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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..14b3cbb --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #65913 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/65913) diff --git a/old/65913-0.txt b/old/65913-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 2beab95..0000000 --- a/old/65913-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6771 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Tirant lo Blanch; a study of its authorship, -principal sources and historical setting, by Joseph Anthony Vaeth - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Tirant lo Blanch; a study of its authorship, principal sources - and historical setting - -Author: Joseph Anthony Vaeth - -Release Date: July 24, 2021 [eBook #65913] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Nahum Maso i Carcases, Emmanuel Ackerman and the Online - Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This - file was produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TIRANT LO BLANCH; A STUDY OF ITS -AUTHORSHIP, PRINCIPAL SOURCES AND HISTORICAL SETTING *** - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes: - -The original spelling, hyphenation, and punctuation have been retained, -with the exception of apparent typographical errors which have been -corrected. - -Text in Italics is indicated between _underscores_. - -Text in small capitals has been replaced by regular uppercase text. - -Superscripts are indicated by a single caret (^) followed by the -superscripted text between curly braces { and }. - - - - - Columbia University - STUDIES IN ROMANCE PHILOLOGY AND - LITERATURE - - - TIRANT LO BLANCH - - - - - COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS SALES AGENTS - - - NEW YORK - LEMCKE & BUECHNER - 30-32 WEST 27TH STREET - - LONDON - HUMPHREY MILFORD - AMEN CORNER, E.C. - - SHANGHAI - EDWARD EVANS & SONS, LTD. - 30 NORTH SZECHUEN ROAD - - - - - TIRANT LO BLANCH - - A STUDY OF ITS AUTHORSHIP - PRINCIPAL SOURCES AND HISTORICAL - SETTING - - BY - - JOSEPH A. VAETH, PH.D. - - INSTRUCTOR IN ROMANCE LANGUAGES - IN NEW YORK UNIVERSITY - - [Illustration] - - New York - COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS - 1918 - _All rights reserved_ - - - - - Copyright, 1918 - - BY COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS - - Printed from type, May, 1918 - - - - -_Approved for publication, on behalf of the Department of Romance -Languages and Literatures of Columbia University._ - - HENRY ALFRED TODD - - NEW YORK, December, 1917. - - - - - TO - - PROFESSOR RAYMOND WEEKS - - WHOSE ENTHUSIASM, SCHOLARSHIP AND DEVOTION TO FRANCE - HAVE BEEN OF SUCH FAR-REACHING INFLUENCE IN - THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STUDY OF - ROMANCE LANGUAGES IN AMERICA, - THIS BOOK IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED - - - - - PREFACE - - -On my return to Columbia University in the fall of 1914 for the purpose -of continuing my studies, I consulted Professor H.A. Todd in regard to -available subjects for a doctoral dissertation. In the course of our -conversation he called my attention to a large volume which had been -presented to him by Mr. Archer M. Huntington. It was a facsimile copy -of the first edition of the Catalan romance of chivalry, _Tirant lo -Blanch_. Realizing that here was an opportunity to become intimately -acquainted with a work that was made well known, in name at least, -by Cervantes in his celebrated _Don Quijote_, I eagerly accepted -the suggestion of Professor Todd to examine the book with a view of -ascertaining what possibilities _Tirant lo Blanch_ might offer in the -field of literary investigation. I immediately began to consult the -local libraries, and discovered that no elaborate and extensive study -of this work had been made. After I had read the romance my mind was -made up that the subject of my dissertation would be based on this -Catalan work. I saw in it an abundance of material which provided -excellent opportunities for research work. I experienced no little -difficulty in selecting the special problems and investigations which -were to claim my close and serious attention. Fortunately I again -looked over the cards in the Catalogue of the Library of the Hispanic -Society, and to my surprise I found a new card which indicated that a -critical study of this Catalan work had been published in 1912, the -_Estudio crítico de Tirant lo Blanch_ by Givanel Mas. After a careful -study of this comprehensive and scholarly production and all other -available sources of information pertaining to this subject, I found -myself deeply interested in the question of the authorship of this -romance, its principal sources, and its historical setting. - -During the course of my researches and investigations, I have on -numerous occasions been the recipient of favors and acts of kindness -which, although not bearing directly on my work, nevertheless -facilitated my labors and stimulated my efforts. I therefore take -advantage of this opportunity to express my most sincere thanks to -the following persons: to Doctor Peter H. Goldsmith, Director of the -Inter-American Division of the American Association for International -Conciliation, and Editor of the _Inter-America_; to Don F. Javier -Salas, Consul General of Spain at New York; to Professor H.C. Heaton of -New York University; and to Mr. Louis Imbert of Columbia University. - -To Professor E.B. Babcock of New York University I am deeply indebted -for sympathetic encouragement and valuable suggestions, and for his -patient reading of the proof-sheets. - -I am exceedingly grateful to Professor J.L. Gerig of Columbia -University for a critical reading of the MS., for suggesting certain -improvements, for his good will and helpful advice, and for his final -reading of the proof-sheets. - -It is extremely difficult to express in an adequate manner my -appreciation and gratitude to Professor H.A. Todd, who, from the -beginning to the end of the work, advised, guided, and encouraged me. -His kind and never-failing interest in his students and their work is, -it is needless to say, a constant source of inspiration. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - INTRODUCTION 1 - - Quotation from _Don Quijote_, with comments.—Valencia - edition of _Tirant lo Blanch_.—Barcelona edition of 1497, - of which the only complete copy known is in the library of the - Hispanic Society.—Other editions and translations published.—Scope - of this study. - - - PART I. ANALYSIS OF _TIRANT LO BLANCH_ - - CHAPTER I. THE WILLIAM OF WARWICK EPISODE 7 - - William of Warwick a noble and valiant English knight.—He - makes a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, returns, and lives as - a hermit near Warwick.—Moorish invasion of England.—William - of Warwick becomes the hermit-king and the - commander of the English forces.—Defeat and annihilation - of the Moors.—He gives back to the former king the - royal insignia, and retires to a new hermitage.—The King - of England announces an assembly of the General Court in - London.—Meeting of Tirant lo Blanch and the hermit, - William of Warwick, at the hermitage.—The marriage of - the king and the festivities of the General Court.—On his - way back to Brittany Tirant visits the hermit.—The - principal events that took place near and in London.—Tirant - proclaimed the best knight.—His exploits: he vanquishes - two champions of the field, also the Lord of Viles - Hermes; without arms he kills a fierce mastiff; he vanquishes - the kings of Friesland and of Poland, and the dukes - of Burgundy and of Bavaria; his prospective combat with - Kirielayson de Muntalba; he defeats Thomas de Muntalba; - combat with the Knight Villa Formosa.—Narration concerning - the Order of the Garter.—Tirant takes leave of the - hermit and returns to Brittany. - - CHAPTER II. TIRANT SUCCORS THE KNIGHTS OF RHODES 26 - - Tirant is received with great honors in the city of Nantes. - He learns that the knights of Rhodes are besieged by the - Moors and are in a desperate plight.—On a large ship - heavily laden with provisions he, accompanied by Philip, - the youngest son of the King of France, sets sail for Rhodes.—Makes - landing at Lisbon.—Voyage resumed.—Ship - attacked by Moorish vessels but finally reaches Sicily.—Philip - becomes a suitor for the hand of the Sicilian princess, - Ricomana.—The king of Sicily accompanies Tirant and - the ship succeeds in reaching the castle of Rhodes.—The - Moors raise the siege.—Tirant, with his royal companions, - goes to Jerusalem and then to Alexandria, where he ransoms - many Christian captives.—Philip marries Ricomana. - - CHAPTER III. TIRANT JOINS THE EXPEDITION OF THE KING - OF FRANCE AGAINST THE INFIDELS 31 - - Tirant, in a galley of his own, joins the combined fleet - of the Christians.—Attack on the city of Tripoli in Syria - fails.—Quarrel between Tirant and Ricart lo Venturos for - the honor of being the last to board the ship.—The Turkish - coast is plundered and devastated and fleet sails for Tunis.—In - the attack on that city Tirant falls in a ditch and is - rescued by Ricart.—Tunis is captured.—Fleet sailed along - coast of Barbary and finally disbanded at Marseilles.—Tirant - visits his parents and then, at the request of Philip, - returns to Sicily. - - CHAPTER IV. TIRANT ENTERS THE SERVICE OF THE EMPEROR - OF CONSTANTINOPLE 33 - - At the request of the Emperor of Constantinople, Tirant - sets sail for that imperial city, and immediately upon his - arrival is named commander of the Emperor’s forces.—He - falls in love with the charming princess, Carmesina.—Opposition - to Tirant.—Princess warns him against the - treacherous Duke of Macedonia.—Tirant’s novel way of - confessing his love.—Review of the Imperial troops.—First - encounter with the Turks.—The Duke defies Tirant.—Two - thousand soldiers sent by the Grand Master of - the Knights of Rhodes arrive to help Tirant.—Tirant’s - strategy wins another victory.—The Turks decide that - Tirant must be slain.—The King of Egypt’s challenge - accepted by Tirant.—Quarrel between Tirant and the - Duke.—Five thousand men sent by Philip, now king of - Sicily, arrive to join Tirant.—Emperor and Princess visit - the camp.—Great rout of the Turks.—Tirant’s companion, - Diaphebus, appointed Constable.—Tirant captures - ships laden with provisions for the enemy.—Fleet of the - Grand Caramany and the King of Sobirana India dispersed - and the royal leaders captured.—Tirant obliged to remain - in bed in Constantinople in order that a serious wound received - in naval battle may heal.—Arrival of five thousand - “franc archers.”—Tirant’s passionate love.—Viuda - Reposada’s jealousy.—Diaphebus marries Stephania.—Tirant - in Carmesina’s chamber.—Hippolyte and the Empress.—Tirant - and Carmesina exchange vows.—Tirant - embarks to return to camp.—Tirant’s ship is driven by a - storm to the shores of Barbary, where it is wrecked. - - CHAPTER V. TIRANT CONQUERS ALL BARBARY 54 - - Tirant reaches the shore and takes refuge in a cave.—He - is discovered and sent to a castle in the kingdom of - Tremicen as a prisoner.—He takes up arms in defense of this - kingdom, which is attacked by Scariano, the King of Tunis.—Maragdina, - the daughter of the King of Tremicen, is - captured by Scariano, who, in his turn, is captured by - Tirant.—Maragdina, Scariano, and a multitude of Moors - become Christians.—Several Moorish kings of Barbary determine - to exterminate the Christians, but are forced to - give up their designs.—Tirant now makes up his mind to - conquer all Barbary.—The siege of Montagata.—Senyor - Dagramunt and Plaer de mi Vida become the king and queen - of Fez and Bugia.—Caramen, the last city to oppose the - Christians, is captured.—Tirant gathers an army of - 250,000 men at Constantine to reconquer all the lost territory - for the Emperor of Constantinople.—Christianity is - firmly established in Barbary. - - CHAPTER VI. TIRANT RETURNS TO CONSTANTINOPLE AND - THE GREEK EMPIRE IS COMPLETELY RESTORED 61 - - Tirant’s immense expedition surprises the Moorish vessels - which blockade the port of Constantinople.—The Sultan - and the Grand Turk sue for peace.—Tirant’s visit to the - Imperial Palace.—The Emperor’s conditions of peace - accepted by the Moors.—The betrothal of Tirant and - Carmesina.—He is proclaimed Caesar of the Empire and - successor to the imperial crown.—He sets out with a large - army to accomplish the restoration of the empire.—This - task completed, he starts back for Constantinople.—His - death.—The despair and passing away of the Emperor - and Carmesina.—Hippolyte becomes Emperor. - - - PART II. AUTHORSHIP OF _TIRANT LO BLANCH_ - - CHAPTER I. IN WHAT LANGUAGE WAS _Tirant lo Blanch_ - FIRST WRITTEN? 69 - - Purport of dedicatory letter.—Note at the conclusion - of the book.—Reasons for doubting the accuracy of the - statements made by Martorell and de Galba.—Was there - an English original of _Tirant lo Blanch_?—Was there a - Portuguese translation or a Portuguese original?—Parallel - passages from Lull’s _Libre del Orde d’Cauayleria_ and from - _Tirant lo Blanch_.—Others from _Lo Somni d’En Bernat - Metge_ and from Martorell’s work.—Strong evidence that - _Tirant lo Blanch_ was originally written in Catalan. - - CHAPTER II. IN WHAT WAY WAS DE GALBA CONNECTED - WITH THE PRODUCTION OF _Tirant lo Blanch_? 91 - - De Galba asserts that he translated the fourth part, the - end of the work.—The book is not divided into four parts.—The - inconsistency of the proposed seven parts explained.—Internal - evidence refutes the statements of de Galba.—Perhaps - he composed the last chapter.—Probably did no - more than to prepare the MS. for the printer. - - - PART III. COMPARATIVE STUDY OF _TIRANT - LO BLANCH_ AND THE SOURCES: _GUY OF - WARWICK_; LIFE OF ROGER DE FLOR IN - MUNTANER’S _CHRONICA_; AND LULL’S _LIBRE - DEL ORDE D’CAUAYLERIA_ - - CHAPTER I. WILLIAM OF WARWICK STANDS FOR THE MATURE - GUY OF WARWICK 97 - - View generally held that Tirant lo Blanch stands for - Roger de Flor.—A close study of _Guy of Warwick_ tends to - change that view.—The William of Warwick episode is - based on the latter part of the career of Guy of Warwick.—The - principal part of Lull’s work which was utilized - in the episode. - - CHAPTER II. TIRANT LO BLANCH RESEMBLES YOUNG GUY - OF WARWICK 104 - - Tirant and Guy are victors in knightly contests.—Their - love affairs.—Guy’s career at Constantinople.—Comparison - with Tirant’s career at that imperial city. - - CHAPTER III. ROGER DE FLOR’S CAREER AT CONSTANTINOPLE 112 - - Arrival of the Catalan-Aragonese expedition.—Battle - between the _almogávares_ and the Genoese.—First victory - over the Turks.—Roger begins his triumphant march - through Anatolia.—Arrival of reinforcements.—The - power of the Turks completely broken.—Roger proclaimed - Caesar of the empire.—He is slain at Adrianople.—Points - of resemblance in the careers of Tirant lo Blanch and Roger - de Flor. - - CHAPTER IV. OTHER MATERIAL FROM THE _Chronica_ UTILIZED - BY MARTORELL 117 - - The Emperor’s attitude towards the Genoese.—Xor - Miqueli.—Arrival of reinforcements.—The story of Paris - and Helen.—En Fernan de Ahones.—The raising of the - siege of Messina. - - CHAPTER V. OTHER MATERIAL FROM _Guy of Warwick_ 122 - - The shipwreck of Heraud.—The story of Earl Jonas of - Darras.—Felice was well versed in the seven arts.—Guy’s - desperate love.—Oisel’s devotion to Tirri.—Felice justifies - her attitude towards Guy.—Felice’s expression of - grief and despair as Guy lies dead on the bier before her.—The - love story which unfortunately is debased by the - author.—Conclusion: Tirant lo Blanch bears a stronger - resemblance to Guy of Warwick than to Roger de Flor.—The - exploits of Roger de Flor do not constitute the principal - source of _Tirant lo Blanch_. - - - PART IV. THE HISTORICAL BASES UPON WHICH - TIRANT’S SPHERES OF OPERATION ARE FOUNDED - - CHAPTER I. THE WILLIAM OF WARWICK EPISODE 133 - - This episode is given a setting in the first part of the - fifteenth century.—Henry VI and Richard of Beauchamp.—Sir - John Stuart and the Duke of Exeter.—The author’s - method in composing his work. - - CHAPTER II. CONCERNING THE ORDER OF THE GARTER 140 - - Inconsistency of two passages in _Tirant lo Blanch_.—Circumstances - that led to the institution of this Order.—Names - of members selected by the King.—Golden Collar of - the members.—Although some of the details are inaccurate - from a historical standpoint, yet Martorell reveals an intimate - knowledge of the Order. - - CHAPTER III. TIRANT SUCCORS THE KNIGHTS OF RHODES 146 - - The attempt of the Genoese to capture Rhodes.—Rhodes - threatened by the Turks.—Siege of Rhodes, in 1444, - forms the historical background of Tirant’s enterprise. - - CHAPTER IV. TIRANT JOINS THE EXPEDITION OF THE KING - OF FRANCE AGAINST THE INFIDELS 150 - - Certain incidents and geographical names pertaining to - this expedition coincide with certain others in connection - with the Crusades of Louis IX.—Joinville’s description - of the king’s leap into the sea compared with a later version. - - CHAPTER V. TIRANT CONQUERS AND CHRISTIANIZES ALL - BARBARY 152 - - Portuguese campaigns against the Moors do not furnish - any material for this undertaking.—Statements in regard to - the origin of _Tirant lo Blanch_ apparently refuted.—Muntaner’s - _Chronica_ furnished historical background for Tirant’s - activities in Barbary, perhaps suggested by Guy of Warwick. - - CONCLUSION 158 - - General description of _Tirant lo Blanch_.—This Catalan - romance of chivalry is a composite historical novel, with - a hero of a composite historical character. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY 163 - - INDEX 165 - - - - - TIRANT LO BLANCH - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - -In Chapter VI of the immortal work, _Don Quijote de la Mancha_, is -given a glowing account of the burning of the books to which were -ascribed the mental derangement of the “ingenioso hidalgo.” In the -passage in question, Cervantes, speaking through the priest, pays -the following tribute to the Catalan romance of chivalry, _Tirant lo -Blanch_: - - [1]Válame Dios, dijo el Cura, dando una gran voz.—Que aquí esté - Tirante el Blanco! Dádmele acá, compadre; que hago cuenta que he - hallado en él un tesoro de contento y una mina de pasatiempos. Aquí - está D. Quirieleisón de Montalbán, valeroso caballero, y su hermano - Tomás de Montalbán, y el caballero Fonseca, con la batalla que el - valiente de Tirante hizo con el alano, y las agudezas de la doncella - Placerdemivida, con los amores y embustes de la viuda Reposada, y la - señora Emperatriz, enamorada de Hipólito, su escudero. Dígoos verdad, - señor compadre, que, por su estilo es éste el mejor libro del mundo: - aquí comen los caballeros, y duermen, y mueren en sus camas, y hacen - testamento antes de su muerte, con otras cosas de que todos los demás - libros deste género carecen. Con todo eso, os digo que merecía el que - lo compuso, pues no hizo tantas necedades de industria, que le echaran - á galeras por todos los días de su vida.[2] - - [1] Bless me, cried the Priest in a low voice, and is _Tirante - the White_ here? Give it to me, gossip, for I reckon that I have - found herein a treasure of delight and a mine of entertainment. - Here you have Don Qurieleison of Montalvan, the valiant cavalier, - and his brother Thomas of Montalvan, and the Knight Fonseca, with - the fight which the valiant Tirante had with the big mastiff, - and the witty conceits of the damsel Placer-de-mi-vida, and the - amours and tricks of the widow Reposada, and my Lady the Empress - in love with Hippolito, her squire. I tell you truth, good master - gossip, that this for its style is the best book in the world. - Here the Knights eat and sleep and die in their beds, and make - their wills before dying, with other things that are wanting - in all other books of this sort. For all this, I say that he - who wrote it is well-deserving; for he did not commit follies - purposely which should send him to the galleys for the term of - his life—_Don Quixote of La Mancha_, translated by Henry Edward - Watts, London, 1888. - - [2] _Cervantes, El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha._ - Edited and annotated by Francisco Rodríguez Marín, Madrid, 1911; - vol. I, chap. vi, pp. 160-163. - - The last sentence of this quotation is not clear. It has become - the subject of many comments and discussions, but no wholly - satisfactory explanation has resulted. Menéndez y Pelayo - intimates that probably the sign of negation should be omitted - from the clause “pues no hizo tantas necedades de industria.” - If this were done the passage would make good sense. In the - second volume, page 76, of his _Introducción a los Orígenes de - la Novela_ he suggests another explanation. He quotes a passage - from Juan Rufo which reads as follows: “mas a fe que en algo - errárades, y yo fuera presidente, que os avia de _echar a galeras - pues no_ podiades _hazello de ignorancia_.” He is of the opinion - that Cervantes expressed or intended to express the same idea - as that contained in the words just quoted, but that in some - way “industria” was substituted for “ignorancia.” If Cervantes - had used the latter word instead of the former, the sentence in - question would be free from obscurity. However that may be, it - is evident that the judgment of Cervantes concerning _Tirant lo - Blanch_ was expressed in a humorous way. Almost the whole of - it consists of words of praise. The only adverse criticism is - to be found in the last sentence, whereby Cervantes voices his - objections to the nonsense and obscene features of the work. - - According to Menéndez y Pelayo, the whole sentence would be clear - if the clause, “pues no hizo tantas necedades de industria,” were - not one of negation. It seems to me possible and practicable to - remove the negative meaning from the clause without omitting or - changing any words that are now found in the text. The clause - may be made affirmative, emphatically affirmative, by resorting - to the rhetorical device of converting it into a negative - interrogation. The sentence may as a result appear complicated, - but orally expressed it would not seem unnatural or forced. The - passage, with this change in punctuation, would read: “Con todo - eso, os digo que merecía el que lo compuso, pues, ¿no hizo tantas - necedades de industria? que le echaran á galeras por todos los - días de su vida.” - -_Tirant Lo Blanch_ was first published in Valencia, in 1490. Of this -edition there are three copies extant: one in the British Museum, -another in the Biblioteca Provincial in Valencia, and the third in -the library of the Hispanic Society of New York.[3] Mr. Archer M. -Huntington, founder of the above Society and a distinguished patron of -Spanish letters, had two hundred facsimile copies made from the last -one mentioned.[4] One of these was used in the investigations connected -with this dissertation. - - [3] For the history and description of these three copies see - D. Isidro Bonsoms y Sicart, _La Edición príncipe del “Tirant lo - Blanch” Cotejo de los tres ejemplares impresos en Valencia, en - 1490, únicos conocidos hoy día_ (_Discursos leídos en la Real - Academia de Buenas Letras de Barcelona en la recepción pública - de D. Isidro Bonsoms y Sicart_, Barcelona, 1907). Also see Juan - Givanel Mas, _Estudio crítico de Tirant lo Blanch_, Madrid, 1912; - pp. 27-34. - - [4] _Ibid._, p. 59. - -A second edition was published in Barcelona, in 1497. While I was in -that city in the summer of 1915, I saw fragments of a copy of this -edition in the Institut d’Estudis Catalans. It is to these fragments -that Givanel Mas refers in the following words: “Los únicos pliegos -que se conocen hoy día de la edición barcelonesa de 1497 del Tirant lo -Blanch, se hallan en la Biblioteca del Institut d’Estudis Catalans; -comprenden desde el capítulo ccxviiii al ccccxciii y del ccccxxxix al -ccccxlv.”[5] - - [5] _Ibid._, p. 41, footnote 2. - -It therefore affords me great pleasure to be able to announce that the -Hispanic Society of New York has in its possession a complete copy -of the edition of 1497. It is gilt edged and is bound in leather of -a yellowish, almost brown, color. Its back is decorated with gilded -lines and bears the title _Roman del Cavaller_ | _Tirant Blanc_ | -Barcelona | 1497. The title page is missing, but at the end of the -book a fragment of paper bearing the words “Tirant lo Blanch” in large -letters is pasted on a flyleaf. This fragment is probably a part of -the title page. The edges of several pages at the beginning and at the -close of the book had been torn, but they have been neatly mended. A -considerable number of pages are somewhat soiled, but all are easily -legible. The facsimile reproduction of a page of the fragments in -Barcelona, which Givanel Mas has inserted in his work, coincides -exactly with the corresponding page of the book in the library of the -Hispanic Society. This author has also set forth other interesting -details concerning the edition of 1497.[6] The colophon of the edition -reads: - - [6] _Ibid._, pp. 38-42. - - A honor y gloria d’nostre senyor deu Jeusucrist: fon principiat a - stampar lo present libre per mestre Pere miquel condam y es acabat - per Diego de gumiel castella en la molt noble e insigne ciutat de - Barcelona a .xvi. de Setembre d’l any .M. CCCC. XCVII.[7] - - [7] To the honor and glory of our Lord God, Jesus Christ: the - printing of this book was begun by Master Pere Miquel Condam and - is completed by Diego de Gumiel, a Castilian, in the most noble - and excellent city of Barcelona on the sixteenth day of September - of the year 1497. - -In 1873 Don Mariano Aguiló y Fuster of Barcelona began the publication -of a new edition, but it was not completed until 1905. In this edition -the work is divided into four volumes.[8] - - [8] For further information concerning this edition, see Juan - Givanel Mas, _op. cit._, pp. 43-58. - -A Spanish translation of _Tirant lo Blanch_ was published in -Valladolid, in 1511.[9] The name of the translator is not known. The -eminent Catalan book-lover and scholar, Don Isidro Bonsoms y Sicart, of -Barcelona, has a copy of it in his library. We have no information in -regard to the existence of any other copy. An Italian translation was -made by Lelio Manfredi and published in Venice, in 1538.[10] A French -translation by the Comte de Caylus was published about 1737; London is -given as the place of publication, but this is probably incorrect.[11] - - [9] _Ibid._, pp. 61-76. - - [10] _Ibid._, pp. 70-89. - - [11] _Ibid._, pp. 90-104. - -In the course of my studies of _Tirant lo Blanch_, I have found myself -confronted by three important questions: (1) What are the real facts -concerning the authorship of this book of chivalry? (2) Is it true -that Tirant, the hero of the book, stands for the historic personage -Roger de Flor, in connection with the Catalan-Aragonese expedition to -Constantinople in the early years of the fourteenth century? (3) What -are the historical data utilized by the author in the composition of -his work? Each of these problems I have investigated, and the processes -and results are duly set forth in their appropriate places in this -work. Three distinct parts of it will be devoted to a consideration of -these three questions. They will be preceded by an analysis of _Tirant -lo Blanch_, to which the reader will be referred whenever it may be -deemed expedient or necessary. The analysis is, moreover, intended to -throw light on all the points mentioned in the quotation from _Don -Quijote_; to give a fuller account of the activities of Tirant than has -been done up to the present time; and to give as accurate an idea of -the book as a reasonable allotment of space will permit. - - - - - PART I - - ANALYSIS OF TIRANT LO BLANCH - - - - - CHAPTER I - - THE WILLIAM OF WARWICK EPISODE - - -On the delightful island of England there lived a noble and valiant -knight. For many years he performed with great honor the duties -pertaining to knighthood. This noble representative of chivalry was -Earl William of Warwick. He was very strong and well-trained in the -use of arms. Many were the battles in which he took part, and many a -formidable adversary was vanquished by him. (Chap. 2) - -Having reached the age of fifty-five years, moved by sorrow and -contrition for the many deaths he had caused in his knightly career, -he resolved to do penance for his sins by making a pilgrimage to -Jerusalem. The announcement of his intention to the Countess, his -wife, caused her a severe shock. The Earl called his servants before -him and paid them all that was due them and much more. To the Countess -he gave possession of the whole county, with the privilege of doing -with it what she wished. He caused a gold ring to be made bearing his -escutcheon and that of the Countess. This ring was wrought in such a -way that it could be divided into two parts, each being a complete -ring in itself, but showing only one half of the escutcheons. One -of these he gave to the Countess, asking her to keep it until his -return. In long lamentations she bewailed her sad fate. But the Earl -was resolute, and with tears streaming down his cheeks took leave of -his wife and son, the latter being only three months old. Leaving the -city of Warwick accompanied by a squire, he sailed to Alexandria, and -thence made his way to Jerusalem. Here he made a careful and contrite -confession of his sins and received Holy Communion. After visiting -the Holy Sepulcher and other holy places in this city, he returned to -Alexandria, and set sail for Venice, where he dismissed his squire, -who, in accordance with the instructions given him by his master, -spread the report that Earl William of Warwick was dead. The Earl also -had merchants write letters to England, in which they told that William -of Warwick had died while returning from Jerusalem. The Countess was -grief-stricken when she received the bad tidings, and caused funeral -obsequies to be celebrated in a manner befitting the Earl’s station. -(Chaps. 2-4) - -After some time had elapsed the Earl returned to his native land. He -was greatly changed in appearance. Long hair hung over his shoulders, -and his snow-white beard reached to his girdle. In the garb of a -Franciscan monk, he came to a hermitage of Our Lady not far distant -from the city of Warwick, and there lived all alone, avoiding all -worldly affairs in order that he might make atonement for his -transgressions. Once a week he went into the city of Warwick to solicit -alms. No one recognized him, on account of his beard and long hair. He -used to go to the Countess to ask for charity, and she, touched by his -profound humility, would give to him more than to the other mendicants. -And thus he lived undisturbed for some time. (Chap. 4) - -Now it happened that corsairs had plundered a city belonging to the -King of Canary. This Moorish king became enraged when he heard of it, -and prepared a great fleet to invade England. One dark night this -fleet entered the port of Dantona [Hampton, i.e. Southampton]. The -Moors disembarked without being seen or heard by the English. When -the English king was informed of this invasion, he quickly gathered -all his available men to drive back the invaders, but his forces were -defeated and he was obliged to retreat towards the city of Saint Thomas -of Canterbury. Along a river near this place he made a stand, but -was again defeated. After losing nine battles, one after another, he -sought refuge in the city of London. But the scarcity of provisions -soon compelled him to evacuate this place, and he withdrew to the -city of Warwick, which was well supplied with food, arms and all the -instruments of warfare. The Countess offered all that was in her county -to the unfortunate monarch. The Moors pursued the retreating forces, -and on the way captured the castle of Alimburch [Wellingborough?]. -The English king from a tower in the city of Warwick could see the -Moors devastating the land and slaying his Christian people, both men -and women. Dark despair came over him. He could not bear this sight, -but came down from the tower and retired to a small chamber where he -lamented and prayed. In his great affliction, he bowed his head upon -the bed, and presently it seemed to him that a beautiful lady in white, -with a child in her arms, entered the chamber. She was attended by -many other ladies who were chanting the “Magnificat.” When the singing -ceased, the Lady approached him, and, placing her hand on his head, she -said: “Fear not, O King; have confidence; the Son and the Mother will -help you in your great tribulation. As a sign of peace, kiss on the -mouth the first man with a long beard whom you shall see, and who will -ask you for alms. Request him to lay aside his garment, and make him -captain of all your forces.” When the king opened his eyes the vision -had vanished, but the dream had been so vivid that he could not forget -it. The next morning the hermit, William of Warwick, while gathering -herbs, saw the Moorish forces overrunning all the surrounding country, -and sought refuge in the city of Warwick. He went to the castle to -ask the Countess for alms, and there met the king, whom he immediately -approached. He knelt down before him and asked for charity. The king, -bidding him arise, kissed him on the mouth and led him into a room of -the castle, where he asked him to put aside his penitent garb and to -take up arms. The hermit at first declined, but finally agreed to yield -to the wishes of the king, since he would be taking up arms to defend -Christianity and to spread the Holy Catholic faith. (Chaps. 5-10) - -In his travels in the East the hermit had learned to make certain -grenades which would burn and which no water could extinguish. For -several days he was busy making some of these. One day he informed -the king he was ready to carry out a plan by which he hoped to deal -a severe blow to the enemy. That night he disguised himself as a -Moor and, carrying a number of grenades, reached the camp of the -invaders. He set fire to the camp, and while the infidels were trying -to extinguish the fire, the English came out of the city and attacked -them. Many Moors were slain, and the rest fled in disorder to the -castle of Alimburch. (Chaps. 10-12) - -From this place, the great King of Canary sent ambassadors to the -English king with a letter in which he proposed that, to avoid further -bloodshed, the two kings should engage in mortal combat. If the Moorish -king should be the victor, the English king was to recognize him as -his lord and pay a heavy tribute every year. If, on the other hand, -the English king should win, then the Moors were to return to their -own land, and England should again enjoy peace. This proposal was -immediately accepted by the English sovereign. (Chaps. 13-14) - -Then the King of England convened the General Council to deliberate -over the matter. The hermit was first asked to give his advice. He -suggested that since the Moorish king was a strong and hardy man, and -the English king young and feeble, some one who was more likely to win -over such a formidable adversary should fight in place of England’s -king. Moreover, he proposed that the Duke of Lancaster, the uncle of -the king, should be the person to represent him in the combat. But -immediately three dukes, the Duke of Gloucester, the Duke of Bedford, -and the Duke of Exeter, protested loudly that, since they were more -closely related to the king, the honor of representing him should -devolve upon them. But the king was unwilling that any one should fight -in his place. However, he was finally persuaded that this should be -done, and he yielded only on condition that he be permitted to name -the substitute, to whom he also intended to surrender the royal crown -and scepter. He nominated the hermit, who wished to decline, but was -finally induced to put on the royal robes. The regal power was then -conferred upon him in the presence of a notary. Arms were brought, from -which he was to select those that he preferred. But he chose none of -these. He asked that the arms of William of Warwick be obtained from -the Countess. The latter sent certain arms, but they were not the ones -that he wanted. Those that he desired were kept in the chamber of the -Countess. The astonished lady gave the hermit permission to enter her -chamber, and he there equipped himself for the coming combat. (Chaps. -14-19) - -The hermit-king spent all that night in the church, kneeling before the -altar, upon which he had placed his arms. After mass the next morning -he ate to strengthen his body and then armed himself for the fight. -Finally the adversaries met, and the fighting was fast and furious. -Suddenly the hermit-king cut off one of his opponent’s arms, and a few -moments later, his head. England’s champion had won, and great was the -rejoicing among the Christians. (Chap. 19) - -The next day the English sent ambassadors to the infidels to request -them to leave the country, as had been stipulated in the agreement made -before the combat took place, but the Moors in great wrath cut off the -heads of these ambassadors. They put the heads in a sack and sent them -back to the English. The hermit-king was astounded when this cruel and -treacherous deed was reported to him, and he made a solemn vow never to -go under any roof except that of the church to hear mass, until he had -driven the whole Moorish tribe out of the kingdom. And he ordered that -all male subjects of the crown over the age of eleven years and under -seventy should take up arms to fight the invaders. (Chaps. 19-20) - -When the Countess learned that her son, who was barely eleven years -old, would be obliged to fight the Moors, she became frantic. She -implored the hermit-king to permit her to keep her son, the only -comfort of her life, but he would not yield to her entreaties. And when -the boy himself expressed an eagerness to go against the enemy, she -realized that all her petitions would be in vain, and, with despair in -her heart, she gave the lad her blessing. (Chaps. 20-22) - -The hermit-king gathered his forces and led them out upon a plain -before the city, and there they established their camp. Around it a -high wall was thrown up. An opening was left on one side and there -caltrops were placed and pitfalls were dug. When the Moors attacked -the camp, they were slaughtered in great numbers. Finally they began -to retreat. The Christians followed them and killed many more in the -pursuit. The young son of the Countess slew a doughty Moor, and the -king, after dubbing him, threw him upon the slain Saracen, so that the -boy’s hands and face became covered with blood. That was the lad’s -baptism of blood. (Chaps. 24-25) - -After this disastrous defeat the Moors again returned to the castle -of Alimburch. The English made an assault upon this stronghold and -succeeded in setting it on fire. The infidels were obliged to come out, -and all that emerged were slain, while all the rest that were found in -the kingdom were put to death. The victorious English then marched to -Dantona, threw into the sea all the Moors that they encountered there, -and destroyed all the ships in which they had come. (Chap. 25) - -When peace and order were again established on the island of England, -the hermit-king decided to make himself known to the Countess, and -in order that he might be free to return to his hermitage and his -penitential life, he purposed to restore the kingdom to the former -sovereign. (Chap. 26) - -Accordingly, he sent a chamberlain with the half-ring to the Countess. -The messenger said to her: “He who has loved you with infinite love, -and who still loves you, sends you this ring.” She took it and was -startled. She hurried to her chamber, where she said a short prayer. -Then she opened the jewel-case and took a ring from it. She placed -one of the rings on top of the other, and behold they fitted together -perfectly and the escutcheons were complete. All perturbed and excited, -she rushed towards the door, but before she was able to reach it, she -fell to the floor in a swoon. The chamberlain hurried to the king and -announced that the Countess had fallen dead. The king hurried to her -room. Doctors were already there trying to revive her. Finally she -recovered her senses, arose, and threw herself on her knees before the -king, who raised her up from the floor and embraced her and kissed her -many times. Then he announced that he was the Earl of Warwick. And when -the people generally knew that the hermit-king was their own William of -Warwick, there was great rejoicing. All the nobility went to the church -with the reunited couple and offered up to heaven infinite praise and -thanks. Then, in a triumphant procession, they returned to the castle, -where a sumptuous banquet was served. (Chap. 26) - -Nine days later there arrived four hundred carts laden with gold -and silver, all of which had been taken from the Moors. The Duke of -Bedford, the Duke of Gloucester, the Earl of Salisbury, and the Earl of -Stafford were put in charge of this immense treasure. A meeting of the -General Council was ordered for the next day. (Chap. 26) - -At this council the earl gave instructions concerning the distribution -of the booty, and restored to the former ruler the crown, scepter, -and royal robes. He himself immediately put on again the garb of the -Franciscan order. The reinstated king begged him to remain at his -court. He offered him the principality of Wales, but he would not -accept it. All the members of the council besought him to stay, but -he answered that he must return to serve God. When the king realized -that he could not induce him to dwell amongst them, he gave half of -the kingdom of Cornwall to the earl’s son, to whom was also granted -the privilege of wearing an iron crown. The hermit gave thanks to the -king for the gift and the honors bestowed on his son, and then bade -farewell to His Majesty and his court. He went to a small villa in his -county, where he remained several days. The king sent him thirty carts -loaded with the most precious things contained in the booty captured -from the Moors, but he refused to accept any of it. When the king left -the city of Warwick he sent for the earl’s son, and, at the city gate, -he appointed him Grand Constable of all England. Then the king departed -for London. (Chap. 27) - -The Countess visited her husband, the hermit, in the villa, and finally -persuaded him to have a hermitage built, which was to consist of a -church, with an apartment on each side of it, one for him and the -other for her. After its completion, and just about the time that they -were going to live there, the Earl of Northumberland came to them as an -ambassador of the king. His mission was to request the noble couple to -come to London. The king was going to marry the daughter of the King -of France, and was anxious that the Countess should instruct the queen -in the practices and customs of England. The hermit replied that he -must keep the vow that he had made to serve God, but he should be very -happy if the Countess would be willing to go. And the Countess, moved -by the wish of her husband and by a sense of duty to her sovereign -lord, expressed her willingness to comply with the king’s request. And -thus, William of Warwick and his wife were again separated; she went to -London, and he entered the new hermitage, which stood in a dense grove, -in which there was a clear spring, whose waters flowed with a gentle -murmur through the flowers and green grasses of a beautiful meadow. And -every day after the hermit had finished his hours he would come out -under a beautiful pine tree that stood in the center of this meadow, to -watch the animals that came to drink from this crystal spring. (Chap. -27) - -The King of England, in order to keep his people well-trained in the -use of arms, and to celebrate his approaching marriage in a befitting -manner, announced that a General Court would be held in London at which -many exercises of arms should take place. The announcement of the great -festivities which the king was preparing was spread throughout all the -Christian lands. Now it happened that a young nobleman from Brittany -started on his way to attend the great event, and with him several -other youths. And as they were riding along, he dropped somewhat behind -the others, and, being weary from the long journey, fell asleep. His -steed, instead of following the company, took a path which led to the -crystal spring where the hermit was reading a book entitled _Arbre de -Batalles_. When the horse came to the spring, it lowered its head to -drink, and this movement awakened the rider, who opened his eyes and -saw before him the white-bearded hermit. Quickly dismounting, he bowed -to him. The hermit received him kindly, and asked his name, and why he -had come to that deserted place. The youth answered: “My father is Lord -of the March of Tirania, and my mother’s name is Blancha; therefore it -has pleased them to call me Tirant lo Blanch.” He then related that -he and several young noblemen were on their way to attend the General -Court which the English king had announced and at which those who -wished to become knights would have an opportunity to realize their -ambition. When he had said this, the hermit grew pensive and, when -asked wherefore, replied that he was thinking of knighthood and the -duties and obligations of knights. Young Tirant then begged him to tell -about the order of knighthood. The hermit read to him a chapter from -the _Arbre de Batalles_, which was a kind of treatise on the order of -chivalry. And he explained the origin of chivalry; its noble purpose; -the significance of the arms and the different parts of armor; how -a knight who has disgraced the order is degraded; and he named some -of the great knights of olden times. When asked who were the best -knights of England at that very time, he mentioned the names of the -good knight Muntanyanegre, the Duke of Exeter, and Sir John Stuart. -Tirant, disappointed at this answer, asked why he did not make mention -of the Earl William of Warwick, who had won so many battles in France -and Italy, and in many other countries; who had saved the life of the -Countess of Belestar, accused of adultery by her husband and her three -sons; who had snatched a child away from a lion and returned it to -its mother; and who vanquished the Moors in England and liberated many -English captives. The hermit replied that he had heard of William of -Warwick, but having never seen him he did not mention his name. (Chaps. -28-38) - -While Tirant was receiving instructions in knighthood from the hermit, -his companions were traveling on, and, although he would gladly have -remained longer, it was necessary to depart if he did not wish to -travel to London alone. The hermit bade him farewell, and gave him the -book. He invited Tirant to visit him on his return, and the invitation -was accepted. Then the young aspirant for the honors of knighthood -resumed his journey to London. Some of his companions, when they missed -him, turned back, and when they found him, he was riding along reading -the book. The company of young men arrived in London a few days before -the beginning of the festivities. (Chap. 39) - -The feast of St. John was the wedding day of the king, and on that day -began the festivities of the General Court. The celebration continued -for a year and a day. Then the visitors took leave of the king and the -queen, and returned to their respective homes. Tirant, remembering -his promise, stopped at the hermitage with his companions. They were -embraced one by one by the venerable man, and then they sat down with -him on the grass underneath the large pine tree. At the request of the -hermit, Tirant described the principal events that had taken place at -London. He told of the generous hospitality of the king; of the great -procession when the king went out of the city to meet his betrothed; -of the manner in which the exercises of arms were conducted; and of -the splendor and merriment at the royal nuptials. He spoke also of -those who essayed their skill in knightly combats, praising highly -the Duke of Aygues Vives, the Duke of Cleves, and the brother of the -Duke of Burgundy. But the contest that he admired most of all was the -one in which a youth who did not seem to be more than fourteen or -fifteen years old took part. This youthful knight was called the Grand -Constable of England. His mother and the king, too, had forbidden him -to participate in any of the combats. But he came to Tirant and asked -him for permission to use his arms and steed. He begged so well that -Tirant was unable to refuse. In this contest the youth slew the Senyor -de Escala Rompuda. The king chided him for having entered the lists -without permission, but the young Constable answered that it was not -right that he should be denied the privilege of following the footsteps -of his valiant father, William, Earl of Warwick. The Countess sent -for Tirant and begged him never again to do anything that might cause -her to lose the only joy and comfort that she had in this life. And -he promised that he would never willingly put the life of her son in -jeopardy. (Chaps. 39-57) - -The hermit had already twice asked who had been declared the best -and greatest knight among the victors. But Tirant seemed to pay no -attention to his questions. And finally the hermit said: “But, Tirant, -why do you not answer my question?” Then arose one of the company and -his name was Diaphebus. He drew forth a parchment saying that the -document in his hands would answer the question. This he read to the -hermit, who was delighted when he heard that it was a proclamation to -the world that the noble and valiant Tirant lo Blanch was declared the -best knight of all those that had taken part in the exercises of arms -at the festivities connected with the General Court. It also contained -the instructions given by the king that Tirant should be placed on a -white steed and that all, walking with the king, should escort the -hero to the church of Saint George, where a solemn high mass would be -celebrated in honor of this most excellent knight. The document was -signed by “Rex Enricus,” and by judges of the field, heralds, and the -great lords in attendance. (Chaps. 57-58) - -After the reading of the document, the hermit asked Diaphebus to tell -of some of Tirant’s exploits, whereupon our hero withdrew from the -company to busy himself with giving orders for the putting up of the -tents and the preparation of supper. Diaphebus then related how Tirant -was the first person upon whom the honor of knighthood was conferred, -and the first one to engage in combat with one of the champions of -the field. In this contest, which was fought on horseback, he slew -his adversary. Then he challenged another champion of the field to -a _combat à outrance_ on foot. In this he succeeded in striking his -opponent to the ground. Not wishing to take his life, he asked the -fallen knight to beg for mercy, but the latter answered that he was -the Caualler de Muntalt, knighted by the Earl of Warwick, loved and -feared by many, and that he preferred to die with honor rather than -live in disgrace. And Tirant, regretting that knights were by their -very profession obliged to be cruel, placed the point of his dagger -over the eye of his victim, and then struck a sharp blow on the end of -the handle so that the point came out on the other side of his head. -(Chaps. 58-60) - -One day the king and the queen, accompanied by many knights and ladies, -went out into a meadow for recreation. With them was “Beautiful Agnes,” -the daughter of the Duke of Berry. On this day she wore a precious -brooch. Tirant approached her and praised her many excellent qualities. -He then asked her for that brooch, saying that in return for the favor -he would be willing to meet any knight in a _combat à outrance_. She -gave him permission to take it. Thereupon Tirant detached it from her -bodice and fastened it on his cap. The following day the Senyor de les -Viles Ermes, a valiant and well-trained knight, came to Tirant, and, -after telling him that from his very childhood he had loved Agnes, -demanded that the brooch be given him. Threatening to kill Tirant -if the latter should refuse, he tried to take it from him by force, -whereupon a fight ensued in which the friends of each took part, and -twelve men were killed before peace could be restored. Three days -later, the Senyor de les Viles Ermes sent a challenge to Tirant and -it was immediately accepted. Tirant relinquished his right to select -the arms, and also gave his adversary the privilege of designating -the manner in which the duel was to be fought. Thereupon the latter -specified that the combat should be fought on foot. Each of the -combatants should wear a plain shirt, and have a wreath of flowers on -his head. No other clothing was to be worn. Each should be provided -with a paper shield and a pointed double-edged Genoese dagger. The -duel was fought in a neighboring forest early in the morning. The two -adversaries inflicted many horrible wounds on each other. Their white -shirts were red with the blood that flowed copiously from their wounds. -Gradually they grew weaker and weaker. Finally Tirant made a desperate -thrust and struck his opponent just over the heart. At the same time he -himself received a blow on the head which made him sink to the ground -even before his antagonist fell dead. Four of Tirant’s wounds were -pronounced fatal, but fortunately they gradually healed and his life -was saved. (Chaps. 60-68) - -The Prince of Wales, too, had come to attend the festivities, and since -he was fond of hunting he brought with him several enormous dogs. One -day the king, accompanied by several knights, visited him. And it -happened that on that same day Tirant was riding by the house in which -the prince lived. A large mastiff having broken loose from his chain, -came out and rushed towards Tirant. Our hero dismounted and drew his -sword, and when the dog saw the gleaming blade, it turned away. The -king and the prince saw this, and the latter, knowing the ferocious -nature of the animal, remarked that a splendid fight was in prospect. -Tirant remounted his steed and proceeded on his way, but he had hardly -advanced twenty paces, when the mastiff again rushed at him with great -fury, and the rider was a second time obliged to alight from his horse. -He again drew his sword and advanced towards the savage animal, when -the latter, being afraid of the shining weapon, retreated. Then Tirant -threw aside his sword, for he concluded that it was not right nor fair -that he should use arms when the dog had none. The mastiff rushed for -the weapon, seized it with his teeth, and carried it a short distance -away. And as he came back towards Tirant, the latter said: “Now we -shall fight on equal terms; I shall use the same kind of weapons to do -you harm, as you will employ against me.” They attacked each other with -fierceness. The gigantic mastiff caused Tirant to fall three times. -Finally the latter seized the raging beast by the throat and strangled -it with all his might. At the same time he bit its cheek so savagely -that the animal fell dead on the ground. The king and others came out -immediately, and carried Tirant into the house. Doctors were called and -they treated the many wounds on his arms and legs. For this victory he -received the same honors as if he had vanquished a formidable knight in -the lists. (Chap. 68) - -The King of Friesland, the King of Poland, the Duke of Burgundy, and -the Duke of Bavaria met in the city of Rome on the occasion of an -important celebration of the Church. Among other subjects of their -conversation, they came to speak of the King of England and the -wonderful festivities and exercises of arms that were taking place at -his court. They decided to go there _incognito_ and try their fortune -in the lists. Tirant met each of them in mortal combat, and vanquished -them all. (Chaps. 68-73) - -Some time after came the knight Villa Fermosa from Scotland. The lady -who had captivated his soul would not listen to him, nor would she -speak to him until he had vanquished the renowned knight, Tirant lo -Blanch. But the latter did not wish to accept the challenge, for his -wounds were not yet healed. The Scottish knight, however, would not -take a refusal, and finally Tirant consented to meet him, and promised -that he would not fight any other knight until after their combat. -(Chap. 74) - -But this promise Tirant was obliged to break, for the following -reasons. When the news of the death of the King of Friesland reached -his kingdom, there was great grief among his subjects. The favorite -of the dead king, Kirielayson de Muntalba, who was a man strong and -valorous, and descended from a race of giants, determined to make -Tirant pay dearly for slaying his lord the king. He sent a challenge, -in which he accused him of having vanquished the two kings and the two -dukes through treachery. Tirant, in his answer, gave him the lie and -accepted the challenge. The giant-knight came, but before the combat -he went to visit the tombs of those whose death he wished to avenge. -Seeing the shields of the vanquished, over which the shields of Tirant -had been placed, he began to weep and lament. In a fit of anger he took -down Tirant’s shields and threw them on the ground. Then he noticed -that they were painted on the tabernacle over the tomb. Blind with -rage, he struck them with his head so violently that he fell half -unconscious. A few moments later, when he opened the tabernacle and saw -the lifeless body of his king and sovereign, his gall bladder burst, -and he died instantly. (Chaps. 74-80) - -The unsuccessful avenger of the King of Friesland had a brother whose -name was Thomas de Muntalba, and he had been the favorite of the -other monarch, the King of Poland. Thomas came to England with a grim -determination to avenge the death not only of the kings and dukes, but -also of his brother. He was well built, of great strength, and so tall -that Tirant scarcely reached up to his waist. It was said that he was -the tallest man in all Christendom. He, too, accused our distinguished -champion of having slain his victims treacherously, and challenged him -to mortal combat. The challenge was accepted. The friends of Tirant -tried to prevent the duel, for they feared that he might be vanquished. -Finally the combat took place and it was of long duration. The giant’s -blows were powerful. Once they forced Tirant to his knees, but at that -very moment he wounded his opponent in the groin. In the violence of -the fight the big knight let fall his ax. Tirant told him that he would -permit him to pick it up, if he would retract his false accusation of -treachery. Thomas de Muntalba did so, and recovered his ax. Then the -combat began again and it became more furious than before. Finally the -gigantic adversary had difficulty in breathing, and was becoming weak -from loss of blood. Tirant made a desperate effort to put an end to -the fight. He succeeded in landing two powerful blows on the head of -his opponent, who fell to the ground. Tirant quickly placed the point -of his dagger over one of the eyes of the giant, and at the same time -told him if he would acknowledge that he was vanquished his life would -be spared. The fallen knight answered that since Fate willed it, he -would deliver himself into his hands. Then Tirant went into the middle -of the field, knelt down, and gave praise and thanks to God for the -victory. Thomas de Muntalba was degraded and later he became a monk of -the Franciscan order. (Chaps. 80-84) - -A few days after this event Tirant went to Scotland to engage in combat -with the knight Villa Fermosa. The Queen of Scotland acted as judge of -the contest. She stopped the combat before either of the knights had -come to grief. (Chap. 84) - -When the hermit had heard all these things, he expressed his delight -at the many successes and great honors that young Tirant had won. -In the meantime our modest hero had tables set up beside the clear -spring, and an excellent supper was awaiting the hermit and all the -rest. After supper the venerable man retired to the hermitage. The -next day, after he had said his hours, he came out again. Tirant and -his companions went to receive him, and they sat on the grass as the -day before. Then Diaphebus tells about the institution of the Order of -the Garter. He narrates the well-known incident which caused the king -to say; “Puni soyt qui mal hi pense.” He relates how His Royal Majesty -instituted the above-named fraternity as a result of that incident. -He gives a detailed description of the Church of St. George in the -castle of Windsor; he recounts the rules of the Order and describes the -ceremonies; he repeats the oaths of the members of the Order, and the -vows of the ladies of honor. He tells how the king selected twenty-five -knights to make up the membership so that with the king the members -numbered twenty-six, and that the king himself was the first to swear -to obey all the rules. Tirant, being the best knight of all those at -the court, was the first to be chosen. And among the other members -selected was John of Warwick, the Grand Constable of England. (Chaps. -84-97) - -Tirant and his companions stayed with the hermit for ten days. On the -eve of their departure for Brittany, they asked him to sleep in one -of their tents for that night, since they were going to leave early -in the morning and were eager to have his blessing before starting. -Their request was granted. The next morning, after they had departed, -he returned to the hermitage, which, to his great surprise, he found -well stocked with all manner of provisions. He even found wood and -coal within, so that it would not be necessary for him to go out -when the weather was bad. The hermit was deeply moved by this act of -kindness, and attributed it to Tirant, who, he resolved, should ever be -remembered in his prayers. (Chap. 97) - - - - - CHAPTER II - - TIRANT SUCCORS THE KNIGHTS OF RHODES - - -The news of the great deeds of Tirant preceded him, and when he arrived -in Brittany he was received with great honor in the city of Nantes by -the Duke of Brittany and a multitude of people. One day, while Tirant -was engaged in conversation with the duke, two knights arrived from -the court of the King of France, who related how the Knights of Saint -John had left Jerusalem when that city fell, and established themselves -on the island of Rhodes. The Sultan of Cairo was highly displeased -that Christians should live on that island and made preparations to -capture it. The Genoese, discovering the intentions of the Sultan, and -realizing what an important seaport it afforded, planned to conquer -it for themselves, but their designs and plans were discovered by the -Knights of Rhodes and frustrated. The captain of the unsuccessful -Genoese venture then sailed to Beirut, where the Sultan was at that -time, and told all that had happened. It was then agreed that the -Sultan in person should go to Rhodes with as large an army as possible. -One hundred and fifty thousand Moors were taken to the island, and -they destroyed everything on it, except the city, which they besieged. -The port of the city was blockaded so that no food could reach the -inhabitants. The Grand Master of the Knights, seeing that their plight -was daily becoming more and more critical, sent letters to the Pope, -the Emperor, and to all the Christian kings and princes, begging them -to come to their aid. The King of France received one of these appeals, -but paid little attention to it. (Chaps. 97-99) - -Tirant, however, was eager to give them help. He interviewed mariners, -from whom he learned that it was possible to reach the castle of -Rhodes. Encouraged by this information, he bought a large ship and -ordered it to be well armed and loaded with provisions. Tirant’s -intentions were to go to Jerusalem after having succored Rhodes. -Philip, the youngest son of the King of France, an awkward and not very -intelligent youth, desired to visit the Holy City, and Tirant was very -glad to have him as companion. When all was ready, they embarked and -the boat proceeded on its way. The first landing was made at Lisbon. -They were cordially received by the King of Portugal and remained at -his court for ten days. Then they resumed their voyage. They passed -Cape Saint Vincent without incident, but upon entering the Strait of -Gibraltar, they were attacked by a large number of Moorish ships. -But Tirant’s ship was so large and so well defended, especially by a -certain mariner named Cataquefaras, that it finally escaped from its -pursuers. Many of the men on the ship, including Tirant and Philip, -were wounded, and the vessel was badly damaged. It landed at an -uninhabited island, where the crew repaired the ship. Then they again -set sail, and followed the shores of Barbary. Not only Moorish but also -Genoese ships attacked and harassed them until they came near Tunis. -Tirant’s vessel landed at Palermo in Sicily to take on more provisions. -The royal family of Sicily gave Tirant and Philip a hearty welcome, -and during their stay an interesting love affair developed between -Philip and the princess Ricomana, which Tirant took great pleasure -in promoting. Much of his time was spent at the elbow of Philip, -preventing or rectifying awkward blunders. Finally he spoke to the king -in behalf of Philip. The king was delighted at the prospect of uniting -the House of Sicily with that of France, and requested Tirant to write -to the French king in regard to the matter. (Chaps. 99-104) - -One day the news came to Sicily that the city of Rhodes was in dire -distress and would fall within a few days, unless food and help should -come at once. The loading of provisions was then rapidly completed. -The day before setting sail, the King of Sicily asked Tirant to permit -him to embark on his boat, for he, too, wished to go to Jerusalem. -Tirant was delighted to have him as companion on the voyage. Finally -they set sail, and in four days crossed the Gulf of Venice and were -in sight of Rhodes. They directed the vessel to the Castle of Saint -Peter, and there anchored to await favorable winds and weather. When -the desired winds came up, they again set sail. They started during the -night, and at dawn were very near the city of Rhodes. When the hostile -fleet saw the ship coming, they thought it was one of theirs. They soon -discovered their mistake, but it was too late. They were not able to -stop the ship, which, with all sails unfurled, was dashing towards the -castle. It succeeded in reaching its destination, and when the Knights -of St. John saw it, and noticed its strange banner, they knew it must -be a ship that had come to bring them relief. The provisions were soon -unloaded and the knights felt certain that, for some time at least, -starvation could not compel them to surrender. (Chap. 104) - -The Grand Master sent samples of the provisions to the Sultan to show -him that they had food to spare. A mariner with great cunning and skill -succeeded in setting fire to the ship of the captain who was in command -of the hostile fleet, and the conflagration caused consternation among -the foe. The rainy season set in, and the cold days of winter were near -at hand. On account of these things, the Sultan gave orders to raise -the siege, saying however that he would return the following year. The -unfortunate Sultan, when he arrived at home, was accused of cowardice -by his vassals, and thrown in the house of the lions, where he met a -horrible death. When the people of Cyprus heard that the siege had been -raised, many vessels laden with all kinds of provisions sailed from -Famagosta to the city of Rhodes. Never before had such abundance of -food and supplies come to this place. (Chaps. 104-107) - -A few days after the raising of the siege, two Venetian galleys arrived -at the city of Rhodes. They were carrying pilgrims to Jerusalem. -Tirant, the King of Sicily, and Philip made arrangements to make their -voyage to the Holy City in one of these galleys. The Grand Master -wished to reward Tirant for the timely relief that he had brought, -but our hero would accept payment neither for the vessel nor for the -provisions. The honor that he had won was sufficient reward for him. -When the Venetian galleys resumed their voyage, Tirant, the king, -Philip, and Diaphebus were among the passengers. They landed at Jaffa -and afterwards at Beirut. At the latter place the pilgrims disembarked -and made their way to Jerusalem, where they remained for two weeks. -After having visited all the holy places, they went to Alexandria. One -day, while Tirant and the king were walking through the city, they came -upon a wretched Christian captive. Tirant went to the owner of the -poor slave and paid him the ransom demanded. Then he had it announced -throughout the city that all those who held Christian slaves would -recover ransom if they brought them to the inn where he was staying. -In two days he ransomed four hundred and seventy eight captives, and -took all of them with him to the city of Rhodes, where he gave them new -garments. The discarded clothes he sent to Brittany, in order that, -after his death, they might be hung in the chapel with the shields of -the knights that he had vanquished in England. He told the liberated -slaves that they were welcome to follow him, but if they preferred to -stay in Rhodes, or wished to go elsewhere, they were free to do so. -He gave them money, and they, in their great joy, threw themselves at -his feet, kissing these and then his hands. From Rhodes, Tirant and his -royal companions sailed directly for Sicily, where they arrived a few -days later. (Chaps. 107-109) - -When the king landed, he found waiting for him forty knights who had -come as ambassadors from the King of France. They gave him a letter -from their royal master, in which the latter expressed his approval -of the proposed marriage of Philip and Ricomana. Shortly afterwards -the nuptials of the youngest son of the King of France with the only -daughter of the King of Sicily were celebrated in great solemnity and -splendor. The festivities, which consisted of tournaments, jousting, -dances, and other forms of entertainment, continued for a whole week. -(Chaps. 109-111) - - - - - CHAPTER III - - TIRANT JOINS THE EXPEDITION OF THE KING OF FRANCE - AGAINST THE INFIDELS - - -In the letter which was brought by the ambassadors, the King of France -announced that he was going to make war against the infidels, and asked -the King of Sicily to join him in the holy enterprise. The latter, -accordingly, after the festivities connected with the marriage were -over, fitted out two galleys and four other vessels and placed them -under the command of Philip. (Chap. 112) - -The fleets of the kings of France, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, Portugal, -and Sicily, and those of the Pope and of the Emperor, all met at the -island of Corsica. Tirant joined the expedition in a galley of his -own, for he wished to have a free hand. The united fleet set sail, -and one morning at dawn it arrived before the large city of Tripoli -in Syria. Tirant went before the French king and made the vow that he -would be the first to step on land and the last one to return on board. -Among the knights there were many who were envious of Tirant, and they -were eager to make him break his vow. When the men from the different -vessels were about to land, Tirant gave orders to his mariners to drive -the galley at full speed until it struck ground. He stood in the bow -of the vessel all armed, and the moment it touched land he jumped into -the water. The Moors immediately rushed upon him, but Diaphebus and -others quickly gathered about him and drove them back. The Christians -were able to enter the city, but they found the enemy there in such -large numbers that they were obliged to return to their ships. Tirant -and another valiant knight, Ricart lo Venturos, were the last ones to -embark. They had a lively dispute as to who should be the very last. -Finally, Ricart consented to embark before Tirant, if the latter should -put his foot on the ladder first. And in this way Tirant fulfilled his -vow, for which he was highly honored. Ricart, however, was angry and -sullen, and challenged our hero to mortal combat. The latter, incensed -at this act of insolence, slapped the challenger, and only the presence -of the king was able to prevent bloodshed. (Chaps. 112-114) - -The fleet then went along the Turkish coast, plundering and -devastating. It sailed in the direction of Cyprus, landed at Famagosta -a short time afterwards, and with replenished supply of provisions, -sailed for Tunis. In the attack on that city Tirant and his men tried -to capture a tower, in front of which there was a deep ditch. Our hero -had the misfortune to fall into it. He would undoubtedly have been -slain, had not Ricart come to his rescue. The latter, however, warned -him to be on the alert, for it was his purpose to kill him. If he saved -him, it was because he did not wish to see the infidels slay him. -Tirant was deeply moved by this unexpected conduct of his rival, and he -threw himself at his feet and asked his pardon for having offended him. -Ricart, touched by the humility of Tirant, forgave him, and they became -inseparable friends until they were parted by death. (Chap. 114) - -After the capture of Tunis, the fleet sailed for Sicily, where the -ships were provided with a new supply of provisions; thence along the -coast of Barbary and through the Strait of Gibraltar; then, turning, it -made its way to Marseilles, where the King of France dismissed all the -ships except his own and those of Philip. The latter went to see his -mother, and Tirant made a visit to his parents in Brittany. When the -time came for Philip to return to Sicily, he asked the king to persuade -Tirant to go with him. And thus it was that Tirant returned to Sicily. -(Chap. 114) - - - - - CHAPTER IV - - TIRANT ENTERS THE SERVICE OF THE EMPEROR OF CONSTANTINOPLE - - -Tirant had been back in Sicily only a week when the king called him -into his presence and read to him a letter which he had received from -the Emperor of Constantinople. In this letter the emperor described -the sad state of affairs in the empire, and he begged the king to ask -Tirant to come to his assistance. Tirant was pleased to go, since it -was the king’s wish that he should. The ruler of Sicily ordered eleven -ships to be fitted out and provided with all things necessary for -the expedition. When all was ready Tirant sailed for Constantinople -with his small fleet, and on his arrival the gloom of the city was -changed to joy. Tirant, Diaphebus, Ricart, together with the other -knights, disembarked and went to the emperor to do him homage. His -Imperial Majesty immediately appointed Tirant Commander-in-chief of -his army, and Administrator of Justice. The latter wished to decline -these high positions, but finally accepted them to please the emperor. -Heralds then proclaimed throughout the city that Tirant lo Blanch was -appointed Capita Major by His Imperial Majesty. When Tirant went to -pay his respects to the empress and the infanta, he found them dressed -in mourning and afflicted with great grief, for the prince, the only -son of the emperor, had recently fallen in battle. He suggested that -in order to give courage to the people, and to inspire them with -confidence in regard to the final outcome of the war with the Moors, -gloom and despair ought to give way to hope and cheerfulness. The -emperor immediately ordered the court to cease its mourning. (Chaps. -115-117) - -When Tirant beheld the charming princess, it must be said that his -eyes had never had such a feast. He confided to Ricart how much he -admired the wonderful beauties of the palace, but more than all these -he admired the beauty of the princess, Carmesina. After taking leave of -the imperial family, he retired to the abode which had been prepared -for him. He entered a room and rested his head on a cushion at the foot -of the bed. Soon afterwards he was invited to eat, but he answered that -he had pains in his head and did not wish to eat—he was really wounded -by that passion that deceives so many. Diaphebus came and asked what -was ailing him, to which he answered that it was an ailment caused by -the air of the sea, but a moment later, he turned his face from his -friend and said: “I am in love.” Tears began to flow from his eyes, and -he sighed and sobbed. Becoming somewhat ashamed of himself, he arose -and went to dinner, but could not eat. (Chaps. 117-119) - -Diaphebus and another knight went to the palace and were welcomed -by the imperial family and the ladies of the court. He announced -that Tirant was indisposed, whereupon doctors were immediately sent -to attend him. They returned a little later, and reported that the -slight indisposition was due to change of climate. At the request of -the emperor, Diaphebus gave an account of the festivities connected -with the General Court of the King of England. He told of the great -deeds of Tirant, and showed them the document signed by the King of -England, in which Tirant lo Blanch was proclaimed the best knight. All -those who heard of the hero’s exploits were filled with admiration -for him. When Diaphebus and Carmesina were a little apart from the -others, she questioned him concerning Tirant, and Diaphebus told her -that Tirant had come to Constantinople for no other reason than to -see and to serve her, for he had heard much concerning her beauty and -her excellent qualities. Upon hearing these words, her cheeks became -suffused with blushes, and she could not say a word. (Chap. 119) - -This interview with Diaphebus left the princess in a pensive mood. The -daughter of the late Duke of Macedonia, Stephania, brought up with -Carmesina and of the same age, was one of her dearest friends. The -princess told her about the conversation with Diaphebus, and confided -to her that her heart was much inclined to obey all the wishes and -commands of Tirant. Stephania encouraged her by saying that there was -no lady in the world who would not be pleased to be loved by such a -one as he. Carmesina did not sleep that night. When Tirant saw the -princess again, her beauty charmed him even more than at first, and he -became really lovesick. Diaphebus consoled him as best he could, and -promised to do all in his power to advance his interests with regard to -Carmesina. (Chaps. 119-121) - -One day, at a meeting of the General Council, Tirant was requested -to make ready to go against the Genoese, who were coming in great -numbers. At this session of the Council it came to light that there was -some opposition to the newly appointed Capita Major, for one of the -members protested that the Duke of Macedonia, who was still acting as -Commander-in-chief, should not be superseded, and especially not by a -foreigner. The aged emperor grew very angry when he heard these words, -and declared that the Duke of Macedonia was a coward and had never won -a battle. He further declared that he himself would choose the Capita -Major, and that those who opposed his wishes in the matter should be -punished in such manner as would never be forgotten. Then he gave -orders that a proclamation be made throughout the city instructing all -those who had grievances to appear before the imperial tribunal, where -their complaints would be given due consideration. The following day -Tirant, the imperial judge, heard complaints and administered justice. -(Chaps. 122-124) - -The new Commander soon occupied himself with his military duties. He -reorganized the guards who watched over the emperor, and made many -innovations that contributed to the general order and security of the -city. He took charge of the food supply and caused it to be evenly -distributed among the inhabitants. (Chap. 124) - -One day the princess sent for him. She warned him to beware of the Duke -of Macedonia, who was very adroit in committing acts of treachery. She -related how he had cut the thongs of the helmet of her brother while -the latter was bravely fighting the Moors, so that it fell from his -head and he was easily slain. Indeed, the duke was the very incarnation -of all the seven mortal sins. (Chap. 125) - -Tirant was happy sometimes, but more often he was sad. His conduct and -his speech revealed that something was preying on his mind. His was -the lot of the uncertain lover, swaying between hope and fear. One -day Carmesina asked him why he was so sad. He answered that he was in -love. Then she requested him to tell her who the lady was that caused -him so much anxiety. As an answer, he took something out of his sleeve -and handed it to the princess with these words: “The image that you -will see there can make me die or live.” She took the object, went to -her room, and looked at it. Instead of the painted picture that she -expected to find, she saw an image of herself, for the object was a -precious and beautiful mirror. Carmesina admired greatly this novel -manner of making a confession of love. While she was in her room, Viuda -Reposada, who had been the nurse of the princess and still had much -influence over her, entered the room, and with her came Stephania. -They saw the mirror and inquired how it came into her hands. She told -them all about it. Viuda Reposada then reproached her for being on such -intimate terms with one who was no more than her father’s servant. She -denounced the whole affair as absolutely improper. The princess was -very much affected by this harsh rebuke and, on the verge of weeping, -she retired to her private chamber. Stephania followed and tried to -console her. (Chaps. 126-127) - -The next day Tirant sent Diaphebus to see the princess, in order to -find out how she felt disposed towards him since the mirror episode. -When he began to speak to her about Tirant, she exclaimed: “Oh! if -you knew of the trick that he played on me; with a mirror he made a -confession of love to me; just let me see him and I shall tell him -things that he will not care to hear.” (Chap. 127) - -The next time that Tirant saw her, she received him coldly, and rebuked -him severely, charging him with being untrue to the trust imposed -upon him; ungrateful and disrespectful to the emperor, her father; -and insolent towards her, because he made a confession of love to her -as one would to a woman of low degree. Tirant answered that he would -avenge the insult by taking his own life. He hastened to his abode. -Immediately upon his departure, she became sorry that she had spoken to -him so severely, and fearing that in his despair he might do himself -harm, sent Stephania to beg him to forgive her, and by no means to take -his life. She was so afraid that Stephania might fail in her mission, -that she herself went to Tirant, expressed her sorrow for what she had -said, and humbly asked pardon. Tirant was deeply moved by the love that -her words and actions revealed, and his woe was changed to joy. (Chaps. -127-130) - -Bad news came from the imperial forces that were in the field opposing -the Moors. Under the leadership of the Duke of Macedonia, they had -again suffered defeat, and were obliged to seek refuge in a city not -far away from the place where the battle was fought. The Moors followed -and besieged the city. The provisions in it were almost exhausted, -and unless relief came from Constantinople within a very short time, -the besieged forces would be compelled to surrender. When Tirant -heard this, he made preparations to lead a relief expedition to the -threatened city within six days. (Chaps. 130-131) - -Five days afterward there was a review of all the troops within -Constantinople, and on the morning of the sixth day the banners were -blessed, and all the soldiers armed themselves and mounted their -steeds. A knight whose name was Fontsequa, and who was riding a large -and beautiful snow-white charger, carried the imperial banner and -led the assembled host as it marched out of the city. Many dukes, -marquises, earls, viscounts, and other leaders were in this impressive -military parade, all with their squadrons. The last division to march -out was Tirant’s. (Chap. 132) - -Our hero, the newly appointed Capita Major, was in command of all these -troops. The expedition moved along in perfect order. Tirant’s wonderful -sense of organization and his ability to cope with any and all -difficulties were not long in revealing themselves. His army arrived at -the city of Pelidas, which was only a league and a half from the camp -of the Turks who were besieging the city in which the forces of the -Duke of Macedonia had sought refuge. The sultan and the Grand Turk, who -were in command of the troops of the enemy, knew that a Greek army had -entered Pelidas, but they were little concerned, for of the ten parts -of the emperor’s dominion they already held nine and one-half parts. -All that was necessary for them to do to become the undisputed masters -of the whole empire was to capture the duke’s besieged forces and then -take Constantinople. In view of their vastly superior numbers, they -felt confident that the complete conquest of the Greek empire was near -at hand. (Chap. 133) - -After Tirant had carefully observed the lay of the land and the -disposition of the hostile forces, he prepared his plan of attack. -In the darkness of night he led his troops out of Pelidas, all ready -for battle. A large number of mares brought from Constantinople were -quietly led to the camp of the Turks, and when the steeds of the latter -heard them, they broke loose and ran towards them. The whole camp was -thrown into confusion. The Turks, unarmed, went to look after their -horses, and were met by the Greeks, who slaughtered them in great -numbers and put the rest to flight. (Chap. 133) - -The loud tumult occasioned by the fighting was heard by the duke in the -besieged city. Thinking that the enemy was about to attack the place, -he ordered all his men to take up their arms and defend the city. At -daybreak he was surprised to see imperial banners outside the city -walls, and soldiers in pursuit of the fleeing Turks. He then came out -with his men and plundered the deserted tents of the enemy. They found -there a large quantity of gold, silver, and jewels. They took the booty -into the city and hid it, then came out again and rode towards the -imperial banners. When Tirant saw them, he rode in their direction, and -on approaching the duke, dismounted and showed him great respect and -honor. But the latter only raised his hand to his head. He spoke not a -word. All the kind and deferential words and actions of our hero were -met with scorn and contempt. (Chap. 133) - -When Tirant sent ambassadors to the duke to ask him to give an account -of the booty taken from the camp of the Turks, the latter refused to do -so, and he bade the messengers tell the foreigner, Tirant, to return -to his country, and if he did not do so, he would make him drink so -much water that half of the amount would be too much. This speech was -bitterly resented by Tirant’s men. A battle between the forces of the -two leaders was imminent, but was averted by the calmness and prudence -of our hero. (Chap. 134) - -Immediately after the victory over the Turks, Diaphebus had sent a -messenger to the emperor to announce the glad tidings. The good news -was then proclaimed throughout the city, all the bells were rung, and -the inhabitants went to the Church of Saint Sophia to render thanks -unto the Lord for the great victory. (Chap. 134) - -In the meantime, Armini, the Grand Sultan of Babylon, sent three -ambassadors to Tirant to ask for a truce of six months, and also for -the liberation of a youth who was a brother of the sultan’s wife. -The generosity and magnanimity of our hero led him to set free the -youthful prisoner of war, and with him forty others. But the truce was -not granted, for it was the opinion of Tirant and his Council that -permanent peace could be secured only by vanquishing the infidel host. -(Chaps. 135-138) - -On the same day that the ambassadors left the camp of Tirant, he -sent Diaphebus to Constantinople to deliver to the emperor the large -number of prisoners captured in the first battle with the enemy. This -gave Diaphebus an excellent opportunity to speak to his dearly loved -Stephania and to the princess. He told the latter that Tirant was -always thinking of her, and that whenever he went into battle, the name -of Carmesina was on his lips. And Stephania suggested that there was -no one more worthy and better qualified to be the next emperor than -Tirant, and he ought to be the husband of the princess. As for herself, -she confided to Carmesina, she would marry his kinsman, Diaphebus. -(Chap. 138) - -While Tirant was storming a strongly fortified city, held by the Turks, -two thousand soldiers, under the command of the Prior of St. John, -joined him and placed themselves under his direction. These had been -sent by the Grand Master of the Knights of St. John from Rhodes. They -assisted in the plundering of the city, for a breach had already been -made in the walls of the place when they arrived. (Chap. 139) - -In the meanwhile the Turks had received reinforcements in great -numbers. They encamped on one side of a river, and the imperial -forces on the other side. About a league farther up the river there -was a stone bridge held by a faithful subject of the emperor. It was -protected by a castle at each one of the approaches, so that the Turks -were unable to cross over it. One of these castles was guarded by the -knight Mal Vehi, and the other by his son, Hypolite (Hippolyte). The -latter was a bold and valiant youth, who soon became an enthusiastic -admirer of Tirant. At the earnest request of both father and son, our -hero conferred the honors of knighthood upon Hypolite. (Chap. 140) - -The Turks began to construct a bridge in order that they might cross -the river to attack the Greek forces. When Tirant saw this, he ordered -his men to build a considerable number of boats. These were then -fastened together, and upon them was erected a framework to support -a large quantity of light and inflammable wood. When this peculiar -construction was completed, it was fastened to the stone bridge and -“camouflaged” with branches so that the enemy might not see it. (Chap. -140) - -As soon as the Turks had finished their wooden bridge, they crossed -over it. As they were coming over, Tirant led his forces up to the -stone bridge. By the time that the enemy arrived there, the Greeks -were already on the other side, and the passage over the bridge was -closed. Then the Turks went back over their bridge to the other side, -whereupon Tirant crossed back over the stone bridge. These maneuvers -continued for three days. Finally the Moors decided to divide their -forces, and that was exactly what Tirant desired them to do. When one -of the divisions came over, the Greeks went up a mountain near the -wooden bridge. Since it was growing dark, the Turks decided to stop -at the foot of the mountain and make an attack the next morning. In -the darkness of the night, Tirant sent the floating construction down -the stream, and it was set on fire just before it reached the wooden -bridge. When the Turks who had crossed saw the fire and realized that -their bridge would be destroyed, they became panic-stricken and rushed -wildly to return to the other side of the river. In the disorder and -confusion many were pushed off the bridge and were drowned. Twenty-two -thousand of them were unable to get back, and these surrendered to -Tirant the next morning. (Chaps. 140-141) - -In the meantime the Duke of Macedonia had sent a messenger to -Constantinople to report to the emperor that the vile foreigner, Tirant -lo Blanch, had led the whole army to destruction and had fled no one -knew whither. The false news plunged the aged emperor into gloom and -dejection, and the whole city was filled with weeping and lamentation. -(Chap. 141) - -As soon as those of the Turks who had not been able to rejoin the main -body of the army surrendered, Diaphebus again sent a messenger to the -imperial city to announce the successful event. But when he arrived -there, the emperor would not receive him. Finally he succeeded in -delivering the message to the princess. She immediately reported it to -her father, who fell unconscious from excess of joy. And again all the -bells of the city were rung, and thanks were offered up to God. (Chap. -141) - -The Constable and Diaphebus took the prisoners to Constantinople. In -recounting the exploits of Tirant in the field, the Constable gave -unlimited praise to the young Capita Major. Diaphebus naturally made -an effort to see the princess and Stephania, and not without success. -The words he spoke to Carmesina increased greatly her admiration for -Tirant. His own love affair made wonderful progress during this visit. -(Chaps. 144-148) - -The Turks, having lost one hundred thousand men since Tirant became the -leader of the imperial army, held a council, in which it was decreed -that the foreign captain, Tirant lo Blanch, must be slain. The King of -Egypt was designated as the one to accomplish this, since he was the -most skillful of them all in the use of arms. The sultan himself said: -“If this devil of a man had not come from France, we should even now be -in the palace of Constantinople, and should already have made a mosque -of the beautiful church there. We shall never be able to accomplish -that, if this captain lives much longer.” (Chaps. 148-149) - -The King of Egypt accordingly challenged Tirant to mortal combat. In -the challenge this king stated that he had made a vow to his lady-love -that he would engage in a _combat à outrance_ with a king or a king’s -son, or with the best captain of the Christian army, and that it was -his intention to send her the head of Tirant to show that his vow had -been accomplished. He also suggested that each one of them should -champion the cause of a lady, and then the combat should also determine -which one of these ladies excelled in beauty, dignity, virtue, -lineage, grace, and wisdom. The challenge and the suggestion were -accepted. It was agreed that the King of Egypt should fight in behalf -of his lady-love, the Grand Turk’s daughter, and Tirant, in behalf of -Carmesina, the emperor’s daughter. The combat was to take place on the -field of battle, on August the twentieth, four days earlier, or four -days later. (Chaps. 149-152) - -Tirant was making preparations for a supreme effort to win a decisive -victory over the enemy. But the Duke of Macedonia was opposed to his -plans, and, in a speech full of bitter invectives, he declared that -Tirant had made a bargain with the Turks to deliver the Greeks into -their hands. He called him a second Judas, who, on account of his -treachery, ought to be thrown into burning oil. He protested against -the leadership of this foreigner and declared that he would obey his -orders no longer. A great uproar followed this speech. Many soldiers -took up their arms, and some of them mounted their steeds. In reply, -Tirant denounced the duke for never having won a single battle; he -accused him of having cut the thongs of the late prince’s helmet in -the thick of a battle, whereupon the heir of the empire was slain; and -he spoke of the great loss in lives and in territory that the empire -suffered while the duke was in command of the armies. In the name of -the emperor, he asked them to prepare to attack the enemy. But the -duke replied that neither he nor any of his men would take part in the -proposed attack. (Chaps. 153-154) - -The following day the council of war met, and Tirant suggested that a -new leader should be selected. He assured the members that he would -remain with them to serve His Imperial Majesty. But they would not hear -of this. In strong language they expressed their confidence in him. -(Chap. 154) - -It was at this time that some more foreign soldiers came to place -themselves under the command of Tirant. Philip, the son of the King -of France, had become King of Sicily, and in grateful memory he sent -five thousand men under the leadership of the Duke of Messina, and -Queen Ricomana sent two thousand under the leadership of the Senyor de -Pantalea. (Chap. 154) - -When the emperor heard of the quarrel between the duke and Tirant, -he went to the camp to settle the dispute once for all. The princess -accompanied him, and with her went Stephania, Viuda Reposada, Plaer de -mi Vida, and other ladies of the court. While they were in camp, the -greatest battle of all that had been fought up to this time took place. -It was waged fiercely on both sides, from early in the morning until -late in the afternoon. The contending foes fought with determination -and desperation. Tirant wielded his battle-ax wherever help seemed to -be needed most. The King of Egypt recognized him on the field, and he, -together with the King of Cappadocia and the King of Africa, agreed to -make it their special duty to slay him that day. While Tirant was in -the midst of violent fighting, the Duke of Macedonia came up behind him -and with a vigorous blow of his sword wounded him in the neck. A few -moments later the King of Cappadocia and the King of Egypt suddenly -came upon our hero, and they attacked him with such force that both -he and his steed fell. He had some difficulty in getting up, for his -charger had fallen on one of his legs, but fortunately one of his men -came to the rescue. The latter, with his lance, wounded the King of -Egypt in the thigh. A moment later the king’s lance struck Tirant on -his cheek and knocked out four of his teeth. Then the king withdrew -from the field on account of his wound. Tirant searched for him, but in -vain. He met, however, the King of Cappadocia and slew him. Finally, -the sultan, seeing that the tide of battle was going against him, -withdrew from the battlefield, and soon afterward the Turks were put to -flight. Tirant and his forces pursued them and continued to slaughter -many until it was very late. The sultan and his defeated army sought -refuge in a certain city, and this was taken by Tirant’s forces the -following morning. Among the many prisoners captured there, was the -King of Egypt. Tirant was notified that this important royal personage -was a prisoner, and was invited to come to slay him, but he replied -that for nothing in the world would he take the life of a prisoner. -Thereupon the Marquis of Saint George dispatched the unfortunate -king. In this battle and pursuit the Turks lost 103,000 men, including -those who were taken prisoners. Among the Greeks that were slain were -the Duke of Macedonia and the Constable. The brave Ricart, too, was -among the dead. A messenger announced the result of the battle to the -emperor, and immediately the venerable monarch knelt down and offered -thanks to Christ and His Most Blessed Mother, Our Lady. (Chaps. 155-158) - -After this disastrous defeat of the Moors, the sultan and all the -men who had been able to escape with him found refuge in the city of -Bellpuig, which was four leagues distant from that in which the King of -Egypt was slain. The imperial forces did not attack the sultan’s army, -but confined their operations for the time to recapturing some of the -other places that had recently been taken by the enemy. The emperor -accompanied the troops from Sicily, who succeeded in recovering several -cities. (Chap. 159) - -After the emperor’s return to the castle of Mal Vehi, where he lived -during his visit to the camp, he asked Tirant to recommend some one -to fill the vacancy caused by the death of the Constable. The name of -Diaphebus was suggested. And it was the pleasure of the emperor to -appoint Diaphebus Constable of the Empire. Then he turned to Tirant -and said: “And you I shall make the Earl of Sent Angel.” But Tirant -declined the honor, and this greatly displeased His Majesty. And the -Capita Major, not wishing to wound the feelings of the aged monarch, -said that since whatever belonged to Diaphebus was his, and whatever -was his belonged to Diaphebus, he would accept the earldom, but that -the title should be bestowed on his friend, the newly appointed -Constable. The princess was very curious to know why he would not -accept the title, and in his reply to her question, he told her that -he would never accept any title as long as he lived except that of -emperor—either that or none. (Chap. 161) - -The appointment of Diaphebus as Constable, and his elevation to the -dignity of Earl of Sent Angel, were celebrated with great splendor. -But Tirant was sad during the festivities. The princess noticed this, -and she asked what grieved him so. He answered that he was filled with -sorrow because she was about to return to Constantinople. Carmesina -told this to Stephania, and they invited Tirant and Diaphebus to visit -them secretly that night. When the visitors came, all the attendants -and companions of the princess were asleep, with the exception of Plaer -de mi Vida, who was wide awake with curiosity, although she pretended -to be sleeping. She heard and saw all that happened, and the next -morning she told Carmesina and Stephania that she had had a wonderful -dream during the night. Being asked to relate it, she told all about -the secret visit of Tirant and Diaphebus. And then she added, with a -sigh, that she regretted deeply that Hypolite and she had not been -invited to the party. (Chaps. 162-163) - -That same day the emperor and all who had come with him returned to -Constantinople. The heart of the princess was heavy when the time came -for her to leave Tirant. She veiled her face in order that no one might -see her tears. (Chap. 163) - -Five large ships arrived at a port which was at a considerable -distance from the camp of the imperial army, and these were laden with -provisions for that army. Tirant placed the camp under the command of -the Constable and went to see about the unloading of the ships. The -owners of these vessels and the mariners were delighted to see the -great Captain. They informed him that seven Genoese ships had entered -the port of Bellpuig with provisions for the sultan’s army. Tirant -remarked that he would do all in his power to eat some of those -provisions. As soon as all the vessels were unloaded, Tirant embarked -with a large number of armed men, and, in the darkness of night, -started out for the port of Bellpuig. They arrived there early the -following morning, and, with little difficulty, captured the ships. The -provisions were sent to the camp of the Greek army. (Chap. 163) - -From the prisoners taken in this venture, Tirant learned that the -Grand Caramany and the King of Upper India were on their way to join -the sultan. They were coming with fifty thousand men. Following -the advice of one of the prisoners, and aided by the men from -the island of Rhodes, who were well-trained in seafaring, Tirant -prepared a formidable fleet and waited for the arrival of the Moorish -reinforcements. Finally the expected fleet came in sight, and Tirant’s -vessels went out to meet it. The hostile fleet was dispersed, and after -a long chase and a terrible fight, Tirant’s ship captured the vessel -which bore the Grand Caramany and the King of Upper India. Our hero, -in person, took the royal prisoners to Constantinople and delivered -them to the emperor. This naval victory caused great rejoicing in -the imperial city. The inhabitants came out to greet and honor their -invincible Captain. They fixed their eyes upon him as if he had been -sent to them from heaven. (Chaps. 163-166) - -Tirant had been severely wounded in the sea fight, and the emperor’s -physicians ordered him to remain in bed until his wounds were healed, -for there was great danger that he might be permanently maimed. During -the period of his recovery the imperial family visited him daily, and -Viuda Reposada, moved more by love than piety, was his faithful and -devoted attendant. (Chap. 166) - -During his absence from the camp the imperial army was faring badly. -The Turks won two great victories, and as a result the Greeks lost -their courage and their confidence. They offered up special prayers -for the rapid recovery of their valiant Captain. Without him, they -considered their cause lost. They sent him a letter in which they -declared that they would fight no more battles until he had rejoined -them. While he was waiting for his wounds to heal, his martial spirit -seemed to desert him. Carmesina noticed this, and, in one of their -private conversations, said to him: “Cease to be a lover, and win -honors; I do not say that you should cease to be a lover altogether, -for in times of peace men take great delight in loving, but in time of -war men are obliged to undergo much toil and many hardships.” (Chaps. -166-172) - -When Tirant was about to return to the camp, the sultan sent -ambassadors to the emperor. Their mission was concerned with three -things: first, a truce for three months; secondly, ransom of the Grand -Caramany and the King of Upper India; and thirdly, an agreement whereby -the emperor’s daughter should be given in marriage to the sultan, in -consideration whereof all the cities and territory captured by the -Turks should be restored to the emperor. (Chaps. 177-178) - -Many of the members of the Imperial Council were in favor of the -proposed marriage for the sake of the peace that would follow. Tirant’s -heart was filled with fear and anxiety at this state of affairs. The -princess consoled him with the following words: “How can you believe -that my royal person will submit to a Moor? How can you even imagine -that my noble heart will condescend to become the friend of one of -those Moorish dogs, who have as many women as they wish, and none of -these a wife, for they can leave them any hour that they wish.” (Chaps. -178-179) - -A great festival was arranged in honor of the Moorish ambassadors. The -celebration lasted nine days. On the very last day a large number of -galleys were observed coming towards the shore. They were French ships -bringing five thousand “francs archers,” and each of these archers -was accompanied by a squire and a page. They were coming to enter the -service of the emperor. The galleys had been fitted out and furnished -with provisions by the King of France. Tirant’s cousin, the Viscount of -Branches, was in command of these soldiers. Our hero warmly welcomed -him and all those who had come with him. The emperor was delighted at -their coming, and his pleasure was considerably increased by the fact -that the Moorish ambassadors had witnessed the arrival of these foreign -warriors. (Chap. 189) - -At the close of these festivities the emperor gave his answer to the -ambassadors in regard to the ransom of the royal prisoners and the -marriage of the princess to the sultan, the proposal of the truce -having been accepted immediately after the Turkish representatives had -announced their mission. He bade them tell the sultan that the emperor -of Constantinople would not liberate the Grand Caramany and the King -of Upper India until the empire had been wholly restored; and that he -would not give his daughter in marriage to a man who was not of the -Christian faith, for that would be against the precepts of the Holy -Catholic Church. (Chaps. 207-208) - -While the truce was in effect, Tirant remained in the imperial city. -He pretended to be occupied with military matters, but, in reality, -his mind was centered upon Carmesina. His one dominant purpose was to -obtain from the princess the “compliment de amor.” He made strong and -repeated efforts to attain his end, but she was firm. She loved him -with all her heart, but she would not sacrifice her honor. Tirant had -helpful allies in Plaer de mi Vida, Stephania, and Hypolite, but their -arguments, plans, and schemes availed him naught. Carmesina was young -and in love with him whom she considered the only person that could -save the empire. She was human and could not force herself to forbid -him to approach her. The temptations to fall were strong, but her -religious training and her moral courage sustained her in the hour of -need. (Chaps. 208-215) - -Viuda Reposada, whose affectionate and passionate advances to Tirant -had always been met with scorn, was burning with unrequited love and -jealousy. She determined to make a desperate effort to sever the bond -of love that existed between Tirant and the princess. To accomplish -this she told Carmesina base lies about her lover, and advised her -gradually to avoid meeting him. As a result the heart of the princess -was filled with fear and torment. (Chap. 215) - -A short time before the termination of the truce Diaphebus, Constable -and Earl of Sent Angel, was married to Stephania. The wedding was -celebrated with great splendor. To add to the importance of the -occasion, he was appointed Duke of Macedonia. And Tirant and his -friends kissed the foot and the hand of the emperor, and gave him -infinite thanks for the great favor he had shown them by giving his -niece to their companion. (Chaps. 219-222) - -But while Diaphebus and Stephania were happy, and all were making -merry, the princess and Tirant were downcast and wretched. Carmesina -was following the advice of Viuda Reposada. She avoided Tirant. He -became aware of this, and it tormented him. (Chap. 224) - -Plaer de mi Vida was always ready and eager to help Tirant. One night -she led him into Carmesina’s chamber. When the latter suddenly saw him -beside her, she gave a scream which caused great excitement in the -palace. Plaer de mi Vida helped him escape through a window by means of -a rope, but it was too short, and he was obliged to let himself fall -a distance of twelve yards. One of his legs was broken as a result -of the fall. Fortunately, Hypolite and the Viscount of Branches found -him, and they spread the report that Tirant’s steed had fallen on his -leg and broken it. The emperor sympathized with his esteemed Captain in -his misfortune. The accident happened at an inopportune time, for the -Moors had received strong reinforcements. The aged monarch feared that -as long as Tirant was absent from the army, it would not give a good -account of itself. (Chaps. 225-238) - -Hypolite remained at the court with Tirant, and gradually a love affair -began between him and the empress, which finally resulted in an illicit -liaison. He and Plaer de mi Vida continued to act as intermediaries in -Tirant’s relations with the princess. One day Carmesina, in order to -prove her love for the Capita Major, took his right hand in her own and -spoke these words: “I, Carmesina, give myself to you, Tirant lo Blanch, -as your faithful wife, and accept you as my loyal husband.” Then she -took a formal oath that she would never leave him for any other man in -the world, and that she would always be true, faithful, and without -blemish. Great was Tirant’s joy when he heard these words, for they -gave him a feeling of assurance that in a short time not only the -princess, but also the imperial crown would be his. And he, too, made a -vow similar to the one pronounced by Carmesina. (Chaps. 248-272) - -After Tirant’s leg had completely mended, and when he was ready to -resume active command of the army in the field, a great celebration was -given in his honor. The Imperial Council felt that he well deserved -such manifestation of respect and esteem, for in four and one-half -years he had recovered three hundred and seventy-two cities, towns, and -castles. (Chap. 275) - -During Tirant’s absence from the camp the Duke of Pera and Diaphebus -were in command of the Greek army. On account of a disagreement between -the two commanders, the whole imperial army suffered a disastrous -defeat, which plunged all Constantinople in grief. Tirant made haste to -rejoin his troops. Having decided to go by sea instead of by land, he -embarked. He informed no one concerning his departure except those who -were to go with him. He did not take leave of Carmesina, for jealous -Viuda Reposada had carried out a diabolical plot which shook Tirant’s -faith in the purity of the princess. When the latter heard that he had -embarked, she was disconsolate, and sent Plaer de mi Vida to Tirant -for the purpose of finding out why he had not bidden her farewell. The -messenger succeeded in reaching the vessel on which Tirant was about -to set sail. The infamous plotting of Viuda Reposada was discovered, -and the Capita Major was sorry for having permitted himself to be so -basely deceived, and asked Plaer de mi Vida to express his regret to -the princess and to beg her to pardon him. But suddenly a violent storm -came up, which drove the boat far out on the sea. Finally the ship was -wrecked off the coast of Barbary. Both Tirant and Carmesina’s messenger -succeeded in reaching the shore, but not together. (Chaps. 286-299) - - - - - CHAPTER V - - TIRANT CONQUERS ALL BARBARY - - -Plaer de mi Vida fell into the hands of a Moor who had been a captive -in Spain for a long time. One day this Moor had saved the life of a -son of the lady whom he was serving, and on account of this she set -him free. In grateful remembrance of that kindness, he was moved to -befriend the shipwrecked lady. He led her to his home and placed her -in the care of his daughter, whom he told that the Christian woman was -a daughter of the lady who had freed him. The Moor’s daughter received -her and treated her with much kindness. (Chap. 299) - -Tirant, upon reaching land, concealed himself in a cave which happened -to be in the territory of the King of Tunis, Scariano. A short time -before, this king had asked the King of Tremicen to give him his -daughter in marriage, which the latter was unwilling to do, for she was -already married. In order to settle the affair in a friendly manner, -the King of Tremicen sent the chief officer of his army as ambassador -to the King of Tunis. The ambassador went hunting one day and found -Tirant in the cave. He sent him secretly to one of his castles in -Tremicen, where he kept him as a prisoner for some time. Finally the -negotiations were discontinued, and the King of Tunis, with 50,000 -men, marched against the King of Tremicen, who was not able to gather -more than 20,000. In the meantime the unsuccessful ambassador had -returned home and assumed command of the army of Tremicen. He asked -his Christian prisoner, Tirant, to help in the defense of the kingdom. -Our hero was quite willing to do so, and soon his skill, bravery, and -strategies won for him great admiration and esteem. As a reward for his -valuable services, he was liberated, but he remained in the service -of the kingdom. The King of Tremicen with his family, including the -husband of his daughter, had found refuge in the city of Tremicen. But -a treacherous Jew admitted the enemy in large numbers into the strongly -fortified city, and the king, his sons, and his son-in-law were all -slain. The daughter, whose name was Maragdina, was taken to a castle, -where she was obliged to remain with Scariano, the King of Tunis. This -castle was soon afterwards captured through the subtle stratagems of -Tirant, and Scariano was made prisoner. (Chaps. 299-318) - -When Maragdina saw the fair, manly, and handsome Tirant for the first -time—which was some time before her husband had been slain—she wished -that her husband were dead that she might be free to wed this wonderful -Christian. But now that he was dead, there was still an obstacle; she -was a Mohammedan, and Tirant a Christian. She suggested to our hero -that he become a Mohammedan, but, she naïvely added, if he should -insist that his religion was better than hers, she would very willingly -believe it, and always say that it was better. Tirant answered her that -he was betrothed to another, and that he must and would remain faithful -to her. He treated Maragdina with so much kindness and affection that -she finally asked him to baptize her. He sent for a gold basin and a -pitcher of water, and when these had been brought to him, she came -before him, knelt down, uncovered her head, and received the sacrament -of baptism. (Chaps. 322-326) - -When Scariano heard that Maragdina had accepted the Christian faith, -he, too, wished to be baptized. But first he desired to be enlightened -in regard to the doctrines of that religion. Tirant confessed that -he was not too well versed in matters pertaining to the faith, but -would nevertheless give him instruction. And he did it so well that -Scariano was surprised that a knight could know so much concerning the -Trinity, and declared that the explanations given by him were more -comprehensible than those that he had once heard made by certain monks -when he was a youth. (Chaps. 326-327) - -The baptism of Scariano took place in a beautiful square of the city. -Many of his officers and kinsmen witnessed the ceremony, and they, -too, were baptized. Tirant administered the sacrament of baptism to -more than six thousand Moors that day. A monk of the Order of Mercy -came opportunely, and he was requested by our hero to baptize the rest -of those who wished to become Christians. In all 44,327 Moors were -baptized. (Chaps. 329-330) - -Several kings of Barbary, who were on their way with many men to -help Scariano, became indignant when they heard that he had become a -Christian, and they took possession of the kingdom of Tunis and placed -another king over it. Thereupon Scariano withdrew with his faithful -subjects to Tremicen, the inhabitants of which, following the example -of their queen, Maragdina, embraced the Christian faith. The queen made -another effort to induce Tirant to take her as his wife, but was again -unsuccessful. He spoke to her kindly, reasoned with her, and finally -persuaded her to marry Scariano. The marriage ceremony was performed -by the monk, and thus Scariano became the King of Tremicen. (Chaps. -330-333) - -After the Moorish kings had subdued all the kingdom of Tunis, they -decided to make war against the kingdom of Tremicen in order to -exterminate the Christians. Tirant then began to gather and organize -an army which was to defend Tremicen against the combined forces of -those kings. He won the admiration, confidence, and love of the people, -and as he passed through the streets they greeted him with the cheer: -“Vixca lo magnanim Capita crestia.” (Chap. 334) - -Many bloody battles were fought during this war. The enemy had ten -times as many men, but Tirant’s forces were never dismayed, although -sometimes it seemed as if the fortunes of war were against them. -Tirant’s military genius and his prowess were always in evidence. -Never was a lance handled more dexterously, nor a battle-ax wielded -more vigorously. He was ever in the thick of the fray unless there -was some special work for him to do. Senyor Dagramunt, one of the -shipwrecked men who had succeeded in rejoining his great Captain, and -Scariano, too, performed many feats of valor, and slew almost as many -of the enemy as Tirant. The Moorish kings could not understand how the -Christians, so few in numbers compared with their own, could withstand -them. They attributed the stubborn and heroic defense of Tremicen to -Tirant, and made up their minds to slay him. But several of them met -death in the attempt. Finally, they asked for an armistice, which was -granted. While this was in effect, they withdrew their forces and -retired to their respective kingdoms. The Christian kingdom of Tremicen -had fought for its existence, and its cause had triumphed. (Chaps. -333-349) - -Tirant’s ambition now was to conquer all Barbary. In order that the -conquest might be accomplished as rapidly as possible, Senyor Dagramunt -set out with an army to capture the cities, towns, and castles on -the other side of the mountains. The expedition met with no serious -opposition until it came to a city named Montagata, which belonged to -the daughter of a Moorish king who had been slain in battle. When the -inhabitants of this place learned that the Christian army was near, -they sent the keys of the city to Senyor Dagramunt. But when he arrived -there, they had changed their minds and preferred to die rather than -surrender. The Christian leader was extremely vexed by this turn of -affairs, and determined to take the city at all hazards. While taking -part in an attack on the fortifications, he was painfully wounded. He -sent a messenger to Tirant with the request that he come to his aid -with the heavy artillery. When the latter arrived, the assault was -renewed with great violence. The inhabitants soon sent a number of -their most distinguished men to Senyor Dagramunt. They offered to pay -him a heavy tribute annually, if he would spare the city and permit -them to live in their faith. The offer was rejected with scorn. Then -the Senyora of the city, accompanied by many maids of honor, went out -to placate the obdurate Christian commander, but all her efforts were -in vain. The failure of these two attempts to save the city caused -great fear and distress in Montagata. (Chaps. 349-350) - -Some time prior to this the Senyora had bought a certain female slave -on account of her great skill in embroidering. When this slave learned -that Tirant and Senyor Dagramunt were in command of the Christian -forces, she asked permission to go out and plead with them to spare -the city. She spoke so confidently of the success of her mission that -her request was granted. Disguising herself, she went to Tirant, and -in long speeches she pleaded for the inhabitants of Montagata. When -she finally told him the story of his life, he was mystified. He -begged her to tell him how it came that she knew so much about him. -When she answered that she was Plaer de mi Vida, he threw himself on -his knees before her, and embraced and kissed her several times as -a sign of true love. Then Tirant immediately gave orders that it be -proclaimed that all the inhabitants were pardoned, and that they would -be permitted to profess and practice the religion that they preferred. -When the keys of the city were delivered to him, he gave them to -Plaer de mi Vida, who was led in triumphal procession into the palace -and made Senyora of Montagata. She ruled over the city for a week and -then abdicated in favor of the former Senyora, who became a Christian -and all her subjects likewise. Tirant persuaded Plaer de mi Vida to -accept Senyor Dagramunt as husband, and after their marriage he placed -them as king and queen over the conquered provinces of Fez and Bugia -[Bougie]. Tirant continued his victorious campaign until finally there -was but one city in all Barbary that had not been captured. This was -the city of Caramen, in which three Moorish kings had taken refuge. -He sent ambassadors to request them to leave Caramen and the soil of -Barbary. The answer he received was one of defiance. A great battle was -fought in which the Moors were defeated, and they went back into the -strongly fortified city, where they resisted the violent attacks of the -Christians for a whole year. But finally one thousand of Tirant’s men -succeeded in entering the city by means of a mine, and these opened the -city gates, on the outside of which divisions of the Christian army -were waiting. These poured into the city and annihilated the Moors. -This was the last stand made by the infidels against the victorious -Christians. And now Tirant’s purpose was accomplished; all Barbary was -conquered. (Chaps. 350-387, 394) - -Some time prior to the capture of Caramen, Tirant sent a messenger to -Constantinople to inform the emperor that, if the empire was still in -need of aid, he would return with 250,000 men, and that the King of -Sicily would probably join him with his army. The emperor received the -news with great delight. After delivering the message to the imperial -monarch, the messenger went to a convent to which the princess had -retired, and gave her a letter from Tirant. She was speechless with -emotion upon learning that he was still alive. When the messenger -returned to Tirant with communications from the emperor and the -princess, the great Captain learned that the Moors had conquered the -whole empire, with the exception of the cities of Constantinople and -Pera and a few castles, and that Diaphebus and many of his friends were -prisoners. (Chaps. 388-393, 395-398) - -At Constantine, in Tunis, Tirant gathered an army of over 250,000 men, -with which he hoped to drive the Moorish invaders from the soil of the -Greek empire. He sent an agent to Genoa, Rome, and Venice to secure -ships to transport this vast army. The vessels arrived at Constantine -within a short time. But before these forces embarked, Tirant assembled -the people in a vast plain and addressed them in a short speech. After -his address, a Catalan monk, John Ferrer, who was a native of Lérida, -and who spoke the Moorish tongue well, preached to the multitude. After -his sermon the people in loud cries asked to be baptized, and in three -days the monks and chaplains whom Tirant had sent for baptized 334,000 -men, women, and children. (Chaps. 401-407) - -Throughout the period of the military conquest of Barbary, Tirant built -churches and monasteries for the priests and monks who came thither in -response to his call. Mohammedanism had been dealt a deathblow, and -Christianity was firmly established in all Barbary. (Chap. 404) - - - - - CHAPTER VI - - TIRANT RETURNS TO CONSTANTINOPLE AND THE GREEK - EMPIRE IS COMPLETELY RESTORED - - -Finally the huge army embarked and sailed for Sicily, where it was -joined by King Philip with his forces. Within a few days the expedition -arrived near Constantinople, the port of which was blockaded by the -Moorish fleet. The army could not land until the hostile ships were -dispersed or captured. Tirant’s fleet attacked the enemy at break of -day, coming upon them so suddenly that they could not make a strong -resistance. Some Moors leaped into the water and succeeded in reaching -the shore, but all those who remained on the vessels were slain. Tirant -took possession of all the boats of the enemy. The troops of the sultan -and the Grand Turk were on the shore ready to attack the Christians if -these should attempt to land, so Tirant took his whole fleet, together -with the captured vessels, out to sea, and when darkness fell he -turned about, came back, and landed at a very advantageous point only -four leagues distant from the Moorish army. The next day the Moors -saw themselves surrounded by an army vastly superior to their own in -numbers. The sultan and the Grand Turk were in a quandary. Finally, -they decided to send ambassadors to Tirant to propose a treaty of peace -for a hundred and one years. In order to obtain such a peace, they were -willing to restore all the cities, towns, and castles that they had -conquered, and liberate all prisoners. Tirant convened his council to -consider the proposal, and it was decided to refer the matter to His -Imperial Majesty. The affair was important, and Tirant himself went to -consult the emperor about it. (Chaps. 408-434) - -What a welcome excuse it was to go to see the princess! It was night -when Tirant arrived at the palace, and His Majesty had already retired. -But he succeeded in finding Plaer de mi Vida, who had come with the -expedition and had entered Constantinople almost immediately after -the landing of the troops. She quickly arranged a meeting between the -victorious Captain and Carmesina, and that night the princess was -overcome with love. (Chaps. 434-436) - -The following day he went to see the emperor. The aged ruler could -not withhold his tears, so great was the joy he felt on seeing again -the invincible Commander. As soon as Tirant had informed him of the -purpose of his visit, the Imperial Council was convened, and after -mature deliberation it was decided to accept the proposal of peace made -by the enemy, but on the one condition that the sultan and the Grand -Turk, together with other important Moorish chieftains, should give -themselves up as hostages until the whole empire should be completely -restored and the prisoners liberated. The condition imposed by the -emperor was accepted and the treaty of peace was concluded. (Chaps. -440-447) - -The sultan, the Grand Turk, and twenty other Moorish lords surrendered -to Tirant. He took them into the imperial city, where he was received -with rapturous rejoicing and was acclaimed liberator of the empire. The -great host of the infidels was taken back to Turkey by the imperial -fleet, and then an elaborate reception was given in honor of the -King of Sicily, the King of Fez and Bugia, Tirant, and others. The -merrymaking continued for a week. During this period Tirant frequently -saw the princess and he longed for the day when their vows might be -realized. (Chaps. 447-452) - -In order to bring about the complete restoration of the empire as -quickly as possible, Tirant asked the emperor for permission to take -formal possession of all the places that were to be given back by the -Moors. At the same time he assured him that, if fortune should not be -against him, His Majesty should rule over all the lands that had been -under the dominion of his predecessor, Justinian. The emperor, moved by -the devotion of his faithful Captain, and mindful of his past services, -offered to abdicate in his favor, but Tirant would not consent to that. -However, he expressed his willingness to succeed him after his death. -Then His Imperial Majesty offered him the hand of Carmesina and led him -into her chamber. When he saw that both of them seemed pleased at his -suggestion, he sent for the archbishop, and Tirant and Carmesina were -betrothed. This betrothal was celebrated with great pomp and splendor. -And the emperor ordered his heralds to proclaim throughout the city -that all should regard and hold Tirant as his first-born son and Caesar -of the Empire, and that he should be their lord and emperor after -his death. The people in exultation gave answer to the proclamation -with the loud and enthusiastic cheers: “Visca la celestial e angelica -bondat del Emperador! e Visca lo novell Cesar del Imperi grech, honor, -manteniment, y gloria.” (Chaps. 452-453) - -Tirant, accompanied by two representatives of the sultan and the Grand -Turk, and provided with letters of credence from these two Moorish -chiefs, set out with a large army to begin the work of restoring the -empire. It was not a difficult task. City after city was delivered -to him without a struggle. At Trebizond, Diaphebus and many other -prisoners of rank were liberated. Then Tirant resumed his triumphant -march until he had received in behalf of the emperor all the territory -that had been taken by the Moors. He did more than this; he conquered -additional territory. He ordered the fleet to aid in the work, and it -took possession of all the islands that had formerly belonged to the -empire. And now the task that he had purposed to accomplish was done. -(Chaps. 444-466) - -With his heart filled with joyful anticipations, he started on his way -back to Constantinople, where the princess was eagerly awaiting him. -When he arrived at Adrianople he received word from the emperor to wait -there until sent for, because the monarch wished to prepare a wonderful -celebration on the occasion of the triumphal entry of the Caesar of the -Greek empire. (Chap. 467) - -While walking along the bank of a river near Adrianople he was suddenly -attacked by a severe pain in the side. He was carried to the city, -where physicians immediately attended him, but they were unable to -give him any relief. Feeling that the hour of his death was near, he -called for a priest and made a careful and contrite confession. When -the sacred Host was presented to him, tears came to his eyes, and -with great devotion he said several prayers. After he had received -Holy Communion, he asked for his secretary and made his last will -and testament. Then he asked to be carried to Constantinople, for he -believed that to see and to be near Carmesina might save him. They -placed him on a litter and carried him as gently as possible towards -the imperial city. When they had covered about half the distance, they -were met by Diaphebus and Hypolite. Tirant requested them to kiss him, -for it would be their last farewell. And they, in tears, kissed him, -and while they were addressing him with words of hope and cheer, he -suddenly cried out: “Jesus, Son of David, have mercy on me!” A moment -later, he added: “Jesus, into Thy hands I commend my spirit.” And these -were the last words of Tirant lo Blanch, Caesar of the Greek empire. -(Chaps. 467-471) - -It was pitiful to bear the weeping and lamenting and sobbing of those -about him. When finally they were able to master their grief, they -carried his body into Constantinople and had it embalmed. Then it was -clothed in imperial vestments and placed on a beautiful catafalque in -the Church of Saint Sophia. (Chap. 471) - -When the emperor was informed of the death of Tirant he staggered as -from a blow, and spent that night in lamenting and sobbing as if his -heart would break. When daylight came, he went to the church to do -honor to the fallen hero. (Chaps. 471-472) - -When the princess saw all those about her weeping, she wondered what -had happened. One of her attendants informed her that Tirant had passed -from this life into the other. Carmesina was stunned; she could neither -speak nor weep. After she had partially recovered from the shock, she -asked for the robe that she was to have worn on her wedding-day; she -put it on, and then, with her attendants, hastened to the church. -Having mounted the catafalque, she threw herself upon the corpse of -her hero and lover. Tears were streaming from her eyes, and they -fell upon the cold face of Tirant, so that it seemed that he too was -weeping, although dead. That pallid face again and again she kissed, -and all the while she was lamenting, uttering words of love, of grief, -and of despair. All those who witnessed the anguish and suffering of -the princess wept with her. Finally she was taken back to the palace. -She asked her attendants to weep with her, for she would not be with -them much longer. Her grief was so poignant that blood flowed from her -mouth. The physicians saw in her condition the signs of one doomed to -die. The aged emperor, who could not bear to witness the sufferings of -his daughter, had retired to his chamber. And now she sent for him, for -her soul wished to go where the soul of her hero was. She made a public -confession and received Holy Communion, after which she sent for the -emperor’s secretary, who drew up her last will and testament. Then she -kissed the emperor and the empress many times and bade them farewell. -The venerable monarch was overcome with grief and anguish, and fell to -the floor unconscious. He was carried into another room and laid on a -bed, and there he died. Then, as successor to the imperial throne, she -ordered that the corpse of Tirant be brought to her. She had it placed -at her left side, and the corpse of the emperor was placed on the right -side. She kissed her father often, but Tirant she kissed even more -frequently. Then she invited Death to come and take her so that she -might be with her lover. Finally she asked for the cross. When it was -presented to her, she fixed her eyes upon it, and after saying a long -prayer with intense devotion, she rendered her soul to God. And when -she died there was seen a great splendor of angels, who bore away her -soul with that of Tirant, for the soul of her beloved had waited for -hers. (Chaps. 472-478) - -The obsequies of the emperor were celebrated with great splendor. -Many kings, dukes, earls, marquises, noble knights, and the people of -the city were present. The clergy sang the divine offices with such -sorrow, that there was not one person present who did not weep. The -following day the funeral rites were performed with an equal splendor -and solemnity in honor of the princess, and on the third day, Tirant, -the late Caesar of the Greek empire, was honored by ceremonies no less -magnificent than the preceding. The body of the emperor was laid in a -beautiful tomb, but the bodies of Tirant and the princess were enclosed -in a casket, and with an escort of forty galleys they were taken to -Brittany and placed in a magnificent tomb in the principal church of -the city of Nantes. (Chaps. 471, 485) - -The empress married Hypolite, and thus he who had fought so well and -bravely as Capita Major while Tirant was conquering Barbary became -emperor. He was much loved and feared by his subjects and by those -outside of his realm. He conquered many provinces, amassed great -treasures, and his rule was long and prosperous. (Chaps. 483, 487) - - - - - PART II - - AUTHORSHIP OF TIRANT LO BLANCH - - - - - CHAPTER I - - IN WHAT LANGUAGE WAS TIRANT LO BLANCH FIRST WRITTEN? - - -The caption of the dedicatory letter in _Tirant lo Blanch_ is conceived -in the following words: - - A honor, lahor e gloria de nostre senyor deu Jesu crist: e de la - gloriosa sacratissima verge Maria, mare sua, senyora nostra. Comença - la letra del present libre appellat tirant lo blanch, dirigida per - mossen Johanot martorell caualler al serenissimo princep don Ferrando - de portogal.[12] - - [12] To the honor, praise and glory of our Lord God, Jesus - Christ, and of the glorious most blessed Virgin Mary, His Mother, - Our Lady. Here beginneth the dedicatory letter of this book - entitled _Tirant lo Blanch_, addressed by Sir Johanot Martorell, - Knight, to the most serene Prince Ferdinand of Portugal. - -In this letter we are told that Prince Ferdinand found great delight -in the contemplation of heroic deeds. His most enthusiastic admiration -was called forth by the feats of that famous hero, Tirant lo Blanch, -who outshone all other knights as the sun outshines all other planets. -But, according to this letter, the story of that great knight was -written in the English language. Prince Ferdinand wished to have it -translated into Portuguese, and since he knew that Martorell had spent -some time in England, he considered him well qualified to do the work. -Accordingly he asked him to translate the book. - -Martorell, however, expresses a feeling of incompetency, and on -account of his professional and family affairs and the adversities of -fortune which do not permit him to enjoy peace of mind, he feels that -he might be justified in declining the noble task. But notwithstanding -all these obstacles he will undertake it, for surely the Sovereign -Good, who comes to the aid of those who wish to do worthy things, -will not fail him in his endeavor. Then in an enterprising spirit he -announces: - - ... me atreuire expondre, no solament d’lengua Anglesa en Portoguesa, - mas encara de Portoguesa en vulgar valenciana: perço que la nacio - don yo so natural sen puxa alegrar e molt ajudar per los tants e tan - insignes actes com hi son.[13] - - [13] I shall undertake to translate, not only from the English - language into Portuguese, but also from the Portuguese into - the Valencian vernacular: in order that the country of which I - am a native may enjoy and be highly benefited by the many very - remarkable acts that are described therein. - -He asks the prince to accept the book as from a devoted servant, -and begs him to overlook with indulgence the errors that may be -found therein, for in some passages it was impossible to give a good -translation of the English words. The letter closes as follows: - - E perque en la present obra altri no puxa esser increpat si - defalliment algu trobat hi sera; yo Johanot martorell caualler sols - vull portar lo carrech e no altri ab mi: com per mi sols sia stada - ventilada a servey del molt illustre Princep e senyor rey spectant don - ferrando de portogal: la present obra e començada a .ii. d’giner de - lany .Mcccclx.[14] - - [14] And in order that no other person may be blamed for any - faults that may be contained in this work, I, Johanot Martorell, - Knight, wish to accomplish this task alone and with the aid of no - one else: in order that it may be performed by me alone in the - service of the most illustrious Prince and Lord, expectant of the - royal crown, Don Ferdinand of Portugal. This work is begun on the - second day of January, 1460. - -The principal part of the note that is found at the conclusion of the -book reads as follows: - - Aci feneix lo libre del valeros e strenu caualler Tirant lo blanch, - Princep e Cesar del Imperi grech de Contestinoble, lo qual fon traduit - de Angles en lengua portoguesa, e apres en vulgar lengua valenciana - per lo magnifich e virtuos caualler mossen johanot martorell, lo qual - per mort sua non pogue acabar de traduir sino les tres parts. La - quarta part que es la fi del libre, es stada traduida a pregaries de - la noble senyora dona Ysabel de loriç per lo magnifich caualler Mossen - Marti johan d’galba: e si defalt hi sera trobat vol sia atribuit a la - sua ignorancia.[15] - - [15] Thus ends the book of the valorous and brave knight, - Tirant lo Blanch, Prince and Caesar of the Grecian Empire of - Constantinople, which was translated from English into the - Portuguese language, and afterwards into the Valencian vernacular - by the illustrious and excellent knight, Sir Johanot Martorell, - who by reason of his death was not able to translate more than - the three parts. The fourth part, which is the end of the book, - has been translated at the request of the noble lady, Dona Isabel - de Loriç by the illustrious knight, Sir Marti Johan d’Galba: and - if there are any defects in it, may they be attributed to his - ignorance. - -Then is appended the colophon: - - Fon acabada d’empremptar la present obra en la Ciutat de Valencia a - .xx. del mes de Nohembre del any de la natiuitat de nostre senyor deu - Jesu crist mil .cccc. lxxxx.[16] - - [16] The printing of this work was completed in the city of - Valencia on the twentieth day of November of the year of the - nativity of our Lord God, Jesus Christ, 1490. - -According to the above representations, _Tirant lo Blanch_ existed -originally as an English romance of chivalry which was translated into -Portuguese by Martorell; then the Portuguese version was translated -into the Valencian language, three parts of it by Martorell and the -fourth part by de Galba. - -But the literary world knows no English _Tirant lo Blanch_, nor, so -far as can be discovered, has it ever seen a reference to a romance -of that description except the statements in the Catalan book. -Consequently no little doubt arises as to an English original. The same -is the case concerning a Portuguese _Tirant lo Blanch_, and the doubt -as to the accuracy of Martorell’s and de Galba’s assertions increases -considerably. And then, finally, the contents of the work, its spirit, -its sources, and the fact that there is a _Tirant lo Blanch_ in the -Catalan language, strongly impel the reader to conclude that the -Catalan book is the original. - -Let us first consider the question as to an English original. After a -careful study of _Tirant lo Blanch_, we have come to the conclusion -that it is hardly possible that it ever existed as an English romance. -That conclusion is based on a study of its principal sources and on the -nature of its contents. A truly Catalan atmosphere pervades by far the -greater part of it. The court and military life of the Catalonians and -Aragonese, their political problems and aspirations, their hopes and -fears,—all these are vividly reflected in this romance of chivalry. -Their history and their literature are so closely interwoven with the -story of Tirant lo Blanch, that we can scarcely conceive it possible -that it is not a Catalan production. We believe that when Martorell -says that the work is translated from the English, he means that it has -been inspired by an English book. And his statement has the semblance -of truth, for his composition contains a reproduction of a considerable -part of the English romance, _Guy of Warwick_, somewhat modified -however, together with an account of the institution of the Order of -the Garter, of which the scenes of action are all laid in England. To -the story based on the above romance has been joined material derived -from other sources, and one of these is Raymond Lull’s _Libre del -Orde d’Cauayleria_. In the story, of which the material from these -two sources forms the foundation, Guy of Warwick is represented as -Guillem de Varoych, and for this reason we shall name this composite -reproduction, the William of Warwick episode.[17] _Tirant lo Blanch_ -begins with this episode, which occupies a little more than one-eighth -part of the complete work. But this is not the only part in which the -influence of _Guy of Warwick_ is revealed. We know that Martorell, -when he planned his book of chivalry, was acquainted with the story of -Guy of Warwick, and in the course of the composition certain features -of the latter occurred to him and were incorporated in his work. -But these are not very numerous, and they are so sparsely scattered -that the pronounced Catalan atmosphere in which they appear absorbs -whatever distinguishing characteristics they may have had originally. -Our investigations, the details of which will follow, lead us to the -conclusion that if _Tirant lo Blanch_ had an English original, this -must have been written by a Catalan,—which, to say the least, is -improbable. Scholars who have given some attention to this question -entertain serious doubts concerning the representations that the work -is translated from the English. Menéndez y Pelayo regards the question -as very problematic.[18] Givanel Mas, in his excellent study on _Tirant -lo Blanch_,[19] intimates that it is doubtful that there has existed -an English original. Still he would consider it bold to deny that the -book has ever appeared in English or in Portuguese. But, on the other -hand, he sees no reason why we should consider it impossible that the -author has followed the custom of writers of chivalry, who, in perhaps -a majority of cases, pretend that their works were based on productions -found in foreign languages, not only in Greek, Latin, and Arabic, but -also in English and German. Bonsoms y Sicart says: “No cabe duda que -la celebrada novela es hija de la imaginación del magnífico y virtuoso -caballero valenciano.”[20] Rubió y Lluch makes this statement: “El -Tirant, en la parte fundamental, en el carácter general del cuadro -en que los personajes se mueven con más desembarazo, es indígena, es -catalán por sus cuatro costados.”[21] - - [17] Why did Martorell change the name from Guy to William - (Guillem)? The Catalan form for Guy is Guiu, which may have been - easily confused in the MSS. with Guim, a contracted form of - Guillem. If this substitution did not result from a confusion in - names, the resemblance may have suggested Guillem, which was more - popular and therefore may have seemed preferable. - - [18] D.M. Menéndez y Pelayo, _Orígenes de la Novela_, Madrid, - 1905; tomo I, p. ccliii. - - [19] Juan Givanel Mas, _Estudio crítico de Tirant lo Blanch_, - Madrid, 1912; p. 21. - - [20] _Discursos leídos en la Real Academia de Buenas Letras de - Barcelona en la recepción publica de D. Isidro Bonsoms y Sicart_, - Barcelona, 1907; por Don Isidro Bonsoms y Sicart y Don Antonio - Rubió y Lluch, p. 40. - - [21] _Ibid._, p. 164. - -There is a passage in the William of Warwick episode which we feel -is a probable indication that the author was not English. When the -hermit-king, as leader of the English forces, recaptured the castle -of Alimburch from the Moors, in which the latter held many Christian -ladies as captives, Johan de Varoych, son of Guillem, called to them in -the following words: “Dones angleses, exiu defora e tornau en vostra -primera libertat, car vengut es lo dia de la vostra redempcio.”[22] Why -did the author say “Dones angleses”? Is it not probable that he for the -moment had forgotten that the work was supposed to be a translation -from the English, and addressed the ladies as a foreigner might have -done? - - [22] English ladies, come out and enjoy your former liberty, for - the day of your redemption has come. - -In spite of our efforts to take the author at his word, we feel moved -to conclude that the work was not translated from an English original. -We believe that a statement to that effect was made, because the -beginning of _Tirant lo Blanch_ was a kind of reproduction of a romance -in which an English knight was the hero, and because the events that -are recounted in that first part took place in England. The declaration -was perhaps suggested by examples of other authors of romances of -chivalry who attributed their works to foreign sources. - -But if there was no English original, was there some other work to be -translated? In what language was it written? For lack of any other -information, we shall have to conclude that it was in Catalan, for the -contents of the final version clearly indicate that. This, then, was -translated into Portuguese, and then into Catalan. How absurd! for it -already existed in Catalan. It is evident that there was no translating -to be done. - -If the book was not translated from an English, or a Catalan original, -it may be asked whether it was first written in Portuguese and then -translated into Catalan. In attempting to answer this question it is -necessary to remember the reason that is given for translating the work -from English into Portuguese, viz., that Prince Ferdinand of Portugal -asked Martorell to produce the work in the Portuguese language. And who -was this “serenissimo princep”? - -Prince Ferdinand (1433-1470) was the second son of King Edward I of -Portugal. His mother was Doña Leonor de Aragón, a daughter of King -Ferdinand I. At the death of King Edward, in 1438, the latter’s eldest -son mounted the throne as Alfonso V. He was but six years old, and in -order that there might be no question as to the succession, “foi o -Infante D. Fernando jurado Principe pellos Infantes, e pello Conde de -Barcellos e por todos os que eraõ presentes, por si, e por todos os do -Reyno, de que se fizeraõ Autos solemnizados por Notarios publicos e -dahi em diante se chamou Principe de Portugal.”[23] This prince was, -according to de la Clède, “Duc de Viseo, Grand Maître de Christ et de -Saint Jacques en Portugal, et Connétable du Roiaume.”[24] He took an -active part in the fighting against the Moors in the northwestern part -of Africa. - - [23] The Infante, D. Ferdinand was solemnly accepted as Prince - by the other Infantes, and by the Count of Barcellos and by all - those who were present, for themselves and for those of the - kingdom; duly attested acts of this action were drawn up by - notaries, and henceforth he was called Prince of Portugal. Duarte - Nunes de Leaõ, _Cronicas del rey Dom Joaõ de gloriosa memoria, - o I. deste nome, e dos reys de Portugal o X., e as dos reys D. - Duarte, e D. Affonso o V._, Lisbon, 1780; vol. 2, p. 86. - - [24] M. de la Clède, _Histoire générale de Portugal_, Paris, - 1735; vol. 3, p. 242. - -Apparently, then, this dedication and all that concerns Prince -Ferdinand is written in good faith. And since he was a Portuguese, it -would be only natural to suppose that the book was composed in the -Portuguese language. - -But this supposition loses much of its force when we consider that his -mother was a Catalan, and consequently it is probable that he knew, or, -at least, understood the Catalan language. Then, too, Martorell, who -was so fond of making elaborate descriptions of court life, fails to -reveal this tendency in telling about Tirant’s visit to the Portuguese -court at Lisbon, while this hero was on his way from Brittany to -Sicily. A few cold, matter-of-fact statements of that brief stay are -the only homage he renders to the kingdom of his patron. Surely that -was an excellent opportunity to sing the praises of Portugal, its -heroes, and its rulers, but to our great surprise no such attempt -is made. This fact is indeed astonishing, and causes us to doubt -that the book was written under the direction or at the request of a -Portuguese. Moreover, at the very time that Martorell was engaged in -the composition of _Tirant lo Blanch_, the Portuguese were doing what -they had been doing for years, performing heroic exploits in their -wars against the Moors on the African shores opposite the Spanish -peninsula. In the book under consideration the hero conquers that very -territory, but the Portuguese efforts find no place in the account of -that victorious campaign. And yet that conquest had a historical basis, -for it was founded on conditions and events described in Muntaner’s -_Chronica_.[25] We cannot help asking ourselves the question: Why did -Martorell wholly disregard the great deeds of valor of the Portuguese -heroes? He has given proof of being well versed in the history of his -times, and surely he had heard and read of their prowess. The answer -that suggests itself is, that the experiences of his native land with -Barbary as narrated in the _Chronica_ were uppermost in his mind, and -while he was writing the book the exploits of the Portuguese probably -did not occur to him. If such was the case, it is highly probable -that he did not reside at the Portuguese court, and perhaps Prince -Ferdinand was not much more than a name to him. In the kind of work -undertaken by the author, a work based principally on historical events -and the customs of the times, intermingled with literary productions -and problems that confronted Christianity and involved the destiny of -nations, the absence of traces of Portuguese influence from the fields -of history and of literature, or from any other field, causes us to -doubt seriously that the book was originally in Portuguese.[26] - - [25] _Chronik des Edlen En Ramón Muntaner_, edited by Dr. Karl - Lang, _Bibliothek des literarischen Vereins in Stuttgart_, - Stuttgart, 1844. - - [26] See page 152. - -Moreover, Martorell, who was to write this book, was a Catalan. Was he -as excellent a master of Portuguese as he was of his native tongue? We -have no definite information in that regard upon which we may rely. -Surely he was courageous to write such a voluminous work in Portuguese, -if he did not control that language with ease. When he drew his -material from Lull’s and from Metge’s works (see pp. 79-89), did he -translate it into Portuguese and then turn it back into Catalan without -consulting the corresponding passages in the sources? If such was -the case, there would have been a greater difference in the parallel -passages. But a man who is a master of the two languages would never -take that trouble. And why should he try to make the passages exactly -alike? Now, what was Martorell to write about? About a great hero -whose name was Tirant lo Blanch and whose deeds were so much admired -by Prince Ferdinand. But this Tirant lo Blanch is not a historical -personage, he is an imaginary individual, a literary character. If -the Catalan Tirant had not yet been written, if there was not even -such a literary character, how, then, could the Prince have become so -enthusiastic about him? - -The strongest argument in favor of a Portuguese original is the fact -that de Galba states that he translated the final fourth part from -the Portuguese. But we must remember that Martorell says that he will -translate the Portuguese into Catalan, and for that reason de Galba -was obliged to say the same. But the same style, vocabulary, method -of composing the work, the point of view and characteristics of the -author are in evidence throughout the book. For this reason it may seem -that Martorell wrote the whole work in Portuguese and then translated -three-fourths of it into Catalan. He died and de Galba completed it. -But if the latter had translated the fourth part, we feel that we -should have been able to discover some differences in style, spelling -and vocabulary, and an absence of some of the favorite expressions of -Martorell. If he had composed that part we should not have had much -difficulty in detecting it. Consequently we cannot believe that _Tirant -lo Blanch_ was first written in Portuguese, and then translated into -Catalan. - -However, we accept in full faith the statement of the author that -he is a Valencian. The contents of his work corroborate it. He knew -that Ferdinand was Prince of Portugal; but did the latter ask him to -translate the English original? We cannot believe that there was such -a book in English, and consequently we doubt that _Tirant_ was written -at this request. We shall probably never be able to discover whether -Martorell was personally acquainted with Prince Ferdinand, or whether -he ever was in communication with him. The details of the dedicatory -letter point in that direction, but perhaps that was only an ingenious -way of the author to induce us to give credit to his statements. -However that may be, there was probably some good reason for dedicating -the work to the prince, but very likely we shall never know just what -that reason was. - -If we cannot believe that there was an English original, and we doubt -that the book was first written in Portuguese, then it is probable that -we shall conclude that _Tirant lo Blanch_ was first written in Catalan. -Perhaps an attempt to prove that it is a Catalan production will help -us solve the problem. - -In the composition of this book, material drawn from Catalan history -and Catalan literature has been utilized. The former we shall discuss -in other parts of this work, but we take up at this time two of the -literary sources. First let us give a series of parallel passages -from Raymond Lull’s _Libre del Orde d’Cauayleria_ and from _Tirant lo -Blanch_ in order to see what can be gained from a study of these. - - _Libre del Orde d’Cauayleria_ _Tirant lo Blanch_ - - 1^{a} En aquell temps en la entrada 1^{b} Lo virtuos rey de Anglaterra - del gran iuern sesdevench perque a total oci e languiment - que un gran Rey molt noble nos sotsmetessen: delibera, puix - e de bones costumes be habundos, hauie contractat matrimoni, de - hac manades corts: e per fer cridar cort general afi que - la gran fama qui fon per la terra si fes gran exercici darmes. La - de sa cort, hun assaut scuder fama fon divulgada per tots los - tot sol, en son palaffre caualcant, regnes de cristians, de la grandissima - anava a la cort per esser adobat festa que lo famos Rey - a noueyl cauayler: on per lo preparaua. Seguis que un gentilom - trebayl que hac sostengut d’son de linatge antich e natural - caualcar, dementre que anaua de Bretanya, anant en companyia - en son palaffre adormis. E en de molts altres gentils - aquella hora lo cauayler qui en homens qui a la gran festa - la forest fahia sa penitencia ffon anauen aturas mes darrer de - vengut a la ffont contemplar tots e adormis sobrel roci fatigat - Deu e menysprear la vanitat de del treball del gran cami que - aquest mon, seguns que cascun fet hauia. Son cauall lexa lo - jorn hauia acustumat. cami e pres per una senda qui - Dementre que lescuder caualcaua dreçava ala delitosa font hon - en axi, son palaffre exi d’l lermita staua qui en aquell cas - cami e mes se per lo boscatge, se delitaua legir un libre qui es - e ana tant la hon li plach per lo nomenat arbre de batalles. E - boscatge, tro esdevench en la feya continuament gracies, com - fontana hon lo cauayler estava aquell libre legia, a nostre - en oracio. Lo cauayler qui viu Senyor Deu de les singulars - venir lescuder lexa sa oracio e graties que en aquest mon hauia - assech se en lo bel prat a la aconseguides servint lorde de - ombra del arbre, e comença a caualleria. E stant axi veu - legir a .i. libre que tenia en la venir per pla un home a cauall; - fauda. e conegue que venia dormint; - lexas de legir e nol volgue despertar. - Lo palaffre con fo a la font Com lo roci fon dauant - bech de laygua, e lescuder qui la font e veu laygua, acostasi - senti en durment que son palaffre per voler beure: e per que tenia - nos mouia, despertas, e la falça regna en larço de la - viu denant si lo cauayler qui fo çella no podia: e tant bascha - molt veyl, e hac gran barba e que fon forçat al gentilom ques - lonchs cabels, e romputs vestiments: despertas: e obrint los hulls, se - per la velea e per la veu dauant un hermita ab molt - penitencia que fasia fo magre gran barba tota blancha: e quasi - e descolorit, e per les lagremes les vestidures rompudes: e mostrauas - que gitaua, sos hulls foren apoquits, flach e descolorit. E - e ac esguart d’molta santa aço causaua la molta penitencia - vida. que feya continuament, e per - les moltes lagremes quels seus - hulls destillauen li eren los hulls - molt apoquits. Lo conspectu - seu era de home admirable e de - gran sanctedat. - - 2^{a} Con lo cauayler ausi parlar 2^{b} Con lermita hoy parlar al - de cauayleria et remembra lorde gentilom que anaua per rebre - de cauayleria lorde de caualleria, recordant li - lorde quina cosa es, e tot ço que - e so quey pertany pertany a caualler, lansa un gran - a cauayler, adonchs gita .j. suspir sospir e entra en gran pensament, - et entra en consirer membrant essent en recort de la - en lo honrament en lo grandissima honor en que caualleria - qual cauayleria lo auia longament lauia longament mantengut. - mantengut. - - 3^{a} Com, fiyl, so dix lo cauayler, 3^{b} E com, dix lermita, no saps - e no saps tu qual es la regla e tu qual es la retgla e lorde de - lorde de cauayleria? e com pots caualleria? E com pots tu demanar - tu demanar cauayleria tro sapies caualleria fins que sapies - lorde de cauayleria? cor negun lorde, car negun cavaller no pot - cauayler no pot mantenir lorde mantenir lorde si nol sap e tot - que no sap, ni pot amar son lo que pertany a lorde: - orde ni so que pertany a son - orde, si no sap lorde de cauayleria, - ni sap conexer lo fayliment - que sia contra son orde. - Ni negun cauayler no deu fer e negun caualler sino sap - cauayler si no sap lorde de lorde de caualleria no es caualler, - cauayleria, cor desordenat cauayler car desordenat caualler es - es qui fa cauayler e no qui fa altre caualler e no li sap - li sap mostrar les custumes quis mostrar los costums que pertanyen - pertanyen a cauayler. a caualler. - - 4^{a} Bel amic, ço dix lo cauayler, 4^{b} Mon fill, dix lermita, tot lorde - la regla e lorde de cauayleria es es en aquest libre scrit, lo qual - en aquest libre en lo qual jo lig yo lig algunes veguades, perque - alcunes vegades per ço quem sia en recort de la gratia que - fassa remembrar la gracia et la nostre senyor - merce que Deus ma feta en - aquest mon, per ço cor honraua ma feta en aquest mon, per ço - e mantenia lorde de cauayleria a com honraua e mantenia lorde - tot mon poder. Cor en axi con de caualleria de tot mon poder. - cauayleria dona tot ço que pertany E axi com caualleria dona tot - a cauayler, en axi cauayler ço que pertany a caualler, axi - deu donar totes ses forses a caualler deu donar totes ses - honrar cauayleria. forces a honrar caualleria. - - 5^{a} E per ayso de tot lo poble 5^{b} E per aquesta causa de tot - foren fets milanaris, e de cascun lo poble foren fets millenars e de - .M. fo elet e triat .j. home pus cascun miller fonch elet un - amable, pus savi, pus leyal e home, mes amable e de mes - pus fortz, e ab pus noble coratge, afabilitat, mes savi, mes leal, - ab mes densenyaments e de mes fort e ab mes noble animo, - bons nodriments que tots los ab mes virtuts e bones costumes - altres. Encercat fo en totes les que tots los altres. E apres feren - besties qual es pus beyla bestia, cercar de totes les besties qual - e pus corrent e que pusca sostenir seria mes bella mes corrent, e - mes de trebayl, ni qual es pus que pogues sostenir maior treball, - covinent a servir home. E cor e qual fos mes covinent per - cauayl es la pus nobla bistia e a la servitut de lome, - la pus covinent a servir home, - per ayso de totes les besties hom e de totes - eleech cauayl e dona lo al home elegiren lo cauall e donaren lo a - qui fo elet de .M. homens: e lome qui fonch elet de mil homes - per ayso aquel home ha nom hu: e perço aquell home ague - cauayler. Com hom ac aiustada nom caualler com aguessen aiustada - la pus nobla bistia al pus noble la mes noble bestia ab lo - home... mes noble home. - - 1^{a} At that time, which was in 1^{b} The noble King of England, - the beginning of the severe winter, in order that his people - it happened that a great should not give themselves up to - king, who was most noble and absolute idleness and languor, - of many excellent habits, ordered determined, since he had contracted - an assembly of his court. marriage, to proclaim a - On account of the great fame meeting of the General Court - which his court enjoyed all over where great exercises of arms - the earth, a doughty squire, all should take place. The news of - alone and riding on his palfrey, the wonderful festival which the - went thither in order that he famous king was planning was - might be made a knight; when, spread throughout all the Christian - on account of the fatigue that he realms. It happened that - underwent from his riding, he a nobleman of ancient lineage - fell asleep while going along on and a native of Brittany, traveling - his steed. And at that moment in the company of many - the knight who was doing penance other noblemen who were going - in the forest had come to to the great festival, fell behind - the spring to contemplate and all the rest, and, overcome by - to despise the vanity of this the fatigue of the long journey - world just as he was accustomed that he had made, dropped - to do every day. asleep. His steed left the road - While the squire was riding and followed a path which led - along in this manner, his steed to the delightful spring where - left the road and entered the the hermit was, who at that - woods. It went wherever it very moment was reading with - pleased in the forest until it came great delight a book entitled - to the spring where the knight _Arbre de Batalles_. And he was - was praying. The knight, who continuously rendering thanks, - saw the squire coming, ceased while reading that book, to our - praying and seated himself on Lord God for the singular favors - the beautiful meadow in the that he had obtained in this - shade of the tree, and began to world in the service of the Order - read in a book which he had in of Chivalry. Being occupied in - his lap. When the steed was at this manner, he saw a man on - the spring, it drank, and the horseback coming across the - squire who in his sleep felt that plain, and noticed that he was - the palfrey was no longer moving, asleep. He ceased reading and - awoke, and saw before him did not wish to awaken him. - the knight who was very old, When the steed was in front of - and had a big beard and long the spring and saw the water, - hair, and clothes that were torn. it approached, for it wished to - From his vigils and from the drink, but because the rein was - penance that he was doing he fastened to the pommel of the - was thin and pale; and from the saddle it was not able to do so: - tears that he was shedding, his it stooped so low that the rider - eyes were swollen, and he had was obliged to wake up, and - the appearance of a man leading opening his eyes, he found himself - a very holy life. Ramon Lull, before a hermit with a very - _Libre del Orde d’Cauayleria_, big snow-white beard: his clothes - Barcelona, 1879; p. v. were almost in shreds and he - was weak and pale. This was - caused by the great penance - that he was continuously doing, - and on account of the many - tears that his eyes distilled, - these were very much swollen. - His appearance was that of a - venerable and very holy man. - _Tirant lo Blanch_, chap. xxviii. - - 2^{a} When the knight heard the 2^{b} When the hermit heard the - subject of chivalry mentioned, nobleman say that he was going - and remembered the Order of so that he might be received into - Chivalry and what pertains to the Order of Chivalry, he, remembering - a knight, he gave a sigh and what the order is, - began to reflect deeply, remembering and all that pertains to a knight, - the honor in which gave a heavy sigh and began to - chivalry had so long maintained reflect deeply, recalling the very - him. _Ibid._, p. v. great honor in which chivalry - had so long maintained him. - _Ibid._, chap. xxix. - - 3^{a} “How now, my son,” this 3^{a} “And how now,” said the - said the knight, “and do you hermit, “do you not know what - not know what the rules and the rules and the Order of - the Order of Chivalry are? How Chivalry are? And how can you - can you ask for knighthood before ask for knighthood before you - you know the Order of know the order, for no knight - Chivalry? For no knight can can maintain the order if he - maintain the order that he does does not know it and all that - not know, nor can he love his pertains to the order: and no - order nor what pertains to his knight, if he does not know the - order if he does not know the Order of Chivalry, is a knight, - Order of Chivalry nor can distinguish for a poor knight is he who makes - the faults that are another a knight and cannot - against his order. Neither ought show him the practices which - any knight if he does not know pertain to a knight.” _Ibid._, - the Order of Chivalry make a chap. xxx. - knight, for a poor knight is he - who makes a knight and cannot - show him the practices which - pertain to a knight.” _Ibid._, - p. vi. - - 4^{a} “My fair friend,” this said 4^{b} “My son,” said the hermit, - the knight, “the rules and the “the whole order is described in - Order of Chivalry are contained this book, which I read sometimes, - in this book in which I read in order that I may be - sometimes in order that I may reminded of the grace that our - be reminded of the grace and Lord granted me in this world, - the favors that God has granted for I honored and maintained - me in this world, for I honored the Order of Chivalry with all - and maintained the Order of my might. And just as chivalry - Chivalry with all my might. gives all that pertains to a - For just as chivalry gives all knight, so also a knight ought to - that pertains to a knight, so give all his strength to honor - also a knight ought to give all chivalry.” _Ibid._, chap. xxxi. - his strength to honor chivalry.” - _Ibid._, p. vi. - - 5^{a} And on account of this all 5^{b} And for this reason all the - the people were divided into people were divided into groups - groups of thousands, and from of thousands and from each - each thousand was selected and thousand was selected one man - chosen one man who was more who was more amiable and of - amiable, wiser, more loyal and greater affability, wiser, more - more powerful, and with more loyal, more powerful and with - noble courage, with more instruction nobler courage, with more excellent - and good training than qualities and good practices - all the others. A diligent search than all the others. And - was made among all the animals afterwards they caused a search - to determine which one of them to be made among all the animals - is the most beautiful and most to determine which was the most - fleet and which is able to endure beautiful, most fleet, and which - most fatigue, and which is most could endure greatest fatigue, - suitable to serve man. And and which was most suitable for - since the horse is the most noble the service of man, and from - animal and the most suitable to all, they selected the horse and - serve man, for this reason, from gave it to the man, the one who - all the animals one selected the was chosen from one thousand - horse and gave it to the man men: and therefore that man - who was chosen from one thousand was called caualler, since they - men: and therefore that had adapted the most noble - man is called cauayler. Since animal to the most noble man. - one has adapted the most noble _Ibid._, chap. xxxii. - animal to the most noble - man... _Ibid._, p. vii. - -The five parallel passages given above indicate that Martorell had -Lull’s work before his eyes at the time that he was writing the part -that treats of the meeting of young Tirant and the hermit and their -conversation concerning the order of Chivalry. The first passage from -the _Libre del Orde d’Cauayleria_ is an excellent example of the -author’s method in selecting a foundation on which to base the various -and numerous activities of his hero. The passage is important, for it -has furnished an interesting manner of introducing Tirant lo Blanch -to the reader, and, moreover, it may have been the author’s starting -point. The corresponding passage from Martorell’s work reveals that -the source was followed very closely. It is an easy matter to pick out -the part of it that he needed to change in order to make it suit his -purpose. The details of the latter part give evidence that he consulted -the source probably more than once, and that the modifications which we -find there are not necessarily due to the processes of translation. The -same may be said of the second parallel passages. But the other three -are so very nearly alike that the translation theory must be given up. -Let us remember what we are asked to believe. We are told that _Tirant -lo Blanch_ was translated from the English. Then these passages were -translated from Lull’s work (written in Catalan), first into English, -then into Portuguese, and finally back into Catalan. And in all these -various processes the passages in their final form are practically the -same as the original. Is not this a marvelous achievement? We cannot -believe the author’s ingenious representations. We are convinced that -_Tirant lo Blanch_ was not translated from the English. And since that -is the case, is it not probable that it was not written in Portuguese? -We admit that by translating from the Catalan into Portuguese, and -then back again into Catalan, the resulting passages might not be so -very different. But we cannot believe that they could be so similar to -the original after two translations. Then, how do we account for the -changes? A comparative study of Lull’s style and language and that of -Martorell shows that there was considerable difference between them. -Of course, it was not the latter’s intention to copy the material -word for word. He recast it, adapting it to his style and vocabulary; -in other words, he took in general merely the ideas and expressed -them in his own way. If Lull’s manner of expression in certain cases -agreed with his own, he did not make any changes. He added or omitted -incidents at his own pleasure. Sometimes he made a reproduction, and -at other times a copy with only such alterations as were necessary -to make the passages conform to his own style, which presumably he -considered an improvement over the original. Some few changes may have -been caused by misreading or in the process of copying. Now and then we -get the impression that he made certain alterations in order to avoid -a literal transcription. A glance over the above passages shows that -Martorell changed certain words. For “palaffre” he substituted “roci”; -for “vestiments,” “vestidures”; for “magre,” “flach”; for “ausi” -(heard), “hoy”; for “remembrar,” “recordar” or “esser en recort de”; -for “consirer,” “entrar en gran pensament”; for “honrament,” “honor”; -for “tro,” “fins”; for “en axi,” “axi”; for “pus” in comparisons, -“mes.” A study of Martorell’s vocabulary reveals that the words for -which he made substitutions are lacking in it. Other similar cases -may be found, but, to prove our point, we do not feel it necessary -to make an exhaustive study of the vocabularies of these authors. We -shall, however, call attention to the ending of the first parallel -passages. Lull says: “... e per les lagremes que gitaua, sos hulls -foren apoquits.” The corresponding passage of Martorell reads: “e per -les moltes lagremes quels seus hulls destillauen li eren los hulls -molt apoquits.” There is much weeping in _Tirant lo Blanch_, and the -author’s favorite way of describing it is something like this: “los -seus hulls destillaren vives lagremes.” Without making an exhaustive -search for this expression, we find twenty-one instances in _Tirant -lo Blanch_ where the words “hulls,” some form of “destillar,” and -“lagremes” are used to describe this emotional manifestation. He -expresses it in other ways, but he never uses the verb “gitar,” which -is employed by Lull in this connection. Martorell never uses this -word, but, on the other hand, he frequently employs “lançar” with the -very same meaning. - -After a careful comparison of the above passages, we are satisfied -that the book under consideration is not a translation from an English -original, nor was it first written in Portuguese. However, if the -reader is still doubtful in regard to these questions, let us examine -other parallel passages, of which the originals are found in another -Catalan production, which bears the title Lo _Somni d’En Bernat Metge_. - - _Lo Somni d’En Bernat Metge_[27] _Tirant lo Blanch_[28] - - 1^{a} Tamaris reyna de Scithia, 1^{b} ... Tamarits Reyna de Sicilia - no fo de menor coratge; la qual la qual no fo de menor - en venjança de la mort de son fill animo. Car en veniança de la - y consolacio sua mata batallant mort de son fill per consolacio - aquell famos y molt temut Cirus, sua mata en batalla aquell famos - rey d’Assia, ab dos cents milia e molt temut Cirius Rey d’dasia - Persians. ab. CC. milia persians. - - 2^{a} ... y apres que la hague 2^{b} ... Lo dit Cornelio obtengue - dompdada, se’n glorieja tant della victoria. E sen - com si hagues vençut lo major glorieja tant com si hagues - y pus victorios princep del vençut lo major princep del - mon. mon. - - 3^{a} ... E aquella [amor] que 3^{b} ... E aquella Porcia filla - Porcia filla de Catho, hague a d’l Rey Tracio sabent que lo - Brut, marit seu, la qual encontinent marit seu mort era. - que sabe la mort - d’aquell, per tal com no habia E com no pogues - prest ferre ab que’s matas, desitjant hauer ferro prest ab ques matas - seguir l’espirit del dit cobejant seguir lesperit de - Brut begue carbons foguejants aquell begue carbons foguejants - y mort. e mort. - - 4^{a} Be fo cordial e memorable 4^{b} Mes fon cordial e memorable - amor que Artemisia, reyna, lamor que Artemisa reyna - hague a Mauseolo, marit seu; hague a Menaculo, marit seu, la - la qual apres que ell fo mort y qual apres que ell fon mort e li - li hague celebrades solempnes hague celebrades solemnes exequies - exequies, lo feu polvoritzar, y’l lo feu poluorizar e begues - begue, mostrant que ella volia la polvora mostrant que ella - esser sepulcre d’ell. volia esser sepultura dell. - - 1^{a} Tomyris, Queen of Scythia, 1^{b} ... Tomyris, Queen of - was not of less courage: who Sicily, who was not of less - in avenging the death of her courage. For in avenging the - son and her consolation killed death of her son, for her consolation - battling that famous and much she killed in battle that - feared Cyrus, King of Asia, with famous and much feared Cyrus, - two hundred thousand Persians. King of Asia, with two hundred - thousand Persians. - - 2^{a} ... and after he had defeated 2^{b} The aforesaid Cornelius - her, he boasted about it won a victory over her. And - as if he had vanquished the he boasted about it as if he had - greatest and most victorious vanquished the greatest prince - prince in the world. in the world. - - 3^{a} ... and that [love] which 3^{b} ... and that Portia, - Portia daughter of Cato had for daughter of the King Tracio, - Brutus her husband, she, who, knowing that her husband was - as soon as she knew of his death, dead. And since she could not - for the reason that she had no get an iron instrument immediately, - iron instrument immediately at being eager to follow his - hand with which to slay herself, spirit, ate burning coals and - desiring to follow his spirit, ate died. - burning coals and died. - - 4^{a} Very cordial and memorable 4^{b} More cordial and memorable - was the love which Queen was the love which Queen - Artemisia had for Mausolus her Artemisa had for Menaculo - husband; she, who, after he was her husband, she, who, after - dead and she had solemn exequies he was dead and she had solemn - celebrated for him, caused exequies celebrated for him, - his body to be converted into caused his body to be converted - dust, and she swallowed it, into dust, and she swallowed the - showing that she wished to be dust, showing that she wished to - his sepulcher. be his sepulture. - - [27] _Lo Somni d’En Bernat Metge_, edited by R. Miquel y Planas, - Barcelona, 1907; Libre quart, pp. 93-95. - - [28] Chap. cccix, cols. 3 and 4. - -All that we have said in support of our contention that the excerpts -from _Tirant lo Blanch_ in the first series of parallel passages have -been taken directly from Lull’s work, and not from a translation, is -borne out by a comparison of the passages just given. We feel that -the evidence is conclusive and that comment would be superfluous. And -with all this array of evidence we feel justified in concluding that -_Tirant lo Blanch_ was written originally in Catalan. Martorell was a -learned Catalan; he was well versed in the history of his country and -its literature; he was a master of his native language; and he composed -his voluminous work in the tongue that he knew so well. If _Tirant lo -Blanch_ was translated into Portuguese, it was not from an English but -from a Catalan original that the translation was made. - - - - - CHAPTER II - - IN WHAT WAY WAS DE GALBA CONNECTED WITH THE - PRODUCTION OF TIRANT LO BLANCH? - - -We are told in the note at the end of the book that Martorell, because -of his death, was unable to translate more than three parts of it, and -that “la quarta part que es la fi del libre es stada traduida ... per -lo magnifich caualler Mossen Marti Johan de Galba.” Now the question -arises: What did de Galba have to do with the production of _Tirant lo -Blanch_? It is difficult to answer the question definitely. - -In the first place, we do not know what the four parts of the book are. -Martorell, at the beginning of the work, probably intended to divide -it into a number of parts, for, after the dedication and the prologue, -we read: “Comença la primera part del libre de Tirant la qual tracta -de certs virtuosos actes que feu lo Comte Guillem de Ueroych en los -seus benaventurats darrers dies.” Then, in the chapter immediately -following this caption, we find these words: “E per tant com la -divina providencia ha ordenat, e li plau que los .vii. planets donen -influencia en lo mon e tenen domini sobre la humana natura.... per ço -ab lo diuinal adiutori sera departit lo present libre de caualleria -en .vii. parts principals.... La primera part sera del principi de -caualleria. La segona sera del stament e offici de caualleria, etc.” -After informing us of what these seven parts shall treat, he makes this -puzzling statement: “Les quals .vii. parts de caualleria seran deduydes -en serta part del libre.”[29] Here, then, we have the conflicting -statements that the book is to be divided into seven parts, and then -follows the announcement that these seven parts shall be produced in a -certain part of the work. But nowhere in it do we find any indications -that the author attempted to make such a division. It is true, as we -have already stated, that the beginning of the first part is announced, -but after that no mention of the beginning or end of any other part is -made. A logical division into four almost equal parts is absolutely -impossible. But we do find that in Chapters XXXI-XXXVI some of the -subjects mentioned in the proposed divisions of the work are treated -and discussed. - - [29] Here commences the first part of the book of Tirant, which - treats of certain great deeds done by the Earl, William of - Warwick, in his last blessed days.... And inasmuch as Divine - Providence has ordained and is pleased that the seven planets - exert an influence over the world and hold dominion over human - nature. ... on account of this, with divine aid, this book of - chivalry will be divided into seven principal parts.... The first - part shall treat of the beginning of chivalry. The second shall - treat of the state and profession of chivalry, etc.... These - seven parts shall be presented in a certain part of the book. - -An examination of Lull’s _Libre del Orde d’Cauayleria_ will explain the -inconsistency. In this book we find, in the “Incipit Prologus,” the -following words: - - “Per Significança de les .vii. planetes ... que gouernen e ordonen - los corsos terrenals, departim aquest libre d’cauayleria en .vii. - parts.... La primera part es d’l començament d’cauayleria. La segona - es del offici de cauayleria, etc.”[30] - - [30] With the significance of the seven planets ... which - govern and control the terrestrial bodies, we divide this book - of chivalry into seven parts.... The first part treats of the - commencement of chivalry. The second treats of the profession of - chivalry, etc. - -Martorell had evidently copied from Lull’s book, and the inconsistency -was overlooked and found its way into his work. - -We have made endeavors to locate the fourth part, which we are told -was translated by de Galba, but all our efforts have been in vain. -We have carefully examined the spelling, vocabulary, and style of -the whole book, but have been unable to find any part that differed -sufficiently from the rest of the work to justify the assertion of even -a possibility that it represents the part translated by de Galba. The -statement can hardly be accepted, for we cannot find anything at all -that would tend to support or corroborate it in any way. - -But we have concluded that _Tirant lo Blanch_ was originally written -in Catalan. Consequently it is not the question: What part did de -Galba translate? but, What part did he write? It is not a difficult -matter to see why de Galba states that he _translated_ the fourth -part. Martorell had called his book a translation and consequently de -Galba was obliged to do the same. But the assumption that the latter -wrote a part of considerable importance can hardly be maintained. -We have already remarked that there is no appreciable difference in -vocabulary and style in any part. Moreover, we find throughout the work -a marked similarity in the manner of observation and description. The -author has certain favorite expressions which he uses again and again, -and these are not confined to any special parts. The same method of -composing the book is followed from beginning to end. The same mind -and the same heart are always in evidence. The different characters, -when laboring under intense emotion, speak and act in practically the -same way. Martorell has stamped his work with a strong individuality, -and his characteristics are revealed throughout. All these facts tend -to indicate that _Tirant lo Blanch_ is the work of one author and -one only. If it were not for the statement to the contrary, we feel -certain that no one would ever doubt that the whole book was written by -Martorell. - -But if we conclude that de Galba neither translated nor wrote a -considerable part of the work, what did he do that would give him any -right to claim part of the honor in the production? Perhaps Givanel -Mas is right when he hints that de Galba’s rôle was limited to the -preparation of the manuscript for publication. We are rather inclined -to accept that suggestion. We are, however, disposed to add that -probably de Galba did contribute something to the story. Perhaps he -wrote the very last chapter, which consists of about three hundred -words. We suggest this probability, because the reading of that chapter -leaves the impression that the ending of the story is overdone. It may -be that he wrote it for no other reason than to be able to say that he -“translated” the fourth part, “la fi del libre.” In this chapter we -are told that under the rule of Hypolite the empire was prosperous and -extended its limits. After the death of the empress, according to the -same chapter, he married a daughter of the King of England, who bore -him three sons and two daughters. The eldest of these sons was named -after his father and performed great deeds of prowess. The emperor and -the empress reached a very advanced age, and they died on the same day. -Their rule was so excellent, and their lives were so good and virtuous, -that we may feel assured that they are now enjoying the glory of heaven. - -We have not been able to find anything in the style and language of -this last chapter that would indicate that it was written by any other -than Martorell, and we confess that our suggestion is based almost -exclusively upon the fact that it might very well have been omitted. -In the chapters immediately preceding this one, Tirant and Carmesina -are placed in their tomb, Hypolite marries the empress, rewards his -friends, and marries them to ladies of the imperial court. The closing -words of the next to the last chapter are: - - “Apres dona a tots aquells qui se eren casats ab les criades de la - Emperadriu e de la Princessa bones heretats, quen podien molt be viure - a lur honor, e cascu segons son grau, que tots nestauen molt contents. - E apres per temps casa totes les altres axi com de bon senyor se - pertanyia.”[31] - - [31] Afterwards, to all those who had married the maids of the - empress and of the princess, he gave generous gifts, so that they - could live well and in honor, and each one according to his rank. - As a result all were very happy. And in time, as a worthy lord - ought, he gave all the others maids in marriage. - -The passage just quoted seems to have been intended for the conclusion -of _Tirant lo Blanch_. This indication, together with the fact that the -last chapter seems unnecessary and superfluous, surely justifies the -suggestion that probably de Galba wrote “la fi del libre,” but not the -fourth part, unless he called these last few lines “la quarta part.” - -The best explanation that we can suggest in regard to de Galba’s -statement is, that on account of preparing the manuscript for the -printer, he considered himself entitled to some credit in the -production of this book. Why he claims to have translated the fourth -part can only be a matter of conjecture. Perhaps that part was in -special need of revision. He may have made some changes or additions, -but we cannot admit that he wrote or translated the whole or a -considerable portion of it. - - - - - PART III - - COMPARATIVE STUDY OF _TIRANT LO BLANCH_ AND - THE SOURCES: _GUY OF WARWICK_, LIFE OF - ROGER DE FLOR IN MUNTANER’S _CHRONICA_, - AND LULL’S _LIBRE DEL ORDE D’CAUAYLERIA_. - - - - - CHAPTER I - - WILLIAM OF WARWICK STANDS FOR THE MATURE - GUY OF WARWICK - - -Towards the end of his book, the author of _Tirant lo Blanch_ annexed -to the life of his hero, with extensive modifications however, the -latter part of the career of the famous Catalan hero, Roger de Flor, -whose life from childhood to death is related in Muntaner’s _Chronica_. -It is not so strange, then, that those who have read _Tirant lo Blanch_ -and are acquainted with the life of Roger de Flor should designate -Martorell’s work as a kind of historical novel. - -In his excellent _Estudio crítico de Tirant lo Blanch_, Givanel Mas -exclaims: - - Cuán acertado estuvo Amador de los Ríos al indicar que la principal - fuente del libro de caballerías catalán, fueron las proezas de aquel - caudillo [Roger de Flor] cuyas hazañas llenan bastantes páginas de la - Crónica de Muntaner.[32] - - [32] _Op. cit._, p. 117. - -In Denk’s _Geschichte der altcatalanischen Litteratur_ we read the -following statement: - - Jeder Kenner der catalanischen Geschichte sieht in Tirant nichts als - die novellistisch behandelte Gestalt des kühnen Abenteurers Roger de - Flor, dessen Thaten Muntaner und Moncada erzählen und schildern.[33] - - [33] Dr. V.M. Otto Denk, _Einführung in die Geschichte der - altcatalanischen Litteratur_, Munich, 1893; pp. 144 and 145. - -In Menéndez y Pelayo’s _Orígenes de la Novela_ we find the following -passage: - - El tema principal de la novela, las empresas de Tirante en Grecia - y Asia ... dan al Tirante cierto sello de novela histórica, donde - se reconoce no muy disfigurada (dentro de los límites que separan - siempre la verdad de la ficción), la heróica expedición de catalanes y - aragoneses á Levante y el trágico destino de Roger de Flor.[34] - - [34] D.M. Menéndez y Pelayo, _Orígenes de la Novela_, Madrid, - 1905; tomo I, p. ccliv. - -But when we compare this book of chivalry with Muntaner’s _Chronica_ -and with _Guy of Warwick_, we see that these quotations, while true in -general, are at the same time more or less misleading, for the English -romance has provided more material than is generally believed, not -only that which furnished the basis of the William of Warwick episode, -but also elements that were utilized in different parts of the work. -Therefore we shall point out all the constituents or features that seem -to owe their origin to the English romance, _Guy of Warwick_, or to -that part of Muntaner’s _Chronica_ which contains the life of Roger de -Flor. - -In the William of Warwick episode, with which we have begun our -analysis, Martorell has given us a kind of free reproduction of an -important part of _Guy of Warwick_. But the Catalan author is not a -servile imitator; the incidents that he has taken from the English -romance he has treated in such a way as to render them more interesting -than the original. - -The episode is based upon the following events which we find in the -fourteenth-century versions of the Guy of Warwick romance[35]: After -many knightly combats and adventures on the continent, and after -slaying the dragon in Northumberland, Guy married Felice, the daughter -of Earl Rohold. The newly married couple lived in great happiness -for two weeks. One evening, after a hunt, Guy mounted a high tower, -where he admired the stars of heaven. He thought of the many honors -that had been bestowed upon him by Christ, our Saviour, and then it -occurred to him that he had never done anything for the Lord in return. -On the contrary, he had engaged in wars, wrought much woe, and slain -many of his fellow-men. He became deeply repentant and resolved to -spend the rest of his life as a pilgrim, and thus make amends for his -transgressions. He informed Felice of his resolution. She, in tears, -begged him to remain with her, but he was firm. Before his departure, -she gave him a ring as a remembrance of her. He crossed the sea and -proceeded on his way to Jerusalem. - - [35] These fourteenth-century versions were edited from the - Auchinleck MS. in the Advocates’ Library, Edinburgh, and from MS. - 107 in Caius College, Cambridge, by Julius Zupitza, and published - for the Early English Text Society, London, 1883, 1887, and 1891. - For the beginning of the episode, cf. p. 396. - -After many adventures abroad Guy finally returned to England. During -his absence the Danes had invaded the country and wrought great -destruction. When he arrived at Winchester none that saw him recognized -him. Just at the time of his arrival, the English king, Aethelstan, -was holding a council with the leading men of the realm. They were -considering the demand of the Danish king that the English surrender -the kingdom and pay tribute to Denmark or bring some one forth to -engage in combat with the giant, Colbrond, the champion of the Danes. -If this giant should be vanquished, the invaders would leave the soil -of England; but if, on the other hand, he should be victorious, the -English would be obliged to pay tribute to the Danes. King Aethelstan -asked his assembled men if they knew any knight who would dare to fight -against Colbrond, but they all stood silent with downcast eyes. The -king could not sleep that night, and was praying incessantly that God -might send some one to champion the cause of England, when an angel -appeared before him and bade him arise early the following morning -and go to church, where he would find a pilgrim who would undertake -the fight against the giant. Early the next morning the king met the -pilgrim. The latter at first declined the king’s behest, pleading -feebleness and old age, but finally consented. On the day appointed -the pilgrim went to the spot where the combat was to take place, knelt -down and prayed for victory. Then came Colbrond on foot, for he was too -heavy for any horse. All his armor was black, and his appearance such -as to make one shudder. Guy rode towards him and the combat began. The -giant cut Guy’s steed in two without much delay. Guy was then obliged -to fight on foot, and he was scarcely able to reach his adversary’s -shoulder with his sword. Nevertheless he succeeded in inflicting an -ugly wound on Colbrond, who returned the blow, cutting Guy’s shield -in twain. A moment later Guy struck a vigorous blow with his sword -and broke it. Thereupon he seized one of the axes of the giant, who -immediately drove his sword at him with all his might, but missed him, -the sword going three feet into the earth. While he was stooping to -pull it out, Guy cut off his right arm. The giant made a desperate -effort to extricate his weapon with his left, but before he could do -so, Guy severed his head from the body. Thus was Colbrond, champion of -the Danes, vanquished, and the invaders, true to their word, boarded -their ships and returned to their country. - -Guy was led back into the town of Winchester in a great triumphal -procession. King Aethelstan wished to reward him, but the pilgrim -would accept nothing. The king asked him to reveal his name. The -stranger replied that if he would accompany him out of the city, his -wish should be granted. Aethelstan went with him and was amazed when he -found out that the pilgrim was none other than Guy of Warwick. He asked -him to remain with him, but the request was denied. Both weeping, they -kissed each other and parted. Guy, in his pilgrim garb, went to the -city of Warwick, where he presented himself before his wife, Felice, -who gave him food without recognizing him. She asked him to come every -day, and he should always receive food and drink from her; but he -never returned. Going instead to visit a certain hermit, he found that -the latter had died during his absence. Guy then decided to pass the -remainder of his days in the deserted hermitage. One night an angel -appeared to him and announced that on the morning of the eighteenth day -he should exchange this world for heaven. When the period had almost -expired he sent a messenger to Felice with the ring that she had given -him when he set out on his pilgrimage. Recognizing the ring, she fell -unconscious. After recovering, she immediately went to him. Guy kissed -her tenderly and then passed away. A few days later Felice was buried -at his side. - -This part of the English romance was utilized by Martorell to form -the foundation of the William of Warwick episode. He made changes -and additions to suit his purpose, following the general plan, but -inventing the details. The simple ring he describes as a complicated -double ring; the Danish invasion as an incursion of the Moors; and the -angel that appeared to the king as the Virgin and the Child. When the -Danish champion is defeated, the Danes withdraw from England; but when -the Moorish king is vanquished, the Moors do not leave the kingdom as -they had agreed to do. Consequently a campaign to exterminate the -Moors results, and William of Warwick becomes the commander of the -English forces. - -But all of the episode is not based on _Guy of Warwick_. We have -seen in the beginning of the analysis that, after the Moors had been -annihilated, William again returned to a hermitage. Up to this point -Martorell followed his model rather faithfully, but thereafter he -abandoned it. However, he continued the episode, drawing his material -from a different source. In order to point out to the reader what parts -of the episode are not based on the English romance, and at the same -time to give a concrete example of the method followed by Martorell in -the composition of his work, we shall note the procedure of the author -in the continuation of this episode. - -In the prologue of Lull’s _Libre del Orde d’Cauayleria_ Martorell had -read of a great knight who likewise had retired to a hermitage, and -doubtless this striking coincidence, which apparently had attracted -his attention even before he began writing his romance, caused him to -incorporate in the episode the incident related by Lull. The prologue -recites how, in a certain country, a knight, who for a long time had -been an honor to knighthood, finally realized that the end of his days -was approaching, whereupon he decided to spend the rest of his life as -a hermit. Accordingly he went to live in a dense forest. It was his -custom to come every day to a clear spring under a large tree, where -he was wont to contemplate and pray. Now it happened that a great king -had announced an assembly of his court, and a certain mounted squire -was proceeding on his way to attend that court in order that knighthood -might be conferred upon him. Overcome by the fatigue of the journey, -the squire fell asleep. His steed left the road, entered the wood, -and came to a spring at a time when the hermit was there. The latter -discontinued his prayers when he saw the squire approaching and began -to read in a book. When the steed stopped at the spring to drink, -the rider awoke and was surprised to see the aged hermit before him. -After exchanging greetings, the hermit spoke to the youth of things -pertaining to knighthood, and when they parted, asked him to come back -after he had been made a knight. - -The author of _Tirant lo Blanch_ incorporated in his work the incident -just mentioned by paraphrasing it and by reproducing certain parts -almost literally, as we have already observed, making such changes as -he saw fit. In the reproduction of this incident the unknown hermit -is William of Warwick; the unnamed king is the King of England; and -the squire is Tirant lo Blanch. In Lull’s work the hermit invites the -squire to return, but he never comes back. Martorell makes his hero -accept the hermit’s invitation, and Tirant with his companions returns -to William of Warwick, when the principal events that took place at the -English court, including the marvelous feats of Tirant, are related to -him. The deeds that Martorell ascribes to Tirant while at the court -of the English king are not similar to those of Guy of Warwick as -described in the English romance. They are probably inventions of the -author, based on what he witnessed, heard, or read in connection with -tournaments or knightly affairs. Tirant remained with the hermit for a -few days and then returned to his native land, Brittany. Here ends the -William of Warwick episode. - -To sum up: All that part of the episode up to and including the -retirement of William of Warwick to a hermitage after the extermination -of the Moors, is based on the English romance, but only on that portion -of it that treats of the latter part of the career of the English hero. -The subsequent part of the episode at first seems to reveal no other -traces of the romance, but suddenly a resemblance emerges. - - - - - CHAPTER II - - TIRANT LO BLANCH RESEMBLES YOUNG GUY OF WARWICK - - -Perhaps William of Warwick stands for the mature Guy of Warwick, and -Tirant lo Blanch for the youthful Guy of Warwick. If such is the case, -we have met with a very interesting phenomenon: in the meeting of the -hermit and Tirant we have the venerable and experienced Guy of Warwick -giving instructions in regard to knighthood to his younger self. Our -attention is first called to this resemblance when we read of the -honors that Tirant gained at London. - -Tirant lo Blanch crossed the English Channel, took part in the -exercises of arms that were conducted under the auspices of the King of -England, and won for himself the honor of being the best knight; for in -reading the document given by the King to Tirant we meet these words: -“... volem que [Tirant lo Blanch] sia per tots los quatre cantons de -les liçes publicat per lo millor dels cauallers.”[36] - - [36] It is our desire that [Tirant lo Blanch] be proclaimed from - all four corners of the lists the best of the knights. _Tirant lo - Blanch_, chap. lviii, col. 2. - -Guy of Warwick crossed the English Channel, engaged in a tournament -that had been proclaimed by the daughter of the emperor of Germany, and -as a result a sergeant came to him after the tournament and addressed -him in these words: - - Sir Guy, he seide, god the kepe: - Thou art holde the best in this borough - And in all this londe thurgh and thorough.[37] - - [37] Caius MS., p. 59. - -But Tirant lo Blanch is supposed to represent Roger de Flor. Does the -youthful career of Tirant resemble that of the Catalan hero? Let us -consult Muntaner’s _Chronica_. There we find that Roger de Flor, when -eight years old, began his training for a sea-life and at the age of -twenty was pronounced a perfect mariner and placed in command of a ship -of the Templars. His early laurels were won as a seaman. No mention is -made of his prowess in the exercise of arms. - -From the above comparisons it is evident that Martorell did not have -Roger de Flor in mind when he described the knightly combats of Tirant. -But we do find a strong similarity between the youthful Tirant and -young Guy of Warwick as he is pictured to us in the English romance. We -know that Martorell had great respect for Guy of Warwick, for he calls -him “lo egregi e strenu caualler, pare de caualleria.” Perhaps the -youthful career of Guy or other incidents in the English romance have -made such impression on the author as to have left other visible marks -on his book of chivalry? Perhaps _Guy of Warwick_ has yielded more than -is generally believed? Let us follow the hint and see what result the -investigation will produce. - -Guy of Warwick in his youth served Earl Rohold as cup-bearer, and fell -in love with Felice, the daughter of his lord. Such woe came over -him that he wept. His suffering became greater and greater. Finally -he concluded to tell her of his love, for he could not eat nor drink -nor rest, and his woe was driving him to despair. He went to her, and -throwing himself at her feet, he made confession of his love. She -rebuffed him and warned him not to come to her again. He returned to -his room, where he tore his hair and rent his clothes until he swooned. -The earl sent doctors, and Guy pretended to be suffering from chills -and fever. Love again drove him to her feet. A maid remarked that -if she were the daughter of the richest king on earth, she could -not refuse Guy her love. Felice chided the maid for her speech, but -nevertheless took compassion on the unhappy lover and promised him her -love if he should become a great knight. And finally Guy, by his valor, -love, and true worth, won her, although he was beneath her in station. - -Tirant, as we have observed in the analysis, was afflicted in much -the same manner, when first he beheld Carmesina. He, too, was below -his lady in station, and his confession of love was received as an -insult. The emperor sent his physicians to him, and he claimed that his -sickness was due to change of climate. Just as the maid interceded for -Guy, so Stephania pleaded in behalf of Tirant. And in the end his love, -prowess, and great service to the empire removed the obstacle which the -difference in station had placed between them. - -The _Chronica_ of Muntaner does not give us any information concerning -a love affair between Roger de Flor and the niece of the Emperor of -Constantinople. Nor are there any love scenes at all in that part of -the _Chronica_ that deals with the career of the Catalan hero. - -While Guy of Warwick was at Spires with the Emperor of Germany, they -went hunting along the river. When Guy was returning from the hunt, -he noticed a dromond coming to the shore. He greeted the men in the -boat, and learned that they were merchants who had left Constantinople -because the sultan, after having devastated nearly all of the Grecian -empire, laid siege to the imperial city. Guy, with his faithful -companion from England, Heraud, and one hundred of the most stalwart -knights that he could find in Germany, went to Constantinople to succor -the unfortunate emperor. When he arrived His Imperial Majesty greeted -him with these words: - - Of thine help gret nede haue we. - Michel ich haue herd speke of the. - - .................................. - - Forti thousand thai slowe on a day - Of mine men as ich you telle may. - Mine men thai slowe, mi sone also, - Wharfore, leue frende, y bede the to, - If thou might me of hem wreke, - And the felouns out of mi lond do reke, - Mine feyre douhter thou shalt habbe, - And half mi lond, with-outen gabbe.[38] - - [38] Auchinleck MS., pp. 166 and 168. - -In speaking of the formidable Saracen, Emir Costdram, a citizen said to -Guy: - - That other day he dede ous sorwe anough - Of themperour sone that he slough, - That was so gode and stalworth knight, - That opon hem had geuen mani fight. - In this site so gode knight was non, - That with wretthe durst loke him on.[39] - - [39] Auchinleck MS., p. 170. - -Guy and his companions, immediately after their arrival, went out -against the enemy, and soon gave proof of their wonderful fighting -qualities. They routed the Saracens, and in pursuing them Guy overtook -Esclandar, who exclaimed: - - Artow Gij? - Bi Mahoun that ich leue upon, - Neuer schal ich oway gon, - No neuer schal y blithe be, - Til ich that heued binim the: - Behote ich it haue a maiden of pris, - The soudans douhter that wel fair is.[40] - - [40] _Ibid._, p. 176. - -But Esclandar, after a lance had been driven through him, was obliged -to resume his flight. When the victors returned to the city, the -emperor said to Guy: - - Mi feir douhter, that is of pris, - Ichil the giue to spouse y-wis - Thou schalt ben emperour after me, - Thou art a knight of gret bounte.[41] - - [41] _Ibid._, p. 178. - -Guy had learned through a spy that the sultan was planning a desperate -assault upon Constantinople. He informed the emperor, who placed the -defense of the city in his hands. Guy, assisted by the Constable, made -preparations to attack the Saracens before they should reach the city. -Before the sortie Guy addressed his men, urging them to attack boldly -and vigorously and rid the country of the foe. Guy, Heraud, and their -companions performed many prodigies of valor, and the Greeks, too, -fought well. The infidels were slaughtered by the thousands, and as a -result of this victory, - - Guy, the good knyght, - Most was worshipped and that was right.[42] - - [42] Caius MS., p. 215. - -Morgadour, the imperial steward, who aspired to the hand of the -emperor’s daughter, became envious of the honors won by Guy, and his -jealousy and hatred increased in proportion as the realization of his -hopes grew less and less probable. He plotted to remove his rival by -suggesting to the emperor that Guy and Heraud be sent as ambassadors -to the sultan to make a proposal of peace. The steward well knew that -if they should go, they would never return. The emperor was willing to -make a proposal of peace to the enemy, but unwilling that Guy should go -on this dangerous mission. However, Guy insisted upon going. He entered -the tent of the sultan defiantly, and proposed to him that he select -a champion to represent the Saracens. Guy himself would defend the -cause of the emperor. If the sultan’s champion should win, the Greeks -were to pay tribute to the sultan and acknowledge him as their lord. -If, however, he should be vanquished, the infidels should leave the -country. The sultan’s answer to the proposal was an order to his men to -take and slay the insolent ambassador. Thereupon the latter drew his -sword and cut off the sultan’s head, seized it, and hurried away on -his steed. He was pursued and attacked by a multitude of Saracens, but -they were unable to take or to slay him. When Guy reached the city, he -gave the head to the emperor, and - - Whan thei of the Citee wiste of his comynge - For ioye they ganne all the belles rynge.[43] - - [43] Caius MS., p. 235. - -The following day, the emperor said to Guy: - - Gij, make the redi; - Tomorwe thou schalt mi doughter weddi.[44] - - [44] _Ibid._, p. 240. - -And so the next day Guy and his companions went to the church, where -they met the imperial family. The archbishop was there to perform the -marriage ceremony. The emperor addressed Guy with these words: - - Mi douhter ich giue the here, - And thritti castels with hir also, - With the worthschip that lith ther-to - And half my lond ich giue the, - Befor mi barons that here be. - Thou schalt ben emperour after me: - Biforn them all y graunt it the.[45] - - [45] Auchinleck MS., p. 238. - -But when the wedding-ring was brought forth a feeling of distress -came over Guy, and this was caused by his love for Felice. He fell -in a swoon, and when he had recovered consciousness, he asked that -the ceremony be postponed. He was in torment for two weeks. Finally -he resolved to remain true to Felice. Now it happened that Morgadour -slew a certain lion that Guy had rescued from a dragon, and which -thereafter followed him as a faithful and grateful companion. This act -so enraged Guy that in a quarrel he killed the treacherous steward. He -then decided to leave Constantinople. When the emperor saw that it was -not in his power to retain him, he wept and all the court wept with -him. Then he brought forth his treasures and bade Guy to take whatever -might please him, but he would accept nothing. Guy’s companions, -however, were in a receptive mood, and the emperor gave them whatever -they desired. And Guy departed for England, leaving the hearts of the -emperor, the princess, and the people of Constantinople filled with woe. - -For an account of Tirant’s activities while in the service of the Greek -emperor, we beg to refer the reader to the analysis. We shall, however, -call his attention to the following striking similarities between -_Tirant lo Blanch_ and _Guy of Warwick_. In both these works the empire -is described as being in desperate straits. Guy went to Constantinople -with one hundred knights; Tirant, with one hundred and forty. In both -books the only son of the emperor was slain. In the English romance, -Esclandar promised to his lady-love, the sultan’s daughter, the head -of Guy; in the Catalan work, the King of Egypt expressed his intention -of sending to his lady-love, the Grand Turk’s daughter, the head of -Tirant. Tirant addressed his soldiers on various occasions, as did Guy -before the Greeks attacked the enemy. Guy, although never formally -appointed leader of the imperial army, was intrusted with the defense -of Constantinople; Tirant was in full command of the forces of the -emperor. Morgadour cherished hopes of marrying the daughter of His -Imperial Majesty, harbored envy and ill will against Guy, and tried to -bring about his death; the Duke of Macedonia was one of Carmesina’s -suitors, hated Tirant, and treacherously attacked him from behind in -the midst of battle. In both works the bells were rung when there was -cause for rejoicing. Both Guy and Tirant were always successful in -their encounters with the enemy. In _Guy of Warwick_ and in _Tirant -lo Blanch_ the emperor gave the hand of his daughter to the hero and -publicly announced him successor to the imperial throne. But in neither -case was the marriage consummated. Guy’s perilous mission as ambassador -to the sultan is reëchoed in _Tirant lo Blanch_, but the scene takes -place in Barbary. Tirant went to King Scariano as ambassador of the -King of Tremicen, refused to salute him, for they were enemies, and -harshly rebuked him for making war against the King of Tremicen. So he -issued a challenge that if any of Scariano’s knights should dare to -say that the war was just, he, the ambassador of the King of Tremicen, -would be pleased to maintain the contrary and engage in mortal combat -with that knight. - -From the resemblances just pointed out, are we not justified in -challenging the statement that Tirant lo Blanch represents Roger -de Flor? Tirant’s activities at Constantinople constitute the most -important part of his career, and this part is said to be based on the -Catalan-Aragonese expedition to Constantinople under the leadership of -that famous Catalan hero. Let us examine closely the part of Muntaner’s -_Chronica_ which treats of Roger de Flor and his expedition, in order -that we may see how closely Martorell followed the facts connected with -that glorious page in Catalan history. - - - - - CHAPTER III - - ROGER DE FLOR’S CAREER AT CONSTANTINOPLE - - -Roger de Flor, with many soldiers and adventurers from Catalonia -and Aragon, had fought on the side of Frederick I of Aragon, while -the latter was engaged in a war against Charles of Anjou, King of -Naples, for the possession of the kingdom of Sicily. When the war -was over, Roger and his companions in arms were without employment. -He then conceived the plan of entering the service of the Emperor of -Constantinople, who was hard pressed by the Turks. Accordingly he sent -two trustworthy knights to the emperor, with instructions and full -powers to act for him. He offered his services under the following -conditions: that the emperor give him his niece in marriage; that he -appoint him Magaduch of the empire; and that he pay to the soldiers who -came with Roger a stipulated wage. He felt certain that the mission of -his agents would be successful, and, even before these returned, was -busy making preparations for the expedition. Finally they came back -with the espousals duly signed and Roger’s appointment and commission -as Magaduch. This title and position was equal to that of prince, and -carried with it command of the soldiers of the empire and authority -over the Admiral. Roger, with the assistance of King Frederick, -gathered a fleet of thirty-six vessels, and in these, without counting -the crews, women, and children, 1500 cavalry and 5000 infantry set -sail. On arriving at Constantinople they were received with great joy. -The marriage of Roger and the emperor’s niece was celebrated without -delay. The Genoese who were fighting under the imperial banners were -in an ugly mood when they saw with what cordial welcome their rivals -were received. Roger’s men resented their insolence, and a bloody -battle ensued in which 3000 Genoese were slain. The emperor watched the -fight with pleasure, for the overbearing ways of the Genoese had long -been a source of extreme vexation to him. Roger’s _almogávares_ wished -to sack Pera, where the Genoese lived, and it was with difficulty that -the new Magaduch restrained them. - -The Turks had conquered all the territory of Anatolia and were so near -the city of Constantinople that only an arm of the sea separated them. -Some time before the arrival of Roger, Xor Miqueli,[46] the eldest son -of the emperor, had crossed this body of water with 12,000 cavalry and -100,000 infantry, but he was afraid to join battle with the Turks. -The emperor now sent Roger with his 1500 cavalry and 5000 infantry -to attack the enemy. But before the Magaduch set out he succeeded in -having his intimate friend, En Ferran de Ahones, married to a relative -of the emperor and at the same time appointed Admiral. Then he took -his forces across the arm of the sea and landed near the camp of the -Turks, without having been seen by them. The next day at dawn his -forces made an unexpected attack on the enemy, and a hard-fought battle -ensued. The Turks were unable to resist the terrific onslaught of the -_almogávares_, and finally were forced to yield, after having lost 3000 -cavalry and 10,000 infantry. The news of the victory brought great -joy to the heart of the emperor, but to the Genoese it was a bitter -draught. Xor Miqueli, too, was disappointed. From that time he frowned -on Roger and his men. - - [46] Xor is a Greek title of honor, accorded to illustrious - personages. It corresponds to the Spanish Don as used formerly. - -After this victory the Magaduch planned to reconquer all the cities, -towns, and castles that the Turks had captured. But a severe winter -set in, and he was obliged to go into winter quarters at Artaqui, where -the above battle had been fought. When the cold season was nearly over -he ordered all his men to be ready to follow the banner on the first -day of April, on which date the army marched towards Filadelfia. Just -before reaching that city they came upon a Turkish army drawn up in -battle array. The battle that followed was stubbornly fought on both -sides, but finally the Magaduch’s forces were victorious. They entered -the city, where they were warmly welcomed. From this place they went -to Nif, thence to Magnesia, and next to Tira. The morning after they -entered this city hostile troops appeared, and the Magaduch sent out -the Seneschal, En Corberan de Alet, with a body of men, to attack them. -The Turks were soon routed and in pursuing them the Seneschal was -struck by an arrow and killed. - -The Magaduch sent word to the Admiral to bring the whole fleet to Ania. -In the meantime En Berenguer de Rocafort arrived at Constantinople -with 200 cavalry and 1000 infantry, and these were immediately sent to -the Magaduch. These reinforcements, the fleet, and the forces in the -field all came together at Ania. Rocafort was made Seneschal. At this -place another clash with the enemy took place, and the latter was soon -put to flight. The victorious army then continued its march through -Anatolia, and when they arrived at a mountain pass called “La Porta -del Ferre,” they were attacked by a large army of the enemy. The Turks -fought furiously, but in vain; they were forced to flee and the victors -pursued them until darkness intervened. - -Finally the power of the Turks in Anatolia was completely broken. Roger -now asked the emperor to make a payment to his troops, and the latter -ordered special money to be coined. This money was not worth its face -value. The emperor did this in order that friction and hatred might -arise between the people of the empire and the strangers, for “if he -had not had need of these foreigners, he would have wished all of them -dead and out of the empire.” - -En Berenguer Dentença arrived with additional reinforcements. A few -days later Roger suggested to the emperor that the newly-arrived -commander should be given a position of honor, and offered to resign -his position in order that Dentença might be appointed Magaduch. His -Imperial Majesty approved this suggestion. The following day Roger -placed his cap on the head of Dentença and gave him the insignia of -the high office of Magaduch. Thereupon the emperor asked Roger to be -seated and proclaimed him Caesar of the Empire. Caesar’s throne was a -half-hand lower than the emperor’s, and his cap and robes were blue -instead of red. That constituted the only difference between emperor -and Caesar. There had been no Caesar of the Empire for four hundred -years. Roger’s elevation to this dignity was celebrated with great -solemnity. - -Another winter came on, and the Caesar spent it with his troops -at Gallipoli. After the Christmas festivities he returned to -Constantinople to confer with the emperor in regard to affairs of -the empire. As a result of this consultation the whole territory of -Anatolia and the islands of Romania were placed in his hands. He was to -distribute the cities, towns, and castles among vassals, who were to -furnish armed men and horses in return. - -But before going to Anatolia he felt it his duty to take leave of Xor -Miqueli, who was at Adrianople, five _jornadas_ from the imperial city. -His wife and her mother, knowing the hatred that the emperor’s son -bore him, warned him not to go there, but he went in spite of their -pleadings. Xor Miqueli came out to meet him and showed him much honor. -Apparently the fears of his wife and her mother were unfounded. But on -the seventh day of his visit Gircon, the chief of the Alanos, entered -the palace, and at the behest, or at least with the consent, of Xor -Miqueli, put a tragic end to the heroic career of Roger de Flor, Caesar -of the Empire. - - * * * * * - -Now let us see what striking resemblances we can discover in comparing -the careers of Tirant lo Blanch and Roger de Flor. The points of -similarity that stand out prominently in the comparison of these heroes -are the following: Tirant, like Roger de Flor, came from Sicily to the -aid of the ill-faring empire; both were immediately placed in command -of the imperial forces, Tirant with the title of Capita Major and Roger -de Flor with that of Magaduch; both were always victorious on the field -of battle, and recovered the territory that had been conquered by the -Turks; both were made Caesar of the Empire for their distinguished -services; Roger was assassinated at Adrianople, and in that same city -Tirant’s fatal malady seized him. - -The historical basis of Tirant’s career at Constantinople is evidently -furnished by the _Chronica_, but Martorell’s hero differs very much -from the Catalan hero. The author evidently had the latter in mind -to some extent, but apparently he did not wish to portray him in -such manner that one would recognize him. While we still have Guy of -Warwick’s career at Constantinople fresh in mind, do not the details of -Tirant’s career seem to be more in accord with the English hero’s than -with those of Roger de Flor? Did we not expect more of a resemblance, -when we were told that Tirant represents the latter? In short, is -that judgment not misleading? If it had been Martorell’s intention to -make this part a kind of historical novel in which Roger de Flor was -to be the central figure, would he not have adhered to the facts more -closely, and elaborated them at his own free will and pleasure? - - - - - CHAPTER IV - - OTHER MATERIAL FROM THE _CHRONICA_ UTILIZED BY MARTORELL - - -But there are other features in this part of _Tirant lo Blanch_ that -reveal the influence of that portion of the _Chronica_ which treats -of Roger de Flor and his expedition. In recounting the career of -the latter we have noted that the first fight in which his forces -were engaged was against the Genoese, who were in the service of the -emperor. This incident is reflected in the following words spoken by -the emperor and addressed to Tirant:[47] “... perqueus prech, Capita -virtuos, queus vullau dispondre en anar contra los enemichs nostres los -genouesos, generacio mala....” - - [47] Therefore I pray you, excellent Captain, to make ready to - march against our enemies, the Genoese, an evil race.... _Tirant - lo Blanch_, chap. cxxii, col. 2. - -The incompetent, envious and treacherous commander, Xor Miqueli, is -probably the prototype of the sullen and malicious Duke of Macedonia. - -En Berenguer de Rocafort and En Berenguer Dentença came with -reinforcements to Constantinople and joined Roger’s army; the Prior of -Saint John, the Viscount of Branches, and the Duke of Messina came with -many men to join Tirant’s forces. - -At a session of the Imperial Council which had convened to consider -certain military matters, one of the members proposed: - - [48] ... antes que partixquen de açi la gent darmes deuen anar en - romiatge, e fer grans presentalles als deus en la ylla don Paris sen - porta la Reyna Elena: e perço hagueren en temps antich los Grechs - victoria dels Troyans. - - [48] ... before they leave here, the men at arms ought to make a - pilgrimage and make great offerings to the gods on the island - whence Paris carried away Queen Helen: it was in this way that, - in ancient times, the Greeks won a victory over the Trojans. - _Tirant lo Blanch_, chap. cxxiii, col. 4. - -This proposal is surprising. Why should such a suggestion be made in a -Christian court? We find the answer in the following passage taken from -the _Chronica_: - - [49] E en aquella illa del Tenedo en aquell temps hauia una ydola, - e venien hi un mes del any tots los honrrats homens de Romania, e - les honrrades dones a romeria. E axi fo, que en aquell temps Arena, - muller del duch de Tenes, hi vench en romeria ab C cauallers qui - lacompanyaren, e Paris, fill del rey Priam de Troya, axi mateix era - vengut a romeria, e hauia ab si entro cinquanta cauallers. E vae la - dona Arena, e altas tant della, que dix a sos homens, que mester era, - que lagues e la sen menas. E axi com so mes en cor, axi fo: que garnis - ab tota sa companya, e pres la dona, e volch sen menar. E aquells - cauallers qui eren ab ella volgren la li defendre, e finalment tots - cent muriren, e Paris menassan la dona. - - [49] And on that island of Tenedos, there was at that time an - idol, and one month in every year all the noble men and noble - ladies of Romania came thither on a pilgrimage. And thus it - was that at that time Arena [Helen] wife of the Duke of Tenes - [Athens?] came thither on a pilgrimage with a hundred knights - who accompanied her. And Paris, the son of King Priam of Troy, - likewise had come on a pilgrimage and he had with him about - fifty knights. He saw the Lady Arena, and fell so deeply in love - with her that he said to his men that he must have her and carry - her away with him. And what he had set his heart upon doing was - done: he made ready to carry out his purpose with his company, - and he seized the lady and was about to take her away. And those - knights who were with her tried to defend her, and finally every - one of the hundred was killed and Paris carried away the lady. - Muntaner’s _Chronica_, chap. ccxiv. - -Roger’s companion, En Fernan de Ahones, married a relative of the -emperor and was appointed Admiral; Tirant’s intimate companion, -Diaphebus, became Constable and married the niece of the emperor, -Stephania. - -The above are the principal features that seem to owe their origin to -that part of the _Chronica_ that treats of Roger de Flor in connection -with the Catalan-Aragonese expedition to the Orient. Another feature -which is apparently due to the same source is the description of the -manner in which Tirant ran the blockade at Rhodes. The description is -as follows: - - [50] E en la primera guayta la nau feu vela: e ixqueren del port ab - molt bon temps: e agueren lo vent molt prosper: que en .iiii. dies - passaren lo golf de Venecia e foren en vista de Rodes, e anaren al - castell de sanct Pere, e aqui surgiren per sperar vent que fos un poch - fortunal. E Tirant a consell de dos mariners que de sa terra hauia - portats, qui amauen molt la honor sua, com veren lo vent larguer e bo, - en la nit donaren vela e de mati apuntant la alba, ells foren en vista - de Rodes molt prop. Com les naus de Genouesos veren aquella nau venir - pensaren que era una de dues que hauien trameses per portar vitualles - per al camp, e vehien que venien de levant, no podien pensar que neguna - altra nau tingues atreviment de venir en mig de tantes naues com en lo - port stauen. La nau se acosta e con fon prop delles carregua de tantes - veles com podia portar: en aço conegueren los Genouesos, e en lo galip - de la nau que no era de les sues, posarense en orde del que pogueren: - empero la nau los fon tan prop que neguna nau no pogue alçar vela, e - aquesta a veles plenes passa per mig de totes les naus al lur despit. - - [50] And in the first watch the ship set sail: they left the port - in very good weather and they had very favorable winds so that in - four days they crossed the Gulf of Venice and were in sight of - Rhodes. They went to the castle of Saint Peter, where they cast - anchor in order to await a rather stormy wind. Tirant followed - the advice of two mariners whom he had brought along with him - from his native land. Both of these held his honor in high - esteem. When they saw that the wind was strong and propitious - they set sail during the night and in the morning at break of day - they were very near Rhodes. When the ships of the Genoese saw - that vessel coming they thought that it was one of two that they - had sent to get provisions for the camp, and seeing that they - were coming from the west, they could not imagine that any other - ship would have the boldness to come into the midst of so many - ships as were in the port. The vessel approached and when it was - very close to them, all the sails that it was able to carry were - set. By this and by the lines of the ship the Genoese saw that it - was none of theirs and they put themselves in order the best they - could: but the vessel was so near them that no ship was able to - set a sail, and that one with sails full spread passed through - the midst of all the ships in spite of them. _Tirant lo Blanch_, - chap. ciiii, cols. 3 and 4. - -When Robert, Duke of Catania, besieged the city of Messina in Sicily, -Roger de Flor brought provisions to the starving soldiers and -inhabitants, and the duke was obliged to raise the siege. Below follows -the account of this event as narrated by Muntaner. - - [51] E frare Roger ... axi hach deu galees, e carrega les a Xacca de - forment, e venchses a Caragoça, e espera ques metes fortuna de xaloch - o de mig jorn. E com la fortuna fo, que era tant gran, que tota la - mar nanaua en sanch, que nul hom no so gosara pensar, qui no fos axi - bon mariner, com ell, ana a fer vela de Caragoça, com hach donada - part a la nuyt, e a lalba ell fo en bocha de Far; e en bocha de Far - es la major marauella del mon, com res hi ha durada, com fortuna de - xaloch o de mig jorn hi ha, que les corrents hi son tant grans, e la - mar hi caua tant fort, que res no hi ha durada: e ell ab la sua galea - primera pensa dentrar ab los artimons borts en que hauia forats. E - com les galees del duch les vaeren, totes comensaren a chiular, que - volgren llevar los ferres, e no pogren. E axi les deu galees ab frare - Roger entraren a Macina saluament e segura; mas no hi hach nul hom qui - hagues sobre si fil exut ... e axi Macina fo restaurada, e lendema lo - duch llevas del setge, e tornasen a Cathania. - - [51] And Brother Roger ... thus had ten galleys, and he loaded - them with grain at Sciacca and came to Syracuse and waited for a - strong wind to come up from the southeast or south. And when the - wind came it was so strong that the whole sea began to rage, so - that no man who was not so good a mariner as he, dared think of - setting sail. He set sail from Syracuse when night had come, and - at dawn he entered the Strait of Faro; and it is the greatest - wonder in the world that anything can survive in the Strait - of Faro when there is a strong wind from the southeast or the - south, for the currents there are so powerful and the sea rages - so violently that nothing can stand it. And he decided to enter - first with his own galley provided with large sails in which - there were holes. And when the galleys of the duke saw them, all - began to shout and they wished to raise the anchors but they were - unable to do so. And thus the ten galleys with Brother Roger - entered the harbor of Messina safely and securely, but there was - not a man who had on him a dry thread ... and thus Messina was - relieved and the next day the duke raised the siege and returned - to Catania. _Chronica_, chap. cxcvi. - -The above comparative study of _Tirant lo Blanch_ and that part -of Muntaner’s _Chronica_ that deals with Roger de Flor and the -Catalan-Aragonese expedition presents strong evidence that Martorell -was acquainted with Muntaner’s work. But yet what a difference! Were -it not for the fact that Tirant reconquered practically all the lost -territory of the Greek empire and was made Caesar of the empire, we -should hardly associate his name with that of Roger de Flor. Such being -the case, are not the statements that Roger de Flor’s career forms the -principal source of this book rather misleading? However that may be, -we are willing to admit that the martial and adventurous spirit of -Roger de Flor and the members of his expedition finds expression in -_Tirant lo Blanch_, and this constitutes the strongest resemblance. - - - - - CHAPTER V - - OTHER MATERIAL FROM GUY OF WARWICK - - -But let us now return to the English romance, for it contains -other features that have been reproduced or at least utilized in -the composition of the Catalan book of chivalry. The Auchinleck -MS. contains a kind of sequel to _Guy of Warwick_, which bears the -title, _Reinbrun, Gij sone of Warwicke_. In this sequel we are told -that Reinbrun was stolen by foreign merchants. Heraud, the faithful -companion of Guy before the latter’s pilgrimage, went in search of the -lad, and while he was on his way to Constantinople a tempest drove -to the shores of Africa the ship on which he was making the voyage. -There the Saracens seized him and brought him before Emir Persan, who -ordered him to be thrown into prison. In a doleful lament Heraud spoke -of himself as a doughty knight, and this was overheard by a keeper, who -reported it to the emir. Now it happened that at that very time King -Argus was making war upon Persan, and had captured all his possessions -except the very city in which Heraud was held a prisoner. The emir sent -for Heraud and asked him to assist in the defense of the city. His -request was granted, and in the first battle with the enemy he fought -so skillfully and so valiantly that Persan rewarded him by making him -his steward. - -The reader will readily see the striking resemblance between this -incident and that part of the analysis which deals with the shipwreck -of Tirant on the shores of Barbary. Tirant, like Heraud, was driven by -a tempest to the hostile shores of Africa, cast into prison, released -therefrom because of his fighting abilities, and practically became the -leader of an army which was on the defensive. This incident Martorell -then developed, and Tirant finally became the conqueror of Barbary. - -In the analysis we have told how Tirant went to Jerusalem and from -there to Alexandria, where he ransomed Christian captives. It seems -probable that this incident is based upon the following narrative of -the English romance. Guy of Warwick made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and -from there he went to Antioch. Here he met a pilgrim who was in great -distress. It was Earl Jonas of Darras, who related to Guy how he, his -fifteen sons, and others had fought a body of Saracens and had defeated -them. They pursued them as far as Alexandria, when suddenly a strong -band of the enemy attacked him and his men, and after a heroic but -useless fight he was compelled to surrender. - - To the king we yolden ous al and some - That we might to ransoum come, - To save our lives ichon.[52] - - [52] Auchinleck MS., p. 422. - -And thus they fell into the hands of Triamour, King of Alexandria. Earl -Jonas then told how the sultan held a great festival which was attended -by this king and his son, Fabour. The latter killed the son of the -sultan over a game of chess. The sultan promised the king that if he -should engage in combat with the black giant, Amoraunt, and slay him, -both he and his son should go unpunished. Triamour asked for a respite -in order that he might find a substitute, and it was granted. He asked -his prisoner, Earl Jonas, if he knew any one who might be able to slay -the giant. The names of Guy and Heraud were mentioned. The king then -sent him in quest of these knights, promising him that if he should -be able to bring either one of them, he and his fifteen sons should -regain their liberty, but if, on the other hand, he returned without -Guy or Heraud, they should all be hanged. Jonas had made a diligent -search for the English knights, not only on the continent, but even in -England. Alas! it was all in vain. The period of the respite was one -year and forty days, and the end of the term was near. Guy, without -revealing his identity, offered to undertake the fight with the giant. -They went to Alexandria and Guy was presented to the king as a pilgrim -who was willing to meet the black giant in mortal combat. In response -to the king’s invocation, “Mahoun me helpe and turmegaunte,” Guy -replied: - - “Nay, but Mary is sonne, - That for us on the rode was done: - He be myn helpe for his mercye; - - ................................ - - For I the sey well sikerlye - That Mahoun hath no poweste - Nother to helpe the ne me.” - Quod the kyng, my frende so dere, - I wyll make a covenaunte here. - If thou myght the Geaunte sloo, - And bring me out of my woo, - Thi god for the love of the - Grete honour shall haue of me. - - All crysten that I haue taken here - Shall be delyuered with good chere. - In all my lond of Alexaundre - Men shall not the Crysten dere. - There shall be none in hethenes, - Man ne woman more ne lesse, - That is of crystiante - But he here shall delyuered be.[53] - - [53] Caius MS., p. 451. - -The combat took place at the sultan’s court. When Guy beheld the -horrible giant, he declared that it was the devil and no man. After a -long and fierce fight, Guy cut off his adversary’s right arm, then -his left, and finally his head. Let the reader note the following -coincidences: Guy and Tirant both made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem; from -there they came to Alexandria; the ransom of prisoners is mentioned in -_Guy of Warwick_, and the ransom of captives is a fact in _Tirant lo -Blanch_. Martorell did not reproduce this story, but he seems to have -retained the words Jerusalem, Alexandria, and ransom of Christians, and -from these he developed his own story. In the lines quoted above, Guy’s -fervent religious spirit is brought into prominence, and at the same -time a struggle for supremacy between the Christian and the Mohammedan -religions is suggested. In _Tirant lo Blanch_ also, the hero is filled -with religious zeal and fervor, and under his leadership Christianity -triumphs in all Barbary. - -We have pointed out above the more important points of resemblance in -_Guy of Warwick_ and _Tirant lo Blanch_. Let us now mention a few of -the minor ones. - -In the English romance, the following words are spoken of Felice: - - She was therto curteys and free ywys, - And in the .vii. arts well learned withoute mys. - All the .vii. artis she kouthe well, - Noon better that euere man herde tell.[54] - - [54] Caius MS., p. 7. - -In _Tirant lo Blanch_ the empress confesses that she cannot argue as -well as Carmesina, “per yo no hauer studiat les liberals arts com ma -filla.”[55] - - [55] ... because I have not studied the liberal arts as my - daughter has. _Tirant lo Blanch_, chap. clxxxii, col. 2. - -When Guy made his confession of love to Felice, he said: - - Bot thou haue mercy on me, - Myself y shall for sorwe slee.[56] - - [56] Caius MS., p. 23. - -When Tirant made his confession to the princess, he said: “puix lo meu -cor ha tant fallit que es stat causador de tant agreujar la vostra -singular persona e percaçar tant de mal per a mi, ab la mia ma plena de -cruel vengança ans que lo sol haja passat los columnes de Hercules yol -partire en dues parts....”[57] - - [57] ... since my heart has been so delinquent that it has been - the cause of afflicting so grievously your excellent personage - and producing so much pain through me, with my hand full of cruel - vengeance I shall cut it in two before the sun has passed the - columns of Hercules. _Tirant lo Blanch_, chap. cxxix, col. 3. - -In _Guy of Warwick_, Oisel beholds her betrothed, Tirri, lying before -her as if dead, and in her despair she utters these words: - - A, leman Tirri, - In wroched time mi bodi thou say, - When thou shalt for me day. - Dye ich-il forth with the: - For sorwe lives no may y be. - Bot y may dye ichil me quelle: - Len to libbe is nought mi wille.[58] - - [58] Auchinleck MS., p. 278. - -Let us compare with these lines the words of Carmesina, while lamenting -over the lifeless body of Tirant: - - Puix la fortuna ha ordenat, e vol que axi sia, los meus ulls no deuen - james alegrarse, sino que vull anar a cercar lanima de aquell qui - solia esser meu Tirant en los lochs benaventurats hon reposa la sua - anima si trobar la pore: e certament ab tu vull fer companyia en la - mort.[59] - - [59] Since fortune has ordained and wills it so, my eyes will - never more be gladdened, but I will go to seek the soul of him - who used to be my Tirant in the blissful places where his soul - reposes if I can find it: and indeed I wish to be thy companion - in death. _Tirant lo Blanch_, chap. cccclxxiii, col. 2. - -And in another lamentation she utters these words: “Si la sperança de -morir nom detingues, yom mataria.”[60] - - [60] ... if the hope of dying did not deter me, I should kill - myself. _Ibid._, chap. cccclxxv, col. 1. - -In the analysis we have observed how Carmesina pleaded with Tirant not -to permit his amorous nature to interfere with his martial spirit. In -the English romance, Felice justifies her attitude towards Guy in the -following manner: - - And if y the had mi loue yiue - And wille it the whiles y liue - Sleuthe wolde the so oercome, - That thou woldest nomore armes doon, - Ne come in turnement nor in fighte. - So amorous thou wolde bee anone righte.[61] - - [61] Caius MS., p. 65. - -We have described in the analysis the scene in which Carmesina throws -herself on the corpse of Tirant. Let us compare with it the following -lines which picture to us the grief of Felice at Guy’s death. - - She sowned on her lordys bere, - And kyst hys mouth with wepying chere. - Hys fete, hys hondys she kyssed then, - So dyd many an other man. - All that with her commyn were - Mad mornying and sorry chere.[62] - - [62] _Ibid._, p. 621. - -The love story in _Tirant lo Blanch_ forms an important part of the -book. Surely the origin of this feature cannot be attributed to the -career of Roger de Flor. On the contrary, the above comparative study -presents strong evidence that the love affair between Tirant and -Carmesina was developed by Martorell from elements drawn from _Guy of -Warwick_. But unfortunately the author ascribed to the Capita Major so -passionate a nature that in some of the love scenes we are disgusted at -the actions of the protagonist. The character of Tirant is admirable -in almost all respects, but in the pursuit of his immoral desires it -is detestable. In our amazement and disappointment we ask ourselves -why the author endowed his hero with such low and immoral cravings. -Tirant’s conduct towards the princess reminds us of a passage in the -English romance wherein the treacherous steward, Morgadour, falsely -accuses Guy of having dishonored the daughter of the Emperor of -Constantinople. The passage reads as follows: - - Sir, quoth he, y shall the telle: - Thy shame noo lenger couere y nelle. - A souldiour thou hast with the, - That thinketh for to shende the. - Thy doughter, that so fair is, - He hath leyn by, ywis. - In-to hir boure with strength he yede: - By thy doughter his wille he dede.[63] - - [63] Caius MS., p. 187. - -This incident may have prompted Martorell to ascribe to Tirant the -rôle of a passionate lover, and we feel that he adopted the suggestion -without any hesitation whatever. Boccaccio’s influence was powerful in -those days, and the incident afforded great possibilities for emulating -the famous Italian writer. If this conjecture be true, our censure of -the author must be limited to a reproach for having so easily and so -shamelessly followed that influence. But Martorell keeps in close touch -with real life. It may be that such conduct of knights had come to his -notice directly or indirectly. If that is the reason why the obscene -features were introduced, our condemnation will not be extremely -severe. But if it was his purpose to present to us an ideal hero, then -the author is deserving of the most scathing denunciation possible, for -he must have been as morally weak as the hero he asks us to admire. He -seems to take a delight in describing unbecoming and immoral scenes. -Not only does he give vivid narrations of Tirant’s efforts to attain -the “compliment de amor,” but he also makes bold descriptions of the -liaison between the empress and Hypolite; the relations of Diaphebus -and Stephania; and the revolting plan by which Viuda Reposada -succeeded in making Tirant believe that Carmesina was unfaithful. But -we may be doing the author a grave injustice. Possibly these immoral -scenes were intended to have a moral effect. It may have been the -purpose of Martorell to disgust the readers with these scenes. Possibly -it was a protest against the immoral conditions that prevailed in his -time. - -After making the above comparative study, we are not willing to accept -the statement of Amador de los Ríos, so emphatically repeated by -Givanel Mas, that the feats of Roger de Flor form the principal source -of the Catalan book of chivalry. Nor will we accept the opinion of -Denk that _Tirant lo Blanch_ represents nothing else but the figure of -Roger de Flor reproduced in the form of a novel. To the conservative -statement of Menéndez y Pelayo we shall offer no serious objections, -for the latter part of _Tirant lo Blanch_ does bear the stamp of a kind -of historical novel in which the heroic expedition of the Catalans -and Aragonese and the tragic fate of Roger de Flor is more or less -faithfully reflected. But we feel that the resemblance between Roger de -Flor and Tirant lo Blanch and their military enterprises is so slight -that even his statement must be qualified as misleading. However, -had he stated that Tirant’s activities at Constantinople had a true -historical basis, and that basis was Roger de Flor’s expedition to the -Orient, we should most heartily indorse that statement. - -If we have objected to the intimations and declarations that this book -of chivalry is a historical novel based on the exploits of Roger de -Flor, it is due to the fact that the real deeds of that hero play a -very insignificant part in it. Roger de Flor was a brave commander -with a remarkable genius for organizing his forces, and for planning -campaigns. Muntaner does not describe him a single time as fighting -hand to hand in a battle with the enemy. The historical Roger de -Flor probably would not have created enough interest and enthusiasm. -Moreover, in Tirant’s adventures and fights on the sea, whenever some -extraordinary naval strategy was necessary, the credit for it is -not given to Tirant, but to some member of the crew who is usually -described as an experienced seaman. And yet Roger de Flor was so -efficient a sea captain that the officers of the Temple intrusted -him with their largest ship. If the author had intended to represent -him, surely he would not have denied him the honor of those exploits. -It is obvious that he did not regard his hero as an experienced -mariner. The hero he had in mind was a knight whose duty called him -to the battlefield. Tirant lo Blanch bears a far stronger resemblance -to Guy of Warwick than to Roger de Flor. The striking points of -similarity of these characters have already been noted. In addition -to these points, we may briefly add that Tirant’s religious zeal; his -generosity; his refusal to accept rewards; his fighting in tournaments, -in personal combats, and on the field of battle; and his love—debased -unfortunately—are qualities that are not mentioned in connection with -Roger de Flor, but they are all in accord with the career of Guy of -Warwick. Such being the case, would it not be far more accurate to say -that _Guy of Warwick_ is the principal source? The very beginning of -_Tirant lo Blanch_ indicates that its author was intimately acquainted -with the English romance. Is it not probable that Guy of Warwick’s -activities at Constantinople reminded Martorell of Roger de Flor’s -heroic services to the emperor of that same city, whereupon he selected -that historical event as a background for a certain part of the career -of his hero? It must be remembered that Martorell knew well the -exploits of the brave and adventurous soldiers of the Catalan-Aragonese -expedition. His conception of military heroism was in great part based -on the history, traditional or written, of his people. The spirit -that animated its heroes became a part of him, and consequently it -was but natural that that spirit should find expression in a literary -production in which a military hero is portrayed. - -From the above comparative study of _Tirant lo Blanch_ in relation to -its sources, viz., Lull’s _Libre del Orde d’Cauayleria_, Muntaner’s -_Chronica_, and the English romance, _Guy of Warwick_, we are convinced -that these sources have furnished important ideas and material to -Martorell. The features drawn from Lull’s work are few, but, on the -other hand, they have been subjected to very little change. It is -important, however, for it seems to have provided a starting point for -the author. Guy of Warwick has yielded more concrete material than the -other two sources, but it has been modified to suit the pleasure and to -meet the needs of the author. Muntaner’s _Chronica_ did not furnish as -many ideas and suggestions as _Guy of Warwick_, but the martial spirit -of the Catalan and Aragonese warriors pervades a large part of the work. - -It is not in our power to divine with certainty the plan as originally -conceived by the author when he began his work. However, it is evident -that he was intimately acquainted with Lull’s work and the English -romance from the very beginning. It is quite probable that Martorell’s -purpose was to make a hero of the squire who had received instructions -pertaining to knighthood from the hermit, as related by Lull. This -hermit reminded him of Guy of Warwick, whom he greatly admired, and he -could not resist the temptation to reproduce that part of the English -champion’s career which led to his retirement to a hermitage. Then, -as we have already observed, the squire who is now Tirant lo Blanch -meets the hermit, William of Warwick, after which he continues his way -to the English court. A little more than a year later he returns to -the hermit, and the latter is informed of the important events that -took place in London. After a few days’ sojourn, Tirant returns to -his native land, Brittany. His career is very promising, for he has -been proclaimed the greatest knight in the exercises of arms at the -English court. And now what is the young hero to do? Martorell had -perhaps from the beginning of his work rather definite ideas in regard -to his hero’s career. Still it is quite possible that he had made no -fixed plan in advance, but selected the various spheres of Tirant’s -activities during the course of the composition of his book. However -that may be, Tirant’s career finally resolved itself into the following -distinct spheres of operation: he succored the Knights of St. John on -the island of Rhodes; after that, he joined the expedition of the King -of France against the infidels; then he went to the aid of the Emperor -of Constantinople; next he conquered and christianized Barbary; and -finally he returned to Constantinople and reconquered all the lost -territory of the Grecian empire. And now the question arises: Are all -these various spheres of operation based on real historical events? - - - - - PART IV - - THE HISTORICAL BASES UPON WHICH TIRANT’S - SPHERES OF OPERATION ARE FOUNDED - - - - - CHAPTER I - - THE WILLIAM OF WARWICK EPISODE - - -In the preceding part, wherein was made a comparative study of three -important sources of _Tirant to Blanch_, we have had occasion to -mention the real historical facts that form, in a more or less general -way, the basis of Tirant’s career while in the service of the Emperor -of Constantinople. Let us now transfer our researches to the field of -history and try to determine what historical events underlie the hero’s -various undertakings. Let us, moreover, examine all the features of -_Tirant lo Blanch_ that give any indication of historical influence, in -order that we may attain a better understanding of the author’s method -in composing this work. The first question that confronts us is: What -historical basis is to be found in the William of Warwick episode? - -The hero of the English romance of _Guy of Warwick_ is more or less -a legendary personage. John Rous, a learned scholar and writer who -lived between 1411 and 1491, in his writings concerning the legendary -history of Warwickshire, names Guy as the second of the Saxon Earls of -Warwick. We cannot cite any authentic historical facts about him. The -story probably represents an old Saxon legend, perhaps in the form of -a ballad, which in the course of time became a romance in French, and -this was later translated into English. In the two fourteenth-century -versions to which we have referred in Part III of this work, Aethelstan -is represented as the King of England. This fixes the supposed time -of Guy’s career as prior to 940, which marks the end of Aethelstan’s -reign. The latter annexed Danish Northumbria, and, in 937, won the -great battle of Brunanburh over the Danes, Scots, and Strathclyde -Britons. This fact shows that there are at least some traces of -authentic history in the romance, for in _Guy of Warwick_ we read of an -invasion of the Danes. - -In _Tirant lo Blanch_, no dates are mentioned so that if we wish to -establish the period in which the events described took place, we shall -have to depend on the historical characters that are named, and the -incidents, occurrences, and events that are narrated. The data that we -may gather for this purpose probably will throw light on other matters -in which we are interested. - -The document that was given to Tirant in which he was declared the best -knight of all those that participated in the exercises of arms at the -English court was signed “Rex Enricus.” This king was young and feeble, -and for that reason the hermit William of Warwick suggested that the -Duke of Lancaster should take the place of the king in the approaching -personal combat with the strong and valiant Moorish king of Canary; -but the suggestion caused loud protests from the Dukes of Gloucester, -Bedford, and Exeter, who claimed that their kinship to the king was -closer than that of the Duke of Lancaster. It is quite clear that the -author had in mind the English king, Henry VI, who during his minority -was represented by his two uncles, the Duke of Bedford as protector of -the realm, and the Duke of Gloucester as regent in England while the -protector was in France. The Duke of Exeter was the grand-uncle of the -young king. There was no Duke of Lancaster at that particular period. -Richard de Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, also was closely associated -with the boy-king. When Henry V was on his deathbed, he sent for the -earl and asked him to be the master of his son, the future Henry VI, -requesting him at the same time “to be gentle with him and guide and -instruct him in the condition of life to which he belonged.”[64] Henry -V died in 1422, and the Earl of Warwick became the tutor and governor -of the new king, although that title was not conferred upon him until -1428. The coincidence is striking! In the story William of Warwick was -the fatherly adviser of the young English king, and in history Richard -of Warwick was the tutor and governor of the English boy-king. And -here the question arises: Could Martorell have had in mind Richard de -Beauchamp when he wrote certain parts of his work? - - [64] The Countess of Warwick, _Warwick Castle and its Earls_, New - York and London, 1903; vol. I, p. 121. - -Let us here give a brief account of the career of Richard de Beauchamp. -Upon his father’s death in 1401, he became Earl of Warwick, being at -that time twenty years old. His early years were spent chiefly in -performing feats of arms, as did the knights of old. At the coronation -of Queen Jane he defended the field against all those that dared to -joust with him. Not finding sufficient opportunities for knightly -exercises and adventures at home, he went abroad. He made a pilgrimage -to Rome and from there went to Verona, where he engaged in a joust -with another knight. After the jousting they fought with axes, next -with swords, and finally with daggers. From Verona he went to Venice -and then to Jerusalem. There the sultan’s lieutenant, upon being -informed that Richard was a descendant of Guy of Warwick of whom he -had read in books in his own language, entertained him royally, and -gave him precious gifts. Richard then made his way overland to England, -frequently interrupting his journey by taking part in tournaments. -Shortly after his return, he was sent to the town of Calais and made -Captain of that place. Longing for a little excitement, he made up -a tournament of his own. Three days in succession, mounted on his -caparisoned steed, he went out on the field, and each day he returned -victorious. Later he was sent as ambassador to Constance in Germany, -to attend the well-known Council of Constance. There he was challenged -by some great duke, who was slain in the encounter. The German emperor -expressed his admiration for him by saying that “no Christian prince -hath such another knight for Wisdom, Nurture, and Manhood; that if -all courtesy were lost, yet it might be found again in him.”[65] His -principal military activities were in the war against the French. -In 1416 he was sent to relieve Harfleur; was at the siege of Caen; -captured several places; was made Captain of Beauvais; and was present -at the siege of Rouen. When that city finally fell, the capitulation -was made to him. He was appointed to several offices at home and -abroad, his last and most important one being the Governorship of -France and Normandy. In the year 1439 he died in the castle of Rouen at -the age of fifty-eight. - - [65] _Ibid._, vol. I, p. 113. - -A strong resemblance between Richard de Beauchamp and Guy of Warwick -is evident. Is it not probable that this similarity was to some -degree instrumental in causing Martorell to give the William of -Warwick episode a setting of the fifteenth century? There are several -references made to deeds of William of Warwick which cannot be found in -the English romance, _Guy of Warwick_. One of them, however, concerns -without doubt Richard de Beauchamp. When the hermit-king told the -countess where the arms were that he desired, she begged him to reveal -to her how he happened to know so much about her husband. He answered -that he was with the earl when the latter, as Capita Major of the city -of Rouen, won a signal victory over the large army of the French king. -Richard de Beauchamp was a popular hero, and if Martorell had been in -England, as he claims in his dedicatory letter, he might have heard of -many feats of the great knight and soldier that are not recorded in -history. However, we have already learned the method of our author, and -we must not expect too many historical data on any subject. But, as a -rule, he gives us sufficient real facts to determine what events or -periods in history he has in mind. Other historical personages cited -in connection with the William of Warwick episode are the Earl of -Salisbury, the Earl of Northumberland, the Duke of Clarence, and the -Prince of Wales. These names also indicate that the historical period -represented is the first half of the fifteenth century. - -When Tirant asked the hermit to name the greatest living knights in -England, the latter gave the names of Sir John Stuart and the Duke of -Exeter. History mentions but one great knight named John Stuart, and -he was of this period. From 1419 to the time of his death in 1429, Sir -John Stuart of Darnley was fighting valiantly on the continent on the -side of the French. Charles VII appreciated his worth, and rewarded -him several times: first he granted him the seigneurie of Aubigny in -Berry, next the comté of Evreux in Normandy, and finally the “glorious -privilege of quartering the Royal arms of France with his paternal arms -of Stuart.” He fell fighting bravely in a battle near Orleans. In the -well-known old French play, “Le Mistère du Siège d’Orléans,” written -some time after his death, the following tribute is paid to him: - - Est mort tout le noble barnaige - Qui deffendoit la fleur de lis - Ha! le connestable d’Escosse, - Le plus vaillant dans la terre, - Est demeuré à fine force - Qui estoit tant prudent en guerre - On ne pourroit son bruit exquerre - Tant estoit vaillant et hardi - Or le convient il mectre en terre.[66] - - [66] _Documents inédits sur l’histoire de France, première - série_, Paris, 1862; p. 342. - -Martorell did well to name him as one of the greatest knights of that -period. - -Sir Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter, also was a great warrior. He -rendered distinguished services to the English nation in the struggle -with France. He was made Duke of Exeter in 1416, and in the same year -appointed Lieutenant of Normandy. He died at Greenwich in 1427. - -Thus we see that Martorell has reproduced the latter part of the _Guy -of Warwick_ story, but has given it a setting in the fifteenth century. -It has been changed considerably, and the historical personage, -Richard de Beauchamp, has had some influence in giving form to this -reproduction. The career of this great knight reveals that the -exploits of Tirant at the English court were not the result of a vivid -imagination, but, on the contrary, were based in great part on knightly -customs and practices of the times. Martorell is a realist; when he -describes anything, it is usually based on something that he had -observed directly, or something that he had read or heard related which -impressed him as having really occurred. It is true that occasionally -we find the narration of some incredible incidents in his work, but it -is hardly probable that he expected us to believe them. It is owing to -the realistic temperament of the author that the different enterprises -of Tirant are based on historical events. He had a remarkable talent -for selecting interesting elements, and joining them so as to produce -an artistic whole. It was evidently not his purpose to make any part -of his work an accurate narration of some historical event. He distorts -facts or makes use of them under conditions different from those under -which they originally happened. Heroic deeds that called forth his -admiration, and historical incidents that were interesting to him and -of such a nature that he could utilize them in the work that he had -undertaken, furnished him with an abundance of material for his book -of chivalry. _Tirant lo Blanch_ is indeed a composite work, made up of -elements gathered here and there, logically connected and fashioned -into a consistent whole which impresses the reader with a feeling of -reality, because it is based, in the main, on actual experiences and -happenings in life. - - - - - CHAPTER II - - CONCERNING THE ORDER OF THE GARTER - - -With regard to the duration of the festivities connected with the -marriage of the King of England to the daughter of the King of France, -and concerning the time of the departure of Tirant from London, we read -in chapter xxxix: - - [67]Lo dia de Sanct Joan principiaren les festes e aquell dia se veu - lo rey ab la infanta sposada: duraren aquestes festes un any e un dia. - Complides les festes lo rey hague complit son matrimoni ab la infanta - de França. E tots les strangers prengueren comiat del rey e de la - reyna, e cascu sen torna en ses terres. Tirant apres que fon partit de - la Ciutat de Londres ab sos companyons fon en recort de la promesa que - hauia feta al pare hermita. - - [67] The festivities began on the day of St. John and that day - the king was married to the Infanta: those festivities continued - for a year and a day. When the celebration was over the king had - consummated his marriage with the Infanta of France. And all - the foreigners took leave of the king and queen, and each one - returned to his own country. Tirant, after having left the city - of London with his companions, remembered the promise which he - had made to the hermit. - -But in chapter lxxxv, Diaphebus, while telling the hermit about the -Order of the Garter, speaks these words: - - [68]Ia era passat lany e lo dia: e les festes eran complides de - solemnizar com la magestat del senyor rey trames apreguar a tots los - stats ques volguessen esperar alguns dies: perço com la magestat sua - volia fer publicar una fraternitat, la qual nouament hauia instituida - de .xxvi. cauallers sens que negu no fos reproche. E tots de bon grat - foren contents de aturar. - - [68] And now the year and a day had passed and the celebration of - the festivities was over, when His Royal Majesty sent word to the - noble visitors praying them to delay their departure for several - days: for His Royal Majesty wished to proclaim the institution of - a fraternity which he had recently founded, with a membership of - twenty-six knights, each of whom was without reproach. And all - were highly pleased to stay. - -These conflicting statements as to the time of Tirant’s leaving London -indicate that when the author wrote chapter xxxix, he had no intention -of introducing the account concerning the Order of the Garter. But -later moved probably by a desire to show in what great honor Tirant was -held, and to describe the pomp, magnificence, and glory of knighthood, -he decided to introduce this feature. Still it is quite possible that -the peculiar and interesting stories in connection with the Order -may have caused its introduction. The circumstances which led to the -institution of the fraternity according to Martorell are as follows: - -At a dance at the English court a lady named Madresilva lost a garter -while she was dancing. A certain knight picked it up. The King -witnessed the incident, and asked the knight to bring it to him and -fasten it on his left leg just below the knee. His Majesty wore the -garter in that way for four months and no one ventured to speak to him -concerning it. But one day one of the maids, who was a favorite of the -King, told him that the Queen, the maids of honor, the people of the -kingdom and those from abroad, all were displeased that he should show -so much honor to Madresilva. And the King answered: - - [69]... donchs la Reyna sta de aço mal contenta, e los strangers e los - del meu regne ne stan admirats dix tales paraules en frances: Puni - soyt qui mal hi pense. Ara yo promet adeu, dix lo rey, yo instituire - e fare sobre aquest fet un orde de caualleria, que tant com lo mon - durara sera en recordacio aquesta fraternitat e orde que yo fare. - - [69] “So then the queen is displeased with that, and the - foreigners and those of my kingdom are surprised at it.” Then he - spoke the following words in French: “Punished be he who thinks - evil of it. Now I promise God,” said the king, “I shall institute - and build upon this incident an order of knighthood, and this - fraternity and order that I shall found will be remembered as - long as the world shall last.” _Tirant lo Blanch_, chap. lxxxv, - col. 3. - -In Elias Ashmole’s voluminous work,[70] published in 1672, the above -incident is related in the following manner: - - [70] Elias Ashmole, _The Institution, Laws and Ceremonies of the - most Noble Order of the Garter_, London, 1672. - - “As to the occasion of its institution, the vulgar and more general - opinion is, That the garter of Joane, Countess of Salisbury, falling - casually off, as she danced in a solemn ball, King Edward hastily - stooping, took it up from the ground; whereupon some of the Nobles - and Courtiers smiling as at an amorous action, and he observing their - sportive humor, turned it off with this reply in French, ‘Honi soit - qui mal y pense’; but withal added in disdain of their laughter, That - in a short time, they should see that Garter advanced to so high honor - and estimation as to account themselves happy to wear it.” - -This story is generally regarded by historians as untrue. Ashmole -intimates that it was first published by Polydore Virgil about the -middle of the sixteenth century. If that be so, the story in _Tirant -lo Blanch_ is the earliest known version of this famous incident. The -word “Puni” instead of “Honi” is striking, but not surprising. In the -pronunciation of these words, as well as in their written or printed -forms, the hearer or the reader might easily mistake the one for the -other, and the substitution would have been favored by the fact that -“Honi” was not in common use. - -But let us follow the account concerning the Order as we find it -in _Tirant lo Blanch_. In the castle at Windsor was prepared a -beautiful chapel which was to serve as a home for the new fraternity. -The king was the first to take the oath to obey its statutes and -ordinances. Then he selected twenty-five other knights to constitute -its membership, and the first one chosen was Tirant, because he was -the best of all. Then the following were named: “lo Princep de Gales, -lo Duch de Beta fort [Bedford], lo Duch de lencastre [Lancaster], lo -Duch datçetera [Exeter], lo Marques de Sofolch [Suffolk], lo Marques de -Sanct Jordi, lo Marques de Belpuig, Johan de Varoych, Gran Conestable, -lo Comte de Nortabar [Northumberland], lo Comte de Salasberi, lo Comte -destafort [Stafford], lo Comte de Vilamur, lo Comte de les Marches -Negres, lo Comte d’la Joyosa Guarda, lo Senyor de Scala Rompuda, lo -Senyor de Puig Vert, lo Senyor de Terra Noua, Miçer Johan Stuart, Miçer -de Riuçech.” All these were from the kingdom. The foreigners were: “lo -Duch de Berri, lo Duch Danjou, lo Comte de Flandes.” Then the author -says: “Foren tots en nombre .xxvi. cauallers.” But, including the king -and Tirant, he has named only twenty-four. - -According to history, Edward the Third founded the Order of the Garter -between the years 1344 and 1351. The roll of founders consists of -twenty-six names. Besides those of the king and the Prince of Wales, -there are only four names given by Martorell that can be found on the -roll. The Duke of Exeter was elected into the Order in 1400 and his -is the ninety-ninth name on the list of members. The Duke of Suffolk -was elected in 1420 and his number is one hundred and forty on the -list. From a historical standpoint, Martorell made a blunder when he -gave the name of Sir John Stuart as a member, for the latter was an -enemy of England. Several of the names seem to be pure inventions. It -is evident that Martorell made up a list of his own. At first we are -surprised that he did not include the name of William of Warwick, but -since the latter had so resolutely insisted upon living as a hermit, he -could not consistently have been made a member. We have noticed that -instead of naming twenty-six, he named but twenty-four. Why did he not -name the Duke of Gloucester, whom he mentions in his work? It is indeed -surprising that he did not name one of the Portuguese kings, for John -I, Edward, and Alphonse V were all members of the Order. The latter was -the brother of Prince Ferdinand, to whom the book was dedicated. If -Martorell had known that these kings were honored with membership in -the noble Order, he would hardly have failed to mention one of them. -But he named none of these, and consequently the conclusion may be -drawn that he did not live at the court of Portugal and that he knew -little more about Prince Ferdinand than his name. And, moreover, these -omissions indicate rather strongly that the work was not first written -in the Portuguese language. - -We are furthermore told in _Tirant lo Blanch_ that the king gave to -every member of the Order a collar of gold covered with round S’s. -Martorell undertakes in the following story to explain how the king -happened to adopt these letters as a device: At a royal hunt, a deer, -white as the snow because of its age, was slain, and a collar bearing -S’s was found around its neck. On the collar were found words stating -that when Julius Caesar left the island the collar was put on the -deer, with the request that the king into whose hands the deer might -fall should adopt the letter S as a device. The author explains the -significance of this letter in these words: - - [71]“E lo collar era tots de esses redones. E perço com en tot lo - A.B.C. no trobareu letra una per una de major auctoritat e perfectio - que pugua significar mes altes coses que aquesta lettra S.... La - primera, sanctedat; sauiesa; sapiencia; senyoria; e moltes altres - coses que per S principien.” - - [71] And the collar was all covered with round S’s. Because - in the whole alphabet you cannot find one letter of greater - authority and perfection and which can signify more noble things - than this letter S. The first thing it stands for is sanctity; - then sapience; science; seigniory; and many other things that - begin with S. _Tirant lo Blanch_, chaps. xcvi and xcvii. - -Martorell may have invented this story, but we are inclined to believe -that he had heard or read an explanation of the kind. Perhaps the story -was current at the time. Ashmole, too, had his curiosity aroused by the -letters on the collars, and remembers that he had read or heard that -there was once an organization called the “Society of Saint Simplicius” -and that the members of that society used to wear collars with SS on -them, and these letters stood for Saint Simplicius. This saint suffered -martyrdom under Diocletian about 287 A.D. - -All that Martorell has to say about the rules, ceremonies, initiation, -ladies of honor and their vows, reveals that he knew a great deal about -the Order. Where did he obtain his information? Was it through reading -or through hearsay? In some respects his account resembles that of an -eye-witness, yet in giving the names of members of the Order, Martorell -was obliged to invent some, for the reason that he did not have enough -English names at his command. Some of the names are purely Catalan, and -this fact indicates that the account was not written in England, nor -in Portugal, but very probably in Valencia; another argument in favor -of the contention that _Tirant lo Blanch_ was written originally in -Catalan, and not in Portuguese. - - - - - CHAPTER III - - TIRANT SUCCORS THE KNIGHTS OF RHODES - - -In the analysis we have told that the Genoese made a treacherous -attempt to capture Rhodes on account of its commercial importance as -a seaport. Having failed in their effort, they induced the sultan to -undertake the conquest of the island, and within a short time the port -of Rhodes was blockaded, the city besieged, and the island overrun by a -multitude of Moors. The city, however, offered heroic resistance. The -Grand Master appealed to the Christian powers for help. Tirant’s aid -finally led to the raising of the siege. Now upon what historical facts -is this part of the work based? - -Let us first consider the attempt of the Genoese to capture the city of -Rhodes. The plan agreed upon was to have a considerable number of their -ships in the port, and other vessels carrying many men were to be near -by, but far enough away so as not to be seen by the people of Rhodes. -Two Genoese members of the Order rendered the instruments of defense -of the castle useless. The plan was to be carried out on Good Friday. -While the ceremonies of the day were being celebrated, the Genoese -were to enter the church two by two. All were to carry arms, but they -were to be concealed under long black cloaks. After a large number of -them had entered, they, with the assistance of the two traitors, were -to seize the towers and finally the whole city. But their plan was -fortunately discovered and frustrated. - -Knowing the author’s inclination for taking ideas from certain sources -and applying them under circumstances that are altogether different -from those under which they originally occurred, we shall quote -the following passage from Vertot’s history of this military order, -which describes an event that may have furnished some details to the -story of the unsuccessful venture of the Genoese. The passage refers -to a banquet given by Jacques de Lusignan, when the regency of the -government of Cyprus was committed to him. - - Il se trouva à ce repas royal un grand nombre de Seigneurs Vénitiens - et Génois. Ces étrangers se disputèrent la préséance; elle fut décidée - ce jour-là en faveur des Vénitiens. Les Génois pour s’en venger, - résolurent de l’emporter la force à la main et ils convinrent entr’eux - de se trouver le lendemain au palais avec des armes cachées sous leurs - manteaux. Le Régent ayant été averti de leur complot, fit jeter par - les fenêtres du Palais huit nobles Génois qui se promenoient....[72] - - [72] Abbé de Vertot, _Histoire des Chevaliers Hospitaliers de S. - Jean de Jérusalem_, Paris, 1726; Livre VI, p. 155. - -Martorell began his work in 1460, seven years after the fall of -Constantinople. We are told that Mahomet the Second had said: -“Constantinople first and then Rhodes.” The sultan notified the Grand -Master of the Knights of Saint John that he would not respect the -treaty entered into by Amurates and the Order. The defiant answer to -this challenge, in the words of a Spanish historian of the Order, was -as follows: - - Respondió dignamente la Orden que reconocida como Estado por todas las - naciones cristianas y por los soldanes turcos, sólo dependía de la - Santa Sede; que el Gran Maestre jamás la haría tributaria ni súbdita - de nadie, y que la religión de Rodas estaba no por mujeres, sino por - hombres que temían á Dios y sabían llevar la espada.[73] - - [73] _La Soberana Orden militar de San Juan de Jerusalem ó de - Malta, por un Caballero de la Orden_, Madrid, 1899; p. 31. - -This peril that was ever threatening Rhodes may have suggested to -Martorell that it would offer a favorable field for the exploits -of Tirant. And we are inclined to believe that the siege of Rhodes -conducted by the Sultan of Egypt in 1444, is the real historical event -upon which Tirant’s relief expedition is based. Some time prior to -that date the Grand Master de Lastic, being aware of the fact that the -sultan was planning to make a supreme effort to capture Rhodes, sent -ambassadors to most of the rulers in Europe to implore help, but, like -the King of France in _Tirant lo Blanch_, they did not respond. The -attack on Rhodes was made in the month of August, 1444. Let us quote -Vertot’s version of the event. - - Une flotte considérable du Sultan parut de nouveau à la hauteur de - l’Isle de Rhodes, et y débarqua dix-huit mille hommes d’infanterie, - sans compter un gros corps de cavalerie et de Mamelus, qui faisoient - la principale force des Egyptiens. Ces Barbares sans s’arrêter à - aucune des Places de l’Isle, marchèrent droit à la Capitale, et - l’assiegèrent, pendant que leur flotte tenoit la mer pour le port et - empêcha qu’on n’y jettât du secours.[74] - - [74] _Op. cit._, pp. 214 and 215. - -There are no details of this siege on record. Vertot deplores this -fact, but he consoles himself by saying: “Ces Chevaliers sçavoient -mieux se servir de leur épée que d’une plume.” However, the records -give the general information that the siege lasted forty days; that the -fortifications were bombarded by many pieces of heavy artillery; that -many assaults were made which were always repulsed; and that, after -having lost the greater part of his men, the Saracen commander gave -orders to raise the siege. - -In the discussion of the relation between Muntaner’s _Chronica_ and -_Tirant lo Blanch_, we have intimated that Tirant’s landing at the -castle of Rhodes was copied in a general way from Roger de Flor’s -successful attempt to bring relief to the besieged city of Messina. In -the analysis we have remarked that Tirant waited at the castle of Saint -Peter for favorable weather conditions to run the blockade. This castle -was built on the shores of Asia Minor, in or about the year 1402, under -the direction of the Grand Master de Naillac; consequently the date -of the siege of Rhodes in _Tirant lo Blanch_ cannot be assigned to a -period before that year. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - - TIRANT JOINS THE EXPEDITION OF THE KING OF FRANCE - AGAINST THE INFIDELS - - -Some of the facts concerning this expedition are: the King of France -set sail from Aiguesmortes; his son, Philip, who was in charge of the -fleet of the King of Sicily, took part in this enterprise; at Tripoli -in Syria, Tirant, fully armed, leaped from his vessel into the water -and was the first to set his foot on the hostile shore; the stock of -provisions was replenished on the island of Cyprus; and towards the -close of this military enterprise, Tunis was taken. - -The following historical facts indicate that the story of the -expedition was based on the Crusades of Louis IX. Saint Louis set -out on his Crusades from Aiguesmortes; he had a son named Philip who -accompanied him on the second Crusade; in Cyprus, an abundance of -provisions had been stored in advance for the use of the first Crusade; -when the king arrived at Damietta, he leaped into the water and was -among the first to step on Saracen soil; and Tunis was captured at the -time of the second Crusade and was obliged to pay tribute to the King -of Sicily, although this last event happened after the death of the -French king. - -Perhaps the most striking of these coincidences is the one in which -these heroic figures leap into the water. Joinville, in his _Histoire -de Saint Loys_, describes this incident in the following words: - - Quant le bon roy Saint Loys sceut, que l’enseigne saint Denis fut - arrivée à terre, il sortit de son vessel, qui ja estoit près de la - rive, et n’eut pas loisir que le vesseau, où il estoit, fust à terre: - ains se gette ... en la mer, et fut en eauë jusques aux espaulles.[75] - - [75] _Histoire de Saint Loys, par Jehan Sire de Joinville_, - _Collection Complète des mémoires par M. Petitot_, Paris, 1819; - Tome II, p. 218. - -A variant of this passage reads: “sailli en la mer tout armé, l’escu -au col, le glaive au poing, et fu des premiers à terre.”[76] When -the details of this incident had become somewhat dim in memory, the -following picture remains: - - [76] _Ibid._, Tome II, p. 409. - - Louis trouva le rivage bordé des troupes du Soudan, qui prétendoient - s’opposer au débarquement de son armée; mais ce Prince emporté par son - zèle et par son courage, se jetta le premier l’épée à la main dans - l’eau, et suivi de la Noblesse chargea les Infidèles et les tourna en - fuite.[77] - - [77] Abbé de Vertot, _op. cit._, Livre III, p. 387. - -This strikingly courageous act of Saint Louis, Martorell naturally -attributed to his hero, Tirant. - - - - - CHAPTER V - - TIRANT CONQUERS AND CHRISTIANIZES ALL BARBARY - - -Tirant’s next field of operation is at Constantinople, which has -already been discussed. It must be remembered that he began his work -of freeing the Greek empire from the power of the Turks auspiciously. -But on returning to his army by sea, his vessel was driven by a -tempest to the African shores, where he was shipwrecked. After having -conquered Barbary and brought about the conversion of many thousands -to the Christian faith, he returned to Constantinople to complete the -restoration of the empire. Consequently, there remains for us the -task of ascertaining what historical basis underlies the story of the -conquest of Barbary. - -When the author began his work, the Portuguese were busy fighting the -Moors in Africa. Prince Ferdinand of Portugal, who was Martorell’s -patron, according to the dedicatory letter, was at that very time -taking part in the African campaigns. But, to our surprise, the -conquest of Barbary does not reveal any significant traces of the -Portuguese wars against the Moors. The valiant Moorish Governor, Sale -ben Sale (Cale ben Cale in _Tirant lo Blanch_), plays an important rôle -in resisting the Portuguese, but the reference that is made to him in -Martorell’s work is not in connection with the conquest of Barbary. He -is mentioned in the William of Warwick episode as the successor of the -Moorish king who was slain by the hermit-king. Tirant’s conquest of -Barbary and the war of the Portuguese against the Moors had one object -in common, viz., the Christianization of northwestern Africa. With -Tirant, it became the chief purpose; with the Portuguese, it seems -to have been secondary, for their supreme aim was to rid themselves -of a constantly menacing enemy. It is possible that the campaigns of -the Portuguese against the African Moors attracted the attention of -Martorell, and, seeing that a similar undertaking would provide an -excellent field in which his hero might win additional laurels, he -determined to write and plan an imaginary account of a conquest of -that territory. But if this feature owes its origin to Portuguese -history, would it not be natural to expect in that account traces and -reminders of the military activities of the kingdom of Portugal? Did -this field not offer a wonderful opportunity to glorify the deeds -of Prince Ferdinand or, at least, of his people? But all efforts to -connect Tirant’s conquest with the campaigns of the Portuguese are in -vain. Here, then, is another strong indication that what the author -says in the dedicatory letter concerning the translation of an English -original into Portuguese is pure invention, for we are certain that no -English _Tirant lo Blanch_ existed and that Martorell wrote an original -work in which he created a hero according to his own good will and -pleasure. The various qualities of this hero manifested themselves -in certain spheres of operation which, as has already been pointed -out in all other cases, were based on real historical conditions and -events. We are told that _Tirant lo Blanch_ was written at the request -of a Portuguese prince, and yet Portuguese heroism and glory find no -place in the work, although there are occasions exceedingly favorable -for praises of Prince Ferdinand and his people. It seems almost an -act of disloyalty to his patron for Martorell to have passed over in -silence the opportunities of lauding Portuguese valor and honor. All -this indicates that the Catalan author did not reside at the court of -Portugal; that he did not write the book in the Portuguese language; -and that probably he was not requested by a prince of that nation -to write _Tirant lo Blanch_, for its contents in no way support the -statements made in the dedicatory letter; on the contrary, they seem to -refute them.[78] - - [78] See page 77. - -Is the conquest of Barbary perhaps based on some other historical -venture or event? We feel justified in answering the question -affirmatively, for Muntaner’s _Chronica_ seems to have furnished the -background for Tirant’s exploits in Barbary. In Martorell’s narration -of this conquest the following historical personages and geographical -names are of importance: the King of Tremicen, the King of Tunis, -Bugia, and Constantine. All these are found in Muntaner’s _Chronica_, -in certain parts of which are described the hostile relations between -the Moors of Africa and the crown of Aragon. In both accounts all -Barbary [“tota la Barbaria”] is specifically mentioned. This fact is -significant. - -In Chapter XIX of the _Chronica_ Muntaner relates that the tribute due -to the King of Aragon from the King of Tremicen and the King of Tunis -had not been paid for a long time, and for this reason four well-armed -galleys were sent from Valencia to Tunis and Bugia. These wrought -great devastation along the African shores and besieged the important -ports. While in these waters they came upon a fleet of ten galleys, -all strongly armed and manned, belonging to the King of Morocco. The -Aragonese ships bravely attacked those of the Moors and succeeded in -capturing the whole fleet, which they took back with them to Valencia. - -When Peter the Second became King of Aragon and Catalonia, he -determined to force the kings of Tremicen and Tunis to pay the tribute. -An expedition was sent to Barbary, and as a result Miraboaps, the King -of Tunis, was driven from the throne and his brother Mirabusach was -put in his place. The latter pledged himself to pay the tribute, and -signed a treaty with the Aragonese in which he granted them important -rights and privileges in his kingdom. Some time later Miraboaps -fomented a rebellion in Bugia and Constantine against his brother and -succeeded in making himself king of these two cities. When he died he -divided between his two sons, Mirabosecri and Bugron, the territory -over which he ruled. The former became King of Bugia and the latter -ruler over Constantine. But Mirabosecri was not satisfied; he wished to -hold sway over Constantine also, and accordingly he made preparations -to take that city from his brother. - - Bugron saw that he could offer but feeble resistance against the - ambition of his brother. So he sent messengers to King Peter to inform - him that he wished to become a Christian and a subject of the crown - of Aragon. This message brought great joy to the heart of the king, - who immediately began to build many ships to transport a large army to - Africa. So extensive were his preparations that the lords and princes, - Christians as well as Saracens, who held territory along the seas, - became alarmed, for he told no one what he intended to do. The English - king, the French king, and the Pope made inquiries, but he would not - reveal his plans. Not until the expedition was far out upon the sea - did the commanders of the ships receive instructions as to their - destination. When Bugron was informed that the army of the King of - Aragon was on its way, he became elated and disclosed to some of his - intimate friends what he purposed to do, whereupon they arose in great - wrath and cut off his head. King Peter’s army landed at Alcoyll, not - far distant from Bugia. The king was shocked when he heard of Bugron’s - tragic death, but he concluded, nevertheless, to stay there and wage - war upon the Saracens. Fortifications were immediately constructed. - Formidable forces of Moors came to attack the Christians, but were - always repulsed. Troops from the vast Aragonese army made incursions - into the surrounding country, and soon none of the enemy could be - found for miles around. King Peter was highly pleased with this - excellent beginning, and it did not seem to him that the conquest of - all Barbary would be a difficult task if the Pope would only furnish - sufficient money to pursue the undertaking to a successful issue. - Accordingly he sent an ambassador to Rome to secure this necessary - financial assistance. Let us quote a few lines of the ambassador’s - petition to the Pope: - - [79] Pare sanct, mon senyor lo rey En Pere Darago vos fa saber quell - es en Barbaria en un lloch qui ha nom Alcoyll, e troba que per aquell - lloch pot auer tota la Barbaria. Si vos, pare sanct, li volets fer - ajuda de diners e de perdonança, sera aço complit de la major part - auans que llonch temps sia. E la Barbaria es aytal, que qui haura les - marines si haura tota la Barbaria. E son gents qui tantost com vejen - lo gran destret que hauran se faran chrestians la major part. - - [79] Holy Father, my lord king Peter of Aragon informs you that - he is in Barbary in a certain place called Alcoyll and finds - that with that place as base of operations, he can conquer - all Barbary. If you, Holy Father, will aid him with money and - indulgences, this will be accomplished within a short time. The - situation of Barbary is such that he who has possession of the - littoral will also hold all Barbary. And they are people who as - soon as they see the great distress that they will have to endure - will for the greater part become Christians. Muntaner, _op. - cit._; chap. lii. - -In the meantime ambassadors came from the island of Sicily to implore -King Peter to come thither and free them from the oppressive rule of -Charles of Anjou. But the king’s heart was so firmly set upon this -conquest that he gave no heed to their entreaties. But when another -embassy came, and when he was informed that his petition to the Pope -had met with failure, he embarked with all his forces and sailed for -Sicily. And thus the high purpose of lo Senyor rey En Pere to conquer -and christianize all Barbary came to naught. - -This undertaking of the King of Aragon furnished the historical -background for Tirant’s wonderful campaign against the Moors in -Barbary. Martorell did not make use of the details of the Aragonese -expedition, but he took up the subject and some of the geographical -names and historical personages and developed a story of conquest -according to his fancy. The enterprise of the Aragonese king was a -failure, but Tirant’s was naturally a glorious achievement. - -It is quite probable that the shipwreck of Heraud as described in the -sequel to the romance of _Guy of Warwick_ led to the conception and -composition of the conquest. Tirant, like Heraud, was shipwrecked on -the African shores, was made prisoner, and became the leader of Moorish -forces. And now that Martorell had taken his hero to Africa, what -undertaking was he to engage in there? King Peter’s expedition came -to the mind of the author, and he decided to have Tirant accomplish -what the king had tried to do. It is possible, however, that Martorell -conceived his hero as conqueror of Barbary even before he thought of -the way in which he was to arrive there. But the first theory seems -more plausible, for the reason that in Tirant’s first activities in -Africa no conquest of Barbary and no religious motives are apparent. - - - - - CHAPTER VI - - CONCLUSION: GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF TIRANT LO BLANCH - - -The Catalan romance of chivalry, _Tirant lo Blanch_, may be described -as a composite historical novel with a hero of a composite historical -character. From the beginning of the work to the end of the William of -Warwick episode the scenes are laid in England, and were it not for -the fact that Martorell describes a Moorish invasion as taking place -in that kingdom, we should be obliged to say that the atmosphere is -absolutely English. However, after Tirant’s return to the continent, -a purely Catalan or Aragonese spirit pervades the romance to the -very end. The names of other countries may be given as the scenes of -Tirant’s activities, but the Catalan heart and mind are always in -evidence. The author’s direct experience and his intimate acquaintance -with the history of his country find expression at every favorable -opportunity. Whatever is described or narrated bears a pronounced -Catalan stamp. Tirant’s relief expedition to Rhodes is based on the -siege of that place in 1444, but the manner in which he succeeded in -reaching the castle was copied from Roger de Flor’s successful attempt -to relieve Messina. The expedition of the King of France against the -infidels is based on the crusades of Louis IX; yet the way that it -ravaged the shores of Turkey was very similar to the manner in which -the vessels of King Jaime, King Peter’s predecessor, devastated the -shores of Africa. Tirant’s activities in the service of the Emperor of -Constantinople are based on the Catalan-Aragonese expedition to the -East under the leadership of Roger de Flor, but it cannot be forgotten -that the English romance, _Guy of Warwick_, has left strong and -indisputable traces in this part of the work. The conquest of Barbary -is based on the experiences of the kings of Aragon with the Saracens of -northwestern Africa, but, in making use of these historical elements, -Martorell absolutely disregards their chronological order. According to -these historical data, Tirant’s military career begins in the middle of -the fifteenth century and ends incongruously in the early years of the -fourteenth. The hero is made up of elements taken from Guy of Warwick, -Richard of Beauchamp, Roger de Flor, Saint Louis, Peter the Second -of Aragon and others. It is clear that Martorell had no intention -of singing the praises of Roger de Flor or of any other historical -personage. In fact it seems that he attempts to disguise and conceal -the historical elements. If he had adhered to these elements too -closely, he would by that very act have deprived himself of the liberty -of proceeding with his composition as he pleased. - -Martorell had probably no other purpose in view than that of writing -a romance of chivalry in which the hero was to conform in the main -to his notion of what constituted a great military leader. He was of -a practical bent and he desired to present to us a lifelike hero, -one whose exploits should be within the bounds of possibility. All -material that was given place in his work seems to be based on what -he himself directly observed or what he had read or heard related. No -wild flights of the imagination are attempted. Occasionally passages -are met with relating incredible occurrences, but these are not -of his own invention. Within this work may be found religious and -philosophical discourses; speeches and disputations among members of -the imperial councils; formal debates among members of the imperial -family; documents and papers drawn up by notaries; formal challenges -and replies to these; dramatic lamentations; long and fervent prayers; -and allusions to classical Latin authors, to biblical characters and to -figures prominent in mediaeval literature. Many of these features bear -evidence that they are not original with Martorell, but were copied, -some closely, others loosely, from models that he found here and there. -But at times he is delightfully original. On these occasions his -narrations are natural and the dialogues exceedingly sprightly, making -a striking contrast with his other heavy and stilted literary efforts. -It is to be regretted that he did not cast aside the models that he -copied or imitated, and free himself from the influence of other -authors. His book would in that case have been reduced to approximately -one-fourth of its present size, but quite probably it would now be -considered a masterpiece of narration and dialogue. - -Martorell, to judge him by the work that he has produced—unfortunately -we know nothing at all concerning him from any other source—gives us -the impression that he was a monk or an ecclesiastic. The intensely -religious spirit that pervades the book, the sermons and prayers, -and the efforts to conquer or crush the enemies of the Holy Catholic -Church point strongly in that direction. His high regard for the -orders of knighthood and his great admiration for distinguished heroes -give some grounds for believing that he was a member of a military -order. However, the various documents drawn up in legal form leave -the impression that he was a notary. But he has included in his work -several features that are not in harmony with a serious and lofty -purpose. From these a fair idea of his character and disposition may be -obtained. He is jolly, jovial, frivolous, talkative, _malicieux_, and -bold even to impertinence. He is queer and eccentric. He has peculiar -ideas as to the fitness of things. He shows extremely bad taste from -the standpoint of the present time. Sometimes he permits his hero to -conduct himself in an undignified manner, or makes him the victim of -mishaps that tend to decrease our admiration for him. And then as a -climax to these occasional disparaging portrayals, he endows his hero -with a low, immoral nature. - -Tirant lo Blanch is pictured to us as a noble, generous, religious, -intrepid, valiant, and invincible military leader. He is admirable in -all respects but one—he is morally a weakling. This inconsistency, -together with other incongruities, has led a scholarly critic[80] to -declare that _Tirant lo Blanch_ is a parody on the romances of chivalry -and that “the animus of the whole narrative is satire.” But the romance -taken as a whole does not warrant such a conclusion, for the general -tone of it is earnest and sincere. Several features of the work seem -to be presented in a satirical spirit, but still it is very doubtful -that the author intended to hold up certain foibles, follies or vices -to reprobation and ridicule. Is it not rather probable that these -features are due to the realistic tendencies of the author, or to his -whims and humors? Were some of these features perhaps intended as a -protest against the immorality of knights in general? Were they to -teach a moral lesson? If these questions are answered affirmatively, -difficulties will confront us, for Hypolite, the paramour of the -empress, is not punished for his sinful liaison; on the contrary he -is rewarded, for after the death of the emperor and the princess he -becomes the imperial ruler and his reign is a long and glorious one. -Nor was he to be punished in the next world, for we are told “... e -podeu creure que per lo bon regiment, e per la bona e virtuosa vida fon -[Lemperador e la Emperadriu] collocats en la gloria de paradis.”[81] -It is impossible to believe that it was Martorell’s purpose to deride -and ridicule the deeds of prowess and the noble enterprises of the -champion knight of the English court, the deliverer of the Knights of -Rhodes, the intrepid knight of the French king’s expedition against the -infidels, the missionary-conqueror of Barbary, and the liberator of the -Grecian Empire. Surely the spirit of the narration of these important -activities of Tirant is not satire. - - [80] F.M. Warren, _A History of the Novel Previous to the - Seventeenth Century_, New York, 1895; pp. 173 and 175. - - [81] ... and you may feel assured that on account of their - excellent rule, and their good and upright lives, they were taken - up to enjoy the glories of paradise. - -This Catalan romance of chivalry may have been conceived in accordance -with the taste of Martorell’s times, but conditions have changed. The -standards by which we measure the actions of men now are not the same -as they were then. If an author wishes us to become enthusiastic in -our admiration for his hero, the latter must conform to our standards. -We insist that the protagonist be, above all, heroic from a moral -standpoint. If he lacks that attribute we cannot give him a full -measure of appreciation. An immoral hero is a paradox, an impossibility -with us of the present day; consequently we shall never be able to -regard Tirant lo Blanch as a great hero. But from the foregoing study -it may perhaps appear that the “cura’s” estimate, composed both of -enthusiasm and reprobation (as set forth in the passage quoted in the -opening paragraph), is not unworthy of the good sense and critical -acumen of the great Cervantes. - - - FINIS. - - - - - BIBLIOGRAPHY - - - AMADOR DE LOS RÍOS, JOSÉ, _Historia critica de la literatura - española_, Madrid, 1861-1865. - - ASHMOLE, ELIAS, _The Institution, Laws and Ceremonies of the - most Noble Order of the Garter_, London, 1672. - - BONSOMS Y SICART, ISIDRO, and RUBIÓ Y LLUCH, - ANTONIO, _Discursos leídos en la Real Academia de Buenas Letras - de Barcelona en la recepción publica de D. Isidro Bonsoms y Sicart el - día 9 de Mayo de 1907_, Barcelona, 1907. - - CALDERON, JUAN, _Cervantes vindicado en ciento y quince - pasajes del texto del ingenioso hidalgo_, Madrid, 1854. - - CERVANTES, _El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha_, - edited and annotated by Francisco Rodríguez Marín, Madrid, 1911. - - CERVANTES DE SAAVEDRA, MIGUEL DE, _El ingenioso hidalgo Don - Quijote de la Mancha_, with commentaries by Diego Clemencín, annotated - by Miguel de Toro Gómez, Paris, 1910. - - CLÈDE, M. DE LA, _Histoire générale de Portugal_, Paris, 1735. - - CUST, ELIZABETH, _The Stuarts of Aubigny_, London, 1891. - - DENK, OTTO, _Einführung in die Geschichte der - altcatalanischen Litteratur_, Munich, 1893. - - _Documents inédits sur l’histoire de France, première série_, Paris, - 1862. - - DUNLOP, JOHN COLIN, _History of Prose Fiction_, edited by - Henry Wilson, London, 1896. - - GIVANEL MAS, JUAN, _Estudio crítico de Tirant lo Blanch_, - Madrid, 1912. - - GUTIÉRREZ DEL CAÑO, MARCELINO, _Ensayo bibliográfico de - “Tirant lo Blanch.” Revista de Archives, Bibliotecas y Museos_. - September-December number of the year 1917, Madrid, 1917. - - _Guy of Warwick_, Fourteenth-century versions, edited from the - Auchinleck MS. in the Advocates’ Library, Edinburgh, and from MS. 107 - in Caius College, Cambridge, by Julius Zupitza, Early English Text - Society, London, 1883, 1887, and 1891. - - JOINVILLE, JEHAN SIRE DE, _Histoire de Saint Loys, Collection - Complète des mémoires par M. Petitot_, Paris, 1819. - - _La Soberana Orden Militar de San Juan de Jerusalem ó de Malta, por un - Caballero de la Orden_, Madrid, 1889. - - LULL, RAYMOND, _Libre del Orde d’Cauayleria_, Barcelona, - 1879. - - MENÉNDEZ Y PELAYO, M., _Orígenes de la Novela_, Madrid, 1905. - - METGE, EN BERNAT, _Lo Somni d’En Bernat Metge_, edited by R. - Miquel y Planas, Barcelona, 1907. - - MONCADA, FRANCISCO DE, _Expedición de los catalanes y - aragoneses contra turcos y griegos_, Madrid, 1777. - - MUNTANER RAMON, _Chronica, o Descripcio dels fets, e hazanyes - del Inclyt Rey Don Iaume Primer Rey Darago, de Mallorques, e de - Valencia: Compte de Barcelona, e de Muntpesller: e de molts de sos - descendens_, edited by Karl Lans, Stuttgart, 1844. _Bibliothek des - literarischen Vereins in Stuttgart._ - - NICOLAU Y D’OLWER, LUIS, _Sobre les fonts catalanes del - Tirant lo Blanch_. _Revista de Bibliografía catalana_, Barcelona, 1907. - - NUÑES DE LEAÕ, DUARTE, _Cronicas del rey Don Joaõ de gloriosa - memoria, o I. deste nome, e dos reys de Portugal o X., e as dos reys - D. Duarte, e D. Affonso o V._, Lisbon, 1780. - - PORTER, WHITWORTH, _A History of the Knights of Malta_, - London, 1883. - - THE COUNTESS OF WARWICK, _Warwick Castle and its Earls_, New - York and London, 1903. - - VERTOT, ABBÉ DE, _Histoire des Chevaliers Hospitaliers de S. - Jean de Jérusalem_, Paris, 1726. - - WARREN, F.M., _A History of the Novel previous to the - Seventeenth Century_, New York, 1895. - - - - - INDEX - - - Adrianople, 64, 115. - - Aethelstan, 99, 134. - - Agnes, daughter of the Duke of Berry, 19. - - Aguiló y Fuster, D. Mariano, 4. - - Ahones, En Ferran de, 113, 119. - - Aiguesmortes, 150. - - Alcoyl, 155. - - Alet, En Corberan de, 114. - - Alexandria, 8, 29, 123. - - Alfonso V, 75, 144. - - Alimburch, 9, 10, 13, 74. - - Amador de los Ríos, José, 97, 129. - - Amoraunt, 123. - - Amurates, 147. - - Anatolia, 113, 114, 115. - - Ania, 114. - - Antioch, 123. - - Arena, 118. - - Argus, 122. - - Armini, 40. - - Artaqui, 114. - - Ashmole, Elias, 142, 145. - - Aubigny, 137. - - - Barbary, 27, 32, 53, 54, 56, 57, 60, 111, 122, 132, 152, 154, 156, - 161. - - Barcelona, 3, 4. - - Beauchamp, Richard de, 135-137, 158. - - Beaufort, Sir Thomas, 138. - - Beauvais, 136. - - Beirut, 26, 29. - - Bellpuig, 46, 47. - - Biblioteca Provincial in Valencia, 3. - - Blancha, 16. - - Boccaccio, 128. - - Bonsoms y Sicart, D. Isidro, 3, 5, 74. - - British Museum, 3. - - Brittany, 15, 25, 26, 29, 76, 132. - - Brunanburh, 134. - - Bugia, 154. - - Bugron, 155. - - - Caen, 136. - - Caesar, Julius, 144. - - Caesar of the Empire, 63, 64, 66, 71, 115. - - Calais, 136. - - Cale ben Cale, 152. - - Cape Saint Vincent, 27. - - Caramen, 59. - - Carmesina, 34, 36, 40, 47, 49, 50, 53, 62, 63, 64, 65, 94, 106, 125, - 126, 127. - - Catania, 121. - - Cataquefaras, 27. - - Cervantes, 1, 2, 162. - - Charles of Anjou, 112, 156. - - Colbrond, 99. - - Comte de Caylus, 5. - - Comte de Flandes, 143. - - Comte d’la Joyosa Guards, 143. - - Comte de les marches Negres, 143. - - Comte de Salasberi, 143. - - Comte de Stafort, 143. - - Comte de Vila Mur, 143. - - Condam, Pere Miquel, 4. - - Conde de Barcellos, 75. - - Connétable du Royaume, 76. - - Constance, Council of, 136. - - Constantine, 60, 154, 155. - - Constable of the Empire, 42, 46. - - Constantinople, 33, 35, 38, 39, 47, 48, 53, 60, 61, 65, 106, 109, - 113, 132, 147, 152. - - Cornwall, 14. - - Corsica, 31. - - Countess of Belestar, 16. - - Countess of Warwick, wife of William, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 15. - - Countess of Warwick, Authoress, 135. - - Cyprus, 29, 32, 150. - - - Damietta, 150. - - Danish Northumbria, 133. - - Dantona (d’Antona), 8, 13. - - Denk, Otto, 97, 129. - - Dentença, En Berenguer, 115, 117. - - Diaphebus, 18, 24, 29, 31, 33, 34, 37, 40, 42, 46, 47, 51, 52, 64, - 119, 128, 140. - - Diocletian, 145. - - Don Quijote de la Mancha, 1, 2, 5. - - Duc de Viseo, 76. - - Duch d’Anjou, 143. - - Duch de Berri, 143. - - Duch de Tenes, 118. - - Duke of Aygues Vives, 17. - - Duke of Bavaria, 21. - - Duke of Bedford, 11, 14, 134, 143. - - Duke of Berry, 19. - - Duke of Burgundy, 21. - - Duke of Burgundy, brother of, 17. - - Duke of Brittany, 26. - - Duke of Clarence, 137. - - Duke of Cleves, 17. - - Duke of Exeter, 11, 16, 134, 137, 138, 143. - - Duke of Gloucester, 11, 14, 134, 143, 144. - - Duke of Lancaster, 11, 134, 143. - - Duke of Macedonia, father of Stephania, 35. - - Duke of Macedonia, commander, 35, 36, 38, 39, 42, 44, 45, 46, 110, - 117. - - Duke of Messina, 44, 117. - - Duke of Pera, 52. - - - Earl Jonas of Darras, 123. - - Earl of Northumberland, 15, 137, 143. - - Earl of Salisbury, 14, 137, 143. - - Earl of Sent Angel, 46, 47. - - Earl of Stafford, 14, 143. - - Earl Rohold, 99, 105. - - Edward, King of Portugal, 75, 144. - - Edward the Third of England, 142, 143. - - Elena, 118. - - Emir Costdram, 107. - - Emir Persan, 122. - - Emperor of Constantinople, 33, 42, 44, 46, 48, 50, 62, 63, 65, 112, - 132, 158. - - Emperor of Germany, 104, 106. - - Empress of Constantinople, 1, 33, 52, 66, 94, 125, 128, 161. - - England, 7, 104, 145. - - English Channel, 104. - - Esclandar, 107, 110. - - Evreux, 137. - - - Fabour, 123. - - Famagosta, 29, 32. - - Felice, 99, 101, 105, 109, 125, 127. - - Ferdinand I, 75. - - Ferdinand of Portugal, Prince, 69, 70, 75, 77, 79, 144, 152. - - Ferrer, John, 60. - - Fez, 59. - - Filadelfia, 114. - - Flor, Roger de, 5, 97, 104, 112-116, 120, 129, 149, 158. - - Frederick I of Aragon, 112. - - Fontsequa, 38. - - - Galba, Marti Johan de, 71, 78, 91. - - Gallipoli, 115. - - Genoa, 60. - - Gircon, 116. - - Givanel Mas, Juan, 3, 73, 95, 97, 129. - - Grand Caramany, 48, 49, 50. - - Grand Constable of England, 14, 18, 24, 143. - - Grand Maître de Christ et de Saint Jacques en Portugal, 76. - - Grand Master de Lastic, 148. - - Grand Master de Naillac, 149. - - Grand Master of the Knights of Saint John, 26, 28, 41, 146, 147. - - Grand Turk, 38, 61. - - Gulf of Venice, 28, 119. - - Gumiel, Diego de, 4. - - Guy of Warwick, _see_ Warwick, Guy of. - - - Harfleur, 136. - - Henry V, 135. - - Henry VI, 134. - - Heraud, 106, 108, 122, 157. - - Hercules, Columns of, 126. - - Hermitage of Our Lady, 8. - - Hippolyte, 1, 41, 47, 50, 52, 64, 66, 94, 128, 161. - - Hispanic Society of New York, 3, 4. - - Huntington, Archer M., 3. - - - Infanta Carmesina, 33. - - Infanta de França, 140. - - Institut d’Estudis Catalans, 3. - - - Jaffa, 29. - - Jaime, King of Aragon, 158. - - Jerusalem, 8, 27, 29, 99, 123, 135. - - Joane, Countess of Salisbury, 142. - - John I, 144. - - Joinville, 150. - - Justinian, 63. - - - King of Africa, 45. - - King of Aragon, 31, 154. - - King of Canary, 8, 10. - - King of Cappadocia, 45. - - King of Castile, 31. - - King of Egypt, 43, 45, 110. - - King of England, 9, 10, 15, 20, 24, 140, 141. - - King of Fez and Bugia, 59, 62. - - King of France, 26, 30, 31, 32, 50, 132, 148, 150, 158. - - King of Friesland, 21, 22. - - King of Morocco, 154. - - King of Naples, 112. - - King of Navarre, 31. - - King of Poland, 21, 23. - - King of Portugal, 27, 31. - - King of Sicily, 27, 28, 29, 31, 33, 44, 62, 150. - - King of Tremicen, 54, 55, 56, 111, 154. - - King of Tunis, 54, 154. - - King of Upper India, 48, 49, 50. - - Knights of Saint John, 26, 28, 132. - - Knights of Rhodes, 26. - - - La Clède, M. de, 76. - - Leonor de Aragón, 75. - - Lérida, 60. - - Lisbon, 27, 76. - - London, 5, 9, 15, 17, 132, 140. - - Loriç, Isabel de, 71. - - Louis IX, 150, 158. - - Lord of the March of Tirania, 16. - - Lull, Raymond, 72, 79, 92, 102, 131. - - Lusignan, Jacques de, 147. - - - Madresilva, 141. - - Magnesia, 114. - - Mahomet the Second, 147. - - Mal Vehi, Knight, 41. - - Manfredi, Lelio, 5. - - Maragdina, 55, 56. - - Marques de Bellpuig, 143. - - Marques de Sanct Jordi, 143. - - Marques de Sofolch, 143. - - Marquis of Saint George, 46. - - Marseilles, 32. - - Martorell, Johanot, 69, 70, 76, 77, 78, 92, 101, 103, 117, 128, 138, - 145, 147, 152, 157, 158-162. - - Menéndez y Pelayo, 2, 73, 98, 129. - - Messina, 120, 121, 149, 158. - - Metge, En Bernat, 88. - - Miçer de Riuçech, 143. - - Miraboaps, 154. - - Mirabosecri, 155. - - Mirabusach, 154. - - Montagata, 57. - - Morgadour, 108, 109, 110, 128. - - Muntalba, Kirielayson de, 1, 22. - - Muntalba, Thomas de, 1, 22, 23. - - Muntalt, Caualler de, 19. - - Muntaner, Raymond, 77, 97, 98, 104, 117, 121, 129, 131, 154. - - Muntanyanegre, Knight, 16. - - - Nantes, 26, 66. - - Nif, 114. - - Normandy, 136. - - Northumberland, 99. - - Nunes de Leaõ, Duarte, 76. - - - Oisel, 126. - - Order of the Garter, 24, 72, 140. - - Orleans, 137. - - - Palermo, 27. - - Paris, 118. - - Pelidas, 38, 39. - - Pera, 60, 113. - - Peter the Second of Aragon and Catalonia, 154, 155, 158. - - Philip, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 44, 61, 150. - - Plaer de mi Vida, 1, 44, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 58, 59, 62. - - Pope, 26, 31, 156. - - Porta del Ferre, 114. - - Prince of Wales, 20, 137, 143. - - Prior of Saint John, 41, 117. - - Portugal, 76, 145, 152. - - - Queen Jane, 135. - - Queen of Scotland, 24. - - - Real Academia de Buenas Letras de Barcelona, 3. - - Reinbrun, 122. - - Rex Enricus, 134. - - Rhodes, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 119, 146, 148, 158, 161. - - Ricart lo Ventures, 31, 32, 33, 34, 46. - - Ricomana, 27, 30, 44. - - Robert, Duke of Catania, 120. - - Rocafort, En Berenguer de, 114, 117. - - Roger de Flor, _see_ Flor. - - Romania, 115, 118. - - Rome, 21, 60, 135, 156. - - Rouen, 136. - - Rous, John, 133. - - Rubió y Lluch, D. Antonio, 74. - - - Saint George, Church of, 18, 24. - - Saint Peter, Castle of, 28, 119, 149. - - Saint Simplicius, 145. - - Saint Sofia, Church of, 40, 65. - - Saint Thomas of Canterbury, 9. - - Sale ben Sale, 152. - - Scariano, 54, 55, 56, 111. - - Sciacca, 120. - - Scotland, 22, 23. - - Senyor Dagramunt, 57, 59. - - Senyor de Escala Rompuda, 18, 143. - - Senyor de les Viles Ermes, 19. - - Senyor de Pantalea, 44. - - Senyor de Puig Vert, 143. - - Senyor de Terra Nova, 143. - - Sicily, 27, 30, 32, 33, 61, 76, 112, 156. - - Spires, 106. - - Stephania, 35, 36, 37, 40, 44, 47, 50, 51, 106, 119, 128. - - Strait of Faro, 120. - - Strait of Gibraltar, 27, 32. - - Stuart, Sir John, 16, 137, 143. - - Sultan, 28, 38, 61, 106. - - Sultan of Cairo, 26. - - Sultan of Egypt, 148. - - Syracuse, 120. - - - Temple, 130. - - Templars, 105. - - Tenedos, 118. - - Tira, 114, 128. - - Tirri, 126. - - Trebizond, 63. - - Tremicen, 54, 55, 56. - - Triamour, 123. - - Tripoli in Syria, 31, 150. - - Tunis, 27, 32, 56, 150. - - - Valencia, 3, 71, 145, 154. - - Valladolid, 5. - - Varoych, Johan de, _see_ Warwick, John of. - - Varoych, Guillem de, _see_ Warwick, William of. - - Venice, 5, 8, 60, 135. - - Verona, 135. - - Vertot, Abbé de, 147, 148, 151. - - Villa Fermosa, Knight, 22, 23. - - Virgil, Polydore, 142. - - Viscount of Branches, 50, 117. - - Viuda Reposada, 1, 36, 44, 48, 51, 53, 128. - - - Wales, 14. - - Warren, F.M., 150. - - Warwick, City of, 8, 9, 10, 101. - - Warwick, Guy of, 73, 98, 101, 104, 105, 106, 110, 130, 131, 133, 158. - - Warwick, John of, 8, 12, 14, 24, 74, 143. - - Warwick, William of, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 16, 19, 73, 74, 91, 98, 101, - 134. - - Winchester, 99, 100. - - Windsor Castle, 24, 142. - - - Xor Miqueli, 113, 115, 117. - - - - - COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS - Columbia University in the City of New York - - - [Illustration] - -The Press was incorporated June 8, 1893, to promote the publication of -the results of original research. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Tirant lo Blanch; a study of its authorship, principal sources and historical setting</p> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Joseph Anthony Vaeth</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: July 24, 2021 [eBook #65913]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Nahum Maso i Carcases, Emmanuel Ackerman and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TIRANT LO BLANCH; A STUDY OF ITS AUTHORSHIP, PRINCIPAL SOURCES AND HISTORICAL SETTING ***</div> - -<div class="body-with"> - -<hr class="tn" /> -<div class="transnote"> -<p class="no-indent center bold">Transcriber’s Notes:</p> -<p>The original spelling, hyphenation, and punctuation have been retained, with the exception -of apparent typographical errors which have been corrected.</p> -</div> -<hr class="tn" /> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p> - -<p class="no-indent center p2"> -Columbia University<br /> -STUDIES IN ROMANCE PHILOLOGY AND -LITERATURE</p> - - -<p class="no-indent center p2">TIRANT LO BLANCH</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="no-indent center p2">COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS<br /> -SALES AGENTS</p> - -<hr class="xshort" /> - -<p class="no-indent center"> -<small>NEW YORK</small><br /> -LEMCKE & BUECHNER<br /> -<span class="smcap">30-32 West 27th Street</span> -</p> - -<p class="no-indent center"> -<small>LONDON</small><br /> -HUMPHREY MILFORD<br /> -<span class="smcap">Amen Corner</span>, E.C. -</p> - -<p class="no-indent center"> -<small>SHANGHAI</small><br /> -EDWARD EVANS & SONS, <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">30 North Szechuen Road</span> -</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p> - -<h1>TIRANT LO BLANCH</h1> - -<p class="no-indent center bold p2">A STUDY OF ITS AUTHORSHIP -PRINCIPAL SOURCES AND HISTORICAL -SETTING</p> - -<p class="no-indent center bold p2"><small>BY</small> -<br /> -JOSEPH A. VAETH, <span class="smcap">Ph.D.</span> -<br /> -<span class="smaller">INSTRUCTOR IN ROMANCE LANGUAGES -IN NEW YORK UNIVERSITY</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/ill001.jpg" width="128" height="150" alt="1754 Columbia University Press 1893" /> -</div> - -<p class="no-indent center bold p2">New York<br /> -COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS<br /> -1918<br /> -<small><em>All rights reserved</em></small></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p> - -<p class="no-indent center p2"> -Copyright, 1918</p> - -<p class="no-indent center"><span class="smcap">By Columbia University Press</span></p> - -<hr class="xshort" /> - -<p class="no-indent center small">Printed from type, May, 1918</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p2"><em>Approved for publication, on behalf of the Department -of Romance Languages and Literatures of Columbia -University.</em></p> - -<p class="signature"><span class="smcap">Henry Alfred Todd</span></p> - -<p class="no-indent"><span class="smcap">New York</span>, December, 1917.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p> - -<p class="no-indent center small p2">TO</p> - -<p class="no-indent center">PROFESSOR RAYMOND WEEKS</p> - -<p class="no-indent center small">WHOSE ENTHUSIASM, SCHOLARSHIP AND DEVOTION TO FRANCE -HAVE BEEN OF SUCH FAR-REACHING INFLUENCE IN -THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STUDY OF -ROMANCE LANGUAGES IN AMERICA, -THIS BOOK IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p> - -<h2>PREFACE</h2> - - -<p>On my return to Columbia University in the fall of -1914 for the purpose of continuing my studies, I consulted -Professor H.A. Todd in regard to available subjects for -a doctoral dissertation. In the course of our conversation -he called my attention to a large volume which had -been presented to him by Mr. Archer M. Huntington. -It was a facsimile copy of the first edition of the Catalan -romance of chivalry, <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>. Realizing that -here was an opportunity to become intimately acquainted -with a work that was made well known, in name at least, -by Cervantes in his celebrated <em>Don Quijote</em>, I eagerly -accepted the suggestion of Professor Todd to examine -the book with a view of ascertaining what possibilities -<em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> might offer in the field of literary -investigation. I immediately began to consult the -local libraries, and discovered that no elaborate and -extensive study of this work had been made. After -I had read the romance my mind was made up that the -subject of my dissertation would be based on this Catalan -work. I saw in it an abundance of material which provided -excellent opportunities for research work. I -experienced no little difficulty in selecting the special -problems and investigations which were to claim my -close and serious attention. Fortunately I again looked -over the cards in the Catalogue of the Library of the -Hispanic Society, and to my surprise I found a new card -which indicated that a critical study of this Catalan -work had been published in 1912, the <em>Estudio crítico de -Tirant lo Blanch</em> by Givanel Mas. After a careful study -of this comprehensive and scholarly production and all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span> -other available sources of information pertaining to this -subject, I found myself deeply interested in the question -of the authorship of this romance, its principal sources, -and its historical setting.</p> - -<p>During the course of my researches and investigations, -I have on numerous occasions been the recipient of -favors and acts of kindness which, although not bearing -directly on my work, nevertheless facilitated my labors -and stimulated my efforts. I therefore take advantage -of this opportunity to express my most sincere thanks -to the following persons: to Doctor Peter H. Goldsmith, -Director of the Inter-American Division of the American -Association for International Conciliation, and Editor of -the <em>Inter-America</em>; to Don F. Javier Salas, Consul -General of Spain at New York; to Professor H.C. -Heaton of New York University; and to Mr. Louis -Imbert of Columbia University.</p> - -<p>To Professor E.B. Babcock of New York University -I am deeply indebted for sympathetic encouragement -and valuable suggestions, and for his patient reading of -the proof-sheets.</p> - -<p>I am exceedingly grateful to Professor J.L. Gerig of -Columbia University for a critical reading of the MS., -for suggesting certain improvements, for his good will -and helpful advice, and for his final reading of the proof-sheets.</p> - -<p>It is extremely difficult to express in an adequate manner -my appreciation and gratitude to Professor H.A. -Todd, who, from the beginning to the end of the work, -advised, guided, and encouraged me. His kind and -never-failing interest in his students and their work is, -it is needless to say, a constant source of inspiration.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></p> - -<h2>CONTENTS</h2> - -<table summary="Contents"> - <tr> - <td class="tdr tdt"> </td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><span class="small">PAGE</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdi tdj tdt tdpl tdpr">Quotation from <em>Don Quijote</em>, with comments.—Valencia - edition of <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>.—Barcelona edition of 1497, - of which the only complete copy known is in the library of the - Hispanic Society.—Other editions and translations published.—Scope - of this study.</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpt tdpb tdpr">PART I. ANALYSIS OF <em>TIRANT LO BLANCH</em></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Chapter I. The William of Warwick Episode</span></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdi tdj tdt tdpl tdpr">William of Warwick a noble and valiant English knight.—He - makes a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, returns, and lives as - a hermit near Warwick.—Moorish invasion of England.—William - of Warwick becomes the hermit-king and the - commander of the English forces.—Defeat and annihilation - of the Moors.—He gives back to the former king the - royal insignia, and retires to a new hermitage.—The King - of England announces an assembly of the General Court in - London.—Meeting of Tirant lo Blanch and the hermit, - William of Warwick, at the hermitage.—The marriage of - the king and the festivities of the General Court.—On his - way back to Brittany Tirant visits the hermit.—The - principal events that took place near and in London.—Tirant - proclaimed the best knight.—His exploits: he vanquishes - two champions of the field, also the Lord of Viles - Hermes; without arms he kills a fierce mastiff; he vanquishes - the kings of Friesland and of Poland, and the dukes - of Burgundy and of Bavaria; his prospective combat with - Kirielayson de Muntalba; he defeats Thomas de Muntalba; - combat with the Knight Villa Formosa.—Narration concerning - the Order of the Garter.—Tirant takes leave of the - hermit and returns to Brittany.</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Chapter II. Tirant succors the Knights of Rhodes</span></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdi tdj tdt tdpl tdpr">Tirant is received with great honors in the city of Nantes. - He learns that the knights of Rhodes are besieged by the - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span>Moors and are in a desperate plight.—On a large ship - heavily laden with provisions he, accompanied by Philip, - the youngest son of the King of France, sets sail for Rhodes.—Makes - landing at Lisbon.—Voyage resumed.—Ship - attacked by Moorish vessels but finally reaches Sicily.—Philip - becomes a suitor for the hand of the Sicilian princess, - Ricomana.—The king of Sicily accompanies Tirant and - the ship succeeds in reaching the castle of Rhodes.—The - Moors raise the siege.—Tirant, with his royal companions, - goes to Jerusalem and then to Alexandria, where he ransoms - many Christian captives.—Philip marries Ricomana.</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Chapter III. Tirant joins the Expedition of the King - of France against the Infidels</span></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdi tdj tdt tdpl tdpr">Tirant, in a galley of his own, joins the combined fleet - of the Christians.—Attack on the city of Tripoli in Syria - fails.—Quarrel between Tirant and Ricart lo Venturos for - the honor of being the last to board the ship.—The Turkish - coast is plundered and devastated and fleet sails for Tunis.—In - the attack on that city Tirant falls in a ditch and is - rescued by Ricart.—Tunis is captured.—Fleet sailed along - coast of Barbary and finally disbanded at Marseilles.—Tirant - visits his parents and then, at the request of Philip, - returns to Sicily.</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Chapter IV. Tirant enters the Service of the Emperor - of Constantinople</span></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdi tdj tdt tdpl tdpr">At the request of the Emperor of Constantinople, Tirant - sets sail for that imperial city, and immediately upon his - arrival is named commander of the Emperor’s forces.—He - falls in love with the charming princess, Carmesina.—Opposition - to Tirant.—Princess warns him against the - treacherous Duke of Macedonia.—Tirant’s novel way of - confessing his love.—Review of the Imperial troops.—First - encounter with the Turks.—The Duke defies Tirant.—Two - thousand soldiers sent by the Grand Master of - the Knights of Rhodes arrive to help Tirant.—Tirant’s - strategy wins another victory.—The Turks decide that - Tirant must be slain.—The King of Egypt’s challenge - accepted by Tirant.—Quarrel between Tirant and the - Duke.—Five thousand men sent by Philip, now king of - Sicily, arrive to join Tirant.—Emperor and Princess visit - the camp.—Great rout of the Turks.—Tirant’s companion, - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span>Diaphebus, appointed Constable.—Tirant captures - ships laden with provisions for the enemy.—Fleet of the - Grand Caramany and the King of Sobirana India dispersed - and the royal leaders captured.—Tirant obliged to remain - in bed in Constantinople in order that a serious wound received - in naval battle may heal.—Arrival of five thousand - “franc archers.”—Tirant’s passionate love.—Viuda - Reposada’s jealousy.—Diaphebus marries Stephania.—Tirant - in Carmesina’s chamber.—Hippolyte and the Empress.—Tirant - and Carmesina exchange vows.—Tirant - embarks to return to camp.—Tirant’s ship is driven by a - storm to the shores of Barbary, where it is wrecked.</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Chapter V. Tirant conquers all Barbary</span></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdi tdj tdt tdpl tdpr">Tirant reaches the shore and takes refuge in a cave.—He - is discovered and sent to a castle in the kingdom of - Tremicen as a prisoner.—He takes up arms in defense of this - kingdom, which is attacked by Scariano, the King of Tunis.—Maragdina, - the daughter of the King of Tremicen, is - captured by Scariano, who, in his turn, is captured by - Tirant.—Maragdina, Scariano, and a multitude of Moors - become Christians.—Several Moorish kings of Barbary determine - to exterminate the Christians, but are forced to - give up their designs.—Tirant now makes up his mind to - conquer all Barbary.—The siege of Montagata.—Senyor - Dagramunt and Plaer de mi Vida become the king and queen - of Fez and Bugia.—Caramen, the last city to oppose the - Christians, is captured.—Tirant gathers an army of - 250,000 men at Constantine to reconquer all the lost territory - for the Emperor of Constantinople.—Christianity is - firmly established in Barbary.</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Chapter VI. Tirant returns to Constantinople and - the Greek Empire is completely restored</span></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdi tdj tdt tdpl tdpr">Tirant’s immense expedition surprises the Moorish vessels - which blockade the port of Constantinople.—The Sultan - and the Grand Turk sue for peace.—Tirant’s visit to the - Imperial Palace.—The Emperor’s conditions of peace - accepted by the Moors.—The betrothal of Tirant and - Carmesina.—He is proclaimed Caesar of the Empire and - successor to the imperial crown.—He sets out with a large - army to accomplish the restoration of the empire.—This - task completed, he starts back for Constantinople.—His - death.—The despair and passing away of the Emperor - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span>and Carmesina.—Hippolyte becomes Emperor.</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpt tdpb tdpr">PART II. AUTHORSHIP OF <em>TIRANT LO BLANCH</em></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Chapter I. In what Language was</span> <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> - <span class="smcap">first written</span>?</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdi tdj tdt tdpl tdpr">Purport of dedicatory letter.—Note at the conclusion - of the book.—Reasons for doubting the accuracy of the - statements made by Martorell and de Galba.—Was there - an English original of <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>?—Was there a - Portuguese translation or a Portuguese original?—Parallel - passages from Lull’s <em>Libre del Orde d’Cauayleria</em> and from - <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>.—Others from <em>Lo Somni d’En Bernat - Metge</em> and from Martorell’s work.—Strong evidence that - <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> was originally written in Catalan.</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Chapter II. In what Way was de Galba connected - with the Production of</span> <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>?</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdi tdj tdt tdpl tdpr">De Galba asserts that he translated the fourth part, the - end of the work.—The book is not divided into four parts.—The - inconsistency of the proposed seven parts explained.—Internal - evidence refutes the statements of de Galba.—Perhaps - he composed the last chapter.—Probably did no - more than to prepare the MS. for the printer.</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpt tdpb tdpr">PART III. COMPARATIVE STUDY OF <em>TIRANT - LO BLANCH</em> AND THE SOURCES: <em>GUY OF - WARWICK</em>; LIFE OF ROGER DE FLOR IN - MUNTANER’S <em>CHRONICA</em>; AND LULL’S <em>LIBRE - DEL ORDE D’CAUAYLERIA</em></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Chapter I. William of Warwick stands for the Mature - Guy of Warwick</span></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdi tdj tdt tdpl tdpr">View generally held that Tirant lo Blanch stands for - Roger de Flor.—A close study of <em>Guy of Warwick</em> tends to - change that view.—The William of Warwick episode is - based on the latter part of the career of Guy of Warwick.—The - principal part of Lull’s work which was utilized - in the episode.</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Chapter II. Tirant lo Blanch resembles young Guy - of Warwick</span></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdi tdj tdt tdpl tdpr">Tirant and Guy are victors in knightly contests.—Their - love affairs.—Guy’s career at Constantinople.—Comparison<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span> - with Tirant’s career at that imperial city.</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Chapter III. Roger de Flor’s Career at Constantinople</span></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdi tdj tdt tdpl tdpr">Arrival of the Catalan-Aragonese expedition.—Battle - between the <em>almogávares</em> and the Genoese.—First victory - over the Turks.—Roger begins his triumphant march - through Anatolia.—Arrival of reinforcements.—The - power of the Turks completely broken.—Roger proclaimed - Caesar of the empire.—He is slain at Adrianople.—Points - of resemblance in the careers of Tirant lo Blanch and Roger - de Flor.</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Chapter IV. Other Material from the</span> <em>Chronica</em> <span class="smcap">utilized - by Martorell</span></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdi tdj tdt tdpl tdpr">The Emperor’s attitude towards the Genoese.—Xor - Miqueli.—Arrival of reinforcements.—The story of Paris - and Helen.—En Fernan de Ahones.—The raising of the - siege of Messina.</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Chapter V. Other Material from</span> <em>Guy of Warwick</em></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_112">122</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdi tdj tdt tdpl tdpr">The shipwreck of Heraud.—The story of Earl Jonas of - Darras.—Felice was well versed in the seven arts.—Guy’s - desperate love.—Oisel’s devotion to Tirri.—Felice justifies - her attitude towards Guy.—Felice’s expression of - grief and despair as Guy lies dead on the bier before her.—The - love story which unfortunately is debased by the - author.—Conclusion: Tirant lo Blanch bears a stronger - resemblance to Guy of Warwick than to Roger de Flor.—The - exploits of Roger de Flor do not constitute the principal - source of <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>.</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpt tdpb tdpr">PART IV. THE HISTORICAL BASES UPON WHICH - TIRANT’S SPHERES OF OPERATION ARE FOUNDED</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Chapter I. The William of Warwick Episode</span></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdi tdj tdt tdpl tdpr">This episode is given a setting in the first part of the - fifteenth century.—Henry VI and Richard of Beauchamp.—Sir - John Stuart and the Duke of Exeter.—The author’s - method in composing his work.</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Chapter II. Concerning the Order of the Garter</span></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdi tdj tdt tdpl tdpr">Inconsistency of two passages in <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>.—Circumstances - that led to the institution of this Order.—Names<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span> - of members selected by the King.—Golden Collar of - the members.—Although some of the details are inaccurate - from a historical standpoint, yet Martorell reveals an intimate - knowledge of the Order.</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Chapter III. Tirant succors the Knights of Rhodes</span></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdi tdj tdt tdpl tdpr">The attempt of the Genoese to capture Rhodes.—Rhodes - threatened by the Turks.—Siege of Rhodes, in 1444, - forms the historical background of Tirant’s enterprise.</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Chapter IV. Tirant joins the Expedition of the King - of France against the Infidels</span></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdi tdj tdt tdpl tdpr">Certain incidents and geographical names pertaining to - this expedition coincide with certain others in connection - with the Crusades of Louis IX.—Joinville’s description - of the king’s leap into the sea compared with a later version.</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Chapter V. Tirant conquers and christianizes all - Barbary</span></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdi tdj tdt tdpl tdpr">Portuguese campaigns against the Moors do not furnish - any material for this undertaking.—Statements in regard to - the origin of <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> apparently refuted.—Muntaner’s - <em>Chronica</em> furnished historical background for Tirant’s - activities in Barbary, perhaps suggested by Guy of Warwick.</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Conclusion</span></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdi tdj tdt tdpl tdpr">General description of <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>.—This Catalan - romance of chivalry is a composite historical novel, with - a hero of a composite historical character.</td> - <td class="tdr tdb"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdh tdj tdt tdpr"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td> - <td class="tdr tdb"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> - -<p class="no-indent center xxlarge bold p2">TIRANT LO BLANCH</p> - -<h2 class="no-break">INTRODUCTION</h2> - - -<p>In Chapter VI of the immortal work, <em>Don Quijote de la -Mancha</em>, is given a glowing account of the burning of the -books to which were ascribed the mental derangement of -the “ingenioso hidalgo.” In the passage in question, -Cervantes, speaking through the priest, pays the following -tribute to the Catalan romance of chivalry, <em>Tirant lo -Blanch</em>:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>Válame Dios, dijo el Cura, dando una gran voz.—Que -aquí esté Tirante el Blanco! Dádmele acá, -compadre; que hago cuenta que he hallado en -él un tesoro de contento y una mina de pasatiempos. -Aquí está D. Quirieleisón de Montalbán, -valeroso caballero, y su hermano Tomás de Montalbán, -y el caballero Fonseca, con la batalla que -el valiente de Tirante hizo con el alano, y las -agudezas de la doncella Placerdemivida, con los -amores y embustes de la viuda Reposada, y la -señora Emperatriz, enamorada de Hipólito, su -escudero. Dígoos verdad, señor compadre, que, -por su estilo es éste el mejor libro del mundo: -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>aquí comen los caballeros, y duermen, y mueren -en sus camas, y hacen testamento antes de su -muerte, con otras cosas de que todos los demás -libros deste género carecen. Con todo eso, os -digo que merecía el que lo compuso, pues no hizo -tantas necedades de industria, que le echaran -á galeras por todos los días de su vida.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">[1]</a> Bless me, cried the Priest in a low voice, and is <em>Tirante the -White</em> here? Give it to me, gossip, for I reckon that I have found -herein a treasure of delight and a mine of entertainment. Here -you have Don Qurieleison of Montalvan, the valiant cavalier, and -his brother Thomas of Montalvan, and the Knight Fonseca, with -the fight which the valiant Tirante had with the big mastiff, and -the witty conceits of the damsel Placer-de-mi-vida, and the amours -and tricks of the widow Reposada, and my Lady the Empress -in love with Hippolito, her squire. I tell you truth, good master -gossip, that this for its style is the best book in the world. Here -the Knights eat and sleep and die in their beds, and make their -wills before dying, with other things that are wanting in all other -books of this sort. For all this, I say that he who wrote it is -well-deserving; for he did not commit follies purposely which -should send him to the galleys for the term of his life—<em>Don -Quixote of La Mancha</em>, translated by Henry Edward Watts, London, -1888.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2">[2]</a> <em>Cervantes, El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha.</em> -Edited and annotated by Francisco Rodríguez Marín, Madrid, -1911; vol. I, chap. vi, pp. 160-163. -</p> - -<p> -The last sentence of this quotation is not clear. It has become -the subject of many comments and discussions, but no wholly -satisfactory explanation has resulted. Menéndez y Pelayo intimates -that probably the sign of negation should be omitted from -the clause “pues no hizo tantas necedades de industria.” If this -were done the passage would make good sense. In the second -volume, page 76, of his <em>Introducción a los Orígenes de la Novela</em> he -suggests another explanation. He quotes a passage from Juan -Rufo which reads as follows: “mas a fe que en algo errárades, y -yo fuera presidente, que os avia de <em>echar a galeras pues no</em> podiades -<em>hazello de ignorancia</em>.” He is of the opinion that Cervantes expressed -or intended to express the same idea as that contained in -the words just quoted, but that in some way “industria” was -substituted for “ignorancia.” If Cervantes had used the latter -word instead of the former, the sentence in question would be -free from obscurity. However that may be, it is evident that the -judgment of Cervantes concerning <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> was expressed -in a humorous way. Almost the whole of it consists of words of -praise. The only adverse criticism is to be found in the last sentence, -whereby Cervantes voices his objections to the nonsense and -obscene features of the work. -</p> - -<p> -According to Menéndez y Pelayo, the whole sentence would be -clear if the clause, “pues no hizo tantas necedades de industria,” -were not one of negation. It seems to me possible and practicable -to remove the negative meaning from the clause without omitting -or changing any words that are now found in the text. The clause -may be made affirmative, emphatically affirmative, by resorting -to the rhetorical device of converting it into a negative interrogation. -The sentence may as a result appear complicated, but orally -expressed it would not seem unnatural or forced. The passage, -with this change in punctuation, would read: “Con todo eso, os -digo que merecía el que lo compuso, pues, ¿no hizo tantas necedades -de industria? que le echaran á galeras por todos los días -de su vida.”</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Tirant Lo Blanch</em> was first published in Valencia, in -1490. Of this edition there are three copies extant: -one in the British Museum, another in the Biblioteca -Provincial in Valencia, and the third in the library of -the Hispanic Society of New York.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Mr. Archer M. -Huntington, founder of the above Society and a distinguished -patron of Spanish letters, had two hundred -facsimile copies made from the last one mentioned.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> -One of these was used in the investigations connected -with this dissertation.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3">[3]</a> For the history and description of these three copies see D. Isidro -Bonsoms y Sicart, <em>La Edición príncipe del “Tirant lo Blanch” -Cotejo de los tres ejemplares impresos en Valencia, en 1490, únicos -conocidos hoy día</em> (<em>Discursos leídos en la Real Academia de Buenas -Letras de Barcelona en la recepción pública de D. Isidro Bonsoms -y Sicart</em>, Barcelona, 1907). Also see Juan Givanel Mas, <em>Estudio -crítico de Tirant lo Blanch</em>, Madrid, 1912; pp. 27-34.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4">[4]</a> <em>Ibid.</em>, p. 59.</p></div> - -<p>A second edition was published in Barcelona, in 1497. -While I was in that city in the summer of 1915, I saw -fragments of a copy of this edition in the Institut d’Estudis -Catalans. It is to these fragments that Givanel Mas -refers in the following words: “Los únicos pliegos que -se conocen hoy día de la edición barcelonesa de 1497 -del Tirant lo Blanch, se hallan en la Biblioteca del Institut -d’Estudis Catalans; comprenden desde el capítulo -ccxviiii al ccccxciii y del ccccxxxix al ccccxlv.”<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5">[5]</a> <em>Ibid.</em>, p. 41, footnote 2.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p> - -<p>It therefore affords me great pleasure to be able to -announce that the Hispanic Society of New York has -in its possession a complete copy of the edition of 1497. -It is gilt edged and is bound in leather of a yellowish, -almost brown, color. Its back is decorated with gilded -lines and bears the title <em>Roman del Cavaller</em> | <em>Tirant -Blanc</em> | Barcelona | 1497. The title page is missing, -but at the end of the book a fragment of paper bearing -the words “Tirant lo Blanch” in large letters is pasted -on a flyleaf. This fragment is probably a part of the -title page. The edges of several pages at the beginning -and at the close of the book had been torn, but they have -been neatly mended. A considerable number of pages -are somewhat soiled, but all are easily legible. The -facsimile reproduction of a page of the fragments in Barcelona, -which Givanel Mas has inserted in his work, coincides -exactly with the corresponding page of the book -in the library of the Hispanic Society. This author -has also set forth other interesting details concerning -the edition of 1497.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> The colophon of the edition reads:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6">[6]</a> <em>Ibid.</em>, pp. 38-42.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>A honor y gloria d’nostre senyor deu Jeusucrist: -fon principiat a stampar lo present libre per -mestre Pere miquel condam y es acabat per Diego -de gumiel castella en la molt noble e insigne -ciutat de Barcelona a .xvi. de Setembre d’l -any .M. CCCC. XCVII.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7">[7]</a> To the honor and glory of our Lord God, Jesus Christ: the -printing of this book was begun by Master Pere Miquel Condam -and is completed by Diego de Gumiel, a Castilian, in the most -noble and excellent city of Barcelona on the sixteenth day of -September of the year 1497.</p></div> - -<p>In 1873 Don Mariano Aguiló y Fuster of Barcelona -began the publication of a new edition, but it was not -completed until 1905. In this edition the work is divided -into four volumes.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8">[8]</a> For further information concerning this edition, see Juan -Givanel Mas, <em>op. cit.</em>, pp. 43-58.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p> - -<p>A Spanish translation of <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> was published -in Valladolid, in 1511.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> The name of the translator -is not known. The eminent Catalan book-lover -and scholar, Don Isidro Bonsoms y Sicart, of Barcelona, -has a copy of it in his library. We have no information -in regard to the existence of any other copy. An Italian -translation was made by Lelio Manfredi and published -in Venice, in 1538.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> A French translation by the Comte -de Caylus was published about 1737; London is given as -the place of publication, but this is probably incorrect.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9">[9]</a> <em>Ibid.</em>, pp. 61-76.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10">[10]</a> <em>Ibid.</em>, pp. 70-89.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11">[11]</a> <em>Ibid.</em>, pp. 90-104.</p></div> - -<p>In the course of my studies of <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>, I have -found myself confronted by three important questions: -(1) What are the real facts concerning the authorship -of this book of chivalry? (2) Is it true that Tirant, -the hero of the book, stands for the historic personage -Roger de Flor, in connection with the Catalan-Aragonese -expedition to Constantinople in the early years of the -fourteenth century? (3) What are the historical data -utilized by the author in the composition of his work? -Each of these problems I have investigated, and the -processes and results are duly set forth in their appropriate -places in this work. Three distinct parts of it -will be devoted to a consideration of these three questions. -They will be preceded by an analysis of <em>Tirant lo -Blanch</em>, to which the reader will be referred whenever it -may be deemed expedient or necessary. The analysis is, -moreover, intended to throw light on all the points mentioned -in the quotation from <em>Don Quijote</em>; to give a fuller -account of the activities of Tirant than has been done up -to the present time; and to give as accurate an idea of the -book as a reasonable allotment of space will permit.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> - -<h2>PART I -<br /> -<small>ANALYSIS OF TIRANT LO BLANCH</small></h2> - - -<h3>CHAPTER I -<br /> -<small>THE WILLIAM OF WARWICK EPISODE</small></h3> - - -<p>On the delightful island of England there lived a noble -and valiant knight. For many years he performed with -great honor the duties pertaining to knighthood. This -noble representative of chivalry was Earl William of -Warwick. He was very strong and well-trained in the -use of arms. Many were the battles in which he took -part, and many a formidable adversary was vanquished -by him. (Chap. 2)</p> - -<p>Having reached the age of fifty-five years, moved -by sorrow and contrition for the many deaths he had -caused in his knightly career, he resolved to do penance -for his sins by making a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The -announcement of his intention to the Countess, his wife, -caused her a severe shock. The Earl called his servants -before him and paid them all that was due them and -much more. To the Countess he gave possession of the -whole county, with the privilege of doing with it what -she wished. He caused a gold ring to be made bearing -his escutcheon and that of the Countess. This ring was -wrought in such a way that it could be divided into two -parts, each being a complete ring in itself, but showing -only one half of the escutcheons. One of these -he gave to the Countess, asking her to keep it until his -return. In long lamentations she bewailed her sad fate. -But the Earl was resolute, and with tears streaming<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> -down his cheeks took leave of his wife and son, the latter -being only three months old. Leaving the city of Warwick -accompanied by a squire, he sailed to Alexandria, -and thence made his way to Jerusalem. Here he made -a careful and contrite confession of his sins and received -Holy Communion. After visiting the Holy Sepulcher -and other holy places in this city, he returned to Alexandria, -and set sail for Venice, where he dismissed his -squire, who, in accordance with the instructions given -him by his master, spread the report that Earl William -of Warwick was dead. The Earl also had merchants -write letters to England, in which they told that William -of Warwick had died while returning from Jerusalem. -The Countess was grief-stricken when she received the -bad tidings, and caused funeral obsequies to be celebrated -in a manner befitting the Earl’s station. (Chaps. 2-4)</p> - -<p>After some time had elapsed the Earl returned to his -native land. He was greatly changed in appearance. -Long hair hung over his shoulders, and his snow-white -beard reached to his girdle. In the garb of a Franciscan -monk, he came to a hermitage of Our Lady not far -distant from the city of Warwick, and there lived all -alone, avoiding all worldly affairs in order that he might -make atonement for his transgressions. Once a week -he went into the city of Warwick to solicit alms. No -one recognized him, on account of his beard and long -hair. He used to go to the Countess to ask for charity, -and she, touched by his profound humility, would give -to him more than to the other mendicants. And thus -he lived undisturbed for some time. (Chap. 4)</p> - -<p>Now it happened that corsairs had plundered a city belonging -to the King of Canary. This Moorish king became -enraged when he heard of it, and prepared a great fleet -to invade England. One dark night this fleet entered -the port of Dantona [Hampton, i.e. Southampton]. The -Moors disembarked without being seen or heard by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> -English. When the English king was informed of this invasion, -he quickly gathered all his available men to drive -back the invaders, but his forces were defeated and he -was obliged to retreat towards the city of Saint Thomas of -Canterbury. Along a river near this place he made a -stand, but was again defeated. After losing nine battles, -one after another, he sought refuge in the city of London. -But the scarcity of provisions soon compelled him to -evacuate this place, and he withdrew to the city of Warwick, -which was well supplied with food, arms and all the -instruments of warfare. The Countess offered all that -was in her county to the unfortunate monarch. The -Moors pursued the retreating forces, and on the way -captured the castle of Alimburch [Wellingborough?]. The -English king from a tower in the city of Warwick could -see the Moors devastating the land and slaying his Christian -people, both men and women. Dark despair came -over him. He could not bear this sight, but came down -from the tower and retired to a small chamber where he -lamented and prayed. In his great affliction, he bowed -his head upon the bed, and presently it seemed to him -that a beautiful lady in white, with a child in her arms, -entered the chamber. She was attended by many other -ladies who were chanting the “Magnificat.” When -the singing ceased, the Lady approached him, and, placing -her hand on his head, she said: “Fear not, O King; -have confidence; the Son and the Mother will help you -in your great tribulation. As a sign of peace, kiss on the -mouth the first man with a long beard whom you shall -see, and who will ask you for alms. Request him to lay -aside his garment, and make him captain of all your -forces.” When the king opened his eyes the vision had -vanished, but the dream had been so vivid that he could -not forget it. The next morning the hermit, William -of Warwick, while gathering herbs, saw the Moorish -forces overrunning all the surrounding country, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> -sought refuge in the city of Warwick. He went to the -castle to ask the Countess for alms, and there met the -king, whom he immediately approached. He knelt down -before him and asked for charity. The king, bidding him -arise, kissed him on the mouth and led him into a room of -the castle, where he asked him to put aside his penitent -garb and to take up arms. The hermit at first declined, -but finally agreed to yield to the wishes of the king, since -he would be taking up arms to defend Christianity and -to spread the Holy Catholic faith. (Chaps. 5-10)</p> - -<p>In his travels in the East the hermit had learned to -make certain grenades which would burn and which no -water could extinguish. For several days he was busy -making some of these. One day he informed the king -he was ready to carry out a plan by which he hoped to -deal a severe blow to the enemy. That night he disguised -himself as a Moor and, carrying a number of -grenades, reached the camp of the invaders. He set fire -to the camp, and while the infidels were trying to extinguish -the fire, the English came out of the city and -attacked them. Many Moors were slain, and the rest fled -in disorder to the castle of Alimburch. (Chaps. 10-12)</p> - -<p>From this place, the great King of Canary sent ambassadors -to the English king with a letter in which he -proposed that, to avoid further bloodshed, the two kings -should engage in mortal combat. If the Moorish king -should be the victor, the English king was to recognize -him as his lord and pay a heavy tribute every year. -If, on the other hand, the English king should win, then -the Moors were to return to their own land, and England -should again enjoy peace. This proposal was immediately -accepted by the English sovereign. (Chaps. 13-14)</p> - -<p>Then the King of England convened the General -Council to deliberate over the matter. The hermit -was first asked to give his advice. He suggested that -since the Moorish king was a strong and hardy man,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> -and the English king young and feeble, some one who -was more likely to win over such a formidable adversary -should fight in place of England’s king. Moreover, -he proposed that the Duke of Lancaster, the uncle of -the king, should be the person to represent him in the -combat. But immediately three dukes, the Duke of -Gloucester, the Duke of Bedford, and the Duke of Exeter, -protested loudly that, since they were more closely -related to the king, the honor of representing him should -devolve upon them. But the king was unwilling that -any one should fight in his place. However, he was -finally persuaded that this should be done, and he yielded -only on condition that he be permitted to name the -substitute, to whom he also intended to surrender the -royal crown and scepter. He nominated the hermit, -who wished to decline, but was finally induced to put -on the royal robes. The regal power was then conferred -upon him in the presence of a notary. Arms were brought, -from which he was to select those that he preferred. -But he chose none of these. He asked that the arms of -William of Warwick be obtained from the Countess. -The latter sent certain arms, but they were not the -ones that he wanted. Those that he desired were kept -in the chamber of the Countess. The astonished lady -gave the hermit permission to enter her chamber, and he -there equipped himself for the coming combat. (Chaps. -14-19)</p> - -<p>The hermit-king spent all that night in the church, -kneeling before the altar, upon which he had placed his -arms. After mass the next morning he ate to strengthen -his body and then armed himself for the fight. Finally -the adversaries met, and the fighting was fast and furious. -Suddenly the hermit-king cut off one of his opponent’s -arms, and a few moments later, his head. England’s -champion had won, and great was the rejoicing among -the Christians. (Chap. 19)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p> - -<p>The next day the English sent ambassadors to the -infidels to request them to leave the country, as had been -stipulated in the agreement made before the combat -took place, but the Moors in great wrath cut off the heads -of these ambassadors. They put the heads in a sack -and sent them back to the English. The hermit-king -was astounded when this cruel and treacherous deed -was reported to him, and he made a solemn vow never -to go under any roof except that of the church to hear -mass, until he had driven the whole Moorish tribe out -of the kingdom. And he ordered that all male subjects -of the crown over the age of eleven years and under -seventy should take up arms to fight the invaders. -(Chaps. 19-20)</p> - -<p>When the Countess learned that her son, who was -barely eleven years old, would be obliged to fight the -Moors, she became frantic. She implored the hermit-king -to permit her to keep her son, the only comfort -of her life, but he would not yield to her entreaties. -And when the boy himself expressed an eagerness to go -against the enemy, she realized that all her petitions would -be in vain, and, with despair in her heart, she gave the -lad her blessing. (Chaps. 20-22)</p> - -<p>The hermit-king gathered his forces and led them out -upon a plain before the city, and there they established -their camp. Around it a high wall was thrown up. -An opening was left on one side and there caltrops were -placed and pitfalls were dug. When the Moors attacked -the camp, they were slaughtered in great numbers. -Finally they began to retreat. The Christians followed -them and killed many more in the pursuit. The young -son of the Countess slew a doughty Moor, and the king, -after dubbing him, threw him upon the slain Saracen, -so that the boy’s hands and face became covered with -blood. That was the lad’s baptism of blood. (Chaps. -24-25)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p> - -<p>After this disastrous defeat the Moors again returned -to the castle of Alimburch. The English made an assault -upon this stronghold and succeeded in setting it on -fire. The infidels were obliged to come out, and all that -emerged were slain, while all the rest that were found in -the kingdom were put to death. The victorious English -then marched to Dantona, threw into the sea all the -Moors that they encountered there, and destroyed all -the ships in which they had come. (Chap. 25)</p> - -<p>When peace and order were again established on the -island of England, the hermit-king decided to make himself -known to the Countess, and in order that he might -be free to return to his hermitage and his penitential -life, he purposed to restore the kingdom to the former -sovereign. (Chap. 26)</p> - -<p>Accordingly, he sent a chamberlain with the half-ring -to the Countess. The messenger said to her: “He -who has loved you with infinite love, and who still loves -you, sends you this ring.” She took it and was startled. -She hurried to her chamber, where she said a short -prayer. Then she opened the jewel-case and took a ring -from it. She placed one of the rings on top of the other, -and behold they fitted together perfectly and the escutcheons -were complete. All perturbed and excited, -she rushed towards the door, but before she was able to -reach it, she fell to the floor in a swoon. The chamberlain -hurried to the king and announced that the Countess -had fallen dead. The king hurried to her room. Doctors -were already there trying to revive her. Finally -she recovered her senses, arose, and threw herself on -her knees before the king, who raised her up from the -floor and embraced her and kissed her many times. -Then he announced that he was the Earl of Warwick. -And when the people generally knew that the hermit-king -was their own William of Warwick, there was great -rejoicing. All the nobility went to the church with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> -reunited couple and offered up to heaven infinite praise -and thanks. Then, in a triumphant procession, they -returned to the castle, where a sumptuous banquet was -served. (Chap. 26)</p> - -<p>Nine days later there arrived four hundred carts laden -with gold and silver, all of which had been taken from -the Moors. The Duke of Bedford, the Duke of Gloucester, -the Earl of Salisbury, and the Earl of Stafford -were put in charge of this immense treasure. A meeting -of the General Council was ordered for the next day. -(Chap. 26)</p> - -<p>At this council the earl gave instructions concerning -the distribution of the booty, and restored to the former -ruler the crown, scepter, and royal robes. He himself -immediately put on again the garb of the Franciscan -order. The reinstated king begged him to remain at his -court. He offered him the principality of Wales, but -he would not accept it. All the members of the council -besought him to stay, but he answered that he must return -to serve God. When the king realized that he could -not induce him to dwell amongst them, he gave half of -the kingdom of Cornwall to the earl’s son, to whom -was also granted the privilege of wearing an iron crown. -The hermit gave thanks to the king for the gift and -the honors bestowed on his son, and then bade farewell -to His Majesty and his court. He went to a small villa -in his county, where he remained several days. The -king sent him thirty carts loaded with the most precious -things contained in the booty captured from the Moors, -but he refused to accept any of it. When the king left -the city of Warwick he sent for the earl’s son, and, at the -city gate, he appointed him Grand Constable of all England. -Then the king departed for London. (Chap. 27)</p> - -<p>The Countess visited her husband, the hermit, in -the villa, and finally persuaded him to have a hermitage -built, which was to consist of a church, with an apartment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> -on each side of it, one for him and the other for -her. After its completion, and just about the time that -they were going to live there, the Earl of Northumberland -came to them as an ambassador of the king. His -mission was to request the noble couple to come to London. -The king was going to marry the daughter of the -King of France, and was anxious that the Countess should -instruct the queen in the practices and customs of England. -The hermit replied that he must keep the vow -that he had made to serve God, but he should be very -happy if the Countess would be willing to go. And -the Countess, moved by the wish of her husband and -by a sense of duty to her sovereign lord, expressed her -willingness to comply with the king’s request. And thus, -William of Warwick and his wife were again separated; -she went to London, and he entered the new hermitage, -which stood in a dense grove, in which there was a -clear spring, whose waters flowed with a gentle murmur -through the flowers and green grasses of a beautiful -meadow. And every day after the hermit had finished -his hours he would come out under a beautiful pine tree -that stood in the center of this meadow, to watch the -animals that came to drink from this crystal spring. -(Chap. 27)</p> - -<p>The King of England, in order to keep his people well-trained -in the use of arms, and to celebrate his approaching -marriage in a befitting manner, announced that a -General Court would be held in London at which many -exercises of arms should take place. The announcement -of the great festivities which the king was preparing -was spread throughout all the Christian lands. -Now it happened that a young nobleman from Brittany -started on his way to attend the great event, and with -him several other youths. And as they were riding along, -he dropped somewhat behind the others, and, being weary -from the long journey, fell asleep. His steed, instead<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> -of following the company, took a path which led to the -crystal spring where the hermit was reading a book -entitled <em>Arbre de Batalles</em>. When the horse came to the -spring, it lowered its head to drink, and this movement -awakened the rider, who opened his eyes and saw before -him the white-bearded hermit. Quickly dismounting, -he bowed to him. The hermit received him kindly, -and asked his name, and why he had come to that deserted -place. The youth answered: “My father is -Lord of the March of Tirania, and my mother’s name is -Blancha; therefore it has pleased them to call me Tirant -lo Blanch.” He then related that he and several young -noblemen were on their way to attend the General Court -which the English king had announced and at which -those who wished to become knights would have an -opportunity to realize their ambition. When he had -said this, the hermit grew pensive and, when asked -wherefore, replied that he was thinking of knighthood -and the duties and obligations of knights. Young Tirant -then begged him to tell about the order of knighthood. -The hermit read to him a chapter from the <em>Arbre de -Batalles</em>, which was a kind of treatise on the order of -chivalry. And he explained the origin of chivalry; -its noble purpose; the significance of the arms and the -different parts of armor; how a knight who has disgraced -the order is degraded; and he named some of the great -knights of olden times. When asked who were the best -knights of England at that very time, he mentioned the -names of the good knight Muntanyanegre, the Duke -of Exeter, and Sir John Stuart. Tirant, disappointed -at this answer, asked why he did not make mention of -the Earl William of Warwick, who had won so many -battles in France and Italy, and in many other countries; -who had saved the life of the Countess of Belestar, -accused of adultery by her husband and her three sons; -who had snatched a child away from a lion and returned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> -it to its mother; and who vanquished the Moors in -England and liberated many English captives. The -hermit replied that he had heard of William of Warwick, -but having never seen him he did not mention his name. -(Chaps. 28-38)</p> - -<p>While Tirant was receiving instructions in knighthood -from the hermit, his companions were traveling -on, and, although he would gladly have remained longer, -it was necessary to depart if he did not wish to travel -to London alone. The hermit bade him farewell, and -gave him the book. He invited Tirant to visit him on -his return, and the invitation was accepted. Then the -young aspirant for the honors of knighthood resumed -his journey to London. Some of his companions, when -they missed him, turned back, and when they found him, -he was riding along reading the book. The company -of young men arrived in London a few days before the -beginning of the festivities. (Chap. 39)</p> - -<p>The feast of St. John was the wedding day of the king, -and on that day began the festivities of the General -Court. The celebration continued for a year and a day. -Then the visitors took leave of the king and the queen, -and returned to their respective homes. Tirant, remembering -his promise, stopped at the hermitage with -his companions. They were embraced one by one by -the venerable man, and then they sat down with him -on the grass underneath the large pine tree. At the -request of the hermit, Tirant described the principal -events that had taken place at London. He told of the -generous hospitality of the king; of the great procession -when the king went out of the city to meet his betrothed; -of the manner in which the exercises of arms were conducted; -and of the splendor and merriment at the royal -nuptials. He spoke also of those who essayed their -skill in knightly combats, praising highly the Duke of -Aygues Vives, the Duke of Cleves, and the brother of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> -Duke of Burgundy. But the contest that he admired -most of all was the one in which a youth who did not -seem to be more than fourteen or fifteen years old took -part. This youthful knight was called the Grand Constable -of England. His mother and the king, too, had -forbidden him to participate in any of the combats. -But he came to Tirant and asked him for permission to -use his arms and steed. He begged so well that Tirant -was unable to refuse. In this contest the youth slew -the Senyor de Escala Rompuda. The king chided him -for having entered the lists without permission, but the -young Constable answered that it was not right that he -should be denied the privilege of following the footsteps -of his valiant father, William, Earl of Warwick. The -Countess sent for Tirant and begged him never again -to do anything that might cause her to lose the only joy -and comfort that she had in this life. And he promised -that he would never willingly put the life of her son in -jeopardy. (Chaps. 39-57)</p> - -<p>The hermit had already twice asked who had been -declared the best and greatest knight among the victors. -But Tirant seemed to pay no attention to his questions. -And finally the hermit said: “But, Tirant, why do you -not answer my question?” Then arose one of the company -and his name was Diaphebus. He drew forth -a parchment saying that the document in his hands -would answer the question. This he read to the hermit, -who was delighted when he heard that it was a proclamation -to the world that the noble and valiant Tirant -lo Blanch was declared the best knight of all those that -had taken part in the exercises of arms at the festivities -connected with the General Court. It also contained the -instructions given by the king that Tirant should be -placed on a white steed and that all, walking with the -king, should escort the hero to the church of Saint George, -where a solemn high mass would be celebrated in honor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> -of this most excellent knight. The document was signed -by “Rex Enricus,” and by judges of the field, heralds, -and the great lords in attendance. (Chaps. 57-58)</p> - -<p>After the reading of the document, the hermit asked -Diaphebus to tell of some of Tirant’s exploits, whereupon -our hero withdrew from the company to busy himself -with giving orders for the putting up of the tents and -the preparation of supper. Diaphebus then related how -Tirant was the first person upon whom the honor of -knighthood was conferred, and the first one to engage -in combat with one of the champions of the field. In -this contest, which was fought on horseback, he slew his -adversary. Then he challenged another champion of -the field to a <em>combat à outrance</em> on foot. In this he -succeeded in striking his opponent to the ground. Not -wishing to take his life, he asked the fallen knight to -beg for mercy, but the latter answered that he was the -Caualler de Muntalt, knighted by the Earl of Warwick, -loved and feared by many, and that he preferred to die -with honor rather than live in disgrace. And Tirant, -regretting that knights were by their very profession -obliged to be cruel, placed the point of his dagger over -the eye of his victim, and then struck a sharp blow on -the end of the handle so that the point came out on the -other side of his head. (Chaps. 58-60)</p> - -<p>One day the king and the queen, accompanied by many -knights and ladies, went out into a meadow for recreation. -With them was “Beautiful Agnes,” the daughter -of the Duke of Berry. On this day she wore a precious -brooch. Tirant approached her and praised her many -excellent qualities. He then asked her for that brooch, -saying that in return for the favor he would be willing -to meet any knight in a <em>combat à outrance</em>. She gave -him permission to take it. Thereupon Tirant detached it -from her bodice and fastened it on his cap. The following -day the Senyor de les Viles Ermes, a valiant and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> -well-trained knight, came to Tirant, and, after telling him -that from his very childhood he had loved Agnes, demanded -that the brooch be given him. Threatening to -kill Tirant if the latter should refuse, he tried to take -it from him by force, whereupon a fight ensued in which -the friends of each took part, and twelve men were killed -before peace could be restored. Three days later, the -Senyor de les Viles Ermes sent a challenge to Tirant and -it was immediately accepted. Tirant relinquished his -right to select the arms, and also gave his adversary -the privilege of designating the manner in which the -duel was to be fought. Thereupon the latter specified -that the combat should be fought on foot. Each of -the combatants should wear a plain shirt, and have a -wreath of flowers on his head. No other clothing was -to be worn. Each should be provided with a paper -shield and a pointed double-edged Genoese dagger. The -duel was fought in a neighboring forest early in the -morning. The two adversaries inflicted many horrible -wounds on each other. Their white shirts were red with -the blood that flowed copiously from their wounds. -Gradually they grew weaker and weaker. Finally Tirant -made a desperate thrust and struck his opponent -just over the heart. At the same time he himself received -a blow on the head which made him sink to the ground -even before his antagonist fell dead. Four of Tirant’s -wounds were pronounced fatal, but fortunately they -gradually healed and his life was saved. (Chaps. 60-68)</p> - -<p>The Prince of Wales, too, had come to attend the festivities, -and since he was fond of hunting he brought with -him several enormous dogs. One day the king, accompanied -by several knights, visited him. And it happened -that on that same day Tirant was riding by the house -in which the prince lived. A large mastiff having broken -loose from his chain, came out and rushed towards Tirant. -Our hero dismounted and drew his sword, and when the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> -dog saw the gleaming blade, it turned away. The -king and the prince saw this, and the latter, knowing -the ferocious nature of the animal, remarked that a -splendid fight was in prospect. Tirant remounted his -steed and proceeded on his way, but he had hardly -advanced twenty paces, when the mastiff again rushed -at him with great fury, and the rider was a second time -obliged to alight from his horse. He again drew his -sword and advanced towards the savage animal, when -the latter, being afraid of the shining weapon, retreated. -Then Tirant threw aside his sword, for he concluded -that it was not right nor fair that he should use arms -when the dog had none. The mastiff rushed for the -weapon, seized it with his teeth, and carried it a short -distance away. And as he came back towards Tirant, -the latter said: “Now we shall fight on equal terms; -I shall use the same kind of weapons to do you harm, -as you will employ against me.” They attacked each -other with fierceness. The gigantic mastiff caused Tirant -to fall three times. Finally the latter seized the raging -beast by the throat and strangled it with all his -might. At the same time he bit its cheek so savagely -that the animal fell dead on the ground. The king and -others came out immediately, and carried Tirant into -the house. Doctors were called and they treated the -many wounds on his arms and legs. For this victory -he received the same honors as if he had vanquished -a formidable knight in the lists. (Chap. 68)</p> - -<p>The King of Friesland, the King of Poland, the Duke -of Burgundy, and the Duke of Bavaria met in the city of -Rome on the occasion of an important celebration of the -Church. Among other subjects of their conversation, -they came to speak of the King of England and the -wonderful festivities and exercises of arms that were -taking place at his court. They decided to go there -<em>incognito</em> and try their fortune in the lists. Tirant met<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> -each of them in mortal combat, and vanquished them all. -(Chaps. 68-73)</p> - -<p>Some time after came the knight Villa Fermosa from -Scotland. The lady who had captivated his soul would -not listen to him, nor would she speak to him until he -had vanquished the renowned knight, Tirant lo Blanch. -But the latter did not wish to accept the challenge, for -his wounds were not yet healed. The Scottish knight, -however, would not take a refusal, and finally Tirant consented -to meet him, and promised that he would not fight -any other knight until after their combat. (Chap. 74)</p> - -<p>But this promise Tirant was obliged to break, for the -following reasons. When the news of the death of the -King of Friesland reached his kingdom, there was great -grief among his subjects. The favorite of the dead king, -Kirielayson de Muntalba, who was a man strong and -valorous, and descended from a race of giants, determined -to make Tirant pay dearly for slaying his lord the king. -He sent a challenge, in which he accused him of having -vanquished the two kings and the two dukes through -treachery. Tirant, in his answer, gave him the lie and -accepted the challenge. The giant-knight came, but -before the combat he went to visit the tombs of those -whose death he wished to avenge. Seeing the shields -of the vanquished, over which the shields of Tirant -had been placed, he began to weep and lament. In -a fit of anger he took down Tirant’s shields and threw -them on the ground. Then he noticed that they were -painted on the tabernacle over the tomb. Blind with -rage, he struck them with his head so violently that he -fell half unconscious. A few moments later, when he -opened the tabernacle and saw the lifeless body of his -king and sovereign, his gall bladder burst, and he died -instantly. (Chaps. 74-80)</p> - -<p>The unsuccessful avenger of the King of Friesland had -a brother whose name was Thomas de Muntalba, and he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> -had been the favorite of the other monarch, the King -of Poland. Thomas came to England with a grim determination -to avenge the death not only of the kings -and dukes, but also of his brother. He was well built, -of great strength, and so tall that Tirant scarcely reached -up to his waist. It was said that he was the tallest man -in all Christendom. He, too, accused our distinguished -champion of having slain his victims treacherously, -and challenged him to mortal combat. The challenge -was accepted. The friends of Tirant tried to prevent -the duel, for they feared that he might be vanquished. -Finally the combat took place and it was of long duration. -The giant’s blows were powerful. Once they forced -Tirant to his knees, but at that very moment he wounded -his opponent in the groin. In the violence of the fight -the big knight let fall his ax. Tirant told him that -he would permit him to pick it up, if he would retract -his false accusation of treachery. Thomas de Muntalba -did so, and recovered his ax. Then the combat began -again and it became more furious than before. Finally -the gigantic adversary had difficulty in breathing, and -was becoming weak from loss of blood. Tirant made -a desperate effort to put an end to the fight. He succeeded -in landing two powerful blows on the head of his -opponent, who fell to the ground. Tirant quickly placed -the point of his dagger over one of the eyes of the giant, -and at the same time told him if he would acknowledge -that he was vanquished his life would be spared. The -fallen knight answered that since Fate willed it, he would -deliver himself into his hands. Then Tirant went into -the middle of the field, knelt down, and gave praise and -thanks to God for the victory. Thomas de Muntalba -was degraded and later he became a monk of the Franciscan -order. (Chaps. 80-84)</p> - -<p>A few days after this event Tirant went to Scotland -to engage in combat with the knight Villa Fermosa.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> -The Queen of Scotland acted as judge of the contest. -She stopped the combat before either of the knights had -come to grief. (Chap. 84)</p> - -<p>When the hermit had heard all these things, he expressed -his delight at the many successes and great honors that -young Tirant had won. In the meantime our modest -hero had tables set up beside the clear spring, and an -excellent supper was awaiting the hermit and all the rest. -After supper the venerable man retired to the hermitage. -The next day, after he had said his hours, he came out -again. Tirant and his companions went to receive him, -and they sat on the grass as the day before. Then -Diaphebus tells about the institution of the Order of -the Garter. He narrates the well-known incident which -caused the king to say; “Puni soyt qui mal hi pense.” -He relates how His Royal Majesty instituted the above-named -fraternity as a result of that incident. He gives -a detailed description of the Church of St. George in -the castle of Windsor; he recounts the rules of the Order -and describes the ceremonies; he repeats the oaths -of the members of the Order, and the vows of the -ladies of honor. He tells how the king selected twenty-five -knights to make up the membership so that with the -king the members numbered twenty-six, and that the -king himself was the first to swear to obey all the rules. -Tirant, being the best knight of all those at the court, -was the first to be chosen. And among the other members -selected was John of Warwick, the Grand Constable -of England. (Chaps. 84-97)</p> - -<p>Tirant and his companions stayed with the hermit -for ten days. On the eve of their departure for Brittany, -they asked him to sleep in one of their tents for that -night, since they were going to leave early in the morning -and were eager to have his blessing before starting. -Their request was granted. The next morning, after -they had departed, he returned to the hermitage, which,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> -to his great surprise, he found well stocked with all -manner of provisions. He even found wood and coal -within, so that it would not be necessary for him to go -out when the weather was bad. The hermit was deeply -moved by this act of kindness, and attributed it to -Tirant, who, he resolved, should ever be remembered in -his prayers. (Chap. 97)</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p> - -<h3>CHAPTER II -<br /> -<small>TIRANT SUCCORS THE KNIGHTS OF RHODES</small></h3> - - -<p>The news of the great deeds of Tirant preceded him, -and when he arrived in Brittany he was received with -great honor in the city of Nantes by the Duke of Brittany -and a multitude of people. One day, while Tirant -was engaged in conversation with the duke, two knights -arrived from the court of the King of France, who related -how the Knights of Saint John had left Jerusalem when -that city fell, and established themselves on the island -of Rhodes. The Sultan of Cairo was highly displeased -that Christians should live on that island and made -preparations to capture it. The Genoese, discovering -the intentions of the Sultan, and realizing what an important -seaport it afforded, planned to conquer it for themselves, -but their designs and plans were discovered by -the Knights of Rhodes and frustrated. The captain -of the unsuccessful Genoese venture then sailed to Beirut, -where the Sultan was at that time, and told all that had -happened. It was then agreed that the Sultan in person -should go to Rhodes with as large an army as possible. -One hundred and fifty thousand Moors were taken to -the island, and they destroyed everything on it, except -the city, which they besieged. The port of the city -was blockaded so that no food could reach the inhabitants. -The Grand Master of the Knights, seeing that their -plight was daily becoming more and more critical, sent -letters to the Pope, the Emperor, and to all the Christian -kings and princes, begging them to come to their aid. -The King of France received one of these appeals, but -paid little attention to it. (Chaps. 97-99)</p> - -<p>Tirant, however, was eager to give them help. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> -interviewed mariners, from whom he learned that it was -possible to reach the castle of Rhodes. Encouraged by -this information, he bought a large ship and ordered it -to be well armed and loaded with provisions. Tirant’s -intentions were to go to Jerusalem after having succored -Rhodes. Philip, the youngest son of the King of France, -an awkward and not very intelligent youth, desired to -visit the Holy City, and Tirant was very glad to have -him as companion. When all was ready, they embarked -and the boat proceeded on its way. The first landing -was made at Lisbon. They were cordially received -by the King of Portugal and remained at his court for -ten days. Then they resumed their voyage. They -passed Cape Saint Vincent without incident, but upon -entering the Strait of Gibraltar, they were attacked by -a large number of Moorish ships. But Tirant’s ship -was so large and so well defended, especially by a certain -mariner named Cataquefaras, that it finally escaped -from its pursuers. Many of the men on the ship, including -Tirant and Philip, were wounded, and the vessel -was badly damaged. It landed at an uninhabited island, -where the crew repaired the ship. Then they again set -sail, and followed the shores of Barbary. Not only -Moorish but also Genoese ships attacked and harassed -them until they came near Tunis. Tirant’s vessel landed -at Palermo in Sicily to take on more provisions. The -royal family of Sicily gave Tirant and Philip a hearty -welcome, and during their stay an interesting love affair -developed between Philip and the princess Ricomana, -which Tirant took great pleasure in promoting. Much -of his time was spent at the elbow of Philip, preventing -or rectifying awkward blunders. Finally he spoke to -the king in behalf of Philip. The king was delighted at -the prospect of uniting the House of Sicily with that of -France, and requested Tirant to write to the French king -in regard to the matter. (Chaps. 99-104)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p> - -<p>One day the news came to Sicily that the city of Rhodes -was in dire distress and would fall within a few days, -unless food and help should come at once. The loading -of provisions was then rapidly completed. The day -before setting sail, the King of Sicily asked Tirant to -permit him to embark on his boat, for he, too, wished -to go to Jerusalem. Tirant was delighted to have him -as companion on the voyage. Finally they set sail, -and in four days crossed the Gulf of Venice and were -in sight of Rhodes. They directed the vessel to the -Castle of Saint Peter, and there anchored to await favorable -winds and weather. When the desired winds came -up, they again set sail. They started during the night, -and at dawn were very near the city of Rhodes. When -the hostile fleet saw the ship coming, they thought it -was one of theirs. They soon discovered their mistake, -but it was too late. They were not able to stop the ship, -which, with all sails unfurled, was dashing towards the -castle. It succeeded in reaching its destination, and -when the Knights of St. John saw it, and noticed its -strange banner, they knew it must be a ship that had -come to bring them relief. The provisions were soon -unloaded and the knights felt certain that, for some time -at least, starvation could not compel them to surrender. -(Chap. 104)</p> - -<p>The Grand Master sent samples of the provisions to -the Sultan to show him that they had food to spare. -A mariner with great cunning and skill succeeded in -setting fire to the ship of the captain who was in command -of the hostile fleet, and the conflagration caused -consternation among the foe. The rainy season set -in, and the cold days of winter were near at hand. -On account of these things, the Sultan gave orders to -raise the siege, saying however that he would return -the following year. The unfortunate Sultan, when he arrived -at home, was accused of cowardice by his vassals,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> -and thrown in the house of the lions, where he met a -horrible death. When the people of Cyprus heard that -the siege had been raised, many vessels laden with all -kinds of provisions sailed from Famagosta to the city -of Rhodes. Never before had such abundance of food -and supplies come to this place. (Chaps. 104-107)</p> - -<p>A few days after the raising of the siege, two Venetian -galleys arrived at the city of Rhodes. They were carrying -pilgrims to Jerusalem. Tirant, the King of Sicily, -and Philip made arrangements to make their voyage -to the Holy City in one of these galleys. The Grand -Master wished to reward Tirant for the timely relief -that he had brought, but our hero would accept payment -neither for the vessel nor for the provisions. The -honor that he had won was sufficient reward for him. -When the Venetian galleys resumed their voyage, Tirant, -the king, Philip, and Diaphebus were among the passengers. -They landed at Jaffa and afterwards at Beirut. -At the latter place the pilgrims disembarked and made -their way to Jerusalem, where they remained for two -weeks. After having visited all the holy places, they -went to Alexandria. One day, while Tirant and the -king were walking through the city, they came upon -a wretched Christian captive. Tirant went to the owner -of the poor slave and paid him the ransom demanded. -Then he had it announced throughout the city that all -those who held Christian slaves would recover ransom -if they brought them to the inn where he was staying. -In two days he ransomed four hundred and seventy eight -captives, and took all of them with him to the -city of Rhodes, where he gave them new garments. -The discarded clothes he sent to Brittany, in order that, -after his death, they might be hung in the chapel with -the shields of the knights that he had vanquished in -England. He told the liberated slaves that they were -welcome to follow him, but if they preferred to stay in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> -Rhodes, or wished to go elsewhere, they were free to do -so. He gave them money, and they, in their great joy, -threw themselves at his feet, kissing these and then his -hands. From Rhodes, Tirant and his royal companions -sailed directly for Sicily, where they arrived a few -days later. (Chaps. 107-109)</p> - -<p>When the king landed, he found waiting for him forty -knights who had come as ambassadors from the King -of France. They gave him a letter from their royal -master, in which the latter expressed his approval -of the proposed marriage of Philip and Ricomana. -Shortly afterwards the nuptials of the youngest son of -the King of France with the only daughter of the King -of Sicily were celebrated in great solemnity and splendor. -The festivities, which consisted of tournaments, jousting, -dances, and other forms of entertainment, continued for -a whole week. (Chaps. 109-111)</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p> - -<h3>CHAPTER III -<br /> -<small>TIRANT JOINS THE EXPEDITION OF THE KING OF FRANCE -AGAINST THE INFIDELS</small></h3> - - -<p>In the letter which was brought by the ambassadors, -the King of France announced that he was going to make -war against the infidels, and asked the King of Sicily to -join him in the holy enterprise. The latter, accordingly, -after the festivities connected with the marriage were -over, fitted out two galleys and four other vessels and -placed them under the command of Philip. (Chap. 112)</p> - -<p>The fleets of the kings of France, Castile, Aragon, -Navarre, Portugal, and Sicily, and those of the Pope and -of the Emperor, all met at the island of Corsica. Tirant -joined the expedition in a galley of his own, for he wished -to have a free hand. The united fleet set sail, and one -morning at dawn it arrived before the large city of Tripoli -in Syria. Tirant went before the French king and made -the vow that he would be the first to step on land and -the last one to return on board. Among the knights -there were many who were envious of Tirant, and they -were eager to make him break his vow. When the -men from the different vessels were about to land, Tirant -gave orders to his mariners to drive the galley at full -speed until it struck ground. He stood in the bow of -the vessel all armed, and the moment it touched land he -jumped into the water. The Moors immediately rushed -upon him, but Diaphebus and others quickly gathered -about him and drove them back. The Christians were -able to enter the city, but they found the enemy there -in such large numbers that they were obliged to return -to their ships. Tirant and another valiant knight, -Ricart lo Venturos, were the last ones to embark. They -had a lively dispute as to who should be the very last.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> -Finally, Ricart consented to embark before Tirant, if -the latter should put his foot on the ladder first. And -in this way Tirant fulfilled his vow, for which he was -highly honored. Ricart, however, was angry and sullen, -and challenged our hero to mortal combat. The latter, -incensed at this act of insolence, slapped the challenger, -and only the presence of the king was able to prevent -bloodshed. (Chaps. 112-114)</p> - -<p>The fleet then went along the Turkish coast, plundering -and devastating. It sailed in the direction of Cyprus, -landed at Famagosta a short time afterwards, and with -replenished supply of provisions, sailed for Tunis. In -the attack on that city Tirant and his men tried to capture -a tower, in front of which there was a deep ditch. -Our hero had the misfortune to fall into it. He would -undoubtedly have been slain, had not Ricart come to his -rescue. The latter, however, warned him to be on the -alert, for it was his purpose to kill him. If he saved him, -it was because he did not wish to see the infidels slay -him. Tirant was deeply moved by this unexpected conduct -of his rival, and he threw himself at his feet -and asked his pardon for having offended him. Ricart, -touched by the humility of Tirant, forgave him, and -they became inseparable friends until they were parted -by death. (Chap. 114)</p> - -<p>After the capture of Tunis, the fleet sailed for Sicily, -where the ships were provided with a new supply of provisions; -thence along the coast of Barbary and through -the Strait of Gibraltar; then, turning, it made its way -to Marseilles, where the King of France dismissed all the -ships except his own and those of Philip. The latter -went to see his mother, and Tirant made a visit to his -parents in Brittany. When the time came for Philip to -return to Sicily, he asked the king to persuade Tirant -to go with him. And thus it was that Tirant returned -to Sicily. (Chap. 114)</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p> - -<h3>CHAPTER IV -<br /> -<small>TIRANT ENTERS THE SERVICE OF THE EMPEROR -OF CONSTANTINOPLE</small></h3> - - -<p>Tirant had been back in Sicily only a week when -the king called him into his presence and read to him -a letter which he had received from the Emperor of Constantinople. -In this letter the emperor described the -sad state of affairs in the empire, and he begged the king -to ask Tirant to come to his assistance. Tirant was -pleased to go, since it was the king’s wish that he should. -The ruler of Sicily ordered eleven ships to be fitted out -and provided with all things necessary for the expedition. -When all was ready Tirant sailed for Constantinople -with his small fleet, and on his arrival the gloom of the -city was changed to joy. Tirant, Diaphebus, Ricart, -together with the other knights, disembarked and went -to the emperor to do him homage. His Imperial Majesty -immediately appointed Tirant Commander-in-chief -of his army, and Administrator of Justice. The latter -wished to decline these high positions, but finally accepted -them to please the emperor. Heralds then proclaimed -throughout the city that Tirant lo Blanch was appointed -Capita Major by His Imperial Majesty. When Tirant -went to pay his respects to the empress and the infanta, -he found them dressed in mourning and afflicted with -great grief, for the prince, the only son of the emperor, -had recently fallen in battle. He suggested that in order -to give courage to the people, and to inspire them with -confidence in regard to the final outcome of the war -with the Moors, gloom and despair ought to give way to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> -hope and cheerfulness. The emperor immediately ordered -the court to cease its mourning. (Chaps. 115-117)</p> - -<p>When Tirant beheld the charming princess, it must -be said that his eyes had never had such a feast. He -confided to Ricart how much he admired the wonderful -beauties of the palace, but more than all these he admired -the beauty of the princess, Carmesina. After taking -leave of the imperial family, he retired to the abode -which had been prepared for him. He entered a room -and rested his head on a cushion at the foot of the bed. -Soon afterwards he was invited to eat, but he answered -that he had pains in his head and did not wish to eat—he -was really wounded by that passion that deceives so -many. Diaphebus came and asked what was ailing -him, to which he answered that it was an ailment caused -by the air of the sea, but a moment later, he turned his -face from his friend and said: “I am in love.” Tears -began to flow from his eyes, and he sighed and sobbed. -Becoming somewhat ashamed of himself, he arose and -went to dinner, but could not eat. (Chaps. 117-119)</p> - -<p>Diaphebus and another knight went to the palace and -were welcomed by the imperial family and the ladies of -the court. He announced that Tirant was indisposed, -whereupon doctors were immediately sent to attend -him. They returned a little later, and reported that the -slight indisposition was due to change of climate. At -the request of the emperor, Diaphebus gave an account -of the festivities connected with the General Court of -the King of England. He told of the great deeds of -Tirant, and showed them the document signed by the -King of England, in which Tirant lo Blanch was proclaimed -the best knight. All those who heard of the -hero’s exploits were filled with admiration for him. -When Diaphebus and Carmesina were a little apart -from the others, she questioned him concerning Tirant, -and Diaphebus told her that Tirant had come to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> -Constantinople for no other reason than to see and to -serve her, for he had heard much concerning her beauty -and her excellent qualities. Upon hearing these words, -her cheeks became suffused with blushes, and she could -not say a word. (Chap. 119)</p> - -<p>This interview with Diaphebus left the princess in -a pensive mood. The daughter of the late Duke of -Macedonia, Stephania, brought up with Carmesina and -of the same age, was one of her dearest friends. The -princess told her about the conversation with Diaphebus, -and confided to her that her heart was much inclined -to obey all the wishes and commands of Tirant. Stephania -encouraged her by saying that there was no lady -in the world who would not be pleased to be loved by -such a one as he. Carmesina did not sleep that night. -When Tirant saw the princess again, her beauty charmed -him even more than at first, and he became really lovesick. -Diaphebus consoled him as best he could, and -promised to do all in his power to advance his interests -with regard to Carmesina. (Chaps. 119-121)</p> - -<p>One day, at a meeting of the General Council, Tirant -was requested to make ready to go against the Genoese, -who were coming in great numbers. At this session of -the Council it came to light that there was some opposition -to the newly appointed Capita Major, for one of -the members protested that the Duke of Macedonia, -who was still acting as Commander-in-chief, should not -be superseded, and especially not by a foreigner. The -aged emperor grew very angry when he heard these -words, and declared that the Duke of Macedonia was -a coward and had never won a battle. He further declared -that he himself would choose the Capita Major, -and that those who opposed his wishes in the matter -should be punished in such manner as would never be -forgotten. Then he gave orders that a proclamation -be made throughout the city instructing all those who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> -had grievances to appear before the imperial tribunal, -where their complaints would be given due consideration. -The following day Tirant, the imperial judge, heard -complaints and administered justice. (Chaps. 122-124)</p> - -<p>The new Commander soon occupied himself with his -military duties. He reorganized the guards who watched -over the emperor, and made many innovations that -contributed to the general order and security of the city. -He took charge of the food supply and caused it to be -evenly distributed among the inhabitants. (Chap. 124)</p> - -<p>One day the princess sent for him. She warned him -to beware of the Duke of Macedonia, who was very adroit -in committing acts of treachery. She related how he -had cut the thongs of the helmet of her brother while -the latter was bravely fighting the Moors, so that it -fell from his head and he was easily slain. Indeed, -the duke was the very incarnation of all the seven -mortal sins. (Chap. 125)</p> - -<p>Tirant was happy sometimes, but more often he was -sad. His conduct and his speech revealed that something -was preying on his mind. His was the lot of the -uncertain lover, swaying between hope and fear. One -day Carmesina asked him why he was so sad. He answered -that he was in love. Then she requested him -to tell her who the lady was that caused him so much -anxiety. As an answer, he took something out of his -sleeve and handed it to the princess with these words: -“The image that you will see there can make me die or -live.” She took the object, went to her room, and looked -at it. Instead of the painted picture that she expected -to find, she saw an image of herself, for the object was -a precious and beautiful mirror. Carmesina admired -greatly this novel manner of making a confession of love. -While she was in her room, Viuda Reposada, who had -been the nurse of the princess and still had much influence -over her, entered the room, and with her came Stephania.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> -They saw the mirror and inquired how it came into her -hands. She told them all about it. Viuda Reposada -then reproached her for being on such intimate terms -with one who was no more than her father’s servant. -She denounced the whole affair as absolutely improper. -The princess was very much affected by this harsh rebuke -and, on the verge of weeping, she retired to her -private chamber. Stephania followed and tried to console -her. (Chaps. 126-127)</p> - -<p>The next day Tirant sent Diaphebus to see the princess, -in order to find out how she felt disposed towards him -since the mirror episode. When he began to speak to -her about Tirant, she exclaimed: “Oh! if you knew of -the trick that he played on me; with a mirror he made -a confession of love to me; just let me see him and -I shall tell him things that he will not care to hear.” -(Chap. 127)</p> - -<p>The next time that Tirant saw her, she received him -coldly, and rebuked him severely, charging him with -being untrue to the trust imposed upon him; ungrateful -and disrespectful to the emperor, her father; and insolent -towards her, because he made a confession of love to her -as one would to a woman of low degree. Tirant answered -that he would avenge the insult by taking his -own life. He hastened to his abode. Immediately upon -his departure, she became sorry that she had spoken to -him so severely, and fearing that in his despair he might -do himself harm, sent Stephania to beg him to forgive -her, and by no means to take his life. She was so afraid -that Stephania might fail in her mission, that she herself -went to Tirant, expressed her sorrow for what she had -said, and humbly asked pardon. Tirant was deeply -moved by the love that her words and actions revealed, -and his woe was changed to joy. (Chaps. 127-130)</p> - -<p>Bad news came from the imperial forces that were -in the field opposing the Moors. Under the leadership<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> -of the Duke of Macedonia, they had again suffered -defeat, and were obliged to seek refuge in a city not far -away from the place where the battle was fought. The -Moors followed and besieged the city. The provisions -in it were almost exhausted, and unless relief came from -Constantinople within a very short time, the besieged -forces would be compelled to surrender. When Tirant -heard this, he made preparations to lead a relief expedition -to the threatened city within six days. (Chaps. -130-131)</p> - -<p>Five days afterward there was a review of all the -troops within Constantinople, and on the morning of the -sixth day the banners were blessed, and all the soldiers -armed themselves and mounted their steeds. A knight -whose name was Fontsequa, and who was riding a large -and beautiful snow-white charger, carried the imperial -banner and led the assembled host as it marched out of -the city. Many dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, and -other leaders were in this impressive military parade, -all with their squadrons. The last division to march out -was Tirant’s. (Chap. 132)</p> - -<p>Our hero, the newly appointed Capita Major, was in -command of all these troops. The expedition moved -along in perfect order. Tirant’s wonderful sense of -organization and his ability to cope with any and all -difficulties were not long in revealing themselves. His -army arrived at the city of Pelidas, which was only a -league and a half from the camp of the Turks who were -besieging the city in which the forces of the Duke of -Macedonia had sought refuge. The sultan and the Grand -Turk, who were in command of the troops of the enemy, -knew that a Greek army had entered Pelidas, but they -were little concerned, for of the ten parts of the emperor’s -dominion they already held nine and one-half parts. -All that was necessary for them to do to become the -undisputed masters of the whole empire was to capture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> -the duke’s besieged forces and then take Constantinople. -In view of their vastly superior numbers, they felt confident -that the complete conquest of the Greek empire -was near at hand. (Chap. 133)</p> - -<p>After Tirant had carefully observed the lay of the land -and the disposition of the hostile forces, he prepared -his plan of attack. In the darkness of night he led his -troops out of Pelidas, all ready for battle. A large -number of mares brought from Constantinople were -quietly led to the camp of the Turks, and when the -steeds of the latter heard them, they broke loose and ran -towards them. The whole camp was thrown into confusion. -The Turks, unarmed, went to look after their horses, -and were met by the Greeks, who slaughtered them in -great numbers and put the rest to flight. (Chap. 133)</p> - -<p>The loud tumult occasioned by the fighting was heard -by the duke in the besieged city. Thinking that the -enemy was about to attack the place, he ordered all his -men to take up their arms and defend the city. At -daybreak he was surprised to see imperial banners outside -the city walls, and soldiers in pursuit of the fleeing Turks. -He then came out with his men and plundered the deserted -tents of the enemy. They found there a large -quantity of gold, silver, and jewels. They took the -booty into the city and hid it, then came out again and -rode towards the imperial banners. When Tirant saw -them, he rode in their direction, and on approaching -the duke, dismounted and showed him great respect and -honor. But the latter only raised his hand to his head. -He spoke not a word. All the kind and deferential -words and actions of our hero were met with scorn and -contempt. (Chap. 133)</p> - -<p>When Tirant sent ambassadors to the duke to ask -him to give an account of the booty taken from the camp -of the Turks, the latter refused to do so, and he bade -the messengers tell the foreigner, Tirant, to return to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> -his country, and if he did not do so, he would make -him drink so much water that half of the amount would -be too much. This speech was bitterly resented by -Tirant’s men. A battle between the forces of the two -leaders was imminent, but was averted by the calmness -and prudence of our hero. (Chap. 134)</p> - -<p>Immediately after the victory over the Turks, Diaphebus -had sent a messenger to the emperor to announce -the glad tidings. The good news was then proclaimed -throughout the city, all the bells were rung, and the -inhabitants went to the Church of Saint Sophia to render -thanks unto the Lord for the great victory. (Chap. 134)</p> - -<p>In the meantime, Armini, the Grand Sultan of Babylon, -sent three ambassadors to Tirant to ask for a truce -of six months, and also for the liberation of a youth who -was a brother of the sultan’s wife. The generosity and -magnanimity of our hero led him to set free the youthful -prisoner of war, and with him forty others. But the -truce was not granted, for it was the opinion of Tirant -and his Council that permanent peace could be secured -only by vanquishing the infidel host. (Chaps. 135-138)</p> - -<p>On the same day that the ambassadors left the camp -of Tirant, he sent Diaphebus to Constantinople to deliver -to the emperor the large number of prisoners captured -in the first battle with the enemy. This gave Diaphebus -an excellent opportunity to speak to his dearly loved -Stephania and to the princess. He told the latter that -Tirant was always thinking of her, and that whenever -he went into battle, the name of Carmesina was on his -lips. And Stephania suggested that there was no one -more worthy and better qualified to be the next emperor -than Tirant, and he ought to be the husband of the -princess. As for herself, she confided to Carmesina, she -would marry his kinsman, Diaphebus. (Chap. 138)</p> - -<p>While Tirant was storming a strongly fortified city, -held by the Turks, two thousand soldiers, under the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> -command of the Prior of St. John, joined him and placed -themselves under his direction. These had been sent -by the Grand Master of the Knights of St. John from -Rhodes. They assisted in the plundering of the city, -for a breach had already been made in the walls of the -place when they arrived. (Chap. 139)</p> - -<p>In the meanwhile the Turks had received reinforcements -in great numbers. They encamped on one side -of a river, and the imperial forces on the other side. -About a league farther up the river there was a stone -bridge held by a faithful subject of the emperor. It was -protected by a castle at each one of the approaches, so -that the Turks were unable to cross over it. One of -these castles was guarded by the knight Mal Vehi, and -the other by his son, Hypolite (Hippolyte). The latter -was a bold and valiant youth, who soon became an enthusiastic -admirer of Tirant. At the earnest request of -both father and son, our hero conferred the honors of -knighthood upon Hypolite. (Chap. 140)</p> - -<p>The Turks began to construct a bridge in order that -they might cross the river to attack the Greek forces. -When Tirant saw this, he ordered his men to build a -considerable number of boats. These were then fastened -together, and upon them was erected a framework -to support a large quantity of light and inflammable -wood. When this peculiar construction was completed, -it was fastened to the stone bridge and “camouflaged” -with branches so that the enemy might not see it. -(Chap. 140)</p> - -<p>As soon as the Turks had finished their wooden bridge, -they crossed over it. As they were coming over, Tirant -led his forces up to the stone bridge. By the time that -the enemy arrived there, the Greeks were already on the -other side, and the passage over the bridge was closed. -Then the Turks went back over their bridge to the other -side, whereupon Tirant crossed back over the stone bridge.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> -These maneuvers continued for three days. Finally -the Moors decided to divide their forces, and that was -exactly what Tirant desired them to do. When one of -the divisions came over, the Greeks went up a mountain -near the wooden bridge. Since it was growing dark, -the Turks decided to stop at the foot of the mountain -and make an attack the next morning. In the darkness -of the night, Tirant sent the floating construction -down the stream, and it was set on fire just before it -reached the wooden bridge. When the Turks who had -crossed saw the fire and realized that their bridge would -be destroyed, they became panic-stricken and rushed -wildly to return to the other side of the river. In the -disorder and confusion many were pushed off the bridge -and were drowned. Twenty-two thousand of them were -unable to get back, and these surrendered to Tirant the -next morning. (Chaps. 140-141)</p> - -<p>In the meantime the Duke of Macedonia had sent -a messenger to Constantinople to report to the emperor -that the vile foreigner, Tirant lo Blanch, had led the -whole army to destruction and had fled no one knew -whither. The false news plunged the aged emperor -into gloom and dejection, and the whole city was filled -with weeping and lamentation. (Chap. 141)</p> - -<p>As soon as those of the Turks who had not been able -to rejoin the main body of the army surrendered, Diaphebus -again sent a messenger to the imperial city to announce -the successful event. But when he arrived there, -the emperor would not receive him. Finally he succeeded -in delivering the message to the princess. She immediately -reported it to her father, who fell unconscious from -excess of joy. And again all the bells of the city were -rung, and thanks were offered up to God. (Chap. 141)</p> - -<p>The Constable and Diaphebus took the prisoners to -Constantinople. In recounting the exploits of Tirant -in the field, the Constable gave unlimited praise to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> -young Capita Major. Diaphebus naturally made an effort -to see the princess and Stephania, and not without success. -The words he spoke to Carmesina increased greatly her -admiration for Tirant. His own love affair made wonderful -progress during this visit. (Chaps. 144-148)</p> - -<p>The Turks, having lost one hundred thousand men -since Tirant became the leader of the imperial army, -held a council, in which it was decreed that the foreign -captain, Tirant lo Blanch, must be slain. The King of -Egypt was designated as the one to accomplish this, -since he was the most skillful of them all in the use of -arms. The sultan himself said: “If this devil of a man -had not come from France, we should even now be in -the palace of Constantinople, and should already have -made a mosque of the beautiful church there. We shall -never be able to accomplish that, if this captain lives -much longer.” (Chaps. 148-149)</p> - -<p>The King of Egypt accordingly challenged Tirant to -mortal combat. In the challenge this king stated that -he had made a vow to his lady-love that he would engage -in a <em>combat à outrance</em> with a king or a king’s son, or with -the best captain of the Christian army, and that it was -his intention to send her the head of Tirant to show that -his vow had been accomplished. He also suggested that -each one of them should champion the cause of a lady, -and then the combat should also determine which one -of these ladies excelled in beauty, dignity, virtue, lineage, -grace, and wisdom. The challenge and the suggestion -were accepted. It was agreed that the King of Egypt -should fight in behalf of his lady-love, the Grand Turk’s -daughter, and Tirant, in behalf of Carmesina, the emperor’s -daughter. The combat was to take place on the -field of battle, on August the twentieth, four days earlier, -or four days later. (Chaps. 149-152)</p> - -<p>Tirant was making preparations for a supreme effort -to win a decisive victory over the enemy. But the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> -Duke of Macedonia was opposed to his plans, and, in -a speech full of bitter invectives, he declared that Tirant -had made a bargain with the Turks to deliver the Greeks -into their hands. He called him a second Judas, who, -on account of his treachery, ought to be thrown into -burning oil. He protested against the leadership of this -foreigner and declared that he would obey his orders -no longer. A great uproar followed this speech. Many -soldiers took up their arms, and some of them mounted -their steeds. In reply, Tirant denounced the duke for -never having won a single battle; he accused him of -having cut the thongs of the late prince’s helmet in the -thick of a battle, whereupon the heir of the empire was -slain; and he spoke of the great loss in lives and in territory -that the empire suffered while the duke was in -command of the armies. In the name of the emperor, -he asked them to prepare to attack the enemy. But -the duke replied that neither he nor any of his men would -take part in the proposed attack. (Chaps. 153-154)</p> - -<p>The following day the council of war met, and Tirant -suggested that a new leader should be selected. He -assured the members that he would remain with them -to serve His Imperial Majesty. But they would not -hear of this. In strong language they expressed their -confidence in him. (Chap. 154)</p> - -<p>It was at this time that some more foreign soldiers -came to place themselves under the command of Tirant. -Philip, the son of the King of France, had become King -of Sicily, and in grateful memory he sent five thousand -men under the leadership of the Duke of Messina, and -Queen Ricomana sent two thousand under the leadership -of the Senyor de Pantalea. (Chap. 154)</p> - -<p>When the emperor heard of the quarrel between the -duke and Tirant, he went to the camp to settle the -dispute once for all. The princess accompanied him, -and with her went Stephania, Viuda Reposada, Plaer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> -de mi Vida, and other ladies of the court. While they -were in camp, the greatest battle of all that had been -fought up to this time took place. It was waged fiercely -on both sides, from early in the morning until late in -the afternoon. The contending foes fought with determination -and desperation. Tirant wielded his battle-ax -wherever help seemed to be needed most. The King -of Egypt recognized him on the field, and he, together -with the King of Cappadocia and the King of Africa, -agreed to make it their special duty to slay him that day. -While Tirant was in the midst of violent fighting, the -Duke of Macedonia came up behind him and with a -vigorous blow of his sword wounded him in the neck. -A few moments later the King of Cappadocia and the -King of Egypt suddenly came upon our hero, and they -attacked him with such force that both he and his steed -fell. He had some difficulty in getting up, for his charger -had fallen on one of his legs, but fortunately one of his -men came to the rescue. The latter, with his lance, -wounded the King of Egypt in the thigh. A moment -later the king’s lance struck Tirant on his cheek and -knocked out four of his teeth. Then the king withdrew -from the field on account of his wound. Tirant searched -for him, but in vain. He met, however, the King of -Cappadocia and slew him. Finally, the sultan, seeing -that the tide of battle was going against him, withdrew -from the battlefield, and soon afterward the Turks were -put to flight. Tirant and his forces pursued them and -continued to slaughter many until it was very late. The -sultan and his defeated army sought refuge in a certain -city, and this was taken by Tirant’s forces the following -morning. Among the many prisoners captured there, -was the King of Egypt. Tirant was notified that this -important royal personage was a prisoner, and was invited -to come to slay him, but he replied that for nothing in -the world would he take the life of a prisoner. Thereupon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> -the Marquis of Saint George dispatched the unfortunate -king. In this battle and pursuit the Turks lost -103,000 men, including those who were taken prisoners. -Among the Greeks that were slain were the Duke of -Macedonia and the Constable. The brave Ricart, too, -was among the dead. A messenger announced the result -of the battle to the emperor, and immediately the venerable -monarch knelt down and offered thanks to Christ -and His Most Blessed Mother, Our Lady. (Chaps. -155-158)</p> - -<p>After this disastrous defeat of the Moors, the sultan -and all the men who had been able to escape with him -found refuge in the city of Bellpuig, which was four leagues -distant from that in which the King of Egypt was slain. -The imperial forces did not attack the sultan’s army, -but confined their operations for the time to recapturing -some of the other places that had recently been taken -by the enemy. The emperor accompanied the troops -from Sicily, who succeeded in recovering several cities. -(Chap. 159)</p> - -<p>After the emperor’s return to the castle of Mal Vehi, -where he lived during his visit to the camp, he asked -Tirant to recommend some one to fill the vacancy caused -by the death of the Constable. The name of Diaphebus -was suggested. And it was the pleasure of the emperor -to appoint Diaphebus Constable of the Empire. Then he -turned to Tirant and said: “And you I shall make the -Earl of Sent Angel.” But Tirant declined the honor, and -this greatly displeased His Majesty. And the Capita -Major, not wishing to wound the feelings of the aged -monarch, said that since whatever belonged to Diaphebus -was his, and whatever was his belonged to Diaphebus, -he would accept the earldom, but that the title should -be bestowed on his friend, the newly appointed Constable. -The princess was very curious to know why he would -not accept the title, and in his reply to her question,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> -he told her that he would never accept any title as long -as he lived except that of emperor—either that or none. -(Chap. 161)</p> - -<p>The appointment of Diaphebus as Constable, and his -elevation to the dignity of Earl of Sent Angel, were celebrated -with great splendor. But Tirant was sad during -the festivities. The princess noticed this, and she asked -what grieved him so. He answered that he was filled -with sorrow because she was about to return to Constantinople. -Carmesina told this to Stephania, and they -invited Tirant and Diaphebus to visit them secretly -that night. When the visitors came, all the attendants -and companions of the princess were asleep, with the -exception of Plaer de mi Vida, who was wide awake with -curiosity, although she pretended to be sleeping. She -heard and saw all that happened, and the next morning -she told Carmesina and Stephania that she had had a -wonderful dream during the night. Being asked to -relate it, she told all about the secret visit of Tirant and -Diaphebus. And then she added, with a sigh, that she -regretted deeply that Hypolite and she had not been -invited to the party. (Chaps. 162-163)</p> - -<p>That same day the emperor and all who had come -with him returned to Constantinople. The heart of the -princess was heavy when the time came for her to leave -Tirant. She veiled her face in order that no one might -see her tears. (Chap. 163)</p> - -<p>Five large ships arrived at a port which was at a considerable -distance from the camp of the imperial army, -and these were laden with provisions for that army. -Tirant placed the camp under the command of the Constable -and went to see about the unloading of the ships. -The owners of these vessels and the mariners were delighted -to see the great Captain. They informed him that seven -Genoese ships had entered the port of Bellpuig with -provisions for the sultan’s army. Tirant remarked<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> -that he would do all in his power to eat some of those -provisions. As soon as all the vessels were unloaded, -Tirant embarked with a large number of armed men, -and, in the darkness of night, started out for the port of -Bellpuig. They arrived there early the following morning, -and, with little difficulty, captured the ships. The -provisions were sent to the camp of the Greek army. -(Chap. 163)</p> - -<p>From the prisoners taken in this venture, Tirant learned -that the Grand Caramany and the King of Upper India -were on their way to join the sultan. They were coming -with fifty thousand men. Following the advice of one -of the prisoners, and aided by the men from the island -of Rhodes, who were well-trained in seafaring, Tirant -prepared a formidable fleet and waited for the arrival -of the Moorish reinforcements. Finally the expected fleet -came in sight, and Tirant’s vessels went out to meet -it. The hostile fleet was dispersed, and after a long -chase and a terrible fight, Tirant’s ship captured the -vessel which bore the Grand Caramany and the King -of Upper India. Our hero, in person, took the royal -prisoners to Constantinople and delivered them to the -emperor. This naval victory caused great rejoicing in -the imperial city. The inhabitants came out to greet -and honor their invincible Captain. They fixed their -eyes upon him as if he had been sent to them from heaven. -(Chaps. 163-166)</p> - -<p>Tirant had been severely wounded in the sea fight, -and the emperor’s physicians ordered him to remain in -bed until his wounds were healed, for there was great -danger that he might be permanently maimed. During -the period of his recovery the imperial family visited him -daily, and Viuda Reposada, moved more by love than -piety, was his faithful and devoted attendant. (Chap. 166)</p> - -<p>During his absence from the camp the imperial army -was faring badly. The Turks won two great victories, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> -as a result the Greeks lost their courage and their confidence. -They offered up special prayers for the rapid -recovery of their valiant Captain. Without him, they -considered their cause lost. They sent him a letter in -which they declared that they would fight no more battles -until he had rejoined them. While he was waiting for -his wounds to heal, his martial spirit seemed to desert -him. Carmesina noticed this, and, in one of their private -conversations, said to him: “Cease to be a lover, -and win honors; I do not say that you should cease to -be a lover altogether, for in times of peace men take -great delight in loving, but in time of war men are obliged -to undergo much toil and many hardships.” (Chaps. -166-172)</p> - -<p>When Tirant was about to return to the camp, the -sultan sent ambassadors to the emperor. Their mission -was concerned with three things: first, a truce for three -months; secondly, ransom of the Grand Caramany and -the King of Upper India; and thirdly, an agreement -whereby the emperor’s daughter should be given in -marriage to the sultan, in consideration whereof all the -cities and territory captured by the Turks should be -restored to the emperor. (Chaps. 177-178)</p> - -<p>Many of the members of the Imperial Council were in -favor of the proposed marriage for the sake of the peace -that would follow. Tirant’s heart was filled with fear -and anxiety at this state of affairs. The princess consoled -him with the following words: “How can you -believe that my royal person will submit to a Moor? -How can you even imagine that my noble heart will -condescend to become the friend of one of those Moorish -dogs, who have as many women as they wish, and none -of these a wife, for they can leave them any hour that -they wish.” (Chaps. 178-179)</p> - -<p>A great festival was arranged in honor of the Moorish -ambassadors. The celebration lasted nine days. On<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> -the very last day a large number of galleys were observed -coming towards the shore. They were French ships -bringing five thousand “francs archers,” and each of -these archers was accompanied by a squire and a page. -They were coming to enter the service of the emperor. -The galleys had been fitted out and furnished with provisions -by the King of France. Tirant’s cousin, the -Viscount of Branches, was in command of these soldiers. -Our hero warmly welcomed him and all those who had -come with him. The emperor was delighted at their -coming, and his pleasure was considerably increased -by the fact that the Moorish ambassadors had witnessed -the arrival of these foreign warriors. (Chap. 189)</p> - -<p>At the close of these festivities the emperor gave his -answer to the ambassadors in regard to the ransom of -the royal prisoners and the marriage of the princess to -the sultan, the proposal of the truce having been accepted -immediately after the Turkish representatives -had announced their mission. He bade them tell the -sultan that the emperor of Constantinople would not -liberate the Grand Caramany and the King of Upper -India until the empire had been wholly restored; and -that he would not give his daughter in marriage to a -man who was not of the Christian faith, for that would -be against the precepts of the Holy Catholic Church. -(Chaps. 207-208)</p> - -<p>While the truce was in effect, Tirant remained in the -imperial city. He pretended to be occupied with military -matters, but, in reality, his mind was centered upon -Carmesina. His one dominant purpose was to obtain -from the princess the “compliment de amor.” He made -strong and repeated efforts to attain his end, but she was -firm. She loved him with all her heart, but she would -not sacrifice her honor. Tirant had helpful allies in -Plaer de mi Vida, Stephania, and Hypolite, but their -arguments, plans, and schemes availed him naught.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> -Carmesina was young and in love with him whom she -considered the only person that could save the empire. -She was human and could not force herself to forbid -him to approach her. The temptations to fall were -strong, but her religious training and her moral courage -sustained her in the hour of need. (Chaps. 208-215)</p> - -<p>Viuda Reposada, whose affectionate and passionate -advances to Tirant had always been met with scorn, -was burning with unrequited love and jealousy. She -determined to make a desperate effort to sever the bond -of love that existed between Tirant and the princess. -To accomplish this she told Carmesina base lies about -her lover, and advised her gradually to avoid meeting -him. As a result the heart of the princess was filled -with fear and torment. (Chap. 215)</p> - -<p>A short time before the termination of the truce Diaphebus, -Constable and Earl of Sent Angel, was married to -Stephania. The wedding was celebrated with great -splendor. To add to the importance of the occasion, -he was appointed Duke of Macedonia. And Tirant and -his friends kissed the foot and the hand of the emperor, -and gave him infinite thanks for the great favor he -had shown them by giving his niece to their companion. -(Chaps. 219-222)</p> - -<p>But while Diaphebus and Stephania were happy, and -all were making merry, the princess and Tirant were -downcast and wretched. Carmesina was following the advice -of Viuda Reposada. She avoided Tirant. He became -aware of this, and it tormented him. (Chap. 224)</p> - -<p>Plaer de mi Vida was always ready and eager to help -Tirant. One night she led him into Carmesina’s chamber. -When the latter suddenly saw him beside her, she gave -a scream which caused great excitement in the palace. -Plaer de mi Vida helped him escape through a window -by means of a rope, but it was too short, and he was -obliged to let himself fall a distance of twelve yards.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> -One of his legs was broken as a result of the fall. Fortunately, -Hypolite and the Viscount of Branches found -him, and they spread the report that Tirant’s steed had -fallen on his leg and broken it. The emperor sympathized -with his esteemed Captain in his misfortune. The accident -happened at an inopportune time, for the Moors had -received strong reinforcements. The aged monarch feared -that as long as Tirant was absent from the army, it would -not give a good account of itself. (Chaps. 225-238)</p> - -<p>Hypolite remained at the court with Tirant, and gradually -a love affair began between him and the empress, -which finally resulted in an illicit liaison. He and -Plaer de mi Vida continued to act as intermediaries in -Tirant’s relations with the princess. One day Carmesina, -in order to prove her love for the Capita Major, -took his right hand in her own and spoke these words: -“I, Carmesina, give myself to you, Tirant lo Blanch, -as your faithful wife, and accept you as my loyal husband.” -Then she took a formal oath that she would -never leave him for any other man in the world, and that -she would always be true, faithful, and without blemish. -Great was Tirant’s joy when he heard these words, for -they gave him a feeling of assurance that in a short time -not only the princess, but also the imperial crown would -be his. And he, too, made a vow similar to the one -pronounced by Carmesina. (Chaps. 248-272)</p> - -<p>After Tirant’s leg had completely mended, and when -he was ready to resume active command of the army -in the field, a great celebration was given in his honor. -The Imperial Council felt that he well deserved such -manifestation of respect and esteem, for in four and -one-half years he had recovered three hundred and -seventy-two cities, towns, and castles. (Chap. 275)</p> - -<p>During Tirant’s absence from the camp the Duke of -Pera and Diaphebus were in command of the Greek -army. On account of a disagreement between the two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> -commanders, the whole imperial army suffered a disastrous -defeat, which plunged all Constantinople in grief. -Tirant made haste to rejoin his troops. Having decided -to go by sea instead of by land, he embarked. He informed -no one concerning his departure except those -who were to go with him. He did not take leave of -Carmesina, for jealous Viuda Reposada had carried out -a diabolical plot which shook Tirant’s faith in the purity -of the princess. When the latter heard that he had -embarked, she was disconsolate, and sent Plaer de mi -Vida to Tirant for the purpose of finding out why he had -not bidden her farewell. The messenger succeeded in -reaching the vessel on which Tirant was about to set -sail. The infamous plotting of Viuda Reposada was -discovered, and the Capita Major was sorry for having -permitted himself to be so basely deceived, and asked -Plaer de mi Vida to express his regret to the princess and -to beg her to pardon him. But suddenly a violent storm -came up, which drove the boat far out on the sea. Finally -the ship was wrecked off the coast of Barbary. Both -Tirant and Carmesina’s messenger succeeded in reaching -the shore, but not together. (Chaps. 286-299)</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p> - -<h3>CHAPTER V -<br /> -<small>TIRANT CONQUERS ALL BARBARY</small></h3> - - -<p>Plaer de mi Vida fell into the hands of a Moor who -had been a captive in Spain for a long time. One day -this Moor had saved the life of a son of the lady whom he -was serving, and on account of this she set him free. In -grateful remembrance of that kindness, he was moved to -befriend the shipwrecked lady. He led her to his home -and placed her in the care of his daughter, whom he told -that the Christian woman was a daughter of the lady -who had freed him. The Moor’s daughter received her -and treated her with much kindness. (Chap. 299)</p> - -<p>Tirant, upon reaching land, concealed himself in a cave -which happened to be in the territory of the King of -Tunis, Scariano. A short time before, this king had asked -the King of Tremicen to give him his daughter in marriage, -which the latter was unwilling to do, for she was -already married. In order to settle the affair in a friendly -manner, the King of Tremicen sent the chief officer of -his army as ambassador to the King of Tunis. The -ambassador went hunting one day and found Tirant in -the cave. He sent him secretly to one of his castles in -Tremicen, where he kept him as a prisoner for some time. -Finally the negotiations were discontinued, and the King -of Tunis, with 50,000 men, marched against the King of -Tremicen, who was not able to gather more than 20,000. -In the meantime the unsuccessful ambassador had returned -home and assumed command of the army of -Tremicen. He asked his Christian prisoner, Tirant, -to help in the defense of the kingdom. Our hero was -quite willing to do so, and soon his skill, bravery, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> -strategies won for him great admiration and esteem. -As a reward for his valuable services, he was liberated, -but he remained in the service of the kingdom. The -King of Tremicen with his family, including the husband -of his daughter, had found refuge in the city of Tremicen. -But a treacherous Jew admitted the enemy in large numbers -into the strongly fortified city, and the king, his -sons, and his son-in-law were all slain. The daughter, -whose name was Maragdina, was taken to a castle, where -she was obliged to remain with Scariano, the King of -Tunis. This castle was soon afterwards captured through -the subtle stratagems of Tirant, and Scariano was made -prisoner. (Chaps. 299-318)</p> - -<p>When Maragdina saw the fair, manly, and handsome -Tirant for the first time—which was some time before -her husband had been slain—she wished that her husband -were dead that she might be free to wed this wonderful -Christian. But now that he was dead, there was -still an obstacle; she was a Mohammedan, and Tirant -a Christian. She suggested to our hero that he become -a Mohammedan, but, she naïvely added, if he should -insist that his religion was better than hers, she would -very willingly believe it, and always say that it was better. -Tirant answered her that he was betrothed to another, -and that he must and would remain faithful to her. -He treated Maragdina with so much kindness and affection -that she finally asked him to baptize her. He sent -for a gold basin and a pitcher of water, and when these -had been brought to him, she came before him, knelt -down, uncovered her head, and received the sacrament -of baptism. (Chaps. 322-326)</p> - -<p>When Scariano heard that Maragdina had accepted -the Christian faith, he, too, wished to be baptized. But -first he desired to be enlightened in regard to the doctrines -of that religion. Tirant confessed that he was -not too well versed in matters pertaining to the faith,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> -but would nevertheless give him instruction. And he -did it so well that Scariano was surprised that a knight -could know so much concerning the Trinity, and declared -that the explanations given by him were more comprehensible -than those that he had once heard made by -certain monks when he was a youth. (Chaps. 326-327)</p> - -<p>The baptism of Scariano took place in a beautiful -square of the city. Many of his officers and kinsmen -witnessed the ceremony, and they, too, were baptized. -Tirant administered the sacrament of baptism to more -than six thousand Moors that day. A monk of the Order -of Mercy came opportunely, and he was requested by -our hero to baptize the rest of those who wished to -become Christians. In all 44,327 Moors were baptized. -(Chaps. 329-330)</p> - -<p>Several kings of Barbary, who were on their way with -many men to help Scariano, became indignant when -they heard that he had become a Christian, and they -took possession of the kingdom of Tunis and placed -another king over it. Thereupon Scariano withdrew -with his faithful subjects to Tremicen, the inhabitants -of which, following the example of their queen, Maragdina, -embraced the Christian faith. The queen made -another effort to induce Tirant to take her as his wife, -but was again unsuccessful. He spoke to her kindly, -reasoned with her, and finally persuaded her to marry -Scariano. The marriage ceremony was performed by the -monk, and thus Scariano became the King of Tremicen. -(Chaps. 330-333)</p> - -<p>After the Moorish kings had subdued all the kingdom -of Tunis, they decided to make war against the kingdom -of Tremicen in order to exterminate the Christians. -Tirant then began to gather and organize an army which -was to defend Tremicen against the combined forces of -those kings. He won the admiration, confidence, and -love of the people, and as he passed through the streets<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> -they greeted him with the cheer: “Vixca lo magnanim -Capita crestia.” (Chap. 334)</p> - -<p>Many bloody battles were fought during this war. -The enemy had ten times as many men, but Tirant’s -forces were never dismayed, although sometimes it seemed -as if the fortunes of war were against them. Tirant’s -military genius and his prowess were always in evidence. -Never was a lance handled more dexterously, nor a -battle-ax wielded more vigorously. He was ever in the -thick of the fray unless there was some special work -for him to do. Senyor Dagramunt, one of the shipwrecked -men who had succeeded in rejoining his great -Captain, and Scariano, too, performed many feats of -valor, and slew almost as many of the enemy as Tirant. -The Moorish kings could not understand how the Christians, -so few in numbers compared with their own, could -withstand them. They attributed the stubborn and -heroic defense of Tremicen to Tirant, and made up their -minds to slay him. But several of them met death in -the attempt. Finally, they asked for an armistice, -which was granted. While this was in effect, they withdrew -their forces and retired to their respective kingdoms. -The Christian kingdom of Tremicen had fought -for its existence, and its cause had triumphed. (Chaps. -333-349)</p> - -<p>Tirant’s ambition now was to conquer all Barbary. -In order that the conquest might be accomplished as -rapidly as possible, Senyor Dagramunt set out with an -army to capture the cities, towns, and castles on the -other side of the mountains. The expedition met with -no serious opposition until it came to a city named Montagata, -which belonged to the daughter of a Moorish -king who had been slain in battle. When the inhabitants -of this place learned that the Christian army was -near, they sent the keys of the city to Senyor Dagramunt. -But when he arrived there, they had changed their minds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> -and preferred to die rather than surrender. The Christian -leader was extremely vexed by this turn of affairs, -and determined to take the city at all hazards. While -taking part in an attack on the fortifications, he was -painfully wounded. He sent a messenger to Tirant with -the request that he come to his aid with the heavy artillery. -When the latter arrived, the assault was renewed -with great violence. The inhabitants soon sent a number -of their most distinguished men to Senyor Dagramunt. -They offered to pay him a heavy tribute annually, if -he would spare the city and permit them to live in their -faith. The offer was rejected with scorn. Then the -Senyora of the city, accompanied by many maids of -honor, went out to placate the obdurate Christian commander, -but all her efforts were in vain. The failure -of these two attempts to save the city caused great fear -and distress in Montagata. (Chaps. 349-350)</p> - -<p>Some time prior to this the Senyora had bought a -certain female slave on account of her great skill in -embroidering. When this slave learned that Tirant -and Senyor Dagramunt were in command of the Christian -forces, she asked permission to go out and plead -with them to spare the city. She spoke so confidently -of the success of her mission that her request was granted. -Disguising herself, she went to Tirant, and in long speeches -she pleaded for the inhabitants of Montagata. When -she finally told him the story of his life, he was mystified. -He begged her to tell him how it came that she knew -so much about him. When she answered that she was -Plaer de mi Vida, he threw himself on his knees before -her, and embraced and kissed her several times as a -sign of true love. Then Tirant immediately gave orders -that it be proclaimed that all the inhabitants were pardoned, -and that they would be permitted to profess and -practice the religion that they preferred. When the -keys of the city were delivered to him, he gave them to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> -Plaer de mi Vida, who was led in triumphal procession -into the palace and made Senyora of Montagata. She -ruled over the city for a week and then abdicated in -favor of the former Senyora, who became a Christian -and all her subjects likewise. Tirant persuaded Plaer -de mi Vida to accept Senyor Dagramunt as husband, -and after their marriage he placed them as king and -queen over the conquered provinces of Fez and Bugia -[Bougie]. Tirant continued his victorious campaign -until finally there was but one city in all Barbary that -had not been captured. This was the city of Caramen, -in which three Moorish kings had taken refuge. He -sent ambassadors to request them to leave Caramen and -the soil of Barbary. The answer he received was one of -defiance. A great battle was fought in which the Moors -were defeated, and they went back into the strongly -fortified city, where they resisted the violent attacks -of the Christians for a whole year. But finally one -thousand of Tirant’s men succeeded in entering the city -by means of a mine, and these opened the city gates, -on the outside of which divisions of the Christian army -were waiting. These poured into the city and annihilated -the Moors. This was the last stand made by -the infidels against the victorious Christians. And now -Tirant’s purpose was accomplished; all Barbary was conquered. -(Chaps. 350-387, 394)</p> - -<p>Some time prior to the capture of Caramen, Tirant -sent a messenger to Constantinople to inform the emperor -that, if the empire was still in need of aid, he would return -with 250,000 men, and that the King of Sicily would -probably join him with his army. The emperor received -the news with great delight. After delivering the message -to the imperial monarch, the messenger went to -a convent to which the princess had retired, and gave -her a letter from Tirant. She was speechless with emotion -upon learning that he was still alive. When the messenger<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> -returned to Tirant with communications from the -emperor and the princess, the great Captain learned that -the Moors had conquered the whole empire, with the -exception of the cities of Constantinople and Pera and -a few castles, and that Diaphebus and many of his friends -were prisoners. (Chaps. 388-393, 395-398)</p> - -<p>At Constantine, in Tunis, Tirant gathered an army -of over 250,000 men, with which he hoped to drive the -Moorish invaders from the soil of the Greek empire. -He sent an agent to Genoa, Rome, and Venice to secure -ships to transport this vast army. The vessels arrived -at Constantine within a short time. But before these -forces embarked, Tirant assembled the people in a vast -plain and addressed them in a short speech. After his -address, a Catalan monk, John Ferrer, who was a native -of Lérida, and who spoke the Moorish tongue well, preached -to the multitude. After his sermon the people in loud -cries asked to be baptized, and in three days the monks -and chaplains whom Tirant had sent for baptized 334,000 -men, women, and children. (Chaps. 401-407)</p> - -<p>Throughout the period of the military conquest of -Barbary, Tirant built churches and monasteries for the -priests and monks who came thither in response to his -call. Mohammedanism had been dealt a deathblow, -and Christianity was firmly established in all Barbary. -(Chap. 404)</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p> - -<h3>CHAPTER VI -<br /> -<small>TIRANT RETURNS TO CONSTANTINOPLE AND THE GREEK -EMPIRE IS COMPLETELY RESTORED</small></h3> - - -<p>Finally the huge army embarked and sailed for Sicily, -where it was joined by King Philip with his forces. Within -a few days the expedition arrived near Constantinople, -the port of which was blockaded by the Moorish fleet. -The army could not land until the hostile ships were -dispersed or captured. Tirant’s fleet attacked the -enemy at break of day, coming upon them so suddenly -that they could not make a strong resistance. Some -Moors leaped into the water and succeeded in reaching -the shore, but all those who remained on the vessels -were slain. Tirant took possession of all the boats of -the enemy. The troops of the sultan and the Grand -Turk were on the shore ready to attack the Christians -if these should attempt to land, so Tirant took his whole -fleet, together with the captured vessels, out to sea, -and when darkness fell he turned about, came back, -and landed at a very advantageous point only four -leagues distant from the Moorish army. The next day -the Moors saw themselves surrounded by an army vastly -superior to their own in numbers. The sultan and the -Grand Turk were in a quandary. Finally, they decided -to send ambassadors to Tirant to propose a treaty -of peace for a hundred and one years. In order to obtain -such a peace, they were willing to restore all the cities, -towns, and castles that they had conquered, and liberate -all prisoners. Tirant convened his council to consider -the proposal, and it was decided to refer the matter to -His Imperial Majesty. The affair was important, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> -Tirant himself went to consult the emperor about it. -(Chaps. 408-434)</p> - -<p>What a welcome excuse it was to go to see the princess! -It was night when Tirant arrived at the palace, -and His Majesty had already retired. But he succeeded -in finding Plaer de mi Vida, who had come with the -expedition and had entered Constantinople almost immediately -after the landing of the troops. She quickly -arranged a meeting between the victorious Captain and -Carmesina, and that night the princess was overcome -with love. (Chaps. 434-436)</p> - -<p>The following day he went to see the emperor. The -aged ruler could not withhold his tears, so great was the -joy he felt on seeing again the invincible Commander. -As soon as Tirant had informed him of the purpose of -his visit, the Imperial Council was convened, and after -mature deliberation it was decided to accept the proposal -of peace made by the enemy, but on the one condition -that the sultan and the Grand Turk, together with other -important Moorish chieftains, should give themselves -up as hostages until the whole empire should be completely -restored and the prisoners liberated. The condition -imposed by the emperor was accepted and the -treaty of peace was concluded. (Chaps. 440-447)</p> - -<p>The sultan, the Grand Turk, and twenty other Moorish -lords surrendered to Tirant. He took them into the -imperial city, where he was received with rapturous -rejoicing and was acclaimed liberator of the empire. -The great host of the infidels was taken back to Turkey -by the imperial fleet, and then an elaborate reception -was given in honor of the King of Sicily, the King of -Fez and Bugia, Tirant, and others. The merrymaking -continued for a week. During this period Tirant frequently -saw the princess and he longed for the day when -their vows might be realized. (Chaps. 447-452)</p> - -<p>In order to bring about the complete restoration of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> -the empire as quickly as possible, Tirant asked the emperor -for permission to take formal possession of all the -places that were to be given back by the Moors. At -the same time he assured him that, if fortune should -not be against him, His Majesty should rule over all the -lands that had been under the dominion of his predecessor, -Justinian. The emperor, moved by the devotion -of his faithful Captain, and mindful of his past -services, offered to abdicate in his favor, but Tirant -would not consent to that. However, he expressed his -willingness to succeed him after his death. Then His -Imperial Majesty offered him the hand of Carmesina -and led him into her chamber. When he saw that both -of them seemed pleased at his suggestion, he sent for the -archbishop, and Tirant and Carmesina were betrothed. -This betrothal was celebrated with great pomp and -splendor. And the emperor ordered his heralds to -proclaim throughout the city that all should regard and -hold Tirant as his first-born son and Caesar of the Empire, -and that he should be their lord and emperor after his -death. The people in exultation gave answer to the -proclamation with the loud and enthusiastic cheers: -“Visca la celestial e angelica bondat del Emperador! -e Visca lo novell Cesar del Imperi grech, honor, manteniment, -y gloria.” (Chaps. 452-453)</p> - -<p>Tirant, accompanied by two representatives of the -sultan and the Grand Turk, and provided with letters -of credence from these two Moorish chiefs, set out with -a large army to begin the work of restoring the empire. -It was not a difficult task. City after city was delivered -to him without a struggle. At Trebizond, Diaphebus -and many other prisoners of rank were liberated. Then -Tirant resumed his triumphant march until he had received -in behalf of the emperor all the territory that had -been taken by the Moors. He did more than this; -he conquered additional territory. He ordered the fleet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> -to aid in the work, and it took possession of all the -islands that had formerly belonged to the empire. And -now the task that he had purposed to accomplish was -done. (Chaps. 444-466)</p> - -<p>With his heart filled with joyful anticipations, he -started on his way back to Constantinople, where the -princess was eagerly awaiting him. When he arrived -at Adrianople he received word from the emperor to wait -there until sent for, because the monarch wished to -prepare a wonderful celebration on the occasion of the -triumphal entry of the Caesar of the Greek empire. -(Chap. 467)</p> - -<p>While walking along the bank of a river near Adrianople -he was suddenly attacked by a severe pain in the -side. He was carried to the city, where physicians -immediately attended him, but they were unable to give -him any relief. Feeling that the hour of his death was -near, he called for a priest and made a careful and contrite -confession. When the sacred Host was presented -to him, tears came to his eyes, and with great devotion -he said several prayers. After he had received Holy -Communion, he asked for his secretary and made his -last will and testament. Then he asked to be carried -to Constantinople, for he believed that to see and to be -near Carmesina might save him. They placed him on -a litter and carried him as gently as possible towards -the imperial city. When they had covered about half -the distance, they were met by Diaphebus and Hypolite. -Tirant requested them to kiss him, for it would be their -last farewell. And they, in tears, kissed him, and while -they were addressing him with words of hope and cheer, -he suddenly cried out: “Jesus, Son of David, have mercy -on me!” A moment later, he added: “Jesus, into Thy -hands I commend my spirit.” And these were the last -words of Tirant lo Blanch, Caesar of the Greek empire. -(Chaps. 467-471)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p> - -<p>It was pitiful to bear the weeping and lamenting and -sobbing of those about him. When finally they were -able to master their grief, they carried his body into -Constantinople and had it embalmed. Then it was -clothed in imperial vestments and placed on a beautiful -catafalque in the Church of Saint Sophia. (Chap. 471)</p> - -<p>When the emperor was informed of the death of Tirant -he staggered as from a blow, and spent that night in -lamenting and sobbing as if his heart would break. When -daylight came, he went to the church to do honor to the -fallen hero. (Chaps. 471-472)</p> - -<p>When the princess saw all those about her weeping, she -wondered what had happened. One of her attendants -informed her that Tirant had passed from this life into -the other. Carmesina was stunned; she could neither -speak nor weep. After she had partially recovered from -the shock, she asked for the robe that she was to have -worn on her wedding-day; she put it on, and then, with -her attendants, hastened to the church. Having mounted -the catafalque, she threw herself upon the corpse of her -hero and lover. Tears were streaming from her eyes, -and they fell upon the cold face of Tirant, so that it -seemed that he too was weeping, although dead. That -pallid face again and again she kissed, and all the while -she was lamenting, uttering words of love, of grief, and -of despair. All those who witnessed the anguish and -suffering of the princess wept with her. Finally she was -taken back to the palace. She asked her attendants to -weep with her, for she would not be with them much -longer. Her grief was so poignant that blood flowed -from her mouth. The physicians saw in her condition -the signs of one doomed to die. The aged emperor, -who could not bear to witness the sufferings of his daughter, -had retired to his chamber. And now she sent for him, -for her soul wished to go where the soul of her hero was. -She made a public confession and received Holy Communion,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> -after which she sent for the emperor’s secretary, -who drew up her last will and testament. Then she -kissed the emperor and the empress many times and bade -them farewell. The venerable monarch was overcome -with grief and anguish, and fell to the floor unconscious. -He was carried into another room and laid on a bed, -and there he died. Then, as successor to the imperial -throne, she ordered that the corpse of Tirant be brought -to her. She had it placed at her left side, and the corpse -of the emperor was placed on the right side. She kissed -her father often, but Tirant she kissed even more frequently. -Then she invited Death to come and take her -so that she might be with her lover. Finally she asked -for the cross. When it was presented to her, she fixed -her eyes upon it, and after saying a long prayer with -intense devotion, she rendered her soul to God. And -when she died there was seen a great splendor of angels, -who bore away her soul with that of Tirant, for the soul -of her beloved had waited for hers. (Chaps. 472-478)</p> - -<p>The obsequies of the emperor were celebrated with -great splendor. Many kings, dukes, earls, marquises, -noble knights, and the people of the city were present. -The clergy sang the divine offices with such sorrow, -that there was not one person present who did not weep. -The following day the funeral rites were performed with -an equal splendor and solemnity in honor of the princess, -and on the third day, Tirant, the late Caesar of the Greek -empire, was honored by ceremonies no less magnificent -than the preceding. The body of the emperor was laid -in a beautiful tomb, but the bodies of Tirant and the -princess were enclosed in a casket, and with an escort -of forty galleys they were taken to Brittany and placed -in a magnificent tomb in the principal church of the city -of Nantes. (Chaps. 471, 485)</p> - -<p>The empress married Hypolite, and thus he who had -fought so well and bravely as Capita Major while Tirant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> -was conquering Barbary became emperor. He was much -loved and feared by his subjects and by those outside -of his realm. He conquered many provinces, amassed -great treasures, and his rule was long and prosperous. -(Chaps. 483, 487)</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p> - -<h2>PART II -<br /> -<small>AUTHORSHIP OF TIRANT LO BLANCH</small></h2> - - -<h3>CHAPTER I -<br /> -<small>IN WHAT LANGUAGE WAS TIRANT LO BLANCH -FIRST WRITTEN?</small></h3> - - -<p>The caption of the dedicatory letter in <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> -is conceived in the following words:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>A honor, lahor e gloria de nostre senyor deu -Jesu crist: e de la gloriosa sacratissima verge -Maria, mare sua, senyora nostra. Comença la -letra del present libre appellat tirant lo blanch, -dirigida per mossen Johanot martorell caualler al -serenissimo princep don Ferrando de portogal.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12">[12]</a> To the honor, praise and glory of our Lord God, Jesus Christ, -and of the glorious most blessed Virgin Mary, His Mother, Our -Lady. Here beginneth the dedicatory letter of this book entitled -<em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>, addressed by Sir Johanot Martorell, Knight, to -the most serene Prince Ferdinand of Portugal.</p></div> - -<p>In this letter we are told that Prince Ferdinand found -great delight in the contemplation of heroic deeds. His -most enthusiastic admiration was called forth by the -feats of that famous hero, Tirant lo Blanch, who outshone -all other knights as the sun outshines all other planets. -But, according to this letter, the story of that great -knight was written in the English language. Prince -Ferdinand wished to have it translated into Portuguese, -and since he knew that Martorell had spent some time in -England, he considered him well qualified to do the work. -Accordingly he asked him to translate the book.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span></p> - -<p>Martorell, however, expresses a feeling of incompetency, -and on account of his professional and family -affairs and the adversities of fortune which do not permit -him to enjoy peace of mind, he feels that he might be -justified in declining the noble task. But notwithstanding -all these obstacles he will undertake it, for surely the -Sovereign Good, who comes to the aid of those who wish -to do worthy things, will not fail him in his endeavor. -Then in an enterprising spirit he announces:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>... me atreuire expondre, no solament d’lengua -Anglesa en Portoguesa, mas encara de Portoguesa -en vulgar valenciana: perço que la nacio -don yo so natural sen puxa alegrar e molt ajudar -per los tants e tan insignes actes com hi son.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13">[13]</a> I shall undertake to translate, not only from the English language -into Portuguese, but also from the Portuguese into the -Valencian vernacular: in order that the country of which I am a -native may enjoy and be highly benefited by the many very remarkable -acts that are described therein.</p></div> - -<p>He asks the prince to accept the book as from a devoted -servant, and begs him to overlook with indulgence -the errors that may be found therein, for in some passages -it was impossible to give a good translation of the -English words. The letter closes as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>E perque en la present obra altri no puxa -esser increpat si defalliment algu trobat hi sera; -yo Johanot martorell caualler sols vull portar lo -carrech e no altri ab mi: com per mi sols sia -stada ventilada a servey del molt illustre Princep -e senyor rey spectant don ferrando de portogal: -la present obra e començada a .ii. d’giner -de lany .Mcccclx.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14">[14]</a> And in order that no other person may be blamed for any -faults that may be contained in this work, I, Johanot Martorell, -Knight, wish to accomplish this task alone and with the aid of no -one else: in order that it may be performed by me alone in the -service of the most illustrious Prince and Lord, expectant of the -royal crown, Don Ferdinand of Portugal. This work is begun on -the second day of January, 1460.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span></p> - -<p>The principal part of the note that is found at the -conclusion of the book reads as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Aci feneix lo libre del valeros e strenu caualler -Tirant lo blanch, Princep e Cesar del Imperi grech -de Contestinoble, lo qual fon traduit de Angles -en lengua portoguesa, e apres en vulgar lengua -valenciana per lo magnifich e virtuos caualler -mossen johanot martorell, lo qual per mort sua -non pogue acabar de traduir sino les tres parts. -La quarta part que es la fi del libre, es stada -traduida a pregaries de la noble senyora dona -Ysabel de loriç per lo magnifich caualler Mossen -Marti johan d’galba: e si defalt hi sera trobat -vol sia atribuit a la sua ignorancia.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15">[15]</a> Thus ends the book of the valorous and brave knight, Tirant -lo Blanch, Prince and Caesar of the Grecian Empire of Constantinople, -which was translated from English into the Portuguese -language, and afterwards into the Valencian vernacular by the -illustrious and excellent knight, Sir Johanot Martorell, who by -reason of his death was not able to translate more than the three -parts. The fourth part, which is the end of the book, has been -translated at the request of the noble lady, Dona Isabel de Loriç -by the illustrious knight, Sir Marti Johan d’Galba: and if there -are any defects in it, may they be attributed to his ignorance.</p></div> - -<p>Then is appended the colophon:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Fon acabada d’empremptar la present obra -en la Ciutat de Valencia a .xx. del mes de -Nohembre del any de la natiuitat de nostre -senyor deu Jesu crist mil .cccc. lxxxx.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16">[16]</a> The printing of this work was completed in the city of Valencia -on the twentieth day of November of the year of the nativity of -our Lord God, Jesus Christ, 1490.</p></div> - -<p>According to the above representations, <em>Tirant lo -Blanch</em> existed originally as an English romance of chivalry -which was translated into Portuguese by Martorell; -then the Portuguese version was translated into the -Valencian language, three parts of it by Martorell and -the fourth part by de Galba.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span></p> - -<p>But the literary world knows no English <em>Tirant lo -Blanch</em>, nor, so far as can be discovered, has it ever seen -a reference to a romance of that description except the -statements in the Catalan book. Consequently no little -doubt arises as to an English original. The same is the -case concerning a Portuguese <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>, and the -doubt as to the accuracy of Martorell’s and de Galba’s -assertions increases considerably. And then, finally, the -contents of the work, its spirit, its sources, and the fact -that there is a <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> in the Catalan language, -strongly impel the reader to conclude that the Catalan -book is the original.</p> - -<p>Let us first consider the question as to an English -original. After a careful study of <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>, we -have come to the conclusion that it is hardly possible -that it ever existed as an English romance. That conclusion -is based on a study of its principal sources and on -the nature of its contents. A truly Catalan atmosphere -pervades by far the greater part of it. The court and -military life of the Catalonians and Aragonese, their political -problems and aspirations, their hopes and fears,—all -these are vividly reflected in this romance of chivalry. -Their history and their literature are so closely interwoven -with the story of Tirant lo Blanch, that we can -scarcely conceive it possible that it is not a Catalan production. -We believe that when Martorell says that the -work is translated from the English, he means that it -has been inspired by an English book. And his statement -has the semblance of truth, for his composition -contains a reproduction of a considerable part of the -English romance, <em>Guy of Warwick</em>, somewhat modified -however, together with an account of the institution of -the Order of the Garter, of which the scenes of action -are all laid in England. To the story based on the above -romance has been joined material derived from other -sources, and one of these is Raymond Lull’s <em>Libre del Orde<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> -d’Cauayleria</em>. In the story, of which the material from -these two sources forms the foundation, Guy of Warwick -is represented as Guillem de Varoych, and for this reason -we shall name this composite reproduction, the William -of Warwick episode.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> begins with this -episode, which occupies a little more than one-eighth -part of the complete work. But this is not the only part -in which the influence of <em>Guy of Warwick</em> is revealed. -We know that Martorell, when he planned his book of -chivalry, was acquainted with the story of Guy of Warwick, -and in the course of the composition certain -features of the latter occurred to him and were incorporated -in his work. But these are not very numerous, -and they are so sparsely scattered that the pronounced -Catalan atmosphere in which they appear absorbs whatever -distinguishing characteristics they may have had -originally. Our investigations, the details of which will -follow, lead us to the conclusion that if <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> -had an English original, this must have been written by a -Catalan,—which, to say the least, is improbable. Scholars -who have given some attention to this question entertain -serious doubts concerning the representations that -the work is translated from the English. Menéndez y -Pelayo regards the question as very problematic.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> Givanel -Mas, in his excellent study on <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> intimates -that it is doubtful that there has existed an English -original. Still he would consider it bold to deny that the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>book has ever appeared in English or in Portuguese. -But, on the other hand, he sees no reason why we should -consider it impossible that the author has followed the -custom of writers of chivalry, who, in perhaps a majority -of cases, pretend that their works were based on productions -found in foreign languages, not only in Greek, -Latin, and Arabic, but also in English and German. -Bonsoms y Sicart says: “No cabe duda que la celebrada -novela es hija de la imaginación del magnífico y virtuoso -caballero valenciano.”<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> Rubió y Lluch makes this -statement: “El Tirant, en la parte fundamental, en el -carácter general del cuadro en que los personajes se mueven -con más desembarazo, es indígena, es catalán por -sus cuatro costados.”<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17">[17]</a> Why did Martorell change the name from Guy to William -(Guillem)? The Catalan form for Guy is Guiu, which may have -been easily confused in the MSS. with Guim, a contracted form of -Guillem. If this substitution did not result from a confusion in -names, the resemblance may have suggested Guillem, which was -more popular and therefore may have seemed preferable.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18">[18]</a> D.M. Menéndez y Pelayo, <em>Orígenes de la Novela</em>, Madrid, 1905; -tomo I, p. ccliii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19">[19]</a> Juan Givanel Mas, <em>Estudio crítico de Tirant lo Blanch</em>, Madrid, -1912; p. 21.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20">[20]</a> <em>Discursos leídos en la Real Academia de Buenas Letras de -Barcelona en la recepción publica de D. Isidro Bonsoms y Sicart</em>, -Barcelona, 1907; por Don Isidro Bonsoms y Sicart y Don Antonio -Rubió y Lluch, p. 40.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21">[21]</a> <em>Ibid.</em>, p. 164.</p></div> - -<p>There is a passage in the William of Warwick episode -which we feel is a probable indication that the author -was not English. When the hermit-king, as leader of -the English forces, recaptured the castle of Alimburch -from the Moors, in which the latter held many Christian -ladies as captives, Johan de Varoych, son of Guillem, -called to them in the following words: “Dones angleses, -exiu defora e tornau en vostra primera libertat, car -vengut es lo dia de la vostra redempcio.”<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> Why did the -author say “Dones angleses”? Is it not probable that -he for the moment had forgotten that the work was supposed -to be a translation from the English, and addressed -the ladies as a foreigner might have done?</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22">[22]</a> English ladies, come out and enjoy your former liberty, for -the day of your redemption has come.</p></div> - -<p>In spite of our efforts to take the author at his word, -we feel moved to conclude that the work was not translated -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>from an English original. We believe that a statement -to that effect was made, because the beginning of -<em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> was a kind of reproduction of a romance -in which an English knight was the hero, and because -the events that are recounted in that first part took -place in England. The declaration was perhaps suggested -by examples of other authors of romances of -chivalry who attributed their works to foreign sources.</p> - -<p>But if there was no English original, was there some -other work to be translated? In what language was it -written? For lack of any other information, we shall -have to conclude that it was in Catalan, for the contents -of the final version clearly indicate that. This, then, -was translated into Portuguese, and then into Catalan. -How absurd! for it already existed in Catalan. It is -evident that there was no translating to be done.</p> - -<p>If the book was not translated from an English, or -a Catalan original, it may be asked whether it was first -written in Portuguese and then translated into Catalan. -In attempting to answer this question it is necessary -to remember the reason that is given for translating -the work from English into Portuguese, viz., that Prince -Ferdinand of Portugal asked Martorell to produce the -work in the Portuguese language. And who was this -“serenissimo princep”?</p> - -<p>Prince Ferdinand (1433-1470) was the second son of -King Edward I of Portugal. His mother was Doña -Leonor de Aragón, a daughter of King Ferdinand I. -At the death of King Edward, in 1438, the latter’s eldest -son mounted the throne as Alfonso V. He was but six -years old, and in order that there might be no question -as to the succession, “foi o Infante D. Fernando jurado -Principe pellos Infantes, e pello Conde de Barcellos e por -todos os que eraõ presentes, por si, e por todos os do -Reyno, de que se fizeraõ Autos solemnizados por Notarios -publicos e dahi em diante se chamou Principe de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> -Portugal.”<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> This prince was, according to de la Clède, -“Duc de Viseo, Grand Maître de Christ et de Saint -Jacques en Portugal, et Connétable du Roiaume.”<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> He -took an active part in the fighting against the Moors -in the northwestern part of Africa.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23">[23]</a> The Infante, D. Ferdinand was solemnly accepted as Prince -by the other Infantes, and by the Count of Barcellos and by all -those who were present, for themselves and for those of the kingdom; -duly attested acts of this action were drawn up by notaries, -and henceforth he was called Prince of Portugal. Duarte Nunes -de Leaõ, <em>Cronicas del rey Dom Joaõ de gloriosa memoria, o I. -deste nome, e dos reys de Portugal o X., e as dos reys D. Duarte, -e D. Affonso o V.</em>, Lisbon, 1780; vol. 2, p. 86.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24">[24]</a> M. de la Clède, <em>Histoire générale de Portugal</em>, Paris, 1735; -vol. 3, p. 242.</p></div> - -<p>Apparently, then, this dedication and all that concerns -Prince Ferdinand is written in good faith. And since he -was a Portuguese, it would be only natural to suppose -that the book was composed in the Portuguese language.</p> - -<p>But this supposition loses much of its force when we -consider that his mother was a Catalan, and consequently -it is probable that he knew, or, at least, understood the -Catalan language. Then, too, Martorell, who was so -fond of making elaborate descriptions of court life, fails -to reveal this tendency in telling about Tirant’s visit to -the Portuguese court at Lisbon, while this hero was on -his way from Brittany to Sicily. A few cold, matter-of-fact -statements of that brief stay are the only homage -he renders to the kingdom of his patron. Surely that was -an excellent opportunity to sing the praises of Portugal, -its heroes, and its rulers, but to our great surprise no -such attempt is made. This fact is indeed astonishing, -and causes us to doubt that the book was written under -the direction or at the request of a Portuguese. Moreover, -at the very time that Martorell was engaged in -the composition of <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>, the Portuguese were -doing what they had been doing for years, performing -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>heroic exploits in their wars against the Moors on the -African shores opposite the Spanish peninsula. In the -book under consideration the hero conquers that very -territory, but the Portuguese efforts find no place in -the account of that victorious campaign. And yet -that conquest had a historical basis, for it was founded -on conditions and events described in Muntaner’s -<em>Chronica</em>.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> We cannot help asking ourselves the question: -Why did Martorell wholly disregard the great -deeds of valor of the Portuguese heroes? He has given -proof of being well versed in the history of his times, -and surely he had heard and read of their prowess. The -answer that suggests itself is, that the experiences of -his native land with Barbary as narrated in the <em>Chronica</em> -were uppermost in his mind, and while he was writing -the book the exploits of the Portuguese probably did -not occur to him. If such was the case, it is highly probable -that he did not reside at the Portuguese court, and -perhaps Prince Ferdinand was not much more than a -name to him. In the kind of work undertaken by the -author, a work based principally on historical events -and the customs of the times, intermingled with literary -productions and problems that confronted Christianity -and involved the destiny of nations, the absence of traces -of Portuguese influence from the fields of history and of -literature, or from any other field, causes us to doubt -seriously that the book was originally in Portuguese.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25">[25]</a> <em>Chronik des Edlen En Ramón Muntaner</em>, edited by Dr. Karl -Lang, <em>Bibliothek des literarischen Vereins in Stuttgart</em>, Stuttgart, -1844.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26">[26]</a> See page 152.</p></div> - -<p>Moreover, Martorell, who was to write this book, was -a Catalan. Was he as excellent a master of Portuguese -as he was of his native tongue? We have no definite -information in that regard upon which we may rely. -Surely he was courageous to write such a voluminous -work in Portuguese, if he did not control that language -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>with ease. When he drew his material from -Lull’s and from Metge’s works (see pp. 79-89), did he -translate it into Portuguese and then turn it back into -Catalan without consulting the corresponding passages in -the sources? If such was the case, there would have been -a greater difference in the parallel passages. But a man -who is a master of the two languages would never take -that trouble. And why should he try to make the passages -exactly alike? Now, what was Martorell to write -about? About a great hero whose name was Tirant lo -Blanch and whose deeds were so much admired by -Prince Ferdinand. But this Tirant lo Blanch is not -a historical personage, he is an imaginary individual, a -literary character. If the Catalan Tirant had not yet -been written, if there was not even such a literary character, -how, then, could the Prince have become so -enthusiastic about him?</p> - -<p>The strongest argument in favor of a Portuguese -original is the fact that de Galba states that he translated -the final fourth part from the Portuguese. But we must -remember that Martorell says that he will translate the -Portuguese into Catalan, and for that reason de Galba -was obliged to say the same. But the same style, vocabulary, -method of composing the work, the point of view -and characteristics of the author are in evidence throughout -the book. For this reason it may seem that Martorell -wrote the whole work in Portuguese and then translated -three-fourths of it into Catalan. He died and de Galba -completed it. But if the latter had translated the fourth -part, we feel that we should have been able to discover -some differences in style, spelling and vocabulary, and an -absence of some of the favorite expressions of Martorell. -If he had composed that part we should not have had -much difficulty in detecting it. Consequently we cannot -believe that <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> was first written in Portuguese, -and then translated into Catalan.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span></p> - -<p>However, we accept in full faith the statement of the -author that he is a Valencian. The contents of his -work corroborate it. He knew that Ferdinand was Prince -of Portugal; but did the latter ask him to translate the -English original? We cannot believe that there was -such a book in English, and consequently we doubt that -<em>Tirant</em> was written at this request. We shall probably -never be able to discover whether Martorell was personally -acquainted with Prince Ferdinand, or whether he -ever was in communication with him. The details of the -dedicatory letter point in that direction, but perhaps -that was only an ingenious way of the author to induce -us to give credit to his statements. However that may -be, there was probably some good reason for dedicating -the work to the prince, but very likely we shall never -know just what that reason was.</p> - -<p>If we cannot believe that there was an English original, -and we doubt that the book was first written in Portuguese, -then it is probable that we shall conclude that -<em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> was first written in Catalan. Perhaps -an attempt to prove that it is a Catalan production will -help us solve the problem.</p> - -<p>In the composition of this book, material drawn from -Catalan history and Catalan literature has been utilized. -The former we shall discuss in other parts of this work, -but we take up at this time two of the literary sources. -First let us give a series of parallel passages from Raymond -Lull’s <em>Libre del Orde d’Cauayleria</em> and from <em>Tirant -lo Blanch</em> in order to see what can be gained from a -study of these.</p> - -<table class="poetry" summary="Libre del Orde d’Cauayleria vs. Tirant lo Blanch"> -<tr> - <td class="tdc tdt"><em>Libre del Orde d’Cauayleria</em></td> - <td class="tdc tdt tdpl"><em>Tirant lo Blanch</em></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdi tdt"><a id="Anchor1a"></a><a href="#Trans1a">1<sup>a</sup></a> En aquell temps en la entrada</td> - <td class="tdi tdt tdpl"><a id="Anchor1b"></a><a href="#Trans1b">1<sup>b</sup></a> Lo virtuos rey de Anglaterra</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">del gran iuern sesdevench</td> - <td class="tdpl">perque a total oci e languiment</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">que un gran Rey molt noble</td> - <td class="tdpl">nos sotsmetessen: delibera, puix<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">e de bones costumes be habundos,</td> - <td class="tdpl">hauie contractat matrimoni, de</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">hac manades corts: e per</td> - <td class="tdpl">fer cridar cort general afi que</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">la gran fama qui fon per la terra</td> - <td class="tdpl">si fes gran exercici darmes. La</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">de sa cort, hun assaut scuder</td> - <td class="tdpl">fama fon divulgada per tots los</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">tot sol, en son palaffre caualcant,</td> - <td class="tdpl">regnes de cristians, de la grandissima</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">anava a la cort per esser adobat</td> - <td class="tdpl">festa que lo famos Rey</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">a noueyl cauayler: on per lo</td> - <td class="tdpl">preparaua. Seguis que un gentilom</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">trebayl que hac sostengut d’son</td> - <td class="tdpl">de linatge antich e natural</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">caualcar, dementre que anaua</td> - <td class="tdpl">de Bretanya, anant en companyia</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">en son palaffre adormis. E en</td> - <td class="tdpl">de molts altres gentils</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">aquella hora lo cauayler qui en</td> - <td class="tdpl">homens qui a la gran festa</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">la forest fahia sa penitencia ffon</td> - <td class="tdpl">anauen aturas mes darrer de</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">vengut a la ffont contemplar</td> - <td class="tdpl">tots e adormis sobrel roci fatigat</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">Deu e menysprear la vanitat de</td> - <td class="tdpl">del treball del gran cami que</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">aquest mon, seguns que cascun</td> - <td class="tdpl">fet hauia. Son cauall lexa lo</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">jorn hauia acustumat.</td> - <td class="tdpl">cami e pres per una senda qui</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt tdi">Dementre que lescuder caualcaua</td> - <td class="tdpl">dreçava ala delitosa font hon</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">en axi, son palaffre exi d’l</td> - <td class="tdpl">lermita staua qui en aquell cas</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">cami e mes se per lo boscatge,</td> - <td class="tdpl">se delitaua legir un libre qui es<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">e ana tant la hon li plach per lo</td> - <td class="tdpl">nomenat arbre de batalles. E</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">boscatge, tro esdevench en la</td> - <td class="tdpl">feya continuament gracies, com</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">fontana hon lo cauayler estava</td> - <td class="tdpl">aquell libre legia, a nostre</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">en oracio. Lo cauayler qui viu</td> - <td class="tdpl">Senyor Deu de les singulars</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">venir lescuder lexa sa oracio e</td> - <td class="tdpl">graties que en aquest mon hauia</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">assech se en lo bel prat a la</td> - <td class="tdpl">aconseguides servint lorde de</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">ombra del arbre, e comença a</td> - <td class="tdpl">caualleria. E stant axi veu</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">legir a .i. libre que tenia en la</td> - <td class="tdpl">venir per pla un home a cauall;</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">fauda.</td> - <td class="tdpl">e conegue que venia dormint;</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"> </td> - <td class="tdpl">lexas de legir e nol volgue despertar.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdi tdt">Lo palaffre con fo a la font</td> - <td class="tdpl">Com lo roci fon dauant</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">bech de laygua, e lescuder qui</td> - <td class="tdpl">la font e veu laygua, acostasi</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">senti en durment que son palaffre</td> - <td class="tdpl">per voler beure: e per que tenia</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">nos mouia, despertas, e</td> - <td class="tdpl">la falça regna en larço de la</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">viu denant si lo cauayler qui fo</td> - <td class="tdpl">çella no podia: e tant bascha</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">molt veyl, e hac gran barba e</td> - <td class="tdpl">que fon forçat al gentilom ques</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">lonchs cabels, e romputs vestiments:</td> - <td class="tdpl">despertas: e obrint los hulls, se</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">per la velea e per la</td> - <td class="tdpl">veu dauant un hermita ab molt</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">penitencia que fasia fo magre</td> - <td class="tdpl">gran barba tota blancha: e quasi</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">e descolorit, e per les lagremes</td> - <td class="tdpl">les vestidures rompudes: e mostrauas</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">que gitaua, sos hulls foren apoquits,</td> - <td class="tdpl">flach e descolorit. E<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">e ac esguart d’molta santa</td> - <td class="tdpl">aço causaua la molta penitencia</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">vida.</td> - <td class="tdpl">que feya continuament, e per</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"> </td> - <td class="tdpl">les moltes lagremes quels seus</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"> </td> - <td class="tdpl">hulls destillauen li eren los hulls</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"> </td> - <td class="tdpl">molt apoquits. Lo conspectu</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"> </td> - <td class="tdpl">seu era de home admirable e de</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"> </td> - <td class="tdpl">gran sanctedat.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdi tdt"><a id="Anchor2a"></a><a href="#Trans2a">2<sup>a</sup></a> Con lo cauayler ausi parlar</td> - <td class="tdi tdt tdpl"><a id="Anchor2b"></a><a href="#Trans2b">2<sup>b</sup></a> Con lermita hoy parlar al</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">de cauayleria et remembra lorde</td> - <td class="tdpl">gentilom que anaua per rebre</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">de cauayleria</td> - <td class="tdpl">lorde de caualleria, recordant li</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"> </td> - <td class="tdpl">lorde quina cosa es, e tot ço que</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt tdr">e so quey pertany</td> - <td class="tdpl">pertany a caualler, lansa un gran</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">a cauayler, adonchs gita .j. suspir</td> - <td class="tdpl">sospir e entra en gran pensament,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">et entra en consirer membrant</td> - <td class="tdpl">essent en recort de la</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">en lo honrament en lo</td> - <td class="tdpl">grandissima honor en que caualleria</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">qual cauayleria lo auia longament</td> - <td class="tdpl">lauia longament mantengut.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">mantengut.</td> - <td class="tdpl"> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdi tdt"><a id="Anchor3a"></a><a href="#Trans3a">3<sup>a</sup></a> Com, fiyl, so dix lo cauayler,</td> - <td class="tdi tdt tdpl"><a id="Anchor3b"></a><a href="#Trans3b">3<sup>b</sup></a> E com, dix lermita, no saps</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">e no saps tu qual es la regla e</td> - <td class="tdpl">tu qual es la retgla e lorde de</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">lorde de cauayleria? e com pots</td> - <td class="tdpl">caualleria? E com pots tu demanar</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">tu demanar cauayleria tro sapies</td> - <td class="tdpl">caualleria fins que sapies</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">lorde de cauayleria? cor negun</td> - <td class="tdpl">lorde, car negun cavaller no pot</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">cauayler no pot mantenir lorde</td> - <td class="tdpl">mantenir lorde si nol sap e tot</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">que no sap, ni pot amar son</td> - <td class="tdpl">lo que pertany a lorde:</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">orde ni so que pertany a son</td> - <td class="tdpl"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">orde, si no sap lorde de cauayleria,</td> - <td class="tdpl"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">ni sap conexer lo fayliment</td> - <td class="tdpl"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">que sia contra son orde.</td> - <td class="tdpl"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">Ni negun cauayler no deu fer</td> - <td class="tdr tdpl">e negun caualler sino sap</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">cauayler si no sap lorde de</td> - <td class="tdpl">lorde de caualleria no es caualler,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">cauayleria, cor desordenat cauayler</td> - <td class="tdpl">car desordenat caualler es</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">es qui fa cauayler e no</td> - <td class="tdpl">qui fa altre caualler e no li sap</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">li sap mostrar les custumes quis</td> - <td class="tdpl">mostrar los costums que pertanyen</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">pertanyen a cauayler.</td> - <td class="tdpl">a caualler.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdi tdt"><a id="Anchor4a"></a><a href="#Trans4a">4<sup>a</sup></a> Bel amic, ço dix lo cauayler,</td> - <td class="tdi tdt tdpl"><a id="Anchor4b"></a><a href="#Trans4b">4<sup>b</sup></a> Mon fill, dix lermita, tot lorde<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">la regla e lorde de cauayleria es</td> - <td class="tdpl">es en aquest libre scrit, lo qual</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">en aquest libre en lo qual jo lig</td> - <td class="tdpl">yo lig algunes veguades, perque</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">alcunes vegades per ço quem</td> - <td class="tdpl">sia en recort de la gratia que</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">fassa remembrar la gracia et la</td> - <td class="tdpl">nostre senyor</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">merce que Deus ma feta en</td> - <td class="tdpl"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">aquest mon, per ço cor honraua</td> - <td class="tdpl">ma feta en aquest mon, per ço</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">e mantenia lorde de cauayleria a</td> - <td class="tdpl">com honraua e mantenia lorde</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">tot mon poder. Cor en axi con</td> - <td class="tdpl">de caualleria de tot mon poder.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">cauayleria dona tot ço que pertany</td> - <td class="tdpl">E axi com caualleria dona tot</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">a cauayler, en axi cauayler</td> - <td class="tdpl">ço que pertany a caualler, axi</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">deu donar totes ses forses a</td> - <td class="tdpl">caualler deu donar totes ses</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">honrar cauayleria.</td> - <td class="tdpl">forces a honrar caualleria.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdi tdt"><a id="Anchor5a"></a><a href="#Trans5a">5<sup>a</sup></a> E per ayso de tot lo poble</td> - <td class="tdi tdt tdpl"><a id="Anchor5b"></a><a href="#Trans5b">5<sup>b</sup></a> E per aquesta causa de tot</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">foren fets milanaris, e de cascun</td> - <td class="tdpl">lo poble foren fets millenars e de</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">.M. fo elet e triat .j. home pus</td> - <td class="tdpl">cascun miller fonch elet un</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">amable, pus savi, pus leyal e</td> - <td class="tdpl">home, mes amable e de mes</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">pus fortz, e ab pus noble coratge,</td> - <td class="tdpl">afabilitat, mes savi, mes leal,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">ab mes densenyaments e de</td> - <td class="tdpl">mes fort e ab mes noble animo,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">bons nodriments que tots los</td> - <td class="tdpl">ab mes virtuts e bones costumes</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">altres. Encercat fo en totes les</td> - <td class="tdpl">que tots los altres. E apres feren<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">besties qual es pus beyla bestia,</td> - <td class="tdpl">cercar de totes les besties qual</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">e pus corrent e que pusca sostenir</td> - <td class="tdpl">seria mes bella mes corrent, e</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">mes de trebayl, ni qual es pus</td> - <td class="tdpl">que pogues sostenir maior treball,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">covinent a servir home. E cor</td> - <td class="tdpl">e qual fos mes covinent per</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">cauayl es la pus nobla bistia e</td> - <td class="tdpl">a la servitut de lome,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">la pus covinent a servir home,</td> - <td class="tdpl"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">per ayso de totes les besties hom</td> - <td class="tdr tdpl">e de totes</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">eleech cauayl e dona lo al home</td> - <td class="tdpl">elegiren lo cauall e donaren lo a</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">qui fo elet de .M. homens: e</td> - <td class="tdpl">lome qui fonch elet de mil homes</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">per ayso aquel home ha nom</td> - <td class="tdpl">hu: e perço aquell home ague</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">cauayler. Com hom ac aiustada</td> - <td class="tdpl">nom caualler com aguessen aiustada</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">la pus nobla bistia al pus noble</td> - <td class="tdpl">la mes noble bestia ab lo</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">home...</td> - <td class="tdpl">mes noble home.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<table class="fntable poetry-trans" summary="Libre del Orde d’Cauayleria vs. Tirant lo Blanch (English translation)"> -<tr> - <td class="tdi tdt"><a id="Trans1a"></a><a href="#Anchor1a"><span>1<sup>a</sup></span></a> At that time, which was in</td> - <td class="tdi tdt tdpl"><a id="Trans1b"></a><a href="#Anchor1b"><span>1<sup>b</sup></span></a> The noble King of England,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">the beginning of the severe winter,</td> - <td class="tdpl">in order that his people</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">it happened that a great</td> - <td class="tdpl">should not give themselves up to</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">king, who was most noble and</td> - <td class="tdpl">absolute idleness and languor,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">of many excellent habits, ordered</td> - <td class="tdpl">determined, since he had contracted</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">an assembly of his court.</td> - <td class="tdpl">marriage, to proclaim a</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">On account of the great fame</td> - <td class="tdpl">meeting of the General Court</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">which his court enjoyed all over</td> - <td class="tdpl">where great exercises of arms</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">the earth, a doughty squire, all</td> - <td class="tdpl">should take place. The news of</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">alone and riding on his palfrey,</td> - <td class="tdpl">the wonderful festival which the</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">went thither in order that he</td> - <td class="tdpl">famous king was planning was</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">might be made a knight; when,</td> - <td class="tdpl">spread throughout all the Christian</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">on account of the fatigue that he</td> - <td class="tdpl">realms. It happened that</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">underwent from his riding, he</td> - <td class="tdpl">a nobleman of ancient lineage</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">fell asleep while going along on</td> - <td class="tdpl">and a native of Brittany, traveling</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">his steed. And at that moment</td> - <td class="tdpl">in the company of many</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">the knight who was doing penance</td> - <td class="tdpl">other noblemen who were going</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">in the forest had come to</td> - <td class="tdpl">to the great festival, fell behind</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">the spring to contemplate and</td> - <td class="tdpl">all the rest, and, overcome by</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">to despise the vanity of this</td> - <td class="tdpl">the fatigue of the long journey</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">world just as he was accustomed</td> - <td class="tdpl">that he had made, dropped</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">to do every day.</td> - <td class="tdpl">asleep. His steed left the road</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdi tdt">While the squire was riding</td> - <td class="tdpl">and followed a path which led</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">along in this manner, his steed</td> - <td class="tdpl">to the delightful spring where</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">left the road and entered the</td> - <td class="tdpl">the hermit was, who at that</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">woods. It went wherever it</td> - <td class="tdpl">very moment was reading with</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">pleased in the forest until it came</td> - <td class="tdpl">great delight a book entitled</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">to the spring where the knight</td> - <td class="tdpl"><em>Arbre de Batalles</em>. And he was</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">was praying. The knight, who</td> - <td class="tdpl">continuously rendering thanks,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">saw the squire coming, ceased</td> - <td class="tdpl">while reading that book, to our</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">praying and seated himself on</td> - <td class="tdpl">Lord God for the singular favors</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">the beautiful meadow in the</td> - <td class="tdpl">that he had obtained in this</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">shade of the tree, and began to</td> - <td class="tdpl">world in the service of the Order</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">read in a book which he had in</td> - <td class="tdpl">of Chivalry. Being occupied in</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">his lap. When the steed was at</td> - <td class="tdpl">this manner, he saw a man on</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">the spring, it drank, and the</td> - <td class="tdpl">horseback coming across the</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">squire who in his sleep felt that</td> - <td class="tdpl">plain, and noticed that he was</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">the palfrey was no longer moving,</td> - <td class="tdpl">asleep. He ceased reading and</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">awoke, and saw before him</td> - <td class="tdpl">did not wish to awaken him.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">the knight who was very old,</td> - <td class="tdpl">When the steed was in front of</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">and had a big beard and long</td> - <td class="tdpl">the spring and saw the water,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">hair, and clothes that were torn.</td> - <td class="tdpl">it approached, for it wished to</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">From his vigils and from the</td> - <td class="tdpl">drink, but because the rein was</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">penance that he was doing he</td> - <td class="tdpl">fastened to the pommel of the</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">was thin and pale; and from the</td> - <td class="tdpl">saddle it was not able to do so:</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">tears that he was shedding, his</td> - <td class="tdpl">it stooped so low that the rider</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">eyes were swollen, and he had</td> - <td class="tdpl">was obliged to wake up, and</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">the appearance of a man leading</td> - <td class="tdpl">opening his eyes, he found himself</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">a very holy life. Ramon Lull,</td> - <td class="tdpl">before a hermit with a very</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"><em>Libre del Orde d’Cauayleria</em>,</td> - <td class="tdpl">big snow-white beard: his clothes</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">Barcelona, 1879; p. v.</td> - <td class="tdpl">were almost in shreds and he</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"> </td> - <td class="tdpl">was weak and pale. This was</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"> </td> - <td class="tdpl">caused by the great penance</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"> </td> - <td class="tdpl">that he was continuously doing,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"> </td> - <td class="tdpl">and on account of the many</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"> </td> - <td class="tdpl">tears that his eyes distilled,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"> </td> - <td class="tdpl">these were very much swollen.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"> </td> - <td class="tdpl">His appearance was that of a</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"> </td> - <td class="tdpl">venerable and very holy man.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"> </td> - <td class="tdpl"><em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>, chap. xxviii.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdi tdt"><a id="Trans2a"></a><a href="#Anchor2a"><span>2<sup>a</sup></span></a> When the knight heard the</td> - <td class="tdi tdt tdpl"><a id="Trans2b"></a><a href="#Anchor2b"><span>2<sup>b</sup></span></a> When the hermit heard the</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">subject of chivalry mentioned,</td> - <td class="tdpl">nobleman say that he was going</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">and remembered the Order of</td> - <td class="tdpl">so that he might be received into</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">Chivalry and what pertains to</td> - <td class="tdpl">the Order of Chivalry, he, remembering</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">a knight, he gave a sigh and</td> - <td class="tdpl">what the order is,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">began to reflect deeply, remembering</td> - <td class="tdpl">and all that pertains to a knight,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">the honor in which</td> - <td class="tdpl">gave a heavy sigh and began to</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">chivalry had so long maintained</td> - <td class="tdpl">reflect deeply, recalling the very</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">him. <em>Ibid.</em>, p. v.</td> - <td class="tdpl">great honor in which chivalry</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"> </td> - <td class="tdpl">had so long maintained him.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"> </td> - <td class="tdpl"><em>Ibid.</em>, chap. xxix.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdi tdt"><a id="Trans3a"></a><a href="#Anchor3a"><span>3<sup>a</sup></span></a> “How now, my son,” this</td> - <td class="tdi tdt tdpl"><a id="Trans3b"></a><a href="#Anchor3b"><span>3<sup>b</sup></span></a> “And how now,” said the</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">said the knight, “and do you</td> - <td class="tdpl">hermit, “do you not know what</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">not know what the rules and</td> - <td class="tdpl">the rules and the Order of</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">the Order of Chivalry are? How</td> - <td class="tdpl">Chivalry are? And how can you</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">can you ask for knighthood before</td> - <td class="tdpl">ask for knighthood before you</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">you know the Order of</td> - <td class="tdpl">know the order, for no knight</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">Chivalry? For no knight can</td> - <td class="tdpl">can maintain the order if he</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">maintain the order that he does</td> - <td class="tdpl">does not know it and all that</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">not know, nor can he love his</td> - <td class="tdpl">pertains to the order: and no</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">order nor what pertains to his</td> - <td class="tdpl">knight, if he does not know the</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">order if he does not know the</td> - <td class="tdpl">Order of Chivalry, is a knight,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">Order of Chivalry nor can distinguish</td> - <td class="tdpl">for a poor knight is he who makes</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">the faults that are</td> - <td class="tdpl">another a knight and cannot</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">against his order. Neither ought</td> - <td class="tdpl">show him the practices which</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">any knight if he does not know</td> - <td class="tdpl">pertain to a knight.” <em>Ibid.</em>,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">the Order of Chivalry make a</td> - <td class="tdpl">chap. xxx.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">knight, for a poor knight is he</td> - <td class="tdpl"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">who makes a knight and cannot</td> - <td class="tdpl"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">show him the practices which</td> - <td class="tdpl"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">pertain to a knight.” <em>Ibid.</em>,</td> - <td class="tdpl"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">p. vi.</td> - <td class="tdpl"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdi tdt"><a id="Trans4a"></a><a href="#Anchor4a"><span>4<sup>a</sup></span></a> “My fair friend,” this said</td> - <td class="tdi tdt tdpl"><a id="Trans4b"></a><a href="#Anchor4b"><span>4<sup>b</sup></span></a> “My son,” said the hermit,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">the knight, “the rules and the</td> - <td class="tdpl">“the whole order is described in</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">Order of Chivalry are contained</td> - <td class="tdpl">this book, which I read sometimes,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">in this book in which I read</td> - <td class="tdpl">in order that I may be</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">sometimes in order that I may</td> - <td class="tdpl">reminded of the grace that our</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">be reminded of the grace and</td> - <td class="tdpl">Lord granted me in this world,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">the favors that God has granted</td> - <td class="tdpl">for I honored and maintained</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">me in this world, for I honored</td> - <td class="tdpl">the Order of Chivalry with all</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">and maintained the Order of</td> - <td class="tdpl">my might. And just as chivalry</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">Chivalry with all my might.</td> - <td class="tdpl">gives all that pertains to a</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">For just as chivalry gives all</td> - <td class="tdpl">knight, so also a knight ought to</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">that pertains to a knight, so</td> - <td class="tdpl">give all his strength to honor</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">also a knight ought to give all</td> - <td class="tdpl">chivalry.” <em>Ibid.</em>, chap. xxxi.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">his strength to honor chivalry.”</td> - <td class="tdpl"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"><em>Ibid.</em>, p. vi.</td> - <td class="tdpl"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdi tdt"><a id="Trans5a"></a><a href="#Anchor5a"><span>5<sup>a</sup></span></a> And on account of this all</td> - <td class="tdi tdt tdpl"><a id="Trans5b"></a><a href="#Anchor5b"><span>5<sup>b</sup></span></a> And for this reason all the</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">the people were divided into</td> - <td class="tdpl">people were divided into groups</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">groups of thousands, and from</td> - <td class="tdpl">of thousands and from each</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">each thousand was selected and</td> - <td class="tdpl">thousand was selected one man</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">chosen one man who was more</td> - <td class="tdpl">who was more amiable and of</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">amiable, wiser, more loyal and</td> - <td class="tdpl">greater affability, wiser, more</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">more powerful, and with more</td> - <td class="tdpl">loyal, more powerful and with</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">noble courage, with more instruction</td> - <td class="tdpl">nobler courage, with more excellent</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">and good training than</td> - <td class="tdpl">qualities and good practices</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">all the others. A diligent search</td> - <td class="tdpl">than all the others. And</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">was made among all the animals</td> - <td class="tdpl">afterwards they caused a search</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">to determine which one of them</td> - <td class="tdpl">to be made among all the animals</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">is the most beautiful and most</td> - <td class="tdpl">to determine which was the most</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">fleet and which is able to endure</td> - <td class="tdpl">beautiful, most fleet, and which</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">most fatigue, and which is most</td> - <td class="tdpl">could endure greatest fatigue,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">suitable to serve man. And</td> - <td class="tdpl">and which was most suitable for</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">since the horse is the most noble</td> - <td class="tdpl">the service of man, and from</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">animal and the most suitable to</td> - <td class="tdpl">all, they selected the horse and</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">serve man, for this reason, from</td> - <td class="tdpl">gave it to the man, the one who</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">all the animals one selected the</td> - <td class="tdpl">was chosen from one thousand</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">horse and gave it to the man</td> - <td class="tdpl">men: and therefore that man</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">who was chosen from one thousand</td> - <td class="tdpl">was called caualler, since they</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">men: and therefore that</td> - <td class="tdpl">had adapted the most noble</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">man is called cauayler. Since</td> - <td class="tdpl">animal to the most noble man.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">one has adapted the most noble</td> - <td class="tdpl"><em>Ibid.</em>, chap. xxxii.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">animal to the most noble</td> - <td class="tdpl"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">man... <em>Ibid.</em>, p. vii.</td> - <td class="tdpl"> </td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p>The five parallel passages given above indicate that -Martorell had Lull’s work before his eyes at the time that -he was writing the part that treats of the meeting of -young Tirant and the hermit and their conversation -concerning the order of Chivalry. The first passage from -the <em>Libre del Orde d’Cauayleria</em> is an excellent example -of the author’s method in selecting a foundation on -which to base the various and numerous activities of -his hero. The passage is important, for it has furnished -an interesting manner of introducing Tirant lo Blanch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> -to the reader, and, moreover, it may have been the -author’s starting point. The corresponding passage -from Martorell’s work reveals that the source was followed -very closely. It is an easy matter to pick out the -part of it that he needed to change in order to make -it suit his purpose. The details of the latter part give -evidence that he consulted the source probably more -than once, and that the modifications which we find there -are not necessarily due to the processes of translation. -The same may be said of the second parallel passages. -But the other three are so very nearly alike that the -translation theory must be given up. Let us remember -what we are asked to believe. We are told that <em>Tirant -lo Blanch</em> was translated from the English. Then these -passages were translated from Lull’s work (written in -Catalan), first into English, then into Portuguese, and -finally back into Catalan. And in all these various -processes the passages in their final form are practically -the same as the original. Is not this a marvelous -achievement? We cannot believe the author’s ingenious -representations. We are convinced that <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> -was not translated from the English. And since that is -the case, is it not probable that it was not written in Portuguese? -We admit that by translating from the Catalan -into Portuguese, and then back again into Catalan, the -resulting passages might not be so very different. But -we cannot believe that they could be so similar to the -original after two translations. Then, how do we account -for the changes? A comparative study of Lull’s style -and language and that of Martorell shows that there -was considerable difference between them. Of course, -it was not the latter’s intention to copy the material -word for word. He recast it, adapting it to his style -and vocabulary; in other words, he took in general -merely the ideas and expressed them in his own way. If -Lull’s manner of expression in certain cases agreed with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> -his own, he did not make any changes. He added or -omitted incidents at his own pleasure. Sometimes he -made a reproduction, and at other times a copy with -only such alterations as were necessary to make the passages -conform to his own style, which presumably he -considered an improvement over the original. Some few -changes may have been caused by misreading or in the -process of copying. Now and then we get the impression -that he made certain alterations in order to avoid a literal -transcription. A glance over the above passages shows -that Martorell changed certain words. For “palaffre” -he substituted “roci”; for “vestiments,” “vestidures”; -for “magre,” “flach”; for “ausi” (heard), “hoy”; for -“remembrar,” “recordar” or “esser en recort de”; for -“consirer,” “entrar en gran pensament”; for “honrament,” -“honor”; for “tro,” “fins”; for “en axi,” “axi”; -for “pus” in comparisons, “mes.” A study of Martorell’s -vocabulary reveals that the words for which he -made substitutions are lacking in it. Other similar -cases may be found, but, to prove our point, we do not -feel it necessary to make an exhaustive study of the -vocabularies of these authors. We shall, however, call -attention to the ending of the first parallel passages. -Lull says: “... e per les lagremes que gitaua, sos hulls -foren apoquits.” The corresponding passage of Martorell -reads: “e per les moltes lagremes quels seus hulls -destillauen li eren los hulls molt apoquits.” There is -much weeping in <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>, and the author’s -favorite way of describing it is something like this: “los -seus hulls destillaren vives lagremes.” Without making -an exhaustive search for this expression, we find twenty-one -instances in <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> where the words “hulls,” -some form of “destillar,” and “lagremes” are used to -describe this emotional manifestation. He expresses it -in other ways, but he never uses the verb “gitar,” -which is employed by Lull in this connection. Martorell<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> -never uses this word, but, on the other hand, he frequently -employs “lançar” with the very same meaning.</p> - -<p>After a careful comparison of the above passages, -we are satisfied that the book under consideration is not -a translation from an English original, nor was it first -written in Portuguese. However, if the reader is still -doubtful in regard to these questions, let us examine -other parallel passages, of which the originals are found -in another Catalan production, which bears the title Lo -<em>Somni d’En Bernat Metge</em>.</p> - -<table class="poetry" summary="Lo Somni d’En Bernat Metge vs. Tirant lo Blanch"> -<tr> - <td class="tdc tdt"><em>Lo Somni d’En Bernat Metge</em><a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></td> - <td class="tdc tdt tdpl"><em>Tirant lo Blanch</em><a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdi tdt"><a id="Anchor1aa"></a><a href="#Trans1aa">1<sup>a</sup></a> Tamaris reyna de Scithia,</td> - <td class="tdi tdt tdpl"><a id="Anchor1bb"></a><a href="#Trans1bb">1<sup>b</sup></a> ... Tamarits Reyna de Sicilia</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">no fo de menor coratge; la qual</td> - <td class="tdpl">la qual no fo de menor</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">en venjança de la mort de son fill</td> - <td class="tdpl">animo. Car en veniança de la</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">y consolacio sua mata batallant</td> - <td class="tdpl">mort de son fill per consolacio</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">aquell famos y molt temut Cirus,</td> - <td class="tdpl">sua mata en batalla aquell famos</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">rey d’Assia, ab dos cents milia</td> - <td class="tdpl">e molt temut Cirius Rey d’dasia</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">Persians.</td> - <td class="tdpl">ab. CC. milia persians.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdi tdt"><a id="Anchor2aa"></a><a href="#Trans2aa">2<sup>a</sup></a> ... y apres que la hague</td> - <td class="tdi tdt tdpl"><a id="Anchor2bb"></a><a href="#Trans2bb">2<sup>b</sup></a> ... Lo dit Cornelio obtengue</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">dompdada, se’n glorieja tant</td> - <td class="tdpl">della victoria. E sen</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">com si hagues vençut lo major</td> - <td class="tdpl">glorieja tant com si hagues</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">y pus victorios princep del</td> - <td class="tdpl">vençut lo major princep del</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">mon.</td> - <td class="tdpl">mon.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdi tdt"><a id="Anchor3aa"></a><a href="#Trans3aa">3<sup>a</sup></a> ... E aquella [amor] que</td> - <td class="tdi tdt tdpl"><a id="Anchor3bb"></a><a href="#Trans3bb">3<sup>b</sup></a> ... E aquella Porcia filla</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">Porcia filla de Catho, hague a</td> - <td class="tdpl">d’l Rey Tracio sabent que lo</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">Brut, marit seu, la qual encontinent</td> - <td class="tdpl">marit seu mort era.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">que sabe la mort</td> - <td class="tdpl"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">d’aquell, per tal com no habia</td> - <td class="tdr tdpl">E com no pogues</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">prest ferre ab que’s matas, desitjant</td> - <td class="tdpl">hauer ferro prest ab ques matas</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">seguir l’espirit del dit</td> - <td class="tdpl">cobejant seguir lesperit de</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">Brut begue carbons foguejants</td> - <td class="tdpl">aquell begue carbons foguejants</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">y mort.</td> - <td class="tdpl">e mort.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdi tdt"><a id="Anchor4aa"></a><a href="#Trans4aa">4<sup>a</sup></a> Be fo cordial e memorable</td> - <td class="tdi tdt tdpl"><a id="Anchor4bb"></a><a href="#Trans4bb">4<sup>b</sup></a> Mes fon cordial e memorable</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">amor que Artemisia, reyna,</td> - <td class="tdpl">lamor que Artemisa reyna</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">hague a Mauseolo, marit seu;</td> - <td class="tdpl">hague a Menaculo, marit seu, la</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">la qual apres que ell fo mort y</td> - <td class="tdpl">qual apres que ell fon mort e li</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">li hague celebrades solempnes</td> - <td class="tdpl">hague celebrades solemnes exequies</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">exequies, lo feu polvoritzar, y’l</td> - <td class="tdpl">lo feu poluorizar e begues</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">begue, mostrant que ella volia</td> - <td class="tdpl">la polvora mostrant que ella</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">esser sepulcre d’ell.</td> - <td class="tdpl">volia esser sepultura dell.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<table class="fntable poetry-trans" summary="Lo Somni d’En Bernat Metge vs. Tirant lo Blanch (English translation)"> -<tr> - <td class="tdi tdt"><a id="Trans1aa"></a><a href="#Anchor1aa"><span>1<sup>a</sup></span></a> Tomyris, Queen of Scythia,</td> - <td class="tdi tdt tdpl"><a id="Trans1bb"></a><a href="#Anchor1bb"><span>1<sup>b</sup></span></a> ... Tomyris, Queen of</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">was not of less courage: who</td> - <td class="tdpl">Sicily, who was not of less</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">in avenging the death of her</td> - <td class="tdpl">courage. For in avenging the</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">son and her consolation killed</td> - <td class="tdpl">death of her son, for her consolation</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">battling that famous and much</td> - <td class="tdpl">she killed in battle that</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">feared Cyrus, King of Asia, with</td> - <td class="tdpl">famous and much feared Cyrus,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">two hundred thousand Persians.</td> - <td class="tdpl">King of Asia, with two hundred</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt"> </td> - <td class="tdpl">thousand Persians.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdi tdt"><a id="Trans2aa"></a><a href="#Anchor2aa"><span>2<sup>a</sup></span></a> ... and after he had defeated</td> - <td class="tdi tdt tdpl"><a id="Trans2bb"></a><a href="#Anchor2bb"><span>2<sup>b</sup></span></a> The aforesaid Cornelius</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">her, he boasted about it</td> - <td class="tdpl">won a victory over her. And</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">as if he had vanquished the</td> - <td class="tdpl">he boasted about it as if he had</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">greatest and most victorious</td> - <td class="tdpl">vanquished the greatest prince</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">prince in the world.</td> - <td class="tdpl">in the world.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdi tdt"><a id="Trans3aa"></a><a href="#Anchor3aa"><span>3<sup>a</sup></span></a> ... and that [love] which</td> - <td class="tdi tdt tdpl"><a id="Trans3bb"></a><a href="#Anchor3bb"><span>3<sup>b</sup></span></a> ... and that Portia,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">Portia daughter of Cato had for</td> - <td class="tdpl">daughter of the King Tracio,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">Brutus her husband, she, who,</td> - <td class="tdpl">knowing that her husband was</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">as soon as she knew of his death,</td> - <td class="tdpl">dead. And since she could not</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">for the reason that she had no</td> - <td class="tdpl">get an iron instrument immediately,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">iron instrument immediately at</td> - <td class="tdpl">being eager to follow his</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">hand with which to slay herself,</td> - <td class="tdpl">spirit, ate burning coals and</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">desiring to follow his spirit, ate</td> - <td class="tdpl">died.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">burning coals and died.</td> - <td class="tdpl"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdi tdt"><a id="Trans4aa"></a><a href="#Anchor4aa"><span>4<sup>a</sup></span></a> Very cordial and memorable</td> - <td class="tdi tdt tdpl"><a id="Trans4bb"></a><a href="#Anchor4bb"><span>4<sup>b</sup></span></a> More cordial and memorable</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">was the love which Queen</td> - <td class="tdpl">was the love which Queen</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">Artemisia had for Mausolus her</td> - <td class="tdpl">Artemisa had for Menaculo</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">husband; she, who, after he was</td> - <td class="tdpl">her husband, she, who, after</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">dead and she had solemn exequies</td> - <td class="tdpl">he was dead and she had solemn</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">celebrated for him, caused</td> - <td class="tdpl">exequies celebrated for him,</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">his body to be converted into</td> - <td class="tdpl">caused his body to be converted</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">dust, and she swallowed it,</td> - <td class="tdpl">into dust, and she swallowed the</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">showing that she wished to be</td> - <td class="tdpl">dust, showing that she wished to</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdt">his sepulcher.</td> - <td class="tdpl">be his sepulture.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27">[27]</a> <em>Lo Somni d’En Bernat Metge</em>, edited by R. Miquel y Planas, -Barcelona, 1907; Libre quart, pp. 93-95.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28">[28]</a> Chap. cccix, cols. 3 and 4.</p></div> - -<p>All that we have said in support of our contention that -the excerpts from <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> in the first series of -parallel passages have been taken directly from Lull’s -work, and not from a translation, is borne out by a -comparison of the passages just given. We feel that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> -the evidence is conclusive and that comment would be -superfluous. And with all this array of evidence we feel -justified in concluding that <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> was written -originally in Catalan. Martorell was a learned Catalan; -he was well versed in the history of his country and its -literature; he was a master of his native language; and -he composed his voluminous work in the tongue that -he knew so well. If <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> was translated into -Portuguese, it was not from an English but from a Catalan -original that the translation was made.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p> - -<h3>CHAPTER II -<br /> -<small>IN WHAT WAY WAS DE GALBA CONNECTED WITH THE -PRODUCTION OF TIRANT LO BLANCH?</small></h3> - - -<p>We are told in the note at the end of the book that -Martorell, because of his death, was unable to translate -more than three parts of it, and that “la quarta part -que es la fi del libre es stada traduida ... per lo magnifich -caualler Mossen Marti Johan de Galba.” Now the -question arises: What did de Galba have to do with the -production of <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>? It is difficult to answer -the question definitely.</p> - -<p>In the first place, we do not know what the four parts -of the book are. Martorell, at the beginning of the work, -probably intended to divide it into a number of parts, -for, after the dedication and the prologue, we read: -“Comença la primera part del libre de Tirant la qual -tracta de certs virtuosos actes que feu lo Comte Guillem -de Ueroych en los seus benaventurats darrers dies.” -Then, in the chapter immediately following this caption, -we find these words: “E per tant com la divina providencia -ha ordenat, e li plau que los .vii. planets donen -influencia en lo mon e tenen domini sobre la humana -natura.... per ço ab lo diuinal adiutori sera departit -lo present libre de caualleria en .vii. parts principals.... -La primera part sera del principi de caualleria. -La segona sera del stament e offici de caualleria, etc.” -After informing us of what these seven parts shall treat, -he makes this puzzling statement: “Les quals .vii. -parts de caualleria seran deduydes en serta part del<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> -libre.”<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> Here, then, we have the conflicting statements -that the book is to be divided into seven parts, and -then follows the announcement that these seven parts -shall be produced in a certain part of the work. But -nowhere in it do we find any indications that the author -attempted to make such a division. It is true, as we have -already stated, that the beginning of the first part is -announced, but after that no mention of the beginning -or end of any other part is made. A logical division -into four almost equal parts is absolutely impossible. -But we do find that in Chapters <span class="smcap lowercase">XXXI</span>-<span class="smcap lowercase">XXXVI</span> some of -the subjects mentioned in the proposed divisions of the -work are treated and discussed.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29">[29]</a> Here commences the first part of the book of Tirant, which -treats of certain great deeds done by the Earl, William of Warwick, -in his last blessed days.... And inasmuch as Divine Providence -has ordained and is pleased that the seven planets exert an influence -over the world and hold dominion over human nature. ... on -account of this, with divine aid, this book of chivalry will be divided -into seven principal parts.... The first part shall treat of the -beginning of chivalry. The second shall treat of the state and profession -of chivalry, etc.... These seven parts shall be presented -in a certain part of the book.</p></div> - -<p>An examination of Lull’s <em>Libre del Orde d’Cauayleria</em> -will explain the inconsistency. In this book we find, -in the “Incipit Prologus,” the following words:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“Per Significança de les .vii. planetes ... que -gouernen e ordonen los corsos terrenals, departim -aquest libre d’cauayleria en .vii. parts.... La -primera part es d’l començament d’cauayleria. -La segona es del offici de cauayleria, etc.”<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30">[30]</a> With the significance of the seven planets ... which govern -and control the terrestrial bodies, we divide this book of chivalry -into seven parts.... The first part treats of the commencement -of chivalry. The second treats of the profession of chivalry, etc.</p></div> - -<p>Martorell had evidently copied from Lull’s book, and -the inconsistency was overlooked and found its way into -his work.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p> - -<p>We have made endeavors to locate the fourth part, -which we are told was translated by de Galba, but all -our efforts have been in vain. We have carefully examined -the spelling, vocabulary, and style of the whole book, -but have been unable to find any part that differed -sufficiently from the rest of the work to justify the assertion -of even a possibility that it represents the part -translated by de Galba. The statement can hardly -be accepted, for we cannot find anything at all that -would tend to support or corroborate it in any way.</p> - -<p>But we have concluded that <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> was -originally written in Catalan. Consequently it is not -the question: What part did de Galba translate? but, -What part did he write? It is not a difficult matter to -see why de Galba states that he <em>translated</em> the fourth -part. Martorell had called his book a translation and -consequently de Galba was obliged to do the same. -But the assumption that the latter wrote a part of considerable -importance can hardly be maintained. We have -already remarked that there is no appreciable difference -in vocabulary and style in any part. Moreover, we -find throughout the work a marked similarity in the -manner of observation and description. The author has -certain favorite expressions which he uses again and -again, and these are not confined to any special parts. -The same method of composing the book is followed -from beginning to end. The same mind and the same -heart are always in evidence. The different characters, -when laboring under intense emotion, speak and act in -practically the same way. Martorell has stamped his -work with a strong individuality, and his characteristics -are revealed throughout. All these facts tend to indicate -that <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> is the work of one author and one -only. If it were not for the statement to the contrary, -we feel certain that no one would ever doubt that the -whole book was written by Martorell.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p> - -<p>But if we conclude that de Galba neither translated -nor wrote a considerable part of the work, what did he do -that would give him any right to claim part of the honor -in the production? Perhaps Givanel Mas is right when -he hints that de Galba’s rôle was limited to the preparation -of the manuscript for publication. We are rather -inclined to accept that suggestion. We are, however, -disposed to add that probably de Galba did contribute -something to the story. Perhaps he wrote the very last -chapter, which consists of about three hundred words. -We suggest this probability, because the reading of that -chapter leaves the impression that the ending of the -story is overdone. It may be that he wrote it for no -other reason than to be able to say that he “translated” -the fourth part, “la fi del libre.” In this chapter we are -told that under the rule of Hypolite the empire was -prosperous and extended its limits. After the death of -the empress, according to the same chapter, he married -a daughter of the King of England, who bore him three -sons and two daughters. The eldest of these sons was -named after his father and performed great deeds of -prowess. The emperor and the empress reached a very -advanced age, and they died on the same day. Their -rule was so excellent, and their lives were so good and -virtuous, that we may feel assured that they are now -enjoying the glory of heaven.</p> - -<p>We have not been able to find anything in the style -and language of this last chapter that would indicate -that it was written by any other than Martorell, and -we confess that our suggestion is based almost exclusively -upon the fact that it might very well have been omitted. -In the chapters immediately preceding this one, Tirant -and Carmesina are placed in their tomb, Hypolite marries -the empress, rewards his friends, and marries them to -ladies of the imperial court. The closing words of the -next to the last chapter are:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“Apres dona a tots aquells qui se eren casats -ab les criades de la Emperadriu e de la Princessa -bones heretats, quen podien molt be viure a -lur honor, e cascu segons son grau, que tots -nestauen molt contents. E apres per temps -casa totes les altres axi com de bon senyor se -pertanyia.”<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31">[31]</a> Afterwards, to all those who had married the maids of the -empress and of the princess, he gave generous gifts, so that they -could live well and in honor, and each one according to his rank. -As a result all were very happy. And in time, as a worthy lord -ought, he gave all the others maids in marriage.</p></div> - -<p>The passage just quoted seems to have been intended -for the conclusion of <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>. This indication, -together with the fact that the last chapter seems unnecessary -and superfluous, surely justifies the suggestion that -probably de Galba wrote “la fi del libre,” but not the -fourth part, unless he called these last few lines “la -quarta part.”</p> - -<p>The best explanation that we can suggest in regard to -de Galba’s statement is, that on account of preparing -the manuscript for the printer, he considered himself -entitled to some credit in the production of this book. -Why he claims to have translated the fourth part can -only be a matter of conjecture. Perhaps that part was -in special need of revision. He may have made some -changes or additions, but we cannot admit that he wrote -or translated the whole or a considerable portion of it.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span></p> - - -<h2>PART III -<br /> -<small>COMPARATIVE STUDY OF <em>TIRANT LO BLANCH</em> AND -THE SOURCES: <em>GUY OF WARWICK</em>, LIFE OF -ROGER DE FLOR IN MUNTANER’S <em>CHRONICA</em>, -AND LULL’S <em>LIBRE DEL ORDE D’CAUAYLERIA</em>.</small></h2> - - - -<h3>CHAPTER I -<br /> -<small>WILLIAM OF WARWICK STANDS FOR THE MATURE -GUY OF WARWICK</small></h3> - - -<p>Towards the end of his book, the author of <em>Tirant -lo Blanch</em> annexed to the life of his hero, with extensive -modifications however, the latter part of the career of -the famous Catalan hero, Roger de Flor, whose life from -childhood to death is related in Muntaner’s <em>Chronica</em>. -It is not so strange, then, that those who have read -<em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> and are acquainted with the life of -Roger de Flor should designate Martorell’s work as a -kind of historical novel.</p> - -<p>In his excellent <em>Estudio crítico de Tirant lo Blanch</em>, -Givanel Mas exclaims:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Cuán acertado estuvo Amador de los Ríos al -indicar que la principal fuente del libro de -caballerías catalán, fueron las proezas de aquel -caudillo [Roger de Flor] cuyas hazañas llenan -bastantes páginas de la Crónica de Muntaner.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32">[32]</a> <em>Op. cit.</em>, p. 117.</p></div> - -<p>In Denk’s <em>Geschichte der altcatalanischen Litteratur</em> we -read the following statement:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Jeder Kenner der catalanischen Geschichte -sieht in Tirant nichts als die novellistisch behandelte -Gestalt des kühnen Abenteurers Roger -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>de Flor, dessen Thaten Muntaner und Moncada -erzählen und schildern.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33">[33]</a> Dr. V.M. Otto Denk, <em>Einführung in die Geschichte der altcatalanischen -Litteratur</em>, Munich, 1893; pp. 144 and 145.</p></div> - -<p>In Menéndez y Pelayo’s <em>Orígenes de la Novela</em> we find -the following passage:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>El tema principal de la novela, las empresas -de Tirante en Grecia y Asia ... dan al Tirante -cierto sello de novela histórica, donde se reconoce -no muy disfigurada (dentro de los límites que -separan siempre la verdad de la ficción), la heróica -expedición de catalanes y aragoneses á -Levante y el trágico destino de Roger de Flor.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34">[34]</a> D.M. Menéndez y Pelayo, <em>Orígenes de la Novela</em>, Madrid, -1905; tomo I, p. ccliv.</p></div> - -<p>But when we compare this book of chivalry with -Muntaner’s <em>Chronica</em> and with <em>Guy of Warwick</em>, we see -that these quotations, while true in general, are at the -same time more or less misleading, for the English romance -has provided more material than is generally believed, -not only that which furnished the basis of the William -of Warwick episode, but also elements that were utilized -in different parts of the work. Therefore we shall point -out all the constituents or features that seem to owe -their origin to the English romance, <em>Guy of Warwick</em>, -or to that part of Muntaner’s <em>Chronica</em> which contains -the life of Roger de Flor.</p> - -<p>In the William of Warwick episode, with which we -have begun our analysis, Martorell has given us a kind of -free reproduction of an important part of <em>Guy of Warwick</em>. -But the Catalan author is not a servile imitator; -the incidents that he has taken from the English romance -he has treated in such a way as to render them more -interesting than the original.</p> - -<p>The episode is based upon the following events which -we find in the fourteenth-century versions of the Guy of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>Warwick romance<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a>: After many knightly combats and -adventures on the continent, and after slaying the dragon -in Northumberland, Guy married Felice, the daughter -of Earl Rohold. The newly married couple lived in -great happiness for two weeks. One evening, after a -hunt, Guy mounted a high tower, where he admired -the stars of heaven. He thought of the many honors -that had been bestowed upon him by Christ, our Saviour, -and then it occurred to him that he had never done anything -for the Lord in return. On the contrary, he had -engaged in wars, wrought much woe, and slain many -of his fellow-men. He became deeply repentant and -resolved to spend the rest of his life as a pilgrim, and -thus make amends for his transgressions. He informed -Felice of his resolution. She, in tears, begged him to -remain with her, but he was firm. Before his departure, -she gave him a ring as a remembrance of her. He crossed -the sea and proceeded on his way to Jerusalem.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35">[35]</a> These fourteenth-century versions were edited from the Auchinleck -MS. in the Advocates’ Library, Edinburgh, and from MS. -107 in Caius College, Cambridge, by Julius Zupitza, and published -for the Early English Text Society, London, 1883, 1887, and 1891. -For the beginning of the episode, cf. p. 396.</p></div> - -<p>After many adventures abroad Guy finally returned to -England. During his absence the Danes had invaded -the country and wrought great destruction. When he -arrived at Winchester none that saw him recognized him. -Just at the time of his arrival, the English king, Aethelstan, -was holding a council with the leading men of the -realm. They were considering the demand of the Danish -king that the English surrender the kingdom and pay -tribute to Denmark or bring some one forth to engage in -combat with the giant, Colbrond, the champion of the -Danes. If this giant should be vanquished, the invaders -would leave the soil of England; but if, on the other hand, -he should be victorious, the English would be obliged -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>to pay tribute to the Danes. King Aethelstan asked -his assembled men if they knew any knight who would -dare to fight against Colbrond, but they all stood silent -with downcast eyes. The king could not sleep that -night, and was praying incessantly that God might send -some one to champion the cause of England, when an -angel appeared before him and bade him arise early the -following morning and go to church, where he would -find a pilgrim who would undertake the fight against the -giant. Early the next morning the king met the pilgrim. -The latter at first declined the king’s behest, pleading -feebleness and old age, but finally consented. On the -day appointed the pilgrim went to the spot where the -combat was to take place, knelt down and prayed for -victory. Then came Colbrond on foot, for he was too -heavy for any horse. All his armor was black, and his -appearance such as to make one shudder. Guy rode -towards him and the combat began. The giant cut -Guy’s steed in two without much delay. Guy was then -obliged to fight on foot, and he was scarcely able to reach -his adversary’s shoulder with his sword. Nevertheless -he succeeded in inflicting an ugly wound on Colbrond, -who returned the blow, cutting Guy’s shield in twain. -A moment later Guy struck a vigorous blow with his -sword and broke it. Thereupon he seized one of the -axes of the giant, who immediately drove his sword -at him with all his might, but missed him, the sword -going three feet into the earth. While he was stooping -to pull it out, Guy cut off his right arm. The giant -made a desperate effort to extricate his weapon with his -left, but before he could do so, Guy severed his head from -the body. Thus was Colbrond, champion of the Danes, -vanquished, and the invaders, true to their word, boarded -their ships and returned to their country.</p> - -<p>Guy was led back into the town of Winchester in a -great triumphal procession. King Aethelstan wished to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> -reward him, but the pilgrim would accept nothing. The -king asked him to reveal his name. The stranger replied -that if he would accompany him out of the city, -his wish should be granted. Aethelstan went with him -and was amazed when he found out that the pilgrim -was none other than Guy of Warwick. He asked him -to remain with him, but the request was denied. Both -weeping, they kissed each other and parted. Guy, in -his pilgrim garb, went to the city of Warwick, where he -presented himself before his wife, Felice, who gave him -food without recognizing him. She asked him to come -every day, and he should always receive food and drink -from her; but he never returned. Going instead to visit -a certain hermit, he found that the latter had died during -his absence. Guy then decided to pass the remainder of -his days in the deserted hermitage. One night an angel -appeared to him and announced that on the morning -of the eighteenth day he should exchange this world for -heaven. When the period had almost expired he sent a -messenger to Felice with the ring that she had given -him when he set out on his pilgrimage. Recognizing -the ring, she fell unconscious. After recovering, she -immediately went to him. Guy kissed her tenderly and -then passed away. A few days later Felice was buried -at his side.</p> - -<p>This part of the English romance was utilized by -Martorell to form the foundation of the William of -Warwick episode. He made changes and additions to -suit his purpose, following the general plan, but inventing -the details. The simple ring he describes as a complicated -double ring; the Danish invasion as an incursion -of the Moors; and the angel that appeared to the king -as the Virgin and the Child. When the Danish champion -is defeated, the Danes withdraw from England; but -when the Moorish king is vanquished, the Moors do not -leave the kingdom as they had agreed to do. Consequently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> -a campaign to exterminate the Moors results, -and William of Warwick becomes the commander of the -English forces.</p> - -<p>But all of the episode is not based on <em>Guy of Warwick</em>. -We have seen in the beginning of the analysis that, after -the Moors had been annihilated, William again returned -to a hermitage. Up to this point Martorell followed -his model rather faithfully, but thereafter he abandoned -it. However, he continued the episode, drawing -his material from a different source. In order to point -out to the reader what parts of the episode are not -based on the English romance, and at the same time to -give a concrete example of the method followed by Martorell -in the composition of his work, we shall note the -procedure of the author in the continuation of this episode.</p> - -<p>In the prologue of Lull’s <em>Libre del Orde d’Cauayleria</em> -Martorell had read of a great knight who likewise had -retired to a hermitage, and doubtless this striking coincidence, -which apparently had attracted his attention -even before he began writing his romance, caused him -to incorporate in the episode the incident related by -Lull. The prologue recites how, in a certain country, -a knight, who for a long time had been an honor to -knighthood, finally realized that the end of his days -was approaching, whereupon he decided to spend the rest -of his life as a hermit. Accordingly he went to live -in a dense forest. It was his custom to come every -day to a clear spring under a large tree, where he was -wont to contemplate and pray. Now it happened that -a great king had announced an assembly of his court, -and a certain mounted squire was proceeding on his way -to attend that court in order that knighthood might be -conferred upon him. Overcome by the fatigue of the -journey, the squire fell asleep. His steed left the road, -entered the wood, and came to a spring at a time -when the hermit was there. The latter discontinued his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> -prayers when he saw the squire approaching and began -to read in a book. When the steed stopped at the spring -to drink, the rider awoke and was surprised to see the -aged hermit before him. After exchanging greetings, -the hermit spoke to the youth of things pertaining to -knighthood, and when they parted, asked him to come -back after he had been made a knight.</p> - -<p>The author of <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> incorporated in his -work the incident just mentioned by paraphrasing it -and by reproducing certain parts almost literally, as we -have already observed, making such changes as he saw -fit. In the reproduction of this incident the unknown -hermit is William of Warwick; the unnamed king is the -King of England; and the squire is Tirant lo Blanch. -In Lull’s work the hermit invites the squire to return, -but he never comes back. Martorell makes his hero -accept the hermit’s invitation, and Tirant with his companions -returns to William of Warwick, when the principal -events that took place at the English court, including -the marvelous feats of Tirant, are related to him. The -deeds that Martorell ascribes to Tirant while at the court -of the English king are not similar to those of Guy of -Warwick as described in the English romance. They -are probably inventions of the author, based on what he -witnessed, heard, or read in connection with tournaments -or knightly affairs. Tirant remained with the hermit -for a few days and then returned to his native land, -Brittany. Here ends the William of Warwick episode.</p> - -<p>To sum up: All that part of the episode up to and -including the retirement of William of Warwick to a -hermitage after the extermination of the Moors, is based -on the English romance, but only on that portion of it -that treats of the latter part of the career of the English -hero. The subsequent part of the episode at first seems -to reveal no other traces of the romance, but suddenly -a resemblance emerges.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p> - -<h3>CHAPTER II -<br /> -<small>TIRANT LO BLANCH RESEMBLES YOUNG -GUY OF WARWICK</small></h3> - - -<p>Perhaps William of Warwick stands for the mature -Guy of Warwick, and Tirant lo Blanch for the youthful -Guy of Warwick. If such is the case, we have met -with a very interesting phenomenon: in the meeting -of the hermit and Tirant we have the venerable and -experienced Guy of Warwick giving instructions in regard -to knighthood to his younger self. Our attention is -first called to this resemblance when we read of the honors -that Tirant gained at London.</p> - -<p>Tirant lo Blanch crossed the English Channel, took -part in the exercises of arms that were conducted under -the auspices of the King of England, and won for himself -the honor of being the best knight; for in reading the -document given by the King to Tirant we meet these -words: “... volem que [Tirant lo Blanch] sia per -tots los quatre cantons de les liçes publicat per lo millor -dels cauallers.”<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36">[36]</a> It is our desire that [Tirant lo Blanch] be proclaimed from all -four corners of the lists the best of the knights. <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>, -chap. lviii, col. 2.</p></div> - -<p>Guy of Warwick crossed the English Channel, engaged -in a tournament that had been proclaimed by the daughter -of the emperor of Germany, and as a result a sergeant -came to him after the tournament and addressed him -in these words:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="i0">Sir Guy, he seide, god the kepe:</div> -<div class="i0">Thou art holde the best in this borough</div> -<div class="i0">And in all this londe thurgh and thorough.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37">[37]</a> Caius MS., p. 59.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span></p> - -<p>But Tirant lo Blanch is supposed to represent Roger -de Flor. Does the youthful career of Tirant resemble -that of the Catalan hero? Let us consult Muntaner’s -<em>Chronica</em>. There we find that Roger de Flor, when -eight years old, began his training for a sea-life and at -the age of twenty was pronounced a perfect mariner and -placed in command of a ship of the Templars. His -early laurels were won as a seaman. No mention is -made of his prowess in the exercise of arms.</p> - -<p>From the above comparisons it is evident that Martorell -did not have Roger de Flor in mind when he described -the knightly combats of Tirant. But we do find a strong -similarity between the youthful Tirant and young Guy of -Warwick as he is pictured to us in the English romance. -We know that Martorell had great respect for Guy of -Warwick, for he calls him “lo egregi e strenu caualler, -pare de caualleria.” Perhaps the youthful career of Guy -or other incidents in the English romance have made -such impression on the author as to have left other visible -marks on his book of chivalry? Perhaps <em>Guy of Warwick</em> -has yielded more than is generally believed? Let us -follow the hint and see what result the investigation -will produce.</p> - -<p>Guy of Warwick in his youth served Earl Rohold -as cup-bearer, and fell in love with Felice, the daughter -of his lord. Such woe came over him that he wept. -His suffering became greater and greater. Finally he -concluded to tell her of his love, for he could not eat -nor drink nor rest, and his woe was driving him to -despair. He went to her, and throwing himself at her -feet, he made confession of his love. She rebuffed him -and warned him not to come to her again. He returned -to his room, where he tore his hair and rent his clothes -until he swooned. The earl sent doctors, and Guy -pretended to be suffering from chills and fever. Love -again drove him to her feet. A maid remarked that if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> -she were the daughter of the richest king on earth, she -could not refuse Guy her love. Felice chided the maid -for her speech, but nevertheless took compassion on the -unhappy lover and promised him her love if he should -become a great knight. And finally Guy, by his valor, -love, and true worth, won her, although he was beneath -her in station.</p> - -<p>Tirant, as we have observed in the analysis, was afflicted -in much the same manner, when first he beheld Carmesina. -He, too, was below his lady in station, and his confession -of love was received as an insult. The emperor sent his -physicians to him, and he claimed that his sickness was -due to change of climate. Just as the maid interceded -for Guy, so Stephania pleaded in behalf of Tirant. And -in the end his love, prowess, and great service to the empire -removed the obstacle which the difference in station -had placed between them.</p> - -<p>The <em>Chronica</em> of Muntaner does not give us any information -concerning a love affair between Roger de Flor -and the niece of the Emperor of Constantinople. Nor -are there any love scenes at all in that part of the <em>Chronica</em> -that deals with the career of the Catalan hero.</p> - -<p>While Guy of Warwick was at Spires with the Emperor -of Germany, they went hunting along the river. When -Guy was returning from the hunt, he noticed a dromond -coming to the shore. He greeted the men in the boat, -and learned that they were merchants who had left -Constantinople because the sultan, after having devastated -nearly all of the Grecian empire, laid siege to the -imperial city. Guy, with his faithful companion from -England, Heraud, and one hundred of the most stalwart -knights that he could find in Germany, went to Constantinople -to succor the unfortunate emperor. When -he arrived His Imperial Majesty greeted him with these -words:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="i0">Of thine help gret nede haue we.</div> -<div class="i0">Michel ich haue herd speke of the.</div> -<div class="verse i0 poem-elipsis">· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·</div> -<div class="i0">Forti thousand thai slowe on a day</div> -<div class="i0">Of mine men as ich you telle may.</div> -<div class="i0">Mine men thai slowe, mi sone also,</div> -<div class="i0">Wharfore, leue frende, y bede the to,</div> -<div class="i0">If thou might me of hem wreke,</div> -<div class="i0">And the felouns out of mi lond do reke,</div> -<div class="i0">Mine feyre douhter thou shalt habbe,</div> -<div class="i0">And half mi lond, with-outen gabbe.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38">[38]</a> Auchinleck MS., pp. 166 and 168.</p></div> - -<p>In speaking of the formidable Saracen, Emir Costdram, -a citizen said to Guy:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="i0">That other day he dede ous sorwe anough</div> -<div class="i0">Of themperour sone that he slough,</div> -<div class="i0">That was so gode and stalworth knight,</div> -<div class="i0">That opon hem had geuen mani fight.</div> -<div class="i0">In this site so gode knight was non,</div> -<div class="i0">That with wretthe durst loke him on.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39">[39]</a> Auchinleck MS., p. 170.</p></div> - -<p>Guy and his companions, immediately after their arrival, -went out against the enemy, and soon gave proof -of their wonderful fighting qualities. They routed the -Saracens, and in pursuing them Guy overtook Esclandar, -who exclaimed:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="i20">Artow Gij?</div> -<div class="i0">Bi Mahoun that ich leue upon,</div> -<div class="i0">Neuer schal ich oway gon,</div> -<div class="i0">No neuer schal y blithe be,</div> -<div class="i0">Til ich that heued binim the:</div> -<div class="i0">Behote ich it haue a maiden of pris,</div> -<div class="i0">The soudans douhter that wel fair is.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40">[40]</a> <em>Ibid.</em>, p. 176.</p></div> - -<p>But Esclandar, after a lance had been driven through -him, was obliged to resume his flight. When the victors -returned to the city, the emperor said to Guy:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="i0">Mi feir douhter, that is of pris,</div> -<div class="i0">Ichil the giue to spouse y-wis</div> -<div class="i0">Thou schalt ben emperour after me,</div> -<div class="i0">Thou art a knight of gret bounte.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41">[41]</a> <em>Ibid.</em>, p. 178.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p> - -<p>Guy had learned through a spy that the sultan was -planning a desperate assault upon Constantinople. He -informed the emperor, who placed the defense of the city -in his hands. Guy, assisted by the Constable, made -preparations to attack the Saracens before they should -reach the city. Before the sortie Guy addressed his -men, urging them to attack boldly and vigorously and -rid the country of the foe. Guy, Heraud, and their -companions performed many prodigies of valor, and the -Greeks, too, fought well. The infidels were slaughtered -by the thousands, and as a result of this victory,</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="i8">Guy, the good knyght,</div> -<div class="i0">Most was worshipped and that was right.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42">[42]</a> Caius MS., p. 215.</p></div> - -<p>Morgadour, the imperial steward, who aspired to the -hand of the emperor’s daughter, became envious of the -honors won by Guy, and his jealousy and hatred increased -in proportion as the realization of his hopes grew less -and less probable. He plotted to remove his rival -by suggesting to the emperor that Guy and Heraud be -sent as ambassadors to the sultan to make a proposal -of peace. The steward well knew that if they should -go, they would never return. The emperor was willing -to make a proposal of peace to the enemy, but unwilling -that Guy should go on this dangerous mission. However, -Guy insisted upon going. He entered the tent of the -sultan defiantly, and proposed to him that he select -a champion to represent the Saracens. Guy himself -would defend the cause of the emperor. If the sultan’s -champion should win, the Greeks were to pay tribute -to the sultan and acknowledge him as their lord. If, -however, he should be vanquished, the infidels should -leave the country. The sultan’s answer to the proposal -was an order to his men to take and slay the insolent -ambassador. Thereupon the latter drew his sword and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>cut off the sultan’s head, seized it, and hurried away -on his steed. He was pursued and attacked by a multitude -of Saracens, but they were unable to take or to slay -him. When Guy reached the city, he gave the head to -the emperor, and</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="i0">Whan thei of the Citee wiste of his comynge</div> -<div class="i0">For ioye they ganne all the belles rynge.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43">[43]</a> Caius MS., p. 235.</p></div> - -<p>The following day, the emperor said to Guy:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="i18">Gij, make the redi;</div> -<div class="i0">Tomorwe thou schalt mi doughter weddi.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44">[44]</a> <em>Ibid.</em>, p. 240.</p></div> - -<p>And so the next day Guy and his companions went to -the church, where they met the imperial family. The -archbishop was there to perform the marriage ceremony. -The emperor addressed Guy with these words:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="i0">Mi douhter ich giue the here,</div> -<div class="i0">And thritti castels with hir also,</div> -<div class="i0">With the worthschip that lith ther-to</div> -<div class="i0">And half my lond ich giue the,</div> -<div class="i0">Befor mi barons that here be.</div> -<div class="i0">Thou schalt ben emperour after me:</div> -<div class="i0">Biforn them all y graunt it the.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45">[45]</a> Auchinleck MS., p. 238.</p></div> - -<p>But when the wedding-ring was brought forth a feeling -of distress came over Guy, and this was caused by his -love for Felice. He fell in a swoon, and when he had -recovered consciousness, he asked that the ceremony be -postponed. He was in torment for two weeks. Finally -he resolved to remain true to Felice. Now it happened -that Morgadour slew a certain lion that Guy had rescued -from a dragon, and which thereafter followed him as a -faithful and grateful companion. This act so enraged -Guy that in a quarrel he killed the treacherous steward. -He then decided to leave Constantinople. When the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>emperor saw that it was not in his power to retain him, -he wept and all the court wept with him. Then he brought -forth his treasures and bade Guy to take whatever might -please him, but he would accept nothing. Guy’s companions, -however, were in a receptive mood, and the -emperor gave them whatever they desired. And Guy -departed for England, leaving the hearts of the emperor, -the princess, and the people of Constantinople filled -with woe.</p> - -<p>For an account of Tirant’s activities while in the service -of the Greek emperor, we beg to refer the reader to -the analysis. We shall, however, call his attention to the -following striking similarities between <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> -and <em>Guy of Warwick</em>. In both these works the empire -is described as being in desperate straits. Guy went to -Constantinople with one hundred knights; Tirant, with -one hundred and forty. In both books the only son of the -emperor was slain. In the English romance, Esclandar -promised to his lady-love, the sultan’s daughter, the -head of Guy; in the Catalan work, the King of Egypt -expressed his intention of sending to his lady-love, the -Grand Turk’s daughter, the head of Tirant. Tirant -addressed his soldiers on various occasions, as did Guy -before the Greeks attacked the enemy. Guy, although -never formally appointed leader of the imperial army, -was intrusted with the defense of Constantinople; Tirant -was in full command of the forces of the emperor. Morgadour -cherished hopes of marrying the daughter of -His Imperial Majesty, harbored envy and ill will against -Guy, and tried to bring about his death; the Duke of -Macedonia was one of Carmesina’s suitors, hated Tirant, -and treacherously attacked him from behind in the -midst of battle. In both works the bells were rung when -there was cause for rejoicing. Both Guy and Tirant -were always successful in their encounters with the enemy. -In <em>Guy of Warwick</em> and in <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> the emperor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> -gave the hand of his daughter to the hero and publicly -announced him successor to the imperial throne. But -in neither case was the marriage consummated. Guy’s -perilous mission as ambassador to the sultan is reëchoed -in <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>, but the scene takes place in Barbary. -Tirant went to King Scariano as ambassador of the -King of Tremicen, refused to salute him, for they were -enemies, and harshly rebuked him for making war against -the King of Tremicen. So he issued a challenge that -if any of Scariano’s knights should dare to say that the -war was just, he, the ambassador of the King of Tremicen, -would be pleased to maintain the contrary and engage -in mortal combat with that knight.</p> - -<p>From the resemblances just pointed out, are we not -justified in challenging the statement that Tirant lo -Blanch represents Roger de Flor? Tirant’s activities at -Constantinople constitute the most important part of his -career, and this part is said to be based on the Catalan-Aragonese -expedition to Constantinople under the -leadership of that famous Catalan hero. Let us examine -closely the part of Muntaner’s <em>Chronica</em> which treats -of Roger de Flor and his expedition, in order that we may -see how closely Martorell followed the facts connected -with that glorious page in Catalan history.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p> - -<h3>CHAPTER III -<br /> -<small>ROGER DE FLOR’S CAREER AT CONSTANTINOPLE</small></h3> - - -<p>Roger de Flor, with many soldiers and adventurers -from Catalonia and Aragon, had fought on the side of -Frederick I of Aragon, while the latter was engaged in -a war against Charles of Anjou, King of Naples, for the -possession of the kingdom of Sicily. When the war was -over, Roger and his companions in arms were without -employment. He then conceived the plan of entering -the service of the Emperor of Constantinople, who was -hard pressed by the Turks. Accordingly he sent two -trustworthy knights to the emperor, with instructions -and full powers to act for him. He offered his services -under the following conditions: that the emperor give -him his niece in marriage; that he appoint him Magaduch -of the empire; and that he pay to the soldiers who came -with Roger a stipulated wage. He felt certain that the -mission of his agents would be successful, and, even -before these returned, was busy making preparations -for the expedition. Finally they came back with the -espousals duly signed and Roger’s appointment and -commission as Magaduch. This title and position was -equal to that of prince, and carried with it command of -the soldiers of the empire and authority over the Admiral. -Roger, with the assistance of King Frederick, gathered -a fleet of thirty-six vessels, and in these, without counting -the crews, women, and children, 1500 cavalry and 5000 -infantry set sail. On arriving at Constantinople they -were received with great joy. The marriage of Roger -and the emperor’s niece was celebrated without delay. -The Genoese who were fighting under the imperial banners<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> -were in an ugly mood when they saw with what -cordial welcome their rivals were received. Roger’s men -resented their insolence, and a bloody battle ensued in -which 3000 Genoese were slain. The emperor watched -the fight with pleasure, for the overbearing ways of the -Genoese had long been a source of extreme vexation to -him. Roger’s <em>almogávares</em> wished to sack Pera, where -the Genoese lived, and it was with difficulty that the new -Magaduch restrained them.</p> - -<p>The Turks had conquered all the territory of Anatolia -and were so near the city of Constantinople that only -an arm of the sea separated them. Some time before -the arrival of Roger, Xor Miqueli,<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> the eldest son of the -emperor, had crossed this body of water with 12,000 -cavalry and 100,000 infantry, but he was afraid to join -battle with the Turks. The emperor now sent Roger -with his 1500 cavalry and 5000 infantry to attack the -enemy. But before the Magaduch set out he succeeded -in having his intimate friend, En Ferran de Ahones, -married to a relative of the emperor and at the same -time appointed Admiral. Then he took his forces across -the arm of the sea and landed near the camp of the -Turks, without having been seen by them. The next day -at dawn his forces made an unexpected attack on the -enemy, and a hard-fought battle ensued. The Turks were -unable to resist the terrific onslaught of the <em>almogávares</em>, -and finally were forced to yield, after having lost 3000 -cavalry and 10,000 infantry. The news of the victory -brought great joy to the heart of the emperor, but to the -Genoese it was a bitter draught. Xor Miqueli, too, was -disappointed. From that time he frowned on Roger and -his men.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46">[46]</a> Xor is a Greek title of honor, accorded to illustrious personages. -It corresponds to the Spanish Don as used formerly.</p></div> - -<p>After this victory the Magaduch planned to reconquer -all the cities, towns, and castles that the Turks had captured. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>But a severe winter set in, and he was obliged -to go into winter quarters at Artaqui, where the above -battle had been fought. When the cold season was nearly -over he ordered all his men to be ready to follow the -banner on the first day of April, on which date the -army marched towards Filadelfia. Just before reaching -that city they came upon a Turkish army drawn up in -battle array. The battle that followed was stubbornly -fought on both sides, but finally the Magaduch’s forces -were victorious. They entered the city, where they were -warmly welcomed. From this place they went to Nif, -thence to Magnesia, and next to Tira. The morning -after they entered this city hostile troops appeared, and -the Magaduch sent out the Seneschal, En Corberan de -Alet, with a body of men, to attack them. The Turks -were soon routed and in pursuing them the Seneschal was -struck by an arrow and killed.</p> - -<p>The Magaduch sent word to the Admiral to bring the -whole fleet to Ania. In the meantime En Berenguer -de Rocafort arrived at Constantinople with 200 cavalry -and 1000 infantry, and these were immediately sent to -the Magaduch. These reinforcements, the fleet, and the -forces in the field all came together at Ania. Rocafort -was made Seneschal. At this place another clash with -the enemy took place, and the latter was soon put to -flight. The victorious army then continued its march -through Anatolia, and when they arrived at a mountain -pass called “La Porta del Ferre,” they were attacked -by a large army of the enemy. The Turks fought furiously, -but in vain; they were forced to flee and the -victors pursued them until darkness intervened.</p> - -<p>Finally the power of the Turks in Anatolia was completely -broken. Roger now asked the emperor to make -a payment to his troops, and the latter ordered special -money to be coined. This money was not worth its -face value. The emperor did this in order that friction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> -and hatred might arise between the people of the empire -and the strangers, for “if he had not had need of these -foreigners, he would have wished all of them dead and -out of the empire.”</p> - -<p>En Berenguer Dentença arrived with additional reinforcements. -A few days later Roger suggested to the -emperor that the newly-arrived commander should be -given a position of honor, and offered to resign his position -in order that Dentença might be appointed Magaduch. -His Imperial Majesty approved this suggestion. The -following day Roger placed his cap on the head of Dentença -and gave him the insignia of the high office of Magaduch. -Thereupon the emperor asked Roger to be seated and -proclaimed him Caesar of the Empire. Caesar’s throne -was a half-hand lower than the emperor’s, and his cap -and robes were blue instead of red. That constituted -the only difference between emperor and Caesar. There -had been no Caesar of the Empire for four hundred -years. Roger’s elevation to this dignity was celebrated -with great solemnity.</p> - -<p>Another winter came on, and the Caesar spent it with -his troops at Gallipoli. After the Christmas festivities -he returned to Constantinople to confer with the emperor -in regard to affairs of the empire. As a result of this -consultation the whole territory of Anatolia and the -islands of Romania were placed in his hands. He was -to distribute the cities, towns, and castles among vassals, -who were to furnish armed men and horses in return.</p> - -<p>But before going to Anatolia he felt it his duty to take -leave of Xor Miqueli, who was at Adrianople, five <em>jornadas</em> -from the imperial city. His wife and her mother, -knowing the hatred that the emperor’s son bore him, -warned him not to go there, but he went in spite of their -pleadings. Xor Miqueli came out to meet him and showed -him much honor. Apparently the fears of his wife and -her mother were unfounded. But on the seventh day of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> -his visit Gircon, the chief of the Alanos, entered the -palace, and at the behest, or at least with the consent, -of Xor Miqueli, put a tragic end to the heroic career of -Roger de Flor, Caesar of the Empire.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Now let us see what striking resemblances we can discover -in comparing the careers of Tirant lo Blanch and -Roger de Flor. The points of similarity that stand out -prominently in the comparison of these heroes are the -following: Tirant, like Roger de Flor, came from Sicily -to the aid of the ill-faring empire; both were immediately -placed in command of the imperial forces, Tirant with -the title of Capita Major and Roger de Flor with that -of Magaduch; both were always victorious on the field -of battle, and recovered the territory that had been -conquered by the Turks; both were made Caesar of -the Empire for their distinguished services; Roger was -assassinated at Adrianople, and in that same city Tirant’s -fatal malady seized him.</p> - -<p>The historical basis of Tirant’s career at Constantinople -is evidently furnished by the <em>Chronica</em>, but Martorell’s -hero differs very much from the Catalan hero. The -author evidently had the latter in mind to some extent, -but apparently he did not wish to portray him in such -manner that one would recognize him. While we still -have Guy of Warwick’s career at Constantinople fresh -in mind, do not the details of Tirant’s career seem to -be more in accord with the English hero’s than with those -of Roger de Flor? Did we not expect more of a resemblance, -when we were told that Tirant represents the -latter? In short, is that judgment not misleading? If -it had been Martorell’s intention to make this part a kind -of historical novel in which Roger de Flor was to be the -central figure, would he not have adhered to the facts -more closely, and elaborated them at his own free will and -pleasure?</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></p> - - -<h3>CHAPTER IV -<br /> -<small>OTHER MATERIAL FROM THE <em>CHRONICA</em> UTILIZED -BY MARTORELL</small></h3> - - -<p>But there are other features in this part of <em>Tirant -lo Blanch</em> that reveal the influence of that portion of the -<em>Chronica</em> which treats of Roger de Flor and his expedition. -In recounting the career of the latter we have noted that -the first fight in which his forces were engaged was against -the Genoese, who were in the service of the emperor. -This incident is reflected in the following words spoken -by the emperor and addressed to Tirant:<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> “... perqueus -prech, Capita virtuos, queus vullau dispondre en -anar contra los enemichs nostres los genouesos, generacio -mala....”</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47">[47]</a> Therefore I pray you, excellent Captain, to make ready to -march against our enemies, the Genoese, an evil race.... <em>Tirant -lo Blanch</em>, chap. cxxii, col. 2.</p></div> - -<p>The incompetent, envious and treacherous commander, -Xor Miqueli, is probably the prototype of the sullen and -malicious Duke of Macedonia.</p> - -<p>En Berenguer de Rocafort and En Berenguer Dentença -came with reinforcements to Constantinople and joined -Roger’s army; the Prior of Saint John, the Viscount -of Branches, and the Duke of Messina came with many -men to join Tirant’s forces.</p> - -<p>At a session of the Imperial Council which had convened -to consider certain military matters, one of the -members proposed:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> ... antes que partixquen de açi la gent darmes -deuen anar en romiatge, e fer grans presentalles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> -als deus en la ylla don Paris sen porta la Reyna -Elena: e perço hagueren en temps antich los -Grechs victoria dels Troyans. -</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48">[48]</a> ... before they leave here, the men at arms ought to make -a pilgrimage and make great offerings to the gods on the island -whence Paris carried away Queen Helen: it was in this way that, -in ancient times, the Greeks won a victory over the Trojans. <em>Tirant -lo Blanch</em>, chap. cxxiii, col. 4.</p></div> - -<p>This proposal is surprising. Why should such a suggestion -be made in a Christian court? We find the answer -in the following passage taken from the <em>Chronica</em>:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> E en aquella illa del Tenedo en aquell temps -hauia una ydola, e venien hi un mes del any tots -los honrrats homens de Romania, e les honrrades -dones a romeria. E axi fo, que en aquell temps -Arena, muller del duch de Tenes, hi vench en romeria -ab C cauallers qui lacompanyaren, e Paris, -fill del rey Priam de Troya, axi mateix era vengut -a romeria, e hauia ab si entro cinquanta cauallers. -E vae la dona Arena, e altas tant della, que dix -a sos homens, que mester era, que lagues e la sen -menas. E axi com so mes en cor, axi fo: que -garnis ab tota sa companya, e pres la dona, e -volch sen menar. E aquells cauallers qui eren -ab ella volgren la li defendre, e finalment tots -cent muriren, e Paris menassan la dona.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49">[49]</a> And on that island of Tenedos, there was at that time an idol, -and one month in every year all the noble men and noble ladies -of Romania came thither on a pilgrimage. And thus it was that -at that time Arena [Helen] wife of the Duke of Tenes [Athens?] -came thither on a pilgrimage with a hundred knights who accompanied -her. And Paris, the son of King Priam of Troy, likewise -had come on a pilgrimage and he had with him about fifty knights. -He saw the Lady Arena, and fell so deeply in love with her that he -said to his men that he must have her and carry her away with -him. And what he had set his heart upon doing was done: he made -ready to carry out his purpose with his company, and he seized the -lady and was about to take her away. And those knights who were -with her tried to defend her, and finally every one of the hundred -was killed and Paris carried away the lady. Muntaner’s <em>Chronica</em>, -chap. ccxiv.</p> -</div> - -<p>Roger’s companion, En Fernan de Ahones, married -a relative of the emperor and was appointed Admiral; -Tirant’s intimate companion, Diaphebus, became Constable -and married the niece of the emperor, Stephania.</p> - -<p>The above are the principal features that seem to owe -their origin to that part of the <em>Chronica</em> that treats of -Roger de Flor in connection with the Catalan-Aragonese -expedition to the Orient. Another feature which is apparently -due to the same source is the description of the -manner in which Tirant ran the blockade at Rhodes. -The description is as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> E en la primera guayta la nau feu vela: e -ixqueren del port ab molt bon temps: e agueren -lo vent molt prosper: que en .iiii. dies passaren -lo golf de Venecia e foren en vista de Rodes, e -anaren al castell de sanct Pere, e aqui surgiren per -sperar vent que fos un poch fortunal. E Tirant -a consell de dos mariners que de sa terra hauia -portats, qui amauen molt la honor sua, com veren -lo vent larguer e bo, en la nit donaren vela e de -mati apuntant la alba, ells foren en vista de -Rodes molt prop. Com les naus de Genouesos -veren aquella nau venir pensaren que era una de -dues que hauien trameses per portar vitualles -per al camp, e vehien que venien de levant, no -podien pensar que neguna altra nau tingues<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> -atreviment de venir en mig de tantes naues com -en lo port stauen. La nau se acosta e con fon -prop delles carregua de tantes veles com podia -portar: en aço conegueren los Genouesos, e en -lo galip de la nau que no era de les sues, posarense -en orde del que pogueren: empero la nau los fon -tan prop que neguna nau no pogue alçar vela, -e aquesta a veles plenes passa per mig de totes -les naus al lur despit.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50">[50]</a> And in the first watch the ship set sail: they left the port in -very good weather and they had very favorable winds so that in -four days they crossed the Gulf of Venice and were in sight of Rhodes. -They went to the castle of Saint Peter, where they cast anchor in -order to await a rather stormy wind. Tirant followed the advice -of two mariners whom he had brought along with him from his -native land. Both of these held his honor in high esteem. When -they saw that the wind was strong and propitious they set sail -during the night and in the morning at break of day they were -very near Rhodes. When the ships of the Genoese saw that vessel -coming they thought that it was one of two that they had sent to -get provisions for the camp, and seeing that they were coming from -the west, they could not imagine that any other ship would have -the boldness to come into the midst of so many ships as were -in the port. The vessel approached and when it was very close to -them, all the sails that it was able to carry were set. By this and -by the lines of the ship the Genoese saw that it was none of theirs -and they put themselves in order the best they could: but the vessel -was so near them that no ship was able to set a sail, and that one -with sails full spread passed through the midst of all the ships in -spite of them. <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>, chap. ciiii, cols. 3 and 4.</p> -</div> - -<p>When Robert, Duke of Catania, besieged the city of -Messina in Sicily, Roger de Flor brought provisions to -the starving soldiers and inhabitants, and the duke was -obliged to raise the siege. Below follows the account of -this event as narrated by Muntaner.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> E frare Roger ... axi hach deu galees, e -carrega les a Xacca de forment, e venchses a -Caragoça, e espera ques metes fortuna de xaloch -o de mig jorn. E com la fortuna fo, que era tant -gran, que tota la mar nanaua en sanch, que nul -hom no so gosara pensar, qui no fos axi bon -mariner, com ell, ana a fer vela de Caragoça, -com hach donada part a la nuyt, e a lalba ell fo -en bocha de Far; e en bocha de Far es la major -marauella del mon, com res hi ha durada, com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> -fortuna de xaloch o de mig jorn hi ha, que les -corrents hi son tant grans, e la mar hi caua tant -fort, que res no hi ha durada: e ell ab la sua galea -primera pensa dentrar ab los artimons borts en -que hauia forats. E com les galees del duch les -vaeren, totes comensaren a chiular, que volgren -llevar los ferres, e no pogren. E axi les deu galees -ab frare Roger entraren a Macina saluament -e segura; mas no hi hach nul hom qui hagues -sobre si fil exut ... e axi Macina fo restaurada, -e lendema lo duch llevas del setge, e tornasen -a Cathania.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51">[51]</a> And Brother Roger ... thus had ten galleys, and he loaded -them with grain at Sciacca and came to Syracuse and waited for a -strong wind to come up from the southeast or south. And when -the wind came it was so strong that the whole sea began to rage, -so that no man who was not so good a mariner as he, dared think -of setting sail. He set sail from Syracuse when night had come, and -at dawn he entered the Strait of Faro; and it is the greatest wonder -in the world that anything can survive in the Strait of Faro when -there is a strong wind from the southeast or the south, for the -currents there are so powerful and the sea rages so violently that -nothing can stand it. And he decided to enter first with his own -galley provided with large sails in which there were holes. And -when the galleys of the duke saw them, all began to shout and they -wished to raise the anchors but they were unable to do so. And thus -the ten galleys with Brother Roger entered the harbor of Messina -safely and securely, but there was not a man who had on him a -dry thread ... and thus Messina was relieved and the next day -the duke raised the siege and returned to Catania. <em>Chronica</em>, -chap. cxcvi.</p></div> - -<p>The above comparative study of <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> -and that part of Muntaner’s <em>Chronica</em> that deals with -Roger de Flor and the Catalan-Aragonese expedition -presents strong evidence that Martorell was acquainted -with Muntaner’s work. But yet what a difference! -Were it not for the fact that Tirant reconquered practically -all the lost territory of the Greek empire and was -made Caesar of the empire, we should hardly associate -his name with that of Roger de Flor. Such being the -case, are not the statements that Roger de Flor’s career -forms the principal source of this book rather misleading? -However that may be, we are willing to admit that the -martial and adventurous spirit of Roger de Flor and the -members of his expedition finds expression in <em>Tirant lo -Blanch</em>, and this constitutes the strongest resemblance.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p> - - -<h3>CHAPTER V -<br /> -<small>OTHER MATERIAL FROM GUY OF WARWICK</small></h3> - - -<p>But let us now return to the English romance, for -it contains other features that have been reproduced or -at least utilized in the composition of the Catalan book -of chivalry. The Auchinleck MS. contains a kind of -sequel to <em>Guy of Warwick</em>, which bears the title, <em>Reinbrun, -Gij sone of Warwicke</em>. In this sequel we are -told that Reinbrun was stolen by foreign merchants. -Heraud, the faithful companion of Guy before the latter’s -pilgrimage, went in search of the lad, and while he was -on his way to Constantinople a tempest drove to the -shores of Africa the ship on which he was making the -voyage. There the Saracens seized him and brought -him before Emir Persan, who ordered him to be thrown -into prison. In a doleful lament Heraud spoke of himself -as a doughty knight, and this was overheard by a -keeper, who reported it to the emir. Now it happened -that at that very time King Argus was making war upon -Persan, and had captured all his possessions except the -very city in which Heraud was held a prisoner. The -emir sent for Heraud and asked him to assist in the defense -of the city. His request was granted, and in the -first battle with the enemy he fought so skillfully and so -valiantly that Persan rewarded him by making him his -steward.</p> - -<p>The reader will readily see the striking resemblance -between this incident and that part of the analysis which -deals with the shipwreck of Tirant on the shores of Barbary. -Tirant, like Heraud, was driven by a tempest -to the hostile shores of Africa, cast into prison, released<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> -therefrom because of his fighting abilities, and practically -became the leader of an army which was on the -defensive. This incident Martorell then developed, and -Tirant finally became the conqueror of Barbary.</p> - -<p>In the analysis we have told how Tirant went to Jerusalem -and from there to Alexandria, where he ransomed -Christian captives. It seems probable that this incident -is based upon the following narrative of the English -romance. Guy of Warwick made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, -and from there he went to Antioch. Here he met -a pilgrim who was in great distress. It was Earl Jonas -of Darras, who related to Guy how he, his fifteen sons, -and others had fought a body of Saracens and had defeated -them. They pursued them as far as Alexandria, when -suddenly a strong band of the enemy attacked him and -his men, and after a heroic but useless fight he was compelled -to surrender.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="i0">To the king we yolden ous al and some</div> -<div class="i0">That we might to ransoum come,</div> -<div class="i0">To save our lives ichon.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52">[52]</a> Auchinleck MS., p. 422.</p></div> - -<p>And thus they fell into the hands of Triamour, King -of Alexandria. Earl Jonas then told how the sultan -held a great festival which was attended by this king -and his son, Fabour. The latter killed the son of the sultan -over a game of chess. The sultan promised the -king that if he should engage in combat with the black -giant, Amoraunt, and slay him, both he and his son -should go unpunished. Triamour asked for a respite in -order that he might find a substitute, and it was granted. -He asked his prisoner, Earl Jonas, if he knew any one -who might be able to slay the giant. The names of Guy -and Heraud were mentioned. The king then sent him in -quest of these knights, promising him that if he should -be able to bring either one of them, he and his fifteen -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>sons should regain their liberty, but if, on the other -hand, he returned without Guy or Heraud, they should -all be hanged. Jonas had made a diligent search for the -English knights, not only on the continent, but even -in England. Alas! it was all in vain. The period of -the respite was one year and forty days, and the end of -the term was near. Guy, without revealing his identity, -offered to undertake the fight with the giant. They -went to Alexandria and Guy was presented to the king -as a pilgrim who was willing to meet the black giant -in mortal combat. In response to the king’s invocation, -“Mahoun me helpe and turmegaunte,” Guy replied:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="i0">“Nay, but Mary is sonne,</div> -<div class="i0">That for us on the rode was done:</div> -<div class="i0">He be myn helpe for his mercye;</div> -<div class="verse i0 poem-elipsis">· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·</div> -<div class="i0">For I the sey well sikerlye</div> -<div class="i0">That Mahoun hath no poweste</div> -<div class="i0">Nother to helpe the ne me.”</div> -<div class="i0">Quod the kyng, my frende so dere,</div> -<div class="i0">I wyll make a covenaunte here.</div> -<div class="i0">If thou myght the Geaunte sloo,</div> -<div class="i0">And bring me out of my woo,</div> -<div class="i0">Thi god for the love of the</div> -<div class="i0">Grete honour shall haue of me.</div> -</div> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="i0">All crysten that I haue taken here</div> -<div class="i0">Shall be delyuered with good chere.</div> -<div class="i0">In all my lond of Alexaundre</div> -<div class="i0">Men shall not the Crysten dere.</div> -<div class="i0">There shall be none in hethenes,</div> -<div class="i0">Man ne woman more ne lesse,</div> -<div class="i0">That is of crystiante</div> -<div class="i0">But he here shall delyuered be.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></div> -</div> -</div></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53">[53]</a> Caius MS., p. 451.</p></div> - -<p>The combat took place at the sultan’s court. When -Guy beheld the horrible giant, he declared that it was the -devil and no man. After a long and fierce fight, Guy -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>cut off his adversary’s right arm, then his left, and finally -his head. Let the reader note the following coincidences: -Guy and Tirant both made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem; -from there they came to Alexandria; the ransom of -prisoners is mentioned in <em>Guy of Warwick</em>, and the ransom -of captives is a fact in <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>. Martorell did -not reproduce this story, but he seems to have retained -the words Jerusalem, Alexandria, and ransom of Christians, -and from these he developed his own story. In -the lines quoted above, Guy’s fervent religious spirit -is brought into prominence, and at the same time a -struggle for supremacy between the Christian and the -Mohammedan religions is suggested. In <em>Tirant lo -Blanch</em> also, the hero is filled with religious zeal and -fervor, and under his leadership Christianity triumphs -in all Barbary.</p> - -<p>We have pointed out above the more important points -of resemblance in <em>Guy of Warwick</em> and <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>. -Let us now mention a few of the minor ones.</p> - -<p>In the English romance, the following words are spoken -of Felice:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="i0">She was therto curteys and free ywys,</div> -<div class="i0">And in the .vii. arts well learned withoute mys.</div> -<div class="i0">All the .vii. artis she kouthe well,</div> -<div class="i0">Noon better that euere man herde tell.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54">[54]</a> Caius MS., p. 7.</p></div> - -<p>In <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> the empress confesses that she cannot -argue as well as Carmesina, “per yo no hauer studiat -les liberals arts com ma filla.”<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55">[55]</a> ... because I have not studied the liberal arts as my daughter -has. <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>, chap. clxxxii, col. 2.</p></div> - -<p>When Guy made his confession of love to Felice, he -said:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="i0">Bot thou haue mercy on me,</div> -<div class="i0">Myself y shall for sorwe slee.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span></div> -</div></div></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56">[56]</a> Caius MS., p. 23.</p> -</div> - -<p class="no-indent">When Tirant made his confession to the princess, he said: -“puix lo meu cor ha tant fallit que es stat causador de -tant agreujar la vostra singular persona e percaçar tant -de mal per a mi, ab la mia ma plena de cruel vengança -ans que lo sol haja passat los columnes de Hercules yol -partire en dues parts....”<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57">[57]</a> ... since my heart has been so delinquent that it has been the -cause of afflicting so grievously your excellent personage and producing -so much pain through me, with my hand full of cruel -vengeance I shall cut it in two before the sun has passed the columns -of Hercules. <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>, chap. cxxix, col. 3.</p></div> - -<p>In <em>Guy of Warwick</em>, Oisel beholds her betrothed, Tirri, -lying before her as if dead, and in her despair she utters -these words:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="i0">A, leman Tirri,</div> -<div class="i0">In wroched time mi bodi thou say,</div> -<div class="i0">When thou shalt for me day.</div> -<div class="i0">Dye ich-il forth with the:</div> -<div class="i0">For sorwe lives no may y be.</div> -<div class="i0">Bot y may dye ichil me quelle:</div> -<div class="i0">Len to libbe is nought mi wille.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58">[58]</a> Auchinleck MS., p. 278.</p></div> - -<p>Let us compare with these lines the words of Carmesina, -while lamenting over the lifeless body of Tirant:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Puix la fortuna ha ordenat, e vol que axi sia, los -meus ulls no deuen james alegrarse, sino que vull -anar a cercar lanima de aquell qui solia esser meu -Tirant en los lochs benaventurats hon reposa la -sua anima si trobar la pore: e certament ab tu -vull fer companyia en la mort.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59">[59]</a> Since fortune has ordained and wills it so, my eyes will never -more be gladdened, but I will go to seek the soul of him who used -to be my Tirant in the blissful places where his soul reposes if I -can find it: and indeed I wish to be thy companion in death. -<em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>, chap. cccclxxiii, col. 2.</p></div> - -<p>And in another lamentation she utters these words: -“Si la sperança de morir nom detingues, yom mataria.”<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60">[60]</a> ... if the hope of dying did not deter me, I should kill myself. -<em>Ibid.</em>, chap. cccclxxv, col. 1.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span></p> - -<p>In the analysis we have observed how Carmesina -pleaded with Tirant not to permit his amorous nature -to interfere with his martial spirit. In the English -romance, Felice justifies her attitude towards Guy in the -following manner:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="i0">And if y the had mi loue yiue</div> -<div class="i0">And wille it the whiles y liue</div> -<div class="i0">Sleuthe wolde the so oercome,</div> -<div class="i0">That thou woldest nomore armes doon,</div> -<div class="i0">Ne come in turnement nor in fighte.</div> -<div class="i0">So amorous thou wolde bee anone righte.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61">[61]</a> Caius MS., p. 65.</p></div> - -<p>We have described in the analysis the scene in which -Carmesina throws herself on the corpse of Tirant. Let -us compare with it the following lines which picture -to us the grief of Felice at Guy’s death.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="i0">She sowned on her lordys bere,</div> -<div class="i0">And kyst hys mouth with wepying chere.</div> -<div class="i0">Hys fete, hys hondys she kyssed then,</div> -<div class="i0">So dyd many an other man.</div> -<div class="i0">All that with her commyn were</div> -<div class="i0">Mad mornying and sorry chere.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></div> -</div></div> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62">[62]</a> <em>Ibid.</em>, p. 621.</p></div> - -<p>The love story in <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> forms an important -part of the book. Surely the origin of this feature cannot -be attributed to the career of Roger de Flor. On the -contrary, the above comparative study presents strong -evidence that the love affair between Tirant and Carmesina -was developed by Martorell from elements drawn -from <em>Guy of Warwick</em>. But unfortunately the author -ascribed to the Capita Major so passionate a nature that -in some of the love scenes we are disgusted at the -actions of the protagonist. The character of Tirant is -admirable in almost all respects, but in the pursuit of -his immoral desires it is detestable. In our amazement -and disappointment we ask ourselves why the author -endowed his hero with such low and immoral cravings. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>Tirant’s conduct towards the princess reminds us of a -passage in the English romance wherein the treacherous -steward, Morgadour, falsely accuses Guy of having dishonored -the daughter of the Emperor of Constantinople. -The passage reads as follows:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="i0">Sir, quoth he, y shall the telle:</div> -<div class="i0">Thy shame noo lenger couere y nelle.</div> -<div class="i0">A souldiour thou hast with the,</div> -<div class="i0">That thinketh for to shende the.</div> -<div class="i0">Thy doughter, that so fair is,</div> -<div class="i0">He hath leyn by, ywis.</div> -<div class="i0">In-to hir boure with strength he yede:</div> -<div class="i0">By thy doughter his wille he dede.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63">[63]</a> Caius MS., p. 187.</p></div> - -<p>This incident may have prompted Martorell to ascribe -to Tirant the rôle of a passionate lover, and we feel that -he adopted the suggestion without any hesitation whatever. -Boccaccio’s influence was powerful in those days, -and the incident afforded great possibilities for emulating -the famous Italian writer. If this conjecture be true, -our censure of the author must be limited to a reproach -for having so easily and so shamelessly followed that -influence. But Martorell keeps in close touch with -real life. It may be that such conduct of knights had -come to his notice directly or indirectly. If that is the -reason why the obscene features were introduced, our -condemnation will not be extremely severe. But if -it was his purpose to present to us an ideal hero, then -the author is deserving of the most scathing denunciation -possible, for he must have been as morally weak as the -hero he asks us to admire. He seems to take a delight -in describing unbecoming and immoral scenes. Not -only does he give vivid narrations of Tirant’s efforts -to attain the “compliment de amor,” but he also makes -bold descriptions of the liaison between the empress -and Hypolite; the relations of Diaphebus and Stephania; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>and the revolting plan by which Viuda Reposada succeeded -in making Tirant believe that Carmesina was -unfaithful. But we may be doing the author a grave -injustice. Possibly these immoral scenes were intended -to have a moral effect. It may have been the purpose -of Martorell to disgust the readers with these scenes. -Possibly it was a protest against the immoral conditions -that prevailed in his time.</p> - -<p>After making the above comparative study, we are not -willing to accept the statement of Amador de los Ríos, -so emphatically repeated by Givanel Mas, that the feats -of Roger de Flor form the principal source of the Catalan -book of chivalry. Nor will we accept the opinion of -Denk that <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> represents nothing else -but the figure of Roger de Flor reproduced in the form of -a novel. To the conservative statement of Menéndez -y Pelayo we shall offer no serious objections, for the -latter part of <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> does bear the stamp of -a kind of historical novel in which the heroic expedition -of the Catalans and Aragonese and the tragic fate of -Roger de Flor is more or less faithfully reflected. But -we feel that the resemblance between Roger de Flor -and Tirant lo Blanch and their military enterprises is -so slight that even his statement must be qualified as -misleading. However, had he stated that Tirant’s -activities at Constantinople had a true historical basis, -and that basis was Roger de Flor’s expedition to the -Orient, we should most heartily indorse that statement.</p> - -<p>If we have objected to the intimations and declarations -that this book of chivalry is a historical novel based on -the exploits of Roger de Flor, it is due to the fact that -the real deeds of that hero play a very insignificant part -in it. Roger de Flor was a brave commander with a -remarkable genius for organizing his forces, and for -planning campaigns. Muntaner does not describe him -a single time as fighting hand to hand in a battle with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> -enemy. The historical Roger de Flor probably would -not have created enough interest and enthusiasm. Moreover, -in Tirant’s adventures and fights on the sea, whenever -some extraordinary naval strategy was necessary, the -credit for it is not given to Tirant, but to some member -of the crew who is usually described as an experienced -seaman. And yet Roger de Flor was so efficient a sea -captain that the officers of the Temple intrusted him -with their largest ship. If the author had intended -to represent him, surely he would not have denied him -the honor of those exploits. It is obvious that he did -not regard his hero as an experienced mariner. The -hero he had in mind was a knight whose duty called him -to the battlefield. Tirant lo Blanch bears a far stronger -resemblance to Guy of Warwick than to Roger de Flor. -The striking points of similarity of these characters -have already been noted. In addition to these points, -we may briefly add that Tirant’s religious zeal; his -generosity; his refusal to accept rewards; his fighting -in tournaments, in personal combats, and on the field -of battle; and his love—debased unfortunately—are -qualities that are not mentioned in connection with Roger -de Flor, but they are all in accord with the career of -Guy of Warwick. Such being the case, would it not -be far more accurate to say that <em>Guy of Warwick</em> is -the principal source? The very beginning of <em>Tirant -lo Blanch</em> indicates that its author was intimately acquainted -with the English romance. Is it not probable -that Guy of Warwick’s activities at Constantinople -reminded Martorell of Roger de Flor’s heroic services -to the emperor of that same city, whereupon he selected -that historical event as a background for a certain part -of the career of his hero? It must be remembered that -Martorell knew well the exploits of the brave and adventurous -soldiers of the Catalan-Aragonese expedition. -His conception of military heroism was in great part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> -based on the history, traditional or written, of his people. -The spirit that animated its heroes became a part of him, -and consequently it was but natural that that spirit -should find expression in a literary production in which -a military hero is portrayed.</p> - -<p>From the above comparative study of <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> -in relation to its sources, viz., Lull’s <em>Libre del Orde -d’Cauayleria</em>, Muntaner’s <em>Chronica</em>, and the English -romance, <em>Guy of Warwick</em>, we are convinced that these -sources have furnished important ideas and material to -Martorell. The features drawn from Lull’s work are -few, but, on the other hand, they have been subjected -to very little change. It is important, however, for it -seems to have provided a starting point for the author. -Guy of Warwick has yielded more concrete material -than the other two sources, but it has been modified to -suit the pleasure and to meet the needs of the author. -Muntaner’s <em>Chronica</em> did not furnish as many ideas and -suggestions as <em>Guy of Warwick</em>, but the martial spirit -of the Catalan and Aragonese warriors pervades a large -part of the work.</p> - -<p>It is not in our power to divine with certainty the -plan as originally conceived by the author when he began -his work. However, it is evident that he was intimately -acquainted with Lull’s work and the English romance -from the very beginning. It is quite probable that -Martorell’s purpose was to make a hero of the squire -who had received instructions pertaining to knighthood -from the hermit, as related by Lull. This hermit reminded -him of Guy of Warwick, whom he greatly admired, and -he could not resist the temptation to reproduce that -part of the English champion’s career which led to his -retirement to a hermitage. Then, as we have already -observed, the squire who is now Tirant lo Blanch meets -the hermit, William of Warwick, after which he continues -his way to the English court. A little more than a year<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> -later he returns to the hermit, and the latter is informed -of the important events that took place in London. -After a few days’ sojourn, Tirant returns to his native -land, Brittany. His career is very promising, for he has -been proclaimed the greatest knight in the exercises of -arms at the English court. And now what is the young -hero to do? Martorell had perhaps from the beginning -of his work rather definite ideas in regard to his hero’s -career. Still it is quite possible that he had made no -fixed plan in advance, but selected the various spheres -of Tirant’s activities during the course of the composition -of his book. However that may be, Tirant’s career -finally resolved itself into the following distinct spheres -of operation: he succored the Knights of St. John on the -island of Rhodes; after that, he joined the expedition of -the King of France against the infidels; then he went to -the aid of the Emperor of Constantinople; next he conquered -and christianized Barbary; and finally he returned -to Constantinople and reconquered all the lost -territory of the Grecian empire. And now the question -arises: Are all these various spheres of operation based -on real historical events?</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span></p> - -<h2>PART IV -<br /> -<small>THE HISTORICAL BASES UPON WHICH -TIRANT’S SPHERES OF OPERATION -ARE FOUNDED</small></h2> - - - -<h3>CHAPTER I -<br /> -<small>THE WILLIAM OF WARWICK EPISODE</small></h3> - - -<p>In the preceding part, wherein was made a comparative -study of three important sources of <em>Tirant to Blanch</em>, -we have had occasion to mention the real historical facts -that form, in a more or less general way, the basis of -Tirant’s career while in the service of the Emperor of -Constantinople. Let us now transfer our researches to the -field of history and try to determine what historical -events underlie the hero’s various undertakings. Let us, -moreover, examine all the features of <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> -that give any indication of historical influence, in order -that we may attain a better understanding of the author’s -method in composing this work. The first question that -confronts us is: What historical basis is to be found in -the William of Warwick episode?</p> - -<p>The hero of the English romance of <em>Guy of Warwick</em> -is more or less a legendary personage. John Rous, a -learned scholar and writer who lived between 1411 and -1491, in his writings concerning the legendary history -of Warwickshire, names Guy as the second of the Saxon -Earls of Warwick. We cannot cite any authentic historical -facts about him. The story probably represents -an old Saxon legend, perhaps in the form of a ballad, -which in the course of time became a romance in French, -and this was later translated into English. In the two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> -fourteenth-century versions to which we have referred -in Part III of this work, Aethelstan is represented as the -King of England. This fixes the supposed time of Guy’s -career as prior to 940, which marks the end of Aethelstan’s -reign. The latter annexed Danish Northumbria, -and, in 937, won the great battle of Brunanburh over the -Danes, Scots, and Strathclyde Britons. This fact shows -that there are at least some traces of authentic history -in the romance, for in <em>Guy of Warwick</em> we read of an -invasion of the Danes.</p> - -<p>In <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>, no dates are mentioned so that -if we wish to establish the period in which the events -described took place, we shall have to depend on the -historical characters that are named, and the incidents, -occurrences, and events that are narrated. The data that -we may gather for this purpose probably will throw -light on other matters in which we are interested.</p> - -<p>The document that was given to Tirant in which he -was declared the best knight of all those that participated -in the exercises of arms at the English court was -signed “Rex Enricus.” This king was young and -feeble, and for that reason the hermit William of Warwick -suggested that the Duke of Lancaster should take -the place of the king in the approaching personal combat -with the strong and valiant Moorish king of Canary; -but the suggestion caused loud protests from the Dukes -of Gloucester, Bedford, and Exeter, who claimed that their -kinship to the king was closer than that of the Duke -of Lancaster. It is quite clear that the author had in -mind the English king, Henry VI, who during his minority -was represented by his two uncles, the Duke of Bedford -as protector of the realm, and the Duke of Gloucester -as regent in England while the protector was in France. -The Duke of Exeter was the grand-uncle of the young -king. There was no Duke of Lancaster at that particular -period. Richard de Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> -was closely associated with the boy-king. When Henry V -was on his deathbed, he sent for the earl and asked -him to be the master of his son, the future Henry VI, -requesting him at the same time “to be gentle with -him and guide and instruct him in the condition of life -to which he belonged.”<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> Henry V died in 1422, and the -Earl of Warwick became the tutor and governor of the -new king, although that title was not conferred upon him -until 1428. The coincidence is striking! In the story -William of Warwick was the fatherly adviser of the young -English king, and in history Richard of Warwick was the -tutor and governor of the English boy-king. And here -the question arises: Could Martorell have had in mind -Richard de Beauchamp when he wrote certain parts of -his work?</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64">[64]</a> The Countess of Warwick, <em>Warwick Castle and its Earls</em>, New -York and London, 1903; vol. I, p. 121.</p></div> - -<p>Let us here give a brief account of the career of Richard -de Beauchamp. Upon his father’s death in 1401, he -became Earl of Warwick, being at that time twenty -years old. His early years were spent chiefly in performing -feats of arms, as did the knights of old. At the -coronation of Queen Jane he defended the field against -all those that dared to joust with him. Not finding -sufficient opportunities for knightly exercises and adventures -at home, he went abroad. He made a pilgrimage -to Rome and from there went to Verona, where he engaged -in a joust with another knight. After the jousting they -fought with axes, next with swords, and finally with -daggers. From Verona he went to Venice and then to -Jerusalem. There the sultan’s lieutenant, upon being -informed that Richard was a descendant of Guy of Warwick -of whom he had read in books in his own language, -entertained him royally, and gave him precious gifts. -Richard then made his way overland to England, frequently -interrupting his journey by taking part in tournaments. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>Shortly after his return, he was sent to the town -of Calais and made Captain of that place. Longing -for a little excitement, he made up a tournament of his -own. Three days in succession, mounted on his caparisoned -steed, he went out on the field, and each day he -returned victorious. Later he was sent as ambassador -to Constance in Germany, to attend the well-known -Council of Constance. There he was challenged by some -great duke, who was slain in the encounter. The German -emperor expressed his admiration for him by saying -that “no Christian prince hath such another knight for -Wisdom, Nurture, and Manhood; that if all courtesy -were lost, yet it might be found again in him.”<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> His -principal military activities were in the war against the -French. In 1416 he was sent to relieve Harfleur; was -at the siege of Caen; captured several places; was made -Captain of Beauvais; and was present at the siege of -Rouen. When that city finally fell, the capitulation -was made to him. He was appointed to several offices -at home and abroad, his last and most important one -being the Governorship of France and Normandy. In -the year 1439 he died in the castle of Rouen at the age of -fifty-eight.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65">[65]</a> <em>Ibid.</em>, vol. I, p. 113.</p></div> - -<p>A strong resemblance between Richard de Beauchamp -and Guy of Warwick is evident. Is it not probable that -this similarity was to some degree instrumental in causing -Martorell to give the William of Warwick episode a -setting of the fifteenth century? There are several references -made to deeds of William of Warwick which cannot -be found in the English romance, <em>Guy of Warwick</em>. One of -them, however, concerns without doubt Richard de Beauchamp. -When the hermit-king told the countess where -the arms were that he desired, she begged him to reveal to -her how he happened to know so much about her husband. -He answered that he was with the earl when the latter, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>as Capita Major of the city of Rouen, won a signal victory -over the large army of the French king. Richard -de Beauchamp was a popular hero, and if Martorell had -been in England, as he claims in his dedicatory letter, -he might have heard of many feats of the great knight -and soldier that are not recorded in history. However, -we have already learned the method of our author, and -we must not expect too many historical data on any -subject. But, as a rule, he gives us sufficient real facts -to determine what events or periods in history he has -in mind. Other historical personages cited in connection -with the William of Warwick episode are the Earl of -Salisbury, the Earl of Northumberland, the Duke of -Clarence, and the Prince of Wales. These names also -indicate that the historical period represented is the first -half of the fifteenth century.</p> - -<p>When Tirant asked the hermit to name the greatest -living knights in England, the latter gave the names of -Sir John Stuart and the Duke of Exeter. History mentions -but one great knight named John Stuart, and -he was of this period. From 1419 to the time of his -death in 1429, Sir John Stuart of Darnley was fighting -valiantly on the continent on the side of the French. -Charles VII appreciated his worth, and rewarded him -several times: first he granted him the seigneurie of -Aubigny in Berry, next the comté of Evreux in Normandy, -and finally the “glorious privilege of quartering -the Royal arms of France with his paternal arms of -Stuart.” He fell fighting bravely in a battle near Orleans. -In the well-known old French play, “Le Mistère -du Siège d’Orléans,” written some time after his death, -the following tribute is paid to him:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="i0">Est mort tout le noble barnaige</div> -<div class="i0">Qui deffendoit la fleur de lis</div> -<div class="i0">Ha! le connestable d’Escosse,</div> -<div class="i0">Le plus vaillant dans la terre,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span></div> -<div class="i0">Est demeuré à fine force</div> -<div class="i0">Qui estoit tant prudent en guerre</div> -<div class="i0">On ne pourroit son bruit exquerre</div> -<div class="i0">Tant estoit vaillant et hardi</div> -<div class="i0">Or le convient il mectre en terre.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66">[66]</a> <em>Documents inédits sur l’histoire de France, première série</em>, -Paris, 1862; p. 342.</p></div> - -<p class="no-indent">Martorell did well to name him as one of the greatest -knights of that period.</p> - -<p>Sir Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter, also was a great -warrior. He rendered distinguished services to the -English nation in the struggle with France. He was -made Duke of Exeter in 1416, and in the same year -appointed Lieutenant of Normandy. He died at Greenwich -in 1427.</p> - -<p>Thus we see that Martorell has reproduced the latter -part of the <em>Guy of Warwick</em> story, but has given it a -setting in the fifteenth century. It has been changed -considerably, and the historical personage, Richard de -Beauchamp, has had some influence in giving form to -this reproduction. The career of this great knight -reveals that the exploits of Tirant at the English court -were not the result of a vivid imagination, but, on the -contrary, were based in great part on knightly customs -and practices of the times. Martorell is a realist; -when he describes anything, it is usually based on something -that he had observed directly, or something that -he had read or heard related which impressed him as -having really occurred. It is true that occasionally we -find the narration of some incredible incidents in his -work, but it is hardly probable that he expected us to -believe them. It is owing to the realistic temperament -of the author that the different enterprises of Tirant are -based on historical events. He had a remarkable talent -for selecting interesting elements, and joining them so as -to produce an artistic whole. It was evidently not his -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>purpose to make any part of his work an accurate narration -of some historical event. He distorts facts or -makes use of them under conditions different from those -under which they originally happened. Heroic deeds -that called forth his admiration, and historical incidents -that were interesting to him and of such a nature that -he could utilize them in the work that he had undertaken, -furnished him with an abundance of material for -his book of chivalry. <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> is indeed a composite -work, made up of elements gathered here and -there, logically connected and fashioned into a consistent -whole which impresses the reader with a feeling of reality, -because it is based, in the main, on actual experiences and -happenings in life.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span></p> - -<h3>CHAPTER II -<br /> -<small>CONCERNING THE ORDER OF THE GARTER</small></h3> - - -<p>With regard to the duration of the festivities connected -with the marriage of the King of England to the daughter -of the King of France, and concerning the time of the departure -of Tirant from London, we read in chapter xxxix:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a>Lo dia de Sanct Joan principiaren les festes -e aquell dia se veu lo rey ab la infanta sposada: -duraren aquestes festes un any e un dia. Complides -les festes lo rey hague complit son matrimoni -ab la infanta de França. E tots les -strangers prengueren comiat del rey e de la -reyna, e cascu sen torna en ses terres. Tirant -apres que fon partit de la Ciutat de Londres ab -sos companyons fon en recort de la promesa -que hauia feta al pare hermita.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67">[67]</a> The festivities began on the day of St. John and that day the -king was married to the Infanta: those festivities continued for -a year and a day. When the celebration was over the king had -consummated his marriage with the Infanta of France. And all -the foreigners took leave of the king and queen, and each one returned -to his own country. Tirant, after having left the city of -London with his companions, remembered the promise which he -had made to the hermit.</p></div> - -<p>But in chapter lxxxv, Diaphebus, while telling the hermit -about the Order of the Garter, speaks these words:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a>Ia era passat lany e lo dia: e les festes eran -complides de solemnizar com la magestat del -senyor rey trames apreguar a tots los stats ques -volguessen esperar alguns dies: perço com la -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>magestat sua volia fer publicar una fraternitat, -la qual nouament hauia instituida de .xxvi. -cauallers sens que negu no fos reproche. E tots -de bon grat foren contents de aturar.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68">[68]</a> And now the year and a day had passed and the celebration -of the festivities was over, when His Royal Majesty sent word to -the noble visitors praying them to delay their departure for several -days: for His Royal Majesty wished to proclaim the institution of -a fraternity which he had recently founded, with a membership -of twenty-six knights, each of whom was without reproach. And -all were highly pleased to stay.</p></div> - -<p>These conflicting statements as to the time of Tirant’s -leaving London indicate that when the author wrote -chapter xxxix, he had no intention of introducing the -account concerning the Order of the Garter. But later -moved probably by a desire to show in what great honor -Tirant was held, and to describe the pomp, magnificence, -and glory of knighthood, he decided to introduce this -feature. Still it is quite possible that the peculiar and -interesting stories in connection with the Order may have -caused its introduction. The circumstances which led -to the institution of the fraternity according to Martorell -are as follows:</p> - -<p>At a dance at the English court a lady named Madresilva -lost a garter while she was dancing. A certain -knight picked it up. The King witnessed the incident, -and asked the knight to bring it to him and fasten it -on his left leg just below the knee. His Majesty wore -the garter in that way for four months and no one -ventured to speak to him concerning it. But one day -one of the maids, who was a favorite of the King, told -him that the Queen, the maids of honor, the people of the -kingdom and those from abroad, all were displeased that -he should show so much honor to Madresilva. And the -King answered:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a>... donchs la Reyna sta de aço mal contenta, -e los strangers e los del meu regne ne stan -admirats dix tales paraules en frances: Puni<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> -soyt qui mal hi pense. Ara yo promet adeu, -dix lo rey, yo instituire e fare sobre aquest fet un -orde de caualleria, que tant com lo mon durara -sera en recordacio aquesta fraternitat e orde que -yo fare.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69">[69]</a> “So then the queen is displeased with that, and the foreigners -and those of my kingdom are surprised at it.” Then he spoke the -following words in French: “Punished be he who thinks evil of -it. Now I promise God,” said the king, “I shall institute and -build upon this incident an order of knighthood, and this fraternity -and order that I shall found will be remembered as long as the -world shall last.” <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>, chap. lxxxv, col. 3.</p></div> - -<p>In Elias Ashmole’s voluminous work,<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> published in -1672, the above incident is related in the following manner:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70">[70]</a> Elias Ashmole, <em>The Institution, Laws and Ceremonies of the -most Noble Order of the Garter</em>, London, 1672.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“As to the occasion of its institution, the vulgar and -more general opinion is, That the garter of Joane, Countess -of Salisbury, falling casually off, as she danced in a solemn -ball, King Edward hastily stooping, took it up from the -ground; whereupon some of the Nobles and Courtiers -smiling as at an amorous action, and he observing their -sportive humor, turned it off with this reply in French, -‘Honi soit qui mal y pense’; but withal added in disdain -of their laughter, That in a short time, they should -see that Garter advanced to so high honor and estimation -as to account themselves happy to wear it.”</p></div> - -<p>This story is generally regarded by historians as untrue. -Ashmole intimates that it was first published by Polydore -Virgil about the middle of the sixteenth century. -If that be so, the story in <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> is the -earliest known version of this famous incident. The -word “Puni” instead of “Honi” is striking, but not -surprising. In the pronunciation of these words, as well -as in their written or printed forms, the hearer or the -reader might easily mistake the one for the other, and -the substitution would have been favored by the fact -that “Honi” was not in common use.</p> - -<p>But let us follow the account concerning the Order as -we find it in <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>. In the castle at Windsor -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>was prepared a beautiful chapel which was to serve as -a home for the new fraternity. The king was the first -to take the oath to obey its statutes and ordinances. -Then he selected twenty-five other knights to constitute -its membership, and the first one chosen was Tirant, -because he was the best of all. Then the following -were named: “lo Princep de Gales, lo Duch de Beta -fort [Bedford], lo Duch de lencastre [Lancaster], lo -Duch datçetera [Exeter], lo Marques de Sofolch [Suffolk], -lo Marques de Sanct Jordi, lo Marques de Belpuig, -Johan de Varoych, Gran Conestable, lo Comte de Nortabar -[Northumberland], lo Comte de Salasberi, lo Comte -destafort [Stafford], lo Comte de Vilamur, lo Comte -de les Marches Negres, lo Comte d’la Joyosa Guarda, -lo Senyor de Scala Rompuda, lo Senyor de Puig Vert, -lo Senyor de Terra Noua, Miçer Johan Stuart, Miçer -de Riuçech.” All these were from the kingdom. The -foreigners were: “lo Duch de Berri, lo Duch Danjou, -lo Comte de Flandes.” Then the author says: “Foren -tots en nombre .xxvi. cauallers.” But, including the -king and Tirant, he has named only twenty-four.</p> - -<p>According to history, Edward the Third founded the -Order of the Garter between the years 1344 and 1351. -The roll of founders consists of twenty-six names. Besides -those of the king and the Prince of Wales, there -are only four names given by Martorell that can be found -on the roll. The Duke of Exeter was elected into the -Order in 1400 and his is the ninety-ninth name on the -list of members. The Duke of Suffolk was elected in -1420 and his number is one hundred and forty on the -list. From a historical standpoint, Martorell made a -blunder when he gave the name of Sir John Stuart as -a member, for the latter was an enemy of England. -Several of the names seem to be pure inventions. It is -evident that Martorell made up a list of his own. At -first we are surprised that he did not include the name<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> -of William of Warwick, but since the latter had so resolutely -insisted upon living as a hermit, he could not -consistently have been made a member. We have noticed -that instead of naming twenty-six, he named but twenty-four. -Why did he not name the Duke of Gloucester, -whom he mentions in his work? It is indeed surprising -that he did not name one of the Portuguese kings, for -John I, Edward, and Alphonse V were all members of -the Order. The latter was the brother of Prince Ferdinand, -to whom the book was dedicated. If Martorell -had known that these kings were honored with membership -in the noble Order, he would hardly have failed to -mention one of them. But he named none of these, and -consequently the conclusion may be drawn that he did -not live at the court of Portugal and that he knew little -more about Prince Ferdinand than his name. And, moreover, -these omissions indicate rather strongly that the -work was not first written in the Portuguese language.</p> - -<p>We are furthermore told in <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> that the -king gave to every member of the Order a collar of gold -covered with round S’s. Martorell undertakes in the -following story to explain how the king happened to -adopt these letters as a device: At a royal hunt, a deer, -white as the snow because of its age, was slain, and a -collar bearing S’s was found around its neck. On the -collar were found words stating that when Julius Caesar -left the island the collar was put on the deer, with the -request that the king into whose hands the deer might -fall should adopt the letter S as a device. The author -explains the significance of this letter in these words:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a>“E lo collar era tots de esses redones. E perço com -en tot lo A.B.C. no trobareu letra una per una de major -auctoritat e perfectio que pugua significar mes altes coses -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>que aquesta lettra S.... La primera, sanctedat; sauiesa; -sapiencia; senyoria; e moltes altres coses que per S -principien.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71">[71]</a> And the collar was all covered with round S’s. Because in -the whole alphabet you cannot find one letter of greater authority -and perfection and which can signify more noble things than this -letter S. The first thing it stands for is sanctity; then sapience; -science; seigniory; and many other things that begin with S. -<em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>, chaps. xcvi and xcvii.</p></div> - -<p>Martorell may have invented this story, but we are -inclined to believe that he had heard or read an explanation -of the kind. Perhaps the story was current at -the time. Ashmole, too, had his curiosity aroused by -the letters on the collars, and remembers that he had -read or heard that there was once an organization called -the “Society of Saint Simplicius” and that the members -of that society used to wear collars with SS on them, -and these letters stood for Saint Simplicius. This saint -suffered martyrdom under Diocletian about 287 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span></p> - -<p>All that Martorell has to say about the rules, ceremonies, -initiation, ladies of honor and their vows, reveals -that he knew a great deal about the Order. Where did -he obtain his information? Was it through reading or -through hearsay? In some respects his account resembles -that of an eye-witness, yet in giving the names of members -of the Order, Martorell was obliged to invent some, -for the reason that he did not have enough English -names at his command. Some of the names are purely -Catalan, and this fact indicates that the account was not -written in England, nor in Portugal, but very probably -in Valencia; another argument in favor of the contention -that <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> was written originally in Catalan, -and not in Portuguese.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p> - - -<h3>CHAPTER III -<br /> -<small>TIRANT SUCCORS THE KNIGHTS OF RHODES</small></h3> - - -<p>In the analysis we have told that the Genoese made -a treacherous attempt to capture Rhodes on account -of its commercial importance as a seaport. Having -failed in their effort, they induced the sultan to undertake -the conquest of the island, and within a short -time the port of Rhodes was blockaded, the city besieged, -and the island overrun by a multitude of Moors. -The city, however, offered heroic resistance. The Grand -Master appealed to the Christian powers for help. Tirant’s -aid finally led to the raising of the siege. Now -upon what historical facts is this part of the work based?</p> - -<p>Let us first consider the attempt of the Genoese to -capture the city of Rhodes. The plan agreed upon was -to have a considerable number of their ships in the port, -and other vessels carrying many men were to be near by, -but far enough away so as not to be seen by the people -of Rhodes. Two Genoese members of the Order rendered -the instruments of defense of the castle useless. The -plan was to be carried out on Good Friday. While the -ceremonies of the day were being celebrated, the Genoese -were to enter the church two by two. All were to carry -arms, but they were to be concealed under long black -cloaks. After a large number of them had entered, they, -with the assistance of the two traitors, were to seize the -towers and finally the whole city. But their plan was -fortunately discovered and frustrated.</p> - -<p>Knowing the author’s inclination for taking ideas from -certain sources and applying them under circumstances -that are altogether different from those under which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> -they originally occurred, we shall quote the following -passage from Vertot’s history of this military order, -which describes an event that may have furnished some -details to the story of the unsuccessful venture of the -Genoese. The passage refers to a banquet given by -Jacques de Lusignan, when the regency of the government -of Cyprus was committed to him.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Il se trouva à ce repas royal un grand nombre -de Seigneurs Vénitiens et Génois. Ces étrangers -se disputèrent la préséance; elle fut décidée ce -jour-là en faveur des Vénitiens. Les Génois -pour s’en venger, résolurent de l’emporter la -force à la main et ils convinrent entr’eux de se -trouver le lendemain au palais avec des armes -cachées sous leurs manteaux. Le Régent ayant -été averti de leur complot, fit jeter par les fenêtres -du Palais huit nobles Génois qui se promenoient....<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72">[72]</a> Abbé de Vertot, <em>Histoire des Chevaliers Hospitaliers de S. Jean -de Jérusalem</em>, Paris, 1726; Livre VI, p. 155.</p></div> - -<p>Martorell began his work in 1460, seven years after -the fall of Constantinople. We are told that Mahomet -the Second had said: “Constantinople first and then -Rhodes.” The sultan notified the Grand Master of -the Knights of Saint John that he would not respect the -treaty entered into by Amurates and the Order. The -defiant answer to this challenge, in the words of a Spanish -historian of the Order, was as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Respondió dignamente la Orden que reconocida -como Estado por todas las naciones cristianas y -por los soldanes turcos, sólo dependía de la Santa -Sede; que el Gran Maestre jamás la haría tributaria -ni súbdita de nadie, y que la religión de -Rodas estaba no por mujeres, sino por hombres -que temían á Dios y sabían llevar la espada.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73">[73]</a> <em>La Soberana Orden militar de San Juan de Jerusalem ó de Malta, -por un Caballero de la Orden</em>, Madrid, 1899; p. 31.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span></p> - -<p>This peril that was ever threatening Rhodes may have -suggested to Martorell that it would offer a favorable -field for the exploits of Tirant. And we are inclined -to believe that the siege of Rhodes conducted by the -Sultan of Egypt in 1444, is the real historical event -upon which Tirant’s relief expedition is based. Some -time prior to that date the Grand Master de Lastic, -being aware of the fact that the sultan was planning to -make a supreme effort to capture Rhodes, sent ambassadors -to most of the rulers in Europe to implore help, -but, like the King of France in <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>, they -did not respond. The attack on Rhodes was made in -the month of August, 1444. Let us quote Vertot’s -version of the event.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Une flotte considérable du Sultan parut de -nouveau à la hauteur de l’Isle de Rhodes, et y -débarqua dix-huit mille hommes d’infanterie, sans -compter un gros corps de cavalerie et de Mamelus, -qui faisoient la principale force des Egyptiens. -Ces Barbares sans s’arrêter à aucune des Places de -l’Isle, marchèrent droit à la Capitale, et l’assiegèrent, -pendant que leur flotte tenoit la mer pour -le port et empêcha qu’on n’y jettât du secours.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74">[74]</a> <em>Op. cit.</em>, pp. 214 and 215.</p></div> - -<p>There are no details of this siege on record. Vertot -deplores this fact, but he consoles himself by saying: -“Ces Chevaliers sçavoient mieux se servir de leur épée -que d’une plume.” However, the records give the -general information that the siege lasted forty days; -that the fortifications were bombarded by many pieces -of heavy artillery; that many assaults were made which -were always repulsed; and that, after having lost the -greater part of his men, the Saracen commander gave -orders to raise the siege.</p> - -<p>In the discussion of the relation between Muntaner’s -<em>Chronica</em> and <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>, we have intimated that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>Tirant’s landing at the castle of Rhodes was copied in -a general way from Roger de Flor’s successful attempt -to bring relief to the besieged city of Messina. In the -analysis we have remarked that Tirant waited at the -castle of Saint Peter for favorable weather conditions to -run the blockade. This castle was built on the shores -of Asia Minor, in or about the year 1402, under the -direction of the Grand Master de Naillac; consequently -the date of the siege of Rhodes in <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> cannot -be assigned to a period before that year.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span></p> - - -<h3>CHAPTER IV -<br /> -<small>TIRANT JOINS THE EXPEDITION OF THE KING OF FRANCE -AGAINST THE INFIDELS</small></h3> - - -<p>Some of the facts concerning this expedition are: -the King of France set sail from Aiguesmortes; his son, -Philip, who was in charge of the fleet of the King of -Sicily, took part in this enterprise; at Tripoli in Syria, -Tirant, fully armed, leaped from his vessel into the water -and was the first to set his foot on the hostile shore; -the stock of provisions was replenished on the island of -Cyprus; and towards the close of this military enterprise, -Tunis was taken.</p> - -<p>The following historical facts indicate that the story of -the expedition was based on the Crusades of Louis IX. -Saint Louis set out on his Crusades from Aiguesmortes; -he had a son named Philip who accompanied -him on the second Crusade; in Cyprus, an abundance -of provisions had been stored in advance for the use of -the first Crusade; when the king arrived at Damietta, -he leaped into the water and was among the first to -step on Saracen soil; and Tunis was captured at the time -of the second Crusade and was obliged to pay tribute -to the King of Sicily, although this last event happened -after the death of the French king.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the most striking of these coincidences is the -one in which these heroic figures leap into the water. -Joinville, in his <em>Histoire de Saint Loys</em>, describes this -incident in the following words:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Quant le bon roy Saint Loys sceut, que l’enseigne -saint Denis fut arrivée à terre, il sortit de -son vessel, qui ja estoit près de la rive, et n’eut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> -pas loisir que le vesseau, où il estoit, fust à -terre: ains se gette ... en la mer, et fut en eauë -jusques aux espaulles.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75">[75]</a> <em>Histoire de Saint Loys, par Jehan Sire de Joinville</em>, <em>Collection -Complète des mémoires par M. Petitot</em>, Paris, 1819; Tome II, p. 218.</p></div> - -<p>A variant of this passage reads: “sailli en la mer tout -armé, l’escu au col, le glaive au poing, et fu des premiers -à terre.”<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> When the details of this incident had become -somewhat dim in memory, the following picture remains:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76">[76]</a> <em>Ibid.</em>, Tome II, p. 409.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Louis trouva le rivage bordé des troupes du -Soudan, qui prétendoient s’opposer au débarquement -de son armée; mais ce Prince emporté -par son zèle et par son courage, se jetta le premier -l’épée à la main dans l’eau, et suivi de la Noblesse -chargea les Infidèles et les tourna en fuite.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77">[77]</a> Abbé de Vertot, <em>op. cit.</em>, Livre III, p. 387.</p></div> - -<p>This strikingly courageous act of Saint Louis, Martorell -naturally attributed to his hero, Tirant.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span></p> - -<h3>CHAPTER V -<br /> -<small>TIRANT CONQUERS AND CHRISTIANIZES ALL BARBARY</small></h3> - - -<p>Tirant’s next field of operation is at Constantinople, -which has already been discussed. It must be remembered -that he began his work of freeing the Greek empire -from the power of the Turks auspiciously. But on returning -to his army by sea, his vessel was driven by a -tempest to the African shores, where he was shipwrecked. -After having conquered Barbary and brought about the -conversion of many thousands to the Christian faith, -he returned to Constantinople to complete the restoration -of the empire. Consequently, there remains for -us the task of ascertaining what historical basis underlies -the story of the conquest of Barbary.</p> - -<p>When the author began his work, the Portuguese were -busy fighting the Moors in Africa. Prince Ferdinand -of Portugal, who was Martorell’s patron, according to -the dedicatory letter, was at that very time taking part -in the African campaigns. But, to our surprise, the conquest -of Barbary does not reveal any significant traces -of the Portuguese wars against the Moors. The valiant -Moorish Governor, Sale ben Sale (Cale ben Cale in <em>Tirant -lo Blanch</em>), plays an important rôle in resisting the Portuguese, -but the reference that is made to him in Martorell’s -work is not in connection with the conquest of Barbary. -He is mentioned in the William of Warwick episode -as the successor of the Moorish king who was slain by -the hermit-king. Tirant’s conquest of Barbary and the -war of the Portuguese against the Moors had one object -in common, viz., the Christianization of northwestern -Africa. With Tirant, it became the chief purpose; with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> -the Portuguese, it seems to have been secondary, for -their supreme aim was to rid themselves of a constantly -menacing enemy. It is possible that the campaigns -of the Portuguese against the African Moors -attracted the attention of Martorell, and, seeing that -a similar undertaking would provide an excellent field -in which his hero might win additional laurels, he determined -to write and plan an imaginary account of -a conquest of that territory. But if this feature owes -its origin to Portuguese history, would it not be natural -to expect in that account traces and reminders of the -military activities of the kingdom of Portugal? Did -this field not offer a wonderful opportunity to glorify -the deeds of Prince Ferdinand or, at least, of his people? -But all efforts to connect Tirant’s conquest with the -campaigns of the Portuguese are in vain. Here, then, -is another strong indication that what the author says in -the dedicatory letter concerning the translation of an -English original into Portuguese is pure invention, for -we are certain that no English <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> existed -and that Martorell wrote an original work in which he -created a hero according to his own good will and pleasure. -The various qualities of this hero manifested themselves -in certain spheres of operation which, as has already -been pointed out in all other cases, were based on real -historical conditions and events. We are told that -<em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> was written at the request of a Portuguese -prince, and yet Portuguese heroism and glory -find no place in the work, although there are occasions -exceedingly favorable for praises of Prince Ferdinand -and his people. It seems almost an act of disloyalty to -his patron for Martorell to have passed over in silence -the opportunities of lauding Portuguese valor and honor. -All this indicates that the Catalan author did not reside -at the court of Portugal; that he did not write the book -in the Portuguese language; and that probably he was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> -not requested by a prince of that nation to write <em>Tirant -lo Blanch</em>, for its contents in no way support the statements -made in the dedicatory letter; on the contrary, -they seem to refute them.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78">[78]</a> See page 77.</p></div> - -<p>Is the conquest of Barbary perhaps based on some other -historical venture or event? We feel justified in answering -the question affirmatively, for Muntaner’s <em>Chronica</em> -seems to have furnished the background for Tirant’s -exploits in Barbary. In Martorell’s narration of this -conquest the following historical personages and geographical -names are of importance: the King of Tremicen, -the King of Tunis, Bugia, and Constantine. All these -are found in Muntaner’s <em>Chronica</em>, in certain parts of -which are described the hostile relations between the -Moors of Africa and the crown of Aragon. In both -accounts all Barbary [“tota la Barbaria”] is specifically -mentioned. This fact is significant.</p> - -<p>In Chapter XIX of the <em>Chronica</em> Muntaner relates -that the tribute due to the King of Aragon from the -King of Tremicen and the King of Tunis had not been -paid for a long time, and for this reason four well-armed -galleys were sent from Valencia to Tunis and Bugia. -These wrought great devastation along the African shores -and besieged the important ports. While in these waters -they came upon a fleet of ten galleys, all strongly armed -and manned, belonging to the King of Morocco. The -Aragonese ships bravely attacked those of the Moors and -succeeded in capturing the whole fleet, which they took -back with them to Valencia.</p> - -<p>When Peter the Second became King of Aragon and -Catalonia, he determined to force the kings of Tremicen -and Tunis to pay the tribute. An expedition was sent -to Barbary, and as a result Miraboaps, the King of Tunis, -was driven from the throne and his brother Mirabusach -was put in his place. The latter pledged himself to pay -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>the tribute, and signed a treaty with the Aragonese in -which he granted them important rights and privileges -in his kingdom. Some time later Miraboaps fomented -a rebellion in Bugia and Constantine against his brother -and succeeded in making himself king of these two -cities. When he died he divided between his two sons, -Mirabosecri and Bugron, the territory over which he -ruled. The former became King of Bugia and the latter -ruler over Constantine. But Mirabosecri was not satisfied; -he wished to hold sway over Constantine also, -and accordingly he made preparations to take that city -from his brother.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Bugron saw that he could offer but feeble resistance -against the ambition of his brother. So he sent messengers -to King Peter to inform him that he wished to -become a Christian and a subject of the crown of Aragon. -This message brought great joy to the heart of the king, -who immediately began to build many ships to transport -a large army to Africa. So extensive were his preparations -that the lords and princes, Christians as well as Saracens, -who held territory along the seas, became alarmed, -for he told no one what he intended to do. The English -king, the French king, and the Pope made inquiries, -but he would not reveal his plans. Not until the expedition -was far out upon the sea did the commanders -of the ships receive instructions as to their destination. -When Bugron was informed that the army of the King of -Aragon was on its way, he became elated and disclosed -to some of his intimate friends what he purposed to do, -whereupon they arose in great wrath and cut off his head. -King Peter’s army landed at Alcoyll, not far distant from -Bugia. The king was shocked when he heard of Bugron’s -tragic death, but he concluded, nevertheless, to stay -there and wage war upon the Saracens. Fortifications -were immediately constructed. Formidable forces of -Moors came to attack the Christians, but were always -repulsed. Troops from the vast Aragonese army made -incursions into the surrounding country, and soon none -of the enemy could be found for miles around. King -Peter was highly pleased with this excellent beginning,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> -and it did not seem to him that the conquest of all Barbary -would be a difficult task if the Pope would only -furnish sufficient money to pursue the undertaking to -a successful issue. Accordingly he sent an ambassador -to Rome to secure this necessary financial assistance. -Let us quote a few lines of the ambassador’s petition -to the Pope:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> Pare sanct, mon senyor lo rey En Pere Darago -vos fa saber quell es en Barbaria en un lloch qui -ha nom Alcoyll, e troba que per aquell lloch pot -auer tota la Barbaria. Si vos, pare sanct, li -volets fer ajuda de diners e de perdonança, -sera aço complit de la major part auans que -llonch temps sia. E la Barbaria es aytal, que qui -haura les marines si haura tota la Barbaria. E -son gents qui tantost com vejen lo gran destret -que hauran se faran chrestians la major part.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79">[79]</a> Holy Father, my lord king Peter of Aragon informs you that -he is in Barbary in a certain place called Alcoyll and finds that with -that place as base of operations, he can conquer all Barbary. If -you, Holy Father, will aid him with money and indulgences, this -will be accomplished within a short time. The situation of Barbary -is such that he who has possession of the littoral will also hold all -Barbary. And they are people who as soon as they see the great -distress that they will have to endure will for the greater part become -Christians. Muntaner, <em>op. cit.</em>; chap. lii.</p></div> - -<p>In the meantime ambassadors came from the island of -Sicily to implore King Peter to come thither and free them -from the oppressive rule of Charles of Anjou. But the -king’s heart was so firmly set upon this conquest that he -gave no heed to their entreaties. But when another -embassy came, and when he was informed that his petition -to the Pope had met with failure, he embarked with -all his forces and sailed for Sicily. And thus the high -purpose of lo Senyor rey En Pere to conquer and christianize -all Barbary came to naught.</p></div> - -<p>This undertaking of the King of Aragon furnished the -historical background for Tirant’s wonderful campaign -against the Moors in Barbary. Martorell did not make -use of the details of the Aragonese expedition, but he -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>took up the subject and some of the geographical names -and historical personages and developed a story of conquest -according to his fancy. The enterprise of the Aragonese -king was a failure, but Tirant’s was naturally a -glorious achievement.</p> - -<p>It is quite probable that the shipwreck of Heraud as -described in the sequel to the romance of <em>Guy of Warwick</em> -led to the conception and composition of the conquest. -Tirant, like Heraud, was shipwrecked on the African -shores, was made prisoner, and became the leader of -Moorish forces. And now that Martorell had taken his -hero to Africa, what undertaking was he to engage in -there? King Peter’s expedition came to the mind of -the author, and he decided to have Tirant accomplish -what the king had tried to do. It is possible, however, -that Martorell conceived his hero as conqueror of Barbary -even before he thought of the way in which he was -to arrive there. But the first theory seems more plausible, -for the reason that in Tirant’s first activities in -Africa no conquest of Barbary and no religious motives -are apparent.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span></p> - -<h3>CHAPTER VI -<br /> -<small>CONCLUSION: GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF TIRANT LO BLANCH</small></h3> - - -<p>The Catalan romance of chivalry, <em>Tirant lo Blanch</em>, -may be described as a composite historical novel with a -hero of a composite historical character. From the beginning -of the work to the end of the William of Warwick -episode the scenes are laid in England, and were it not -for the fact that Martorell describes a Moorish invasion -as taking place in that kingdom, we should be obliged -to say that the atmosphere is absolutely English. However, -after Tirant’s return to the continent, a purely -Catalan or Aragonese spirit pervades the romance to the -very end. The names of other countries may be given -as the scenes of Tirant’s activities, but the Catalan -heart and mind are always in evidence. The author’s -direct experience and his intimate acquaintance with the -history of his country find expression at every favorable -opportunity. Whatever is described or narrated bears -a pronounced Catalan stamp. Tirant’s relief expedition -to Rhodes is based on the siege of that place in 1444, -but the manner in which he succeeded in reaching the -castle was copied from Roger de Flor’s successful attempt -to relieve Messina. The expedition of the King of France -against the infidels is based on the crusades of Louis IX; -yet the way that it ravaged the shores of Turkey was -very similar to the manner in which the vessels of King -Jaime, King Peter’s predecessor, devastated the shores of -Africa. Tirant’s activities in the service of the Emperor -of Constantinople are based on the Catalan-Aragonese -expedition to the East under the leadership of Roger -de Flor, but it cannot be forgotten that the English<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> -romance, <em>Guy of Warwick</em>, has left strong and indisputable -traces in this part of the work. The conquest of Barbary -is based on the experiences of the kings of Aragon -with the Saracens of northwestern Africa, but, in making -use of these historical elements, Martorell absolutely -disregards their chronological order. According to these -historical data, Tirant’s military career begins in the -middle of the fifteenth century and ends incongruously -in the early years of the fourteenth. The hero is made -up of elements taken from Guy of Warwick, Richard -of Beauchamp, Roger de Flor, Saint Louis, Peter the -Second of Aragon and others. It is clear that Martorell -had no intention of singing the praises of Roger de Flor -or of any other historical personage. In fact it seems -that he attempts to disguise and conceal the historical -elements. If he had adhered to these elements too -closely, he would by that very act have deprived himself -of the liberty of proceeding with his composition as he -pleased.</p> - -<p>Martorell had probably no other purpose in view than -that of writing a romance of chivalry in which the hero -was to conform in the main to his notion of what constituted -a great military leader. He was of a practical -bent and he desired to present to us a lifelike hero, one -whose exploits should be within the bounds of possibility. -All material that was given place in his work seems to be -based on what he himself directly observed or what he -had read or heard related. No wild flights of the imagination -are attempted. Occasionally passages are met with -relating incredible occurrences, but these are not of his -own invention. Within this work may be found religious -and philosophical discourses; speeches and disputations -among members of the imperial councils; -formal debates among members of the imperial family; -documents and papers drawn up by notaries; formal -challenges and replies to these; dramatic lamentations;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> -long and fervent prayers; and allusions to classical -Latin authors, to biblical characters and to figures prominent -in mediaeval literature. Many of these features -bear evidence that they are not original with Martorell, -but were copied, some closely, others loosely, from models -that he found here and there. But at times he is delightfully -original. On these occasions his narrations are -natural and the dialogues exceedingly sprightly, making -a striking contrast with his other heavy and stilted literary -efforts. It is to be regretted that he did not cast aside -the models that he copied or imitated, and free himself -from the influence of other authors. His book would in -that case have been reduced to approximately one-fourth -of its present size, but quite probably it would now be -considered a masterpiece of narration and dialogue.</p> - -<p>Martorell, to judge him by the work that he has produced—unfortunately -we know nothing at all concerning -him from any other source—gives us the impression -that he was a monk or an ecclesiastic. The intensely -religious spirit that pervades the book, the sermons and -prayers, and the efforts to conquer or crush the enemies -of the Holy Catholic Church point strongly in that -direction. His high regard for the orders of knighthood -and his great admiration for distinguished heroes give -some grounds for believing that he was a member of a -military order. However, the various documents drawn -up in legal form leave the impression that he was a -notary. But he has included in his work several features -that are not in harmony with a serious and lofty -purpose. From these a fair idea of his character and disposition -may be obtained. He is jolly, jovial, frivolous, -talkative, <em>malicieux</em>, and bold even to impertinence. He -is queer and eccentric. He has peculiar ideas as to -the fitness of things. He shows extremely bad taste -from the standpoint of the present time. Sometimes -he permits his hero to conduct himself in an undignified<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> -manner, or makes him the victim of mishaps that tend -to decrease our admiration for him. And then as a -climax to these occasional disparaging portrayals, he -endows his hero with a low, immoral nature.</p> - -<p>Tirant lo Blanch is pictured to us as a noble, generous, -religious, intrepid, valiant, and invincible military leader. -He is admirable in all respects but one—he is morally -a weakling. This inconsistency, together with other incongruities, -has led a scholarly critic<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> to declare that -<em>Tirant lo Blanch</em> is a parody on the romances of chivalry -and that “the animus of the whole narrative is satire.” -But the romance taken as a whole does not warrant -such a conclusion, for the general tone of it is earnest -and sincere. Several features of the work seem to be -presented in a satirical spirit, but still it is very doubtful -that the author intended to hold up certain foibles, follies -or vices to reprobation and ridicule. Is it not rather -probable that these features are due to the realistic -tendencies of the author, or to his whims and humors? -Were some of these features perhaps intended as a protest -against the immorality of knights in general? Were they -to teach a moral lesson? If these questions are answered -affirmatively, difficulties will confront us, for Hypolite, the -paramour of the empress, is not punished for his sinful -liaison; on the contrary he is rewarded, for after the -death of the emperor and the princess he becomes the -imperial ruler and his reign is a long and glorious one. -Nor was he to be punished in the next world, for we -are told “... e podeu creure que per lo bon regiment, -e per la bona e virtuosa vida fon [Lemperador e la -Emperadriu] collocats en la gloria de paradis.”<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> It is -impossible to believe that it was Martorell’s purpose -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>to deride and ridicule the deeds of prowess and the noble -enterprises of the champion knight of the English court, -the deliverer of the Knights of Rhodes, the intrepid -knight of the French king’s expedition against the infidels, -the missionary-conqueror of Barbary, and the liberator of -the Grecian Empire. Surely the spirit of the narration of -these important activities of Tirant is not satire.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80">[80]</a> F.M. Warren, <em>A History of the Novel Previous to the Seventeenth -Century</em>, New York, 1895; pp. 173 and 175.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81">[81]</a> ... and you may feel assured that on account of their excellent -rule, and their good and upright lives, they were taken up to enjoy -the glories of paradise.</p></div> - -<p>This Catalan romance of chivalry may have been -conceived in accordance with the taste of Martorell’s -times, but conditions have changed. The standards by -which we measure the actions of men now are not the -same as they were then. If an author wishes us to become -enthusiastic in our admiration for his hero, the latter must -conform to our standards. We insist that the protagonist -be, above all, heroic from a moral standpoint. If -he lacks that attribute we cannot give him a full measure -of appreciation. An immoral hero is a paradox, an -impossibility with us of the present day; consequently -we shall never be able to regard Tirant lo Blanch as a -great hero. But from the foregoing study it may perhaps -appear that the “cura’s” estimate, composed both of -enthusiasm and reprobation (as set forth in the passage -quoted in the opening paragraph), is not unworthy of the -good sense and critical acumen of the great Cervantes.</p> - - -<p class="no-indent center p2">FINIS.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></p> - -<h2>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2> - - -<p><span class="smcap">Amador de los Ríos, José</span>, <em>Historia critica de la literatura española</em>, -Madrid, 1861-1865.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ashmole, Elias</span>, <em>The Institution, Laws and Ceremonies of the most -Noble Order of the Garter</em>, London, 1672.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bonsoms y Sicart, Isidro</span>, and <span class="smcap">Rubió y Lluch, Antonio</span>, <em>Discursos -leídos en la Real Academia de Buenas Letras de Barcelona -en la recepción publica de D. Isidro Bonsoms y Sicart el día -9 de Mayo de 1907</em>, Barcelona, 1907.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Calderon, Juan</span>, <em>Cervantes vindicado en ciento y quince pasajes del -texto del ingenioso hidalgo</em>, Madrid, 1854.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cervantes</span>, <em>El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha</em>, edited -and annotated by Francisco Rodríguez Marín, Madrid, 1911.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cervantes de Saavedra, Miguel de</span>, <em>El ingenioso hidalgo Don -Quijote de la Mancha</em>, with commentaries by Diego Clemencín, -annotated by Miguel de Toro Gómez, Paris, 1910.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Clède, M. de la</span>, <em>Histoire générale de Portugal</em>, Paris, 1735.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cust, Elizabeth</span>, <em>The Stuarts of Aubigny</em>, London, 1891.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Denk, Otto</span>, <em>Einführung in die Geschichte der altcatalanischen -Litteratur</em>, Munich, 1893.</p> - -<p><em>Documents inédits sur l’histoire de France, première série</em>, Paris, 1862.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dunlop, John Colin</span>, <em>History of Prose Fiction</em>, edited by Henry -Wilson, London, 1896.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Givanel Mas, Juan</span>, <em>Estudio crítico de Tirant lo Blanch</em>, Madrid, -1912.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gutiérrez del Caño, Marcelino</span>, <em>Ensayo bibliográfico de “Tirant -lo Blanch.” Revista de Archives, Bibliotecas y Museos</em>. September-December -number of the year 1917, Madrid, 1917.</p> - -<p><em>Guy of Warwick</em>, Fourteenth-century versions, edited from the -Auchinleck MS. in the Advocates’ Library, Edinburgh, and -from MS. 107 in Caius College, Cambridge, by Julius Zupitza, -Early English Text Society, London, 1883, 1887, and 1891.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Joinville, Jehan Sire de</span>, <em>Histoire de Saint Loys, Collection Complète -des mémoires par M. Petitot</em>, Paris, 1819.</p> - -<p><em>La Soberana Orden Militar de San Juan de Jerusalem ó de Malta, -por un Caballero de la Orden</em>, Madrid, 1889.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lull, Raymond</span>, <em>Libre del Orde d’Cauayleria</em>, Barcelona, 1879.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Menéndez y Pelayo, M.</span>, <em>Orígenes de la Novela</em>, Madrid, 1905.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Metge, En Bernat</span>, <em>Lo Somni d’En Bernat Metge</em>, edited by R. -Miquel y Planas, Barcelona, 1907.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Moncada, Francisco de</span>, <em>Expedición de los catalanes y aragoneses -contra turcos y griegos</em>, Madrid, 1777.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Muntaner Ramon</span>, <em>Chronica, o Descripcio dels fets, e hazanyes del -Inclyt Rey Don Iaume Primer Rey Darago, de Mallorques, e -de Valencia: Compte de Barcelona, e de Muntpesller: e de -molts de sos descendens</em>, edited by Karl Lans, Stuttgart, 1844. -<em>Bibliothek des literarischen Vereins in Stuttgart.</em></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Nicolau y D’Olwer, Luis</span>, <em>Sobre les fonts catalanes del Tirant lo -Blanch</em>. <em>Revista de Bibliografía catalana</em>, Barcelona, 1907.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Nuñes de Leaõ, Duarte</span>, <em>Cronicas del rey Don Joaõ de gloriosa -memoria, o I. deste nome, e dos reys de Portugal o X., e as dos -reys D. Duarte, e D. Affonso o V.</em>, Lisbon, 1780.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Porter, Whitworth</span>, <em>A History of the Knights of Malta</em>, London, -1883.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Countess of Warwick</span>, <em>Warwick Castle and its Earls</em>, New -York and London, 1903.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Vertot, Abbé de</span>, <em>Histoire des Chevaliers Hospitaliers de S. Jean -de Jérusalem</em>, Paris, 1726.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Warren, F.M.</span>, <em>A History of the Novel previous to the Seventeenth -Century</em>, New York, 1895.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span></p> - - -<h2>INDEX</h2> - -<table class="indexalpha" summary="Alphabetical Index" border="1"> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_A">A</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_B">B</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_C">C</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_D">D</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_E">E</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_F">F</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_G">G</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_H">H</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_I">I</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_J">J</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_K">K</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_L">L</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_M">M</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_N">N</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_O">O</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_P">P</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_Q">Q</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_R">R</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_S">S</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_T">T</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> U</td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_V">V</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_W">W</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> <a href="#IX_X">X</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> Y</td> - <td class="tdc"> Z</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_A" name="IX_A"></a>Adrianople, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> -<li>Aethelstan, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> -<li>Agnes, daughter of the Duke of Berry, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> -<li>Aguiló y Fuster, D. Mariano, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> -<li>Ahones, En Ferran de, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> -<li>Aiguesmortes, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> -<li>Alcoyl, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> -<li>Alet, En Corberan de, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> -<li>Alexandria, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> -<li>Alfonso V, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> -<li>Alimburch, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> -<li>Amador de los Ríos, José, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> -<li>Amoraunt, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> -<li>Amurates, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> -<li>Anatolia, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> -<li>Ania, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> -<li>Antioch, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> -<li>Arena, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> -<li>Argus, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> -<li>Armini, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li>Artaqui, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> -<li>Ashmole, Elias, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> -<li>Aubigny, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_B" name="IX_B"></a>Barbary, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> -<li>Barcelona, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> -<li>Beauchamp, Richard de, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>-<a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> -<li>Beaufort, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> -<li>Beauvais, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> -<li>Beirut, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> -<li>Bellpuig, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> -<li>Biblioteca Provincial in Valencia, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> -<li>Blancha, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> -<li>Boccaccio, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> -<li>Bonsoms y Sicart, D. Isidro, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> -<li>British Museum, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> -<li>Brittany, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> -<li>Brunanburh, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> -<li>Bugia, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> -<li>Bugron, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_C" name="IX_C"></a>Caen, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> -<li>Caesar, Julius, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> -<li>Caesar of the Empire, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> -<li>Calais, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> -<li>Cale ben Cale, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> -<li>Cape Saint Vincent, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> -<li>Caramen, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> -<li>Carmesina, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> -<li>Catania, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> -<li>Cataquefaras, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> -<li>Cervantes, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> -<li>Charles of Anjou, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> -<li>Colbrond, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> -<li>Comte de Caylus, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> -<li>Comte de Flandes, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Comte d’la Joyosa Guards, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Comte de les marches Negres, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Comte de Salasberi, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Comte de Stafort, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Comte de Vila Mur, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span></li> -<li>Condam, Pere Miquel, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> -<li>Conde de Barcellos, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> -<li>Connétable du Royaume, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> -<li>Constance, Council of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> -<li>Constantine, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> -<li>Constable of the Empire, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> -<li>Constantinople, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> -<li>Cornwall, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> -<li>Corsica, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> -<li>Countess of Belestar, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> -<li>Countess of Warwick, wife of William, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> -<li>Countess of Warwick, Authoress, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> -<li>Cyprus, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_D" name="IX_D"></a>Damietta, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> -<li>Danish Northumbria, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> -<li>Dantona (d’Antona), <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> -<li>Denk, Otto, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> -<li>Dentença, En Berenguer, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> -<li>Diaphebus, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> -<li>Diocletian, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> -<li>Don Quijote de la Mancha, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> -<li>Duc de Viseo, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> -<li>Duch d’Anjou, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Duch de Berri, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Duch de Tenes, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> -<li>Duke of Aygues Vives, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> -<li>Duke of Bavaria, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> -<li>Duke of Bedford, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Duke of Berry, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> -<li>Duke of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> -<li>Duke of Burgundy, brother of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> -<li>Duke of Brittany, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> -<li>Duke of Clarence, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> -<li>Duke of Cleves, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> -<li>Duke of Exeter, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Duke of Gloucester, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> -<li>Duke of Lancaster, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Duke of Macedonia, father of Stephania, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> -<li>Duke of Macedonia, commander, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> -<li>Duke of Messina, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> -<li>Duke of Pera, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_E" name="IX_E"></a>Earl Jonas of Darras, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> -<li>Earl of Northumberland, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Earl of Salisbury, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Earl of Sent Angel, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> -<li>Earl of Stafford, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Earl Rohold, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> -<li>Edward, King of Portugal, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> -<li>Edward the Third of England, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Elena, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> -<li>Emir Costdram, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> -<li>Emir Persan, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> -<li>Emperor of Constantinople, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> -<li>Emperor of Germany, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> -<li>Empress of Constantinople, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> -<li>England, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> -<li>English Channel, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> -<li>Esclandar, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> -<li>Evreux, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_F" name="IX_F"></a>Fabour, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> -<li>Famagosta, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> -<li>Felice, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span></li> -<li>Ferdinand I, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> -<li>Ferdinand of Portugal, Prince, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> -<li>Ferrer, John, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> -<li>Fez, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> -<li>Filadelfia, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> -<li>Flor, Roger de, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>-<a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> -<li>Frederick I of Aragon, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> -<li>Fontsequa, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_G" name="IX_G"></a>Galba, Marti Johan de, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> -<li>Gallipoli, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> -<li>Genoa, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> -<li>Gircon, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> -<li>Givanel Mas, Juan, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> -<li>Grand Caramany, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> -<li>Grand Constable of England, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Grand Maître de Christ et de Saint Jacques en Portugal, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> -<li>Grand Master de Lastic, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> -<li>Grand Master de Naillac, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> -<li>Grand Master of the Knights of Saint John, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> -<li>Grand Turk, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> -<li>Gulf of Venice, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> -<li>Gumiel, Diego de, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> -<li>Guy of Warwick, <i>see</i> Warwick, Guy of.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_H" name="IX_H"></a>Harfleur, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> -<li>Henry V, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> -<li>Henry VI, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> -<li>Heraud, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> -<li>Hercules, Columns of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> -<li>Hermitage of Our Lady, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> -<li>Hippolyte, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> -<li>Hispanic Society of New York, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> -<li>Huntington, Archer M., <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_I" name="IX_I"></a>Infanta Carmesina, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> -<li>Infanta de França, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> -<li>Institut d’Estudis Catalans, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_J" name="IX_J"></a>Jaffa, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> -<li>Jaime, King of Aragon, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> -<li>Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> -<li>Joane, Countess of Salisbury, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> -<li>John I, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> -<li>Joinville, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> -<li>Justinian, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_K" name="IX_K"></a>King of Africa, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> -<li>King of Aragon, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> -<li>King of Canary, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> -<li>King of Cappadocia, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> -<li>King of Castile, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> -<li>King of Egypt, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> -<li>King of England, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> -<li>King of Fez and Bugia, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> -<li>King of France, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> -<li>King of Friesland, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> -<li>King of Morocco, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> -<li>King of Naples, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> -<li>King of Navarre, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> -<li>King of Poland, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> -<li>King of Portugal, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> -<li>King of Sicily, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> -<li>King of Tremicen, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> -<li>King of Tunis, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> -<li>King of Upper India, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> -<li>Knights of Saint John, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> -<li>Knights of Rhodes, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_L" name="IX_L"></a>La Clède, M. de, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></li> -<li>Leonor de Aragón, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> -<li>Lérida, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> -<li>Lisbon, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> -<li>London, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> -<li>Loriç, Isabel de, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> -<li>Louis IX, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> -<li>Lord of the March of Tirania, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> -<li>Lull, Raymond, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> -<li>Lusignan, Jacques de, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_M" name="IX_M"></a>Madresilva, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> -<li>Magnesia, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> -<li>Mahomet the Second, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> -<li>Mal Vehi, Knight, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> -<li>Manfredi, Lelio, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> -<li>Maragdina, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> -<li>Marques de Bellpuig, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Marques de Sanct Jordi, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Marques de Sofolch, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Marquis of Saint George, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> -<li>Marseilles, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> -<li>Martorell, Johanot, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>-<a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> -<li>Menéndez y Pelayo, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> -<li>Messina, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> -<li>Metge, En Bernat, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> -<li>Miçer de Riuçech, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Miraboaps, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> -<li>Mirabosecri, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> -<li>Mirabusach, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> -<li>Montagata, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> -<li>Morgadour, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> -<li>Muntalba, Kirielayson de, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> -<li>Muntalba, Thomas de, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> -<li>Muntalt, Caualler de, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> -<li>Muntaner, Raymond, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> -<li>Muntanyanegre, Knight, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_N" name="IX_N"></a>Nantes, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> -<li>Nif, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> -<li>Normandy, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> -<li>Northumberland, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> -<li>Nunes de Leaõ, Duarte, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_O" name="IX_O"></a>Oisel, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> -<li>Order of the Garter, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> -<li>Orleans, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_P" name="IX_P"></a>Palermo, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> -<li>Paris, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> -<li>Pelidas, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> -<li>Pera, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> -<li>Peter the Second of Aragon and Catalonia, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> -<li>Philip, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> -<li>Plaer de mi Vida, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> -<li>Pope, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> -<li>Porta del Ferre, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> -<li>Prince of Wales, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Prior of Saint John, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> -<li>Portugal, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_Q" name="IX_Q"></a>Queen Jane, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> -<li>Queen of Scotland, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_R" name="IX_R"></a>Real Academia de Buenas Letras de Barcelona, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> -<li>Reinbrun, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> -<li>Rex Enricus, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> -<li>Rhodes, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> -<li>Ricart lo Ventures, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> -<li>Ricomana, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> -<li>Robert, Duke of Catania, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> -<li>Rocafort, En Berenguer de, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> -<li>Roger de Flor, <i>see</i> Flor.</li> -<li>Romania, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></li> -<li>Rome, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> -<li>Rouen, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> -<li>Rous, John, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> -<li>Rubió y Lluch, D. Antonio, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_S" name="IX_S"></a>Saint George, Church of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> -<li>Saint Peter, Castle of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> -<li>Saint Simplicius, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> -<li>Saint Sofia, Church of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> -<li>Saint Thomas of Canterbury, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> -<li>Sale ben Sale, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> -<li>Scariano, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> -<li>Sciacca, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> -<li>Scotland, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> -<li>Senyor Dagramunt, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> -<li>Senyor de Escala Rompuda, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Senyor de les Viles Ermes, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> -<li>Senyor de Pantalea, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> -<li>Senyor de Puig Vert, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Senyor de Terra Nova, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Sicily, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> -<li>Spires, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> -<li>Stephania, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> -<li>Strait of Faro, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> -<li>Strait of Gibraltar, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> -<li>Stuart, Sir John, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Sultan, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> -<li>Sultan of Cairo, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> -<li>Sultan of Egypt, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> -<li>Syracuse, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_T" name="IX_T"></a>Temple, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> -<li>Templars, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> -<li>Tenedos, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> -<li>Tira, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> -<li>Tirri, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> -<li>Trebizond, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> -<li>Tremicen, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> -<li>Triamour, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> -<li>Tripoli in Syria, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> -<li>Tunis, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_V" name="IX_V"></a>Valencia, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> -<li>Valladolid, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> -<li>Varoych, Johan de, <i>see</i> Warwick, John of.</li> -<li>Varoych, Guillem de, <i>see</i> Warwick, William of.</li> -<li>Venice, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> -<li>Verona, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> -<li>Vertot, Abbé de, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> -<li>Villa Fermosa, Knight, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> -<li>Virgil, Polydore, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> -<li>Viscount of Branches, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> -<li>Viuda Reposada, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_W" name="IX_W"></a>Wales, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> -<li>Warren, F.M., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> -<li>Warwick, City of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> -<li>Warwick, Guy of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> -<li>Warwick, John of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li>Warwick, William of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> -<li>Winchester, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> -<li>Windsor Castle, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="IX"> -<li><a id="IX_X" name="IX_X"></a>Xor Miqueli, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="no-indent xlarge center p2">COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS</p> - -<p class="no-indent center">Columbia University in the City of New York</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/ill001.jpg" width="128" height="150" alt="1754 Columbia University Press 1893" /> -</div> - -<p>The Press was incorporated June 8, 1893, to promote the publication -of the results of original research. 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