-wife of Mao-Tun, named O. -Now the Emperor’s adviser, being full of cunning, and -having heard of the jealous disposition of the warlike -lady O, devised a scheme for ingeniously ridding -the Emperor of his enemies. He placed upon the -walls of the beleaguered city a gorgeously dressed -female puppet and by means of hidden strings made<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span> -her dance alluringly upon the ramparts. Lady O, -deceived by the lifelike imitation and fearing, should -the city fall, that her husband, Mao-Tun, might fall -in love with this seductive dancer, raised the siege -and withdrew her armies from the Emperor’s City -of Ping in the Province of Schensi. So wonderful, -so helpful were the puppets of China in 262 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>!</p> - -<p>In more modern days there are several sorts of -Chinese marionettes. In any open place one might -come upon the simple, peripatetic showman with a -gathering of little bald-headed children around him, -(hence, they say, the name Kwo or Mr. Kwo, which -means Baldhead). Stepping upon a small platform -the puppeteer dons a sort of sheath of blue cotton, -like a big bag, tight at the ankles and full higher up. -He then places his box on his shoulders with its open -stage to the audience. His head is enclosed behind -this stage and his hands are thrust into the dresses of -the dolls and manipulate them, a finger for each arm, -and for the head. The dialogue is rough, realistic -humor. When the act is over he places the puppets -and sheath in his box and strolls on with the complete -outfit under his arm.</p> - -<p>In the large stationary marionette theatres a very -different state of affairs exists. Here with expensive -and elaborate scenery the puppets are capable of -presenting highly spectacular faeries in the manner -of the later Italian and French fantoccini. The plot -is generally the old one of an enchanted princess<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> -guarded by a dragon and rescued by a prince; their -marriage ceremony furnishes the occasion for the -spectacular display. Some dramas of a romantic or -historic nature were composed especially for performances -at the court of the Emperor. Sir Lytton -Putney, first British Ambassador to China, has described -the reception accorded him upon his arrival, -one event of which was a marionette play. The -chief personage in this piece was a little comedian -whose antics delighted the court. The marionettes -belonged to the Emperor himself, and the very clever -manager of the show was a high official in the palace.</p> - -<div id="i_042" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> - <img src="images/i_066.jpg" width="2997" height="1975" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Chinese Shadow-play Figures: collected by B. Laufer in Pekin, 1901</span></p> - -<p>Entrance to a house; water-wheel and gate to the lower wheel; gate leading to one of the Purgatories</p> - -<p>[American Museum of Natural History, New York]</p></div></div> - -<p>It is the Chinese shadows, however, which are most -famous and most amazing for their range of subject -and variety of appeal. The figures are of translucent -hide, stained with great delicacy. The colors glow -like jewels when the light shines through them, and -the combination of these colors is amazingly beautiful. -The repertoire includes anything and everything -in the world of the seen and of the unseen; -street comedies, happenings of everyday life, heroic -legend, fables, historic drama, religious and mystical -revelations with all the ghostly fantasy bred of Taoist -teachings (metamorphoses and visions of demons -marvellously produced!). According to the account of -Rehm in his extensive work <i>Das Buch der Marionetten</i>, -the beauty and power of these fascinating illusions -carry the spectator away into realms of make-believe. -He has given several enthusiastic descriptions of the -productions. The following is one of them:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span></p> - -<p>“The story is that of a son, sick with longing, who -implores the Ruler of the Shadow-world to show him -the spirit of his departed mother. One sees a landscape -bathed in the magic atmosphere of twilight. -In the background there rises a pagoda whose shimmering -reflection is mirrored in the calm lake. All -is silence and expectancy. The son appears; he -makes his respectful obeisance before the hallowed -spot and brings his offering. The smoke of the incense -rises in small clouds. Suddenly the silver -tones of the wonderful Chinese zither are heard and -accompanied by its strains the transformation takes -place. The pagoda vanishes, luminous circles of -color appear out of which the mother emerges. She -speaks to her son, who is trembling with awe; she -offers him glimpses of a hidden world, comforts and -strengthens him. One hears her sigh, recognizes her -perturbation by the rising and falling of her breast -and the whole expression of her countenance. The -beholders are completely under the sway of the ghostly -apparition. In the end everything resumes its former -aspect, the peace of the night envelops the landscape -resting under the silver moonlight. Swans -appear upon the lake bathing their white plumage in -the cool waters and with this poetic impression the -dream-peace is concluded.”</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>In Japanese literature, according to Mr. Henri -Joly, one finds the antiquity of the puppet show -traced back into the depths of ages. Thus the story<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> -runs: Hiriuk was a very ugly child, so his parents -cast him adrift in a boat. The boat floated away -and was finally stranded on the shore of Nishinomiya -where the boy lived and died. After his death, however, -his restless spirit caused storms to rise and the -fishermen lost their livelihood until a man, Dokun, -arrived who built a temple to the Gods, whereupon -the sea became smooth and the fish plentiful. After -Dokun’s death, the inhabitants neglected the temple. -Again gales arose and the fish disappeared. Then -came another man named Hiakudaiyu and made a doll -and brought it to the temple. Then hiding himself -he displayed it and called: “I am Dokun, I have come -to greet you.” Whereupon the sea again became -calm and fish again returned. The emperor hearing -of it summoned Hiakudaiyu to perform with his -show at court, and after witnessing it he exclaimed: -“As Japan is God’s country, we must, before anything -else, entertain the Gods. Let an office be created!” -Hiakudaiyu was officially appointed to travel -from shrine to shrine about the land carrying the -box which contained his puppets. After his death -others continued the art. Another writer claims -that Dokun was a Shinto priest, but it matters little.</p> - -<div id="i_044" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_070.jpg" width="2018" height="772" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Old Japanese Puppet Heads</span></p> - -<p>From a collection in the Brooklyn Institute Museum</p> - -<p>[Founded by Mr. Stewart Culin in Kyoto, 1912]</p></div></div> - -<p>Japan has developed a marionette tradition altogether -and amazingly unique. Indeed so powerful -a factor has it been that living actors in the classic -drama have accepted the conventions of the puppet -stage and are trained to the gesture and manner of -the ancient marionette. This does not apply, of course,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span> -to the innumerable strolling booths of the Chinese -<i>linen bag</i> variety, but rather to the renowned and long -established stationary theatres for puppets, theatres -with exclusive boxes for the select and well-to-do of -the audience and ample seating capacity for the -common people who visit the show in great numbers.</p> - -<p>The dolls are not quite half as tall as a man; they -are very realistically conceived and the mimicry of -nature is carried into the minutest details. Mr. -Joly has published some tracings of parts of these -Japanese puppets which indicate how elaborate the -inner mechanism must be; a hand in which each -joint of each finger is articulated, a head in which -the eyes move from side to side. Indeed, these marionettes -frequently raise their eyebrows to express scorn -or surprise. The costumes are of rich silk and brocade, -profusely embroidered, often jeweled and always designed -with special thought for their decorative effect. -Nay more, when a gown is new or particularly handsome -a boy comes deliberately out and places a lantern -directly in front of the doll so that no elegant detail -shall be overlooked by the audience. The puppets -are, necessarily, very costly and they represent altogether -quite a large amount of capital for which the -theatres are often specially taxed.</p> - -<p>The stages are quite large. The puppets are -fastened by means of rods to their stands (all but the -spirits and magic figures, which are worked with wires -from above and float through the air). The most -curious feature in the Japanese show is the manner of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> -manipulating. The operators work on the stage in -full view of the audience with the puppets placed in -front of them. They speak no word and are frequently -assisted by similarly mute scholars. These, -to make themselves less conspicuous, often wear -black-hooded robes; but the expert and favorite -manipulators themselves are generally very gayly -attired and their entrances are not infrequently greeted -with applause. Often there are more persons working -the puppets than there are puppets to be seen on -the stage.</p> - -<p>The words of the drama are read by the <i>Gidayu</i> -or chanter, arrayed in a splendid ceremonial costume -and sitting respectfully on a platform to the left of -the stage behind a low stand upon which there rests -a copy of the text. He chants loudly and musically, -varying according to the nature of the account and -of the characters. The chanters are artists of high -standing, in fact somewhere in the seventeenth century -they had already established a unique form of -elocution. The reading is generally accompanied by -the strains of the samisen, a three-stringed instrument, -played by an artist who sits on the platform -next to the chanter. Sometimes besides the principal -Gidayu there are others who chant as a sort of chorus. -In some performances there are as many as thirty-three -Gidayus, twenty-nine samisen players, some -forty manipulators and several cleaners of lamps and -stage hands. The chanter, after an exciting passage, -may take a sip of tea or expectorate into a little<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span> -bamboo cuspidor, the musicians may emphasize important -lines by warning notes, the operators may -jog about; Japanese audiences are accustomed to -these incidental happenings and accept them with -undisturbed equanimity. To Occidental witnesses -they are likely to seem distractions.</p> - -<p>There are several types of classic drama in Japan, -one of which is the <i>Joruri</i>, or epical play originally -composed expressly for the marionette stage. The -name is derived from a drama written by a clever and -beautiful court lady of Yeddo (1607–1688). It was -called <i>The Story of The Lady Joruri</i> and being tremendously -popular was followed by many similar -plays. It was later set to samisen music and during -the Eiroken period a woman singer gave performances -of Joruri with puppets in Kyoto. She was so successful -that she was commanded to play before noble -families, finally even before the Emperor himself.</p> - -<p>In these epic dramas there are long, poetic passages -as well as narrative parts. Early in the seventeenth -century Takemoto Gidayu, noted samisen player and -puppet showman, invented a more brilliant presentation -of puppet shows to the accompaniment of Joruri -recitation and samisen music. His shows were popular -with the nobility, the populace and the Samurai -(who enjoyed the warlike elements in them) and he, -too, was summoned to perform at the palace of the -Emperor. In 1685 he established a stationary marionette -theatre in Osaka called Takemoto Za. For this -theatre some of Japan’s best classic dramas were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span> -written. One playwright, Chikamatsu Monzayemon, -the Shakespeare of Japan, together with his pupils, -wrote about one hundred pieces for these puppets. -In 1703 a rival theatre was founded in Osaka by a -pupil of Gidayu. It was called Toyotake Za and it -also had its able dramatists and enthusiastic following. -The two theatres were at their zenith early in -the eighteenth century; Izuma and Sosuki wrote for -them. A few of their plays were in a realistic vein, -such as, <i>The Woman’s Harakari at Long Street</i>, or -more frequently they were of a heroic temper, <i>The -Battle of Kokusenya</i>, or <i>The Loyalty of the Five Heroes</i>, -<i>The Revenge of the Soga Brothers</i>, and often they were -such romantic affairs as the hopeless passion of two -young lovers with the familiar ending of their double -suicide called <i>shinju</i>.</p> - -<div id="i_048" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_076.jpg" width="2018" height="2221" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Japanese Print</span> (Hokusai)</p> - -<p>Representing the famous actor, Mizuki Tatsunosuke, manipulating a -puppet on a go board</p></div></div> - -<p>Later in the eighteenth century the centre for puppet -performances was transferred to Yeddo and flourished -there for half a century in two large theatres called -Hizen Za and Take Za. There were two smaller -theatres, also in Kyoto. At present puppet plays are -occasionally given in Tokyo at Asakusa Park. There -are two such theatres also in Osaka with clever chanters -and skilful puppeteers which are among the greatest -attractions of the city. In the land of the cherry blossom, -however, as elsewhere in this modern world, the -cinema has, for a while at least, outrivaled the ancient -puppet play in the affection of the people and, according -to Osataro Miyamori, deprived them of a great part -of their audiences.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span></p> - -<p>But who shall belittle the remarkable achievements -of the Japanese marionette theatre? All in all there -have been as many as two hundred epic poets writing -for the puppets and over a thousand dramas have -been composed for them. Moreover, in feudal Japan, -where higher education was confined to the priests -and to the Samurai, the Gidayu chanters were important -educators of the masses who derived their -conceptions of patriotism, loyalty and ethics from -the impeccable sentiments of the heroic epic dramas.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_50" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Puppets_of_Italy_and_Southern"><i>Puppets of Italy and Southern -Europe</i></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“Into whatever country we follow the footprints of -the numerous, motley family of puppets, we find that -however exotic their habits may be on their first arrival -in the land they speedily become reflexes of the peculiar -genius, tastes and characteristics of its people. Thus -in Italy, the land of song and dance, of strict theatrical -censorships and of despotic governments, we find the -burattini dealing in sharp but polished jests at the expense -of the rulers, excelling in the ballet and performing -Rossini’s operas without curtailment or suppression, -with an orchestra of five or six instruments and singers -behind the scenes. The Spanish titere couches his lance -and rides forth to meet the Moor and rescue captive -maidens, marches with Cortez to the conquest of Montezuma’s -capital or enacts with more or less decorum moving -incidents from Holy Writ. In the jokken and puppen -of Germany one recognizes the metaphysical and fantastical -tendencies of that country, its quaint superstitions, -domestic sprites and enchanted bullets. And in France, -where puppet shows were early cherished and encouraged -by the aristocracy as well as by the people, we -need not wonder to find them elegant, witty and frivolous, -modelling themselves upon their patrons.”</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<i>Eclectic Magazine</i> (1854). -</p> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">Every</span> country of Europe has had marionettes of -one type or another persisting from very early stages -through centuries of national vicissitudes. Italy, however, -may be considered the pioneer, the forerunner<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span> -of them all. It was wandering Italian showmen who -carried their <i>castelli dei burattini</i> into England, Germany, -Spain and France, and these countries seem -to have adopted puppet conventions, devices and -dialogues long established by the Italians, gradually -adapting them to their own tastes. The Italians -have always displayed great ingenuity and perseverance -in developing and elaborating their marionettes; -indeed, this may be both cause and result of -the perpetual joy they appear to derive from them.</p> - -<p>There are numerous records in early Italian history -of religious images in the cathedrals and monasteries, -marvellous Crucifixes, figures of the Madonna and of -the saints that could turn their eyes, nod their heads -or move their limbs. These were the solemn forebears -of the Italian fantoccini! Moreover very early -it became customary for special occasions to set up -elaborate stages in the naves and chapels of the -churches upon which were enacted episodes from the -Bible or from the lives of the martyrs. The performers -were large or small figures carved and painted -with rare skill and devotion, sometimes elaborately -dressed and bejeweled and frequently moved by -complicated mechanism. It was not unusual, in the -presentation of sacred plays, to utilize both puppets -and human actors together.</p> - -<p>Vasari in his Life of <i>Il Cecca</i> tells us that, “Among -others, four most solemn public spectacles took place -almost every year, one for each quarter of the city -with the exception of S. Giovanni for the festival of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span> -which a most solemn procession was held, as will -be told. S. Maria Novella kept the feast of Ignazio, -S. Croce that of S. Bartholomew called S. Baccio, -S. Spirito that of the Holy Spirit and the Carmine -those of the Ascension of Our Lord and the Assumption -of Our Lady.” Of the latter he continues, “The -festival of the Ascension, then, in the church of the -Carmine, was certainly most beautiful, seeing that -Christ was raised from the mount, which was very -well contrived in woodwork, on a cloud about and -amidst which were innumerable angels, and was -borne upwards into a Heaven so admirably constructed -as to be really marvellous, leaving the -Apostles on the mount.” We may read in great -detail of the impressive <i>Paradiso</i>, an arrangement -of vast wheels moving in ten circles to represent the -ten Heavens. These circles glittered with innumerable -lights arranged in small suspended lamps which -represented stars. From this Heaven or Paradiso -there proceeded by means of two strong ropes, pulleys -and counterweights of lead, a platform which held -two angels bound firmly by the girdle to iron stakes. -These in due time descend to the rood-screen and -announce to the Savior that He is to ascend into -Heaven. “The whole apparatus,” continues the historian, -“was covered with a large quantity of well-prepared -wool and this gave the appearance of clouds -amidst which were seen numberless cherubim, seraphim -and other angels clothed in various colors.” -The machines and inventions were said to have been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span> -Cecca’s, although Filippo Brunelleschi had made -similar things long before.</p> - -<div id="i_052" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_082.jpg" width="2012" height="2962" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">A Wooden Italian Puppet, quite old</span></p> - -<p>[Property of Mr. Tony Sarg]</p></div></div> - -<p>“It has been pointed out,” writes E. K. Chambers -in the second volume of his <i>Mediaeval Drama</i>, “that -the use of puppets to provide a figured representation -of the mystery of the nativity seems to have -preceded the use for the same purpose of living and -speaking persons; and furthermore that the puppet -show in the form of the Christmas Crib has outlived -the drama founded upon it and is still in use -in all Catholic countries.” Ferrigni describes a cathedral -near Naples where this ancient custom is still -continued, the church being quite transformed for -the occasion, its walls hidden by scenery and an imitation -hill constructed at the top of which stood the -Presepio. Moving figures travelled up the hill toward -the manger of Bethlehem, which was illumined by -a great light. I have heard such spectacles described -by travelers with much enthusiasm and not a little -awe. Imagine the deep impression, the reverent -delight, produced among the devout worshippers in -mediaeval times!</p> - -<p>It must be admitted that many prelates condemned -the use of these religious fantoccini as smacking sinfully -of idolatry. Abbot Hughes of Cluny denounced -them in 1086, Pope Innocent in 1210 and others -also, from time to time. But canons were never -able to quite eradicate the cherished custom, and the -little figures always reappeared inside the churches -and in adjacent cloisters and cemeteries for spectacles,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span> -mysteries and masks. The decree of the -Council of Trent, however, was instrumental in forcing -most of them out of the churches, so that in the -sixteenth century they were generally to be found -roaming about the countryside and giving performances -in the marketplaces and at fairs.</p> - -<div id="i_054" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;"> - <img src="images/i_086.jpg" width="2160" height="1775" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Mediaeval Marionettes</span></p> - -<p>[From an illustration in a twelfth-century manuscript in the -Strassbourg library]</p></div></div> - -<p>There are many types of Italian pupazzi. They -have been called by many names and exhibited in -many manners. They are designed and dressed and -manipulated in innumerable ways. In a twelfth-century -manuscript discovered in the Strasbourg -library there is an illustration of very primitive little -<i>figurini</i>. They represent a pair of warriors caused -to fight by means of two cords; the action is horizontal. -Somewhat the same principle is employed -to operate simple little dolls dancing on a board, -generally a couple of them together, the string tied -to the knee of the puppeteer. He makes the figures -perform by moving his leg and generally plays on a -drum or tambourine to accompany the motion. As -a rule the name burattini is applied to the dolls with -heads and hands fashioned of wood or paper-maché -and manipulated by a hand thrust under the empty -dress, a finger and a thumb fitted into the two sleeves -to work the arms, another finger used to turn or bow -the head of the doll. These pupazzi were most frequently -played in pairs by travelling showmen with -little portable castelli. Fantoccini are the puppets -fashioned more or less after the human figure. They -are made of cardboard or wood and occasionally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span> -in part of metal or plaster. They are sometimes -crudely carved, sometimes modelled with attention -to every detail. They are operated by means of -wires or threads connecting them with the control, -which is in the hands of the marionettist standing -concealed above. The number and arrangement of -threads and controls may be simple or intricate. -Sometimes the limbs are wired and all the wires except -those of the arms are carried out of the head -through an iron tube. Another device is that of -wiring the dolls and manipulating them from below -by pedals. There is no end to the variety of contrivances -invented by the makers of marionettes. -The more elaborate dolls are generally exhibited in -large and substantial castelli or on permanent stages -constructed in private homes or in theatres used -entirely for fantocinni, the spectacular effects being -carried out on an amazing scale.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a></p> - -<p>From earliest times the marionettes have been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span> -exceedingly popular with both learned and ignorant. -Every village was visited by ambulant shows, every -city had its large castello, frequently many of them, -while noble families had their private puppet theatres -and engaged distinguished writers to compose plays. -Lorenzo de Medici is said to have enjoyed puppet -shows and to have given many of them. Cosimo I -is reported to have had the fantoccini in the Palazzo -Vecchio, Francesco I in the Uffizi: Girolamo Cardan, -celebrated mathematician and physician wrote in -1550, “An entire day would not be sufficient in which -to describe these puppets that play, fight, shoot, -dance and make music.” Leone Allaci, librarian of -the Vatican under Pope Alexander VII, stopped -nightly to watch the burattini play. Prominent -mechanicians and scientists used their skill to create -clever <i>pupazzi</i>; artists have left us charming pictures -of groups thronging around the castelli in the -public roads; poets and scholars wrote plays for the -marionettes.</p> - -<div id="i_056" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> - <img src="images/i_090.jpg" width="3019" height="2001" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figures used for Christmas Crib inside the Church</span></p> - -<p>Seventeenth or eighteenth century</p> - -<p>[From the collection of Mr. Sumner Healey, New York]</p></div></div> - -<p>In the beginning the repertory of the pupazzi was -derived entirely from the <i>sacre rappresentazione</i>, -consisting of scenes from the Old and the New Testaments, -stories of miracles and martyrdoms. Soon a -comic element was allowed to creep in, the better to -hold the attention of the audience. Fables were -introduced for variety, and episodes from heroic -tales of chivalry, also satires reminiscent of Roman -decadence. The latter were performed by puppets -fantastically dressed and burlesqueing local types,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span> -and, naturally, speaking in the native dialect of those -particular characters. The showman improvised the -dialogue to fit the occasion, using only a skeleton -plot to direct the action just as did the actors of the -<i>Commedia dell’Arte</i>. “Thus,” claims an authority -on Italian puppetry, “on this humble stage were -born types of the ancient Italian theatre, the immortal -masks.” It might be as difficult to prove -as to disprove this statement, but at any rate the -pupazzi had a hand in popularizing and perpetuating -the famous <i>maschere</i>.</p> - -<p>At this point it might be well to digress for a -moment and to consider the commedia dell’arte -which is so interwoven with the story of Italian marionettes. -Along with the commedia erudita which was -flourishing at the courts of the great Italian princes -there developed an extemporaneous, popular theatre -depending greatly for its spirit upon the invention -and talent of the actors. Perhaps the beginnings -of its gay humor may be traced back to the comic -and local elements introduced into the early <i>sacre -rappresentazione</i>. Perhaps the characters were copied -from the familiar buffoons of Latin comedy. At any -rate, the well-known masks or <i>personaggi</i> of the cast -represented amusing types from all strata of Italian -society, and each was immediately recognizable by -a conventionalized and rather grotesque costume. -<i>Arlecchino</i>, who originally came from Bergamo, is the -chief personage of this motley group. He is a unique -figure in his strange suit of multi-colored patches,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span> -his black mask, his peculiar weapon, all reminiscent -of the Roman <i>Histrio</i>. At first conceived as a happy, -simple fellow, he became in time a character of unbridled -gayety and pointed wit. Then there was -<i>Pulcinella</i>, descended probably from the Roman <i>Maccus</i>, -a Neapolitan rogue and merry-maker whose -white costume serves to accentuate the hump in his -back and his other physical peculiarities. There -were <i>Scaramuccia</i>, also of Naples, false bravo and -coward, <i>Stentorella</i>, from Florence, a mean miserly -wretch, <i>Cassandrino</i>, the charming fop and braggart, -a Roman invention. <i>Messer Pantalone</i> is a -good-natured Venetian merchant deceived by all, -<i>Scapino</i> is the mischief maker apt to lead youth -astray, <i>Constantine</i> of Verona is “said youth.” Then -come <i>Brighella</i>, <i>Capitaine</i>, <i>Pierrot</i>, world renowned, -<i>Columbine</i>, <i>Isabella</i>, and a host of other Italian conceptions, -to say nothing of <i>Pasquino</i>, <i>Peppinno</i>, <i>Ornofrio</i> -and <i>Rosina</i> who are the masks of Sicily.</p> - -<div id="i_058" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> - <img src="images/i_094.jpg" width="3003" height="1983" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Pulcinella in Italy</span></p> - -<p>[From original color lithograph]</p></div></div> - -<p>It was customary to have the plot and the principal -situations sketchily outlined for the actors. They -then went into the play supplying dialogue and improvising -action and appropriate jests as the mood of -the moment dictated. The humor of the theatre -was merry and spontaneous, though frequently extremely -broad and of questionable taste. But despite -this license of manners, the morals and purposes -of the plays were good, levelling shafts of satire -against the frauds and abuses of the age, poking -fun and scorn at rogueries, hypocrisies, weaknesses.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span> -The commedia dell’arte flourished brilliantly for a -century or more. Flaminio Scala was the first director -who attempted to systematize it. In 1611 he -published a number of scenarii and detailed directions -for the action. However, in time the unbridled -wit degenerated into mere vulgarity, the grace and -spontaneity of gesture into absurd acrobatic tricks -and grimacing, the bubbling jests and startling situations -became stale. It was then that Goldoni came -to reform the Italian drama. In his plays, it is true, -one may still find traces of the popular masks, but -they are relegated to minor rôles, subdued and properly -clad. They will never wholly die out.</p> - -<p>Through various stages of the Italian drama the -marionettes have trailed gayly along, ever adopting -the new without discarding the old. Their repertoire -is all inclusive. They have enacted sacred dramas -and legends of saints, <i>Sansone e Dalila</i>, <i>Sante Tecla</i>, -<i>Guida Iscaretta</i> and innumerable others. They have -made use of the scenarios of old Latin plays such as -<i>Amor non virtoso</i> and <i>Il Basilico di Berganasso.</i> -When the bombastic, elaborate plays were discarded -by the actors they came into possession of the puppet -showmen. Thereafter the burattini became grandiloquent, -and stalked about as princes and heroes -of tragedy, while their trappings and settings often -grew correspondingly elaborate. To fables of heroes -and pastoral scenes, to the romances of Paladins -and Saracens and spectacular tales of brigands, assassins -and tyrants were added the pathetic and romantic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span> -melodramas of foreign lands. <i>Il Flauto magico</i>, -<i>La donna Serpente</i>, <i>Genovieffa di Brabante</i>, <i>Elizabetta -Potowsky</i>, everything was to be seen in the castelli -of the fantoccini, even the military plays of -Iffland and Kotzebue. Moreover Arlecchino and his -band were always allowed to enter at any time, into -any situation. Indeed, when the commedia dell’arte -became at last discredited on the larger stage it -sought shelter with the puppets. Thus in the puppet -booths the popular old personaggi were kept -alive among the people, where they had, indeed, been -ever very much at home.</p> - -<p>These old masks continue to be found to-day in -the puppet shows of Italy, as are also the melodramatic -tragedies popular with the masses and the clever, -satirical comedies given in more intellectual circles. -Stendhal (Marie Henri Beyle), in his <i>Voyage en -Italie</i>, reports that in Rome he witnessed a wonderful -performance of Machiavelli’s <i>Mandragore</i> performed -for a select and highly cultured circle by marvellous -little marionettes on a stage scarcely five feet -wide but perfect in every detail. Rome has always -abounded in puppet theatres. Ernest Peixotto writes -in 1903 that noblemen were in the habit of giving -plays acted by fantoccini in their palaces, plays reeking -with escapades and political satire that dared -not show its face on the public boards. Stendhal -wrote also that he found Cassandrino at the <i>Teatro -Fiano</i> very much the vogue, presented as a fashionable -man of the world falling in love with every petticoat.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span> -Teoli, who had made the part famous, was an -engraver by profession as well as an expert marionettist. -His delightful little Cassandrino was sometimes -allowed to appear in a three-cornered hat and -scarlet coat suggesting the cardinal, sometimes as a -foppish Roman citizen, clever and experienced but -still with a weakness for the ladies. He was a charming -instrument for voicing popular criticism against -the ecclesiastics and the government. What wonder -that Teoli’s theatre was sometimes closed and he -himself imprisoned? But Gregory XVI reopened the -theatre and long after Teoli’s death it remained in -the hands of his family.</p> - -<p>At the present time in what was formerly this very -Fiano theatre, in the Piazza S. Apollinare, there still -exists a prominent show of fantoccini. Here the small -auditorium is perfectly fitted out for the accommodation -of the very respectable middle-class audience with a -sprinkling of the aristocracy. The stage is well lighted, -there is an orchestra, the dolls are beautifully, nay, -elegantly dressed. Here we find Pulcinella entering -into the plays, a well-mannered, dexterous Pulcinella. -The ballet is amazingly graceful, often ending with a -tableau or even fireworks.</p> - -<p>The most popular puppet theatre in Rome to-day, -however, seems to be that in the Piazza Montanara. -Here the rather primitive fantoccini present, most -frequently, the ancient tales of chivalry from Ariosto -but their repertory also includes such diverse dramatic -material as <i>Aeneas, King of Tunis</i> and <i>The Discovery<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span> -of the Indies by Christopher Columbus</i>. The -audience sitting in the pit is composed chiefly of -rough, bronzed working men with thick, unkempt -hair, a noisy crowd all eating cakes or cracking pumpkin -seeds between their teeth. A spectator thus -describes a performance: “To-day they are to perform -the lovely tale of <i>Angellica and Medoro</i>, or <i>Orlando -Furioso and the Paladins</i>. The curtain rises -and the marionettes appear. The valiant Roland -and Pulcinella, his squire, come forth with a bound -and neither of them touches the ground. Roland -is covered with iron from head to foot and holds in -his hand the Durlindana, [his sword]. Pulcinella -has white stockings, a white costume, with wide -sleeves, and a white cap with a tassel. The marionettes -are two feet high, their limbs perfectly supple, -and lend themselves to any movement, etc. etc.”</p> - -<p>The same account tells us that the play of <i>Christopher -Columbus</i> had been given here fourteen evenings -in succession, three times an evening. In it -the Indians excited special curiosity, decked out with -splendid plumes.</p> - -<div id="i_062" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> - <img src="images/i_100.jpg" width="3027" height="2017" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Italian Puppet Ballet</span></p> - -<p>[From a drawing in Hermann S. Rehm’s <i>Das Buch der Marionetten</i>]</p></div></div> - -<p>In 1912 Mr. W. Story visited a similar theatre of -fantoccini in Genoa where elaborate productions (usually -of the wars of the Paladins) were presented to -an ever-receptive audience. “What is that great -noise of drums inside?” inquired Mr. Story of the -ticket seller. “Battaglio,” was the reproving reply, -“E sempre battaglie!” (Always battle!) Although -this perpetual fray was rather crude, it was followed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span> -by an excellent ballet which danced the most intricate -steps with masterly ease and grace.</p> - -<p>There is an account by Charles Dickens of the show -which he witnessed in Genoa. It is too entertaining -to be omitted.</p> - -<p>“The Theatre of Puppets, or <i>Marionetti</i>, a famous -company from Milano, is, without any exception, -the drollest exhibition I ever beheld in my life, etc.</p> - -<p>“The comic man in the comedy I saw one summer -night, is a waiter at a hotel. There never was such -a locomotive actor since the world began. Great -pains are taken with him. He has extra joints in his -legs, and a practical eye, with which he winks at the -pit, in a manner that is absolutely insupportable to a -stranger, but which the initiated audience, mainly -composed of the common people, receive (as they do -everything else) quite as a matter of course, and as -if he were a man. His spirits are prodigious. He -continually shakes his legs, and winks his eye.</p> - -<p>“There is a heavy father with grey hair, who sits -down on the regular conventional stage-bank, and -blesses his daughter in the regular conventional way, -who is tremendous. No one would suppose it possible -that anything short of a real man could be so -tedious. It is the triumph of art.</p> - -<p>“In the ballet, an Enchanter runs away with the -Bride, in the very hour of her nuptials. He brings -her to his cave, and tries to soothe her. They sit -down on a sofa (the regular sofa! in the regular place, -O. P. Second Entrance!) and a procession of musicians<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> -enter; one creature playing a drum, and knocking -himself off his legs at every blow. These failing -to delight her, dancers appear. Four first; then two; -the two; the flesh-coloured two. The way in which -they dance; the height to which they spring; the -impossible and inhuman extent to which they pirouette; -the revelation of their preposterous legs; the -coming down with a pause, on the very tips of their -toes, when the music requires it; the gentleman’s -retiring up, when it is the lady’s turn; and the lady’s -retiring up when it is the gentleman’s turn; the final -passion of a pas-de-deux; and going off with a bound! -I shall never see a real ballet, with a composed countenance, -again.</p> - -<p>“I went, another night, to see these Puppets act -a play called ‘St. Helena, or the Death of Napoleon.’ -It began by the disclosure of Napoleon, with -an immense head, seated on a sofa in his chamber at -St. Helena; to whom his valet entered, with this -obscure announcement:</p> - -<p>“‘Sir Yew ud se on Low!’ (The ow, as in cow).</p> - -<p>“Sir Hudson (that you could have seen his regimentals!) -was a perfect mammoth of a man, to -Napoleon; hideously ugly; with a monstrously disproportionate -face, and a great clump for the lower-jaw, -to express his tyrannical and obdurate nature.</p> - -<p>“He began his system of persecution by calling -his prisoner ‘General Buonaparte’; to which the -latter replied, with the deepest tragedy, ‘Sir Yew ud -se on Low, call me not thus. Repeat that phrase<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> -and leave me! I am Napoleon, Emperor of France!’ -Sir Yew ud se on, nothing daunted, proceeded to entertain -him with an ordinance of the British Government, -regulating the state he should preserve, and -the furniture of his rooms; and limiting his attendants -to four or five persons. ‘Four or five for me!’ -said Napoleon. ‘Me! One hundred thousand men -were lately at my sole command; and this English -officer talks of four or five for me!’</p> - -<p>“Throughout the piece, Napoleon (who talked -very like the real Napoleon, and was forever having -small soliloquies by himself) was very bitter on ‘these -English soldiers’ to the great satisfaction of the audience, -who were perfectly delighted to have Low -bullied; and who, whenever Low said ‘General Buonaparte’ -(which he always did; always receiving the -same correction) quite execrated him. It would be -hard to say why; for Italians have little cause to -sympathize with Napoleon, Heaven knows.</p> - -<p>“There was no plot at all, except that a French -officer, disguised as an Englishman, came to propound -a plan of escape, and being discovered (but -not before Napoleon had magnanimously refused to -steal his freedom), was immediately ordered off by -Low to be hanged, in two very long speeches, which -Low made memorable, by winding up with ‘Yas!’ -to show that he was English, which brought down -thunders of applause. Napoleon was so affected -by this catastrophe, that he fainted away on the -spot, and was carried out by two other puppets.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span></p> - -<p>“Judging from what followed, it would appear -that he never recovered from the shock; for the next -act showed him, in a clean shirt, in his bed (curtains -crimson and white), where a lady, prematurely -dressed in mourning, brought two little children, -who kneeled down by the bedside, while he made a -decent end; the last word on his lips being ‘Vatterlo.’</p> - -<p>“Dr. Antommarchi was represented by a puppet -with long lank hair, like Mawworm’s, who, in consequence -of some derangement of his wires, hovered -about the couch like a vulture, and gave medical -opinions in the air. He was almost as good as Low, -though the latter was great at all times, a decided -brute and villain, beyond all possibility of mistake. -Low was especially fine at the last, when, hearing -the doctor and the valet say, ‘The Emperor is dead!’ -he pulled out his watch, and wound up the piece -(not the watch) by exclaiming, with characteristic -brutality, ‘Ha! ha! Eleven minutes to six! The -General dead! and the spy hanged!’</p> - -<p>“This brought the curtain down, triumphantly.”</p> - -<p>Goethe was greatly interested by the shows in -Naples where every event of local interest was introduced -upon the puppet stage. The humor of the -Neapolitan Pulcinella was often vulgar; ladies were -not supposed to visit the shows, although they were -frequently given in fine society. On the street where -they were most popular, however, they drew about -them picturesque audiences reminiscent of Hogarth’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span> -sketches. Pulcinella was made to speak with a -squeaky voice by means of the pivetta, a little -metal contrivance placed in the mouth of the actor. -It is formed of two curved pieces of tin or brass, -bound together and hollow inside. The voice, -passing through this, acquired a shrill and ridiculous -sound.</p> - -<p>Until the eighteenth century the puppets enjoyed -celebrity and prestige in Venice. Vittorio Malmani -tells us that from the sixteenth century when they -became the vogue among Italian nobility, Venetian -patricians were accustomed to build elaborate little -puppet theatres in their palaces. One example of -this was that of Antonio Labia, who exactly reproduced -in miniature the huge theatre, S. Giovanni -Grisostomo, famous throughout Europe, stage, boxes, -decorations, machinery, lighting facilities, costumes—everything -precisely imitated the larger theatre. The -actors were figurines of wax and wood. The first -drama produced here was <i>Lo Starnuto d’Ercole</i> (The -Sneeze of Hercules) which we may find described in -Goldini’s memoirs.</p> - -<p>In the Piazza of San Marco and in the Piazzetta -until the fall of the Republic, so Malamani tells us, -the castelli of the burattini were numerous during -carnival time. In the eighteenth century the <i>casotti</i> -of Paglialunga and Bordogna were great rival attractions -until the former showman died and his little -actors went to swell the company of Bordogna, whose -descendants continued the theatre throughout the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span> -eighteenth century. The casotto of Bordogna has -been painted by the brush of Longhi, standing near -the great dove of the Ducal Palace.</p> - -<p>A. Calthrop tells of his recent visit to a rough -little place, <i>Teatro Minerva</i>, where three-foot burattini, -looking life size, were manipulated crudely to -the intense satisfaction of the audience. He mentions -a well-managed maschere, Guillette and her -lover, a clownish dwarf, both speaking in the Venetian -dialect, and after the play, the marionette ballet. -Another account tells of a pretty little puppet theatre -with boxes, galleries and parquet where dolls thirty-five -inches high play classic tragedy of four or five -acts and comedy and pantomime, including always -a marvellous ballet. Here the most admired puppet -receives encores, even bouquets and very properly -bows in response. The stages of such little theatres -are as complete as the most luxurious real stages. -The figures can sit on chairs, open bureau drawers, -carry objects, and they are carefully and beautifully -costumed. The dialogue and subjects are far removed -from the triviality of the crude castelli, where -the pupazzi are manipulated on the fingers of the -showman. It is not unusual to witness <i>Nebuccodnoser</i> -performed by fantoccini or Rossini’s operas.</p> - -<p>In recent issues of <i>The Marionette</i> one will find an -enthusiastic eulogy of a remarkable puppet theatre -in Torino, the proprietors of which were the Lupi -brothers. They had inherited their profession from -their grandfather, a wandering showman of Ferrara,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span> -and from their father, a man of lively talent who had -established the present theatre. The two brothers -were named Luigi I and Luigi II, respectively; only -one is still living. Their show has been taken far -and wide. It travelled from Buenos Aires to London, -from Chicago to Venice, and has gained as great -applause as did the puppets of the famous Prandi -brothers of Brescia in their day. The repertory embraces -the universe in time and space, extends from -the flood to the siege of Makalle; comprises mythology, -natural history and city news; stretches -from China to California, from Cafrena to Greenland, -from spaces in the air to abysses of ocean, from -the circles of Paradise to the caverns of Hell. It -includes the old commedia dell’arte, dramas from all -literatures, the ballets of Pratesi and Manzotti, the -operas of Meyerbeer and Verdi, all the military glories -of the nation from the battle of Goito to the occupation -of Rome, all the congresses, earthquakes, epidemics, -floods, coronations, exhibitions, etc.</p> - -<p>In Bologna flourished the show founded by Filippo -Cuccoli, whose clever invention of the character -Sandrone became so popular. In the hands of the -son, Angelo Cuccoli, the puppets continued until -1905, delighting the public with their sprightly gayety.</p> - -<p>In Bologna, too, lived the marionettist whom -Gordon Craig designates simply but reverently as -<i>Maestro</i>. His trade was that of a watchmaker, but -he was a master showman of burattini, and the shows -in his unpretentious castello are the true evidences<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span> -of his devotion and deep understanding of the art -of the marionette.</p> - -<p>There are, it is claimed, over four hundred edifizi -for marionettes, large and small, in Italy, to say -nothing of the wandering booths of which there are -two or three times as many. The large mechanical -theatres compete with regular players.</p> - -<p>The most modern maschere on the puppet stage -has changed a little in appearance, if not in spirit -from the ancient masks. We are told of a miniature -Tartaglia, who twists his lips into a grimace; of a -puppet, Rogantino, who grinds his teeth; of Stenterello, -who can put his finger to his nose and scratch -it; and of the newer mask, Carciofo, who has a hollow -metallic case for a body which enables him to eat -macaroni, drink and smoke. He can also undress -himself! In North Italy, Gian Duja is a puppet -hero whose exploits delight the public almost as much -as those of the Paladins. He is of Piedmontese -origin. He slays whomever he encounters, modern -politics being mixed up with his various and mighty -adventures.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>The marionettes are an absorbing interest for the -people of Sicily. There is something appealing about -the audiences of the usual modest theatrino. It -is composed entirely of men and boys; many of them -may have eaten dry bread without cheese or onions -to save the small sum required for admission. The -people of the country are very poor, but this is their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span> -favorite diversion. So they sit crowded into a dark -little hall, spellbound for hours, transported into a -world of romance which their spirits crave. It may -be filled with crude, primitive puppets, but it is glorified -by the vivid intensity of their imaginations.</p> - -<p>The Sicilian shows are not very unlike the Italian. -One finds farces with local maschere, grotesque -comedy, passion-plays, tragedies and occasional ballets. -But of all plays those forever and most intensely -adored are the ones founded upon the episodes -of Ariosto’s <i>Orlando Furioso</i>. Night after night the -successions of thrilling adventures proceed. Year -after year the same dramas are presented, regardless -of historic veracity or of the artistic unities; their -spell remains the same. Time cannot wither nor -custom stale their infinite invariability. The spectators -recognize (nay, they anticipate) each puppet -hero or villain as he enters. They know every detail -of every character’s costume. They have the order -of events by heart.</p> - -<p>Mr. Henry Festing Jones, wandering delightfully -in Sicily, visited a show in Trapani where the burattini -were presenting some version of the Paladins of -France. Before entering, his guide, Pasquale, informed -him: “She will die to-night.” He referred -to Bradamante. Mr. Jones expressed regret and -asked for particulars, whereupon Pasquale elucidated: -“She will die of grief at the loss of her husband.” -And so, indeed, she did. It proved an -affecting scene and was read with deep pathos. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span> -Empress Marfisa, searching for Bradamante in the -woods, finds her prostrate in a grotto. “Farewell, -sister, I am dying.” Then she dies. An angel -flutters down and receives her soul from her lips.</p> - -<p>More thrilling, of course, was the fighting of the -red-eyed Ferrain, performed the same night (red-eyed, -incidentally, “because he was always in a -rage”). The first episode presented Ferrain and -Angelica whose husband he killed. “He cut off -Duca d’Anela’s head, which rolled about on the stage. -Immediately there came three Turks. Ferrain -stabbed each as he entered, one, two, three, and their -bodies encumbered the ground as the curtain fell.</p> - -<p>“It rose as soon as the bodies had been removed, -Ferrain stamping about alone. There came three -more Turks. He stabbed them as they came, one, -two, three, and their bodies encumbered the ground. -To them there came three knights in armour; Ferrain -fought them all three together for a very considerable -time and it was deafening. He killed them -all. Their bodies, etc., together with those of the -three Turks. A bloody sight.”</p> - -<p>These fantoccini of Trapani were large and crude, -dressed in heavy armor. An iron rod, extending up -from the head, another attached to the sword hand -served for the moving and manipulating of them. -Strings were employed to raise the vizier, etc. The -legs and arms were apt to swing rather wildly in the -heat of the fray, the combatants often sweeping off -their feet through the air. Then armor clashed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span> -against armor, body against body, swords shivering -against shield. Truly, an amazing display!</p> - -<p>However naïve or even childishly absurd some of -these exaggerated episodes may appear, viewed with -a sympathetic eye they become manifestations of -unconscious romance in the spirit of the Sicilian -people, a curiously mingled heritage which is theirs. -While the Paladins and Saracens heroically stamp -across the boards of the puppet show, one may sit -back and recall the many great races dwelling about -the Mediterranean, which have had their influence in -Sicily from the Phoenicians and Greeks, Normans -and Saracens down. One remembers the reign of -the Emperor Frederick II, the strange blending of -East and West, the Christian cathedrals of Moslem -design and decoration, a time inspired by the songs -of the troubadours wandering through the blossoming -land and spreading their spell of Carolingian -chivalry and romance.</p> - -<p>The familiarity of the people with the long and -intricate legends they love so well is humorously -portrayed by Mr. Henry Festing Jones. This author -was particularly fortunate in having formed a friendship -with a very busy <i>buffo</i> of Palermo and with his -entire family. Hence the illuminating intimacy of -his visits behind the scenes. In a letter anticipating -Mr. Jones’ visit, the buffo writes concerning his show -that the marionettes had just produced <i>Samson</i> and -that, “just now in <i>The Story of the Paladine</i>, Orlando -is throwing away his arms and running about naked<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span> -in the woods, mad for the love of Angelica, and -soon we shall have the burning of Bizerta and the -destruction of the Africans. This will finish in July -and then we shall begin <i>The Story of Guido Santo</i>.” -This programme appears to have been carried out in -order, for Mr. Jones, arriving at the <i>teatrino</i>, found -the performance of <i>Guido Santo</i> in full swing.</p> - -<p>“The buffo,” he writes, “took me into his workshop -to show me two inflammable Turkish pavilions -which he was making. Ettorina in her madness -was to fire them in a few days, one in the afternoon, -the other at the evening repetition, as a conclusion -to the spectacle. I inquired, ‘Who was Ettorina -and why did she go mad?’ It appeared, at great -length, that she went mad for love of Ruggiero Persiano.</p> - -<p>“Next morning,” continues the narrator, “I called -on the buffo in his workshop. The two inflammable -Turkish pavilions were finished, ready to be fired -by Ettorina, and he was full of his devils.” This led -to another question: “I never heard of Argantino -before. Did you say he was the son of Malagigi?”</p> - -<p>“That is right. He did not happen to be at Roncesvalles, -so he was not killed with Orlando and the -other paladins. An angel came to him and said, -‘Now the Turks will make much war against the -Christians and, since the Christians always want a -magician, it is the will of Heaven that you shall have -the rod of Malagigi, who is no longer here, and that -Guido Santo shall have la Durlindana, the sword<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span> -of Orlando.’ And it was so, and Argantino thereafter -appeared as a pilgrim.”</p> - -<p>“I remember about Malagigi; he made all of -Rinaldo’s armor.”</p> - -<p>“Excuse me, he made some of his armor; but he -did not make his helmet, nor his sword Fusberta, nor -his horse Baiardo. First you must know that Rinaldo -was one of the four brothers, sons of Amone, -and their sister was Bradamante.”</p> - -<p>“I saw her die at Trapani. The Empress Marfisa -came and found her dying of grief in a grotto for -loss of her husband, Ruggiero da Risa.”</p> - -<p>“Precisely; she was Marfisa’s sister-in-law because -she married Marfisa’s brother, Ruggiero da Risa.”</p> - -<p>“Then who was the cavaliere errante, Ruggiero -Persiano?”</p> - -<p>“He was the son of Marfisa and Guidon Selvaggio, -and this Guidon Selvaggio was the son of Rinaldo.”</p> - -<p>“Had Bradamante no children?”</p> - -<p>“Guido Sante is the son of Bradamante and Ruggiero -da Risa.”</p> - -<p>“I heard something about Guido Sante in Castellinaria -the other day. Let me see, what was it? -Never mind. I hope he left children.”</p> - -<p>“I told you last year that he never married.”</p> - -<p>“Oh, yes, of course; what was I thinking of? One -cannot remember everything at once and pedigrees -are always confusing at first. Then it was for love -of Bradamante’s nephew by marriage, Ruggiero Persiano, -that Ettorina has now gone mad?”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span></p> - -<p>“Bravo. And Malagigi was Bradamante’s -cousin.” The buffo then continued to tell the story -of Malagigi and Argantino. How Malagigi, the sorcerer, -albeit a Christian, began to have fears of not -getting into Heaven when he died, hence decided to -repent and burn all his magic books but one. After -having accomplished this, he summoned his confidential -and private devil and commanded, “Convey -me to some peaceful shore where I may repent of my -sins and die of grief in a grotto.”</p> - -<p>Here his friend objected that this made “consecutive -fifths” with his cousin Bradamante dying -of grief in a grotto in Trapani. The buffo admitted -it would have been better if one of them had had the -originality to die in bed as a Christian, but that it -was the will of Heaven and could not be altered; -besides the people who missed the death of Bradamante -would be pleased to see Malagigi die. After -repenting like S. Gerolamo in his grotto, Malagigi -died there. A long time after his son Argantino and -his second cousin Guido Santo were travelling in -Asia and found the tomb. Guido knelt down, saying, -“I perceive here a sepulchre.”</p> - -<p>Presently the tomb opened and Malagigi’s skeleton -rattled up and spoke to them. He gave his magic -book to Argantino, the horse Sfrenato to Guido and -made them swear to preserve the faith. After his -skeleton retired to the tomb it closed by a miracle -while a ball of fire ran over the stage. “And all -this,” said the buffo, “happened only last Friday.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> -Why did you not come in time to see it? It was -very emotional.”</p> - -<p>Later the buffo gave a private performance of this -emotional scene and then “to take the taste of the -skeleton out of our mouths,” as Mr. Jones puts it, -he brought forth a <i>Ballo Fantastico</i>. It was done by -a heavy Turk who danced himself to pieces, each -limb falling off and being changed into a little devil, -the head into a wizard and so on, until there were -sixteen different devils, wizards, serpents, etc., from -the one original Turk. After this there came on a -marvellous rope-dancer, extraordinarily lifelike and -amusing.</p> - -<p>At Catania, at the <i>Teatro Sicilia</i> of Gregorio Grasso, -Mr. Jones saw <i>The Passion</i> performed by puppets -during Holy Week. Every scene was presented in -detail, from the meeting of the Sanhedrin and the -conspiracy between Annas and Caiaphas to destroy -the Nazarene to the Resurrection and the Ascension. -The figures were all newly costumed for this occasion -and their faces freshly painted, but there lingered -about the soldiers a flavor reminiscent of the Paladins. -The scenes were arranged quite in the manner of -the paintings of old masters. The table set for the -Last Supper and the puppets seated around it strongly -suggested Leonardo da Vinci. The figure of Jesus, -although not wholly successful, was manipulated with -great understanding. It moved but little, and then -with simple, slow gestures; it was allowed to speak -only the few words given to Christ in the Gospels.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span> -When it caused a miracle, a great light appeared and -there was music. The puppets here also performed -the <i>Nativita</i> at Christmas. For the rest they had the -usual Sicilian repertory.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>In Spain, as in Italy, one may trace the beginnings -of puppetry back to the ecclesiastic ceremonies in -churches and monasteries where articulated figures -presented scenes from Holy Writ and legends of -saints and martyrs,—all this notwithstanding repeated -canonical prohibitions. These little figures -remained as late as the sixteenth century in the -churches of Seville. We are told by Charles Magnin -that at the commencement of the seventeenth century -a synod was held at Orhuela, a little Valencian bishopric -which solemnly forbade “admission into churches -of small images of the Virgin and female saints, curled, -painted, covered with jewels and dressed in silks and -resembling courtesans.”</p> - -<div id="i_078" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 35em;"> - <img src="images/i_118.jpg" width="2721" height="2003" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Wooden Spanish Puppets</span></p> - -<p>Part of a large and elaborate set</p> - -<p>[Courtesy of the Bradlay Studios, New York]</p></div></div> - -<p>The emperor, Charles V, had a great love for -curious and ingenious mechanical toys, and with such -encouragement many mechanicians applied themselves -to the invention of automatic contrivances. Giovanni -Torriani is said to have won favor by constructing -a very wonderful clock. When Charles V -abdicated his throne and retired to the monastery -of Cremona, the loyal Torriani followed him to his -retreat, and many an hour this famous mathematician -spent distracting the saddened monarch with -marionette shows. He constructed marvellous <i>titeres</i>, -as the Spanish puppets are called, little armed men<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span> -who blew horns, beat drums, and fought; little horses -and even miniature bull-fights.</p> - -<p>At the marriage festival of Louis XIV and the -Infanta Maria Teresa a feature in the procession -which welcomed Mazarin’s arrival in Spain was a -group of mammoth Moors and their wives, which -moved ponderously along by means of very intricate -internal mechanisms.</p> - -<p>There had previously been theatrical puppets in -Spain, but these mechanical improvements were soon -adopted by the popular <i>titereros</i>, showmen, and the -marionettes sprung up in all public places, in cities, -villages, fairs, even at court.</p> - -<p>The characters and repertories of the titeres were -always strictly national, although the exhibitors were -frequently foreigners. Moors, knights, giants, enchanters, -conquerors of the Indies, saints, hermits, -bull-fighters, characters from the old and new testaments, -all were displayed in the puppet castello. -The Spanish <i>Grazioso</i>, costumed somewhat in the -fashion of Pierrot, was never a very prominent puppet; -he later acquired the name of Don Christobal Pulichinela. -A well-known type of wandering show consisted -of a blind man, led by a boy, with a mule and -wagon to carry the castello and equipment. The -blind man generally recited the text of the play, the -boy operated the puppets. Cervantes depicts a -Spanish show for us where Don Quixote and Sancho -Panza saw performed, “The manner in which Signor<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span> -Gayferos accomplished the deliverance of his spouse -Melisandra,” and he relates with much spirit how -Don Quixote’s chivalrous zeal interfered with the -performance of Master Peter’s puppets. Since that -time, over three hundred years, there has been little -change in the titeres of Spain.</p> - -<p>In 1877 in Madrid Molière’s <i>Monsieur Pourceaugnac</i> -was presented by marionettes. In 1808 a French -savant was present at a Valencian puppet show when -the <i>Death of Seneca</i> was performed. The account -tells us that, “In the presence of the audience the -celebrated philosopher ended historically by opening -his veins in a bath. The streams of blood that flowed -from his arms were simulated cleverly enough by the -movement of red ribbon. An unexpected miracle, -less historic than the mode of his death, wound up -the drama. Amidst the noise of fireworks the pagan -sage was taken up into Heaven in a <i>glory</i>, pronouncing, -as he ascended, the confession of his faith in Jesus -Christ to the perfect satisfaction of the audience. -Spain, a country of anomalies, is not to be disconcerted -by an anachronism.”</p> - -<p>In Portugal the titeres were used so frequently to -represent hermits and monks in monkish garb that -they come to be called <i>Bonifrates</i>. They were quite -similar to the Spanish marionettes.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_81" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="The_Puppets_in_France"><i>The Puppets in France</i></h2> -</div> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indentq">“Ainsi font font font</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Les petites marionettes</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Elles font font</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Trois petits tours et puis s’en vont.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">The</span> French, scarcely less than the Italians, are devotees -of the diminutive Polichinelle. Moreover in -France this devotion is particularly noticeable in the -upper classes. Perhaps it is this interest of aristocratic -and cultured circles or possibly the happy -genius and good taste of the people themselves which -have endowed the marionettes of France with such -undeniable charm, a sort of chic cleverness and at -times a rare and finished beauty.</p> - -<p>The ancient Gauls, before their conquest by the -Romans, had great Druid gods, Belen, Esus, Witolf, -Murcia, represented by huge and fearful idols which -were operated by means of internal mechanism to -terrorize into submission the fierce, barbaric worshipers -who beheld their solemn gestures. After the -conquest Greek and Roman practices were intermingled -with barbarian rites and, eventually, the -doctrine of Christianity was infused into the mass -of strange beliefs and superstitions. But even in -the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, after the new<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> -religion had become established in the land, its priests -continued to employ the moving images as they had -done in the churches of Italy. Similarly too, we -find the sacred representations and religious rites -within the churches giving birth to the mysteries and -morality plays just outside which gradually spread -to booths in the market places and roamed the -countryside under the guidance of ambulant showmen. -In the Provençal cribs, the <i>Crèches parlantes</i> -of the southern cities at Christmas time, there are -to-day many qualities remaining from these old mysteries; -the large decorated stages, the technical devices, -the transformations, the beautifully dressed, -articulated dolls, the music and recitations.</p> - -<p>One characteristic of the great French <i>mitouries</i> -was the use, frequently and openly, of human actors -along with marionettes. Many records of such performances -have been preserved, among them a description -of one celebrated annually at Dieppe on the -first day of August by a company of clergy and laity -supported by several figures set in motion by means -of strings and counterweights. In the open space -before the Church of St. James there was represented -the <i>Mystery of the Assumption</i>. Four hundred <i>personaggi</i> -participated and the marvellous spectacle -attracted throngs of strangers to the city of Dieppe. -Similar performances at Christmas, Easter, or at -other times were given in all the larger cities of France, -in Rouen, Lyons, Paris, Marseilles. The plays were -of a religious character. Notable as late as the seventeenth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span> -century were the spectacles produced by the -monks of the Order of Théatines with clever movable -figures upon the presepio they constructed before -their convent door. These monks won the favor of -no less a personage than Jules Mazarin, who had them -give performances in Paris.</p> - -<p>But, as these religious puppets ventured out from -the jeweled twilight of the cathedrals into the bright -sunshine they were accosted by flippant crews of -wanderers from the South, Pulcinella, Arlecchino, -Dottore, Cassandrino, Columbine, and other protagonists -of Italian puppet drama, exploring in their -castelli the highroads and villages of a new country. -The merry foreigners intermingled happily with the -native <i>fantoches</i>; they altered their names and their -natures with easy adaptability and upon the French -puppet stage appeared in sprightly guise <i>Polichinelle</i>, -<i>Harlequin</i>, <i>Pierrot</i>.</p> - -<p>French theatrical puppets must have become established -in the sixteenth century for we find them -mentioned in a work entitled <i>Serées</i> published 1584, -by Guillaume Bouchet, juge et consul des marchands -à Poitier. Polichinelle first presented himself to the -Parisian public about 1630 and although not yet at -the height of his glory he was completely changed -into a buffoon of Gascony. In 1649 the marionettes -entered into the first permanent stage erected in -Paris for the <i>jeu des marionettes</i>, by the side of the -Porte de Nesle. The proprietors of this theatre were -two brothers (or father and son as some prefer to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span> -consider them) from Bologna, Giovanni and Francesco -Briocci, the name changed by the French to -Brioché. It is said that Brioché first displayed his -dolls to attract clients for himself as he originally -plied the trade of dentist. At any rate Francesco -carved the dolls and Giovanni improvised the dialogue -in French interspersed with quaint Italian or -Latin sayings. So amusing were these burattini that -they became tremendously the rage. We find Brioché -mentioned in the works of the academician, Perrault, -and in 1677 Nicolas Boileau speaks of him as a well -known figure in the Parisian streets, “Là non loin -de la place où Brioché préside, etc.”</p> - -<p>There is a well known story concerning Cyrano -de Bergerac and a trained ape of Brioché, <i>Fagotin</i> -by name. A contemporary account of the incident -thus describes the animal: “He was as big as a little -man and a devil of a droll. His master had put on -him an old Spanish hat whose dilapidations were -concealed by a plume: round his neck was a frill à -la Scaramouche; he wore a doublet with six movable -skirts trimmed with lace and tags,—a garment that -gave him rather the look of a lackey,—and a shoulder -belt from which hung a pointless blade.” One day -Cyrano saw the monkey arrayed in this livery wandering -and grimacing about the puppet booth. But the -poet, whose sensitiveness had been the cause of many -a duel, imagined that the poor animal was making -faces at his large nose. He grew excited and drew his -sword. Thereupon the monkey, for whom this was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span> -a well-rehearsed trick, drew forth his tiny wooden -weapon in imitation. Cyrano was infuriated beyond -reason and rushing at the creature he killed it with -his sword. All Paris heard of the event and an anonymous -pamphlet was published concerning it in 1655 -called “Combat de Cyrano de Bergerac contre le -singe de Brioché.”</p> - -<p>Another amusing tale is told of an Italian showman, -supposed to have been Brioché himself, who wandered -into Switzerland where puppets had seldom been -seen. There this venturesome fellow narrowly escaped -being burned at the stake by the simple-minded -inhabitants who swore they had heard the little -figures jabber, hence knew they were little devils -summoned by evil methods to do their master’s bidding. -He, poor man, was compelled to save his life -by stripping the puppets naked and displaying before -his judges their small crude bodies of wood and rags -and paper.</p> - -<p>However, in France the puppet show gained such -popularity and fame that in 1669 Brioché was summoned -to the court to amuse the royal Dauphin, -son of Louis XIV. Thus Polichinelle makes his bow -in the palace as the records of the royal accounts -attest: “A Brioché, joueur de marionettes, pour le -séjour qu’il a fait à Saint Germain en Laye pendant -les mois de septembre, octobre et novembre pour -divertir les Enfants de France, 1365 livres.” The -following year a French showman, Francesco Datelin, -was similarly summoned to entertain the Dauphin<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span> -with his puppets, “à raison de 20 livres par jour.” -The royal interest in marionettes extended still farther -for, some years later, Francesco Brioché and his -little wooden figures were protected by a special -order of the King himself to the Lieutenant General -of Police. And indeed, they probably needed such -protection, for their popularity seems to have stirred -up enmity against them. Besides they were often -meddlesome and impertinent and deserved the wrath -they incurred.</p> - -<p>Under such favorable conditions companies of -marionettes sprang up all over France. They attracted -the attention of many writers of the day in -whose works we may find them often and favorably -mentioned, Gacon, Scarron, La Bruyère, Lemierre, -Arnaud. Most ambitious among the immediate -successors of the Briocci was the French showman, -Bertrand, with his audacious puppets who never -hesitated to poke their wooden noses into matters of -gravest import. The revocation of the Edict of -Nantes furnished one well known occasion. The -puppets took sides, representing Catholics and Protestants -upon their little stages. Pantalone was in -one faction, Harlequin in another and Polichinelle, as -Ferrigni describes him, “always something of an -unbeliever, is ready at all times to pour ridicule upon -the hypocrisy of bigots and the libertism of reformers.” -The play drew crowds of all classes until it was finally -stopped by the authorities who had been notified of -it in this manner: “To M. de la Raynie, Councillor<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span> -of the King in Council. It is said this morning at -the Palace that the marionettes at the Fair of Saint -Germain are representing the destruction of the -Huguenots and, as you will probably find this a serious -matter for the marionettes, I have deemed it right to -give you the information thereof so that you may -make use of it according to your discretion.” But -despite an occasional rebuff, the marionettes became -more and more firmly established in the two Fairs -of Saint Laurent and Saint Germain. What clever -shows, what ingenious and indefatigable showmen! -Bienfait, Gillot, Tiquet, Maurice, De Selles, Francesco -Bodinière, the brothers Ferron at <i>The Sign -of the Giglio</i>, the <i>Théâtre des Pygmées</i> of La Grille, -the show in the Rue Marais du Temple, <i>Il Gallo</i> and -many others.</p> - -<p>Now indeed the emboldened fantoches began to -wage a most amazing battle royal, their opponents -being no other than the managers, actors and singers -of the contemporary stage. The three great theatres -alone at this time had the privilege of representing -musical opera, tragedy, or commedie nobili. The -puppets were restricted to mere farces of one scene -for not more than two characters, only one of whom -was allowed to speak and that “par le sifflet, de la -pratique,” a little contrivance which the showman -put into his mouth when reciting to produce the -shrill squeak characteristic of Polichinelle from time -immemorial. But these showmen circumvented such -limitations with many devices,—pantomimes with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span> -musical interludes and figures with printed cards -hung up to explain the action, even living children -combined with puppet play.</p> - -<p>The large marionettes of La Grille, manipulated by -wires sliding on rails and held upright by weights and -counterweights, were claimed by their owner to be a -new invention, despite the fact that similar dolls were -not unusual in Italy. At any rate they were a novelty -in France and to them King Louis XIV accorded -special privileges. Nevertheless before long they had -over-stepped them and trespassed upon the rights of -the actors of the opera. The latter complained to the -King. He issued fresh interdictions. The marionettes -subsided: only to break forth again. In 1697 -the Italian actors in the <i>Hôtel de Bourgogne</i> incurred -disfavor at court and were temporarily put out of -their theatre. Bertrand immediately installed his -puppets in triumph upon their vacated stage which -he, in turn, was eventually enjoined to quit by a -subsequent order of the King. Thus the struggle -continued.</p> - -<p>In 1720 further privileges were obtained by the -marionettes, six or seven at a time being allowed to -sing, dance or recite upon the stage. Immediately -the famous showman, Francisque, engaged three prominent -poets to write new plays for his burattini, -Fuzilier, Lesage, and d’Orneval. They set about -creating a quite new form of dramatic art, a master -stroke which has persisted ever since, the well known -<i>opéra comique</i>. The first one, <i>L’ombre du cocher<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span> -poète</i>, was given in a booth in the Foire Saint Germain -and was so enthusiastically received that the jealous -antagonism of directors and singers of the opera was -aroused more violently than ever, but the opéra -comique remained popular. Piron composed for the -burattini an opéra bouffe, La Place, Dolet, Carolet, -all invented puppet parodies on the plays and actors -of the day. Favert composed his first drama for the -pupazzi and Valois d’Orville inaugurated the <i>Revues -de fin d’année</i>, a criticism of the year’s dramatic production -by the mocking marionettes.</p> - -<p>The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are quite -rightly called the golden age of marionettes. The -puppets were executed and managed with utmost -skill, the mise-en-scène imitated the magnificence of -the larger theatres. The greater the impertinences -the greater the popularity of the puppets,—what -wonder that the Comédie Française complained of -them as a “concurrence déloyale.” But with the -entrance into the puppet shows of the spectacular, the -decline of the French marionettes began. It is true -that despite his crude and rather broad repartee so -popular in the two fairs, his jokes of doubtful taste -relished upon the boulevards, Polichinelle continued -to be the vogue among the upper classes. He was -called to perform in the salon of the Duc de Bourbon, -of the Duc de Bourgogne, of the Duchesse de Berry, -and of the Duc de Guise at Meudon. At one time, -indeed, the Duchesse de Maine had a puppet stage -built at her chateau of Sceaux and plays and epigrams<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span> -written for it by her friend and secretary, the -academician Malezieu, which finally involved an altercation -between Polichinelle and the Academy. At -the same Castle of Sceaux in 1746 the Comte d’Eu -had a company of marionettes brought in and he -operated and spoke for them himself. Voltaire, -present at this occasion, forgot his quarrel with the -burattini for having poked fun at his <i>Mérope</i> and -<i>Oreste</i> and took a hand himself at the manipulating. -Eventually he found himself composing for them and -inviting them into his own castle, Cirey, where he -may have learned many things about the traditional -Italian drama from studying the personaggi of the -puppet stage.</p> - -<p>At this time, indeed, Fourre, Beaupré, Audinot, -Nicolet and Servandoni were making lasting names -for themselves as directors of marionette theatres -but it gradually came to pass that, as the audiences -grew cold, witty jests were replaced by spectacular -surprises such as the mechanical triumphs achieved -by the puppets of Bienfait. We read of M. Pierre’s -show. “Here are to be seen in every detail, mountains, -castles, marine views; also figures that perfectly -imitate all natural movements without being -visibly acted upon by any string, storm, rain, -thunder, vessels perishing, soldiers swimming.” We -hear of Audinot’s exhibition of life-sized <i>bamboches</i> -imitating with striking resemblance celebrities of the -day, displaying the follies and vices of the eighteenth -century courts. Children were seen acting with puppets<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span> -and there were innumerable military pieces such as, -<i>The Bombardment of Antwerp</i>, or <i>The Taking of Charleroi</i>. -Poor Polichinelle, indeed! We will scarcely be surprised -to find him struggling along as best he can and finally -suffering a last indignity by losing his little wooden -head for the edification of the Parisian mob on the very -day, at the very hour, when the unfortunate monarch -Louis XVI was guillotined.</p> - -<p>Everywhere puppets have originated among the -common people: they are primarily an expression of -popular taste. Nevertheless, this rude show of the -masses has frequently aroused the curiosity of artists -and some of them have found in the very naïveté -of the dolls unexpected artistic possibilities. The -delightful potentialities have been developed into -an exquisite and unique art genre in many countries, -particularly in France.</p> - -<p>We have seen the kings and courts entranced by -the burattini of Brioché and his followers. Lesage, -Piron and other dramatists were engaged in writing -plays for the fantoches; even the great Voltaire entertained -his distinguished guests at Cirey with his -own puppet shows. Rousseau was interested in them. -Gounod wrote “The Funeral March of a Marionette.” -Charles Magnin, learned member of the Académie -Française, devoted himself to the task of chronicling -the long history of puppetry. Charles Nodier, persistent -visitor of the Parisian shows, is called by -some Polichinelle’s laureate for the many sparkling -pages in his works that are devoted to the marionette.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span></p> - -<p>We shall not be so greatly surprised, therefore, -to learn that George Sand had her own puppet theatre -at her estate, Nohant, where for thirty years she -herself arranged the plays and dressed the dolls while -her son, Maurice, sculptured them and acted as director. -It was called, <i>Théâtre des amis</i> and the first -performance was given in 1847. This was a very -crude affair got up by Maurice Sand and Eugene -Lambert (painter of cats) for themselves and a circle -of intimate friends. The stage itself was merely a -chair with its back turned to the audience, a cardboard -frame arranged in front of it with a curtain -to be rolled up and down. The operator knelt upon -the seat of the chair, on his hands were placed the -puppets, which consisted merely of dresses hung upon -sticks of wood for the head, scarcely carved at all. -Being tremendously successful, this performance was -followed by others. Thus the theatre grew.</p> - -<div id="i_092" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_134.jpg" width="2002" height="2870" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">George Sand’s Puppet Theatre at Nohant</span></p> - -<p>[From Ernest Maindron’s <i>Marionettes et Guignols</i>]</p></div></div> - -<p>George Sand developed very decided theories about -her little dolls. She writes that she prefers the sort -which may be manipulated on three fingers to those -moved by means of wires. Her feeling was that when -she thrust her hands into the empty skirts of the -inanimate puppet it became alive with her soul in -its body, the operator and puppet completely one. -She disapproved of realistic puppets. The faces of -her dolls were carved with great skill but purposely -left crude, painted in oil without varnish to get the -strongest effect, with real hair and beards and special -attention given to getting light into the eyes. There<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span> -were, eventually, over one hundred dolls including -such as Pierrot, Guignol, Gendarme, Isabelle della -Spade, Capitaine, also well known types and personages -of the day. Very popular and subsequently -famous was the <i>Green Monster</i> at Nohant. It appears -that in one of the early plays the cast called for a -green monster. Upon the maker of the marionettes -devolved the task of supplying one. Madame Sand, -nothing daunted, discovered an old felt slipper. By -using the opening as the wide jaws of the dragon and -lining it with red to represent the inside of the mouth, -a very effective, long snout was presented which, -with a hand slipped inside, could be opened and closed -most fearfully and threateningly. It was a highly -successful <i>green monster</i>. Whenever it appeared there -was much applause, and nobody ever seemed to -notice or to care that it had been manufactured out -of <i>blue</i> felt.</p> - -<p>The repertoire of the Théâtre des amis was varied, -sometimes fantastic whimsies, sometimes travesties -on daily events; sometimes the managers grew ambitious -and presented spectacular scenes with ballets; -the literary side of the production was always emphasized. -These shows, the best of their sort, continued -through most troublesome times of political -upheaval and George Sand has written some touching -paragraphs upon the fact that hearts sorely -grieved by these national trials, could find distraction -and a moment’s respite with the marionettes.</p> - -<p>The puppets, too, had their vicissitudes. At one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span> -time, Victor Borie, who was assisting, in attempting -to represent a fire, burnt down the whole stage. It -was built up anew with more puppets and better -equipment. Madame Sand dressed the new dolls as -she had the old. More helpers had to be called in, -all talented persons who entered into the work with -enthusiasm. The audience always contained celebrated -people, representatives of literature, art, music -and statesmanship. Once when the puppets presented -a parody upon <i>La Dame aux Camellias</i> (presumably -not for young ladies) Dumas, fils, came to -see and enjoy the production. In 1880 the puppets -moved from Nohant to Passy to the home of Maurice -Sand, where a large theatre had been prepared for -them. Here there were over four hundred elaborate -dolls. But in 1889 Maurice Sand died and the -Théâtre des amis disappeared. A book written about -it was published in 1890.</p> - -<div id="i_094" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 40em;"> - <img src="images/i_138.jpg" width="3121" height="2012" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Puppets of George Sand’s Theatre at Nohant</span></p> - -<p>[From Ernest Maindron’s <i>Marionettes et Guignols</i>]</p></div></div> - -<p>Equally illustrious and possibly more exquisite, -more precious, were the puppets of the <i>Erotikon -theatron de la rue de la Santé</i>, established in 1862. -Here it is said puppetry was raised to an ideal level. -Here, an enthusiastic press of the day proclaimed, -here was the proof of how highly developed a naïve -and simple art may become in the hands of rare spiritual -and æsthetic personalities. Another journal, <i>Le -Boulevard</i>, exclaimed, “Again a new theatre! An intimate -theatre, Erotikon theatron, that is to say -<i>Theatre of Amorous Marionettes</i>. Reassure yourselves, -everything that transpires is most conventional;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span> -the blows of the cudgel are always protectors -of morality and if a mother would not see fit to bring -her daughter, on the other hand, painters and literateurs -of talent take delight in it.”</p> - -<p>It was indeed an exceptional experiment, a gathering -of artists, sculptors, musicians, actors, authors; -Lemercier de Neuville, the guiding spirit, assisted -in his efforts by Carjat and Gustave Doré, and also -by Amedée Rolland, Jean Dubois, Henri Monnier, -Théodore de Banville, Bizet, Poulet Malasses, Champfleury, -Duranty, Henri Dalage and others, each -contributing something toward the perfection of the -whole. M. Lemercier de Neuville was in the beginning -architect, mason, painter, machinist, carpenter, -decorator, hairdresser and tailor, actor, singer, dancer -and imitator. Alfred Delvau has written an entertaining -history of this bizarre little theatre. The -project seems to have been suggested informally at -the home of M. Amedée Rolland, by a group of distinguished -men of letters who had been lunching together, -among them De Neuville, who proceeded to -transform the idea thus lightly suggested into a concrete -reality.</p> - -<p>The auditorium seated only twenty people; its -walls were painted with mural decorations by artists -of the group, as was the proscenium arch of the stage. -The stage itself was only a trifle over two yards wide, -but it was well equipped for the presentation of quite -elaborate faeries. For the most part, however, there -were merely the pupazzi upon the stage, which M.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span> -de Neuville worked himself upon his fingers. Their -faces were modelled with unsurpassed refinement and -animation, their creator having lavished his heart -and talent in the making of them. His <i>Pierrot Guitariste</i> -was, according to Maindron, the most charming -of all puppets, in gesture and bearing a masterpiece -of mechanical and plastic art. Others have -called it the most highly perfected puppet ever created. -Another remarkable doll was the violoncellist who -could enter, bow in one hand, instrument in the other, -seat himself, tune up and play. There was a Spanish -dancer particularly graceful and alluring as well as a -wonderful ballet, worked on one horizontal string, -which glided in and out and back and forth. Sarah -Bernhardt was represented among these fascinating -pupazzi and Jules Simon, Coquelin, cadet, and other -celebrities familiar in Paris. As de Neuville lived -among the individuals he was representing what -wonder that his mimicry was close to perfection?</p> - -<p>This altogether rare little theatre unfortunately endured -for only a year and produced in all but six or -seven delightful if slightly shocking pieces, although -more had been written for it. Perhaps the dissimilarity -of talents comprising it was too great, but at -least its inspired cynicisms, amusing audacities and -exquisite spectacles have won the lasting acclamations -of the French press, of royalty and of the greatest -geniuses of the day.</p> - -<div id="i_096" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> - <img src="images/i_142.jpg" width="3020" height="2011" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="smcap"> -<span class="floatl">Sivori</span> -<span class="floatr">Coquelin Cadet</span> -<span class="floatc">Pierrot Guitariste</span> -</p> - -<p class="clear">Puppets of Lemercier de Neuville, Erotikon theatron de la rue de la Santé</p> - -<p>[Reproduced from Ernest Maindron’s <i>Marionettes et Guignols</i>]</p></div></div> - -<p>In the shadow play, as well as in the play of pupazzi, -French artists have attained great successes. -The first <i>Ombres Chinoises</i>, so called, of importance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span> -started simply enough about 1770 when Dominique -Seraphin, a young man of twenty-three, established -his little show in Versailles. In the beginning for the -amusement of children, little comical dialogues such -as <i>The Broken Bridge</i>, or <i>The Imaginary Invalid</i> (from -Molière), were presented by silhouette figures with -articulated limbs. In 1774 after a few years of unusual -success, Seraphin moved to Paris where, under -royal protection, his little shadows became very well established. -Although they had been ensconced in the -Palais Royal by favor of the king yet they managed -through the cleverness of Seraphin to sustain themselves -in popular favor after the overthrow of royalty. Indeed -they were said to be the first to avail themselves -of advertisements in the form of posted placards.</p> - -<p>The advertisement was rather charming:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Venez, garçon, venez fillette,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Voir Momus à la silhouette.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Qui, chez Seraphin, venez voir</div> - <div class="verse indent0">La belle humeur en habit noir.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Tandis que ma salle est bien sombre</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Et que mon acteur n’est que l’ombre</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Puisse, Messieurs, votre gaîté</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Devenir la réalité.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="in0">Long after the death of Seraphin, until 1870 in -fact, the show continued in the hands of his descendants, -presenting pieces especially written for it, -with music composed to accompany the shadows.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span></p> - -<p>It was the art critic, Paul Eudel, who first published -an illustrated volume of such fairy pieces and -melodramas composed by his grandfather in the first -quarter of the nineteenth century. Half a century -later Lemercier de Neuville, who was interested in -<i>pupazzi noir</i> as well as in other puppets, published -another collection of little plays with fifty illustrations -and with explanations of designs and methods -of producing the shadows. De Neuville had enlarged -the scope but had not changed the principles of the -art. He presented animals who opened their jaws, -processions and caricatures of celebrities such as -Sarah Bernhardt, Zola, and others.</p> - -<div id="i_098" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> - <img src="images/i_146.jpg" width="2975" height="2021" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Tableau</span></p> - -<p>From a shadow play of <i>The Prodigal Son</i> at the Chat Noir</p> - -<p>[Designed by Henri Rivière]</p></div></div> - -<p>Then a little later came the wonderful shadows, -now designated as <i>Ombres Françaises</i>, and shown at -the Chat Noir, famous cabaret of Montmartre where -gathered literary and artistic Bohemia. “The Chat -Noir has an art of its own,” writes Anatole France, -“that is at once mystic and impious, ironical, sad, -simple and profound, but never reverential. It is -epic and mocking in the hands of the precise Caran -d’Ache. It has a bland and melancholy viciousness -in Willette, who is, as it were, the Fra Angelico of -the cabarets. It is symbolic and naturalistic with -the very capable Henri Rivière. The forty scenes -of the ”Tentation“ of St. Anthony amaze me. -They exhibit lovely coloring, daring fancy; impressive -beauty and forcible meaning. I put them far -above the imps depicted by the austere Callot.” -These comedies, spectacles, military epics, oratorios,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span> -mysteries, Greek scenes, burlesques and pantomimes, -were indeed conceived with a certain large poetic -glamour. It was Caran d’Ache who made the great -artistic contribution of giving up articulation of individual -figures, for the most part, to move great -numbers of them along. He invented perspective in -shadows, using masses of figures in different planes -and producing a sense of solidarity and immensity. -His masterpiece, <i>Epopée</i>, the evocation of the Grand -Army of Napoleon, presented with epic grandeur -company after company of cuirassiers in long lines, -the profiles diminishing in height as the figures receded -from the eyes. It conveyed, as one critic avers, the -idea of great space and of a vast army of men marching -in serried ranks “to victory or to death.” A -few single figures were allowed to stand out distinctly -like the Little Corporal on horseback, there -was little speech only music and an occasional command. -The effect of this military silhouette was most -impressive.</p> - -<p>Next came Henri Rivière, who added the variety of -color to the shadows, and furthermore, by the use -of two magic lanterns, created dissolving views so -that the background might be altered at will. The -subjects of his elaborate pantomimes were such as -<i>The Wandering Jew</i>, <i>The Prodigal Son</i>, and <i>The Temptation -of St. Anthony</i>. Of the latter, Rehm has given -us an admiring appreciation. “We saw the sun setting -into the sea, the forests trembling in the morning -breeze; we saw deserts stretching out into the infinite,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span> -the oceans surging, great cities flaming up in the -evening with artificial lights and the moon silvering -the ripples of the rivers upon which barges were -silently and slowly gliding along. He (Rivière) employs -everything from the picturesque style of watercolor -spread on with a brush to the imitation of Japanese -color prints, pen sketch and poster style, Gothic -or Pre-Raphaelite characteristics and naturalistic impressionism. -In <i>The Sphinx</i> where the conquerors -of all centuries, from the Pharaohs to Napoleon, file -past this monument of eternity; in his <i>March of the -Stars</i> where shepherds and their flocks, beggars, slaves -and fishermen, and the Wise Men from the East make -their pilgrimage to the Virgin with the Divine Child; -in the <i>Enfant Prodigue</i> where the son of the patriarch -sets out for Egypt accompanied by his herds, -his caravan, his riders,—to return, a beggar,—everywhere -we see this art, dreamlike and philosophic, -legendary, fantastic, sublime, creating ecstatic -illusions.” Of <i>The Sphinx</i>, a collaboration of Rivière -and Caran d’Ache, Jules Lemaître writes, “Here we -have a true epic poem, simple yet grandiose.”</p> - -<p>Thus the magic touch of genius has transformed -naïve shadows into something altogether wonderful -while crude pupazzi, animated with thumb and fingers -of the artist, have grown gloriously sophisticated. -The marionettes that are moved by wire or string -also had their renaissance in the sympathetic, stimulating -atmosphere of Paris. Their technical development -J. M. Petite has called a veritable triumph of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span> -ingeniousness, of prestidigitation, and of mechanics. -The first of the <i>Operator-Magicians</i> was Thomas -Holden, who came to Paris around 1875. His puppets -performed the most perilously difficult feats. -Following in his footsteps came two brothers who -rivalled him in skill; Alfred and Charles de Saint-Genois, -who took the names of Dickson and John -Hewelt respectively. The puppets of Dickson are -said to have operated as if by magic. They were -mute and appeared on the stage singly, but the perfect -elasticity and the winged grace of their gestures -seemed truly supernatural. They were displayed at -the celebrated theatre of Robert Houdin.</p> - -<p>John Hewelt gave productions of quite a different -nature. He constructed not only a marionette stage -for his actors, but an orchestra of puppets with an -animated little leader, and diminutive spectators in -the front boxes, a little lady with an opera glass, -another with a fan, perfectly gowned in the latest -fashions, applauding or chatting after the approved -manner. Upon the stage appeared startlingly lifelike -figures impersonating Yvette Guilbert and other -celebrated actresses and actors of the day. Hewelt -stood concealed on a platform overlooking and manipulated -his puppets by three controls, with his feet -as well as his hands. But despite his unsurpassed -inventiveness, his production did not quite satisfy -the spirit. One marvelled at the difficulties overcome -more than at the beauty of the performance.</p> - -<p>As ingenious mechanically as the shows of John<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span> -Hewelt and Dickson, but conceived and carried out -in a far more inspired and artistic manner, were the -puppets of the Galérie Vivienne. <i>Le Petit Théâtre de -M. Henri Signoret</i> (1888–1892) has been immortalized -in the writings of Anatole France, most rare and -delicate critic. It was an undertaking seriously -entered upon by some of the artistic spirits in Paris -who desired to witness intelligent and sympathetic -performances of the classic drama of all lands; Greek -plays, the mysteries of the Middle Ages, Italian and -Spanish comedy of the sixteenth century. Apparently -the stage of the day did not satisfy this -desire. After encountering insurmountable difficulties -in assembling an adequate cast of good actors, -it was decided to use marionettes. Forty friends, all -artists, combined to help the director, who was the -fastidious literateur, M. Signoret. The result was a -brilliant success.</p> - -<p>The theatre was like a little jewel case in its delicate -detail; it seated only two hundred and fifty people. -The puppets were most carefully constructed. The -same skeleton framework was used for them all but -individual heads, hands and chests were put on each -frame which was finally costumed according to design. -Both the modelling of the faces and the costuming -were the inspired creations of artists. The marionettes -were moved on rails in grooves or slides, the arms -and neck being wired and manipulated by pedals -from underneath. The audience was seated low so -that the mechanism was invisible. The public who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span> -patronized this marionette theatre, indeed, consisted -of such interesting people as Jules Lemaître, Émile -Faguet, Anatole France, Hugues Leroux, and they were -unanimous in their approval. The repertoire included -classic drama of every epoch: <i>The Birds</i> by -Aristophanes, <i>Abraham</i> by the Abbess Hrotswitha, -<i>Gardien Vigilant</i> by Cervantes, <i>The Tempest</i> by Shakespeare, -<i>Tobie</i> and <i>The Legend of St. Cecelia</i> by M. -Boucher, <i>L’Amour dans les Enfers</i> by Amédée Pigeon -written expressly for the marionettes of M. Signoret.</p> - -<p>But let the fluent pen of the illustrious and enthusiastic -witness picture them to you. “I have -already made the avowal,” declares Anatole France, -“I love the marionettes and those of M. Signoret -please me particularly. These marionettes resemble -the Egyptian hieroglyphics, that is to say, something -mysterious and pure and when they represent a drama -of Shakespeare or Aristophanes I think I see the -thoughts of the poet being unrolled in sacred characters -upon the walls of the temple.” Of the representation -of <i>The Tempest</i> he writes: “M. Signoret’s -marionettes have just acted Shakespeare’s <i>Tempest</i>. -It is hardly an hour since the curtain of the little -theatre fell on the harmonious group of Ferdinand -and Miranda. I am still under the charm; as Prospero -says, ‘I do yet taste some subtleties of the Isle.’ -What a delightful play! And how true it is that -exquisite things are doubly exquisite when they are -unaffected....</p> - -<p>“Look at the marionettes of <i>The Tempest</i>. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span> -hand that carved them imprinted on them the features -of the ideal, whether it be tragic or comic. M. -Belloc, a pupil of Mercie, has modelled for the little -theatre heads which are either powerfully grotesque -or of a charming purity. His Miranda has the subtle -grace of a figure of the early Italian Renaissance and -the virginal fragrance of that fortunate fifteenth -century which made beauty bloom a second time in -the world. His Ariel in his gauze tunic spangled -with silver reminds one of a miniature Tanagra figure, -doubtless because aerial elegance of form is a particular -attribute of Hellenic art in its decline.</p> - -<p>“These two pretty puppets spoke with the clear -voices of Mesdemoiselles Paule Verne and Cecile -Dorelle. As for the more masculine parts in the -drama, Prospero, Caliban, and Stephano, poets such -as MM. Maurice Bouchor, Raoul Ponchan, Amédée -Pigeon, Felix Rabbé spoke for them. Not to mention -Coquelin, cadet, who did not disdain to repeat -the prologue as well as the amusing part of Trinculo, -the clown.</p> - -<p>“The decorations also had their poetry. M. Lucien -Doucet represented Prospero’s cave with that cunning -grace which is one of the characteristics of his -talent, etc.”</p> - -<p>Again: “In the meantime I have seen the marionettes -of the Rue Vivienne twice and I have enjoyed -them very much. I am infinitely thankful to them -for having replaced living actors.</p> - -<p>“They are divine, these dolls of M. Signoret and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> -worthy of giving form to the dreams of the poet whose -mind Plato says, was ‘the sanctuary of the Graces.’</p> - -<p>“Thanks to them we have Aristophanes in miniature. -When the curtain has risen on an aerial landscape -and we have watched the two semicircles of -birds taking their places on either side of the sacrifice, -we have formed some idea of the theatre of Bacchus. -What a delightful representation! One of the two -leaders of the birds turning to the spectators utters -these words: ‘Feeble men, like unto the leaf, vain -creatures fashioned out of clay and wanting wings, -unhappy mortals condemned to an ephemeral and -fugitive life, shadows, baseless dream....’ It is the -first time, I think that marionettes have spoken with -this melancholy gravity.”</p> - -<p>All this is very interesting and very serious, no -doubt, but what of the piping, impertinent voice of -Polichinelle? And of this merry Guignol who makes -the children laugh? It may seem odd to insert these -slapstick buffoons into the midst of aristocratic -literary puppets, but after all Guignol was growing -and thriving contemporaneously with them and the -hardy little fellow has outlived the most of them. -Less elaborate and socially less select than those -others installed in their artistic theatres, these al -fresco performances in the Champs Élysées, in the -gardens of the Tuileries and Luxembourg follow the -traditional custom of their kind. The <i>castellet</i> of -Guignol is little different from Punch’s booth, the -dolls are most often simple creatures worked on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span> -fingers, squeaking extemporary dialogue such as one -might hear from the pupazzi of Italy or the figures -of the Chinese peripatetic showman swathed in his -linen bag.</p> - -<p>Polichinelle has been through difficult times. The -French Revolution found him obscure but a patriot, -rejoicing at the new order of things. Later he was -discovered amusing Emperor Napoleon the Third at -the Tuileries Palace. In 1854 the French Zouaves -and Grenadiers in the Crimea took Polichennello -along with them and he loyally followed up to the -very battlefield. But oftenest he was to be seen, -through the long lapse of years, humiliated, humbled,—dancing -on a board at the twitch of a horizontal -string tied to the knee of some little Savoyard boy -who beat a tambourine or blew upon a pipe and sang -a pathetic song as he journeyed on to Paris. And -there, too, on sidewalks and, when the wind blew -cold, in the shelter of arches puppets danced on the -board and the little boy gathered his pennies to send -back home to his mother.</p> - -<p>Thus Polichinelle has pursued his incredible career -until we find him to-day with a devoted wife La Mère -Gigogne and many well known if less popular fellows, -such as Pierrot, and Harlequin, to say nothing of his -many delightful and successful offspring. There is -Lafleur the Polichinelle of Picardy, favorite of Amiens, -a handsome peasant fellow always pleasant spoken -even when beating up the policeman. Jacques is a -little buffoon who entertains the public of Lille in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span> -his modest basement theatre. There in <i>Joseph sold -by his Brothers</i>, or <i>Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves</i> -he performs the principal parts (“la comédie pour -un sou”). Most prominent of the progeny of Polichinelle -is Guignol. Indeed he somewhat over-shadows -his sire.</p> - -<p>Although he has established himself so thoroughly -in Paris, Guignol first came from Lyons. His creator -was the modest but expert marionettist, Laurent -Mourguet. It is he who is reported to have said to -the friends weeping at his deathbed, “I shall never -make you cry as much as I have made you laugh.” -Guignol originated in a picturesque but humble cellar -show. Although he has now moved into new and -finer quarters, he remains a modest workman simply -dressed, perpetually harried by his landlord and -always with insufficient funds to pay his rent. He has -a wife, long suffering <i>Madelon</i>, and a wild and wicked -son <i>Guillaume</i> and along with them one finds <i>Gnaffron</i>, -<i>Gringellet</i>, <i>Bobine</i>, <i>Bambochnette</i>, <i>le Gendarme</i>, <i>le Médecin</i>, -<i>le Propriétaire</i>, <i>le Juge</i>, all these and many -others.</p> - -<p>In the Gardens of the Luxembourg, on the Champs -Élysées or elsewhere in Paris, one may come upon -these little actors merrily performing on small stages -erected for them, and with an audience of spellbound -children and nursemaids sitting before the castellet.</p> - -<p>Most celebrated of these Parisian theatres is that -of the <i>Vrai Guignol</i> in the Champs Élysées. M. -Anatole, the founder of it, was the first who undertook<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span> -to expand the repertoire of Guignol and to introduce -pieces of adventure whose very names delight -one: <i>The Brigands of the Black Forest</i>, <i>The Enchanted -Village</i>, <i>Mother Michel and her Cat</i>, <i>The Temptation -of St. Anthony</i>, and many more. Unfortunately -for M. Anatole there was no copyright law for puppet -plays and when a rival showman wanted to give a -new play he merely went to see Anatole’s performance -and then reproduced it. But Anatole himself deserves -his reputation. He was an artist with prodigious -ingenuity: he wrote his own pieces, he could -give twenty distinct voices in one show as well as -manipulate the dolls. He himself carved the puppets’ -heads while his wife made the costumes.</p> - -<p>Inspired by his success a young literateur, Charles -Duranty, attempted in 1862 to <i>uplift</i> Guignol. He -had an elegant little castellet erected and he spent -months preparing the plays, giving them style and -some sort of philosophical turn. His figures were -created by artists. The prologue, it is said, was -composed by a poet. The result was—a failure. -His show appealed to too limited an audience; it -was too artistic for the nursemaids and soldiers. The -Tuileries were not for philosophy. The scenes soon -were left to Guignol and the Commissaire who are so -dear and delightful to their Parisian public. And again -recently, a version of Rostand’s <i>Chantecler</i> was given -by the puppets. There were to be seen chickens, -peacocks, dogs, even a magnificent rooster, but Guignol -and Guillaume were wanting. Surprised at first,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span> -before long the children began to clamor for their -heroes,—and they had to be satisfied.</p> - -<p>On the steamship La France, now sailing back and -forth across the ocean, one may find a little theatre for -Guignol in the children’s room. It is operated every -day by Paul Boinet who is considered one of the best -Guignol experts in France and was specially engaged -by the French Line for that reason. He operates -plays, we are told, in which there are sometimes as -many as fifteen actors and to each puppet’s voice he -manages to give a different intonation. The children’s -room of the steamer holds about fifty people and is -filled to capacity at each performance not only with -children but with grown-up people.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile literary puppets continue to afford pleasure -in the artistic salons or in semi-public productions -throughout Paris. It would be vain to attempt -to mention them all. They are of every type. The -artists of France have the <i>habit</i> of the marionette, -they express themselves spontaneously and gladly -in this métier and hence we find them giving more or -less informal presentations of poetic or satiric drama -here and there, from year to year. M. Émile Renie -had <i>le théâtre des marionettes de la Rue des Martyrs</i>; -Cayot established a <i>théâtre des pupazzi</i> in his photographic -studio. At the Paris Exposition of 1900 there -flourished a marionette theatre with a troupe of -4,000 dolls of whom the leading actors were marvels -of mechanical perfection. Quite recently a show was -installed at the Musée Grevin with decorations by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span> -Jules Cheret. It was not a great financial success -and was obliged to close its doors. In 1896 in the -Salons of <i>la Plume</i>, Lugné Poë (Director of L’Œuvre) -produced a marionette play of Alfred Jarry and -Claude Terrasse entitled <i>Ubu Roi</i>. The former also -made the drawings for two programmes, the latter -was the leader of his orchestra.</p> - -<p>Jules Lemaître in his <i>Impressions de Théâtre</i> portrays -with great interest several puppet productions -witnessed by him. One was the chic Revue in four -tableaux given in 1889 at the Salon de Helder by the -well known authoress, Gyp. It was called <i>Tout à -l’égout</i>, a very clever and original parody of the season -past. There Gyp had represented the type for which -she has grown famous, Lou-lou the pert little French -miss as seen on the Champs Élysées. There also -promenaded the literary and political celebrities satirized -in the inimitable style of the keen-eyed Gyp. -The parts were read by amateurs, effectively but with -no attempt at eloquence.</p> - -<div id="i_110" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_160.jpg" width="2045" height="2778" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Guignol and Gnafron</span></p> - -<p>Presented by Pierre Rousset, French showman</p> - -<p>[From Ernest Maindron’s <i>Marionettes et Guignols</i>]</p></div></div> - -<p>Very different in spirit was the puppet drama, -<i>Noël ou le Mystère de la Nativité</i>, by the poet Maurice -Bouchor who had been active also in the Erotikon -theatron and that of M. Signoret. It was written -in four tableaux, in verse. The music for this delicate -little mystery was composed by Paul Vidal, the -dolls were designed by MM. Henri Lombard and J. -Belloc, scenery by Félix Bouchor, brother of the poet, -Henri Lerolle and Marcelle Rieder. Lemaître described -the performance as a masterpiece of grace and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span> -beauty, particularly the last tableau of the Adoration. -“The music of the lullaby, rarely exquisite, -soft and celestial, etc. The Virgin puppet, almost -immobile, merely inclining slightly forward toward -the Infant while singing, had the candor of a lily and -appeared as beautiful in the light in which she was -bathed as the purest and most naïve Virgin of the -primitive painters.” Another play by the same poet -was given in 1894. It was in verse, five tableaux. -M. Lemaître considered it even superior as a drama -to <i>Noël</i> though possibly a bit strong for the puppets -in its philosophy. It was the last performance, unfortunately, -of the “delicious marionettes of Maurice -Bouchor.”</p> - -<p>The latest word I have heard of French puppets -comes from the war zone. Mr. Henry S. West has -written in a recent number of the <i>Literary Digest</i> of -French troops in the forests of Champenoux and -Parroy who had taken an oath “never to retreat from -Lorraine.” Hence they have made themselves a -comfortable park with flower beds, gravel paths, -rustic bench, all in their <i>Parc des Braves</i>. Most -diverting, however, are their elaborately constructed -scenes of puppet warfare. The most famous of these -is <i>The Seven Chasseurs of Domèvre</i>. It appears that -seven French soldiers at Domèvre held a bridge against -a small horde of Germans. It was a brave deed -which resounded through Lorraine. Some clever lad -wrote several stanzas about it and tacked them up on -trees. This gave the idea to a dramatic critic who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span> -was off active duty for the time. He and his friends -worked together and in a week completed the little -show and placed it where it could be seen by every -soldier passing on his way to battle.</p> - -<p>A grassy knoll was chosen. An arched bridge of -two feet was erected under which real water was -made to flow. On one side of the bridge were piled -tiny logs and trees behind which were the seven Chasseurs -eight inches high dressed in the old red and blue -French uniform, little caps on their heads, wooden -guns in their hands. Twenty Germans in real field-grey -were attempting to charge. Some were dead, -others falling, three running away, all with scared expressions -carved upon their little wooden faces. The -verses were nailed up near by:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indentq">“There were seven Chasseurs of Domèvre</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Who were so exceedingly brave</div> - <div class="verse indent0">When the Germans attacked</div> - <div class="verse indent0">They got thoroughly whacked,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">‘Voila!’ said the men of Domèvre.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_113" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Puppet_Shows_of_Germany_and_of"><i>Puppet Shows of Germany and of -Other Continental Countries</i></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">Perhaps</span> it was the luxuriant forests of Germany -offering abundant material and opportunity which -encouraged the native aptitude, at any rate the inhabitants -of the land have at all times been noted -for their skill in wood carving. Moreover they appear -to take a certain delight in mechanical devices. -From very early times these interests were applied to -the making of mechanical toys and dramatic puppets.</p> - -<p>In the dark ages we find the people of the country -carving a grotesque sort of wooden doll, called <i>Kobold</i> -or <i>Tattermann</i> which they set up in the chimney and -worshipped as a heathen household deity. Later -these little figures came to be worked by wires. As -far back as the twelfth century and according to -Charles Magnin even in the tenth century, the word -<i>Tocha</i> or <i>Docha</i> was used to signify a kind of puppet. -One of the earliest Minnesingers mentions <i>Tokkenspil</i> -in his poem and another speaks of the <i>Jongleuren</i> -attracting their audiences by displaying little dolls -which they pulled out at any time from under their -mantles.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span></p> - -<p>The subject of the early Tokkenspiel seems to -have been gathered chiefly from the legends of the -<i>Edda</i>, and from the <i>Hildebrandslied</i> and the <i>Niebelungenlied</i>. -Praetorius mentions: “Foolish jugglers’ -tents where old Hildebrand and such <i>Possen</i> are -played with <i>Dokken</i>, called puppet comedies.” Later -the mystery play appeared and the automatic <i>Kruppenspiel</i>, -religious drama here as elsewhere opening -up a path for the profane. These plays were founded -upon such themes as, <i>The Fall of Adam and Eve</i>, -<i>Goliath and David</i>, <i>Judith and Holofernes</i>, <i>King Herod</i> -or <i>The Siege of Jerusalem</i>.</p> - -<p>Of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries we have -little positive data. Romantic subjects appear to -have been used for the puppets, also history and -fable such as <i>The Four Sons of Aymon</i>, <i>Genevieve of -Brabante</i>, <i>The Lady of Roussillon</i>, and even <i>Joan of Arc</i> -which was quoted in another piece performed in 1430.</p> - -<p>Invariably the comic element appears in the puppet -shows of all nations. In Germany and Austria -the buffoon has always been a part of even the most -tragic dramas, lending variety and relief by his good -natured, if somewhat obvious jests. The first names -by which he was known in Germany may have been -Meister Eulenspiegel or Hemmerlein, later it became -Hanswurst and Kasperle. The name Kasperle, so -Rabe claims, came through Austria and Professor -Pischel goes still further in his assertion that the prototype -for Kasperle was brought into the land over -two thousand years ago from India. Later, of course,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span> -Italian and French players introduced Pulcinella and -Arlecchino with their merry company.</p> - -<p>In Hamburg puppets have been popular from -earliest times. It was in 1472 that a showman announced -<i>The Public Beheading of the Virgin Dorothea</i>. -This theme remained a favorite in the puppet plays -of that city for centuries, while the long suffering -martyr continued to be ever more and more elaborately -but neatly beheaded, in full view of the -audience. In the eighteenth century an announcement -proclaimed: “Exceptional marionette players -with large figures and, accompanied by lovely singing, -the execution of Dorothea.” The play of <i>The -Prodigal Son</i> was another great favorite. It gradually -lost its religious character and became a rather -gruesome affair producing with ingenious mechanical -appliances metamorphoses of which the country has -always been particularly fond. For instance, Reibehand, -a tailor who set up a booth in the horse market -of Hamburg, advertised in 1752: “The Arch-prodigal -chastened by the four elements, with Harlequin -a joyous companion of the great criminal.” This -<i>extra-moral</i> piece, given in great style, displays the -prodigal about to partake of fruit which turns into -skulls in his hands, then water becomes transformed -into fire, rocks rend apart disclosing a corpse hanging -from a gallows. As it swings in the wind, the limbs -fall off and then collect again, on the ground, and -arise to pursue the prodigal, and so on with similarly -pleasing surprises.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span></p> - -<p>In 1688 another showman, Elten, advertised <i>Adam -and Eve</i> and following it <i>Jackpudding in a Box</i> and -later another announces: <i>Elijah’s Translation into -Heaven</i>, or <i>The Stoning of Naboth</i>, followed by a farce, -<i>The Schoolmaster Murdered by Jackpudding</i> or <i>The -Baffled Bacon Thieves</i>.</p> - -<p>There had been in Hamburg, however, French -marionette troupes which gave very artistic puppet -operas based upon mythological subjects, such as -<i>Medea</i>, including in one of its casts a puppet who -smoked! These plays were produced in combination -with acts by living actors, jugglers, acrobats, and -trick horses.</p> - -<p>As far back as the sixteenth century scepticism -and sorcery had become the order of the day with the -Germans who have naturally a tendency toward -philosophical reflections, as well as a leaning toward -the occult and supernatural. It was then that <i>Faust</i>, -embodying both of these tendencies, first appeared -upon the puppet stage, with most significant consequences -for German literature.</p> - -<p>This puppet play might be sufficiently interesting -in itself, but the fact that it became the inspiration -for one of the world’s greatest dramas may lend an -added justification for pausing a moment to trace its -curious history. Early in the sixteenth century it is -said that the Tokkenspieler presented, at the Fairs, -<i>The Prodigious and Lamentable History of Doctor -Faustus</i>. In 1587 the famous <i>Spiesische Faust Buch</i> -was published in Frankfurt and recorded the adventures<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span> -of a semi-historical charlatan who had wandered -through Germany in the early sixteenth century. He -was famous not only for his skill in medicine but in -necromancy and other similar arts. He may have -been identical with Georgius Sabellicus who called -himself Faustus Junior, implying that there had been -a still earlier Faust. He may possibly have been -the Bishop Faustinus of Diez, seduced from the right -path by Simon Magus, or the printer of Mainz, Johann -Faust, who was declared to have been a sorcerer. -Whoever he was, the disreputable conjurer tricked -fate into granting him an immortal name. In 1588 -two students of Tübingen and a publisher were punished -for putting forth a puppet play based upon this -Spies book. There are other versions of the Faust -puppet show, that played at Strassburg, that of -Augsburg, of Ulm and of Cologne, each varying -slightly from the others. They were all first produced -about the time of Marlowe’s famous drama on the -same theme or only a trifle later.</p> - -<p>The story of the Faust play has a tremendous -appeal; it is a picture of man’s vain desires and vain -regrets. We find the scholar Faust alone in his study, -meditating over the wasted years of research and the -wisdom of this world which is so limited at best. -He turns to the black arts and summons up an evil -spirit to serve him. In one version of the puppet -play Faust calls up numerous devils and decides to -select as his own particular servant the swiftest. -Thereupon the evil spirits describe their speed. One<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span> -claims to be “as swift as the shaft of pestilence”; -the next is “as swift as the wings of the wind”; another -“as a ray of light”; the fourth “as the thought -of man”; the fifth “as the vengeance of the Avenger.” -But the last, who is Mephistopheles, is as swift “as -the passage from the first sin to the second.” Faust -replies: “That is swift indeed. Thou art the devil -for me.” Then he signs the pact with his blood. -A raven flies in and carries away the message. Mephistopheles -is bound for twenty-four years to provide -Faust with all the pleasures of this world and -also <i>to answer truthfully every question asked him</i>. -In return Faust pledges his soul to the devil at the -expiration of the time.</p> - -<p>Mephistopheles carries Faust to the court of the -Count of Parma where he entertains the count and -countess with magical shows, calling up Samson and -Delilah, David and Goliath, Solomon and the Queen -of Sheba. Throughout the play Faust is always -taken seriously; Kasperle supplies the ludicrous element. -His buffoonery is at times really amusing. -As an assistant of Faust’s servant Wagner, he meddles -with magic, on his own responsibility. Having picked -up a few words of incantation, he uses them according -to his own pleasure; but Kasperle is wiser than his -master for he very shrewdly refuses to sign away -his soul. However, he has discovered that by pronouncing -the potent syllables “Perlippe” he can -summon up demons and by saying “Perlappe” he -can make them vanish. Thereupon he amuses himself<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span> -(and the audience) by reciting “Perlippe, perlappe, -perlippe, perlappe,” so often and in such quick -succession that the poor demons get quite out of -breath and very irritable.</p> - -<p>In the last act we find Faust back after twelve -years at his study in Wittenburg. He has had his -fill of pleasures and is sick at heart and repentant. -He asks Mephistopheles whether there would be a -chance of a sinner like himself coming to God. Mephistopheles, -compelled by his oath to answer truthfully, -vanishes with a cry of terror which is an admission -of the possibility. Faust, with new hope -in his heart, kneels before the image of the Virgin in -supplication. But Mephistopheles reappears with a -vision of Helen of Troy to tempt Faust, who resists -but finally succumbs. Forgetting the Virgin he rushes -out with Helen in his arms. Immediately he returns -and reproaches Mephistopheles for deceiving him, because -the vision has turned into a serpent in his embrace. -“What else did you expect from the devil?” -asks Mephistopheles.</p> - -<p>Faust realizes he is lost. Moreover his time is up, -for the devil having served him both night and day -considers that he has done twenty-four years work in -twelve. Wandering the streets in despair Faust comes -upon Kasperle, now the nightwatchman, and tries -naïvely to cheat the devil by offering Kasperle his -own coat. But the shrewd fellow is too keen to be -thus taken to eternal torture in another’s place. Ten -o’clock strikes, then eleven. “Go,” says Faust to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span> -Kasperle, “go and see not the dreadful end to which -I hasten.” Kasperle goes out. Twelve o’clock strikes -and Faust hears the terrible sentence pronounced -upon him: “Accusatus est, judicatus est, condamnatus -est.” The fiends appear amidst flames and -smoke and drag him away to his horrible fate. Kasperle -returning and finding him gone, exclaims: “Poof! -What a smell of brimstone!”</p> - -<p>Even the briefest review of the plot cannot fail -to move one somewhat for there is in this crude puppet -show a deep and general human appeal. An -earnest and anxious man to whom life has not been -over-kind stakes all in his eagerness and craving for -truth. Despite the naïve superstitions and the childish -humor scattered throughout the play the tragic -seeking of a human soul, the struggle between Mephistopheles -and Faust demands our sympathy. In -this respect there is more dramatic intensity and -more human interest to the puppet show than one -finds in either Marlowe’s play or even Goethe’s. -In the former Faust is pictured with a desire to <i>possess</i> -and we know that he is lost from the beginning; in -Goethe’s drama Faust is consumed with a desire to -<i>live</i> and we know throughout that he will be saved -by his very struggles. In the puppet play Faust is -finally condemned, but until the very end, by Mephistopheles’ -own admission, he might have been -saved.</p> - -<p>The play was tremendously popular all over Germany. -In 1705 the puppets got themselves into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span> -trouble with the clergy by a performance brought -from Vienna to Berlin where it was announced, <i>Vita, -Geste e Descesa all’ Inferno del dottore Giovanni Faust</i>. -Because of the storm of approval aroused by the impious -passages in the drama the performance was -finally prohibited in Berlin. But elsewhere productions -of <i>Faustus</i> flourished. In 1746 in Hamburg -an amusing announcement proceeded to allay the -fears of timid folk in the following manner: “History -of the Arch-sorcerer Doctor Johannes Fauste. This -tragedy is presented by us, <i>not</i> so fearfully as it has -been previously by others, but so that everyone -can behold it with pleasure.”</p> - -<p>Half a century later Schutz and Dreher, very successful -showmen of Berlin with a splendidly equipped -puppet stage, presented among numerous old pieces -of knightly romance, mythology and biblical legend, -the tragedy of <i>Faust</i>. It was acclaimed by high and -low. Then Geisselbrecht, a rival showman of Vienna, -strove to outdo this production and gave an elaborate -Faust play with little figures whom he made lift and -cast down their eyes, even cough and spit very -naturally,—a feat which Kasperle was nothing loath -to perform over and over again as we may imagine. -It was this very Geisselbrecht who served as a model -for <i>Pole Poppenspäler</i>, the delightful little novel -which Theodor Storm has written around the figure -of a wandering puppet showman. Geisselbrecht -toured with his puppets and gave performances all -over the country, in Frankfurt among other places.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span> -The crowning significance of his <i>Faust</i> production -was the fact that young Goethe, who was very fond -of puppet shows, is supposed to have seen this play -and to have drawn from it the first inspiration for -his masterpiece, <i>Faust</i>.</p> - -<p>In his childhood Goethe had always manifested -great interest in toy theatres and puppets. At twenty -years of age he wrote for his own amusement, <i>The -Festival of Plundersweilen</i>, a satire on his audience -of friends and family to be performed by marionettes. -Later he perfected it and produced it on a puppet -stage specially erected for the purpose at Weimar. -There also he composed another puppet play to -celebrate the marriage festivities of Princess Amelia. -Both of these dramas are included in his works. In -<i>Wilhelm Meister</i> and in the <i>Urmeister</i> we find many -paragraphs devoted to the toy theatre of his childhood. -But more important than this was the contribution -of the little <i>Puppen</i> toward his immortal -<i>Faust</i>. They not only suggested the theme but -offered models for the treatment of it which Germany’s -great genius was not too proud to follow.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span></p> - -<p>The unprecedented prominence of the Puppenspiel -during the seventeenth century was brought about -by the long theological strife between the clergy and -the actors of the legitimate stage. The preachings -and denunciations of Martin Luther had put an end -to dramatic church ceremonies of which there seem -to have been many. It went so far that the ministers -refused to administer the sacraments to actors. The -latter protested and appealed, but the people were -restrained through their fear of the Church. Consequently -the profession fell into such disrepute that -the number of regular theatres rapidly decreased and -troupes were disbanded, while the humiliated and -neglected players were forced to join puppet companies -and read for the marionettes to earn a living.</p> - -<p>It was a great opportunity for the marionettes. -After the Thirty Years’ War showmen came into Germany -from England, France, Holland, Italy, even -from Spain. To add to the attraction of their productions -they combined with the plays dancers, jugglers, -trained bears and similar offerings. In 1657 in Frankfurt -Italian showmen established the first permanent -theatre for puppets. In 1667 a similar theatre was -erected for marionettes in the Juden Markt of Vienna -where it remained for forty years. In Leopoldstadt -in the Neu Markt <i>Pulzinellaspieler</i> gave performances -in the evenings except Fridays and Saturdays, after -<i>angelus domini</i>. Even the Emperor Joseph II is said -to have visited this <i>Kaspertheater</i> in Leopoldstadt.</p> - -<p>A curious dramatic medley began to be presented.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span> -“At the end of the seventeenth century,” writes -Flögel, “the <i>Hauptundstaatsactionen</i> usurped the -place of the real drama.” These were melodramatic -plays with music and pantomime, requiring a large -cast composed partly of mechanical dolls, partly of -actors. It was only timidly that the actors thus -ventured to return to the stage in the rôles of virtuous -people (to be sure of the sympathy of the audience). -The famous showmen Beck and Reibehand were -noted for these performances, the subjects of which -were martyrdoms of saints, the slaughter in the -ancient Roman circuses and the gory battles of the -Middle Ages (in all of which, needless to say, the -puppets performed the parts of the slaughtered and -martyred, as when the ever popular <i>Santa Dorotea</i> -was decapitated and applauded so vigorously that -the showman obligingly stepped out, put the head -back on the body and repeated the execution). In -1666 in Lüneberg, Michael Daniel Treu gave the -following <i>Demonstratioactionum</i>: “I: the History of -the city of Jerusalem with all incidents and how the -city fell is given naturally with marvellous inventions -openly presented in the theatre; II: of King Lear of -England, a matter wherein disobedience of children -against the parent is punished, the obedience rewarded; -III: of Don Baston of Mongrado, strife between -love and honor, etc., etc.” Then there followed -in the list of plays <i>Alexander de Medici</i>, <i>Sigismundo, -tyrannical prince of Poland</i>, <i>the Court of Sicily</i>, -<i>Titus Andronicus</i>, <i>Tarquino</i>, <i>Edward of England</i> and,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span> -of course, <i>Doctor Johanni Fausto, Teutsche Comedi</i> -(to distinguish it from Marlowe’s tragedy).</p> - -<p>When one considers that these plays with all the -necessary business were long and complicated, one -may imagine the difficulty of the art of puppet showmen. -Everything connected with the presentation, -the settings, directions and the plays themselves had -to be learned by heart. Young boys generally attached -themselves to showmen as apprentices and -observed and studied for years before they were even -allowed to speak parts. These had to be acquired by -listening, for although the owner of the puppets -generally had a copy of the play it was so precious a -possession that he guarded it most carefully.</p> - -<p>The amazing repertory of the Puppenspiel during -the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries ranged from -myth and history to any event of the day of intrinsic -interest. In 1688 we find the marionette manager, -Weltheim, giving translations of Molière, also the -old <i>Adam and Eve</i> followed by a buffoonery called -<i>Jack Pudding in Punch’s Shop</i> and the strange assortment -of <i>Asphalides, King of Arabia</i>, <i>The Lapidation -of Naboth</i>, <i>The Death of Wallenstein</i>. Weltheim used -students of Jena and Leipsig to read for his puppets.</p> - -<p>When in 1780 Charles XII of Sweden fell dead in -the trenches of Friedrichschall, slain (so popular -tradition averred) by an enchanted bullet, his death -was immediately dramatized and produced on the -puppet stage. In 1731 the disgrace of Menschikoff -was made into a drama performed in German by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span> -the English puppets of Titus Maas, privileged comedian -of the court of Baden Durlach,—“With permission, -etc., etc., there will be performed on an entirely -new theatre and with good instrumental music, -a Hauptundstaatsaction recently composed and worthy -to be seen, which has for title—The Extraordinary -vicissitudes of good and bad fortune of Alexis Danielowitz, -Prince Menzikoff, great favorite of the Czar of -Moscow, Peter I of glorious memory, to-day a real -Belisarius, precipitated from the height of his greatness -into the most profound abyss of misfortune; the -whole with Jackpudding, a pieman, a pastry-cook’s boy -and amusing Siberian poachers.” Although Titus Maas -had permission to perform in Berlin his show was -quickly stopped for political reasons.</p> - -<p>The undisputed predominance of puppets upon the -German stage gradually subsided in the eighteenth -century as Gottsched and Lessing revived the art of -poetry and drama. The actors assumed their own -place in the theatre; the Puppen returned to a more -modest sphere. But they continued to be popular. -After Schutz und Dreher in Berlin came Adolf Glasheimer’s -humorous satires of which the hero was -<i>Don Carlos</i>, with Kasperle to amuse the children, the -whole arrangement conducted in connection with a -<i>Conditerei</i>. In 1851 a revival of marionettes in cultural -circles occurred and people streamed to see the -clever show in Kellner’s Hotel at Christmas time. -Richter, Freudenberg and Linde were three other -favorite showmen of Berlin.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span></p> - -<p>There had been, indeed, some very exclusive and -artistic marionettes at the castle of Eisenstadt in -Hungary. Here Prince Nicholas Joseph von Esterhazy -had his own very elegant stage with dolls exquisitely -perfect and magnificently dressed. He even -assembled an orchestra for them, the leader of which -was no other than Joseph Haydn himself. This great -musician did not scorn composing symphonies for -the puppets, <i>The Toy Symphonies</i> and <i>The Children’s -Fair</i>, both charmingly playful compositions. He also -wrote five operas for these distinguished marionettes, -<i>Filemon and Baucis</i>, <i>Genievre</i>, <i>Didone</i>, <i>Vendetta</i>, <i>The -Witches’ Sabbath</i>. But it was not his noble patron -alone who influenced Haydn to compose for the -puppets. Previously he had become interested and -had written an opera called <i>The Lame Devil</i> for the -burattini of an Italian puppet player, Bernardoni, in -Vienna.</p> - -<p>The marionettes have likewise attracted genius in -other fields. The Romanticists, Arnim and Brentano, -as well as the poets Kerner, Uhland and Mörike had -interested themselves in shadow plays rather than -puppet shows. But Heinrich Kleist wrote a very sympathetic -and profound little essay called <i>Concerning -the Marionette Theatre</i>. He seeks to discover the -mysterious charm in puppet gesture and he suggests -that the great dramatists must have watched the -puppet plays with unusual interest and that artists -of the dance might well learn the art of pantomime -from the little figures.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span></p> - -<p>In Cologne there has been developed a very unique, -local puppet show called the <i>Kölner Hanneschen -Theater</i>. The originator was Christoph Winter who -invented the characters, established the standing -theatre and remained for fifty years its director. -Upon his small stage there appeared not only Kasperle, -but a whole row of funny folk types, mirroring in -their little scenes the bubbling love of living characteristic -of the people they represent. The ingenious -showman had a saying that whatever type of man -one had to deal with, give him the sort of sausage -he most enjoys. In accordance with this idea he -provided three shows, one for children, which was -amusing but harmless, one for the usual adult audience, -which was more sophisticated, and one especially -suited to the rough Sunday crowd of laboring -men who thronged into the show, which, needless to -say, was as vulgar as possible. Hanneschen, Mariezebill, -Neighbor Tünnes and his wife, the village tailor -and a host of others were always introduced and -furthermore any person in the vicinity who had made -himself unpopular was sure to be caricatured. Neither -rank nor age was a protection. Another unvarying -principle was the happy ending; even <i>Romeo and -Juliet</i> was altered to comply with the rule.</p> - -<p>It is difficult now, perhaps, to think of Munich as -it was just before the war, a joyous center of literature -and art. It was, however, in this happy environment -that the puppets rose to the very summit of -their honors and successes. In Munich one may<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span> -find two charming little buildings which were erected -and maintained solely for the marionettes. The oldest -of these was built for the old showman, fondly called -Papa Schmidt by his devoted public. His career -was a long one, terminating with gratifying appreciation -which many another worthy marionettist has -unfortunately failed to receive. It was in 1858 that -the actor, Herr Schmidt, took over a complete little -puppet outfit of the retired General von Heydeck -who had been entertaining King Louis and his court -with satirical little puppet parodies. Installing these -dolls in a <i>Holzbaracke</i> he opened a permanent theatre -there for which Graf Pocci, his constant advisor and -friend, wrote the first play based upon the tale of -<i>Prinz Rosenrot und Prinzessin Edelweiss</i>. Graf Pocci -continued all his life to write little fairy plays for -these puppets, over fifty in all. The subjects were -well known fairy tales, Undine, Rapunzel, Schneewitschen, -Der Rattenfänger von Hamlin, Dornröschen, -and all the others. The children loved them -and the merry little Kasperle whose humor, if a bit -clumsy, was altogether clean and wholesome. Encouraged -by his initial success, Schmidt went to great -expense and pains to enlarge and elaborate his cast. -His daughter, an assiduous helper, was kept busy -dressing the dolls of which there were eventually over -a thousand.</p> - -<p>After long years of success, Papa Schmidt experienced -some difficulties due to moving his puppet -show and decided to retire. To the honor of Munich<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span> -be it said, however, that he was not allowed to do so. -The city magistrates who, as youngsters, had adored -the antics of Kasperle, voted unanimously to build -a municipal puppet theatre and to rent it to old Papa -Schmidt for his marionette shows. This was done -and in a small comfortable building situated in one -of the parks, with an adequate auditorium and stage, -with space for the seven operators who guide the -wires and manage the complicated mechanism for -<i>transformations and surprises</i>, with trained readers to -speak the parts behind the scenes, with choruses and -music whenever they were required, the ninety-four -year old showman worked with his dolls until the end -of his life, furnishing happy hours to countless children.</p> - -<div id="i_130" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img src="images/i_182.jpg" width="2024" height="2937" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Marionette Theatre of Munich Artists</span></p> - -<p> -<i>Upper</i>: Scene from Maurice Maeterlinck’s <i>The Death of Tintagiles</i><br /> -<span class="l2"><i>Lower</i>: Scene from Arthur Schnitzler’s <i>The Gallant Cassian</i> </span> -</p></div></div> - -<p>The celebrated <i>Marionette Theatre of Munich Artists</i>, -although inspired by the example of Papa Schmidt, -was founded upon an altogether different basis and -with other aims and ideals. Paul Brann, an author of -local fame, was the instigator of it as well as its director. -This small but elaborate modern theatre was -built by Paul Ludwig Troost, and decorated elegantly -but with careful taste, by other artists interested in -the enterprise. The stage itself is equipped with -every possible device useful to any modern theatre. -There is a revolving stage such as that used by Reinhardt, -and a complicated electrical apparatus which -can produce the most exquisite lighting effects. The -expensive furniture is often a product of the <i>Königlichen -Porcellan Manufactur</i>. The mechanism for -operating the figures is very perfect, the dolls themselves<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span> -as well as the costumes, scenery, curtains, programs, -etc., are all designed and executed by well -known artists such as Joseph Wackerle and Taschner, -Jacob Bradle, Wilhelm Schulz, Julius Dietz and many -others. Indeed the scenic effects produced at this -little marionette theatre have given it the reputation -of a model in modern stagecraft.</p> - -<p>The triumphs of these Munich puppets, however, -do not depend altogether on pictorial successes. Upon -the miniature stage there are presented dramas of -the best modern poets as well as the older classic -plays and the usual Kasperle comedies. Puppets -must remain primitive or they lose their own peculiar -charm, but the primitive quality may be ennobled. -Brann does not in the least detract from the innate -simplicity which the marionettes possess. Indeed, -he considers this not a limitation but a distinguishing -trait. However, he has added poetic art to the old -craft and has expanded the sphere of the puppets. -He has proven their poetic possibilities and -justified their claim to the consideration of cultured -audiences. The repertory has been specially -selected to suit his particular dolls, somewhat pantomimic, -on the whole, with a great deal of music. -Generally the plays deal with incidents unrelated to -everyday life and these marionettes convey their -audiences with unbelievable magic to arcadian lands -of dream and wonder. Graf Pocci’s little Kasperle -pieces were not scorned by these artistic marionettes -nor the old Faustspiel, Don Juan and the Prodigal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span> -Son, nor the folk-plays of Hans Sachs. To these -were added a rich variety, including many forgotten -operettas of Gluck, Adam, Offenbach, Mozart and -others, Schnitzler’s <i>Der Brave Cassian</i>, Maeterlinck’s -<i>Death of Tintagiles</i>, and <i>Sister Beatrice</i>, and dramas of -Hoffmansthal. The popularity of these puppet productions -in Munich, and their success all over the -world, where they have been taken travelling into -foreign lands, attest the worth and value of the interesting -experiment. For art, music and literature a new -medium has been discovered, or rather an old one -re-adapted to suit the requirements of the modern -poetic drama.</p> - -<p>Of recent years the shadow play has not been altogether -overlooked in Munich. In a 1909 issue of -the <i>Hyperion</i>, Franz Blei, æsthete and critic, describes -two exquisite shadow plays performed in the salon of -Victor Mannheimer. The figures and scenery were -the work of a young architect, Höne; actors read the -text, and Dr. Mannheimer directed. “One thing,” -writes Blei, “I believe was clear to all present: that -both of the plays thus presented, unhampered by -perspiring, laboring and painted living actors, appealed -more strongly to the inner ear than they could -possibly have done in any other theatre. The author -was allowed to express himself, rather than the actor. -The stage setting and the outlines of the shadows, -very delicately cut in accordance with the essential -traits of the characters, presented no more than a -delightful resting place for the eye and the imagination<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span> -of the beholder was unrestricted in supplying the -features while lingering on the extreme simplicity of -the picture.” Elsewhere too in Germany one finds -appreciation of the possibilities of the shadow play, -in its simplest form as well as in its sophisticated uses.</p> - -<p>Exotic and rare are the dainty marionette figures -fashioned by Richard Teschner in Vienna. From a -performance of Javanese shadows witnessed in Munich -the artist received the first suggestion for these delicate, -precious creations. The thin, flexible limbs give -us the feeling of the Eastern Wayangs. To this -Teschner has gradually added a bit of the German -folk spirit, quite noticeable in his society dramas where -the little dolls resemble comfortable, bourgoisie Germans -and only their fleshlessness reminds us of the -Javanese origin. In other plays the Eastern flavor -is purposely maintained. There is, for instance, the -strange magician with the Assyrian headdress, or the -enchantress in gorgeous stiff robes with menacing -eyebrows, altogether oriental, and strange and beautiful. -The grotesque and curiously misshapen animal -forms conceived by Teschner remind us of deep-sea -monsters similar to Hauptmann’s Nickelmann and of -early Christian conceptions of Infernal frightfulness to -be found in the Witches’ Kitchen of Faustus, or in the -Temptations of St. Anthony. The smoothly finished, -carefully fashioned naked figures have a rather brazen -daintiness, permissible on the puppet stage alone. They -offend perhaps at first sight by their deliberate daring -but they possess a certain precise charm, a rather winning,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span> -rather quaint appeal. These precious little marionettes -have been exhibited in private circles only.</p> - -<div id="i_134" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 29em;"> - <img src="images/i_188.jpg" width="2250" height="3033" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Marionettes of Richard Teschner, Vienna</span></p> - -<p>[Reproduced from <i>Deutsche Kunst und Dekoration</i>]</p></div></div> - -<p>In Baden-Baden just before the war a quite remarkable -and thriving puppet show was to be found, -belonging to Ivo Pühony. These clever dolls were -carved out of wood and were most adroitly manipulated, -marvellously so, we are told. The repertory -of the puppets was very extensive and ambitious. At -the outbreak of the war Ivo Pühony packed his dolls -away in cases and left them in Baden-Baden. In -1914 Ernest Ehlert, actor and manager, and Fräulein -E. Weissmann took the neglected little creatures to -Berlin where they performed with tremendous success. -They produced, among other things, <i>Doctor -Sassafras</i>, a puppet play by Pocci and no less ambitious -a drama than Goethe’s <i>Faust</i>. The latter -received a real ovation as a serious, artistic interpretation -of the masterpiece; many witnesses declared -the production more effective than when given upon -the larger stage. The <i>Frankfürter Zeitung</i> contained -this description of the performance: “The drama had -a much purer and stronger emotional effect in this -symbolic, miniature presentation with its modest and -reliable lighting effects than is possible in the hard -reality of the larger stage. The circle of the heavenly -army shimmering in magic red reminding one of the -pious fantasies of Beato Angelico; the voices of the -archangels sounding from above; the gleam of white -light when the voice of the Lord was heard; the dark -chasm leading to the depths of the earth, out of which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span> -the wonderful little figure of Mephistopheles appeared -and then, blinded by the radiance of Divinity, turned -aside and covered himself with his bat’s wing: all -this provided a pure artistic satisfaction which called -forth enthusiastic applause.”</p> - -<p>Less serious in nature but very remarkable were -the famous <i>Two Dancing Chinamen</i> in the troupe of -puppet actors. These agile little dolls, like figures -from a Russian ballet, danced to the music of a phonograph -with perfectly captivating antics. One witness -has written: “It is hard to imagine how perfectly the -slightly mechanical tone of the phonograph combines -with the slightly mechanical motion of the figures to -give an expression of what the fashionable philosopher -of our day calls the <i>élan vital</i>.” The last heard of -Pühony’s puppets was a prospective trip they were -to take to the front for entertaining the soldiers and -the grave problem of whether it would be wise to -allow the erstwhile favorite marionette <i>Caruso</i> to go -along, considering that, despite his power to amuse, -he was after all a representative of the enemy.</p> - -<p>Less excellent, crude puppet shows have gone -wandering from village to village through Germany -and Austria in recent years, but they have become -more and more rare. These shows perform generally -in the little town halls, with the villagers, high and -low, crowding in to see performances of <i>Faust</i> (ever -welcome) or Hamlet (with a happy ending), or, favorite -of all, the life and death of the famous brigand <i>Schinder -Hannes</i>. The love of the Germans for puppet entertainment<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span> -is also constantly expressed in the little -private puppet shows and shadow plays given by -or for the children in their homes, usually gotten up -for Christmas or birthday festivities.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>In most Continental countries there may still be -found traces and survivals of the old style puppet -show and occasionally experiments with marionettes -in the new manner. It is said that in Bohemia the -marionette plays are the only form of drama now given -in the native tongue. A very famous showman of -Bohemia was Kopecki who travelled about with his -show from town to town. A prominent Bohemian -minister now residing in New York relates that he -remembers these puppets and the terror which clutched -his boyish heart whenever the little wooden devil -appeared, opening and closing his horrible mouth and -emitting the most inhuman and frightful noises. He -remembers the comic characters of the shows, a rude -peasant and his wife. The peasant always wielded -a stick and there were many threatened beatings, but -they never took place. In 1885 the names of Kopecki -and of another showman, Winizki, were made doubly -prominent by the publication of a book of their old -puppet plays taken down in shorthand by two Viennese -authors from performances they witnessed and written -finally in wonderful Hoch-Deutsch.</p> - -<div id="i_136" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img src="images/i_192.jpg" width="1982" height="3011" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Bohemian Puppets</span></p> - -<p> -<span class="l1"><i>Upper</i>: Devil, Priest, Peasant</span> <br /> -<i>Lower</i>: Soldier, King and Queen -</p> - -<p>[Property of the Reverend Vincent Pisek, New York]</p></div></div> - -<p>In Hungary the gypsies have always been the -puppeteers, travelling about with their rough little -figures and accompaniment of music. From Moldavia<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span> -comes a report of gypsy players at Christmas -time in the olden days, one man crying out through -the streets, “To the puppets, to the puppets!” followed -by two other gypsies with a little theatre of marionettes. -In these shows at the time of the Turkish -wars in 1829 miniature Turks and Cossacks were -made to belabor each other.</p> - -<p>In Russia religious puppet plays were very common. -There used to be in Moscow a regular mystery -performed by marionettes on the Sunday before -Christmas. It represented three Christian martyrs -thrown into a fiery furnace and was performed in -front of the great altar of the Moscow cathedral. -Crude popular shows also wandered about and in -1812 Mr. Daniel Clarke discovered in Tartary, among -the wandering Cossacks of the Don, common little -dolls made to dance on a board by means of a string -tied to the knees of a boy. These had probably been -introduced and become established back in the remote -ages in this out-of-the-way location.</p> - -<p>Mr. Alexander Zelenko, formerly a professor at the -University of Moscow, has written some interesting -facts concerning modern Russian puppets. He says: -“There still are travelling comedians who wander all -over the country with their little outfits of dolls and -folding screens. In most cases a so-called hand organ -is used, and very often a monkey or a bird picks -out the tickets of happiness. The performer uses a -contrivance in his mouth to alter his voice for the -different impersonations. The principal hero is ‘Petrouchka’<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span> -or ‘Diminutive Peter,’ the same as German -‘Kasperle’ and English ‘Punch.’ The hero -makes much mischief in a horse trade with a gypsy or -with a German doctor, a policeman or a recruiting -officer. For such mischief the devil takes his body -into hell.</p> - -<p>“Even now, as in the olden times, satires on social -endeavor are very often introduced, but only the -common street-class enjoy them. From time to time -the educators take part in this movement and try to -raise the standard and to introduce the puppets into -the school festivals.</p> - -<p>“Some of these plays came into Russia from the -West through Austria and Poland,—old Christmas -beliefs connected with religious or nationalistic traditions. -These Christmas Crib plays are mostly seen -in Southern and Western Russia and Poland. Some -of the Russian artists have been interested in the -production and have given very fine performances. -I myself introduced many of this kind of marionettes -into the activities of the Children’s Clubs in Moscow. -Very interesting articles about the ethnographic and -folklore value of these plays have been written in -Russian scientific magazines.”</p> - -<p>In Poland, until the middle of the eighteenth century, -there were frequent puppet performances given -in churches and monasteries around Christmas time -to amuse the people between mass and vespers. In -the play of <i>Szopka</i> (stable) M. Magnin tells us there -were little dolls of wood or cardboard representing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span> -Mary, Jesus, Joseph, the angels, the shepherds, the -three Magi on their knees with offerings of gold, incense -and myrrh, not forgetting the ox and the ass -and Saint John’s lamb. There generally followed -after this the massacre of the innocents in the midst -of which Herod’s own son perished by mistake. The -wicked prince, in his despair, called upon Death who -soon appeared in the form of a skeleton and cut off -Herod’s head with a scythe. Then a black devil -with a red tongue, pointed horns and a long tail, -ascended and picked up the King’s body on his pitchfork -and bore it off to perdition. To this peculiar -performance were often added indecorous variations, -despite the holy place in which it was performed. -After being finally expelled from the interior of the -churches, it continued to be popular for over a century, -delighting both the rural and the urban population -of Poland from Christmas to Shrove Tuesday. -To this day performances of the Crib, or <i>Szopka</i>, are -given by ambulant puppet shows. The text is sung -and spoken: the figures, moving in pairs, represent -characters of the old mysteries, also folk types, heroes, -spirits, etc. The stage for these shows appears to be -prescribed by tradition, of a certain structure, with -intricate national architectural details. It is not surprising -to learn that Stanislaw Wyspianski, Poland’s -great dramatic and poetic genius, was strongly interested -in and influenced by this national type of puppet -stage which seems to have been the original inspiration -for his later strongly patriotic productions.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span></p> - -<p>In Denmark, the puppets have pushed their way -into literature. We find that Johan Ludvig Heiberg, -a prominent Danish dramatist, has written -several satirical marionette plays.</p> - -<p>In Holland where <i>Jan-Classenspiel</i> have been long -established, the puppet stage is a favorite diversion. -Powel wrote in 1715 of its long standing popularity -with the people and we are told that the cultured -classes also found relaxation in the marionettes. -Beyle states that during his studies at Rotterdam he -always left his book at the sound of the showman’s -trumpet.</p> - -<p>The little Polichinelle of Belgium is called <i>Woltje</i> -which signifies little Walloon and he has many clownish -but harmless tricks with which to delight his -public. The popularity of the <i>Poechelnellespiel</i> in -Brussels may be imagined from the fact that, prior -to the war, there were fifteen standing puppet theatres -offering every possible enticement. Two very famous -showmen were Toone and Machieltje who for forty -years gave performances to every class of audience, -Machieltje specializing on the popular plays, Toone -giving private performances. The successor of Toone -was George Hembauf while the show of Machieltje -descended to Laurent Broeders, who have a wonderfully -equipped theatre in the suburbs. They possess -over six hundred marionettes whose elegant costumes -can be changed (there are over eleven hundred of -these elaborate costumes). The Laurent Broeders do -all the speaking for their dolls and the repertoire includes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span> -a wide range of subjects from important events -in Flemish history to Dumas, adapted for puppets, -and the old play of <i>Les Quatre Fils Aymon</i>. Another -large puppet show is that of Pieter Buelens. -He has four hundred puppets consisting chiefly of -officers, chevaliers and kings, each knight so richly -dressed that his robes cost from thirty to forty francs -apiece. The dolls are about a metre high, made of -cardboard and carefully articulated so that the gestures -are extremely graceful. The scenery is naïve -but picturesque; eight complete sets including two -palace scenes, two wood scenes (one Winter, one -Summer), two rooms, a prison, a rock, etc. The latest -and most modern theatre for marionettes is the <i>Petit -Théâtre</i> founded by a group of æsthetes,—Louis -Picard, James Ensor, Thomas Braun, Gregoire le -Roy,—and devoted to a naïvely refined art of puppetry. -It was opened with the pastoral opera of -Mozart, <i>Bastien et Bastienne</i>, the poetic version by -Gautier-Villars.</p> - -<p>In Antwerp the puppet shows are less elaborate -and are generally to be found off in inconspicuous -corners around the wharves where they are frequented -chiefly by the laboring classes. There the drama -varies from mockery of local occurrences to tales of -Turks, bandits, kings, shepherds, sailors. One of -these shows was the famous <i>Poesjenellenkelder</i>, the -cave of the Polichinelles, where in a dark, gloomy -cellar by the glimmer of a few smoking oil lamps the -old and ever moving romantic dramas of the puppet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span> -show were performed for an appreciative and unspoiled -audience. Hendrik Conscience, the Flemish -novelist, has described how in his boyhood he often -spent his last penny to witness the sufferings of the -patient Genoveva or some similarly affecting performance. -This old underground theatre, we are -told, was open until the outbreak of the war.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_143" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Puppetry_in_England"><i>Puppetry in England</i></h2> -</div> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indentq">“Triumphant Punch! with joy I follow thee</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Through the glad progress of thy wanton course.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">Thus</span> exclaims Lord Byron, and he is but one of the -long list of English poets, dramatists and essayists -who have found delight and inspiration at the puppet -booth. “One could hardly name a single poet from -Chaucer to Byron, or a single prose writer from Sir -Philip Sidney to Hazlitt in whose works are not to be -found abundant information on the subject or frequent -allusions to it. The dramatists, above all, -beginning with those who are the glory of the reigns -of Elizabeth and James I, supply us with the most -curious particulars of the repertory, the managers, -the stage of the marionettes.” With this introduction -M. Magnin brings forward a brilliant array of -English authors in whose works we may find traces -of the puppets, Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Beaumont -and Fletcher, Milton, Davenant, Swift, Addison, Steele, -Gay, Fielding, Goldsmith, Sheridan and innumerable -others.</p> - -<p>In <i>The Winter’s Tale</i> Autolycus remarks: “I know -this man well. He hath been a process server, a -bailiff, then he compassed a motion of <i>The Prodigal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span> -Son</i>.” Many other dramas of Shakespeare have similar -allusions. Milton’s <i>Areopagitica</i> contains these lines: -“When God gave Adam reason, he gave him freedom -to choose: he had else been a mere artificial Adam, -such an Adam as seen in the motions.”</p> - -<p>Perhaps the casual mention of a popular diversion -in the literature of a nation is not as impressive as -the fact that it has served to suggest the themes of -numberless dramas and poems. Shakespeare is said -to have taken the idea for <i>Julius Cæsar</i> from the -puppet play on the same subject which was performed -near the Tower of London in his day; Ben Jonson’s -<i>Everyman Out of his Humour</i>, Robert Greene’s <i>Orlando -Furioso</i>, Dekker’s best drolleries and certainly <i>Patient -Grissel</i> in the composition of which he had a hand, -Marlowe’s <i>The Massacre at Paris</i> and many others -may safely be said to have been suggested by the -puppets. There are marionettes in Swift’s <i>A Tale -of a Tub</i>, illustrated by Hogarth.</p> - -<p>Some authorities claim that Milton drew the argument -for his great poem from an Italian marionette -production of <i>Paradise Lost</i> which he once witnessed. -Byron is supposed to have found the model for his -<i>Don Juan</i> in the popular play of Punch’s, <i>The Libertine -Destroyed</i>. Hence it cannot be an exaggeration -to state that even in England, where the puppets are -not supposed to have attained such prestige as on -the Continent, they were, nevertheless, not wholly -insignificant nor without weight.</p> - -<p>As is usually the case, the puppets in England<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span> -appear to have had a religious origin. Magnin mentions -as an undoubted fact the movement of head and -eyes on the Crucifix in the monastery of Boxley in -Kent, and one hears not only of single articulated -images but of passion plays performed by moving -figures within the sacred edifices. E. K. Chambers -has found the record of a Resurrection Play in the -sixteenth century by “certain small puppets, representing -the Persons of Christe, the Watchmen, Marie -and others.” This was at Whitney in Oxfordshire, -“in the days of ceremonial religion,” and one of these -puppets which clacked was known as <i>Jack Snacker -of Whitney</i>. It is certain that similar motions of -sacred dramas and pageants given by mechanical -statuettes were not unusual within the Catholic -churches, and that during the reign of Henry VIII they -were destroyed, as idols. Under Elizabeth and James, -religious puppet-shows went wandering about the -kingdom, giving the long drawn out moralities and -mysteries, <i>The Prodigal Son</i>, <i>The Motion of Babylon</i> -and <i>Nineveh with Jonah and the Whale</i>, a great -favorite.</p> - -<p>These early motions or drolls were a combination of -dumb show, masques and even shadow play. Flögel -explains that the masques were sometimes connected -with the puppets or given sometimes as a separate -play. “These masques,” he writes, “consist of five -tableaux or motions which take place behind a transparent -curtain, just as in Chinese shadows. The -showman, a silver-covered wand in his hand and a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span> -whistle for signalling, stands in front of the curtain -and briefly informs the audience of the action of the -piece. Thereupon he draws the curtain, names each -personage by name as he appears, points out with -his wand the various important actions of his actors’ -deeds, and relates the story more in detail than -formerly. Another masque which Ben Jonson’s <i>Bartholomew -Fair</i> describes is quite different, for here the -puppets themselves speak, that is, through a man -hidden behind the scenes, who like the one standing -out in front is called the interpreter.”</p> - -<p>As early as 1575 Italian pupazzi appeared in England -and established themselves there. An order of -the Lord Mayor of London at the time authorizes -that, “Italian marionettes be allowed to settle in -the city and to carry on their strange motions as -in the past and from time immemorial.” Piccini was -a later Italian motion-man, but very famous, giving -shows for fifty years and speaking for his <i>Punch</i> to -the last with a foreign accent.</p> - -<p>There is little doubt, despite much discussion, that -the boisterous English Punch is a descendant of the -puppet Pulcinello, brought over by travelling Italian -showmen. Isaac d’Israeli writes of his ancestry, in -the second volume of <i>Curiosities of Literature</i>, “Even -Pullicinella, whom we familiarly call Punch, may -receive like other personages of not greater importance, -all his dignity from antiquity: one of his Roman -ancestors having appeared to an antiquary’s visionary -eye in a bronze statue: more than one erudite dissertation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span> -authenticates the family likeness, the long -nose, prominent and hooked; the goggle eyes; the -hump at his back and breast; in a word all the character -which so strongly marks the Punch race, as -distinctly as whole dynasties have been featured by -the Austrian lip or the Bourbon nose.”</p> - -<p>The origin of the name <i>Punch</i> has given rise to -various theories. Some claim it is an anglicizing of -Pulcinello, Pulchinello or Punchinello; others that it -is derived as is Pulcinello from the Italian word <i>pulcino</i>, -little chicken, either, some say, because of the squeak -common to Punch and to the chicken or, others aver, -because from little chicken might have come the expression -for little boy, hence puppet. Again, it is -maintained that the origin is the English provincialism -<i>punch</i> (short, fat), allied to <i>Bunch</i>.</p> - -<p>The older Punchinello was far less restricted in his -actions and circumstances than his modern successor. -He fought with allegorical figures representing want -and weariness, as well as with his wife and the police. -He was on intimate terms with the Patriarchs and -the champions of Christendom, sat on the lap of the -Queen of Sheba, had kings and lords for his associates, -and cheated the Inquisition as well as the -common hangman. After the revolution of 1688, -with the coming of William and Mary, his prestige -increased, and Mr. Punch took Mrs. Judy to wife and -to them there came a child. The marionettes became -more elaborate, were manipulated by wires and -developed legs and feet. Queen Mary was often<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span> -pleased to summon them into her palace. The young -gallant, Punch, however, who had been but a garrulous -roisterer, causing more noise than harm, began to develop -into a merry but thick-skinned fellow, heretical, -wicked, always victorious, overcoming Old Vice himself, -the horned, tailed demon of the old English -moralities. A modified Don Juan, when Don Juan was -the vogue, he gradually became a vulgar pugnacious -fellow to suit the taste of the lower classes.</p> - -<p>During the reign of Queen Anne he was high in -popular favor. <i>The Tatler</i> mentions him often, also -<i>The Spectator</i>; Addison and Steele have both aided -in immortalizing him. Famous showmen such as Mr. -Powell included him in every puppet play, for what -does an anachronism matter with the marionettes? -He walked with King Solomon, entered into the -affairs of Doctor Faustus, or the Duke of Lorraine or -Saint George in which case he came upon the stage -seated on the back of St. George’s dragon to the delight -of the spectators. One of his greatest successes was -scored in <i>Don Juan or The Libertine Destroyed</i> where -he was in his element, and we find him in the drama -of Noah, poking his head from behind the side curtain -while the floods were pouring down upon the -Patriarch and his ark to remark, “Hazy weather, -Mr. Noah.” In one of Swift’s satires, the popularity -of Punch is declared to be so enormous that the audiences -cared little for the plot of the play, merely -waiting to greet the entrance of their beloved buffoon -with shouts of laughter.</p> - -<div id="i_148" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img src="images/i_206.jpg" width="2000" height="3594" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Punch hangs the Hangman</span></p> - -<p>From a Cruikshank illustration of Payne-Collier’s <i>Tragical Comedy of -Punch and Judy</i></p></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span></p> - -<p>At the beginning of the nineteenth century when -Lord Nelson, as the hero of Abukir, was represented -upon every puppet stage, he and Mr. Punch held the -following dialogue:</p> - -<p>“Come to my ship, my dear Punch, and help -me defeat the French. If you like I will make you a -Captain or a Commodore.”</p> - -<p>“Never, never,” answered Punch. “I would not -dare for I am afraid of being drowned in the deep -sea.”</p> - -<p>“But don’t have such absurd fears,” replied the -Admiral. “Remember that whoever is destined from -birth to be hanged will never be drowned.”</p> - -<p>Gradually a sort of epic poem of Punch grew up, -and there were regular scenes where the dissolute, -hardened fellow beats his wife and child, defies morality -and religion, knocks down the priest, fights the -devil and overcomes him. In 1828 Mr. Payne-Collier -arranged a series of little plays called <i>The -Tragical Comedy of Punch and Judy</i>. In this labor -he was assisted by the records of the Italian, Piccini, -who, after long years of wandering through England, -had established his Punch and Judy show in London. -The series was profusely and delightfully illustrated -by Cruikshank. These pictures and those of Hogarth -have perpetuated for all times the funny features of -Punch and Judy.</p> - -<p>“With real conservatism,” writes Maindron, “the -English have preserved the figure and repertory of -Punch almost as it was in the oldest days of Piccini<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span> -and his predecessors.” And it is thus one might find -Punch on the street corner to-day, maltreating his -long-suffering wife, teasing the dog, hanging the hangman. -Mr. W. H. Pollock tells us of stopping with -Robert Louis Stevenson to watch a Punch and Judy -show given by a travelling showman in “bastard -English and slang of the road.” Stevenson delighted in -it, and Mr. Pollock himself exclaimed: “Everybody -who loves good, rattling melodrama with plenty of -comic relief must surely love that great performance.”</p> - -<p>But to return to the shows and showmen of other -times. In the Elizabethan period the motions were -very prominent. The puppets sometimes took over -plays of the day, and satirized them cleverly upon -their own stages, the dolls costumed as nearly as -possible like the prominent actors whom they imitated. -Later, when for a time the Puritans abolished the -theatres, the marionettes were allowed to continue -their shows, and thus the entire repertory of the real -stage fell into their hands. Permanent puppet stages -grew up all over London: people thronged to the -puppets.</p> - -<p>In Ben Jonson’s <i>Bartholomew Fair</i> he allows the -showman, Lanthorn Leatherhead, to describe his -fortunes: “Ah,” he said, “I have made lots of money -with <i>Sodom and Gomorrah</i> and with the <i>City of -Norwich</i> but <i>Gunpowder Plot</i>, that was a veritable -gift of God. It was that that made the pennies rain -into the coffers. I only charged eighteen or twenty -pence per head for admission, but I gave sometimes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span> -nine or ten representations a day.” Captain Pod, -a seventeenth century showman mentioned in other -writings of Ben Jonson, had a large repertory including, -among other plays, <i>Man’s Wit</i>, <i>Dialogue of -Dives</i>, <i>Prodigal Son</i>, <i>Resurrection of the Saviour</i>, <i>Babylon</i>, -<i>Jonah and the Whale</i>, <i>Sodom and Gomorrah</i>, <i>Destruction -of Jerusalem</i>, <i>City of Nineveh</i>, <i>Rome and London</i>, -<i>Destruction of Norwich</i>, <i>Massacre of Paris with the -Death of the Duke de Guise</i> and <i>The Gunpowder Plot</i>. -In 1667 Pepys records in his <i>Diary</i> that he found “my -Lady Castlemane at a puppet play, Patient Grizell.” -<i>The Sorrows of Griselda</i>, indeed, was very popular -at the time, also <i>Dick Whittington</i>, <i>The Vagaries of -Merry Andrew</i> and <i>The Humours of Bartholomew Fair</i>. -The marionettes, indeed, grew so much the vogue, -and the rivalry was felt so keenly by the regular -theatres, that in 1675 the proprietors of the theatre -in Drury Lane and near Lincoln’s Inn Fields formally -petitioned that the puppets in close proximity be -forbidden to exhibit, or be removed to a greater distance, -as they interfered with the success of their -performances.</p> - -<p>But not alone the theatres objected to the competition -of the puppets. One may read in <i>The Spectator, -XVI</i>, that <i>young Mr. Powell</i> made his show a veritable -thorn in the flesh of the clergy. It was stationed -in Covent Garden, opposite the Cathedral of St. -Paul, and Powell proceeded to use the church bell -as a summons to his performances, luring away worshippers -from the very door of the church. Finally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span> -the sexton was impelled to remonstrate. “I find my -congregation taking the warning of my bell, morning -and evening, to go to a puppet show set forth by one -Powell, under the Piazzas, etc., etc. I desire you -would lay this before the world, that Punchinello -may choose an hour less canonical. As things are -now, Mr. Powell has a full congregation while we -have a very thin house.”</p> - -<p>This same Powell was the most successful motion -maker of his day. He originated the <i>Universal Deluge</i> -in which Noah and his family enter the ark, accompanied -by all the animals, two and two. This show -was given fifty-two consecutive nights, and was repeated -two centuries later by the Prandi brothers in -Florence. Powell had booths in London, Bath and -Oxford, and played to most fashionable audiences. -<i>The Tatler</i> and <i>The Spectator</i> mention him frequently. -It was his Punch who sat on the Queen of Sheba’s -lap, who danced with Judy on the Ark, and made the -famous remark to Noah concerning the weather. -He gave numerous religious plays, such as the “Opera -of Susannah or Innocence Betrayed,—which will be -exhibited next week with a new pair of Elders.” In -1713 he presented <i>Venus and Adonis or The Triumphs -of Love</i>, a mock opera. As another attraction to his -shows, the ingenious marionettist invented a fashion -model, the little puppet, <i>Lady Jane</i>, who made a -monthly appearance, bringing the latest styles from -Paris. The ladies flocked to the puppets when she -was announced on the bills.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span></p> - -<p>A well known competitor of Powell was Pinkethman, -in whose scenes the gods of Olympus ascended -and descended to strains of music. Crawley was -another rival. He advertised his show as follows: -“At Crawley’s Booth, over against the Crown Tavern -in Smithfield, during the time of Bartholomew Fair, -will be presented a little opera called the Old Creation -of the World, yet newly revived, with addition -of Noah’s Flood, also several fountains, playing water -during the time of the play. The last scene does -present Noah and his family coming out of the Ark -with all the beasts, two and two, and all the fowls of -the air seen in a prospect sitting upon trees: likewise -over the Ark is seen the sun rising in a glorious manner; -moreover a multitude of angels will be seen in a double -rank, which presents a double prospect, one for the -sun, the other for the palace where will be seen six -Angels ringing bells. Likewise Machines descend from -above, double and treble, with Dives rising out of -Hell and Lazarus seen in Abraham’s bosom, besides -several figures dancing jigs, sarabands, and country -dances to the admiration of the spectators: with -the merry conceits of Squire Punch and Sir John -Spendall.”</p> - -<p>After these motion makers, came other showmen -with many inventions. Colley Cibber wrote dramas -for marionettes, and his daughter, the actress, Charlotte -Clarke, founded a large puppet theatre. Russell, -the old buffoon, is said to have been interested in this -project also, but it finally failed. When the Scottish<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span> -lords and other leaders of the Stuart uprising of -1745 were executed on Tower Hill, the beheading -was made a feature by the puppet exhibitions at -May Fair and was presented for many years after. -Later Clapton’s marionettes offered a play of Grace -Darling rescuing the crew of the Forfarshire, “with -many ingenious moving figures of quadrupeds.” Boswell -tells us in his <i>Life of Johnson</i> about Oliver Goldsmith, -who was so vain he could not endure to have -anyone do anything better than himself. “Once -at an exhibition of the fantoccini in London, when -those who sat next to him observed with what dexterity -a puppet was made to toss a pike, he could not -bear that it should have such praise, and exclaimed -with some warmth, ‘Pshaw! I could do it better -myself!’” Boswell adds in a note, “He went home -with Mr. Burke to supper and broke his shin by attempting -to exhibit to the company how much better -he could jump over a stick than the puppets.” Dr. -Johnson was a great admirer of the fantoccini in London, -and considered a performance of <i>Macbeth</i> by puppets -as satisfactory as when played by human actors.</p> - -<p>At the end of the eighteenth century, Flockton’s -show displayed five hundred figures at work in various -trades. Browne’s <i>Theatre of Arts</i>, 1830–1840 -travelled about at country fairs showing <i>The Battle -of Trafalgar</i>, <i>Napoleon’s Army Crossing the Alps</i> and -the <i>Marble Palace of St. Petersburg</i>. Some marionettes -of the nineteenth century became satirical, -attacking literature and politics with mischievous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span> -energy. Punch assumed a thousand disguises; he -caricatured Sheridan, Fox, Lord Nelson. William -Hazlitt wrote seriously in praise of puppet shows.</p> - -<p>There are gaps in the history of English puppets -which seem to imply a decline in the popularity of -that amusement. One comes upon occasional records -of shows straggling through the countryside, and -giving the old, timeworn productions of <i>Prodigal -Son</i> or <i>Noah</i>, or <i>Pull Devil</i>, <i>Pull Baker</i>. During the -reign of George IV, puppets were found at street -corners, dancing sailors, milkmaids, clowns, but Punch, -as ever, the favorite.</p> - -<p>Even now, puppets on boards may be seen in the -streets of London. Of the old shows, one resident -of that city relates: “When I was a child, marionettes -used to go about the streets of London in a -theatre on wheels about as big as a barrel organ, -but I dare say I am wrong about size, because one -cannot remember these things. I remember particularly -a skeleton which danced and came to pieces -so that his bones lay about in a heap. When I was -properly surprised at this he assembled himself and -danced again. I was so young that I was rather -frightened.”</p> - -<p>There is to-day one of the old professional marionette -showmen wandering about in England, Clunn -Lewiss, who still has a set of genuine old dolls, bought -up from a predecessor’s outfit. For fifty years he -has been traveling along the roads, like a character -strayed out of Dickens. He has interested members<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span> -of artistic coteries in London, who have been moved -by the old man’s appeals for help, and some attempts -have been made to revive interest in his show. Surely -Clunn Lewiss deserves some recognition.</p> - -<p>Altogether unconnected with popular puppets were -the highly complicated mechanical exhibitions of -Holden’s marionettes. The amazing feats performed -by Holden’s puppets astonished not only -England, but all the large Continental and American -cities where they were displayed. They were tremendously -admired. The surprising dexterity of -manipulation, and the elegance of the settings had -never been surpassed. In Paris, however, de Goncourt -wrote of them: “The marionettes of Holden! These -creatures of wood are a little disquieting. There is -a dancer turning on the tips of her toes in the moonlight -that might be a character of Hoffman, etc.</p> - -<p>“Holden was more of an illusionist than a true -marionettist. He produced exact illusions of living -beings, but he was lacking in imagination. The -fantoches of Holden were certainly marvels of precision, -but they appeal to the eye and not to the -spirit. One admired, one did not laugh at them. -They astonished, but they did not charm.”</p> - -<div id="i_156" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img src="images/i_216.jpg" width="1998" height="2321" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Old English Puppets</span> - -<p>Used by Mr. Clunn Lewiss in his wandering show</p> - -<p>[Courtesy of Mr. Tony Sarg]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>There have been several interesting amateur marionette -shows within the last decade. There are the -Wilkinsons, two clever modern painters who have -taken their puppets from village to village in England -and also in France. They traveled about with their -family in a caravan and wherever they wished to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span> -give a show, they halted and drew forth a stage from -the rear end of the wagon. Their dolls are eight -inches high or more and they require four operators. -They are designed with a touch of caricature, and -they perform little plays and scenes invented by the -Wilkinsons, very amusing and witty. Not long ago -Mr. Gair Wilkinson gave a very successful exhibition -of his show at the Margaret Morris Theater in -Chelsea for a short season.</p> - -<p>The Ilkely Players, of Ilkely, Yorkshire, are a group -of young women who produced puppet plays for -some five or six years, touring through England. -Their dolls were rather simple, mechanically; only -the arms were articulated, for the most part; the -heads were porcelain dolls’ heads. Nevertheless this -group of puppeteers deserves the credit they attained -by reviving the classic old show of <i>Doctor Faustus</i>, -at Clifford’s Inn Hall, Chelsea. They also gave -very interesting productions of Maeterlinck’s <i>The -Seven Princesses</i>, and Thackeray’s <i>The Rose and the -Ring</i>, dramatized by Miss Dora Nussey, who was -the leader of the group. Inspired by their success, -Miss Margaret Bulley of Liverpool produced a puppet -play of Faustus before the Sandon Studio Club. -Miss Bulley’s puppets were quite simple wooden -dolls with papier-maché heads and tin arms and legs, -each worked with seven black threads. The costumes -were copied after old German engravings of -the eighteenth century and the production proved -very effective.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span></p> - -<p>Most highly perfected, and most exquisite of English -puppets to-day are those of the artist, Mr. William -Simmonds, in Hampstead. They originated in a village -in Wiltshire as an amusement at a Christmas -party given by Mr. and Mrs. Simmonds every year to -the village children. The audience was so delighted -that the next year more puppets were made with a -more attractive setting. Friends then became so enthusiastic -that the creators of the puppets realized -what might be done, and in London, the following -Spring, they began giving small private shows.</p> - -<div id="i_158" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> - <img src="images/i_220.jpg" width="2996" height="2020" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Mr. Gair Wilkinson and Assistant at Work on the Bridge of their Puppet Theatre</span> -[Reproduced from <i>The Sketch</i>, 1916]</div></div> - -<p>The productions are only suited to a small audience -of forty or fifty. The puppets are mostly fifteen -inches high, some smaller; the stage is nine feet -wide, six deep, and a little over two feet high. The -scenery is painted on small screens. At present -there are three scenes, a Harlequinade, a Woodland -Scene and a little Seaport Town. The puppets are -grouped to use one or the other of these scenes. They -do not do plays but seem to find their best expression -in songs and dances connected with various by-play -and “business” and a slight thread of episode which -is often varied, never twice alike. Mr. Simmonds -manipulates the puppets entirely alone and cannot -work with anyone close. He frequently operates a -puppet in each hand, all with the utmost dexterity -and delicacy, and manages others by means of hanging -them up and moving them slightly at intervals, -at the same time singing, whistling, improvising -dialogue or imitating various noises! People generally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span> -expect to find half a dozen manipulators behind -the scenes.</p> - -<p>Mr. Simmonds himself carves the heads, hands and -feet of his marionettes in wood (usually lime) and -paints them in tempera to avoid shine. They are -beautifully done. Some are dressed, some have -clothes painted on them. Some are quite decorative, -others impressionistic or frankly realistic. Not contented -with the little-bit-clumsy doll, Mr. Simmonds -has perfected his puppets with great technical skill -until they move with perfect naturalness, some with -dignity, some with grace, some with humor, each according -to its nature.</p> - -<p>In the Harliquinade the scene is hung with black -velvet, lighted from the front, which gives the effect -of a black void against which the figures of Harlequin, -Columbine, Clown, Pantaloon and others appear -with sparkling brilliancy and vivid color. In the -Seaport Town, a medley of characters appear,—a -sailor, a grenadier, a fat woman, an old man, the -minister, etc. There are songs used in this to give -variety. Particularly clever is an English sailor of -the time of Nelson who comes out of a public house -and dances a jig, heel-tapping the floor in perfect -time, his hands on his hips and his body rollicking in -perfect character while he sings, “On Friday morn -when we set sail.” Another excellent dancing doll -is the washerwoman of the old sort, short and stout -and great-armed, jolly and roughfaced.</p> - -<p>In the Woodland Scene, creatures of the wood<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span> -appear,—faun, dryad, nymph, young centaurs, baby -faun, hunted stag, a forester, a dainty shepherd -and a shepherdess, etc. The little sketch is entirely -wordless, having only musical accompaniment played -by Mrs. Simmonds upon a virginal or a spinet, or -an early Erard piano (date 1804). The sound is -just right in scale for the puppets; anything else -would seem heavy. The fauns in this scene are -most popular, particularly the <i>Baby</i> who has an -extraordinary tenderness, and skips and leaps with -the agility of a live thing. The act of extreme dreaminess -and beauty is described thus by one who was -privileged to witness it. “In one scene a man went -out hunting. He hid behind a bush. A stag came -on. He shot the stag which lay down and died. -Then there came one or two creatures of the wood, -who could do nothing, and at last a very beautiful -nymph, lightly clothed in leaves. She succeeded in -resuscitating the stag, who got up and bounded away. -When they had gone, the hunter who had watched -it all from behind the bush came out, and that was -all. Music all the time. No words. The stag was -quite astonishing.”</p> - -<p>Although he is now living and working in Florence, -Mr. Gordon Craig must not be omitted from any -account of English marionettes and advocates of the -puppets. Quite apart from the class of artistic amateurs -and equally remote from the usual professional -marionettist of to-day, Mr. Craig stands rather as a -new prophet of puppetry, recalling in stirring terms<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span> -the virtues of the old art, and adding his new and -individual interpretation of its value.</p> - -<p>Puppets are but a small portion of the dramatic -experiment and propaganda which Mr. Craig is so -courageously carrying on in Florence. But they are -not the least interesting branch of his undertakings. -He has assembled a veritable museum of marionette -and shadow play material from all over the world. -Pictures of some parts of his collection appear regularly -in “The Marionette.” There are also delightful -puppet plays appearing in this pamphlet. But this -is not all.</p> - -<p>With the marionette used as a sort of symbol, -Mr. Craig has been conducting research into the very -heart of dramatic verities, and producing dramatic -formulas which should apply on any stage at any -time. He has invented his marionettes to express -dramatic qualities which he deems significant, and -in his puppets he has attempted to eliminate all other -disturbing and unnecessary qualities. Thus he creates -little wooden patterns or models for his artists of the -stage, and he applies in actual usage Goethe’s maxim: -“He who would work for the stage ... should -leave nature in her proper place and take careful -heed not to have recourse to anything but what may -be performed by children with puppets upon boards -and laths, together with sheets of cardboard and -linen.”</p> - -<p>At the beginning of his experiments with marionettes -Mr. Craig and his assistants constructed one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span> -large and extremely complicated doll which was -moved on grooves and manipulated by pedals from -below, with a small <i>telltale</i> to indicate to the operator -the exact effect produced. But this marionette was -not satisfactory for Mr. Craig’s purposes.</p> - -<p>He then directed his energies in an exactly opposite -direction, toward simplification. The result was -small, but very impressive dolls, carved out of wood -and painted in neutral colors,—the color of the -scenes in which they moved, to allow for the fullest -and most variable effects produced by lighting. Most -interesting, too, the manner in which Mr. Craig -applied his theories concerning gesture with these -little puppets. Each marionette was allowed to make -one or two gestures,—no more. But these gestures -had to be exact, invariable, and the perfect indication -of whatever meaning they were intended to -convey. Before inventing the action of a puppet, -Mr. Craig would study, for days or weeks, watching -various people making the movement and expressing -the emotion he desired to portray. Then he would -extract from these observations the general and essential -qualities of this particular gesture; all else, -due to the peculiarities of individuals, was left out as -irrelevant for the stage. Hence when Mr. Craig’s -puppet moves, it moves simply, significantly and—one -more essential—surely. For nothing is left to -chance. The gesture, once selected, is produced with -infinite care and is made invariable. No whim of -the manipulator, no accident of chance, can alter it.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span> -One motion of the finger operates the figure, and the -result is assured.</p> - -<p>Naturally a character may be required to exhibit -varied succeeding emotions, not encompassed by -one or two motions. In that case the figure is taken -off the stage and replaced by another similar in appearance -but differently articulated for a different -purpose. There are sometimes as many as six or -eight puppets for one character. Mr. Craig has experimented -with his marionettes in many plays, some -comedy, some tragedy. It is not recorded whether -he has ever given one finished puppet production: -it is immaterial. The idea embodied in these little -puppets is immense,—a valuable and lasting contribution -to constructive dramatic criticism.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_164" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="The_Marionettes_in_America"><i>The Marionettes in America</i></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“They come from far away. They have been the -joy of innumerable generations which preceded our own; -they have gained, with our direct ancestors, many brilliant -successes; they have made them laugh but they -have also made them think; they have had eminent -protectors; for them celebrated authors have written. -At all times they have enjoyed a liberty of manners and -language which has rendered them dear to the people -for whom they were made.”</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -<span class="smcap">Ernest Maindron</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">How</span> old are the marionettes in America? How old -indeed! Older than the white races which now inhabit -the continent, ancient as the ancient ceremonials -of the dispossessed native Indians, more -indigenous to the soil than we who prate of them,—such -are the first American marionettes!</p> - -<p>Dramatic ceremonials among the Indians are numerous, -even at the present time. Each tribe has -its peculiar, individual rites, performed, as a rule, -by members of the tribe dressed in prescribed, symbolic -costumes and wearing often a conventionalized -mask. Occasionally, however, articulated figures take -part in these performances along with the human -participants. Dr. Jesse Walter Fewkes has published -a minute description of a theatrical performance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span> -at Walpi which he witnessed in 1900, together with -pictures of the weird and curious snake effigies employed -in it.</p> - -<p>The Great Serpent drama of the Hopi Indians, -called <i>Palü lakonti</i>, occurs annually in the March -moon. It is an elaborate festival, the paraphernalia -for which are repaired or manufactured anew for -days preceding the event. There are about six acts -and while one of them is being performed in one room, -simultaneously shows are being enacted in the other -eight <i>kivas</i> on the East Mesa. The six sets of actors -pass from one room to another, in all of which spectators -await their coming. Thus, upon one night each -performance was given nine times and was witnessed -by approximately five hundred people. The drama -lasts from nine <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span> until midnight.</p> - -<p>Dr. Fewkes gives us the following description of -the first act: “A voice was heard at the hatchway, -as if some one were hooting outside, and a moment -later a ball of meal, thrown into the room from without, -landed on the floor by the fireplace. This -was a signal that the first group of actors had arrived, -and to this announcement the fire tenders -responded, ‘Yunya ai,’ ‘Come in,’ an invitation which -was repeated by several of the spectators. After -considerable hesitation on the part of the visitors, -and renewed cries to enter from those in the room, -there was a movement above, and the hatchway was -darkened by the form of a man descending. The -fire tenders arose, and held their blankets about the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span> -fire to darken the room. Immediately there came -down the ladder a procession of masked men bearing -long poles upon which was rolled a cloth screen, while -under their blankets certain objects were concealed. -Filing to the unoccupied end of the kiva, they rapidly -set up the objects they bore. When they were ready -a signal was given, and the fire tenders, dropping -their blankets, resumed their seats by the fireplace. -On the floor before our astonished eyes we saw a -miniature field of corn, made of small clay pedestals -out of which projected corn sprouts a few inches -high. Behind this field of corn hung a decorated -cloth screen reaching from one wall of the room to -the other and from the floor almost to the rafters. -On this screen were painted many strange devices, -among which were pictures of human beings, male -and female, and of birds, symbols of rain-clouds, -lightning, and falling rain. Prominent among the -symbols was a row of six circular disks the borders -of which were made of plaited corn husks, while the -enclosed field of each was decorated with a symbolic -picture of the sun. Men wearing grotesque masks -and ceremonial kilts stood on each side of this screen.</p> - -<div id="i_166" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img src="images/i_230.jpg" width="1996" height="3015" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Marionettes employed in Ceremonial Drama of the American Indians</span></p> - -<p><i>Upper</i>: Serpent effigies, screen and miniature corn field used in Act I of -the <i>Great Serpent Drama</i> of the Hopi Katcinas</p> - -<p>[From <i>A Theatrical Performance at Walpi</i>, by J. Walter Fewkes, in the Proceedings -of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 1900, Vol. II]</p> - -<p><i>Lower</i>: Drawing by a Hopi Indian of articulated figurines of corn -maidens and birds</p> - -<p>[From <i>Hopi Katcinas</i>, by J. Walter Fewkes]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>“The act began with a song to which the masked -men, except the last mentioned, danced. A hoarse -roar made by a concealed actor blowing through -an empty gourd resounded from behind the screen, -and immediately the circular disks swung open up-ward, -and were seen to be flaps, hinged above, covering -orifices through which simultaneously protruded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span> -six artificial heads of serpents, realistically painted. -Each head had protuberant goggle eyes, and bore a -curved horn and a fan-like crest of hawk feathers. -A mouth with teeth was cut in one end, and from this -orifice there hung a strip of leather, painted red, -representing the tongue.</p> - -<p>“Slowly at first, but afterwards more rapidly, -these effigies were thrust farther into view, each revealing -a body four or five feet long, painted, like -the head, black on the back and white on the belly. -When they were fully extended the song grew louder, -and the effigies moved back and forth, raising and -depressing their heads in time, wagging them to one -side or the other in unison. They seemed to bite -ferociously at each other, and viciously darted at men -standing near the screen. This remarkable play continued -for some time, when suddenly the heads of -the serpents bent down to the floor and swept across -the imitation corn field, knocking over the clay pedestals -and the corn leaves which they supported. Then -the effigies raised their heads and wagged them back -and forth as before. It was observed that the largest -effigy, or that in the middle, had several udders on -each side of the belly, and that she apparently suckled -the others. Meanwhile the roar emitted from behind -the screen by a concealed man continued, and wild -excitement seemed to prevail. Some of the spectators -threw meal at the effigies, offering prayers, amid -shouts from others. The masked man, representing -a woman, stepped forward and presented the contents<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span> -of the basket tray to the serpent effigies for food, -after which he held his breasts to them as if to suckle -them.</p> - -<p>“Shortly after this the song diminished in volume, -the effigies were slowly drawn back through the openings, -the flaps on which the sun symbols were painted -fell back in place, and after one final roar, made by -the man behind the screen, the room was again silent. -The overturned pedestals with their corn leaves were -distributed among the spectators, and the two men -by the fireplace again held up their blankets before -the fire, while the screen was silently rolled up, and -the actors with their paraphernalia departed.”</p> - -<p>There are some acts in the drama into which the -serpent effigies do not enter at all. In the fifth act -these Great Snakes rise up out of the orifices of two -vases instead of darting out from the screen. This -action is produced by strings hidden in the kiva -rafters, the winding of heads and struggles and gyrations -of the sinuous bodies being the more realistic -because in the dim light the strings were invisible.</p> - -<p>In the fourth act two masked girls, elaborately -dressed in white ceremonial blankets, usually participate. -Upon their entrance they assume a kneeling -posture and at a given signal proceed to grind -meal upon mealing stones placed before the fire, -singing, and accompanied by the clapping of hands. -“In some years marionettes representing Corn Maids -are substituted for the two masked girls,” Dr. Fewkes -explains, “in the act of grinding corn, and these two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span> -figures are very skillfully manipulated by concealed -actors. Although this representation was not introduced -in 1900, it has often been described to me, -and one of the Hopi men has drawn me a picture of -the marionettes.”</p> - -<p>“The figurines are brought into the darkened room -wrapped in blankets, and are set up near the middle -of the kiva in much the same way as the screens. -The kneeling images, surrounded by a wooden framework, -are manipulated by concealed men; when the -song begins they are made to bend their bodies backward -and forward in time, grinding the meal on miniature -metates before them. The movements of girls -in grinding meal are so cleverly imitated that the -figurines moved by hidden strings at times raised -their hands to their faces, which they rubbed with -meal as the girls do when using the grinding stones -in their rooms.</p> - -<p>“As this marionette performance was occurring, -two bird effigies were made to walk back and forth -along the upper horizontal bar of the framework, -while bird calls issued from the rear of the room.”</p> - -<p>The symbolism of this drama is intricate and curious. -The effigies representing the Great Serpent, an -important supernatural personage in the legends of the -Hopi Indians, are somehow associated with the Hopi -version of a flood; for it was said that when the ancestors -of certain clans lived far south this monster -once rose through the middle of the pueblo plaza, -drawing after him a great flood which submerged<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span> -the land and which obliged the Hopi to migrate into -his present home, farther North. The snake effigies -knocking over the cornfields symbolize floods, possible -winds which the Serpent brings. The figurines -of the Corn Maids represent the mythical maidens -whose beneficent gift of corn and other seeds, in -ancient times, is a constant theme in Hopi legends.</p> - -<p>The effigies which Dr. Fewkes saw used were not -very ancient, but in olden times similar effigies existed -and were kept in stone enclosures outside the pueblos. -The house of the <i>Ancient Plumed Snake of Hano</i> is -in a small cave in the side of a mesa near the ruins of -Turkinobi where several broken serpent heads and -effigy ribs (or wooden hoops) can now be seen, although -the entrance is walled up and rarely used.</p> - -<p>The puppet shows commonly seen to-day in the -United States are of foreign extraction or at least -inspired by foreign models. For many years there -have been puppet-plays throughout the country. -Visiting exhibitions like those of Holden’s marionettes -which Professor Brander Matthews praises so -glowingly are, naturally, rare. But one hears of -many puppets in days past that have left their impression -upon the childhood memories of our elders, -travelling as far South as Savannah or wandering -through the New England states. Our vaudevilles -and sideshows and galleries often have exhibits of -mechanical dolls, such as the amazing feats of <i>Mantell’s -Marionette Hippodrome Fairy-land Transformation</i> -which advertises “Big scenic novelty, seventeen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span> -gorgeous drop curtains, forty-five elegant talking -acting figures in a comical pantomime,” or <i>Madam -Jewel’s Manikins</i> in Keith’s Circuit, Madam Jewel -being an aunt of Holden, they say, and guarding -zealously with canvas screens the secret of her devices, -even as Holden himself is said to have done.</p> - -<p>Interesting, too, is the story of the retired marionettist, -Harry Deaves, who writes: “I have on hand -forty to fifty marionette figures, all in fine shape and -dressed. I have been in the manikin business forty-five -years, played all the large cities from coast to coast, -over and over, always with big success; twenty-eight -weeks in Chicago without a break with Uncle -Tom’s Cabin, a big hit. The reason I am selling my -outfit is,—I am over sixty years of age and I don’t -think I will work it again.” How one wishes one -might have seen that <i>Uncle Tom’s Cabin</i> in Chicago! -In New York at present there is Remo Buffano, -reviving interest in the puppets by giving performances -now and then in a semi-professional way with -large, simple dolls resembling somewhat the Sicilian -burattini. His are plays of adventure and fairy lore.</p> - -<p>Then, too, in most of our larger cities from time to -time crude popular shows from abroad are to be -found around the foreign neighborhoods. It is said -that at one time in Chicago there were Turkish -shadow plays in the Greek Colony; Punch and Judy -make their appearance at intervals, and Italian or -Sicilian showmen frequently give dramatic versions -of the legends of Charlemagne.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span></p> - -<p>In Cleveland two years ago a party of inquisitive -folk went one night to the Italian neighborhood in -search of such a performance. We found and entered -a dark little hall where the rows of seats were crowded -closely together and packed with a spellbound audience -of Italian workingmen and boys. Squeezing -into our places with as little commotion as possible -we settled down to succumb to the spell of the crude -foreign fantoccini, large and completely armed, who -were violently whacking and slashing each other -before a rather tattered drop curtain. Interpreted -into incorrect English by a small boy glued to my -side, broken bits of the resounding tale of <i>Orlando -Furioso</i> were hissed into my ear. But for these -slangy ejaculations one might well have been in the -heart of Palermo. A similar performance is described -by Mr. Arthur Gleason. It was a show in -New York, the master of which was Salvatore Cascio, -and he was assisted by Maria Grasso, daughter of -the Sicilian actor, Giovanni Grasso of Catania.</p> - -<div id="i_172" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> - <img src="images/i_238.jpg" width="3004" height="2014" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Italian Marionette Show</span> -Operated in Cleveland for a season. Proprietor, Joseph Scionte -[Courtesy of Cleveland <i>Plain Dealer</i>]</div></div> - -<p>“For two hours every evening for fifty evenings -the legends unrolled themselves, princes of the blood -and ugly unbelievers perpetually warring.” There -was, explains Mr. Gleason, some splendid fighting. -“Christians and Saracens generally proceeded to -quarrel at close range with short stabbing motions at -the opponent’s face and lungs. After three minutes -they swing back and then clash!! sword shivers on -shield!! Three times they clash horridly, three times -retire to the wings, at last the Christian beats down<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span> -his foe; the pianist meanwhile is playing violent -ragtime during the fight, five hidden manipulators are -stamping on the platform above, the cluttered dead -are heaped high on the stage.” When one considers -that such puppets are generally about three -feet high and weigh one hundred pounds, armor and -all, and are operated by one or two thick iron rods -firmly attached to the head and hands, what wonder -that the flooring of the stage is badly damaged by the -terrific battles waged upon it and has to be renewed -every two weeks!</p> - -<p>Far removed from these unsophisticated performances, -however, are the poetic puppets of the Chicago -Little Theatre. I use the present tense optimistically -despite the sad fact that the Little Theatre in Chicago -has been closed owing to unfavorable conditions -caused by the war. But although “Puck is at present -cosily asleep in his box,” as Mrs. Maurice Browne -has written, we all hope that the puppets so auspiciously -successful for three years will resume their -delightful activities, somehow or other, soon.</p> - -<p>At first the originators of the Chicago marionettes -travelled far into Italy and Germany, seeking models -for their project. Finally in Solln near Munich they -discovered Marie Janssen and her sister, whose delicate -and fantastic puppet plays most nearly approached -their own ideals. They brought back to -Chicago a queer little model purchased in Munich -from the man who had made Papa Schmidt’s Puppen. -But, as one of the group has written, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span> -little German puppet seemed graceless under these -skies. And so, Ellen Van Volkenburg (Mrs. Maurice -Browne) and Mrs. Seymour Edgerton proceeded to -construct their own marionettes. Miss Katherine -Wheeler, a young English sculptor, modelled the -faces, each a clear-cut mask to fit the character, but -left purposely rough in finish. Miss Wheeler felt -that the broken surfaces carried the facial expression -farther. The puppets were fourteen inches high, -carved in wood. The intricate mechanism devised -by Harriet Edgerton rendered the figures extremely -pliable. Her mermaids, with their serpentine jointing, -displayed an uncanny sinuousness. Miss Lillian -Owen was Mistress of the Needle, devising the filmy -costumes, and Mrs. Browne with fine technique and -keen dramatic sense took upon herself the task of -training and inspiring the puppeteers as well as creating -the poetic ensemble.</p> - -<div id="i_174" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_242.jpg" width="2021" height="3012" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Marionettes at the Chicago Little Theatre</span></p> - -<p>Production of <i>Alice in Wonderland</i> under Mrs. Maurice Browne’s direction</p> - -<p><span class="l1"><i>Upper</i>: The Duchess’s Kitchen</span></p> - -<p><i>Lower</i>: The White Rabbit’s House</p></div></div> - -<p>The Chicago puppets are neither grotesque nor -humorous and they have little in common with the -puppet of tradition. Theirs is an element of exquisite -magical fairy-land, with dainty beings moving -about in it, who can express beauty, tragedy and -tenderness. Their repertoire consists for the most -part of fantasies written or adapted by members of -the group. The first was a delicious fairy adventure, -a play for children, <i>The Deluded Dragon</i>, founded -upon an old Chinese legend, wherein a lovely Prince -seems to follow a Wooden Spoon down the River -certain that he will chance upon Adventure, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span> -he does. The play was decidedly successful, despite -a most unfortunate accident at the first performance -caused by the impetuosity of the somewhat hurried -puppeteers. To be more explicit, “the fierce but -fragile dragon parted in the middle, his five heads -swinging free of his timorously lashing tail.” “The -same year,” continues Miss Hettie Louise Mick, -herself puppeteer and composer of marionette plays, -“Reginald Arkell’s charming fantasy, <i>Columbine</i>, was -produced with more patience and proved a wholly -delightful and almost finished thing.”</p> - -<p>The next year two fairy tales were presented, <i>Jack -and the Beanstalk</i> and <i>The Little Mermaid</i>, both dramatized -by the puppeteers. Great technical advances -had been made in the latter play and a delicate, fantastic -effect attained, approaching the ideals of the -founders. The last and most ambitious performance -of this season was Shakespeare’s <i>A Midsummer Night’s -Dream</i>, given not only for children but openly for -the grown-ups. Of this production Miss Mick has -written: “Puck, who had been known formerly as -the rather stiff little fairy who introduced and closed -each play in rhyme, now became his romping, pliant -self, tumbling through the air, doubling up in chortling -glee upon his toadstool and pushing his annoying -little person into every disconcerted mortal’s way. -Titania emerged, a glowing queen of filmy draperies, -attended by flitting elves, and Oberon resumed his -crafty, flashing earth-character, his attendants being -two inflated and wholly impudent bugs. The Mechanicals,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span> -while clumsy, fulfilled their parts well and -brought the outworn humor of Shakespeare into -hilarious reality, the scene between Pyramus and -Thisbe never failing to bring roars of appreciation -from the audience. Only the Greeks were a dank and -dismal failure. Hurriedly constructed to meet the -rapidly approaching production date, they were awkward, -long-headed, stiff-jointed creatures highly unlike -their graceful originals. But the lighting and -settings, and the prevailing atmosphere of exquisite -unreality were such that the audience came night -after night for five weeks, and at the end of that time, -when the theatre closed for the season, demanded -more.”</p> - -<p>Mrs. Browne, in an informal letter about her puppets, -has written concerning this performance: “I -don’t think I ever have seen such delicate beauty as -was achieved at the end of the Midsummer: I say -it in all simplicity because I have a curious, Irish -feeling that the little dolls took matters into their -own hands and for once allowed us a glimpse into -their own secret world. The audience, whether of -adults or of children, never failed to respond with a -sudden hush and the poor, tired girls who had been -working in great heat over the colored lights for two -hours never failed to get their reward.” Mrs. Browne -then proceeded to give an idea of the patient toil -behind the scenes. “We rehearsed six hours a day -for about seven weeks to prepare the play. Six girls -worked the puppets; there were about thirty of them,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span> -so you can see how many characters each girl had to -create and how many dolls she had to work (my -puppeteers spoke for each puppet they handled). -Besides the actual workers, I had an understudy -whose duty it was to stand on the platform back of the -girls to take their puppets from them when the scenes -were moving quickly and many characters were -leaving the stage at once; she then hung the puppets -where they could be easily reached for their next -entrance. Hers was, of course, the most thankless -task of all because she had none of the pleasure, and -the accuracy of the performance depended upon her -efficiency. None who have not worked with puppets -can understand the nervous strain of these performances.”</p> - -<p>The third year of the Chicago puppets saw progress -in many directions. The enthusiasm of the -puppeteers had finally been aroused to the point -where each contributed suggestions in the line of -mechanical construction or the adapting of plays. -Mr. H. Carrol French of the South Bend Little Theatre -came to be puppet manager and added many improvements -to the mechanism of the dolls, constructing -the bodies of wire instead of wood (some suggestions -for which he received through the courtesy of -Mr. Tony Sarg). The new dolls were more sensitive -to manipulation than the old, and more individual -in their gestures. The repertoire for this season consisted -of two little fairy plays, <i>The Frog Prince</i> and -<i>Little Red Riding Hood</i>, adaptations of Miss Mick,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span> -and then <i>Alice in Wonderland</i>, made into a play by -Mrs. Browne. While this play never wove so strong -a poetic spell as <i>A Midsummer Night’s Dream</i>, it -marked great strides in skill on the part of the manipulators. -This same year the little puppets went on a -tour, not only into the suburbs of Chicago but, under -the auspices of the Drama League, as far as St. Louis. -Let us hope that at some not too distant date Puck, -moving sprite among this brave and poetic band of -marionettes, will gaily revive and travel farther with -his troupe so that we all may witness and enjoy his -fairy charms.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a></p> - -<div id="i_178" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> - <img src="images/i_248.jpg" width="3001" height="2028" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Marionettes at the Cleveland Play House</span></p> - -<p>Presenting <i>The Life of Chopin</i></p> - -<p>Puppets and scenery designed by Carl Broemel</p></div></div> - -<p>The Cleveland Playhouse has had its puppet stage -from the very beginning of the organization. Mr. -Raymond O’Neil, the director, has always taken a -great interest in the puppets. He believes, with -Mr. Gordon Craig, that they might well serve as -models in style, simplicity and impersonality for -living actors, but he also avers that they are capable -of presenting certain types of drama as effectively -if not more satisfactorily than the best of actors, and -certainly better than any second-rate performers. -When the Cleveland Playhouse was still a very small, -informal group it was decided to produce a serious -marionette play. The director selected for this purpose<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span> -<i>The Death of Tintagiles</i>, written by Maeterlinck -expressly for puppets. A Cleveland artist, Mr. -George Clisby, worked out the proper proportions -for the marionettes and the stage and their relation -to each other. It is recognized by all who witness -them that the effectiveness and success of the Cleveland -productions are due in great part to the happy -proportions prevailing in the marionette scenes and -the sense of a complete, harmonious whole which -they create.</p> - -<p>Mr. Clisby also designed the costumes for the first -dolls, and the scenery. Only the significant and -essential was allowed upon his little stage, strong, -simple lines and colors, a few poplar trees upon a -hilltop in the blue dusk of the evening, or plain, -gloomy chambers with high arches leading away into -mysterious passages, or at the very last, merely a -door, a massive, closed iron door set in bare walls. -The figures were planned in the same spirit. Being -very small they were given practically no features, -a scowling eyebrow, a dignified beard, long hair or -short, stiff or flowing, being sufficient indication of -the type represented.</p> - -<p>Miss Grace Treat, who made and dressed most of -the marionettes, caught and embodied the artist’s -ideal in strange, tall puppets, naïve but marvelously -impressive. The construction of these puppets, although -extremely simple, had to be planned and -executed patiently. Often a marionette was taken -apart and made over again until the right effect, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span> -the proper gesture, was obtained. The puppets are -somewhat like rag dolls, of a soft material, stuffed -with cotton or scraps, weighted and carefully balanced -with lead. Five and at most seven strings are used -and the control is very primitive. This studied -simplicity in structure and in costume has given the -Cleveland puppets a naïve style,—their limitations -both defining and emphasizing the significance of -each little figure. Miss Treat was also the master-manipulator -of the puppets and in her hands the stiff -little Ygraine took on heroic and tragic proportions.</p> - -<p>For many months a small group of faithful enthusiasts -struggled to attain the standard set for -them by director and artist. The play was finally -given before an audience of Playhouse members. -Mr. O’Neil produced the strangely beautiful lighting -with the crudest facilities imaginable. The parts were -read by members of the group who had been working -along patiently with the manipulators until words, -settings and action had grown perfectly harmonious. -Those who were privileged to witness this first production -were deeply thrilled by the poetic beauty of it, -and still mention it as an unusual experience.</p> - -<p>Encouraged by this initial success, the group determined -to continue with marionettes. But the -Playhouse itself was going through a winter of vicissitudes -and the puppeteers were compelled to endure -and suffer many delays and disappointments. Rehearsing -in a rear room of an empty house loaned for -the season (and often fabulously cold!) with readers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span> -and operators dropping out one by one from sheer -discouragement or because of war work, trying out -several plays which for one reason or another proved -impossible, still a nucleus of the old group, with the -addition of a few new workers, held on, held out -through this second season under the ever optimistic -leadership of Grace Treat. After moving into other -temporary quarters, to be exact, into the high and -dingy little ball-room of an old residence turned -boarding-house, the group produced a very successful -repetition of <i>Tintagiles</i>.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a></p> - -<p>Meanwhile the Playhouse had purchased a little -church which it remodeled, decorated and equipped -as a permanent theatre. During this time, and under -most trying circumstances brought about by the war, -the director contrived to present several productions -for the first Winter in the new playhouse, among -them two marionette performances. Most of the -puppeteers and readers for both of these plays were -new at the work and had to be trained from the very -beginning. The stage, too, had been altered to admit -of a cyclorama, improved lighting arrangements and, -quite incidentally, a stronger and safer <i>bridge</i>. Nevertheless -certain methods and principles of manipulating -were evolved which somewhat raised the dexterity -of the group as a whole.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span></p> - -<p>One of the plays we produced was <i>Shadowy Waters</i> -by Yeats, a dreamy, far-away, old Irish drama which -lent itself beautifully to our type of poetic puppets. -Mr. John Black designed the colorful costumes and -the scene upon the deck of a vessel. The pleasure -of making and dressing the impressionistic dolls was -delegated to me, but all willing members of the group -were allowed to share in this privilege. There were -five long-suffering readers and four patient operators, -besides the director of the group, who also manipulated, -with extra assistance, at the very end, to carry -the marionettes back and forth behind the scene. -Mr. O’Neil also generously helped in staging the -production. Many and varied were the rehearsal -evenings we spent together. But, when at last the -curtain slowly fell upon the Queen in her turquoise -gown with “hair the color of burning” and her dark, -melancholy lover beside her, deserted by the sailors -and drifting away over shadowy blue waters to the -strains of the magic harp, we all felt that we had -created something of beauty, despite our inexperience -and obvious shortcomings.</p> - -<div id="i_182" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> - <img src="images/i_254.jpg" width="3030" height="1805" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Marionettes at the Cleveland Play House</span></p> - -<p> -Production of <i>Shadowy Waters</i> by W. B. Yeats<br /> -Puppets and scenery designed by John Black<br /> -</p></div></div> - -<p>The other puppet play was somewhat in the nature -of a departure at the Playhouse. A little narrative -of the life of Chopin, written by Mr. Albert Gehring, -was read to the accompaniment of piano selections -from Chopin’s music while dainty little figures of the -period, gently moving, enacted the scenes in the -story as it proceeded. This method has had many and -ancient precedents in the ambulent puppet shows of -the Middle Ages. The success of the experiment has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span> -suggested to some puppeteers in the group the idea -of further attempts in this manner. Mr. Carl Broemel -was the artist who designed the elegantly clad and -exquisite little dolls, as well as the setting for the play. -The latter was a remarkable example of a miniature -interior which, despite its diminutive furnishings, had -nothing petty about it but gave one the unified, -powerful effect of a dignified painting, poetically and -simply conceived.</p> - -<p>Thus the Cleveland puppets have struggled along -through hard days of war and worries, very much -alive although perhaps less active than they may hope -some day to be. Plans have been made to start -rehearsing a play longer and more important than the -recent endeavors, (possibly Hauptmann’s <i>Hannele</i>). -The problem of a permanent marionette theatre -depending upon volunteer workers is unbelievably -difficult, but we feel that with time the solution can -be found not only for our group but for other communities -as well who may venture upon this fascinating -minor branch of dramatic endeavor.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a></p> - -<p>To New York accrues the credit of having to-day -professional marionettes on exhibition in a theatre -on Broadway. Created by the inventive genius of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span> -Mr. Tony Sarg, and sustained through the sympathetic -interest of Mr. Winthrop Ames, these most accomplished -and amazing dolls made their debut at the -Neighborhood Playhouse over a year ago, whence, -after, arousing great enthusiasm, they moved into the -Punch and Judy Theatre. There, before an audience -of appreciative big and little folk, they performed -three tales of fable and fantasia, or as the headlines -of a newspaper described it, after the manner of the -old advertisements: “Master marionettes of new Refinements. -Strangely Human Semblance and Various -Illusion ... Tale and Whimsey.”</p> - -<p>The story of these marionettes began over five -years ago in London, where Mr. Sarg had his studio -in <i>The Old Curiosity Shop</i>, made famous by Dickens. -There he worked at his illustrating and played with -his puppets. The performances he gave for the -amusement of himself and his friends encouraged -him in becoming more and more absorbed in the -miniature stage. After the war had broken out, Mr. -Sarg came to New York and brought his marionettes -along. Here he continued his professional activities, -illustrating diligently and most successfully, with interludes -of puppet play. When, finally, Mr. Ames became -interested in presenting these puppets to the -public, it was found necessary to enlarge and elaborate -upon the original pattern, and after many months of -experimenting, patient labor and happy inspiration, -Mr. Sarg perfected the ingenious, three-foot marionettes -used in these first public productions.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span></p> - -<div id="i_184" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_258.jpg" width="2033" height="3006" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Mr. Tony Sarg’s Marionettes behind the Scenes</span></div></div> - -<p>Each of his thirty-six or more little figures was -designed with an eye to its special uses; some require -as many as twenty-four strings for the manipulating. -One of the little figures is a masterpiece of flexibility. -Of her it has been written: “This doll is an Oriental -dancer. Her contortions and posturings are in perfect -imitation of the living Nautch-girl and it is safe -to say that nothing ever seen on the puppet stage of -America at least can surpass the ease and grace with -which her little body sways backward in an inverted -crescent, the ethereal lightness of her circling about -the stage and the abandon of her attitudes in the -dance.” Another critic comments with an almost -audible chuckle: “... a nine days’ marvel and most -improper. She pains and shocks all right thinking -people by her shameless display of those allurements -against which all the prophets have warned the sons -of men.”</p> - -<p>I myself was even more impressed by Mr. Sarg’s -puppet-juggler. He is an adorable little expert, tossing -and catching his many golden balls with such -tense, nervous concern, jerking his head left and -right to watch first this hand, then that, then a ball -high in air and, having accomplished his trick, he -stands with such justifiable pride and swelling of -chest to receive the well-earned plaudits of the audience! -It was a quite irresistible bit of mimicry. -There is, indeed, a nice humor and an enjoyable but -not overemphasized flavor of the grotesque in these -marionettes. Heads, hands and feet are a little<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span> -exaggerated in proportion to the rest of the body; -added to this, the ease with which they accomplish -the humanly impossible and the difficulty with which -they perform some very trivial and ordinary human -acts all bring about a curious absurdity which is -highly amusing.</p> - -<p>Of the three plays presented the opening season, -the first was <i>The Three Wishes</i>, an old fairy tale -dramatized by Count F. Pocci for the marionette -theatre of Papa Schmidt in Munich and re-adapted -by Mr. Ames. “The tiny stage,” writes Miss Anne -Stoddard, “is set in a shadow box; the curtain rises -on a sunny knoll with a glimpse of red roofs in -the valley below; bright butterflies flutter above the -grass; a saucy Molly cotton-tail bobs across the -hillside.” Another witness of the performance continues: -“The supernatural is a ready aid to the marionette -drama. Hence one is not surprised to find in -the first play of Mr. Sarg’s entertainment a fairy -being released from an imprisoning tree by an old -woodcutter and offering her liberator the familiar -three wishes. The tale bears one of the morals familiar -in German folklore. The woodcutter, having -received his wish-ring, is awed by the responsibility -which rests upon him and rushes to consult with the -wife of his bosom. She is equally perturbed, but -guards the ring for him while he departs to hold conference -with the schoolmaster, but how perverse is -human nature! The wife, entertaining a neighbor -during his absence, casually expresses the wish for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span> -a plate of sausages. Presto, sausages hot and tempting -appear before her. The woodcutter, returning -and discovering what use his wife has made of the -first wish, angrily wishes the sausages were growing -at the end of her nose, and lo, so they are. The -third wish still remains. But what will avail all the -honor and wealth in the world if one’s wife is to make -one ridiculous by carrying sausages on the end of -her nose? Clearly there is nothing to be done but to -utilize the third wish in wishing the sausages off again. -And, this accomplished, the fairy appears to preach -a homely sermon, pointing out how vain are human -wishes and ambitions. Let each gain what he would -have by his own will and industry and be contented -with the lot he carves for himself.</p> - -<p>“The edifying import of this tale is no less impressive -than the spirited enactment of it,—the grace -of the fairy, the ardor of the woodcutter, the nagging -of the wife, the fervent emotion displayed by the -housedog at the smell of the sausages. Such a mingling -of fable, parable and sermon, of petty human -nature with the inscrutable supernatural which hedges -us all in is the authentic material of puppet-drama.”</p> - -<p>The other two plays, expertly written by Mrs. -Hamilton Williamson, displayed to the greatest advantage -the particular talents of the puppet virtuosi. -It is thus that she depicts the task of the marionette -dramatist. “When Mr. Sarg first told me he wanted -a snake-charmer, a juggler, an Oriental dancer, an -elephant and a donkey in one play, I thought I couldn’t<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span> -possibly get them together; but, you see, I did.” -Yes, indeed, and more besides in the way of adventure, -mystery and humor, very cleverly devised in the -energetic, simple language best suited to the naïve -audience of puppet actors. Nor did the duties of -Mrs. Williamson end with her literary labors. Many -and inspired were her humbler but equally arduous -and indispensable achievements for these puppets.</p> - -<p>A similar versatility was displayed by the young -women who operated the puppets. Aside from the -laboriously acquired precision essential in mastering -the intricate controls devised for the dolls, each puppeteer -has interested herself in other phases of the -ancient craft. Some of them made the elaborate and -colorful costumes for the dolls. Some helped manufacture -the properties, tiny but complete and delightful. -My very first glimpse of the marvelous puppets, -indeed, was when, led by Mrs. Williamson, I came to -a very dirty brownstone house not far from Washington -Square, and, entering a gloomy hallway, penetrated -through into the dark rear room where the -puppeteers were at work, all in overalls, all very -busy, all very amiable. Someone was sawing wood, -someone was hammering, someone was up on the -bridge practicing the donkey and there was a tiny, -live monkey perched on the lumber which littered -the floor. Puppets and monkey ... of course!—following -the example of Brioché and his Fagotin -and perfectly true to the best traditions!</p> - -<div id="i_188" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> - <img src="images/i_264.jpg" width="3036" height="2025" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">A Trick Puppet</span></p> - -<p>In Mr. Tony Sarg’s production, <i>The Rose and the Ring</i>; showing how Gruffanuff becomes instantly -beautiful upon finding the magic ring</p></div></div> - -<p>It is Mr. Sarg who has trained and inspired all of -his workers, who has designed the costumes as well<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span> -as the faces and hands of the dolls, modeled after -his drawings, who has invented the clever mechanism -and most of the scenery and ingenious “business” -of the stage, who has directed the actors’ interpretation -of the lines, selected the incidental music, superintended -the lighting effects, all with an easy air of -merely enjoying his little hobby.</p> - -<p>The play selected by Mr. Sarg for his puppets -during their second season was a very fortunate -choice. It was Thackeray’s little fairy story, <i>The -Rose and the Ring</i>, made into a drama by one of the -puppeteers, Miss Hettie Louise Mick, who had dramatized -other tales for marionettes when she was working -with the Chicago puppets. Nothing could have -been better suited to the nature of Mr. Sarg’s dolls, -humorous, dainty, delicious, all in quaint trappings, -and with divertingly elaborate settings suggestive of -the Victorian era quite proper to the story. To add -to the excellence of his production, Mr. Sarg secured -Mrs. Browne to advise in staging and to direct the -rehearsing. She applied her usual methods, training -the puppeteers first through having them act out -and speak the lines themselves before operating the -dolls. The manipulators always talk for the marionettes -they operate.</p> - -<p>To facilitate in taking the show about the country -a collapsible stage was constructed and the puppets -were reduced in size. This diminution of stature -brought about a new refinement, a more mincing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span> -manner and a more piquant facial eccentricity. Early -in Spring, <i>The Rose and The Ring</i> went on a Western -tour, visiting Detroit, Ann Arbor and Cleveland. -Mr. Sarg had a group of six manipulators, including -Miss Lillian Owen, mistress of the wardrobe and a -sort of right-hand man, and Mr. Searle, master stage -mechanic and constructor of clever scenery and properties, -another right-hand man in fact, and Miss -Mick, who wrote the play. A musician also came -along and produced the tinkly, tinny, toy music so -properly attuned to the puppet play. The production -abounded in pretty surprises, horrible suspenses, -fairy magic, transformations, shadow play, dancing -dolls, piano playing puppets, knights in armor, animals, -everything desirable! Throughout there was -the flow of Thackeray’s inimitable, good-natured -satire, skillfully preserved by Miss Mick. After enthusiastic -receptions wherever he visited with them, -Mr. Sarg returned to New York with his marionettes -and installed them in the Punch and Judy theatre, -where they continued to enjoy their usual popularity.</p> - -<p>Mr. Sarg has been asked why he does not attempt -poetic drama with his marionettes. He is faced, of -course, with the problem which confronts all the -puppet showmen here in America of finding material -suitable for a given type of doll and also acceptable -to local audiences, hitherto unacquainted with the -characteristics and traditions of the burattini. Concerning -a possible performance of one of Maeterlinck’s -dramas by the marionettes, Mr. Sarg has said: “I<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span> -am turning that over in my mind. The practicable -difficulty is the exaggerated walk of the dolls, which -always brings laughter from the audience. But I -dare say I can manage that all right when I have a -chance to work over it a bit.” Let us hope that this -minor difficulty will not prove insurmountable, for, -as Mr. H. K. Moderwell in the <i>Boston Transcript</i> -has so aptly written: “If he will draw further from the -ancient and noble sources of puppet literature, if he -will bid his dolls enact some of those dramas which -have made the art of the marionette an inspired art, -he will merit the plaudits of all puppet-starved -America.”</p> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_192" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Toy_Theatres_and_Puppet_Shows"><i>Toy Theatres and Puppet Shows -for Children</i></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">Whether,</span> out of their infinite variety, the puppets -please or fail to satisfy us, there is one audience invariably -eager for them. Puppet shows for children, -toy theatres managed by children, what could be -more fitting? Specially adapted, professional performances -such as the Guignol and Casperle plays -have ever catered to youthful tastes with astonishing -and perennial success. The home-made booths for -simple dolls worked on the fingers are so quickly -contrived. Little stages for marionettes are easy to -construct out of ordinary kitchen tables. Mr. Gordon -Craig gives explicit directions as well as an excellent -drawing in his letter, <i>The Game of Marionettes</i>, which -is published in <i>The Mask</i>, volume five. Shadow -plays can be arranged by merely stretching a sheet -across a door with a cardboard frame and cardboard -figures pressed behind it and a light to illuminate the -silhouettes. How much fun to have Red Riding -Hood thus portrayed, for a birthday party or the -shadow of Santa Claus with his reindeer sailing over -the shadow gables and down the shadow of the -chimney on Christmas eve!</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span></p> - -<p>The <i>Juvenile Drama</i> of Skelt and his successors, -Park, Webb, Redington and Pollock, has been immortalized -by Stevenson in his little essay, <i>A Penny -Plain and Twopence Colored</i>. Printed on thin sheets -of cardboard to be cut out and colored by the youthful -stage manager (unless he bought, oh shame! the -<i>Twopence Colored</i>), were characters and scenes for -the most exciting plays. Special properties for illuminating -and coloring could be acquired also, at -extra expense. The words of the drama, plus directions, -were printed in a pamphlet. They were based -upon thrilling old English melodramas; they presented -startling and highly theatrical situations.</p> - -<p>“In the Leith Walk window all the year round, -there stood displayed a theatre in working order, -with a <i>Forest Set</i>, a <i>Combat</i>, and a few <i>Robbers Carousing</i> -in the slides; and below and about, dearer tenfold -to me! the plays themselves, those budgets of -romance, lay tumbled one upon the other. Long -and often have I lingered there with empty pockets. -One figure, we shall say, was visible in the first plate -of characters, bearded, pistol in hand, or drawing to -his ear the clothyard arrow. I would spell the name: -was it Macaire or Long Tom Coffin, or Grindoff, -2d dress? Oh, how I would long to see the rest! -How—if the name by chance were hidden—I -would wonder in what play he figured and what -immortal legend justified his attitude and strange -apparel! And then to go within to announce yourself -as an intending purchaser, and, closely watched,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span> -be suffered to undo those bundles and to breathlessly -devour those pages of gesticulating villains, epileptic -combats, bosky forests, palaces and warships, frowning -fortresses and prison vaults—it was a giddy -joy.”</p> - -<p>“And when at length the deed was done, the play -selected and the impatient shopman had brushed -the rest into the gray portfolio, and the boy was forth -again, a little late for dinner, the lamps springing -into light in the blue winter’s even, and <i>The Miller</i>, -or <i>The Rover</i>, or some kindred drama clutched against -his side, on what gay feet he ran, and how he laughed -aloud in exultation!” And Stevenson confesses: “I -have, at different times, possessed <i>Aladdin</i>, <i>The Red -Rover</i>, <i>The Blind Boy</i>, <i>The Old Oak Chest</i>, <i>The Wood -Daemon</i>, <i>Jack Shepard</i>, <i>The Miller and His Men</i>, -<i>Der Freischuetz</i>, <i>The Smuggler</i>, <i>The Forest of Bondy</i>, -<i>Robin Hood</i>, <i>The Waterman</i>, <i>Richard I.</i>, <i>My Poll -and my Partner Joe</i>, <i>The Inchcape Bell</i> (imperfect), -and <i>Three-fingered Jack the Terror of Jamaica</i>; and -I have assisted others in the illumination of the <i>Maid -of the Inn</i> and <i>The Battle of Waterloo</i>. In this roll-call -of stirring names you read the evidences of a -happy childhood.”<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a></p> - -<p>In Germany, also, toy theaters abound, better -equipped possibly, and more carefully constructed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span> -but lacking somewhat the quaint and fiery delightfulness -of the English juvenile drama.</p> - -<p>There could be no more spontaneous testimonial -of the love of children for the puppets than the throngs -who crowded into Papa Schmidt’s Kasperle theatre to -witness his familiar, jolly little shows of fairy-tale -and folklore. In striving to meet the tastes and -needs of children, Schmidt earned the reward of -becoming the best beloved man in the city. It is -interesting to note that when, once, he became discouraged -and wished to retire, the city magistrates, -urged by the <i>superintendent of the schools</i>, unanimously -voted to build him a permanent little theatre.</p> - -<p>And Goethe, that German genius of most universal -appeal, records that he devoted many hours of his -childhood to puppet play. Kept at home during the -dreary days of the Seven Years’ War when Frankfurt -was occupied by the French, he diverted not only -himself but his family with the little marionette -theatre which he had received as a Christmas gift. -It is thus that he describes his introduction to the -puppets who were to delight his boyhood, to amuse -his youth and to inspire him eventually with the -suggestion for his great Faust drama.</p> - -<p>“I can still see the moment—how wonderful it -seemed—when, after the usual Christmas presents, -we were told to sit down before a door which led -from one room into another. It opened, but not -merely for the usual passing in and out; the entrance -was filled with an unexpected festiveness. A portal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span> -reared itself into the heights which was covered by a -mystic curtain. At first we marvelled from a distance -and as our curiosity became greater to see what glittering -and rustling things might be concealed behind the -half-transparent drapery, a little chair was assigned to -each of us and we were told to wait in patience.</p> - -<p>“So then we all sat down and were quiet. A whistle -gave signal, the curtain rose and disclosed a scene -in the Temple, painted bright red. The High Priest -Samuel appeared with Jonathan, and their curious -dialogue seemed most admirable to me. Shortly -thereafter Saul came upon the scene in great distress, -over the insolence of the heavy-weight warrior who -had challenged him and his followers to combat. -How relieved I was when the diminutive son of -Jesse sprang forth with shepherd’s crook, wallet and -sling and spoke thus: ‘Almighty King and great -Lord! Let none despair because of this. If your -Majesty will permit me, I will go forth and enter -into combat with the mighty giant.’ The first act -was ended and the audience extremely desirous to -learn what would happen next,” etc., etc.</p> - -<div id="i_196" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> - <img src="images/i_274.jpg" width="3011" height="1978" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">German Puppet Show for Children</span></p> - -<p>Designed for use in the home</p> - -<p>[Reproduced from <i>Kind und Kunst</i>]</p></div></div> - -<p>The puppets may indeed boast of having delighted -child geniuses of every country and of having inspired -their later years. We are told that at the age of -eleven Stanislaw Wyspianski, the great poet, painter -and dramatist of Poland, built himself a large stage -or <i>Crib</i> imitating architecturally the Castle of Wawel. -On this stage he produced various dramas based upon -the history of that royal burg, with the help of figures<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span> -which he himself invented. “Perhaps,” his biographer -suggests, “already there was germinating in -his boyish soul the idea of the Theatre-Wawel which -in his manly productiveness brought forth manifold -fruits.” (L. de Schildenfeld Schiller.) In Italy, too, -we find the great dramatist Goldoni devoted to puppet -play as a child and writing dramas for the burattini -which he is said to have adapted later, with great -success, for the larger stage.</p> - -<p>Most famous, perhaps, of all popular puppets for -children to-day are the Guignols in Paris. A typical -performance might be found in the garden of the -Luxembourg, where a little stage has been erected. -One has the privilege of standing outside the roped-off -space with passing pastry cooks, milliners’ girls -and street urchins, or one may pay to enter and sit -down on a chair among the children and nurses. -Coachmen rein up and watch from their high perches -at the curb. Polichinelle first comes upon the stage -with his piping voice, or the Director, a doll in evening -dress with waxed mustachios, welcomes the audience. -Then Guignol and the terrifying family scenes!</p> - -<p>Mr. W. Caine has given a very illuminating analysis -of the guignols. “But who are all these people? Guignol, -Guillaume, the Judge, the Patron, the Nurse? -You might know that Guignol is Guillaume’s father, -while Guillaume is the son of Guignol. The Gendarme, -on the other hand, is the Gendarme, while the -Judge, similarly, is the Judge. The Patron is none -other than the Patron, and who should the Nurse be,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span> -in the name of common sense, but the Nurse? The -Gendarme is always killed, always. The Judge expends -his wrath impotently, always. The Patron -is invariably worsted, the Nurse has no sort of luck. -Guignol represents the proletariat. He wears a dark -green jacket and a black hat.... His face is large and -foolish, for he is what is known as a benet, a simpleton.... -He tries to give his own baby its dinner by -thrusting it head-first into a stewing pan. Guillaume -wears a red hat and pink blouse.... Guillaume is, in -one word, a rascal. It is certain when once Guillaume -gets hold of a stick, or musket, or a stewing-pan (anything -will do) that somebody will bite the dust.”</p> - -<p>The enthusiasm of the juvenile audience grows most -intense over the exploits of this favorite, and it is -not unusual when Guillaume is sore put to it and -the Gendarme is about to pounce upon him, to -hear a shrill little voice from the audience cry out, -‘Take care, Guillaume, the Gendarme is behind the -door!’ When for the first time the adventurous -Guillaume ascended in an aeroplane, so great was -his success that the price of seats in the Champs -Élysées went from 10 centimes to 25!!”</p> - -<p>Guignol is often to be found during the season at -bathing resorts and at the seashore. Each of the -larger shows in Paris has a portable booth belonging -to it wherein its little cast can be sent out to perform -at private entertainments. It is not uncommon for -the play to be sent to the orphans and waifs in this -manner as a special treat for fête days.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span></p> - -<p>We find the puppets equally beloved by the children -of Italy. In <i>The Marionette</i> there is a sympathetic -picture of a juvenile audience at the theatre of the -Lupi family in Torina. “On the evenings of ordinary -days the auditorium does not differ in aspect from -that of the other theatres. To see it in its especial -beauty one must go to the Sunday afternoon performance, -when hundreds of boys and girls fill the -seats and benches, and form, in the <i>platea</i> and the -boxes, so many bouquets, garlands of blond heads; -and the variety of light bright colors of their clothes -give it the appearance of a sala decked with flowers -and flags for a fête.</p> - -<p>“On the rising of the curtain one may say that two -performances begin. It is delightful, during a spectacular -scene, to see all those eyes wide open as at -an apparition from another world—those expressions -of the most supreme amazement, in which life -seems suspended—those little mouths open in the -form of an O, or of rings and semicircles—those -little foreheads corrugated as if in a tremendous effort -of philosophic cogitation, which then relax brusquely -as on awaking from a dream. Then, all at once, at -a comic scene, at a funny reply or action of one of -the characters, whole rows of little bodies double up -with laughter, lines of heads are thrown back, shaking -masses of curls, disclosing little white necks, -opening mouths, like little red caskets full of minute -pearls; and in the impetus of their delight some embrace -their brother or sister, some throw themselves<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span> -in their mother’s arms, and many of the smallest -fling themselves back in their seats with their legs -in the air, innocently disclosing their most secret -<i>lingerie</i>. And then, to see how in the passion of admiration -they furiously push aside the importunate -handkerchief which seeks their little noses, or deal -a blow without preface to whoever hides from them -the view of the stage! There are three hundred pairs -of hands that applaud with all their might, and that, -among them all, do not make as much noise as four -men’s hands; one seems to see and to hear the flutter -of hundreds of rosy wings, held by so many threads -to the seats.</p> - -<p>“And the admiring and enthusiastic exclamations -are a joy to hear. At the unexpected opening of -certain scenes, at the appearance of certain lambs or -little donkeys or pigs that seem alive, there are outbursts -of ‘Oh!’ and long murmurs of wonder, behind -which comes almost always some solitary exclamation -of a little voice which resounds in the silence like -a sigh in a church, and ... ‘Ah, com’e bello!’ ... -that breaks from the depths of the soul, that expresses -fulness of content, a celestial beatitude.”</p> - -<div id="i_200" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_280.jpg" width="2037" height="2711" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">English Toy Theatre</span></p> - -<p><i>Upper</i>: Figures to be cut out for the Juvenile Dramas</p> -<p><span class="l4"><i>Lower</i>: Back scene for <i>Timour the Tartar</i></span> -</p> - -<p>[Courtesy of B. Pollock, 73 Hoxton Street, London]</p></div></div> - -<p>When Mr. Tony Sarg brought <i>The Rose and The -Ring</i> west it was a rare privilege for the children of -Cleveland to see this winsome puppet play and an -equal pleasure for those elders who witnessed the -performance with them. <i>What</i> was behind the little -curtain? A few boys and girls went tiptoe up to peek. -Then, listen! there is music and then, oh! the funny -little man singing a song, and oh! the long-nosed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span> -little King snoring on his throne, and the funny soldier, -Hedsoff, saluting so briskly, and the ugly old Lady -Gruffanuff! And see the Fairy Blackstick come -floating in and do things and say things to people and -Princess Angelica playing piano and dancing. How -can she, so little and only a dolly? What a fat Prince -Bulbo and oh, the armoured men on horseback fighting! -(“Why ha’ dey dose knives, Mudda?” questioned -one little girl, aloud, all unacquainted with the days -of Chivalry). And then the roaring Lion! My four-year-old -daughter still calls the lion a bear: but it -pleased her notwithstanding, particularly the <i>roar</i> -of it. “Oh, I just juve Mr. Sarg’s ma-inette dolls, -Mudda,” she exclaimed, a day after the blissful event. -“Why don’t we have ma-inette dolls many times?” -Why indeed, or, why not?!</p> - -<p>Elnora Whitman Curtis, in her book <i>The Dramatic -Instinct in Education</i>, emphasizes the educational -value of puppets. She would have shows in the schools, -or better yet, in playgrounds with the advantage of -fresh air. Subjects, she claims, could be vivified, -literature and history lessons more deeply impressed -upon the great number of pupils who never get beyond -the grades. And for older children there would be -the training in the writing of dialogues, in the declaiming -of them, practice in fashioning the puppets, -the costumes, the scenery, the properties and in -operating and directing. Miss Curtis concludes: “Anyone -who has watched a throng of small boys and girls<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span> -as they sit in the tiny, roped-off square before a little -chatelet in Paris on the Champs Élysées, or those -that gather in Papa Schmidt’s exquisite little theatre -in Munich, or before the tiny booths at fairs and exhibitions -anywhere in Italy, must have noticed the -rapturous delight of these small people. The tiny -stage, its equipment, accessories, the diminutive garments -and belongings of the puppets satisfy the childish -love of the miniature copies of things in the grown-up -world. Their animistic tendencies make it easy to -endow the wooden figures with human qualities and -bring them into close rapport with their own world of -fancy. The voice coming from some unknown region -adds the mystery which children dearly love, and before -the magic of fairy-tales their eyes grow wide with wonder. -The stiff movement of the puppets, their sudden -collapses from dignity, are irresistibly funny to the -little people and the element of buffoonery is doubly -comical in its mechanical presentation.”</p> - -<p>Less specifically, but with equal conviction of their -deep educational importance, Gordon Craig proclaims: -“There is one way in which to assist the world to become -young again. It is to allow the young mind to -learn nearly all things from the marionette.”</p> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_203" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="A_Plea_for_Polichinelle"><i>A Plea for Polichinelle</i></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">I am</span> making a plea for Polichinelle and I hope I shall -be pardoned for summoning to my assistance some of -his more eloquent and illustrious admirers. We have -seen that the past has eminently honored him, but -there is also ample testimony that he can adapt himself -to our present time and taste, nay more, to the -various tastes and tempers of this modern day. For -there are divers theories and principles among critics -of the puppets, but the puppets are so versatile they -can play many parts in many manners. “Chacun a -son gout!” quoth Polichinelle with a flourish.</p> - -<p>There are those who believe that the grotesque is -an inherent, indispensable trait of the marionette; -that, as Flögel claims, Kasperle, quintessence of -grotesque comedy, belongs inseparably to the marionette -stage and that everything else is meaningless, -insipid, and merely experimental. Similarly, Professor -Wundt asserts that the ministration to the -sense of the comic is the chief function of the puppets -and perhaps the greatest factor in their popularity. -He mentions their mirth-provoking superiority to the -situation, the element of the unexpected, heightened -enormously by wooden creatures who imperturbably<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span> -proceed upon occasions to contradict the very law of -gravity. These traits, he feels, are essential and distinguishing -characteristics of marionettes.</p> - -<p>In comparing the merry Kasperle theatre of Munich -with the serious puppet theatre established by the -young artists of that city, Wilhelm Michel emphasizes -this point of view. “Pure tragic effects cannot emanate -from the marionette stage because, in the first place, -there are no human beings acting upon it but rather -ironies of humanity, mockeries of men; suffering -cannot be given upon it, only travesties of suffering. -If this constitutional irony of the puppet is not handled -in an artistic spirit, unbearable dissonances occur.... -The working of the marionette stage is pure, unmixed -gayety. The dolls are not, as our young poets imagine, -representatives and agents of submission, but rather -delightful little liberators, amiable, amusing victors -over the petty doubts which we all carry about with -us in unobserved corners of our souls.”</p> - -<p>This opinion is undeniably supported by traditional -usage. Humor may vary from the buffoonery of -Hanswurst to the satirical subtleties of De Neuville’s -pupazzi, but the spirit of comedy has had a representative -on the puppet stage in every land. What a -long list might be compiled, starting with the hunchback -Vidusaka of ancient India, then on through -Semar of Javanese comedy, Karagheuz of Turkey, -Pahlawan of Persia (squeaking in the same feigned -voice as the English Punch), to say nothing of Maccus, -the Roman Puppet, and Arlecchino, and Pulcinella<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span> -with their merry train from all over Italy, even -including the later Signor Macaroni. There are -the German and Austrian Hanswurst and Kasperle, -Jackpudding and Punch in England, Polichinelle, -Harlequin, Jean Potage, and even more recently -Guignol and Guillaume in France, Paprika, Jancsi -of Hungary, Picklehoerring of Holland and ever so -many more, rollicking and indispensable humorists -of the puppet theatre. M. Charles Magnin, most -distinguished historian of the marionette, proclaims -his unalterable faith in Polichinelle: “Do you know, -then, what Polichinelle is? He is the good sense of -the people, the brisk sally, the irrepressible laughter. -Yes, Polichinelle will laugh and sing as long as the -world contains vices, follies and things to ridicule. -You see very well that Polichinelle is not near his -death. Polichinelle is immortal!”</p> - -<p>Professor Pischel agrees that the puppet play is the -favorite child of the people and merely the step-child -of the cultured because it owes its origin to the common -people and is a clearer mirror of their thoughts and -feelings than any more finished poetry. Mr. Howard, -too, in the <i>Boston Transcript</i>, somewhat resents the -marionette performances in the new manner, feeling -that the old traditional shows were “more childlike, -more simple, more human.”</p> - -<p>Innumerable artists of the last few decades, however, -esteem the marionette as an excellent medium -of serious dramatic expression, possessing a poetic -style and a conventionalized, impersonal symbolism.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span> -Ernst Ehlert, himself an actor as well as lover of -puppets, writes thus of Pühony’s marionettes:</p> - -<p>“The object of every work of art, the thing that -makes it truly artistic, is the attainment of the greatest -possible emotional effect with the simplest possible -means. What makes a work of art a real delight is -that it does not fully express but merely suggests and -excites the imagination of the observer to help in -the presentation of the reality. That is why a puppet -play is not only more amusing but more artistic than -a real one.” He continues: “Puppets, moreover, -have style. They are cut out sharply to represent -their particular characteristics, and those characteristics -are pronounced. The manager of a puppet -show has a free hand in the fashioning of such a company -as best carries out his creative impulse. But -with real actors it is impossible to make them other -than they are, to subordinate them entirely to the -manager’s will. I have been an actor, both in Germany -and in Russia ... so I know.”</p> - -<p>Again, Mr. Arthur Symons, after witnessing the -fantoccini of the Cortanzi theatre in Rome, expresses -the following belief in the art-marionette: “Gesture -on the stage is the equivalent of rhythm in verse. In -our marionette, then, we get personified gesture, and -the gesture, like all forms of emotion, generalized. -The appeal in what seems to you these childlike -manoeuvers is to a finer because to a more intimately -poetic sense of things than the merely rationalistic -appeal of our modern plays.” Furthermore, he adds<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span> -concerning the puppet: “As he is painted so he will -smile, as the wires lift or lower his hands so will his -gestures be and he will dance when his legs are set -in motion. There is not, indeed, the appeal to the -senses of the first row in the stalls at a ballet of living -dancers. But why leave the ball-room? It is not -nature one looks for on the stage in this kind of a -spectacle, and our excitement in watching it should -remain purely intellectual. This is nothing less than -a fantastic and direct return to the masks of the ancient -Greeks, that learned artifice by which tragedy and -comedy were assisted in speaking to the world in the -universal voice by this deliberate generalizing of -emotions.”</p> - -<p>The marionettes of M. Signoret, as we have seen, -from Anatole France’s enthusiastic account, presented -the classic drama of all epochs to the satisfaction of -the most acutely sensitive critics of Paris. M. Paul -Margueritte brilliantly eulogizes them in the following -discussion: “They are indefatigable, always ready. -And while the name and too familiar face of a living -actor imposes upon the public an obsession which -renders illusion impossible or very difficult, the puppets -being of wood or cardboard possess a droll, mysterious -life. Their truthful bearing surprises, even disquiets -us. In their essential gestures there is the complete -expression of human feelings. We had it proved at -the representations of Aristophanes; real actors would -not have produced this effect. In them the foreshortening -aided the illusion. Their masks in the style of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span> -ancient comedy, their few and simple movements, -their statuesque poses, gave a singular grace to the -spectacle.”</p> - -<p>This leads us to the well-known name of Gordon -Craig and to his inspired, emphatic utterances concerning -the actor and the marionette. No one of late -has done as much as he toward reviving the interest -in puppets and stimulating curiosity concerning them. -His collection of puppets and shadow figures forms a -veritable museum of marionettes from all parts of -the world. His many articles in <i>The Mask</i> and in a -later publication called <i>The Marionettes</i>, both published -in Florence at the Arena Goldoni, direct attention -to the puppet;—more, it must be admitted, -as a model or suggestion to the actor, than as a minor -art-form in itself. Recognizing its many merits, -Mr. Craig would send the modern actor to the school -of the burattini to learn virtues of silence, obedience, -“to learn how to indicate instead of imitate.” He -deems the stage of to-day devoid, in great part, of -genuine dramatic value, filled up with much meaningless -realistic detail, inartistic and irritating gestures, -and prominent players exhibiting their own peculiar -personalities more or less attractively in various rôles. -He would agree with Anatole France: “The actors -spoil the play for me. I mean good actors,—their -talent is too great; it covers everything. There is -nothing left but them. Their personality effaces the -work which they represent.” Indeed, Gordon Craig -boldly proclaims: “The actor must go and in his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span> -place comes the inanimate figure, the Über-marionette -we may call him until he has won for himself a -better name.” And in <i>The Promise of a New Art</i> he -has written: “What the wires of the Über-marionette -shall be, who shall guide him?—The wires which -stretch from Divinity to the soul of the poet are wires -which might command him.”</p> - -<p>These sentiments are familiar to those acquainted -with the art and writings of Mr. Craig, but it is indeed -interesting to find somewhat similar ideas expressed -in the delightful but “different” manner of a most -eminent contemporary, Mr. G. Bernard Shaw. In a -letter concerning the puppets of his acquaintance, -Mr. Shaw has written: “In my youth (say 1865–75) -there was a permanent exhibition in Dublin, the -proprietor of which was known as Mons Dark, which -is Irish for Monsieur d’Arc. From that show I learned -that marionettes can produce a much stronger illusion -than bad actors can; and I have often suggested -that the Academy of Dramatic Art here try -to obtain a marionette performance to teach the -students that very important part of the art of acting -which consists of not acting: that is, allowing the -imagination of the spectator to do its lion’s share of -the work.”</p> - -<p>Aside, however, from this not insignificant value as -an example to the actor of the future, the marionette -has a positive and individual contribution to make in -the field of drama, a contribution which the marionette -alone can provide. There seem to be certain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span> -types of plays more advantageously presented by -puppets or shadows than by human beings. These -little creatures of wood or cardboard have naturally -that “sense of being beyond reality” which, according -to John Balance, “permeates all good art.” There -is an article in the <i>Hyperion, 1909</i>, by Franz Blei, -critic and aesthete. He states: “I believe there will -always be certain dramatic poetry whose beauty can -be more significantly and effectively revealed by -shadows than by living actors. The shadow play -will supplement the theatre of living actors on one -side as the marionette stage already does on the other, -in Paul Brann’s very brilliant productions, for example. -With shadows, the forcefulness of the verse and the -emotional element is very much heightened in effect; -with marionettes the significance of the action is -intensified to a far greater degree than is attainable -by human beings, a point to which H. V. Kleist has -already drawn attention in praise of marionettes. -With shadow plays, as with puppet performances, -the readers should not be professional actors, for -their very way of speaking invariably mimics the -mannerisms of the man. The limited movements of -the shadows, however, suffer from this and also the -gestures of the marionettes which have a wider range -but which do not in the least resemble the customary -stage gestures. Talented dilettantes with good taste -are more apt to strike the right note. I fancy that -the shadows and marionettes might please some people -who had not visited the theatre for quite a while, because<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span> -they were unwilling to waste their time on highly -lifelike but utterly lifeless theatrical productions.”</p> - -<p>Professor Brander Matthews, in his <i>Book about the -Theatre</i>, also insists upon the adaptability of the marionettes -for certain types of drama unsatisfactory when -performed by living actors. He suggests that a passion -play or any form of drama in which Divinity has perforce -to appear is relieved in the puppet show of any -tincture of irreverence, all personages of the play, -whether heavenly or earthly, appearing equally remote -from common humanity upon the miniature -stage. The religious plays of Maurice Bouchor, -artistic and reverent productions in every detail, -beautifully illustrate this point. The atmosphere M. -Jules Lemaître describes as “far away in time and -space,”—this of the mystery play, <i>Noël</i>. Again -Professor Matthews maintains that when <i>Salome</i> was -performed by Holden’s marionettes and created the -sensation of the season, all vulgarity and grossness -which might have been offensive either in the play -or in the dance of the seven veils was purged away by -the fact that the performers were puppets. “So -dextrous was the manipulation of the unseen operator -who controlled the wires and strings which gave life -to the seductive Salome as she circled around the -stage in a most bewitching fashion; so precise and -accurate was the imitation of a human dancer, that -the receptive spectator could not but feel that here -at last a play of doubtful propriety has found its -only fit stage and its only proper performance. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span> -memory of that exhibition is a perennial delight to -all those who possess it. A thing of beauty it was and -it abides in remembrance as a joy forever. It revealed -the art of the puppet show at its summit. And the -art itself was eternally justified by that one performance -of the highest technical skill and the utmost -delicacy of taste.”</p> - -<p>There are other spheres also in which the puppets -have an advantage over mere mortal actors. Fairy -stories, legends of miraculous adventure, metamorphoses -are tremendously heightened by the quality -of strangeness inherent in the marionettes. “For puppet -plays,” says Professor Pischel, “are fairy-tales -and the fairy-tale is nourished by strangeness.” Transformations, -animal fables, fairy flittings in scenes of -mysterious glamour are obviously more easily presented -by fleshless dolls than by heavy, panting and -perspiring actors tricked out in unnatural and unearthly -raiment.</p> - -<p>Even horseplay humor of the Punch and Judy -variety is unobjectionable with puppets where the -whacking and thwacking is done by and upon jolly, -grotesque little beings who are neither pained nor -debased by the procedure. With some such idea -William Hazlitt has written:</p> - -<p>“That popular entertainment, Punch and the Puppet-show, -owes part of its irresistible and universal -attraction to nearly the same principle of inspiring -inanimate and mechanical agents with sense and consciousness. -The drollery and wit of a piece of wood<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span> -is doubly droll and farcical. Punch is not merry in -himself, but ‘he is the cause of heartfelt mirth in other -men.’ The wires and pulleys that govern his motion -are conductors to carry off the spleen, and all ‘that -perilous stuff that weighs upon the heart.’ If we -see numbers of people turning the corner of a street, -ready to burst with secret satisfaction, and with their -faces bathed in laughter we know what is the matter—that -they are just come from a puppet-show.</p> - -<p>“I have heard no bad judge of such matters say -that ‘he liked a comedy better than a tragedy, a -farce better than a comedy, a pantomime better than -a farce, but a peep-show best of all.’ I look upon it -that he who invented puppet shows was a greater -benefactor to his species than he who invented Operas!”</p> - -<p>The marionette has come to America. Some of -the more venturesome of this wandering race have -crossed the high seas and entered hopefully into our -open country. Are we not to welcome these immigrants? -Can we not possibly assimilate them into -our national life? Might we not benefit by their -contribution? I make a plea for Polichinelle in the -United States, the pleasant hours, the joyous moments -of his bestowing.</p> - -<p>How excellent if schools and playrooms might have -their puppet booths for the happier exposition of -folk and fairy tales or even for patriotic propaganda! -I can see innumerable quaint silhouettes of <i>Pilgrim -Fathers</i> bending the knee and giving thanks, or of -<i>Indian Chiefs</i>, all feathery, in solemn conclave, with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span> -Pocahontas dashing madly forward to save the life -of Captain John Smith. It would be delicious to -witness <i>George Washington</i>, in shadows, chopping -down his father’s little cherry tree: and as for <i>Lincoln -and Slavery</i> ... it actually happened that in 1867 -Benedict Rivoli produced <i>Uncle Tom’s Cabin</i>, with -a company of puppets; it has happened in our vaudeville -houses often, why not once in a while in our -schools? Small groups of grown folks, too, in city or -village, might easily build their own marionette -stages and attempt to produce dramas of all times; -humorous, satirical, poetic or mystical, each to his -taste and independent of the whim of a Broadway -manager or the peculiarities of a popular star. It -is such a naïve and simple pastime and sometimes so -delightful. I should like to suggest it as an antidote -for the overdose of moving pictures from which an -overwhelming number of us are unconsciously suffering -atrophy of the imagination, or a similar insidious -malady.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span></p> - -<p>One must be quite unsophisticated to enjoy the -marionettes, or quite sophisticated. Plain people, -children and artists, seem to take pleasure in them. -One must have something childlike, or artistic, in -one’s nature, perhaps merely a little imagination in -an unspoiled, vigorous condition. Of course the stiff -little figures, the peculiar conventions of the puppet -stage are strange to us in America. There are those -who do not <i>like</i> puppets and those who <i>do</i> not <i>can</i> -not, I suppose. No one <i>must</i> like them: but none -should scorn them. To scorn them is, somehow, to -show too great disregard and lack of knowledge. -And we, over here, who have not as youngsters laughed -aloud at the drolleries of Guignol, who have not -learned our folk-tales interspersed with the antics of -some local Kasperle, who are not surprised by Punch -and Judy at a familiar street corner, now and then, -who have not been privileged to witness the spectacular -faeries of Italian fantoccini, the exquisite -shadows of the Chat Noir, the elaborate modern plays -at the Munich art-theatre,—how can we really say -<i>what</i> we think of the marionette? If we see more of -him first; if we give our puppeteers (professional and -amateur) more time to master their craft, perhaps, -who knows, something nice may come of it all. There -are some great words I should like to quote for little -Polichinelle, artificial or strange as he may seem. -“And therefore, as a stranger, give him welcome.”</p> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_216" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Behind_the_Scenes"><i>Behind the Scenes</i></h2> -</div> - -<h3>FOR THE FUN OF IT</h3> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">But</span> why prate of benefit or pleasure to past or present -audiences of the marionette when the best reason -for the pupazzi, the true reason I do believe, for their -continuance and longevity is the <i>fun</i> of puppet-playing? -I confess it: nay, I proclaim it the foundation -for my deep affection. And who shall find a firmer -basis for any love than this,—interest, amusement, -stimulation? Reverence or even understanding are -far less vital, less compelling motives. Of course -this applies to puppets. Everything applicable to -humanity fits the burattini, for we are all so much the -dancing dolls of destiny, satiric or serious, crude or -precious puppets, all of us. One should truly have a -fellow feeling for Punch and Judy.</p> - -<p>As to the fun, however, of making puppets and of -tinkering with the mechanical contrivances, the total -absorption with such problems and the elation in -overcoming absurd but seemingly insurmountable technical -difficulties; the delight in carving and cutting, -in designing costumes and then in sewing, glueing, -painting, patching them into proper semblance of the -original design: the art required properly to conceive -a setting for dolls, the ingenuity exerted to decorate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span> -the stage, the delicious Lilliputian proportions of -things, the charming effects contrived out of almost -anything or nothing at all; and, in manipulating, the -thrill of acquiring after long effort a full control of -the doll at the end of the wires, of telegraphing one’s -emotions down into the responsive little body; and -the whimsical delight in writing for puppets (one -dare be so impudent, being so impersonal and unpretentious!)—who -shall say that such an aggregate -of wholesome, creative enjoyment to an entire group -of childlike grown-up folk is not sufficient vindication -for Polichinelle and his kind? With so much -bubbling enthusiasm behind the scenes, how can a -proper audience be altogether bored? If they are -bored it is a sure sign they are no proper audience!</p> - -<h3>WRITING FOR THE PUPPETS</h3> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indentq">“The life of man to represent</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And turn it all to ridicule,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Wit did a puppet-show invent,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Where the chief actor is a fool.”</div> - </div> - <div class="attrib"><span class="smcap">Jonathan Swift.</span></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>No one appreciates how funny people are until -he has written a play for puppets. There’s nothing -any person has ever said which isn’t amusing, honestly -and truly amusing, when transferred to the mouth of -a marionette. Try it and see.</p> - -<p>Take any conversation you may have overheard. -Take as many puppets as there were people talking. -Dress them to indicate the characters, try to imitate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span> -the most pronounced gestures and postures of your -people ... and let them speak, verbatim, the words -that have been spoken.</p> - -<p>It is simply funny, a sort of unconscious, undeniable -criticism of the manners of men. There will always -be a <i>point</i>, too, a sort of moral at the minimum. No -one can fail to see it, either in the words or the gestures -or the situations. The puppets will find it and -bring it out. Produce the puppets and try it!</p> - -<p>I frankly confess I shudder to imagine myself <i>done -in puppet</i>. What a cure for idiosyncrasies and affectations!</p> - -<h3>A REHEARSAL OF TINTAGILES</h3> - -<p>In all the lack-luster of realism we “stood on the -bridge at midnight.” Four of us stood on the bridge -and we were very weary. It was the bridge of our -marionette stage over which we had been bending -for hours. From out in front somewhere the director -spoke: “Now, once more the third act ... and -remember they must lean <i>against</i> the door when it -opens as if they were trying desperately to hold it. -See that the strings do not catch. Readers, please -watch the figures and give them plenty of time.... -Ready?” We were, tensely so.</p> - -<p>The beautiful, sad voice of Ygraine gave us the -mood. “I have been to look at the doors ... there -are three of them....” Aglovale (old and tremulous): -“I will go seat myself upon the step, my -sword upon my knee....”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span></p> - -<p>“Aglovale, lean back farther against the step; -don’t perch on the edge.” (This from the front.) -Aggie (as we familiarly called him) thereupon proceeded -to jerk up and sit down deliberately a couple -of times, then followed a twitching, collapsing, stiffening -process.... “Sorry, it’s the little hump in his -shoulders and the step is so narrow!” wailed a tired -unseen operator. During the struggle Belangere -flopped inelegantly on the floor, her manipulator resting -a weary wrist. Clearing of throats, scraping of -chairs from the readers in the wings.</p> - -<p>Patient director: “Well, let it go for to-night. -You may have to remove the hump. Are we ready?” -We were.</p> - -<p>The play proceeded. On the miniature stage in -dim, high-arched rooms, bare and gloomy, slender, -strange little creatures moved with stiff, imposing -gestures. It is an ominous world, the atmosphere -vibrating with hidden terror, tense emotions and -lonely overtones. Princess Ygraine, to the little -Tintagiles: “There, you see...? Your big sisters -are here ... they are close to you ... we will -defend you and no evil can come near.”</p> - -<p>Oh, the tenderness, the dauntlessness, the pathos -... high hearts encircled by creeping, inevitable -doom.</p> - -<p>Then the old man, mumbling at his own bewildered -futility: “My soul is heavy to-day.” (A hand is -raised, an old hand, tremblingly.) “What is one to -do...? Men needs must live and await the unforeseen....<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span> -And after that they must still act as -if they hoped....” (The arm drops, heavy ... a -silence.) “There are sad evenings when our useless -lives taste bitter in our mouths ... etc.”</p> - -<p>The scene proceeds, on and on in ascending -tensity, readers sitting at the wings, puppeteers -operating the wires high up, the director off at his -desk in the dark, ... and the marionettes animated -into vital significance, symbols of supreme and simplified -fervor ... dread, love, courage....</p> - -<p>“They are shaking the door, listen. Do not breathe. -They are whispering.</p> - -<p>“They have the key....</p> - -<p>“Yes, yes, I was sure of it.... Wait....”</p> - -<p>Old Aglovale faces the slowly opening door, his -sword outstretched; the others stand rigid with -terror.</p> - -<p>“Come! Come both....”</p> - -<p>They face the door, they hold it. Their watchfulness -avails for the time being. The door closes.</p> - -<p>“Tintagiles!”</p> - -<p>Aglovale, waiting at the door: “I hear nothing -now....”</p> - -<p>Ygraine, wild with joy. “Tintagiles, look! Look!... -He is saved!... Look at his eyes.... You -can see the blue.... He is going to speak.... They -saw we were watching.... They did not dare.... -Kiss us!... Kiss us, I say!... All, all!... -Down to the depths of our soul!...”</p> - -<p>A silence, a long silence. Then ... the boards<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span> -creak as the operators stand up to rest their aching -backs.</p> - -<p>“Well, Belangere mounted the steps pretty well -that time. But don’t forget to take a stitch in her -left leg; she still has a tendency to pivot.”</p> - -<p>“Yes, I’ll do it and I’ll lengthen her back string; -I think that’s it ... and take away some of Aggie’s -hump.”</p> - -<p>From the sublime to the absurd, no doubt. But -there are the puppets hung up ... quietly and -sternly gazing, each little character.</p> - -<p>No, they are not absurd, patiently, almost scornfully -awaiting the subtler grasp of some master hand -to bring out the rare potentialities sleeping within -them. Awkward, silly dolls they may appear in a -clumsy hand, but even we amateurs who serve them -faithfully sense more than this in them. So, while -we pull the strings and move these singular, small -creatures in measured gestures we feel that we are -handling crude but expressive symbols of large, fine -things.</p> - -<h3>THE MAKING OF A MARIONETTE</h3> - -<p>The puppets used in the Cleveland Playhouse are -neither realistic, humorous, nor clever. They are very -simple, somewhat impressionistic and quite adequate -and effective for certain types of drama. They appeal -to the imagination of the spectator. Under favorable -conditions one forgets their diminutive size, their crude -construction, even their lack of soul.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span></p> - -<div id="i_222" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> - <img src="images/i_303.jpg" width="3032" height="1634" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Patterns for the Marionette Body drawn by the Sculptor, Mr. Max Kalish</span></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span></p> - -<p>These patterns for the marionette body were drawn -by the sculptor, Mr. Max Kalish, especially for figures -which were shown with little clothing on. If the dolls -are to be dressed it is better to make separate upper -and lower arms and legs, and to join them flexibly -or stiffly, as the action of the particular puppet requires.</p> - -<p>The material we have used is soft white woven -stuff (stockings from the ten-cent store!), which can be -painted with tempera any color desired. The patterns -shown allow for a good seam. The front and back -are alike, also right and left limbs. Each marionette -will need some adjusting which one discovers as one -works along. We have used a narrow tape to join -the arms and legs.</p> - -<p>The dolls are stuffed with soft rags or cotton. The -limbs must be stiffly filled out and firm, the chest -also. The lower part of the torso should be left softer. -In the hands we insert cardboard to stiffen the wrists.</p> - -<p>We use lead to weight the dolls. Small shot is good -for filling up the hands and feet. Larger pieces of -lead are used for the torso, lower arm and lower leg. -No lead is put in the upper arm or upper leg. The -reasons for this will be discovered as soon as one practices -manipulating the figures. Care must be used to -have the body properly balanced and to have the feet -heavy.</p> - -<p>The control is a simple piece of wood with five -screw eyes to which the strings are tied. More may -be added to operate the feet or for other purposes.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span> -When using these extremely crude little dolls, however, -it is best to depend upon simple means and a -few gestures. The strings can be of heavy black thread -or fishing cord, the latter is not so apt to become twisted. -The strings are attached to the hands, the shoulders, -and the center of the back. The hand strings should -be loose, the others carefully measured to balance the -doll evenly.</p> - -<p>In dressing the puppets one must allow plenty of -room at the elbow, knee, etc., for free action. We -have kept our dolls very simple, the faces and hands -painted over, the hair of wool or cotton.</p> - -<p>Of the manipulating little can be said. There is -no way to learn except by getting up on the bridge -and <i>doing</i> it. Too much petty gesticulation in these -dolls is ineffective. It is better to hold the gesture. -Deliberation and patience are the chief requirements -for a successful operator, given a certain natural -deftness of hand which is primarily essential.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_225" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Construction_of_a_Marionette"><i>Construction of a Marionette -Stage</i> - -<span class="subhead"><span class="smcap">By Raymond O’Neil</span></span></h2> -</div> - -<p>The marionette stage shown in the diagram has a -proscenium opening six feet long by four feet high -and is meant for productions that use marionettes -from twelve to fourteen inches in height. It is a -stage that can be built even by amateurs both readily -and cheaply. It is, of course, necessary that some one -who is familiar with the electric wiring should be -consulted in that part of the work.</p> - -<p>The stage is in two sections: the stage floor proper, -to which is attached the footlight box, and the proscenium -arch, which is made to be demounted and is -held to the stage floor by right angle braces. The stage -floor itself is made of ⅞″ stock which may run from -eight to twelve inches in width. These boards are -fastened to 2×4’s which run from the front to the back -of the stage. Three lengths of these 2×4’s are all -that are necessary. The box which holds the footlights -may be made of ½″ stock which should be just -deep enough to hold 60-watt lamps. Three circuits -should be run into this box to provide for red, blue -and green lamps. The diagram shows only one lamp -to each color placed in the box, but to obtain the best<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span> -results three or four lamps should be used on each -circuit. Small stage connectors which can be obtained -at any electrical dealer’s should be placed in -the floor to take care of the lines that run to No. 1 -border, No. 2 border and to the various other lamps -such as small floods and small spotlights, which will -be found necessary for different effects. Both No. 1 -and No. 2 borders should have three circuits running -into them for red, blue and green lamps, and there -should be from four to six lamps on each circuit. -These borders may be placed in any position from -the front to the back of the stage that the setting may -demand. A convenient place from which to suspend -them is from the operating platform which is built -over the complete length of the stage at such a height -as to clear any set that may be used.</p> - -<p>The proscenium arch should be built of ⅞″ stock, -preferably of white wood, because of the fine surface -which it presents, if it is to be decorated. The upright -sections of the arch should be at least as wide as those -shown in the diagram, because they must carry the -three circuits for the proscenium lights, the belt that -raises and lowers the curtain, and also special lamps -and appliances that will be found necessary for various -types of production. The diagram shows one green, -one blue, and one red outlet on the two sections on -the top section of the arch, but it will be found very -convenient to have at least two outlets for each of -these colors on each of the three sections of the arch.</p> - -<div id="i_226" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img src="images/i_308.jpg" width="2167" height="2333" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Diagrams for the Construction of a Marionette Stage</span></div></div> - -<p>The curtain can be the ordinary window shade.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span> -After removing the spring, attach it to the face of -the proscenium arch with ordinary window shade -fixtures. It should be wide enough to lap well over -each side of the arch, and the end which extends to -the right of the proscenium opening should be sufficiently -long to carry a 2″ belt for raising and lowering -it. This belt can be of webbing and should be held -taut near the bottom of the proscenium arch by a -small roller, as shown in the diagram. It is necessary -that this belt should be far enough to the right of the -proscenium arch opening so the hand which raises and -lowers the curtain will not be seen by the audience.</p> - -<p>The outlets for the various circuits on this arch -may be either keyed sockets or porcelain receptacles -fastened to the face of the arch.</p> - -<p>Both for the sake of the better framing of the settings -to be used on this stage and for more effectively -masking off the sides and the top of the stage, it is a -good plan to build all around the opening of the proscenium -arch at right angles to it an inner proscenium -which may run from 6 to 9 inches in width. This -inner proscenium may be made of half-inch stock. -If the inner proscenium is used, it will be necessary -to hang the curtain sufficiently behind the face of -the main proscenium so that it will clear the inner proscenium -as it rises and falls.</p> - -<p>All circuits should lead to a switch-board on which -small knife switches may be used. This switch-board -should also carry several rheostats or dimmers. -The more dimmers that are used the greater will<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span> -be the possibilities in lighting. These dimmers can -be made of special high wattage resistance wire, -which can be obtained or ordered from any electrical -dealer. In the making and wiring of the switch-board, -it is, of course, necessary to obtain either a professional -electrician or at least professional advice.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div id="toclink_229" class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot hang"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Badin, Adolphe.</span> Les Marionettes de Maurice Sand. -L’Art, 1885.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Caine, William.</span> Guignols in the Luxembourg. Oxford -and Cambridge Review, 1910.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Calthrop, A.</span> An Evening with the Marionette. The -Theatre, 1884.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Calvi, Emilio.</span> Marionettes of Rome. The Bellman, 1917.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Chambers, E. K.</span> The Mediaeval Stage. Vol. II.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Collier, John Payne.</span> The Tragical Comedy of Punch -and Judy.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Craig, Gordon.</span> Articles in “The Mask” and “The -Marionette.”</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Curtis, Elnora Whitman.</span> Dramatic Instinct in Education.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Delvau, Alfred.</span> Le Théâtre Érotique Français sous le -Bas-empire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Duranty, Louis Émile Edmond.</span> Théâtre des Marionettes -du Jardin des Tuileries.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Engel, Carl.</span> Johann Faust.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Feise, E.</span> The German Puppet Theatre.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ferrigni, P.</span> Storia dei Burattini. The Mask.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fewkes, Jesse Walter.</span> A Theatrical Performance at -Walpe. Hopi Katchinas.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Flögel, Karl Friederich.</span> Geschichte des Grotesk-Komischen.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">France, Anatole.</span> On Life and Letters. II Series.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gayet, A.</span> Oldest of Puppet Shows. Boston Transcript, -Nov. 2, 1904.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gleason, A. W.</span> Last Stand of the Marionettes. Collier’s -Weekly, 1909.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hirsch, Gilbert.</span> A Master of Marionettes. Harper’s -Weekly, 1912.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Irwin, E.</span> Where Players are Marionettes. The Craftsman, -1907.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jackson, F. Nevill.</span> Toys of Other Days.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jacob, Georg.</span> Das Schattentheater in seiner Wanderung -vom Morgenland zum Abendland.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jerome, L. B.</span> Marionettes of Little Sicily. New England -Magazine, 1910.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Joly, Henri L.</span> Random Notes on Dances, Masks, and -the Early Forms of Theatre in Japan.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jones, Henry Festing.</span> Diversions in Sicily, Castellinaria, -or other Sicilian Diversions.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Kleist, Heinrich von.</span> Über das Marionetten Theater. -Berliner Abendblätter.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Kollman, Arthur.</span> Deutsche Puppenspieler.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lee, Vernon.</span> Studies in the Eighteenth Century in Italy.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lemaître, Jules.</span> Impressions du Théâtre. Vols. IV -and VI.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Macdowall, H. C.</span> The Faust of the Marionettes. MacMillan’s -Magazine, 1901.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Magnin, Charles.</span> Histoire des Marionettes en Europe.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Maindron, Ernest.</span> Marionettes et Guignols.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Matthews, Brander.</span> A Book about the Theatre. Puppet -plays, old and new. The Bookman.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Michel, Wilhelm.</span> Marionetten. Dekorative Kunst, 1910.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Mick, Hettie Louise.</span> Puppets of the Chicago Little -Theatre. Theatre Arts Magazine, 1917.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Miyamori, Osataro.</span> Tales from Old Japanese Drama.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Moderwell, Hiram K.</span> The Marionettes of Tony Sarg. -Boston Transcript, 1918.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Moulton, R. H.</span> Teaching Dolls to act for Moving Pictures. -Illustrated World, 1917.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Nichols, Francis H.</span> A Marionette Theatre in New York. -Century Magazine, 1892.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Peixotto, Ernest C.</span> Marionettes, and Puppet Shows, -Past and Present. Scribner’s Magazine, 1903.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Petite, J. M.</span> Guignols et Marionettes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pischel, Richard.</span> The Home of the Puppet Play. (Translated -by Mildred C. Tawney.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pocci, Franz von.</span> Lustiges Komödienbüchlein.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pollock, W. H.</span> Punch and Judy. Saturday Review, -1900.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rehm, Hermann Siegfried.</span> Das Buch der Marionetten.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Serrurier, L.</span> De Wajang Poerwa.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Servaes, Franz.</span> Neue Theaterpuppen von R. Teschner.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Speranza, Gino Charles.</span> Marionette Theatre in New -York. Saturday Evening Post, 1916.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Starr, Laura B.</span> The Doll Book.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Stevenson, Robert Louis.</span> Essays.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Stoddard, Anne.</span> The Renaissance of the Puppet Play. -Century Magazine, 1918.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Storm, Theodor.</span> Pole Poppenspäler.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Strutt, Joseph.</span> Sports and Pastimes of the People of -England.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Symons, H.</span> An Apology for Puppets. Saturday Review, -1897.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Vasari.</span> Life of Il Cecca.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Visan, Tancrède de.</span> Le Théâtre de Guignol. Nouvelle -Revue, 1909.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Weed, Inis.</span> Puppet Plays for Children. Century Magazine, -1916.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">West, Henry Suydam.</span> Puppet Warfare in France. Literary -Digest, 1915.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Westwood, J. O.</span> Notice of Medieval Mimic Entertainment. -Archeological Journal, Vol. V.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Witkowski, Georg.</span> Introduction to Goethe’s Faust.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wolf, Georg Jacob.</span> Das Marionetten Theater Münchner -Künstler. Dekorative Kunst, 1911.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Young, S. G.</span> Guignol. Lippincott’s Magazine, 1879.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ziegler, Francis J.</span> Puppets, Ancient and Modern. -Harper’s Magazine, 1897.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p><i>All the Year</i>, 1894. Greek Puppet Show. From the -Works of Heron of Alexandria.</p> - -<p><i>Current Opinion</i>, 1916. Paradox of the Puppet.</p> - -<p><i>Current Opinion</i>, 1913. Return of the Marionettes.</p> - -<p><i>Eclectic Magazine</i>, 1854. Puppets of All Nations.</p> - -<p><i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, Vol. 17: 723.</p> - -<p><i>Illustrated London News</i>, 1911. A Javanese Topeng Dalang.</p> - -<p><i>Kind und Kunst.</i> Vol. III. Illustrations of Puppet Shows.</p> - -<p><i>Scientific American</i>, 1902. Puppet Shows of the Paris -Exposition.</p> - -<p><i>The Marionette.</i> Vol. I.</p> - -<p><i>The Mask.</i> Vols. I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII.</p> - -<p><i>The Sketch</i>, 1916. Illustration of the Gair Wilkinsons’ -Puppets.</p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"><div class="footnotes"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</h2> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> Oh, ladies and gentlemen, patient sitters for portraits, what if -the puppets do reverse the usual order of things? Must you not -envy them? Think of having your portrait painted first, the portrait -of the <i>ideal you</i> by an artist, and then having a complaisant -Creator fashioning your features into the nearest possible semblance -of what you might wish to be! Think of it. How delightful -for you and how simple for the portrait painter!</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> Only the principal male parts were allowed to speak Sanskrit -according to the conventions of Hindu dramaturgy. Lesser -male and all female parts were spoken in Prakrit.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> There are many Italian names for the puppets. From -<i>pupa</i>, meaning doll, is derived <i>pupazzi</i>. From <i>fantoccia</i>, also -signifying doll, we have <i>fantoccini</i>, or little dolls. From <i>figura</i>, -statue or figure, comes <i>figurini</i>, statuettes or little figures. <i>Burattini</i> -comes from <i>buratto</i>, cloth, being made mostly of cloth. -<i>Marionette</i> is a modification of <i>Maria</i>, the Virgin, meaning little -Maries from the early statuettes in churches. Another explanation -is found in the tenth century Venetian <i>Festival of the -Maries</i>. Upon one occasion Barbary pirates carried off twelve -Venetian maidens in their bridal procession. The rape of the -affianced Virgins was avenged by Venetian youths and thereafter -celebrated annually by a procession of richly dressed girls. These -later were replaced by elaborately gowned figures carried year -by year in the procession—hence Marionetti, little Maries.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> The research of scholars has discovered in the Ulm versions -of the Faustspiel the suggestion for the <i>Prologue in Heaven</i>, -although in the puppet play it was held in the Inferno before -Satan, not before Die Padre. <i>Faust’s Monologue</i> seems patterned -after that in the Tübingen play or that of Frankfurt am -Main. The metaphysical debate between Faust and Mephistopheles -has its prototype in the Augsburg Faustus. The tavern -scene may have been drawn from a similar scene in the Cologne -play. Similarly the Phantasmagoria of Blocksberg and other -arrangements may be traced back to the old puppet show Faust.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> Mrs. Browne, in any case, has not been discouraged. In -1918 she instructed her class in the dramatic department of the -University of Utah in the principles and methods of marionette -play, developing possible puppeteers for the future. The next -spring we find her assisting Mr. Sarg in directing and staging -his little puppet drama, <i>The Rose and the Ring</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> At the same time a less successful and quite unfinished dress -rehearsal of another drama was performed; but this play on -which the manipulators had labored for many months was abandoned -because of too great difficulty in manipulating ... and -because of other complications which shall be nameless.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> Mr. Alfred Kreymborg informs me that <i>Lima Beans</i>, one of -his amusing little poem-mimes, was played by puppets in Los -Angeles, under the direction of Miss Vivian Aiken. Mr. Kreymborg -has written that he considers “the only possible approach -to a Synthetic stage is derived from the marionette performance.” -Of the puppeteers in Los Angeles, one would like to hear more.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> Mr. B. Pollock, 73 Hoxton St., London, writes: “I still -publish Juvenile Plays and also supply foot lights and tin slides -which are used with the theatre. I have now been carrying on -the business for forty-two years and my father-in-law about -thirty-eight years before me.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> Mr. G. Bernard Shaw has written of England: “The old -professional marionette showmen have been driven off the road -by the picture theatre. I am told that on the Continent where -marionettes flourish much more than here, they have suffered -the same way from the competition of the irresistible pictures. -And I doubt whether they will recover from the attack. I am -afraid there is no use pretending that they deserve to.”</p> - -<p>How consoling to turn to Mr. Gordon Craig, who has prophesied -optimistically in <i>The Marionette</i>: “Burattini are magical, -whereas Cinema is only mechanical. When a framework of a -film machine is one day found by curiosity-hunters in the ruins -of a cellar and marvelled over, the Burattini will still be alive -and kicking.”</p> -</div> -</div></div> - -<div id="toclink_233" class="chapter"><div class="index"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Index"><i>Index</i></h2> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Ache, d’, Caran, designs silhouettes for <i>Chat Noir</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98–99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Actors, used with marionettes, in Italian church festivals, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in medieval French churches, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Germany in seventeenth century, <a href="#Page_123">123–125</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aiken, Vivian, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Alice in Wonderland</i>, in Chicago, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">America, marionettes in, <a href="#Page_163">163–191</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">American Indians, use of articulated images in ceremonials, <a href="#Page_164">164–170</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ames, Winthrop, interest in marionettes, <a href="#Page_184">184–185</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ananda, annual performance in temple, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anatole, M., founder of the Vrai Guignol, <a href="#Page_107">107–108</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antinoë, excavation of marionette theatre in, <a href="#Page_16">16–17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antiquity of puppets, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antwerp, underground theatre in, <a href="#Page_141">141–142</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Apotheosis of Bacchus</i>, representative Greek show, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Apuleius</i>, quoted on Greek puppets, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ariosto’s <i>Orlando Furioso</i> in Sicily, <a href="#Page_71">71–76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aristophanes’ <i>The Birds</i> in puppet performance, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arlecchino, Italian puppet character, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Baden-Baden, puppet show of Ivo Pühony, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bali, Wayang plays in, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Belgium, puppets in, <a href="#Page_140">140–142</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bergerac, Cyrano de, duel with ape, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Berlin, production of <i>Doctor Sassafras</i> and <i>Two Dancing Chinamen</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134–135</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bertrand, French showman, <a href="#Page_86">86–87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Birds</i> of Aristophanes produced, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Black, John, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blei, Franz, quoted on shadow play in Munich, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on types of plays for puppets, <a href="#Page_210">210–211</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bohemia, puppet plays in, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boinet, Paul, operator on <i>La France</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bologna, theatres in, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Bonifrates</i>, definition, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boswell, quoted, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bouchor, Maurice, presents <i>Noël ou le Mystère de la Nativité</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110–111</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brann, Paul, founder of theatre in Munich, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Briocci. <i>See</i> <a href="#Brioche">Brioché</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Brioche"></a>Brioché, Giovanni and Francesco, famous 17th century showmen, <a href="#Page_84">84–86</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Broemel, Carl, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Browne, Mrs. Maurice, founder of Chicago Little Theatre, <a href="#Page_173">173–178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buelens, Pieter, Belgian showman, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buffano, Remo, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bulley, Margaret, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Burattini</i>, description, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">derivation of name, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Burma, development of puppet stage, <a href="#Page_29">29–30</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Caine, W., quoted on Paris Guignols, <a href="#Page_197">197–198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Calthrop, A., on modern Venetian show, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cardboard plays, <a href="#Page_192">192–194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cascio, Salvatore, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cassandrino, Italian puppet character, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Catacombs, jointed images in tombs, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Catania, religious plays in, <a href="#Page_77">77–78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cecca, mediæval Italian mechanician, <a href="#Page_51">51–52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Central Asia, two types of puppets, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ceylon, early religious puppets, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chambers, E. K., quoted on use of puppets in churches, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Champs Élysées, home of the Vrai Guignol, <a href="#Page_107">107–108</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">performances, <a href="#Page_197">197–198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Character types. <i>See</i> <a href="#Types">Types</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Charles V of Spain, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Chat Noir</i>, home of <i>Ombres Françaises</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98–100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chicago Little Theatre, successful performances in, <a href="#Page_173">173–178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Children’s productions, <a href="#Page_192">192–194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chopin, life enacted by Cleveland puppets, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Christmas plays. <i>See</i> <a href="#Religious_plays">Religious plays</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Church festivals, in Italy, <a href="#Page_51">51–52</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Passion_play">Passion play</a>; <a href="#Religious_plays">Religious plays</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cibber, Colley, writes for marionettes, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cleveland, Italian performance in, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Playhouse, puppet productions, <a href="#Page_178">178–183</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">performance of <i>The Rose and the Ring</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200–201</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">construction of dolls, <a href="#Page_221">221–224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Clisby, George, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cologne, home of Kölner Hanneschen Theatre, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Comic element in puppets, <a href="#Page_203">203–205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Commedia dell’Arte</i>, influence on Italian marionettes, <a href="#Page_57">57–59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Constantine, Italian puppet character, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Construction of marionettes, <a href="#Page_221">221–224</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Materials">Materials</a>; <a href="#Mechanism">Mechanism</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Construction of marionette stage (O’Neil), <a href="#Page_226">226–229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Craig, Gordon, experiments with puppets, <a href="#Page_160">160–163</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Game of Marionettes</i>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on educational importance of puppets, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on actor and marionette, <a href="#Page_208">208–209</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on future of puppet plays, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crawley, London showman, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cruikshank, pictures of Punch and Judy, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cuccoli, Filippo, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Curtis, Elnora Whitman, on educational value of puppets, <a href="#Page_201">201–202</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Dalang, definition, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Dame aux Camellias (La)</i>, parody on by George Sand, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i><a id="Death_of_Tintagiles"></a>Death of Tintagiles</i>, production in Cleveland, <a href="#Page_179">179–180</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rehearsal of, <a href="#Page_218">218–221</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Deaves, Harry, retired American marionettist, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Deluded Dragon</i>, produced at Chicago Little Theatre, <a href="#Page_174">174–175</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Denmark, puppets in literature, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dickens, Charles, quoted on puppet shows in Genoa, <a href="#Page_63">63–66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dickson (pseud.), operator-magician, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dieppe, annual <i>Mystery of the Assumption</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82–83</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Docha</i>, definition, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Doctor Sassafras</i>, artistic production in Berlin, <a href="#Page_134">134–135</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Dolls, mechanical, in vaudeville, <a href="#Page_170">170–171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Domèvre, The Seven Chasseurs of</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111–112</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Don Quixote and the puppets, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dorothea, popular puppet character of Hamburg, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Drama, poetic, difficulties of production, <a href="#Page_190">190–191</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Plays">Plays</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Drama, varied repertory of Italian marionettes, <a href="#Page_59">59–62</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">classic, given at <i>Le Petit Théâtre de M. Henri Signoret</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102–105</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Duranty, Charles, attempt to uplift Guignol, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Edgerton, Mrs. Seymour, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Educational value of puppets, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201–202</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213–214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Egypt, possible birthplace of marionettes, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ehlert, Ernest, gives shows in Berlin with Pühony’s puppets, <a href="#Page_134">134–135</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on Pühony’s marionettes, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Elizabethan period, popularity of puppets, <a href="#Page_150">150–154</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">England, puppets in, <a href="#Page_143">143–163</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">toy theatres in, <a href="#Page_193">193–194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">English literature full of allusions to puppets, <a href="#Page_143">143–144</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Epopée</i>, produced at <i>Chat Noir</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Erotikon Theatron de la rue de la Santé</i>, sketch of, <a href="#Page_94">94–96</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eudel, Paul, first publishes shadow plays, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Excavations reveal ancient puppets, <a href="#Page_16">16–17</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Fairy plays, in the <i>Ombres Chinoises</i> at Versailles, <a href="#Page_97">97–98</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in the <i>Vrai Guignol</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Munich, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">at Chicago Little Theatre, <a href="#Page_174">174–178</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">produced by Tony Sarg, <a href="#Page_186">186–187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">specially suited to puppets, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fantoccini, description, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">derivation of name, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fashion puppet, Lady Jane, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Faust, history of character, <a href="#Page_116">116–122</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Ferrigni"></a>Ferrigni, P., on introduction of figures into Christian churches, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Yorick">Yorick</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fewkes, Dr. Jesse Walter, quoted on Indian ceremonial drama, <a href="#Page_164">164–170</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fiano Theatre, Rome, <a href="#Page_60">60–61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Figurini</i>, derivation of name, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flögel, quoted on English masques, <a href="#Page_145">145–146</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">preference for grotesque comedy, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">France, Anatole, writes on the <i>Chat Noir</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">quoted on <i>Le Petit Théâtre de M. Henri Signoret</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103–105</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">France, puppets in, <a href="#Page_81">81–112</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Francisque, French showman introducing <i>opéra comique</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88–89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">French writers and musicians, show interest in puppets, <a href="#Page_89">89–96</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fun in puppet-playing, <a href="#Page_216">216–218</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Gautier, Théophile, on Turkish puppets, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gayet, A., on puppet theatre excavated at Antinoë, <a href="#Page_16">16–17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gehring, Albert, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Geisselbrecht, Viennese showman, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Genoa, elaborate productions in, <a href="#Page_62">62–66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Germany, puppet shows in, <a href="#Page_113">113–136</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">toy theatres in, <a href="#Page_194">194–196</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Gidayu</i>, definition, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gidayu, Takemoto, 16th century showman, <a href="#Page_47">47–48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Glasheimer, Adolf, Berlin showman, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Gleason, Arthur, describes Italian show in New York, <a href="#Page_172">172–173</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Goethe, interest in puppets, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">maxim on stagecraft, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">quoted on his introduction to puppets, <a href="#Page_195">195–196</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Golden age of marionettes, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Goldoni, interest in puppets, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Goldsmith, Oliver, at marionette show, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grasso, Maria, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Greece, articulated idols in, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">development of puppetry in, <a href="#Page_18">18–21</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Green monster” of George Sand, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grotesqueness in puppets, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guignol, originated in Lyons, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Paris, <a href="#Page_107">107–108</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on steamship <i>La France</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">performances in Paris, <a href="#Page_197">197–198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gyp, presents <i>Tout à l’égout</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hamburg, long popularity of puppets in, <a href="#Page_115">115–116</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hanswurst, German puppet buffoon, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hauptundstaatsactionen</i>, description of, <a href="#Page_124">124–125</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Haydn, Joseph, composes music for marionettes, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hazlitt, William, on Punch and Judy shows, <a href="#Page_212">212–213</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hembauf, George, Belgian showman, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Heron of Alexandria, on early Greek puppet mechanism, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hewelt, John (pseud.), operator-magician, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Holden, Thomas, operator-magician, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">marionettes, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Holland, puppets in, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hopi Indians, Great Serpent drama, <a href="#Page_165">165–170</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Humor in puppet plays, <a href="#Page_203">203–205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hungary, gypsy puppeteers, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><a id="Idols"></a>Idols, animated, in Egypt, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Greece, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Rome, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of ancient Gauls, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Images">Images</a>; <a href="#Religious_puppets">Religious puppets</a>; <a href="#Statues">Statues</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ilkely Players, amateur English marionettists, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Images"></a>Images, jointed, found in Catacombs, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">religious, in Italy, <a href="#Page_51">51–54</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">articulated, used in mediæval French churches, <a href="#Page_81">81–82</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in English churches, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">articulated, used by American Indians, <a href="#Page_164">164–170</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Idols">Idols</a>; <a href="#Religious_puppets">Religious puppets</a>; <a href="#Statues">Statues</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">India, antiquity of puppets, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">development of puppets in, <a href="#Page_32">32–35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Israeli, d’, Isaac, writes of Punch, <a href="#Page_146">146–147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Italy, evolution of puppetry, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">its development, <a href="#Page_50">50–78</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Goldoni’s interest in puppets, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">puppets beloved by children, <a href="#Page_199">199–200</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Japan, origin and development of puppet shows, <a href="#Page_43">43–49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Java, shadow-plays, <a href="#Page_24">24–28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jinavaravamsa, P. C., on Indian puppets to-day, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Joly, Henri, on antiquity of Japanese shows, <a href="#Page_43">43–44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jones, Henry Festing, quoted on Sicilian shows, <a href="#Page_71">71–77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jonson, Ben, mentions puppets in many writings, <a href="#Page_150">150–151</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Joruri</i>, Japanese epic play, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Juvenile drama, <a href="#Page_193">193–194</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Karagheuz, Turkish puppet hero, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kasperle, German puppet buffoon, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Faust play, <a href="#Page_118">118–120</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Ketschel, Persian comic puppet, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Kobold</i>, definition, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Kölner Hanneschen Theater</i>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kopecki, Bohemian showman, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kreymborg, Alfred, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">La France, puppet theatre on, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">La Grille’s <i>Théâtre des Pygmées</i>, <a href="#Page_87">87–88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Laufer, Dr. Berthold, on marionettes in Egypt, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Laurent Broeders, Belgian showmen, <a href="#Page_140">140–141</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lemaître, Jules, describes several productions, <a href="#Page_110">110–111</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lewiss, Clunn, wandering English showman, <a href="#Page_155">155–156</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lighting a puppet stage, <a href="#Page_227">227–229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lima Beans</i>, given in Los Angeles, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Literary puppets in Paris, <a href="#Page_109">109–111</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Little Theatre, Chicago, history of, <a href="#Page_173">173–178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">London, Italian puppets in, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">present-day street puppets, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Los Angeles, puppets in, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Louis XIV, puppets a feature of marriage procession, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">gives special privileges to La Grille, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lupi brothers, Italian showmen, <a href="#Page_68">68–69</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">description of performance for children, <a href="#Page_199">199–200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Luschan, von, F., on puppet plays in Turkey, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Luther, Martin, denunciations against actors, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Maccus, Roman buffoon, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Machieltje, Belgian showman, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">MacLean, J. Arthur, on puppet performance at Ananda, <a href="#Page_29">29–30</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maeterlinck’s <i>Death of Tintagiles</i> produced in Cleveland, <a href="#Page_179">179–180</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rehearsal of play, <a href="#Page_218">218–221</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Magnin, Charles, on Greek articulated idols, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on Polichinelle, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mahabharata</i>, basis of Javanese plays, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Making a marionette, <a href="#Page_221">221–224</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Materials">Materials</a>; <a href="#Mechanism">Mechanism</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Manik Muja</i>, basis of Javanese plays, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Margueritte, Paul, describes M. Signoret’s puppets, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marionette, derivation of name, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marionette Theatre of Munich Artists, <a href="#Page_130">130–131</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Masques, English, <a href="#Page_145">145–146</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Materials"></a>Materials, used in ancient Indian puppets, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Javanese shadows, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Siamese shadows, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Cleveland Playhouse puppets, <a href="#Page_179">179–180</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">making a marionette to-day, <a href="#Page_221">221–224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Matthews, Brander, on types of plays for puppets, <a href="#Page_211">211–212</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maupassant, de, Guy, on Karagheuz plays, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mechanical dolls in vaudeville, <a href="#Page_170">170–171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Mechanism"></a>Mechanism, of early Greek puppets, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Javanese shadows, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of modern Indian puppets, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Turkish puppets, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">intricacy of in Japanese puppets, <a href="#Page_45">45–46</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Italian puppets, <a href="#Page_54">54–55</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">intricate, in modern Italian puppets, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">increasing intricacy in France, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of <i>Le Petit Théâtre de M. Henri Signoret</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102–103</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">perfection in Tony Sarg’s puppets, <a href="#Page_185">185–186</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">simple, in Cleveland Playhouse dolls, <a href="#Page_221">221–224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Michel, Wilhelm, on comic function of puppets, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Mick, Hettie Louise, writes on plays at Chicago Little Theatre, <a href="#Page_175">175–176</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Midsummer Night’s Dream</i>, production at Chicago Little Theatre, <a href="#Page_175">175–177</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Molière’s <i>Monsieur Pourceaugnac</i> in Madrid, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monzayemon, Chikamatsu, Japanese playwright, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mourguet, Laurent, originator of Guignol, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Munich, home of best German puppet shows, <a href="#Page_128">128–133</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Musée Grevin, theatre in, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Nang, Siamese shadow play, <a href="#Page_28">28–29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nantes, revocation of Edict made into play, <a href="#Page_86">86–87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Napoleon, death of, puppet play described by Dickens, <a href="#Page_64">64–66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nelson, Lord, imaginary dialogue with Punch, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Neuville, de, Lemercier, guiding spirit of <i>Erotikon Theatron</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95–96</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">interest in shadow plays, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New York, Italian show described by Arthur Gleason, <a href="#Page_172">172–173</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">puppets of Tony Sarg, <a href="#Page_183">183–191</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Noël</i>, by Bouchor, <a href="#Page_110">110–111</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ogotai, legend of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ombres Chinoises</i>, French shadow plays, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ombres Françaises</i>, at the <i>Chat Noir</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98–100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ombre du cocher poète, L’</i>, first <i>opéra comique</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88–89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">O’Neil, Raymond, director Cleveland Playhouse, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">“Construction of Marionette Stage,” <a href="#Page_226">226–229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Opéra comique</i>, origin, <a href="#Page_88">88–89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Operator-magicians, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Origin of puppets, theories of scholars, <a href="#Page_15">15–16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Persian legend, <a href="#Page_31">31–32</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Turkish tales, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Chinese legends, <a href="#Page_40">40–41</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Japanese stories, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Orlando Furioso</i> in Sicily, <a href="#Page_71">71–76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Osaka, puppet plays in, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Owen, Lillian, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Pandji legends, basis of Javanese plays, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pantalone, Italian puppet character, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paris, first permanent puppet stage erected, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">George Sand’s theatre, <a href="#Page_92">92–94</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Erotikon Theatron de la rue de la Santé</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94–96</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the <i>Chat Noir</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98–100</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the operator-magicians, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Le Petit Théâtre de M. Henri Signoret</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102–105</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the <i>Vrai Guignol</i> in the Champs Élysées, <a href="#Page_107">107–108</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">literary puppets, <a href="#Page_109">109–111</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">marionette theatre at 1900 Exposition, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Guignol performances, <a href="#Page_197">197–198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Passion_play"></a>Passion play, at Catania, <a href="#Page_77">77–78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pathological types of Turkish puppets, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Payne-Collier, arranges <i>Tragical Comedy of Punch and Judy</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Persia, puppetry in, <a href="#Page_31">31–32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Petit Théâtre</i> in Belgium, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Piccini, Italian showman in England, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pierrot Guitariste, puppet by De Neuville, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pinkethman, London showman, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pischel, Prof. Richard, on origin of puppets, <a href="#Page_15">15–16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on puppet plays of India, <a href="#Page_32">32–33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pivetta</i>, definition, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Playhouse, in Cleveland, gives puppet plays, <a href="#Page_178">178–183</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">construction of dolls, <a href="#Page_221">221–224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Plays"></a>Plays, suited to puppets, <a href="#Page_210">210–214</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Pocci, Graf, writer of fairy plays for puppets, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Three Wishes</i> produced by Tony Sarg, <a href="#Page_186">186–187</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Poetic drama, difficulties of production, <a href="#Page_190">190–191</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Poland, religious plays in, <a href="#Page_138">138–139</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Wyspianski’s interest in puppets, <a href="#Page_196">196–197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Polichinelle"></a>Polichinelle, French puppet character, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">varied career, <a href="#Page_106">106–107</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">plea for, <a href="#Page_203">203–215</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Pulcinella">Pulcinella</a>; <a href="#Punch">Punch</a>; <a href="#Punchinello">Punchinello</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pollock, B., publisher of juvenile plays, <a href="#Page_193">193–194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Portugal, puppets in, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Powell, clever London motion maker, <a href="#Page_151">151–152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Prodigal Son</i>, popular play in Hamburg, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Producing_a_play"></a>Producing a play, in Java, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in India, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Turkey, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in China, <a href="#Page_41">41–43</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Japan, <a href="#Page_45">45–47</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">French restrictions in 17th century, <a href="#Page_87">87–88</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Midsummer Night’s Dream</i> in Chicago, <a href="#Page_176">176–177</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">behind the scenes, <a href="#Page_216">216–224</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">construction of stage, <a href="#Page_226">226–229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pühony, Ivo, puppet maker, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his marionettes, Ernst Ehlert quoted, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Pulcinella"></a>Pulcinella, Italian puppet character, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Polichinelle">Polichinelle</a>; <a href="#Punch">Punch</a>; <a href="#Punchinello">Punchinello</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Punch"></a>Punch, origin of name, <a href="#Page_146">146–147</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Polichinelle">Polichinelle</a>; <a href="#Pulcinella">Pulcinella</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Punchinello"></a>Punchinello, his prestige and prowess, <a href="#Page_147">147–150</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#Polichinelle">Polichinelle</a>; <a href="#Pulcinella">Pulcinella</a>; <a href="#Punch">Punch</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pupazzi</i>, derivation of name, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ramayana, basis of Javanese plays, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">basis of Siamese <i>Nang</i>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">modern production of in India, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rehearsal of play, <a href="#Page_218">218–221</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rehm, R. S., on puppet show in Samarkand, <a href="#Page_30">30–31</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on Chinese shadows, <a href="#Page_42">42–43</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on Rivière’s shadow pantomimes, <a href="#Page_99">99–100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Religious_plays"></a>Religious plays, at Catania, <a href="#Page_77">77–78</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Spain, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">revocation of Edict of Nantes produced, <a href="#Page_86">86–87</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Russia, <a href="#Page_137">137–139</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Poland, <a href="#Page_138">138–139</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in England, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">specially suited to marionettes, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Passion_play">Passion play</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Religious_puppets"></a>Religious puppets, at Antinoë, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Greece, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Rome, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Catacombs, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Burma, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Ceylon, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Idols; <a href="#Images">Images</a>; <a href="#Statues">Statues</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Repertory, varied in Italian puppet shows, <a href="#Page_56">56–62</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">varied in medieval Germany, <a href="#Page_123">123–125</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Munich theatres, <a href="#Page_131">131–132</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Restrictions on production, in 17th century France, <a href="#Page_87">87–88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rivière, Henri, makes pantomimes for <i>Chat Noir</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99–100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rome, ancient, articulated statues, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Rome, modern, many puppet theatres in, <a href="#Page_60">60–62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Rose and the Ring</i> produced by Tony Sarg, <a href="#Page_189">189–190</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">account of Cleveland performance, <a href="#Page_200">200–201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Russia, puppet plays in, <a href="#Page_137">137–139</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Saint-Genois, de, Alfred and Charles, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Saint Germain Fair, puppet shows at, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Saint Laurent Fair, puppet shows at, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Salome</i>, in puppet performance, <a href="#Page_211">211–212</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Samarkand, performance of <i>Tschadar Chajal</i> in, <a href="#Page_30">30–31</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Sand, George, establishes <i>Théâtre des Amis</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92–94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sanskrit, restriction in use of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sarg, Tony, experiments with marionettes in London and New York, <a href="#Page_184">184–191</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">takes <i>The Rose and the Ring</i> to Cleveland, <a href="#Page_200">200–201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scala, Flaminio, 17th century director, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scapino, Italian puppet character, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scaramuccia, Italian puppet character, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sceaux, puppet stage in chateau, <a href="#Page_89">89–90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Schmidt, “Papa,” beloved Munich showman, <a href="#Page_129">129–130</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">appreciation of work, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Schutz and Dreher, showman of Berlin, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Seneca, death of, shown in Valencia, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Seraphin, Dominique, producer of shadow plays, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shadow plays, in France, <a href="#Page_96">96–100</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Munich, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Shadows,” Javanese, how made, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Siamese <i>Nang</i>, <a href="#Page_28">28–29</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Turkish, origin and excellence of, <a href="#Page_36">36–39</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Chinese development, <a href="#Page_39">39–43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Shadowy Waters</i> produced by Cleveland puppets, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shakespeare, <i>Tempest</i> produced by M. Signoret, <a href="#Page_103">103–104</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">allusions to puppet shows, <a href="#Page_143">143–144</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Midsummer Night’s Dream</i> in Chicago, <a href="#Page_175">175–177</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shaw, G. Bernard, on marionettes and acting, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on future of puppet shows, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Siam, unusual shadows of the <i>Nang</i>, <a href="#Page_28">28–29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sicily, great popularity of marionettes in, <a href="#Page_70">70–78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Signoret, Henri, le Petit Théâtre de</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102–103</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">puppets described by Paul Margueritte, <a href="#Page_207">207–208</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Simmonds, William, artist and amateur puppeteer, <a href="#Page_158">158–160</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Simplification of puppets by Gordon Craig, <a href="#Page_162">162–163</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Socrates and the showman, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spain, history of puppets in, <a href="#Page_78">78–80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Spectator</i>, frequent mention of puppets, <a href="#Page_151">151–152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stage, construction of (O’Neil), <a href="#Page_226">226–229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Statues"></a>Statues, articulated, in Rome, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>. <i>See also</i> Idols; <a href="#Images">Images</a>; <a href="#Religious_puppets">Religious puppets</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stentorella, Italian puppet character, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stevenson’s <i>A Penny Plain and Twopence Colored</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_193">193–194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Sthapaka</i>, definition, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stoddard, Anne, describes production of <i>Three Wishes</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186–187</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Sutradhara</i>, definition, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Symons, Arthur, on art of marionette, <a href="#Page_206">206–207</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Tattermann, definition, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Technique of production. <i>See</i> <a href="#Producing_a_play">Producing a play</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tempest</i>, production described by Anatole France, <a href="#Page_103">103–104</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Temptation of St. Anthony</i>, by Rivière, <a href="#Page_99">99–100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Teoli, Italian marionettist, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Teschner, Richard, marionette maker in Vienna, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thackeray’s <i>Rose and the Ring</i> produced, <a href="#Page_189">189–190</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200–201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Théatines, order of monks, give spectacles, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Théâtre des amis</i>, history of, <a href="#Page_92">92–94</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Three Wishes</i>, produced by Tony Sarg, <a href="#Page_186">186–187</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tintagiles.</i> <i>See</i> <i><a href="#Death_of_Tintagiles">Death of Tintagiles</a></i>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Titeres</i>, Spanish puppets, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tocha</i>, definition, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tokkenspiel</i>, early subject matter, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tokyo, puppet plays in, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tombs, Egyptian, puppets found in, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">jointed images found in Catacombs, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Toone, Belgian showman, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Torino, famous theatre in, <a href="#Page_68">68–69</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">description of performance at Lupi theatre, <a href="#Page_199">199–200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Torriani, Giovanni, inventor, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Toy theatres, <a href="#Page_192">192–197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tragedy of Nauplius</i>, representative Greek show, <a href="#Page_19">19–20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Travelling showmen, in Greece, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Rome, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in China, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Spain, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Russia, <a href="#Page_137">137–138</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in London and rural England, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Treat, Grace, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tschadar Chajal</i>, puppet play of Turkestan, <a href="#Page_30">30–31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Turkestan, two types of puppets, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Turkey, legends of origin of puppets, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Types"></a>Types of puppets, on early Roman stage, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Turkey, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Italy, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57–58</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Van Volkenburg, Ellen, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Variety bills follow Thirty Years’ War in Germany, <a href="#Page_123">123–125</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vasari, quoted, on church spectacles, <a href="#Page_51">51–52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Venice, medieval puppets in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vidusaka, Indian puppet buffoon, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vienna, the dolls of Richard Teschner, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Voltaire’s interest in puppets, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">War zone, French puppets in, <a href="#Page_111">111–112</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Wayang</i> dramas, Javanese shadow plays, <a href="#Page_25">25–28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wheeler, Katherine, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wilkinsons, amateur English marionettists, <a href="#Page_156">156–157</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Williamson, Mrs. Hamilton, <a href="#Page_187">187–188</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Winter, Christoph, Cologne showman, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Woltje, Belgian puppet buffoon, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Writing for puppets, <a href="#Page_217">217–218</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wundt, Prof., on comic function of puppets, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wyspianski, Stanislaw, early plays with puppets, <a href="#Page_196">196–197</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Yeats’ <i>Shadowy Waters</i> produced in Cleveland, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yeddo, 18th century centre for puppet drama, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Yorick"></a>Yorick (pseud.), on puppets in Egypt, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on growth of Greek puppetry, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Ferrigni">Ferrigni</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Zelenko, Alexander, quoted on modern Russian puppets, <a href="#Page_137">137–138</a>.</li> -</ul> -</div></div> - -<div class="chapter"><div class="transnote"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p>Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made -consistent when a predominant preference was found -in the original book; otherwise they were not changed.</p> - -<p>Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced -quotation marks were remedied when the change was -obvious, and otherwise left unbalanced.</p> - 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