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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #65754 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/65754)
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-The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Middleton Place Privy House, by Helen
-Woolford Haskell
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
-will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
-using this eBook.
-
-Title: The Middleton Place Privy House
-       An Archaeological View of Nineteenth Century Plantation Life
-
-Author: Helen Woolford Haskell
-
-Release Date: July 3, 2021 [eBook #65754]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading
-             Team at https://www.pgdp.net
-
-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MIDDLETON PLACE PRIVY
-HOUSE ***
-
-
-
-
-                    THE MIDDLETON PLACE PRIVY HOUSE
-      AN ARCHEOLOGICAL VIEW OF NINETEENTH CENTURY PLANTATION LIFE
-
-
-                         Helen Woolford Haskell
-
-
-                      UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA
-                INSTITUTE OF ARCHEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY
-                            POPULAR SERIES 1
-
-                        Columbia, South Carolina
-
-                            September, 1981
-
-
-_The University of South Carolina offers equal opportunity in its
-employment, admissions and educational activities, in accordance with
-Title IX, section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and other civil
-rights laws._
-
-
-
-
-                           TABLE OF CONTENTS
-
-
-                                                                    Page
-  List of Figures                                                     iv
-  Acknowledgments                                                     vi
-  A brief history of Middleton Place                                   1
-  Archeology at Middleton Place                                        8
-  Pottery and porcelain                                               12
-  Glass tableware                                                     24
-  Glass manufacture in the United States                              29
-  Medicine Bottles                                                    34
-  Wine and spirits bottles                                            39
-  Beer bottles                                                        40
-  South Carolina dispensary bottles                                   43
-  Food containers                                                     45
-  Bottles made after 1900                                             47
-  Lamp glass                                                          49
-  Laboratory glass                                                    52
-  Conclusions                                                         54
-  Appendix I—Ceramic manufacturer’s marks                             56
-  Appendix II—Significant dates in the American Glass Industry        58
-  Appendix III—Marks left by different techniques of bottle
-          manufacture                                                 62
-  Appendix IV—Artifact catalogue from the Middleton Place privy
-          excavation                                                  64
-  Bibliography                                                        73
-
-
-
-
-                            LIST OF FIGURES
-
-
-                                                                    Page
-  FIGURE 1: Locator map of Middleton Place                             3
-  FIGURE 2: British-made white ironstone or granite china, 1891-1900  13
-  FIGURE 3: Chinese export porcelain                                  14
-  FIGURE 4: French Bourbon Sprig or Cornflower porcelain              15
-  FIGURE 5: English porcelain platter                                 16
-  FIGURE 6: Creamware sauce tureen                                    17
-  FIGURE 7: Light blue transfer-printed serving bowl                  19
-  FIGURE 8: Molded white ironstone chamber pot                        19
-  FIGURE 9: English majolica                                          21
-  FIGURE 10: Limoges porcelain                                        22
-  FIGURE 11: Decal-printed Austrian porcelain                         23
-  FIGURE 12: Cut glass pitcher                                        25
-  FIGURE 13: Cut glass decanters                                      26
-  FIGURE 14: Stemmed drinking glasses                                 27
-  FIGURE 15: Ale flute and mascotte wine glass                        27
-  FIGURE 16: Bottle shapes from the Middleton Place privy             32
-  FIGURE 17: Pharmacy bottles                                         34
-  FIGURE 18: Patent medicine bottles                                  36
-  FIGURE 19: Apothecary’s vials                                       38
-  FIGURE 20: Wine and spirits bottles                                 40
-  FIGURE 21: Beer bottles                                             41
-  FIGURE 22: South Carolina Dispensary bottles                        44
-  FIGURE 23: Preserve jar and olive oil bottle                        46
-  FIGURE 24: Armor beef extract jar                                   47
-  FIGURE 25: Twentieth century bottles                                48
-  FIGURE 26: Student lamp chimney                                     50
-  FIGURE 27: Kerosene student and piano lamp                          51
-  FIGURE 28: “Pearl top” and crimped lamp chimneys                    51
-  FIGURE 29: Free-blown laboratory beaker                             52
-  FIGURE 30: Conservation of artifacts                                55
-
-
-
-
-                            ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
-
-
-I wish to thank Harvey S. Teal and George B. Hartness of Columbia, South
-Carolina; M. Mellanay Delham of Charlotte, North Carolina; Harmon Wray
-of Memphis, Tennessee; and Jan B. Eklund of the Smithsonian Museum for
-assistance with the artifact analysis. The original research was funded
-by a grant from the South Carolina Coastal Council. This publication was
-made possible by a grant from the South Carolina Committee for the
-Humanities, whose support is gratefully acknowledged. The Middleton
-Place Foundation, and its Director, Sarah Lytle, provided advice and
-encouragement. The author appreciates the assistance of the staff of the
-Institute of Archeology and Anthropology. Essential to the production of
-this book were Gordon Brown, Photographer; Darby Erd,
-Artist-Illustrator; Kenneth Pinson, Editorial Assistant; Mary Joyce
-Burns, Typist; Kenneth Lewis, Archeologist; and William Marquardt,
-Associate Director.
-
-Artifacts in the photographs are in possession of the Middleton Place
-Foundation, Charleston, South Carolina, and the Institute of Archeology
-and Anthropology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South
-Carolina.
-
-The cover illustration and drawings on pages 1, 3, 27, 32, 47, 51, 54,
-and 56 are by Darby Erd. Figure 16 is taken from illustrations in Norman
-W. Webber’s _Collecting glass_ (Arco Publishing, New York, 1973) and
-Ruth Webb Lee’s _Victorian glass_ (privately published, Northboro,
-Massachusetts, 1944). The drawing in Figure 24 is reproduced from a 1920
-Armour & Co. sales catalogue made available by Harmon Wray of Memphis,
-Tennessee. The lamps in Figure 27 are drawn from catalogue illustrations
-in _Edwardian shopping: a selection from the Army and Navy Stores
-catalogues, 1898-1913_ (compiled by R. H. Langbridge, David and Charles,
-Newton Abbot, 1975) and _Victorian shopping: a facsimile of the Harrod’s
-Stores 1895 issue of the_ _price list_ (David and Charles, Newton Abbot,
-1972).
-
-The engravings on pages 12, 24, and 39 are reproduced from Jim Harter’s
-_Food and drink, a pictorial archive from nineteenth-century sources_
-(Dover, New York, 1980). That on page 29 is from the 1895 _Encyclopedia
-Britannica_ (volume 10, page 658, The Werner Company, Chicago). The lamp
-on page 49 is from the 1902 edition of the Sears Roebuck catalogue
-(Crown, New York, 1969).
-
-
-
-
-                   A BRIEF HISTORY OF MIDDLETON PLACE
-
-
-    [Illustration: Middleton Place]
-
-The land that now comprises Middleton Place lies in one of the earliest
-areas inhabited by Englishmen in South Carolina. In 1674, just four
-years after the first colonists settled at Charles Town, Lord Proprietor
-Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper granted lands for settlement along the lower
-reaches of the Ashley River. Among these was the site of Middleton
-Place, deeded in 1675 to Jacob Waight. Waight apparently forfeited his
-claim to the tract, and in 1700, it was granted to Richard Godfrey, who
-sold it in 1729 to John Williams, a wealthy landowner and justice of the
-peace. The land passed into Middleton hands in 1741, when John Williams’
-daughter Mary married Henry Middleton, the second son of former
-provincial governor Arthur Middleton.
-
-Henry and his two brothers were the third generation of Middletons in
-South Carolina. Their grandfather, Edward Middleton, had arrived in the
-colony in 1678 as part of the great influx of Barbadian Englishmen who
-made up more than half of Charles Town’s early immigrants. Like many
-other Barbadians, Edward settled along Goose Creek, north of Charleston.
-His plantations there, along with estates in Barbados and England,
-passed to his son Arthur in 1685. Arthur also inherited a prominent
-position in Carolina society, and with it, an active role in the
-political life of the colony. Edward had served as Lords Proprietors’
-deputy and assistant justice in his few years’ stay in Goose Creek, but
-Arthur, who held more than a dozen public offices, was the Middleton who
-established the tradition of political leadership that was to
-distinguish his family for four generations.
-
-Probably the most significant of Arthur’s achievements was his role in
-the overthrow of the Lords Proprietor. The eight British noblemen
-theoretically owned and managed all of the Carolinas, but in later
-years, they adopted policies that their colonists saw as inimical to
-survival in the American wilds. Following the Lords Proprietors’ failure
-to provide military aid during the bloody Yamasee Indian uprising of
-1715-1717, Arthur Middleton led a convention that in 1719 persuaded the
-king to remove the Lords Proprietor. Later, as president of the Ruling
-Council, he served as governor of the province until the arrival of a
-governor appointed by the king.
-
-Arthur’s son Henry inherited a large share of his father’s estates in
-Carolina and Barbados and was reputed to be one of the wealthiest men in
-Carolina. According to one contemporary account, he owned some 20
-plantations and 800 slaves. Nonetheless, after his marriage to Mary
-Williams he moved his residence and base of operations to his wife’s
-Ashley River plantation, which they named Middleton Place. The manor
-house was already standing at that time, but Henry added the two flanker
-buildings (the southernmost of which now serves as the main house), and
-laid out the formal gardens, terraces, and ornamental lakes that made
-Middleton Place one of the most elegant of the lowcountry plantations.
-Rice, introduced into the Carolinas in the late seventeenth century, had
-become by Henry’s time a staple crop of the Ashley River region and was
-becoming the main product of Middleton Place (Fig. 1).
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 1. Locator map of Middleton Place, Dorchester
-    County, South Carolina.]
-
-Like his father, Henry held a number of public offices under the royal
-government, but it was in the rebellion against that government that he
-gained political renown, first as president of the South Carolina
-Provincial Congress and later as a delegate to the First Continental
-Congress in Philadelphia. Only seven of Henry and Mary’s eleven children
-lived to adulthood, but both surviving sons were members of the
-Provincial Congress, and when Henry’s health began to fail in 1776 his
-elder son Arthur replaced him as delegate to the Second Continental
-Congress. At 34 Arthur Middleton was the senior South Carolina delegate
-to sign the Declaration of Independence.
-
-The American Revolution took a heavy toll on South Carolina. Several
-major campaigns were fought in the former colony, and Charleston and the
-surrounding lowcountry were occupied by the British from 1780 to 1782.
-During this time, 63 leading Charlestonians, including Arthur Middleton,
-were imprisoned in British St. Augustine. By 1780, Henry was seriously
-ill, and, like other lowcountry residents, he and his sons suffered
-serious financial losses from the plunder and disruption that
-accompanied the British occupation.
-
-Henry died in 1784 leaving Middleton Place and other plantations to
-Arthur, who in the postwar economic climate soon regained his former
-standard of living. Arthur and his family of nine children had lived at
-Middleton Place for some time before Henry’s demise, and several
-important economic changes took place under Arthur’s direction. In
-Henry’s early years at Middleton Place, rice had been cultivated in
-inland swamps irrigated with water from man-made reservoirs. By the late
-eighteenth century, soil exhaustion had begun to pose a problem, and
-many planters, including the Middletons, changed to tidal rice
-cultivation that involved impounding freshwater swamps along the rivers’
-edges and allowing them to be flooded by the natural action of the river
-tides. Not only did the new soil and nutrients deposited by the
-floodwaters remove the threat of soil exhaustion, but the tidal system
-was more labor-efficient than inland cultivation, resulting in higher
-yield per acre. This new efficiency was compounded by another late
-eighteenth century innovation, the water-powered rice mill, installed at
-Middleton Place about the same time.
-
-Arthur’s eldest son Henry inherited Middleton Place at the age of 17,
-apparently while he was still in school in England. Henry devoted a
-great deal of attention to the gardens planted by his grandfather,
-enlarging them and introducing many new plants, some of them newly
-brought to America by the French botanist André Michaux. From 1801 to
-1830 Henry was continuously in public office, first as a South Carolina
-legislator and governor, then as a member of the United States Congress,
-and from 1820 to 1830 as American ambassador to Russia.
-
-By the time he returned from his service abroad, South Carolinians had
-embarked upon the separatist agitation that would eventually lead to
-their third attempt in 150 years to overthrow a government.
-
-At issue were the 1828 and 1832 “tariffs of abomination,” designed by
-Congress to protect fledgling industries in the northern states.
-However, they were viewed by indignant Carolina planters, dependent on
-direct trade with England, as an assault on their agricultural economy.
-The South Carolina Nullification Convention of 1832 declared the tariff
-null and void on the basis of John C. Calhoun’s doctrine that a state
-had a right to vote to disregard onerous acts of Congress and, if other
-states found its action unacceptable, to secede. As a member of the
-opposing Union Party, Henry Middleton was perhaps the first of his
-family to take an active conservative role in a dispute pitting South
-Carolina against an outside governing body.
-
-This early threat to the Union was deflected with a tariff reduction in
-1833, but the nullification doctrine had laid the ideological groundwork
-on which 11 southern states were to base their secession over the issue
-of slavery 28 years later. Slavery was an economic mainstay of
-agriculture throughout the South, but particularly so in South Carolina,
-where slaves had been imported from Barbados with the very earliest
-settlers at Charles Town and where a plantation system based on
-involuntary servitude had existed since the late seventeenth century. By
-the early 1700s African slaves already made up three-quarters of the
-South Carolina population, and on the eve of the Civil War, South
-Carolina remained the largest slaveholding state in the Union. Colleton
-District, where Middleton Place was located, was nearly 80% black.
-
-This enormous disparity meant that white slaveholders lived in constant
-fear of slave insurrection. They were equally fearful of emancipation,
-which, as abolitionist sentiment grew in the North, many planters came
-to view as an inevitable outcome of northern political dominance. There
-were slaveholders who staunchly opposed disunion, but South Carolina, as
-it had been during the nullification dispute, was a hotbed of
-secessionism. With the 1860 election of Abraham Lincoln, a Charleston
-convention passed an ordinance making South Carolina the first state to
-withdraw from the Union. Henry Middleton had died in 1846 before the
-slavery controversy reached its height, but among the signers of the
-Ordinance of Secession were his sons John Izard Middleton of Georgetown,
-and Williams Middleton of Middleton Place.
-
-The war that followed caused more devastation to the plantation economy
-than emancipation, for in defeat the planters lost most of their
-financial assets and their voice in local government. In areas that had
-witnessed military action, they often saw devastation of their homes and
-property. Middleton Place, plundered and burned by invading troops in
-1865, was no exception. Williams and his family fled to Charleston where
-they lived while renting the plantation grounds to a “Yankee captain.”
-In 1867 Williams borrowed money from a sister in Philadelphia and began
-the task of restoring the burnt-out southern flanker building to serve
-as a family residence. In 1871, before repairs were complete, the
-Middletons and their two children were again living at Middleton Place
-in the shadow of the ruined mansion that had housed five generations of
-their family.
-
-Restoration of the plantation’s agricultural operations, however, proved
-more difficult. The tidal rice fields, which required constant
-maintenance, had been neglected, and the loss of the more than 100
-slaves who had worked the plantation grounds and rice fields left
-Williams without the necessary labor for large-scale cultivation.
-Although vastly diminished quantities of rice continued to be harvested
-elsewhere in the lowcountry, Middleton Place apparently never again
-produced a successful rice crop. By 1890 rice from Louisiana, where flat
-upland fields permitted mechanized cultivation impossible in the South
-Carolina marshes, had begun to drive Carolina rice off the market. Today
-no rice at all is grown in South Carolina.
-
-Two new commodities that gained importance in the land-poor lowcountry
-economy were phosphates, of which postbellum South Carolina was the
-nation’s leading supplier, and timber, an important product in the
-Southeast. Williams turned his hand to exploitation of these natural
-resources, and by 1878, Middleton Place boasted both phosphate mines and
-a sawmill. Although he and his heirs continued to lease the plantation
-timber and mineral rights until the early twentieth century, by 1880 the
-aging Williams had left Middleton Place, taking up residence in
-Greenville, South Carolina. After Williams died in 1882, his wife Susan
-made regular visits to the plantation. But following her death in 1900,
-Middleton Place lay abandoned, except for periodic visits, for over 20
-years. Williams and Susan’s son Henry, who had left South Carolina in
-the 1870s to attend Cambridge University, was living in England, and
-their daughter Elizabeth had married and settled in Greenville.
-
-The plantation was inherited by a cousin, J. J. Pringle Smith, who, in
-1925, moved his family into the southern flanker house and began the
-slow job of restoring the Middleton Place grounds and gardens. Pringle
-Smith built the present stableyard complex on the site of older
-outbuildings, installed an electrical generator in the former privy
-building, and opened the gardens to the public. In 1970 Middleton Place
-became a Registered National Historic Landmark under the management of
-the Smiths’ grandson, Charles Duell. In 1975, with the creation of the
-Middleton Place Foundation, the south flanker containing many of the
-family’s original furnishings was also opened to the public.
-
-
-
-
-                     ARCHEOLOGY AT MIDDLETON PLACE
-
-
-    [Illustration: uncaptioned]
-
-Modern historical archeology, like archeology in general, is based on
-two main premises. First, where man has lived for any length of time, he
-has left behind artifacts—bits of food, broken pottery, tools, and
-ornaments—that tell us something of his way of life. Second, human
-behavior is, to a certain extent, patterned and predictable, and similar
-artifacts will be found on similar sites. Thus, even if two household
-sites are separated by hundreds of years of technological innovation,
-they may yield utensils used for roughly the same purposes. If two
-contemporary sites produce artifacts of the same style and workmanship,
-then their inhabitants shared at least some aspects of a single culture,
-and variations between the sites can provide valuable clues to
-adaptations of that culture to different circumstances.
-
-The distinction between prehistoric and historical archeology is based
-not on differences in technology but on the presence or absence of
-written records. While prehistoric archeologists reconstruct ancient
-cultures primarily from artifactual evidence, historical archeology
-employs both documents and material remains to study literate societies
-and the pre-literate populations whom they influenced. In much of Europe
-and Asia, the historic period begins centuries before Christ, but in
-North America, historical archeology is concerned with the period of
-recorded European exploration and occupation extending from the
-sixteenth century to the present.
-
-From these four centuries we have innumerable written records covering a
-vast array of subjects. But although these records contain a wealth of
-information, they cannot always be trusted to be either thorough or
-accurate. In addition, historians are often most interested in aspects
-of daily life—such as health, diet, and the living conditions of the
-unlettered poor—that are frequently omitted altogether from written
-records. By examining the record of activities that people have left in
-the soil, archeology can provide written history with a comparatively
-unbiased account of the economic conditions underlying historical
-change.
-
-Probably the most obvious indicators of past living conditions are
-buildings, around which most human activities are centered. On most
-historic sites these include not only residences but also a variety of
-outbuildings such as privies, barns, and work buildings that are crucial
-to understanding the site as a whole. This is especially true of such
-complex institutions as plantations, where hundreds of people may have
-lived and worked over an area of many acres. Since many of these
-buildings have long since disappeared, the first task of the excavator
-is to find them by tracing the concentrations of debris that,
-fortunately for archeologists, our ancestors scattered freely around
-their dwellings and workplaces.
-
-The Middleton Place privy is a modest one-story building half hidden in
-live oaks behind the Middleton House museum. It has outlasted many of
-its more imposing contemporaries to become one of the oldest standing
-structures at Middleton Place. Built in the late eighteenth or early
-nineteenth century, the privy was one of the few plantation buildings to
-escape destruction by Sherman’s troops in 1865. In its long lifetime it
-has served as an outdoor latrine, a generator house, and a storage
-building. Now, newly equipped with running water and flush toilets, it
-is the only antebellum building at Middleton Place still serving the
-purpose for which it was constructed.
-
-An outdoor privy may seem an unlikely place to conduct an archeological
-excavation. Much eighteenth and nineteenth century trash was simply
-tossed out the back door, but the backyard privy, ready made for waste
-disposal and usually handily located a few dozen feet from the house,
-also received its share of household disposables. As a privy pit neared
-abandonment, the top layers were often stuffed with broken objects
-before it was sealed and a new hole dug.
-
-The privy is set solidly atop a rectangular brick-lined pit, which house
-servants kept open and functioning for more than 100 years with a system
-of “honey buckets.” When the privy was finally abandoned in the 1920s,
-the entire pit, not just the top few inches, was packed with broken or
-unusable household goods.
-
-The privy pit was sealed by J. J. Pringle Smith, who laid a concrete
-floor in the privy building and converted it into a shed for the
-plantation’s first electric generator. With the subsequent arrival of
-outside electrical power, the generator too was abandoned, and the privy
-stood undisturbed for the next 40 years. In 1978 workmen remodeling the
-building into a modern restroom broke through the concrete floor to the
-artifact-laden pit below. The artifacts were excavated and analyzed by
-archeologists from the University of South Carolina’s Institute of
-Archeology and Anthropology, and are now on display in the Middleton
-Place Spring House Museum.
-
-Privy pits, being relatively shallow, normally contain objects
-accumulated and discarded within a very few years. The Middleton privy,
-only three feet deep, was expected to be no exception. Once the
-artifacts had been cleaned and restored, however, it became apparent
-that this was no short-term kitchen deposit, but a diverse assemblage of
-objects spanning more than 100 years of the plantation’s history.
-
-A sealed archeological deposit can date no earlier than its most recent
-artifact, and a handful of twentieth century utility bottles confirmed
-that this chronological hodgepodge had been thrown into the privy pit
-shortly after the arrival of the Pringle Smith family in 1925. The
-scarcity of items from the Smiths’ period of residence, however,
-suggested that the family had filled the privy not with their own trash
-but with objects accumulated by the Middletons in the preceding century.
-The artifacts could not have collected in the house before 1871, when
-the Middletons moved back to their war-ravaged estate, or after 1900,
-when Susan Middleton’s death ended the plantation’s role as a regular
-residence. The artifacts left in the house spanned Susan and her
-husband’s entire lifetimes, from the costly dinnerwares of the wealthy
-planter to the plain stone china of his widow. As much as any exhibit at
-Middleton Place, then, the artifacts on display in the Spring House
-Museum bear testimony to the cycle of wealth and poverty, prosperity and
-decay, that characterized the nineteenth century Middletons and their
-plantation.
-
-
-
-
-                         POTTERY AND PORCELAIN
-
-
-    [Illustration: uncaptioned]
-
-The Industrial Revolution introduced an era of mass production,
-technological efficiency, and mass consumption. One of its minor
-miracles was the perfection of a hard-boiled white ceramic that was
-within the financial reach of most of the population. Though hardly
-striking to the modern eye, the white ironstone plates pictured below
-(Fig. 2) are the result of years of experimentation by British and other
-European potters. In durability, purity of color, and
-cost-effectiveness, the everyday ironstones and granitewares of the late
-nineteenth century represent a triumph of western ceramic technology
-that has been little improved upon since the earlier part of that
-century. (See Appendix 1 for a complete listing and illustrations of
-ceramic manufacturers’ marks.)
-
-The impetus for this technological marvel goes back to the global
-expansionism of Europe’s seafaring nations in the sixteenth and
-seventeenth centuries. Among the exotica brought back by early traders
-was Chinese porcelain, an impermeable white ceramic ware unlike anything
-produced in Europe. As trade with the Orient grew, so did importation of
-Chinese porcelain. By the eighteenth century, Chinese potters were
-regularly turning out blue-and-white “export porcelain” (Fig. 3) made
-specifically for the European market. East India Company ships were
-transporting it to England as “flooring” to protect perishable cargoes
-of tea.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 2. British-made white ironstone or granite
-    china, 1891-1900. All four plates are marked “MADE IN ENGLAND,” a
-    convention adopted in 1891 to comply with American import
-    regulations.]
-
-Much of this porcelain found its way to the American colonies. In the
-early colonial period, Chinese porcelain was a relatively rare and
-prestigious ware associated with the upper-class custom of afternoon
-tea. By the time of the American Revolution, both tea-drinking and
-porcelain had spread to the lower classes. When American merchants
-opened their own direct trade with China in the 1780s, they brought back
-large quantities of porcelain along with the more lucrative teas and
-silks. By the 1820s Chinese blue-and-white had become an ordinary
-household fixture and, with a concomitant decline in quality of
-production, began to lose favor with the American buyer. Very little was
-imported after the early 1830s.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 3. Chinese export porcelain. These fragments
-    are all from plates or serving dishes, probably imported before
-    1830. All are hand-painted with blue underglaze decoration. The
-    piece on the upper left retains traces of additional decoration,
-    including gilding, applied over the glaze.]
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 4. French Bourbon Sprig or Cornflower
-    porcelain, a pattern popular before the French Revolution. Other
-    pieces of this pattern are on display in the Middleton House dining
-    room.]
-
-It would be difficult to overestimate the influence of Oriental
-porcelain on the European ceramic industry. Europeans greatly admired
-the hardness, whiteness, and thinness of the Chinese imports, and many
-of the most important developments in eighteenth and nineteenth century
-ceramic manufacture resulted from a conscious effort to imitate these
-qualities. Soft paste porcelain, made by adding glass to the clay body,
-was an early attempt to reproduce the porcelain paste itself. The
-Germans discovered the secret of true hard paste porcelain around 1710
-and began producing it at Meissen three years later, followed by the
-Austrians at Vienna in 1718 and the French at Sèvres in 1768. Early
-European porcelains imitated the Oriental in design as well as paste,
-but after about mid-century, chinoiseries gave way to flowers and other
-European designs executed in a variety of colors. Through the end of the
-century, European porcelain remained an art form available only to the
-well-to-do. Figure 4 shows a French porcelain tea plate hand-painted in
-the “Bourbon Sprig” or “Cornflower” pattern of scattered flowers popular
-during the reign of Louis XVI. Probably produced in Paris in the
-eighteenth or early nineteenth century, this plate was part of a large
-set of Bourbon Sprig china originally brought from Europe by a member of
-the Middleton family after 1820.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 5. English porcelain platter, decorated over
-    the glaze with the polychrome orientalizing designs favored by early
-    19th century British ceramic painters. This dish was also probably
-    part of a large set, fragments of which have been found elsewhere on
-    the Middleton Place grounds.]
-
-Little hard paste porcelain was produced in England, where bone china, a
-somewhat softer porcelain with calcined ox bone added to the paste,
-became a favorite material for expensive dinnerwares. Oriental influence
-on British ceramics was more immediately felt in the British decorative
-style, which through the nineteenth century continued to borrow heavily
-from the Chinese and Japanese. Figure 5 illustrates an English porcelain
-platter decorated in the colorful pseudo-Oriental motif typical of early
-nineteenth century dinner services. These services, often made in stone
-china or ironstone, sometimes included as many as two hundred pieces to
-accommodate the lavish dinner parties that were the fashionable
-entertainment of the day.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 6. Creamware sauce tureen, manufactured by the
-    Josiah Wedgwood factory. One of the original 1780s Wedgwood designs,
-    tureens similar to this one are still produced by the Wedgwood
-    pottery in Barlaston, Staffordshire. Manufacturer’s markings
-    indicate that this piece was manufactured before 1860.]
-
-A more significant effect of Oriental porcelain on British ceramics was
-the revolution it inspired in the production of everyday earthenware.
-From the early eighteenth century, British potters had sought to develop
-a smooth white-bodied earthenware that could be made from local clays to
-compete with the imported blue-and-white. The first real breakthrough in
-this endeavor came in the 1760s, when Josiah Wedgwood, the giant of
-British ceramic history, began production of a thinly potted pale yellow
-pottery known as creamware or queensware (Fig. 6). Dozens of British
-factories quickly took up manufacture of creamware, and it became a
-staple dinnerware throughout Europe and America. It remained a popular
-British and American tableware until the 1820s, after which it
-degenerated into a common utilitarian crockery. Known as “C.C. ware,”
-creamware finished out the nineteenth century as the cheapest of the
-heavy utility wares, used chiefly for such items as mixing bowls and
-chamber pots.
-
-On the heels of creamware came pearlware, another Wedgwood invention
-that consisted of a slightly whiter-bodied ceramic, which, with the
-addition of a clear blue-tinted glaze, came close to approximating the
-pearly bluish white of Oriental porcelain. The development of pearlware,
-and the even whiter earthenwares that followed, ushered in the great
-British period of blue transfer-printing that lasted from the 1780s
-through the 1840s. The art of printing glazed ceramics with designs
-transferred from engraved copper plates had been known since the 1750s,
-but the more durable underglaze process was developed only in the
-1770s—and then only in cobalt blue, the one color that consistently
-remained unblurred through the high firing temperatures required for
-glazing. Blue underglaze printing had been tried to no one’s
-satisfaction on the yellow background of creamware, but pearlware, with
-its faint bluish tint, was the first earthenware that was both hard
-enough and of a suitable color for the new technique. Despite the
-development of nearly pure white earthenwares in the early 1800s,
-British potters continued throughout the nineteenth century to add the
-blue-tinted pearlware glaze to earthenwares of many different
-compositions.
-
-Early transfer patterns imitated the Chinese and were engraved into the
-copper plates in a series of deep lines, but a technique combining lines
-and stippling, which allowed for greater detail and shading, was
-introduced about 1810. With this and other developments, Oriental
-designs gave way to pastoral and architectural scenes—English, Alpine,
-Italianate, and American, among many others—usually surrounded by
-borders of English flowers (Fig. 7). In later years, many of these
-scenes were printed in various colors made possible by the introduction
-of new dyes in the late 1820s, but blue remained the most popular color
-through the end of the transfer-printing era in the late 1840s.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 7. Light blue transfer-printed serving bowl,
-    manufactured by J. & G. Alcock, Staffordshire, 1839-1846. Pastoral
-    scenes like this TYROL pattern were popular from about 1810 through
-    the 1840s.]
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 8. Molded white ironstone chamber pot,
-    probably American made, c. 1860-1900.]
-
-The dinnerware that pre-empted transfer-printed earthenware was plain
-stone china of the sort pictured in Figure 2. Late nineteenth century
-stone china, also known as ironstone, graniteware, and semi-porcelain,
-was not a new ceramic but a variant of the stone chinas and ironstones
-first produced by Josiah Spode and Charles Mason in the first two
-decades of the century. The novelty of the stone chinas sold after 1840
-lay in the new inexpensive methods of mass-producing them, and in their
-hitherto unthinkable absence of painted decoration. Early nineteenth
-century stone chinas had been elaborately decorated with Oriental
-wildlife and transfer-printed patterns, but by mid-century it was almost
-all stark white, with only embossed or molded decoration. After about
-1870, it was often produced with no decoration at all.
-
-Stone china at its best was nearly unbreakable, and thus admirably
-suited to life in the still rough-and-ready American states. Like
-earlier wares, most of the stone china sold in the United States was
-imported from Great Britain. The fledgling American pottery industry did
-not begin producing hard-paste whitewares until after 1860, and
-throughout the nineteenth century American-made ironstone was considered
-inferior to imported china. Much of the early American potter’s energy
-went into the production of common utility items, which, like the
-probably American-made chamberpot in Figure 8, were often unmarked to
-hide their domestic origins.
-
-At the opposite extreme of the decorative scale was English majolica, a
-gaudily painted ware introduced by Minton & Co. at the 1851 “Great
-Exhibition” in London (Fig. 9). Early Minton majolica was intended as an
-imitation of sixteenth century Italian majolica and featured
-hand-painted romantic scenes on an opaque white background. The style
-quickly evolved, however, into a fancifully molded pottery decorated
-with a wide range of colorful semitranslucent glazes. Produced by a
-number of factories after about 1860, majolica was used through the end
-of the century both for inexpensive domestic items and for sometimes
-massive ornamental objects such as jardinieres.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 9. English majolica, c. 1860-1910. This
-    brightly colored ware was often molded into shapes resembling trees
-    or other plants. The brown-glazed handle is from a pitcher
-    apparently colored with blue, yellow, and brown.]
-
-Manufacture of European porcelain had not ceased during the years
-British earthenware dominated the American ceramic market, but the
-nature of the product had changed considerably. The French porcelain
-industry, in particular, had evolved from a restricted craft patronized
-by royalty to a number of independently owned factories turning out
-standardized dinnerwares for the public taste. These relatively
-inexpensive wares appealed to Americans as well as Europeans, and French
-porcelains were imported in quantity beginning around 1850. To
-Americans, the most prestigious French porcelain came from Limoges,
-where a number of factories had clustered to take advantage of extensive
-kaolin deposits. Of Limoges porcelain, the most highly regarded was that
-produced by Haviland & Co., a firm founded in 1842 by an American china
-merchant, David Haviland, to produce porcelain, specifically designed
-for the American market (Fig. 10). Cheaper French porcelains, often with
-no manufacturer’s mark, were sturdily and heavily made in an apparent
-attempt to capture the white ironstone dinnerware market.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 10. Limoges porcelain, c. 1875-1891. The
-    dinner plate at left bears the hallmark of Haviland & Co., an
-    American-run French Company that produced porcelain especially for
-    the American market. Three other undecorated plates, the least
-    expensive kind of porcelain, were also recovered in the privy
-    excavation.]
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 11. Decal-printed Austrian porcelain, probably
-    c. 1900-1918. Decal-printing, or decalcomania, was first used on
-    ceramics around the turn of the century and is a common method of
-    decorating china today.]
-
-Despite its popularity, French porcelain did not succeed in replacing
-white ironstone in the American cupboard. That remained for German and
-Austrian porcelain (Fig. 11), an even cheaper ware that began to enter
-the country in quantity around 1875, and in prodigious amounts after the
-turn of the century. Much admired for their thinness and translucency,
-these delicate dinnerwares easily undersold not only ironstone and the
-established French and British porcelains, but the then fashionable
-pressed glass tableware sets as well. Like most porcelains of the
-period, Austrian and German dinner sets were usually decorated with
-small sprays of naturalistic flowers. This design was made easier by the
-late nineteenth century development of decal-printing, or
-“decalcomania,” a process by which multicolored paper patterns are
-transferred directly onto the surface of a glazed ceramic.
-Decal-printing was first used on European ceramics around 1900, and it
-remains a popular ceramic decoration today.
-
-Most of the popular Austrian porcelains were manufactured near Carlsbad
-in Bohemia, which after World War I became a part of modern
-Czechoslovakia. After World War I Czechoslovakia and other European
-countries continued to dominate the American porcelain market. Although
-American-made earthenwares and stone chinas had become a competitive
-force around the beginning of the century, it was not until World War
-II, and the resulting disruption of the European china trade, that
-American porcelain manufacturers were able to end the tradition of
-imported ceramics that began with seventeenth century Chinese porcelain.
-
-
-
-
-                            GLASS TABLEWARE
-
-
-    [Illustration: uncaptioned]
-
-Decorative glass recovered in the privy excavation covered a range of
-styles and manufacturing techniques spanning the entire nineteenth
-century. Most of the glass tableware, however, particularly the heavy
-cut glass, appears to have been manufactured in the antebellum period.
-This indication that the Middletons continued to dine off their pre-war
-finery until they left the plantation may be an indication of the
-family’s reduced financial circumstances after the Civil War. Only a few
-of the more representative glass tableware items are illustrated below.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 12. Cut glass pitcher with applied crimped
-    handle. Early 19th century, possibly American-made.]
-
-One of the more popular and long-lived methods of decorating glass has
-been wheel-cutting, introduced into England from Germany by the early
-eighteenth century, and used primarily on the soft but brilliant lead
-glass crystal developed in England around 1675. Early nineteenth century
-English cut glass, incised entirely by hand, tended toward restrained
-neoclassical lines, but the introduction of a steam-powered cutting
-wheel in 1810 ushered in an era of deep and extensive cut decoration.
-Much of this English and Irish cut glass was imported into the United
-States, but by the first few decades of the nineteenth century, American
-glasshouses had developed a reputation in the field as well. The cut
-glass pitcher in Figure 12 dates from this period and is similar to
-pitchers produced in Pennsylvania glasshouses in the 1820s. The applied
-hand-tooled handle is of a type seldom used after the 1860s.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 13. Cut glass decanters. A. Cylindrical
-    flute-cut decanter, a style popular in the 1840s. The mate to this
-    decanter is still among the family possessions in the Middleton
-    Place house. B. Shouldered decanter with shallow fluting around
-    base. This style was introduced before 1830.]
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 14. Stemmed drinking glasses. A. Fluted ale or
-    champagne glass. Cut glass, c. 1810-1840. B. “Almond Thumbprint”
-    pattern wine glass. Pressed glass, post-1850. C. “Mascotte” pattern
-    wine glass. Pressed glass, post-1880.]
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 15. Ale flute and Mascotte wine glass as they
-    would have appeared unbroken.]
-
-By the 1830s cutting in flat vertical slices, or flutes, had come into
-fashion. Heavy straight-sided decanters like the one in Figure 13A were
-well-suited to this decoration and remained popular through the 1840s,
-after which the fashion swung toward lighter long-necked decanters with
-rounded bodies. The decanter on the right with more restrained fluting
-around the base only is probably part of a shouldered decanter of a
-style most common before about 1830. Victorian glasscutters frequently
-reproduced older styles, however, in the thousands of decanters that
-were turned off the wheel before decanters ceased to be an everyday
-tableware around World War I.
-
-In the late 1820s American glassmakers introduced the side-lever glass
-press, a device that could form wide-mouthed glass items by pressing
-them against a mold with a plunger. The glass press allowed mass
-production of decorated tableware at a much lower cost than cutting or
-engraving, and within a few years pressed glass had begun to make
-serious inroads into the cut glass market. Early American pressed glass
-was made in stippled or “lacy” patterns formed by closely-spaced small
-indentations in the mold, but in the late 1840s, smooth patterns similar
-to some cut glass styles had been developed. The invention in 1864 of an
-inexpensive substitute for the costly lead glass crystal further reduced
-the cost of pressed glass manufacture, and by the 1870s, dozens of
-factories were turning out pressed glass table sets in a staggering
-array of patterns. These pattern glass sets remained the most popular
-American glassware until the 1880s when cut glass resurfaced with deeply
-and ornately incised “brilliant” cut glass.
-
-Pressed glass manufacturers responded to the new patterns with pressed
-glass imitations, a single example of which was recovered from the
-Middleton Place privy deposit. Figures 14 and 15 show the transition of
-styles through the nineteenth century. On the far left in both figures
-is a tall ale or champagne glass wheel-cut with the vertical flutes
-fashionable in the first half of the century. Figure 14B shows a small
-wine glass pressed in the “Almond Thumbprint” pattern, an early non-lacy
-pattern introduced in the 1850s or 1860s. The wine glass on the right is
-pressed in the “Mascotte” pattern. This pattern, probably first produced
-in the 1880s, was one of the many late nineteenth century pressed glass
-patterns made to resemble the more fashionable brilliant cut glasswares.
-
-
-
-
-                 GLASS MANUFACTURE IN THE UNITED STATES
-
-
-    [Illustration: uncaptioned]
-
-At the beginning of the nineteenth century, most bottles in the United
-States and England were either free-blown—formed on the end of a
-blowpipe without aid of a mold—or blown into a one-piece “dip mold” that
-formed only the basic body shape. Neither of these processes allowed
-large-scale production of oddly shaped or embossed containers, and since
-even dip-molded bottles were formed by hand above the shoulder, the
-bottles tended to be asymmetrical.
-
-Hinged two-piece molds, capable of shaping the shoulder and neck as well
-as the body of the bottle, had occasionally been used in England as
-early as the 1750s, but they did not become common in the U. S. until
-the second and third decades of the nineteenth century. A three-piece
-mold with a dip body and hinged neck and shoulder parts, developed in
-England shortly after the turn of the century, was popularized by an
-1821 patent taken out by the Henry Ricketts Company of Bristol. These
-two forms, especially the two-piece mold, remained the most common mold
-types throughout the nineteenth century. On early two-piece molds, the
-pieces were hinged in the center of the base, but a more stable mold
-with a separate base part was developed by the late 1850s and was almost
-universally used in the later decades of the century.
-
-On almost all mouth-blown bottles, whether free-blown or blown in a
-complex mold, the lip and upper neck were formed in a separate process
-after the otherwise complete article had been removed from the blowpipe.
-This process, the last step in the formation of the bottle, was known as
-“finishing,” and the completed lip came to be called the “finish.” In
-the early part of the nineteenth century, bottles were finished with
-simple hand tools such as shears, but by 1840, a specialized “lipping
-tool” with a central plug and one or more rotating external arms had
-been introduced. This tool produced a smoother and more uniform finish,
-and remained in use until the industry was fully automated in the
-twentieth century.
-
-While the finish was being formed, most bottles were held by an iron
-pontil rod affixed to the base with molten glass. This process left a
-rough scar on the bottom of the bottle where the pontil had been
-detached. Holding devices which gripped the body of the bottle and
-eliminated the need for empontilling were apparently known in England in
-the 1820s, but did not become common in American glasshouses until the
-1840s or 50s. By the 1870s use of the pontil rod had almost entirely
-ceased.
-
-The most significant American contribution to the early nineteenth
-century glass industry was the development in the 1820s of the
-hand-operated side-lever pressing machine. This device consisted of a
-single- or multi-piece mold into which the glass was pressed by means of
-a plunger. Since the plunging process required wide-mouthed molds,
-pressing was used primarily for glass tableware, although straight-sided
-jars were also pressed in the later part of the century.
-
-In 1864 William Leighton of J. H. Hobbs, Brockunier, & Co. in West
-Virginia perfected a formula for an inexpensive soda-based glass that
-was as crystalline as the heavy lead glass previously used for most
-American-made clear glass items. This new glass revolutionized the
-pressed glass tableware industry, and probably was responsible for the
-flood of clear glass medicinal and household bottles that followed the
-Civil War. Like earlier clear glass, the improved lime glass was tinted
-with manganese oxide to remove its natural green coloring. Clear glass
-items manufactured with manganese tend to turn varying shades of
-lavender when left exposed to the sun. Manganese was imported from
-Germany in the nineteenth century to decolor glass and was no longer
-used after the outbreak of World War I.
-
-In the immediate post-Civil War period, the American glass industry
-expanded rapidly. Molds were improved and worker and furnace
-productivity increased to many times their 1800 level. New bottle shapes
-were introduced, and specialized and embossed bottles proliferated. The
-manufacture of preserve jars became a major industry, and a special
-“blow-back” mold, included in John Mason’s 1858 fruit jar patent, was
-used to form the screw threads for the sealable lids. Standard bottle
-shapes for different products became common, as did uniformly applied
-standard lip forms for different purposes. The standard shapes of the
-bottles from the Middleton Place privy are shown in Figure 16.
-Turnmolding, a long-known method of removing mold marks by rotating the
-unfinished bottle in the mold, became a popular way of manufacturing
-unblemished wine bottles. A popular technique of embossing was
-plate-molding, an operation in which a personalized name plate could be
-inserted into a standard mold for inexpensive lettering of even small
-runs of bottles.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 16. Bottle shapes from the Middleton Place
-    privy (not to scale). A. Champagne beer. B. Export beer. C. Malt
-    whiskey. D. Jo-Jo flask. E. Union Oval flask. F. Bordeaux wine. G.
-    Hock wine. H. Olive oil. I. American preserve. J. Fluted extract. K.
-    Bromo-Seltzer. L. Poison. M. French square. N. Baltimore oval. O.
-    Philadelphia oval. P. Double Philadelphia oval. Q. Plain oval. R.
-    Panel. S. Ball neck panel. T. Oil panel. U. Round prescription. V.
-    Quinine. W. Morphine. X. Free-blown apothecary’s vial. Y. Round
-    patch box. Z. Ointment. AA. Stoneware ink. BB. Bell mucilage. CC.
-    Cone ink. DD. Cylinder ink.]
-
-The first mechanized production of bottles in the United States was on a
-semiautomatic “press-and-blow” machine patented by Philip Argobast in
-1881 and used by the Enterprise Glass Co. of Pittsburgh to make Vaseline
-jars in 1893. Although the molten glass still had to be gathered and
-dropped into the mold by hand, the Argobast machine could produce
-completely machine-molded wide-mouth jars by pressing the lip and
-blowing the body in two separate operations. Semiautomatic production
-rapidly took over the fruit jar industry, and by the turn of the century
-most fruit jars were made on semiautomatic machines rather than in the
-traditional blow-back molds. Narrow-necked bottles, however, could not
-be manufactured on “press-and-blow” machines because the plunger for the
-pressing operation could not be withdrawn through a narrow opening.
-Although a “blow-and-blow” machine for narrow-necked bottles was
-developed in England in the late 1880s, semiautomatics for small-mouthed
-ware were apparently not introduced in the U.S. until after the
-development of the automatic Owens bottle machine in 1903.
-
-The Owens machine, invented by Michael J. Owens of the Toledo Glass Co.,
-was put into production in 1904. It differed from the semiautomatics in
-that the glass was gathered into the molds by mechanical suction
-process, thus completely eliminating hand labor. Despite a series of
-improvements from 1904 to 1911, the Owens machine was slow to gain
-acceptance, both because of its expense and because of the restrictive
-licensing policies adopted by the Toledo Glass Co. In 1905 most bottle
-production other than wide-necked jars was still by hand. Semiautomatics
-came into increasing use, however, and a number of improvements made
-them a serious threat to the Owens machine. After about 1914, there was
-a proliferation of patents for automatic feeding devices that could
-cheaply convert the more modern semiautomatics into fully automatic
-machines. Use of feeder-fed semiautomatics, as well as the Owens
-automatic machines, reduced hand bottle production to 50% of the
-country’s output by 1917, and to less than 10% by 1925. More efficient
-feeder machines slowly replaced the Owens-type suction machines and are
-the type in general use today.
-
-
-
-
-                            MEDICINE BOTTLES
-
-
-As glass manufacturing expanded after the Civil War, so did the
-pharmaceutical industry. Pharmacology became a more exact science than
-it ever had been, and its practitioners dispensed their compound
-medicines in glass bottles that for the first time were available in
-precisely graduated sizes and a variety of shapes often tailored to suit
-specific products. Early post-war bottles were usually made in the
-aquamarine of “green” glass that had become traditional for
-apothecaries’ wares, but use of clear lime glass spread until by the end
-of the century most pharmacy bottles, like most of those from the
-Middleton Place privy, were made of clear glass.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 17. Pharmacy bottles. A. French square shape,
-    c. 1860s-1920s. B. Ball neck panel, c. 1860s-1920s. C. Philadelphia
-    oval shape, c. 1867-1903. Embossed C. F. PANKNIN APOTHECARY
-    CHARLESTON, S. C. D. Blue Whitall Tatum poison bottle, c. 1872-1920.
-    E. Wide-mouthed prescription bottle, possibly for morphine, c.
-    1860s-1920s.]
-
-One of the first of the new shapes was the “French square,” a tall
-bottle with beveled corners introduced in the early 1860s (Fig. 17). The
-French square was followed by more elaborate rectangular, round, and
-oval shapes, many of them adapted with one or more flat sides to
-accommodate the paper labels or plate-molded lettering with which
-pharmacists usually marked their wares. The “Philadelphia oval” shown in
-Figure 17C, plate-molded with the name of an 1867-1902 Charleston
-pharmacy, was a favorite shape.
-
-Despite such advances as Louis Pasteur’s bacteriological discoveries,
-ideas of medical treatment in the nineteenth century remained primitive
-by modern standards. Without many of the vaccines and antibiotics now
-available, people dosed themselves with a wide range of substances which
-most twentieth century invalids would hold in dim regard. For instance,
-pharmacists distributed morphine in small bottles such as that shown in
-Figure 17E. Vegetable extracts that would not now be in anybody’s
-pharmacopoeia were often sold in panel bottles (Fig. 17B).
-
-One of the few restrictions placed on the more dangerous medicaments was
-packaging. In 1872 the American Medical Association, concerned over
-accidental poisoning, issued a recommendation that potentially harmful
-substances be bottled in distinctively colored containers that were also
-recognizable by touch. One result of this directive was blue quilted
-poison bottles (Fig. 17D). A specialty of Whitall, Tatum & Co., a major
-manufacturer of pharmaceutical wares, these bottles were manufactured
-until about 1920. Other companies continued to produce poison bottles
-until the 1930s, when it was decided that the bright colors and fanciful
-shapes were more an attraction than a deterrent to children exploring
-the medicine cabinet.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 18. Patent medicine bottles. A. Maltine
-    bottle, double Philadelphia shape. Embossed THE MALTINE MF’G CO.
-    CHEMISTS NEW YORK, a company name used from 1875 to 1898. B.
-    Bromo-Caffeine bottle, c. 1881-1920s. Embossed KEASBEY & MATTISON
-    CO. AMBLER, PA. C. Horsfords Acid Phosphate bottle, eight-sided.
-    Embossed RUMFORD CHEMICAL WORKS and on base, PATENTED MARCH 10,
-    1868, c. 1868-1890.]
-
-A better-known but less savory branch of nineteenth century medicine was
-the patent medicine industry, which exploded into notoriety with its
-extravagant use of the new late nineteenth century advertising
-techniques. While most patent remedies were alcohol- or narcotic-based
-frauds, the term patent medicine meant simply any medicine sold without
-a prescription and included a number of legitimate and effective
-over-the-counter remedies. The 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act and
-subsequent acts of Congress were intended to control dangerous
-substances and put an end to spurious advertising claims, and resulted
-in the alteration or removal from the market of many patent medicines.
-Others, such as Bromo-Seltzer, survived the legislation and continued to
-be sold for years.
-
-Most patent medicines were in fact not patented, for that would have
-meant revealing the formula to competitors and consumers alike.
-Nevertheless, the nature of many of the more potent over-the-counter
-remedies was not entirely unknown. Hostetter’s Bitters, for example, was
-regulated by the South Carolina Dispensary along with whiskey and beer.
-
-Only three patent medicine bottles were recovered from the Middleton
-Place privy deposit, and all appear to have been rather tame digestive
-remedies of the sort that might be sold today. The amber bottle on the
-left (Fig. 18A) contained Maltine, probably a digestive and nutritional
-supplement rather than a cure. The blue bottle (Fig. 18B), the same
-shape that was later used for Bromo-Seltzer, probably contained
-Bromo-Caffeine, an antacid and laxative whose main ingredient was
-magnesia. Bromo-Caffeine was the principal product of the Keasbey &
-Mattison Co., which operated in Philadelphia from 1873 to 1882, and in
-Ambler, Pennsylvania, from 1882 to 1962. The blue-green bottle (Fig.
-18E) contained Horsford’s Acid Phosphate of Lime, a phosphate-based
-preparation sold by the Rumford Chemical Works of Providence, Rhode
-Island, from 1868 until at least the turn of the century. On later
-bottles, however, the company name reads from top to bottom rather than
-from bottom to top.
-
-The predecessor to these sturdy containers was a thin-walled cylindrical
-bottle used by the apothecaries and pharmacists of the eighteenth and
-early nineteenth centuries (Fig. 19). All free-blown or dip-molded,
-these bottles were used as late as the 1850s, and because of the Civil
-War, perhaps even later in some parts of the South. The two bottle bases
-at right are turned up to show the blow-pipe pontil scar made by holding
-the bottle with a blow-pipe while its neck and lip were formed. The long
-neck on the right is probably not from a cylindrical bottle but from a
-globular flask that was used in larger sizes for wine and other
-beverages, and in smaller sizes for medicines and essences. The style of
-its collar dates this bottle to after about 1820.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 19. Apothecary’s vials, 18th or early 19th
-    century. The neck and base fragments are not all from the same
-    bottles.]
-
-    [Illustration: Base fragments.]
-
-
-
-
-                        WINE AND SPIRITS BOTTLES
-
-
-    [Illustration: uncaptioned]
-
-Perhaps the oldest use for glass bottles has been the storage and
-transport of alcohol. Some of the oldest bottles from the Middleton
-Place privy are wine and spirits bottles. Bottles made in the same dark
-green glass as the three pictured below left were used by the earliest
-colonists for various wines and spirits, and, although the bottle shapes
-have varied over the centuries, the tradition continues in the green
-wine bottles of the present day.
-
-With the improvement of glassmaking techniques in the nineteenth
-century, alcohol bottles became more diverse and specialized. Although a
-simple cylindrical bottle (Fig. 20B) remained a standard for various
-types of spirits, flasks, like those later used by the South Carolina
-Dispensary (Fig. 22B and C), became more and more common for whiskey.
-Beer bottles developed a distinctive shape (Fig. 21), and different
-shapes evolved for different types of wines. Figure 20A is a Bordeaux
-wine bottle, used since the early nineteenth century for the sauternes
-and clarets of the French Bordeaux district. The amber miniature shown
-in Figure 20D is a two-ounce sample bottle of the shape normally used
-for German Rhine wines. By the beginning of the twentieth century, most
-types of alcohol bottles could be purchased in miniature sizes for use
-in advertising and promotion.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 20. Wine and spirits bottles. A. Turn-molded,
-    probably c. 1870s. B. Three-piece mold, c. 1850-1880. C. Three-piece
-    mold, sand pontil, c. 1820-1880. D. Rhine wine sample bottle, c.
-    1870s-1920s.]
-
-
-
-
-                              BEER BOTTLES
-
-
-The three late nineteenth century bottles shown below represent one of
-the oldest pastimes in America. Until the late nineteenth century,
-however, most American beers were locally produced ales, stouts, and
-porters that were not bottled but sold in kegs to taverns. Modern lager
-beer was first introduced by German immigrants in the 1840s, but it was
-not until the 1870s that the expanding railway system, together with the
-food preservation techniques developed by Louis Pasteur in 1870, made it
-feasible to brew and bottle lager beer for a nationwide market.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 21. Beer bottles. A. Pint champagne beer,
-    Lightning stopper, c. 1892-1895. Embossed in plate mold THE PALMETTO
-    BREWING CO. CHARLESTON S. C.; on back THIS BOTTLE NOT TO BE SOLD. B
-    and C. Export beer bottles, a type used after the 1870s. The tooled
-    crown finish dates bottle B between about 1892 and 1925.]
-
-Lager beer was less alcoholic but more effervescent than earlier beers.
-Increased bottling of lager and carbonated soft drinks spurred the
-search for new bottle seals capable of withstanding more pressure than
-the traditional cork, which was subject to leakage and had to be tied
-down to prevent its popping out altogether. Two of the most successful
-of the dozens of stoppers patented in the decades following 1870 were
-Henry Putnam’s levered 1882 Lightning stopper (Fig. 21A), and William
-Painter’s 1892 crown cap (Fig. 21B), the closure still used on most beer
-bottles.
-
-With these and other developments, production of bottled “export” lager
-increased rapidly through the 1880s and 1890s. Keeping pace with the
-growth of the beer industry, however, was the group that was to prove
-its undoing: the American temperance movement. The temperance movement
-became an organized lobbying force with the 1893 founding of the
-Anti-Saloon League, and thereafter exerted increasing pressure on
-Congress and the state legislatures. “Dry” agitation in South Carolina
-led to the implementation from 1893 to 1907 of a statewide dispensary
-system to control distribution of beer, wine, and spirits; by 1916,
-South Carolina and 22 other states had prohibited all sale of
-non-medicinal alcohol. National wartime legislation banned the
-manufacture of distilled spirits in 1917 and beer and wine in 1918. The
-Volstead Act of 1919 extended this ban until the eighteenth amendment
-forbidding the production or sale of any beverage with more than .5%
-alcohol could take effect in January 1920.
-
-Prohibition completely changed the face of the American brewing industry
-and almost completely destroyed the tradition of the small local brewer.
-Many brewers tried to survive by selling soft drinks and “near beer,” a
-lager with less than .5% alcohol. “Near beer,” however, could not stand
-up to the competition of home brewers and bootleggers, and most
-breweries either turned to the manufacture of other products or closed
-down altogether. Two months after the sale of wine and beer was again
-permitted in April, 1933, only 31 breweries had reopened. In 1940, seven
-years after the lifting of all national restrictions on alcohol, beer
-production finally reached its pre-Prohibition level, but the number of
-breweries in operation was less than half the number in 1910.
-
-
-
-
-                   SOUTH CAROLINA DISPENSARY BOTTLES
-
-
-The South Carolina Dispensary system, in operation from 1893 to 1907,
-was a nearly unique and completely unsuccessful attempt to control
-alcohol abuse by placing a state’s entire retail liquor trade into the
-hands of its government. Touted by its sponsor, Governor “Pitchfork Ben”
-Tillman, as a means of encouraging temperance, guaranteeing purity of
-product, and returning alcohol revenues to the citizens, the dispensary
-was born as an eleventh hour compromise between pro- and
-anti-Prohibition forces in the state legislature. The measure as enacted
-satisfied neither side, and the dispensary remained a volatile issue in
-state politics until its repeal 14 years later.
-
-The system functioned by buying up wholesale spirits from local and
-out-of-state manufacturers, repackaging or relabeling them at a Columbia
-distribution center, and retailing them to the public through locally
-operated dispensaries. Beer, which was never bottled by the dispensary,
-was sold privately under special license, and alcohol of any sort could
-be brought into the state for individual consumption. In the beginning,
-all liquors were sold in special dispensary bottles, but by the turn of
-the century, the dispensary was handling hundreds of products, many of
-them pre-packaged national brands.
-
-Litigation and often violent public resistance (an 1894 “whiskey
-rebellion” left three dead) plagued the system in its early years. By
-1905 the internal corruption had become so pervasive that a legislative
-investigating committee recommended closing the system as unmanageable.
-Despite the now-handsome profit that it was returning to the state
-treasury, the South Carolina dispensary was abolished by the
-Carey-Cothran Act of the state legislature in 1907.
-
-South Carolina Dispensary bottles came in three basic shapes: Union
-flasks, Jo-Jo flasks, and cylindrical bottles and jugs. Bottles made
-before 1899 were embossed with palmetto trees (Fig. 22A and C), and
-those made after 1899, when public disapproval forced the removal of the
-state symbol from liquor bottles, were embossed with an intertwined SCD
-monogram. Bottles were manufactured for the dispensary by over 20
-different glass factories, but after 1902 all but one brief contract
-went to the Carolina Glass Company of Columbia.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 22. South Carolina Dispensary bottles. A.
-    Cylindrical palmetto bottle, 1893-1899. B. Monogrammed Jo-Jo flask
-    with embossed CFLG Co basemark, 1899-1902. C. Palmetto Jo-Jo flask,
-    1893-1899.]
-
-
-
-
-                            FOOD CONTAINERS
-
-
-Although olive oil, pickles, and other foods that do not require
-sterilization have been packed in glass and ceramic containers for
-centuries, the preserving of hot foods in airtight glass or metal
-containers is a comparatively recent development. Housewives in the
-eighteenth century knew how to preserve fruits by boiling them in glass
-jars that were subsequently corked and sealed with wax, glue, or pitch,
-but the idea of canning as we know it was popularized by Nicholas
-Appert, a French confectioner who in 1809 won a prize from Napoleon for
-his method of keeping food fresh for soldiers in the field. Appert
-succeeded in preserving over 50 kinds of food, including meats and
-vegetables, and published an essay detailing his method of boiling food
-in a wide-mouthed jar and sealing it with a firmly driven cork. The
-process was quickly copied in England and America, where seafood, fruit,
-and pickles were first packed for wholesale in New York and Boston about
-1820.
-
-A major problem with Appert’s method of preserving in glass was the
-irregular finish of hand-made bottles, which often prevented the cork
-stopper from forming an absolutely airtight seal. For commercial
-packers, an early and lasting solution was the tin-plated canister,
-patented in England in 1810 and in the United States in 1825. An
-inexpensive and effective closure for glass containers had to await John
-Mason’s 1858 patent of the threaded jar seal, which consisted of a
-molded screw thread that allowed the cap to seal on the shoulder rather
-than the uneven lip of the jar. Home canners still use a similar
-screw-top jar today.
-
-Many Americans, both civilian and military, had their first taste of
-commercially canned foods during the Civil War. Increasing varieties of
-meats and vegetables were packed in tin cans in the late nineteenth
-century, but glass bottles remained—and still remain—chiefly the package
-of condiments, sauces, and other foods that require a reclosable cap.
-
-These limited uses can nonetheless result in a large number of empty
-containers. Food bottles are usually one of the most numerous items
-found in a household trash heap. At Middleton Place, only four of a
-total of seventy-seven bottles were food containers, and all had
-originally held the preserves, flavorings, and oils that are usually
-packaged in glass. Figure 23A shows a “One-pound American preserve,” a
-jar sold at the turn of the century by at least one glass company, and
-Figure 23B is a typical late nineteenth/early twentieth century olive
-oil bottle. Figure 24 shows both the excavated example and a 1920
-catalogue illustration of a white pressed glass container for Armour’s
-Beef Extract, a by-product of the packing business produced by Armour &
-Co. beginning in 1885.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 23. Preserve jar and olive oil bottle, c.
-    1860s-1920s.]
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 24. Armour Beef Extract jar, c. 1900-1920s.
-    Armour & Co. began producing beef extract in 1885, but this glass
-    container was not used until around the turn of the century.]
-
-
-
-
-                                                    None Genuine without
-
-                            4 OZ. NET WEIGHT
-
-                                Armour’s
-                            Extract ^of Beef
-
-                        MANUFACTURED & PACKED BY
-                              ARMOUR & CO,
-                            Chicago. U.S.A.
-
-
-
-
-                        BOTTLES MADE AFTER 1900
-
-
-This final group of bottles and jars have nothing in common except their
-date. The two clear glass bottles at left are standard desktop ink
-bottles made after the 1904 introduction of the Owens bottle machine and
-before screw top inks replaced the corked variety around 1930 (Fig. 25).
-The conical ink in the center was one of the earliest shapes for
-desk-top ink bottles, introduced when ink was first bottled in small
-individual containers in the 1840s. The contents of the ointment jar at
-right, made after 1916, are unknown. Patent records indicate that the
-May 15, 1916, date was neither a trademark registration nor a patent
-issue. It may be a false patent date, put on the bottle to lend the
-contents an air of legitimacy.
-
-Although other artifacts, such as the Austrian porcelain in Figure 11
-and the beef extract jar in Figure 24, may have been manufactured in the
-twentieth century, these three containers were the only items in the
-privy pit that were definitely made after Susan Middleton’s 1900
-abandonment of the plantation. As such, they were the only evidence
-archeologists had that these nineteenth century objects were probably
-deposited in the twentieth century. All three are items likely to have
-been in use at the time of the Smith family’s 1925 move to Middleton
-Place, and they were probably discarded at that time.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 25. Twentieth century bottles. A. Cylinder ink
-    bottle, machine-made, c. 1904-1930. B. Cone ink, machine-made, c.
-    1904-1930. Embossed on base, CARTER’s MADE IN USA. Carter’s Ink
-    Company began bottling ink in Massachusetts in 1858. C. Screw top
-    ointment pot, white pressed glass. Embossed on base, AUBREY SISTERS
-    MAY 15, 1916.]
-
-
-
-
-                               LAMP GLASS
-
-
-    [Illustration: uncaptioned]
-
-In 1859, drillers in Pennsylvania brought in the nation’s first
-producing oil well, an event that was to alter radically the lives of
-generations of Americans. The first revolution achieved by this
-versatile new fuel was not in mechanical power, but in lighting. A
-working oil field made possible the manufacture of kerosene, a promising
-coal and petroleum-based illuminant that had been patented in New York
-in 1854 but had not been put into production because of the scarcity of
-one of its principal ingredients. Kerosene burned more brightly,
-steadily, and efficiently than almost any known fuel except gas, which
-suffered from the twin disadvantages of requiring immovable fixtures in
-the wall or ceiling, and of being generally unavailable outside large
-urban areas. The abundance of petroleum from the Pennsylvania fields
-made kerosene one of the cheapest fuels available, and by the mid-1860s,
-its use had far outstripped that of gas lighting. In many rural areas,
-it remained the only practical form of household lighting until
-electrification of these areas in the 1930s.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 26. Student lamp chimney. This glass was used
-    in reading lamps like those illustrated in Figure 27. The
-    kerosene-fueled student lamp was an 1863 Prussian design that became
-    popular in the United States in the 1870s.]
-
-Early kerosene lamps often resembled the oil lamps of the first half of
-the century, and many were oil lamps converted to kerosene. Among the
-new designs that became popular in the 1870s was the adjustable student
-or reading lamp (Figs. 26 and 27), an 1863 Prussian invention used
-through the early twentieth century. In the 1880s decorated lamp
-chimneys came into fashion. One of the earliest, simplest, and most
-enduring of these styles was the familiar “pearl top” chimney rim,
-patented by the George A. Macbeth Company in 1883 (Fig. 28). Similar
-crimped rims were produced by the Thomas Evans Company, which in 1899
-merged with Macbeth to become, by virtue of a semiautomatic lamp chimney
-machine, the nation’s largest glass chimney manufacturer. Demand for
-glass lamp chimneys was curtailed by the spread of electric power in the
-early twentieth century, and, although it continued in production, the
-lamp chimney industry did not fully mechanize until after the 1920s.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 27. Kerosene student and piano lamp,
-    reproduced from 1895 and 1907 department store catalogues.]
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 28. “Pearl top” and crimped lamp chimneys. The
-    true pearl top rim on the far left was patented by the George A.
-    Macbeth Co. in 1883. The variations shown on the right became
-    popular about the same time.]
-
-
-
-
-                            LABORATORY GLASS
-
-
-Figure 29 is a laboratory beaker of a type manufactured in the
-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, probably a relic of William
-and Susan Middleton’s inventor son Henry. It is free-blown in lead
-glass, one of many glass compositions used for American laboratory
-equipment before Corning Glass Works introduced low-expansion Pyrex
-glass in 1915.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 29. Free-blown laboratory beaker, probably
-    late 19th or early 20th century.]
-
-Henry lived at Middleton Place with his parents until the 1870s, when he
-went to study at Cambridge University under the Scottish physicist James
-Clerk Maxwell. Henry lived in England until his death in 1932.
-
-
-
-
-                              CONCLUSIONS
-
-
-    [Illustration: uncaptioned]
-
-The artifacts from the Middleton Place privy present a unique
-opportunity to observe one aspect of this plantation’s past. This
-collection of ceramics, bottles, and other items constitute the refuse
-discarded by the occupants of Middleton Place following the Civil War.
-It reflects their needs and tastes and represents an unconscious record
-of activities a century ago. Artifacts in the collection include items
-from an earlier time as well as things purchased throughout the last
-half of the nineteenth century.
-
-These materials also reveal much about the privy’s history. When
-compared with collections discarded around contemporary buildings, the
-artifacts from Middleton Place are similar to those often associated
-with abandoned buildings. The artifacts in the Middleton Place privy,
-then, are likely to have been deposited there, not as the result of
-day-to-day living, but as a consequence of cleaning out the rubbish of
-the house’s earlier occupants. We may identify the privy artifacts as a
-collection of items accumulated during a time of refurbishing as in the
-1920s when J. J. Pringle Smith moved into the family residence and began
-restoring it.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 30. Many hours are spent in the laboratory
-    conserving and studying the artifacts.]
-
-Although interesting and informative as individual objects, the privy
-artifacts are much more informative as an “assemblage” resulting from
-past activities. The archeologist must study assemblages, like pieces of
-a puzzle, to reconstruct, interpret, and explain past events that
-produced them. It is important to record carefully all the artifacts
-found together as well as their relationships to one another and to the
-deposit from which they were removed. Artifacts taken from the ground
-without proper recording are removed from their archeological context,
-and the information they hold is forever lost. Aimless “treasure”
-digging has destroyed much of our historical heritage. The Middleton
-Place privy collection illustrates how proper care, recording, and
-analysis can reveal new information. With foresight and planning,
-archeology can increase knowledge of the past for ourselves and for
-future generations.
-
-
-
-
-                               APPENDIX I
-                      CERAMIC MANUFACTURERS’ MARKS
-
-
-    [Illustration: CERAMIC MANUFACTURERS’ MARKS]
-
-  A. Arthur J. Wilkinson, Royal Staffordshire Pottery, Burslem,
-          Staffordshire. White ironstone plate, 1891-1896.
-  B. John Edwards, Fenton, Staffordshire. White ironstone plate, c.
-          1891-1900.
-  C. John Maddock and Sons, Burslem, Staffordshire. White ironstone
-          plate, 1891-1896.
-  D. C. C. Thompson & Co., East Liverpool, Ohio. White ironstone nappy,
-          1884-1889.
-  E. Limoges, France. White porcelain saucer, c. 1875.
-  F. Haviland & Co., Limoges, France. White porcelain plate, c.
-          1876-1891.
-  G. Unidentified mark, decal-printed porcelain plate.
-  H. John and George Alcock, Cobridge, Staffordshire. Light blue,
-          transfer-printed bowl, 1839-1846.
-  I. Josiah Wedgwood, Burslem, Staffordshire. Impressed on creamware
-          sauce tureen, 1769 to present.
-  J. Unidentified impressed mark, white porcelain platter.
-
-
-
-
-                              APPENDIX II
-            SIGNIFICANT DATES IN THE AMERICAN GLASS INDUSTRY
-
-
-  First three-piece hinged mold                                     c. 1808
-  Two-piece hinged mold first used in America                       by 1809
-  First widespread use of slanting collar finish                    c. 1820
-  Ricketts patent for three-piece mold with lettered base              1821
-  First side-lever glass press                                   late 1820s
-  “Lacy” pressed glass                                          1820s-1840s
-  Popularity of smooth-patterned pressed glass tableware     c. 1840s-1880s
-  sets
-  Development of jawed lipping tool for bottles                    pre-1840
-  Amasa Stone receives first U.S. patent for lipping tool              1856
-  Introduction into U.S. of non-pontil holding devices     late 1840s-1850s
-  for bottles
-  Formula for kerosene patented by Abraham Gesner                      1854
-  Development of two-piece mold with separate post base            pre-1858
-  Mason jar patent                                                     1858
-  Blow-back mold in general use                                c. 1858-1900
-  First oil well in Pennsylvania leads to widespread use               1859
-  of kerosene fueled lamps
-  Introduction of French Square pharmacy bottles                early 1860s
-  Student lamp patented in Prussia                                     1863
-  Leighton formula for improved lime glass                             1864
-  Development of plate mold for embossed bottles                   pre-1867
-  Widespread embossing of bottles                               1860s-1920s
-  Empontilling of bottles almost entirely replaced by                 1870s
-  use of holding devices
-  Greatest popularity of turn-molded bottles                    1870s-1920s
-  Student lamp introduced in U.S.                                     1870s
-  Louis Pasteur developed sterilization techniques for                 1870
-  beer
-  Anheuser-Busch begins first commercial bottling of            early 1870s
-  American beer
-  Heavily embossed and colored poison bottles                    1872-1930s
-  Improved finishing processes result in smoother and               by 1880
-  more uniformly applied bottle finishes
-  Argobast patent for semiautomatic press-and-blow                     1881
-  machine for wide-mouthed jars
-  H. W. Putnam acquires patent rights for lightning                    1882
-  stopper
-  Borosilicate glass developed in Germany                              1883
-  Macbeth-Evans Co. patents “pearl top” lamp chimney                   1883
-  William Painter patents crown cap                                    1892
-  Enterprise Glass Co. puts Argobast semiautomatic into                1893
-  commercial production
-  South Carolina dispensary system                                1893-1907
-  Michael Owens patents semiautomatic turn-molding                     1894
-  machine for light bulbs, tumblers, and lamp chimneys
-  First lamp chimney and tumbler production on Owens                   1898
-  turn-mold machine
-  Most wide-mouthed jars produced on semiautomatic                  by 1901
-  machines
-  Owens automatic bottle machine patented                              1903
-  Owens machine put into commercial production: first                  1904
-  narrow-necked machine-made bottles
-  First production of narrow-necked bottles on                    _c._ 1907
-  semiautomatic machines
-  Corning Glass Works develops Pyrex heat-resistant glass              1915
-  Use of manganese to decolor glass                                    1917
-  State prohibition law goes into effect in South                      1916
-  Carolina
-  National beer and wine production halted under Wartime          1918-1920
-  Food Control Act and Volstead Act
-  National prohibition of alcohol under eighteenth                1920-1933
-  amendment and Volstead Act
-  Machine-made bottles comprise 90% of total United                    1925
-  States production
-
-
-
-
-                              APPENDIX III
-        MARKS LEFT BY DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES OF BOTTLE MANUFACTURE
-
-
-Free-blown bottles usually date before the second half of the nineteenth
-century and are characterized by an absence of mold lines of any sort.
-Because no molds were used, these bottles are often asymmetrical.
-Dip-molded bottles, or bottles molded for basic body shape below the
-shoulder, are also generally pre-Civil War and can only tentatively be
-distinguished from free-blown bottles by their symmetry below the
-shoulder and a slight tapering from shoulder to base. Bottles blown in a
-two-piece mold have mold lines extending up two opposite sides, usually
-to just below the tooled lip. On early nineteenth century bottles of
-this sort, the mold lines continue across the center of the base, but
-after the 1850s, most two-piece molds had a separate base part, either a
-cup bottom, in which the seam encircled the outer edge of the base, or a
-post bottom, which left a circular seam on the bottom of the bottle.
-Most bottles from the Middleton Place privy were blown in two-piece
-molds with cup bottoms.
-
-The three-piece mold leaves a single horizontal line around the shoulder
-of the bottle, and vertical lines extending up either side of the
-shoulder. The height of these lines can vary from partway up the
-shoulder to nearly to the top of the neck. A turn-molded bottle has been
-rotated in the mold to erase mold marks and will exhibit faint
-horizontal scratches and striations on the body and neck.
-
-Embossing, very popular after the Civil War, usually consists of the
-name of a company or product printed in raised letters on the sides or
-base of the bottle. Isolated numbers and letters on or just above the
-base are usually, but not always, mold numbers used by the manufacturer
-for identification. Embossed letters are sometimes carved into the body
-of the mold, but for smaller runs a plate mold, with a removable
-lettered plate on one or more sides, was used.
-
-Mold lines on bottles finished with a specialized lipping tool are
-usually obliterated by faint horizontal striations extending to about a
-quarter inch below the lip. The two-piece blow-back mold, however,
-leaves mold seams to the very edge of the lip, and a lip surface that
-has been ground smooth rather than shaped with a lipping tool.
-
-A pontil mark is a circular scar left on the base by the iron rod used
-to hold the bottle for finishing the neck and lip. Although there are
-many different methods of empontilling, only two types of marks were
-found on bottles from the Middleton Place privy. One is a “sand pontil
-mark,” a roughened grainy area covering most of the base, apparently the
-result of dipping the glasscoated pontil iron in sand before attaching
-it. The other is a “blow-pipe pontil mark,” which results from
-empontilling a bottle with the same pipe that was used to blow it. A
-blow-pipe mark is a distinct ring of glass the same size as the bottle
-neck.
-
-Pressed glass is formed with a plunger in a mold on one or more pieces.
-Pressed glass items are comparatively thick-walled, have smooth molded
-lips, usually with mold seams, and often are distinguished by a short,
-straight shear mark, like an isolated mold line, on the inside base.
-This mark is from the severing of the “gob” of glass before it is
-dropped into the mold. Bottles that are made on either automatic or
-semi-automatic machines will have mold lines encircling the top of the
-lip, as well as on the sides and base.
-
-
-
-
-                              APPENDIX IV
-      ARTIFACT CATALOGUE FROM THE MIDDLETON PLACE PRIVY EXCAVATION
-
-
-                    _Artifacts_                      _No. of    _Minimum
-                                                    Fragments_   No. of
-                                                                  Whole
-                                                                 Items_
-
-  Ceramics
-  Porcelain
-    Undecorated Haviland & Co. plate                         9          1
-    Undecorated saucer, D & Co., Limoges                     5          1
-    Undecorated saucer                                       6          1
-    Undecorated plates                                      17          2
-    Undecorated platter                                     13          2
-    Gold-banded cup                                          9          1
-    “Cornflower” pattern tea or bread plate                  4          1
-    Decal-printed tea plate or saucer, hallmark Alice /      5          1
-    Austria
-    Decal-printed Austrian teacup                           11          1
-    British meat dish, hand-painted oriental design         16          1
-    Chinese export porcelain serving dishes                  4          4
-  Creamware
-    Banded Wedgwood sauce tureen                             1          1
-    Undecorated baker                                        1          1
-  Whiteware
-    J & G Alcock “Tyrol” pattern transfer-printed bowl       5          1
-    Blue transfer-printed mug, rural English scene           6          1
-    Fragment of blue transfer-printed cup or bowl,           1          1
-    bucolic scene
-    Undecorated ironstone or graniteware nappy               5          1
-    Undecorated ironstone or graniteware plates             23          4
-    Undecorated ironstone or graniteware cup                 1          1
-    Molded white ironstone chamber pot                       4          1
-    English majolica pitcher handle                          1          1
-  Glass Tableware
-    “Four Band” style pressed glass tumbler                  1          1
-    Fluted pressed glass tumbler                             2          1
-    “Thumbprint” style pressed glass tumbler                 5          1
-    Engraved tumbler, floral design                          1          1
-    Wheel-cut champagne flute glass                          2          1
-    “Almond Thumbprint” pressed wine glass                   1          1
-    “Mascotte” pattern pressed wine glass                    1          1
-    Pressed glass lid                                        2          1
-    Cut glass pitcher                                        9          1
-    Fluted cut glass decanters                               8          2
-    Free-blown bowls                                        75          2
-  Bottles and Jars
-  Food Containers
-    Armour & Co. beef extract jar, white milk glass          1          1
-    Olive oil bottles, aquamarine glass                      2          2
-    American preserve jar, clear glass                       4          1
-  Alcohol Bottles
-    Palmetto Brewing Co. champagne beer bottle,              1          1
-    aquamarine glass
-    Export beer bottles, amber glass                         2          2
-    South Carolina Dispensary Jo-Jo flask, clear glass       4          1
-    South Carolina Dispensary Jo-Jo flask, aquamarine        3          1
-    glass
-    South Carolina Dispensary cylindrical whiskey            2          1
-    bottle, clear glass
-    Unembossed Union flasks, amber glass                    15          2
-    Unembossed Union flask, aquamarine glass                 1          1
-    Rhine Wine sample bottle, amber glass                    1          1
-    Dark Green wine or spirits bottles                      21          4
-  Medicine Bottles
-    Panknin Apothecary plate-molded prescription             3          3
-    bottles, French Square shape, clear glass
-    Panknin Apothecary plate-molded prescription             4          4
-    bottles. Philadelphia oval shape, clear glass
-    Unembossed French square prescription bottles, clear    20         14
-    glass
-    Narrow-mouthed round prescription bottles, clear         2          2
-    glass
-    Narrow-mouthed round prescription bottles,               3          3
-    aquamarine glass
-    Narrow-mouthed round prescription bottles, light         1          1
-    green glass
-    Wide-mouthed round prescription bottles, clear glass     3          3
-    Unembossed Baltimore oval prescription bottle, clear     1          1
-    glass
-    Unembossed Philadelphia oval prescription bottles,       2          2
-    clear glass
-    Unembossed taper neck oval prescription bottles,         2          2
-    clear glass
-    Neck fragment from round or oval prescription            1          1
-    bottle, clear glass
-    Paneled pharmacy bottles, clear glass                   26          3
-    Paneled pharmacy bottle aquamarine glass                 1          1
-    Free-blown apothecary vials, aquamarine glass            8          4
-    Maltine Mf’g Co. bottle, double Philadelphia oval        1          1
-    shape, amber glass
-    Keasbey & Mattison Bromo-Caffeine bottle, round,         1          1
-    cobalt blue
-    Rumford Chemical Works Horsford Acid Phosphate           1          1
-    bottle, octagonal, blue-green glass
-    Bullock & Crenshaw decagonal vial, clear lead glass      1          1
-    Unidentified embossed French square bottle, amber        5          1
-    glass
-    Whitall Tatum quilted poison bottle, cobalt blue         1          1
-  Ointment or Cosmetic Jars
-    White milk glass patch box with lid                      2          1
-    Aubry Sisters white milk glass screw top ointment pot    1          1
-  Pharmaceutical Accessories
-    Corks                                                    2          2
-    Clear glass Lubin stopper                                1          1
-    Clear glass medicine dropper                             2          1
-  Ink, Glue, and Polish Bottles
-    Clear glass conical ink bottles, machine-made,           1          1
-    Carter’s Ink Co.
-    Clear glass cylinder ink bottle, machine-made            1          1
-    Amber glass conical ink bottle, blow-molded              1          1
-    Bell mucilage bottle, aquamarine glass                   2          1
-    British brown stoneware blacking or master ink bottle    1          1
-    Tappan’s Relucent gold and silver polish bottle          1          1
-    Ink bottle cork                                          1          1
-  Lamp Glass
-    Student lamp chimney                                     2          1
-    “Pearl top” and crimped lamp chimney                    19          4
-  Laboratory Glass
-    Pontil-marked beaker                                     2          1
-  Metal
-    Pewter Spoon                                             1          1
-    Brass curtain rings                                      7          7
-    Pill box with lid                                        1          1
-    Square-cut spike                                         1          1
-    Machine-cut nails                                        4          4
-    Hand-wrought nails                                       3          3
-    Hazel hoe                                                1          1
-  Coins
-    Liberty head quarters                                    5          5
-    Liberty head nickel                                      1          1
-  Personal Items
-    French toothbrushes                                      2          2
-    Lady’s leather shoe heel                                 2          1
-    White clay pipestem                                      1          1
-  Other
-    Isinglass stove windows                                  3          3
-    Delft tile fragment                                      1          1
-    Terracotta drainpipe fragment                            1          1
-    Window glass                                             1          1
-    Slate tile fragment                                      1          1
-  TOTAL                                                    473        164
-
-
-
-
-                         SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
-
-
-The information contained in this booklet is a partial synopsis of
-archeological reports published by the Institute of Archeology and
-Anthropology, University of South Carolina, as Numbers 148 and 174 of
-the _Research Manuscript Series_. For a detailed treatment of the
-history and archeology of Middleton Place, and a complete listing of
-bibliographic sources, the reader is referred to _Middleton Place:
-initial archeological investigations at an Ashley River rice plantation_
-by Kenneth E. Lewis and Donald L. Hardesty (1979), and _The Middleton
-Place privy: disposal behavior and the archeological record_ by Kenneth
-E. Lewis and Helen W. Haskell (1981). General reference works on
-historical archeology and artifacts are listed below.
-
-  Baron, Stanley
-      1962   _Brewed in America: a history of beer and ale in the United
-          States._ Little, Brown, & Co., Boston.
-  Cheves, Langdon
-      1900   Middleton of South Carolina. _South Carolina Historical and
-          Genealogical Magazine 1:(3)_: 228-262.
-  Collard, Elizabeth
-      1967   _Nineteenth century pottery and porcelain in Canada._
-          McGill University Press, Montreal.
-  Cox, Warren E.
-      1970   _The book of pottery and porcelain._ Crown Publishers, New
-          York.
-  Daniel, Dorothy
-      1971   _Cut and engraved glass, 1771-1905._ William Morrow & Co.,
-          New York.
-  Douglas, R. W. and S. Frank
-      1972   _A history of glassmaking._ G. T. Foulis & Co.,
-          Henley-on-Thames.
-  Godden, Geoffrey A.
-      1974   _British pottery: an illustrated guide._ Barrie & Jenkins,
-          London.
-  Huggins, Philip K.
-      1971   _The South Carolina dispensary._ Sandlapper Press,
-          Columbia.
-  Hughes, G. Bernard
-      1960   _English and Scottish earthenware 1660-1880._ Abbey Fine
-          Arts, London.
-  Lee, Ruth Webb
-      1960   _Early American pressed glass._ Northboro, Massachusetts.
-  Lehner, Lois
-      1980   _Complete book of American kitchen and dinner wares._
-          Wallace Homestead, Des Moines.
-  McKearin, George P. and Helen McKearin
-      1966   _American glass._ Crown Publishers, New York.
-  McKearin, Helen and Kenneth M. Wilson
-      1978   _American bottles and flasks and their ancestry._ Crown
-          Publishers, New York.
-  Munsey, Cecil
-      1970   _The illustrated guide to collecting bottles._ Hawthorn
-          Books, New York.
-  Noël Hume, Ivor
-      1969   _Historical archaeology._ Alfred A. Knopf, New York.
-      1970   _A guide to artifacts of colonial America._ Alfred A.
-          Knopf, New York.
-  Revi, Albert C.
-      1964   _American pressed glass and figure bottles._ Thomas Nelson
-          & Sons, New York.
-  Russell, Loris
-      1968   _A heritage of light._ University of Toronto Press,
-          Toronto.
-  Scoville, Warren C.
-      1948   _Revolution in glassmaking: entrepreneurship and
-          technological change in the American glass industry,
-          1880-1920._ Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
-  South, Stanley A.
-      1977.   _Method and theory in historical archeology._ Academic
-          Press, New York.
-  Toulouse, Julian H.
-      1969a   A primer on mold seams. _Western Collector_ 7(11):
-          526-535.
-      1969b   A primer on mold seams. _Western Collector_ 7(12):
-          578-587.
-  Wetherbee, Jean
-      1980   _A look at white ironstone._ Wallace Homestead, Des Moines.
-  Wright, Louis B.
-      1976   _South Carolina, a bicentennial history._ W. W. Norton &
-          Co., New York.
-
-
-
-
-                          Transcriber’s Notes
-
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-  is public-domain in the country of publication.
-
-—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by
-  _underscores_.
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-<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Middleton Place Privy House, by Helen Woolford Haskell</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
-at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
-are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
-country where you are located before using this eBook.
-</div>
-
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Middleton Place Privy House</p>
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0;'>An Archaeological View of Nineteenth Century Plantation Life</p>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Helen Woolford Haskell</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: July 3, 2021 [eBook #65754]</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net</div>
-
-<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MIDDLETON PLACE PRIVY HOUSE ***</div>
-<div id="cover" class="img">
-<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="The Middleton Place Privy House: An Archeological View of Nineteenth Century Plantation Life" width="800" height="1218" />
-</div>
-<div class="box">
-<h1>THE MIDDLETON PLACE PRIVY HOUSE
-<br />AN ARCHEOLOGICAL VIEW OF NINETEENTH CENTURY PLANTATION LIFE</h1>
-<p class="tbcenter"><span class="ssn">Helen Woolford Haskell</span></p>
-<p class="tbcenter"><span class="ssn">UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA
-<br />INSTITUTE OF ARCHEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY
-<br />POPULAR SERIES 1</span></p>
-<p class="center"><span class="ssn">Columbia, South Carolina</span></p>
-<p class="center"><span class="ssn">September, 1981</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_ii">ii</div>
-<p class="tb"><i>The University of South Carolina offers equal opportunity
-in its employment, admissions and educational
-activities, in accordance with Title IX, section 504
-of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and other civil
-rights laws.</i></p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_iii">iii</div>
-<h2 id="toc" class="center">TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2>
-<dl class="toc">
-<dt class="small">Page</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c1">List of Figures</a> iv</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c2">Acknowledgments</a> vi</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c3">A brief history of Middleton Place</a> 1</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c4">Archeology at Middleton Place</a> 8</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c5">Pottery and porcelain</a> 12</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c6">Glass tableware</a> 24</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c7">Glass manufacture in the United States</a> 29</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c8">Medicine Bottles</a> 34</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c9">Wine and spirits bottles</a> 39</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c10">Beer bottles</a> 40</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c11">South Carolina dispensary bottles</a> 43</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c12">Food containers</a> 45</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c13">Bottles made after 1900</a> 47</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c14">Lamp glass</a> 49</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c15">Laboratory glass</a> 52</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c16">Conclusions</a> 54</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c17">Appendix I&mdash;Ceramic manufacturer&rsquo;s marks</a> 56</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c18">Appendix II&mdash;Significant dates in the American Glass Industry</a> 58</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c19">Appendix III&mdash;Marks left by different techniques of bottle manufacture</a> 62</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c20">Appendix IV&mdash;Artifact catalogue from the Middleton Place privy excavation</a> 64</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c21">Bibliography</a> 73</dt>
-</dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_iv">iv</div>
-<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">LIST OF FIGURES</span></h2>
-<dl class="toc">
-<dt class="small">Page</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig1">FIGURE 1: Locator map of Middleton Place</a> 3</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig2">FIGURE 2: British-made white ironstone or granite china, 1891-1900</a> 13</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig3">FIGURE 3: Chinese export porcelain</a> 14</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig4">FIGURE 4: French Bourbon Sprig or Cornflower porcelain</a> 15</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig5">FIGURE 5: English porcelain platter</a> 16</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig6">FIGURE 6: Creamware sauce tureen</a> 17</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig7">FIGURE 7: Light blue transfer-printed serving bowl</a> 19</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig8">FIGURE 8: Molded white ironstone chamber pot</a> 19</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig9">FIGURE 9: English majolica</a> 21</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig10">FIGURE 10: Limoges porcelain</a> 22</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig11">FIGURE 11: Decal-printed Austrian porcelain</a> 23</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig12">FIGURE 12: Cut glass pitcher</a> 25</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig13">FIGURE 13: Cut glass decanters</a> 26</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig14">FIGURE 14: Stemmed drinking glasses</a> 27</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig15">FIGURE 15: Ale flute and mascotte wine glass</a> 27</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig16">FIGURE 16: Bottle shapes from the Middleton Place privy</a> 32</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig17">FIGURE 17: Pharmacy bottles</a> 34</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig18">FIGURE 18: Patent medicine bottles</a> 36</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig19">FIGURE 19: Apothecary&rsquo;s vials</a> 38</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig20">FIGURE 20: Wine and spirits bottles</a> 40</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig21">FIGURE 21: Beer bottles</a> 41</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig22">FIGURE 22: South Carolina Dispensary bottles</a> 44</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig23">FIGURE 23: Preserve jar and olive oil bottle</a> 46</dt>
-<dt class="pb" id="Page_v">v</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig24">FIGURE 24: Armor beef extract jar</a> 47</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig25">FIGURE 25: Twentieth century bottles</a> 48</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig26">FIGURE 26: Student lamp chimney</a> 50</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig27">FIGURE 27: Kerosene student and piano lamp</a> 51</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig28">FIGURE 28: &ldquo;Pearl top&rdquo; and crimped lamp chimneys</a> 51</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig29">FIGURE 29: Free-blown laboratory beaker</a> 52</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig30">FIGURE 30: Conservation of artifacts</a> 55</dt>
-</dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_vi">vi</div>
-<h2 id="c2"><span class="small">ACKNOWLEDGMENTS</span></h2>
-<p>I wish to thank Harvey S. Teal and George B.
-Hartness of Columbia, South Carolina; M. Mellanay
-Delham of Charlotte, North Carolina; Harmon Wray of
-Memphis, Tennessee; and Jan B. Eklund of the Smithsonian
-Museum for assistance with the artifact analysis.
-The original research was funded by a grant from the
-South Carolina Coastal Council. This publication was
-made possible by a grant from the South Carolina Committee
-for the Humanities, whose support is gratefully
-acknowledged. The Middleton Place Foundation, and its
-Director, Sarah Lytle, provided advice and encouragement.
-The author appreciates the assistance of the
-staff of the Institute of Archeology and Anthropology.
-Essential to the production of this book were Gordon
-Brown, Photographer; Darby Erd, Artist-Illustrator;
-Kenneth Pinson, Editorial Assistant; Mary Joyce Burns,
-Typist; Kenneth Lewis, Archeologist; and William Marquardt,
-Associate Director.</p>
-<p>Artifacts in the photographs are in possession of
-the Middleton Place Foundation, Charleston, South
-Carolina, and the Institute of Archeology and Anthropology,
-University of South Carolina, Columbia, South
-Carolina.</p>
-<p>The cover illustration and drawings on pages <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-<a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, and <a href="#Page_56">56</a> are by Darby Erd.
-<a href="#fig16">Figure 16</a> is taken from illustrations in Norman W. Webber&rsquo;s
-<i>Collecting glass</i> (Arco Publishing, New York,
-1973) and Ruth Webb Lee&rsquo;s <i>Victorian glass</i> (privately
-published, Northboro, Massachusetts, 1944). The drawing
-in <a href="#fig24">Figure 24</a> is reproduced from a 1920 Armour &amp;
-Co. sales catalogue made available by Harmon Wray of
-Memphis, Tennessee. The lamps in <a href="#fig27">Figure 27</a> are drawn
-from catalogue illustrations in <i>Edwardian shopping: a
-selection from the Army and Navy Stores catalogues,
-1898-1913</i> (compiled by R. H. Langbridge, David and
-Charles, Newton Abbot, 1975) and <i>Victorian shopping: a
-facsimile of the Harrod&rsquo;s Stores 1895 issue of the</i>
-<span class="pb" id="Page_vii">vii</span>
-<i>price list</i> (David and Charles, Newton Abbot, 1972).</p>
-<p>The engravings on pages <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, and <a href="#Page_39">39</a> are reproduced
-from Jim Harter&rsquo;s <i>Food and drink, a pictorial
-archive from nineteenth-century sources</i> (Dover, New
-York, 1980). That on <a href="#Page_29">page 29</a> is from the 1895 <i>Encyclopedia
-Britannica</i> (volume 10, page 658, The Werner
-Company, Chicago). The lamp on <a href="#Page_49">page 49</a> is from the
-1902 edition of the Sears Roebuck catalogue (Crown,
-New York, 1969).</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_1">1</div>
-<h2 id="c3"><span class="small">A BRIEF HISTORY OF MIDDLETON PLACE</span></h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p02.jpg" id="ncfig1" alt="Middleton Place" width="800" height="679" />
-</div>
-<p>The land that now comprises Middleton Place lies
-in one of the earliest areas inhabited by Englishmen
-in South Carolina. In 1674, just four years after the
-first colonists settled at Charles Town, Lord Proprietor
-Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper granted lands for settlement
-along the lower reaches of the Ashley River.
-Among these was the site of Middleton Place, deeded in
-1675 to Jacob Waight. Waight apparently forfeited his
-claim to the tract, and in 1700, it was granted to
-Richard Godfrey, who sold it in 1729 to John Williams,
-a wealthy landowner and justice of the peace. The
-land passed into Middleton hands in 1741, when John
-Williams&rsquo; daughter Mary married Henry Middleton, the
-second son of former provincial governor Arthur
-Middleton.</p>
-<p>Henry and his two brothers were the third generation
-of Middletons in South Carolina. Their
-<span class="pb" id="Page_2">2</span>
-grandfather, Edward Middleton, had arrived in the
-colony in 1678 as part of the great influx of Barbadian
-Englishmen who made up more than half of Charles
-Town&rsquo;s early immigrants. Like many other Barbadians,
-Edward settled along Goose Creek, north of Charleston.
-His plantations there, along with estates in Barbados
-and England, passed to his son Arthur in 1685. Arthur
-also inherited a prominent position in Carolina society,
-and with it, an active role in the political life
-of the colony. Edward had served as Lords Proprietors&rsquo;
-deputy and assistant justice in his few years&rsquo;
-stay in Goose Creek, but Arthur, who held more than a
-dozen public offices, was the Middleton who established
-the tradition of political leadership that was
-to distinguish his family for four generations.</p>
-<p>Probably the most significant of Arthur&rsquo;s
-achievements was his role in the overthrow of the
-Lords Proprietor. The eight British noblemen theoretically
-owned and managed all of the Carolinas, but in
-later years, they adopted policies that their colonists
-saw as inimical to survival in the American
-wilds. Following the Lords Proprietors&rsquo; failure to
-provide military aid during the bloody Yamasee Indian
-uprising of 1715-1717, Arthur Middleton led a convention
-that in 1719 persuaded the king to remove the
-Lords Proprietor. Later, as president of the Ruling
-Council, he served as governor of the province until
-the arrival of a governor appointed by the king.</p>
-<p>Arthur&rsquo;s son Henry inherited a large share of his
-father&rsquo;s estates in Carolina and Barbados and was
-reputed to be one of the wealthiest men in Carolina.
-According to one contemporary account, he owned some
-20 plantations and 800 slaves. Nonetheless, after his
-marriage to Mary Williams he moved his residence and
-base of operations to his wife&rsquo;s Ashley River plantation,
-which they named Middleton Place. The manor
-house was already standing at that time, but Henry
-added the two flanker buildings (the southernmost of
-which now serves as the main house), and laid out the
-formal gardens, terraces, and ornamental lakes that
-<span class="pb" id="Page_3">3</span>
-made Middleton Place one of the most elegant of the
-lowcountry plantations. Rice, introduced into the
-Carolinas in the late seventeenth century, had become
-by Henry&rsquo;s time a staple crop of the Ashley River
-region and was becoming the main product of Middleton
-Place (<a href="#fig1">Fig. 1</a>).</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig1">
-<img src="images/p03.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="821" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 1. Locator map of Middleton Place,
-Dorchester County, South Carolina.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Like his father, Henry held a number of public
-offices under the royal government, but it was in the
-rebellion against that government that he gained political
-renown, first as president of the South Carolina
-Provincial Congress and later as a delegate to
-the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia. Only
-<span class="pb" id="Page_4">4</span>
-seven of Henry and Mary&rsquo;s eleven children lived to
-adulthood, but both surviving sons were members of the
-Provincial Congress, and when Henry&rsquo;s health began to
-fail in 1776 his elder son Arthur replaced him as delegate
-to the Second Continental Congress. At 34 Arthur
-Middleton was the senior South Carolina delegate
-to sign the Declaration of Independence.</p>
-<p>The American Revolution took a heavy toll on
-South Carolina. Several major campaigns were fought
-in the former colony, and Charleston and the surrounding
-lowcountry were occupied by the British from
-1780 to 1782. During this time, 63 leading Charlestonians,
-including Arthur Middleton, were imprisoned
-in British St. Augustine. By 1780, Henry was seriously
-ill, and, like other lowcountry residents, he
-and his sons suffered serious financial losses from
-the plunder and disruption that accompanied the British
-occupation.</p>
-<p>Henry died in 1784 leaving Middleton Place and
-other plantations to Arthur, who in the postwar economic
-climate soon regained his former standard of
-living. Arthur and his family of nine children had
-lived at Middleton Place for some time before Henry&rsquo;s
-demise, and several important economic changes took
-place under Arthur&rsquo;s direction. In Henry&rsquo;s early
-years at Middleton Place, rice had been cultivated in
-inland swamps irrigated with water from man-made reservoirs.
-By the late eighteenth century, soil exhaustion
-had begun to pose a problem, and many planters,
-including the Middletons, changed to tidal rice cultivation
-that involved impounding freshwater swamps
-along the rivers&rsquo; edges and allowing them to be
-flooded by the natural action of the river tides. Not
-only did the new soil and nutrients deposited by the
-floodwaters remove the threat of soil exhaustion, but
-the tidal system was more labor-efficient than inland
-cultivation, resulting in higher yield per acre. This
-new efficiency was compounded by another late eighteenth
-century innovation, the water-powered rice mill,
-installed at Middleton Place about the same time.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div>
-<p>Arthur&rsquo;s eldest son Henry inherited Middleton
-Place at the age of 17, apparently while he was still
-in school in England. Henry devoted a great deal of
-attention to the gardens planted by his grandfather,
-enlarging them and introducing many new plants, some
-of them newly brought to America by the French botanist
-Andr&eacute; Michaux. From 1801 to 1830 Henry was continuously
-in public office, first as a South Carolina
-legislator and governor, then as a member of the United
-States Congress, and from 1820 to 1830 as American
-ambassador to Russia.</p>
-<p>By the time he returned from his service abroad,
-South Carolinians had embarked upon the separatist
-agitation that would eventually lead to their third
-attempt in 150 years to overthrow a government.</p>
-<p>At issue were the 1828 and 1832 &ldquo;tariffs of abomination,&rdquo;
-designed by Congress to protect fledgling
-industries in the northern states. However, they were
-viewed by indignant Carolina planters, dependent on
-direct trade with England, as an assault on their
-agricultural economy. The South Carolina Nullification
-Convention of 1832 declared the tariff null and
-void on the basis of John C. Calhoun&rsquo;s doctrine that a
-state had a right to vote to disregard onerous acts of
-Congress and, if other states found its action unacceptable,
-to secede. As a member of the opposing Union
-Party, Henry Middleton was perhaps the first of his
-family to take an active conservative role in a dispute
-pitting South Carolina against an outside governing
-body.</p>
-<p>This early threat to the Union was deflected with
-a tariff reduction in 1833, but the nullification doctrine
-had laid the ideological groundwork on which 11
-southern states were to base their secession over the
-issue of slavery 28 years later. Slavery was an economic
-mainstay of agriculture throughout the South,
-but particularly so in South Carolina, where slaves
-had been imported from Barbados with the very earliest
-settlers at Charles Town and where a plantation system
-<span class="pb" id="Page_6">6</span>
-based on involuntary servitude had existed since the
-late seventeenth century. By the early 1700s African
-slaves already made up three-quarters of the South
-Carolina population, and on the eve of the Civil War,
-South Carolina remained the largest slaveholding state
-in the Union. Colleton District, where Middleton Place
-was located, was nearly 80% black.</p>
-<p>This enormous disparity meant that white slaveholders
-lived in constant fear of slave insurrection.
-They were equally fearful of emancipation, which, as
-abolitionist sentiment grew in the North, many planters
-came to view as an inevitable outcome of northern
-political dominance. There were slaveholders who
-staunchly opposed disunion, but South Carolina, as it
-had been during the nullification dispute, was a hotbed
-of secessionism. With the 1860 election of Abraham
-Lincoln, a Charleston convention passed an ordinance
-making South Carolina the first state to withdraw
-from the Union. Henry Middleton had died in
-1846 before the slavery controversy reached its
-height, but among the signers of the Ordinance of
-Secession were his sons John Izard Middleton of
-Georgetown, and Williams Middleton of Middleton Place.</p>
-<p>The war that followed caused more devastation to
-the plantation economy than emancipation, for in defeat
-the planters lost most of their financial assets
-and their voice in local government. In areas that
-had witnessed military action, they often saw devastation
-of their homes and property. Middleton Place,
-plundered and burned by invading troops in 1865, was
-no exception. Williams and his family fled to
-Charleston where they lived while renting the plantation
-grounds to a &ldquo;Yankee captain.&rdquo; In 1867 Williams
-borrowed money from a sister in Philadelphia and began
-the task of restoring the burnt-out southern flanker
-building to serve as a family residence. In 1871,
-before repairs were complete, the Middletons and their
-two children were again living at Middleton Place in
-the shadow of the ruined mansion that had housed five
-generations of their family.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_7">7</div>
-<p>Restoration of the plantation&rsquo;s agricultural
-operations, however, proved more difficult. The tidal
-rice fields, which required constant maintenance, had
-been neglected, and the loss of the more than 100
-slaves who had worked the plantation grounds and rice
-fields left Williams without the necessary labor for
-large-scale cultivation. Although vastly diminished
-quantities of rice continued to be harvested elsewhere
-in the lowcountry, Middleton Place apparently never
-again produced a successful rice crop. By 1890 rice
-from Louisiana, where flat upland fields permitted
-mechanized cultivation impossible in the South Carolina
-marshes, had begun to drive Carolina rice off the
-market. Today no rice at all is grown in South Carolina.</p>
-<p>Two new commodities that gained importance in the
-land-poor lowcountry economy were phosphates, of which
-postbellum South Carolina was the nation&rsquo;s leading
-supplier, and timber, an important product in the
-Southeast. Williams turned his hand to exploitation
-of these natural resources, and by 1878, Middleton
-Place boasted both phosphate mines and a sawmill.
-Although he and his heirs continued to lease the plantation
-timber and mineral rights until the early twentieth
-century, by 1880 the aging Williams had left
-Middleton Place, taking up residence in Greenville,
-South Carolina. After Williams died in 1882, his wife
-Susan made regular visits to the plantation. But following
-her death in 1900, Middleton Place lay abandoned,
-except for periodic visits, for over 20 years.
-Williams and Susan&rsquo;s son Henry, who had left South
-Carolina in the 1870s to attend Cambridge University,
-was living in England, and their daughter Elizabeth
-had married and settled in Greenville.</p>
-<p>The plantation was inherited by a cousin, J. J.
-Pringle Smith, who, in 1925, moved his family into the
-southern flanker house and began the slow job of restoring
-the Middleton Place grounds and gardens.
-Pringle Smith built the present stableyard complex on
-the site of older outbuildings, installed an electrical
-<span class="pb" id="Page_8">8</span>
-generator in the former privy building, and opened
-the gardens to the public. In 1970 Middleton Place
-became a Registered National Historic Landmark under
-the management of the Smiths&rsquo; grandson, Charles Duell.
-In 1975, with the creation of the Middleton Place
-Foundation, the south flanker containing many of the
-family&rsquo;s original furnishings was also opened to the
-public.</p>
-<h2 id="c4"><span class="small">ARCHEOLOGY AT MIDDLETON PLACE</span></h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p04.jpg" id="ncfig2" alt="uncaptioned" width="800" height="611" />
-</div>
-<p>Modern historical archeology, like archeology in
-general, is based on two main premises. First, where
-man has lived for any length of time, he has left
-behind artifacts&mdash;bits of food, broken pottery, tools,
-and ornaments&mdash;that tell us something of his way of
-life. Second, human behavior is, to a certain extent,
-patterned and predictable, and similar artifacts will
-be found on similar sites. Thus, even if two household
-sites are separated by hundreds of years of technological
-innovation, they may yield utensils used for
-roughly the same purposes. If two contemporary sites
-<span class="pb" id="Page_9">9</span>
-produce artifacts of the same style and workmanship,
-then their inhabitants shared at least some aspects of
-a single culture, and variations between the sites can
-provide valuable clues to adaptations of that culture
-to different circumstances.</p>
-<p>The distinction between prehistoric and historical
-archeology is based not on differences in technology
-but on the presence or absence of written records.
-While prehistoric archeologists reconstruct
-ancient cultures primarily from artifactual evidence,
-historical archeology employs both documents and material
-remains to study literate societies and the pre-literate
-populations whom they influenced. In much of
-Europe and Asia, the historic period begins centuries
-before Christ, but in North America, historical archeology
-is concerned with the period of recorded European
-exploration and occupation extending from the
-sixteenth century to the present.</p>
-<p>From these four centuries we have innumerable
-written records covering a vast array of subjects.
-But although these records contain a wealth of information,
-they cannot always be trusted to be either
-thorough or accurate. In addition, historians are
-often most interested in aspects of daily life&mdash;such
-as health, diet, and the living conditions of the
-unlettered poor&mdash;that are frequently omitted altogether
-from written records. By examining the record
-of activities that people have left in the soil, archeology
-can provide written history with a comparatively
-unbiased account of the economic conditions
-underlying historical change.</p>
-<p>Probably the most obvious indicators of past
-living conditions are buildings, around which most
-human activities are centered. On most historic sites
-these include not only residences but also a variety
-of outbuildings such as privies, barns, and work
-buildings that are crucial to understanding the site
-as a whole. This is especially true of such complex
-institutions as plantations, where hundreds of people
-<span class="pb" id="Page_10">10</span>
-may have lived and worked over an area of many acres.
-Since many of these buildings have long since disappeared,
-the first task of the excavator is to find
-them by tracing the concentrations of debris that,
-fortunately for archeologists, our ancestors scattered
-freely around their dwellings and workplaces.</p>
-<p>The Middleton Place privy is a modest one-story
-building half hidden in live oaks behind the Middleton
-House museum. It has outlasted many of its more imposing
-contemporaries to become one of the oldest
-standing structures at Middleton Place. Built in the
-late eighteenth or early nineteenth century, the privy
-was one of the few plantation buildings to escape
-destruction by Sherman&rsquo;s troops in 1865. In its long
-lifetime it has served as an outdoor latrine, a generator
-house, and a storage building. Now, newly
-equipped with running water and flush toilets, it is
-the only antebellum building at Middleton Place still
-serving the purpose for which it was constructed.</p>
-<p>An outdoor privy may seem an unlikely place to
-conduct an archeological excavation. Much eighteenth
-and nineteenth century trash was simply tossed out the
-back door, but the backyard privy, ready made for
-waste disposal and usually handily located a few dozen
-feet from the house, also received its share of household
-disposables. As a privy pit neared abandonment,
-the top layers were often stuffed with broken objects
-before it was sealed and a new hole dug.</p>
-<p>The privy is set solidly atop a rectangular
-brick-lined pit, which house servants kept open and
-functioning for more than 100 years with a system of
-&ldquo;honey buckets.&rdquo; When the privy was finally abandoned
-in the 1920s, the entire pit, not just the top few
-inches, was packed with broken or unusable household
-goods.</p>
-<p>The privy pit was sealed by J. J. Pringle Smith,
-who laid a concrete floor in the privy building and
-converted it into a shed for the plantation&rsquo;s first
-<span class="pb" id="Page_11">11</span>
-electric generator. With the subsequent arrival of
-outside electrical power, the generator too was abandoned,
-and the privy stood undisturbed for the next 40
-years. In 1978 workmen remodeling the building into a
-modern restroom broke through the concrete floor to
-the artifact-laden pit below. The artifacts were excavated
-and analyzed by archeologists from the University
-of South Carolina&rsquo;s Institute of Archeology
-and Anthropology, and are now on display in the Middleton
-Place Spring House Museum.</p>
-<p>Privy pits, being relatively shallow, normally
-contain objects accumulated and discarded within a
-very few years. The Middleton privy, only three feet
-deep, was expected to be no exception. Once the artifacts
-had been cleaned and restored, however, it became
-apparent that this was no short-term kitchen
-deposit, but a diverse assemblage of objects spanning
-more than 100 years of the plantation&rsquo;s history.</p>
-<p>A sealed archeological deposit can date no earlier
-than its most recent artifact, and a handful of
-twentieth century utility bottles confirmed that this
-chronological hodgepodge had been thrown into the
-privy pit shortly after the arrival of the Pringle
-Smith family in 1925. The scarcity of items from the
-Smiths&rsquo; period of residence, however, suggested that
-the family had filled the privy not with their own
-trash but with objects accumulated by the Middletons
-in the preceding century. The artifacts could not
-have collected in the house before 1871, when the
-Middletons moved back to their war-ravaged estate, or
-after 1900, when Susan Middleton&rsquo;s death ended the
-plantation&rsquo;s role as a regular residence. The artifacts
-left in the house spanned Susan and her husband&rsquo;s
-entire lifetimes, from the costly dinnerwares
-of the wealthy planter to the plain stone china of his
-widow. As much as any exhibit at Middleton Place,
-then, the artifacts on display in the Spring House
-Museum bear testimony to the cycle of wealth and poverty,
-prosperity and decay, that characterized the
-nineteenth century Middletons and their plantation.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_12">12</div>
-<h2 id="c5"><span class="small">POTTERY AND PORCELAIN</span></h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p05.jpg" id="ncfig3" alt="uncaptioned" width="800" height="442" />
-</div>
-<p>The Industrial Revolution introduced an era of
-mass production, technological efficiency, and mass
-consumption. One of its minor miracles was the perfection
-of a hard-boiled white ceramic that was within
-the financial reach of most of the population. Though
-hardly striking to the modern eye, the white ironstone
-plates pictured below (<a href="#fig2">Fig. 2</a>) are the result of years
-of experimentation by British and other European potters.
-In durability, purity of color, and cost-effectiveness,
-the everyday ironstones and granitewares of
-the late nineteenth century represent a triumph of
-western ceramic technology that has been little improved
-upon since the earlier part of that century.
-(See <a href="#c7">Appendix 1</a> for a complete listing and illustrations
-of ceramic manufacturers&rsquo; marks.)</p>
-<p>The impetus for this technological marvel goes
-back to the global expansionism of Europe&rsquo;s seafaring
-nations in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
-Among the exotica brought back by early traders was
-Chinese porcelain, an impermeable white ceramic ware
-unlike anything produced in Europe. As trade with the
-Orient grew, so did importation of Chinese porcelain.
-By the eighteenth century, Chinese potters were regularly
-<span class="pb" id="Page_13">13</span>
-turning out blue-and-white &ldquo;export porcelain&rdquo;
-(<a href="#fig3">Fig. 3</a>) made specifically for the European market.
-East India Company ships were transporting it to England
-as &ldquo;flooring&rdquo; to protect perishable cargoes of
-tea.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig2">
-<img src="images/p05a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="599" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 2. British-made white ironstone or
-granite china, 1891-1900. All four plates
-are marked &ldquo;MADE IN ENGLAND,&rdquo; a convention
-adopted in 1891 to comply with American
-import regulations.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Much of this porcelain found its way to the American
-colonies. In the early colonial period, Chinese
-porcelain was a relatively rare and prestigious ware
-associated with the upper-class custom of afternoon
-tea. By the time of the American Revolution, both
-tea-drinking and porcelain had spread to the lower
-classes. When American merchants opened their own
-direct trade with China in the 1780s, they brought
-back large quantities of porcelain along with the more
-lucrative teas and silks. By the 1820s Chinese
-<span class="pb" id="Page_14">14</span>
-blue-and-white had become an ordinary household
-fixture and, with a concomitant decline in quality of
-production, began to lose favor with the American
-buyer. Very little was imported after the early
-1830s.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig3">
-<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="639" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 3. Chinese export porcelain. These
-fragments are all from plates or serving
-dishes, probably imported before 1830. All
-are hand-painted with blue underglaze decoration.
-The piece on the upper left retains
-traces of additional decoration, including
-gilding, applied over the glaze.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig4">
-<img src="images/p06a.jpg" alt="" width="1560" height="1200" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 4. French Bourbon Sprig or Cornflower
-porcelain, a pattern popular before the
-French Revolution. Other pieces of this
-pattern are on display in the Middleton
-House dining room.</p>
-</div>
-<p>It would be difficult to overestimate the influence
-of Oriental porcelain on the European ceramic
-industry. Europeans greatly admired the hardness,
-whiteness, and thinness of the Chinese imports, and
-many of the most important developments in eighteenth
-and nineteenth century ceramic manufacture resulted
-from a conscious effort to imitate these qualities.
-Soft paste porcelain, made by adding glass to the clay
-body, was an early attempt to reproduce the porcelain
-paste itself. The Germans discovered the secret of
-true hard paste porcelain around 1710 and began producing
-it at Meissen three years later, followed by
-the Austrians at Vienna in 1718 and the French at
-S&egrave;vres in 1768. Early European porcelains imitated
-the Oriental in design as well as paste, but after
-about mid-century, chinoiseries gave way to flowers
-and other European designs executed in a variety of
-colors. Through the end of the century, European
-porcelain remained an art form available only to the
-well-to-do. <a href="#fig4">Figure 4</a> shows a French porcelain tea
-plate hand-painted in the &ldquo;Bourbon Sprig&rdquo; or &ldquo;Cornflower&rdquo;
-pattern of scattered flowers popular during
-the reign of Louis XVI. Probably produced in Paris in
-the eighteenth or early nineteenth century, this plate
-<span class="pb" id="Page_16">16</span>
-was part of a large set of Bourbon Sprig china originally
-brought from Europe by a member of the Middleton
-family after 1820.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig5">
-<img src="images/p07.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="500" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 5. English porcelain platter, decorated
-over the glaze with the polychrome
-orientalizing designs favored by early
-19th century British ceramic painters.
-This dish was also probably part of a
-large set, fragments of which have been
-found elsewhere on the Middleton Place
-grounds.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Little hard paste porcelain was produced in England,
-where bone china, a somewhat softer porcelain
-with calcined ox bone added to the paste, became a
-favorite material for expensive dinnerwares. Oriental
-influence on British ceramics was more immediately
-felt in the British decorative style, which through
-the nineteenth century continued to borrow heavily
-from the Chinese and Japanese. <a href="#fig5">Figure 5</a> illustrates
-an English porcelain platter decorated in the colorful
-pseudo-Oriental motif typical of early nineteenth
-century dinner services. These services, often made
-<span class="pb" id="Page_17">17</span>
-in stone china or ironstone, sometimes included as
-many as two hundred pieces to accommodate the lavish
-dinner parties that were the fashionable entertainment
-of the day.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig6">
-<img src="images/p07a.jpg" alt="" width="1565" height="636" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 6. Creamware sauce tureen, manufactured
-by the Josiah Wedgwood factory. One
-of the original 1780s Wedgwood designs,
-tureens similar to this one are still produced
-by the Wedgwood pottery in Barlaston,
-Staffordshire. Manufacturer&rsquo;s markings
-indicate that this piece was manufactured
-before 1860.</p>
-</div>
-<p>A more significant effect of Oriental porcelain
-on British ceramics was the revolution it inspired in
-the production of everyday earthenware. From the
-early eighteenth century, British potters had sought
-to develop a smooth white-bodied earthenware that
-could be made from local clays to compete with the
-imported blue-and-white. The first real breakthrough
-in this endeavor came in the 1760s, when Josiah Wedgwood,
-the giant of British ceramic history, began production
-of a thinly potted pale yellow pottery known
-as creamware or queensware (<a href="#fig6">Fig. 6</a>). Dozens of British
-factories quickly took up manufacture of creamware,
-and it became a staple dinnerware throughout
-Europe and America. It remained a popular British and
-American tableware until the 1820s, after which it
-degenerated into a common utilitarian crockery. Known
-<span class="pb" id="Page_18">18</span>
-as &ldquo;C.C. ware,&rdquo; creamware finished out the nineteenth
-century as the cheapest of the heavy utility wares,
-used chiefly for such items as mixing bowls and
-chamber pots.</p>
-<p>On the heels of creamware came pearlware, another
-Wedgwood invention that consisted of a slightly
-whiter-bodied ceramic, which, with the addition of a
-clear blue-tinted glaze, came close to approximating
-the pearly bluish white of Oriental porcelain. The
-development of pearlware, and the even whiter earthenwares
-that followed, ushered in the great British
-period of blue transfer-printing that lasted from the
-1780s through the 1840s. The art of printing glazed
-ceramics with designs transferred from engraved copper
-plates had been known since the 1750s, but the more
-durable underglaze process was developed only in the
-1770s&mdash;and then only in cobalt blue, the one color
-that consistently remained unblurred through the high
-firing temperatures required for glazing. Blue underglaze
-printing had been tried to no one&rsquo;s satisfaction
-on the yellow background of creamware, but pearlware,
-with its faint bluish tint, was the first earthenware
-that was both hard enough and of a suitable color for
-the new technique. Despite the development of nearly
-pure white earthenwares in the early 1800s, British
-potters continued throughout the nineteenth century to
-add the blue-tinted pearlware glaze to earthenwares of
-many different compositions.</p>
-<p>Early transfer patterns imitated the Chinese and
-were engraved into the copper plates in a series of
-deep lines, but a technique combining lines and stippling,
-which allowed for greater detail and shading,
-was introduced about 1810. With this and other developments,
-Oriental designs gave way to pastoral and
-architectural scenes&mdash;English, Alpine, Italianate, and
-American, among many others&mdash;usually surrounded by
-borders of English flowers (<a href="#fig7">Fig. 7</a>). In later years,
-many of these scenes were printed in various colors
-made possible by the introduction of new dyes in the
-late 1820s, but blue remained the most popular color
-through the end of the transfer-printing era in the
-late 1840s.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_19">19</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig7">
-<img src="images/p08.jpg" alt="" width="792" height="467" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 7. Light blue transfer-printed serving
-bowl, manufactured by J. &amp; G. Alcock,
-Staffordshire, 1839-1846. Pastoral scenes
-like this TYROL pattern were popular from
-about 1810 through the 1840s.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig8">
-<img src="images/p08a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="499" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 8. Molded white ironstone chamber
-pot, probably American made, c. 1860-1900.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_20">20</div>
-<p>The dinnerware that pre-empted transfer-printed
-earthenware was plain stone china of the sort pictured
-in <a href="#fig2">Figure 2</a>. Late nineteenth century stone china,
-also known as ironstone, graniteware, and semi-porcelain,
-was not a new ceramic but a variant of the
-stone chinas and ironstones first produced by Josiah
-Spode and Charles Mason in the first two decades of
-the century. The novelty of the stone chinas sold
-after 1840 lay in the new inexpensive methods of mass-producing
-them, and in their hitherto unthinkable
-absence of painted decoration. Early nineteenth century
-stone chinas had been elaborately decorated with
-Oriental wildlife and transfer-printed patterns, but
-by mid-century it was almost all stark white, with
-only embossed or molded decoration. After about 1870,
-it was often produced with no decoration at all.</p>
-<p>Stone china at its best was nearly unbreakable,
-and thus admirably suited to life in the still rough-and-ready
-American states. Like earlier wares, most
-of the stone china sold in the United States was imported
-from Great Britain. The fledgling American
-pottery industry did not begin producing hard-paste
-whitewares until after 1860, and throughout the nineteenth
-century American-made ironstone was considered
-inferior to imported china. Much of the early American
-potter&rsquo;s energy went into the production of common
-utility items, which, like the probably American-made
-chamberpot in <a href="#fig8">Figure 8</a>, were often unmarked to hide
-their domestic origins.</p>
-<p>At the opposite extreme of the decorative scale
-was English majolica, a gaudily painted ware introduced
-by Minton &amp; Co. at the 1851 &ldquo;Great Exhibition&rdquo;
-in London (<a href="#fig9">Fig. 9</a>). Early Minton majolica was intended
-as an imitation of sixteenth century Italian
-majolica and featured hand-painted romantic scenes on
-an opaque white background. The style quickly
-evolved, however, into a fancifully molded pottery
-<span class="pb" id="Page_21">21</span>
-decorated with a wide range of colorful semitranslucent
-glazes. Produced by a number of factories
-after about 1860, majolica was used through the end of
-the century both for inexpensive domestic items and
-for sometimes massive ornamental objects such as jardinieres.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig9">
-<img src="images/p09.jpg" alt="" width="551" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 9. English majolica, c. 1860-1910.
-This brightly colored ware was often
-molded into shapes resembling trees or
-other plants. The brown-glazed handle is
-from a pitcher apparently colored with
-blue, yellow, and brown.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Manufacture of European porcelain had not ceased
-during the years British earthenware dominated the
-American ceramic market, but the nature of the product
-had changed considerably. The French porcelain industry,
-in particular, had evolved from a restricted
-craft patronized by royalty to a number of independently
-owned factories turning out standardized dinnerwares
-for the public taste. These relatively inexpensive
-wares appealed to Americans as well as Europeans,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_22">22</span>
-and French porcelains were imported in quantity
-beginning around 1850. To Americans, the most prestigious
-French porcelain came from Limoges, where a
-number of factories had clustered to take advantage of
-extensive kaolin deposits. Of Limoges porcelain, the
-most highly regarded was that produced by Haviland &amp;
-Co., a firm founded in 1842 by an American china merchant,
-David Haviland, to produce porcelain, specifically
-designed for the American market (<a href="#fig10">Fig. 10</a>).
-Cheaper French porcelains, often with no manufacturer&rsquo;s
-mark, were sturdily and heavily made in an apparent
-attempt to capture the white ironstone dinnerware
-market.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig10">
-<img src="images/p10.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="535" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 10. Limoges porcelain, c. 1875-1891.
-The dinner plate at left bears the hallmark
-of Haviland &amp; Co., an American-run
-French Company that produced porcelain
-especially for the American market. Three
-other undecorated plates, the least expensive
-kind of porcelain, were also recovered
-in the privy excavation.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_23">23</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig11">
-<img src="images/p10a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="500" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 11. Decal-printed Austrian porcelain,
-probably c. 1900-1918. Decal-printing, or
-decalcomania, was first used on ceramics
-around the turn of the century and is a
-common method of decorating china today.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Despite its popularity, French porcelain did not
-succeed in replacing white ironstone in the American
-cupboard. That remained for German and Austrian
-porcelain (<a href="#fig11">Fig. 11</a>), an even cheaper ware that began
-to enter the country in quantity around 1875, and in
-prodigious amounts after the turn of the century.
-Much admired for their thinness and translucency,
-these delicate dinnerwares easily undersold not only
-ironstone and the established French and British porcelains,
-but the then fashionable pressed glass tableware
-sets as well. Like most porcelains of the period,
-Austrian and German dinner sets were usually decorated
-with small sprays of naturalistic flowers. This design
-was made easier by the late nineteenth century
-development of decal-printing, or &ldquo;decalcomania,&rdquo; a
-process by which multicolored paper patterns are
-transferred directly onto the surface of a glazed
-ceramic. Decal-printing was first used on European
-<span class="pb" id="Page_24">24</span>
-ceramics around 1900, and it remains a popular ceramic
-decoration today.</p>
-<p>Most of the popular Austrian porcelains were
-manufactured near Carlsbad in Bohemia, which after
-World War I became a part of modern Czechoslovakia.
-After World War I Czechoslovakia and other European
-countries continued to dominate the American porcelain
-market. Although American-made earthenwares and stone
-chinas had become a competitive force around the beginning
-of the century, it was not until World War II,
-and the resulting disruption of the European china
-trade, that American porcelain manufacturers were able
-to end the tradition of imported ceramics that began
-with seventeenth century Chinese porcelain.</p>
-<h2 id="c6"><span class="small">GLASS TABLEWARE</span></h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p11.jpg" id="ncfig4" alt="uncaptioned" width="800" height="402" />
-</div>
-<p>Decorative glass recovered in the privy excavation
-covered a range of styles and manufacturing techniques
-spanning the entire nineteenth century. Most
-of the glass tableware, however, particularly the
-heavy cut glass, appears to have been manufactured in
-the antebellum period. This indication that the Middletons
-continued to dine off their pre-war finery
-until they left the plantation may be an indication of
-the family&rsquo;s reduced financial circumstances after the
-Civil War. Only a few of the more representative
-<span class="pb" id="Page_25">25</span>
-glass tableware items are illustrated below.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig12">
-<img src="images/p11b.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="817" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 12. Cut glass pitcher with applied
-crimped handle. Early 19th century, possibly
-American-made.</p>
-</div>
-<p>One of the more popular and long-lived methods of
-decorating glass has been wheel-cutting, introduced
-into England from Germany by the early eighteenth
-century, and used primarily on the soft but brilliant
-lead glass crystal developed in England around 1675.
-Early nineteenth century English cut glass, incised
-entirely by hand, tended toward restrained neoclassical
-lines, but the introduction of a steam-powered
-cutting wheel in 1810 ushered in an era of deep and
-extensive cut decoration. Much of this English and
-<span class="pb" id="Page_26">26</span>
-Irish cut glass was imported into the United States,
-but by the first few decades of the nineteenth century,
-American glasshouses had developed a reputation
-in the field as well. The cut glass pitcher in <a href="#fig12">Figure 12</a>
-dates from this period and is similar to pitchers
-produced in Pennsylvania glasshouses in the 1820s. The
-applied hand-tooled handle is of a type seldom used
-after the 1860s.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig13">
-<img src="images/p12.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="641" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 13. Cut glass decanters. A. Cylindrical
-flute-cut decanter, a style popular in
-the 1840s. The mate to this decanter is
-still among the family possessions in the
-Middleton Place house. B. Shouldered decanter
-with shallow fluting around base.
-This style was introduced before 1830.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_27">27</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig14">
-<img src="images/p12a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="362" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 14. Stemmed drinking glasses. A.
-Fluted ale or champagne glass. Cut glass,
-c. 1810-1840. B. &ldquo;Almond Thumbprint&rdquo; pattern
-wine glass. Pressed glass, post-1850.
-C. &ldquo;Mascotte&rdquo; pattern wine glass. Pressed
-glass, post-1880.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig15">
-<img src="images/p12c.jpg" alt="" width="523" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 15. Ale flute and Mascotte wine glass
-as they would have appeared unbroken.</p>
-</div>
-<p>By the 1830s cutting in flat vertical slices, or
-flutes, had come into fashion. Heavy straight-sided
-decanters like the one in <a href="#fig13">Figure 13</a>A were well-suited
-to this decoration and remained popular through the
-1840s, after which the fashion swung toward lighter
-long-necked decanters with rounded bodies. The decanter
-on the right with more restrained fluting
-around the base only is probably part of a shouldered
-<span class="pb" id="Page_28">28</span>
-decanter of a style most common before about 1830.
-Victorian glasscutters frequently reproduced older
-styles, however, in the thousands of decanters that
-were turned off the wheel before decanters ceased to
-be an everyday tableware around World War I.</p>
-<p>In the late 1820s American glassmakers introduced
-the side-lever glass press, a device that could form
-wide-mouthed glass items by pressing them against a
-mold with a plunger. The glass press allowed mass
-production of decorated tableware at a much lower cost
-than cutting or engraving, and within a few years
-pressed glass had begun to make serious inroads into
-the cut glass market. Early American pressed glass
-was made in stippled or &ldquo;lacy&rdquo; patterns formed by
-closely-spaced small indentations in the mold, but in
-the late 1840s, smooth patterns similar to some cut
-glass styles had been developed. The invention in
-1864 of an inexpensive substitute for the costly lead
-glass crystal further reduced the cost of pressed
-glass manufacture, and by the 1870s, dozens of factories
-were turning out pressed glass table sets in a
-staggering array of patterns. These pattern glass
-sets remained the most popular American glassware
-until the 1880s when cut glass resurfaced with deeply
-and ornately incised &ldquo;brilliant&rdquo; cut glass.</p>
-<p>Pressed glass manufacturers responded to the new
-patterns with pressed glass imitations, a single example
-of which was recovered from the Middleton Place
-privy deposit. Figures <a href="#fig14">14</a> and <a href="#fig15">15</a> show the transition
-of styles through the nineteenth century. On the far
-left in both figures is a tall ale or champagne glass
-wheel-cut with the vertical flutes fashionable in the
-first half of the century. <a href="#fig14">Figure 14</a>B shows a small
-wine glass pressed in the &ldquo;Almond Thumbprint&rdquo; pattern,
-an early non-lacy pattern introduced in the 1850s or
-1860s. The wine glass on the right is pressed in the
-&ldquo;Mascotte&rdquo; pattern. This pattern, probably first
-produced in the 1880s, was one of the many late nineteenth
-century pressed glass patterns made to resemble
-the more fashionable brilliant cut glasswares.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_29">29</div>
-<h2 id="c7"><span class="small">GLASS MANUFACTURE IN THE UNITED STATES</span></h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p13.jpg" id="ncfig5" alt="uncaptioned" width="800" height="578" />
-</div>
-<p>At the beginning of the nineteenth century, most
-bottles in the United States and England were either
-free-blown&mdash;formed on the end of a blowpipe without
-aid of a mold&mdash;or blown into a one-piece &ldquo;dip mold&rdquo;
-that formed only the basic body shape. Neither of
-these processes allowed large-scale production of
-oddly shaped or embossed containers, and since even
-dip-molded bottles were formed by hand above the
-shoulder, the bottles tended to be asymmetrical.</p>
-<p>Hinged two-piece molds, capable of shaping the
-shoulder and neck as well as the body of the bottle,
-had occasionally been used in England as early as the
-1750s, but they did not become common in the U. S.
-until the second and third decades of the nineteenth
-century. A three-piece mold with a dip body and
-hinged neck and shoulder parts, developed in England
-shortly after the turn of the century, was popularized
-by an 1821 patent taken out by the Henry Ricketts
-Company of Bristol. These two forms, especially the
-two-piece mold, remained the most common mold types
-<span class="pb" id="Page_30">30</span>
-throughout the nineteenth century. On early two-piece
-molds, the pieces were hinged in the center of the
-base, but a more stable mold with a separate base part
-was developed by the late 1850s and was almost universally
-used in the later decades of the century.</p>
-<p>On almost all mouth-blown bottles, whether free-blown
-or blown in a complex mold, the lip and upper
-neck were formed in a separate process after the
-otherwise complete article had been removed from the
-blowpipe. This process, the last step in the formation
-of the bottle, was known as &ldquo;finishing,&rdquo; and the
-completed lip came to be called the &ldquo;finish.&rdquo; In the
-early part of the nineteenth century, bottles were
-finished with simple hand tools such as shears, but by
-1840, a specialized &ldquo;lipping tool&rdquo; with a central plug
-and one or more rotating external arms had been introduced.
-This tool produced a smoother and more uniform
-finish, and remained in use until the industry was
-fully automated in the twentieth century.</p>
-<p>While the finish was being formed, most bottles
-were held by an iron pontil rod affixed to the base
-with molten glass. This process left a rough scar on
-the bottom of the bottle where the pontil had been
-detached. Holding devices which gripped the body of
-the bottle and eliminated the need for empontilling
-were apparently known in England in the 1820s, but did
-not become common in American glasshouses until the
-1840s or 50s. By the 1870s use of the pontil rod had
-almost entirely ceased.</p>
-<p>The most significant American contribution to the
-early nineteenth century glass industry was the development
-in the 1820s of the hand-operated side-lever
-pressing machine. This device consisted of a single- or
-multi-piece mold into which the glass was pressed
-by means of a plunger. Since the plunging process
-required wide-mouthed molds, pressing was used primarily
-for glass tableware, although straight-sided jars
-were also pressed in the later part of the century.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_31">31</div>
-<p>In 1864 William Leighton of J. H. Hobbs, Brockunier,
-&amp; Co. in West Virginia perfected a formula for
-an inexpensive soda-based glass that was as crystalline
-as the heavy lead glass previously used for most
-American-made clear glass items. This new glass revolutionized
-the pressed glass tableware industry, and
-probably was responsible for the flood of clear glass
-medicinal and household bottles that followed the
-Civil War. Like earlier clear glass, the improved
-lime glass was tinted with manganese oxide to remove
-its natural green coloring. Clear glass items manufactured
-with manganese tend to turn varying shades of
-lavender when left exposed to the sun. Manganese was
-imported from Germany in the nineteenth century to
-decolor glass and was no longer used after the outbreak
-of World War I.</p>
-<p>In the immediate post-Civil War period, the
-American glass industry expanded rapidly. Molds were
-improved and worker and furnace productivity increased
-to many times their 1800 level. New bottle shapes
-were introduced, and specialized and embossed bottles
-proliferated. The manufacture of preserve jars became
-a major industry, and a special &ldquo;blow-back&rdquo; mold,
-included in John Mason&rsquo;s 1858 fruit jar patent, was
-used to form the screw threads for the sealable lids.
-Standard bottle shapes for different products became
-common, as did uniformly applied standard lip forms
-for different purposes. The standard shapes of the
-bottles from the Middleton Place privy are shown in
-<a href="#fig16">Figure 16</a>. Turnmolding, a long-known method of removing
-mold marks by rotating the unfinished bottle in
-the mold, became a popular way of manufacturing unblemished
-wine bottles. A popular technique of embossing
-was plate-molding, an operation in which a personalized
-name plate could be inserted into a standard
-mold for inexpensive lettering of even small runs of
-bottles.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_32">32</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig16">
-<img src="images/p14.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="1066" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 16. Bottle shapes from the Middleton
-Place privy (not to scale). A. Champagne
-beer. B. Export beer. C. Malt whiskey. D.
-Jo-Jo flask. E. Union Oval flask. F. Bordeaux
-wine. G. Hock wine. H. Olive oil. I.
-American preserve. J. Fluted extract. K.
-Bromo-Seltzer. L. Poison. M. French
-square. N. Baltimore oval. O. Philadelphia
-oval. P. Double Philadelphia oval. Q.
-Plain oval. R. Panel. S. Ball neck panel.
-T. Oil panel. U. Round prescription. V.
-Quinine. W. Morphine. X. Free-blown apothecary&rsquo;s
-vial. Y. Round patch box. Z. Ointment.
-AA. Stoneware ink. BB. Bell mucilage.
-CC. Cone ink. DD. Cylinder ink.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_33">33</div>
-<p>The first mechanized production of bottles in the
-United States was on a semiautomatic &ldquo;press-and-blow&rdquo;
-machine patented by Philip Argobast in 1881 and used
-by the Enterprise Glass Co. of Pittsburgh to make
-Vaseline jars in 1893. Although the molten glass
-still had to be gathered and dropped into the mold by
-hand, the Argobast machine could produce completely
-machine-molded wide-mouth jars by pressing the lip and
-blowing the body in two separate operations. Semiautomatic
-production rapidly took over the fruit jar
-industry, and by the turn of the century most fruit
-jars were made on semiautomatic machines rather than
-in the traditional blow-back molds. Narrow-necked
-bottles, however, could not be manufactured on &ldquo;press-and-blow&rdquo;
-machines because the plunger for the pressing
-operation could not be withdrawn through a narrow
-opening. Although a &ldquo;blow-and-blow&rdquo; machine for
-narrow-necked bottles was developed in England in the
-late 1880s, semiautomatics for small-mouthed ware were
-apparently not introduced in the U.S. until after the
-development of the automatic Owens bottle machine in
-1903.</p>
-<p>The Owens machine, invented by Michael J. Owens
-of the Toledo Glass Co., was put into production in
-1904. It differed from the semiautomatics in that the
-glass was gathered into the molds by mechanical suction
-process, thus completely eliminating hand labor.
-Despite a series of improvements from 1904 to 1911,
-the Owens machine was slow to gain acceptance, both
-because of its expense and because of the restrictive
-licensing policies adopted by the Toledo Glass Co. In
-1905 most bottle production other than wide-necked
-jars was still by hand. Semiautomatics came into
-increasing use, however, and a number of improvements
-made them a serious threat to the Owens machine.
-After about 1914, there was a proliferation of patents
-for automatic feeding devices that could cheaply convert
-the more modern semiautomatics into fully automatic
-machines. Use of feeder-fed semiautomatics, as
-well as the Owens automatic machines, reduced hand
-bottle production to 50% of the country&rsquo;s output by
-1917, and to less than 10% by 1925. More efficient
-feeder machines slowly replaced the Owens-type suction
-machines and are the type in general use today.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_34">34</div>
-<h2 id="c8"><span class="small">MEDICINE BOTTLES</span></h2>
-<p>As glass manufacturing expanded after the Civil
-War, so did the pharmaceutical industry. Pharmacology
-became a more exact science than it ever had been, and
-its practitioners dispensed their compound medicines
-in glass bottles that for the first time were available
-in precisely graduated sizes and a variety of
-shapes often tailored to suit specific products.
-Early post-war bottles were usually made in the aquamarine
-of &ldquo;green&rdquo; glass that had become traditional
-for apothecaries&rsquo; wares, but use of clear lime glass
-spread until by the end of the century most pharmacy
-bottles, like most of those from the Middleton Place
-privy, were made of clear glass.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig17">
-<img src="images/p15.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="396" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 17. Pharmacy bottles. A. French
-square shape, c. 1860s-1920s. B. Ball neck
-panel, c. 1860s-1920s. C. Philadelphia
-oval shape, c. 1867-1903. Embossed C. F.
-PANKNIN APOTHECARY CHARLESTON, S. C.
-D. Blue Whitall Tatum poison bottle, c.
-1872-1920. E. Wide-mouthed prescription
-bottle, possibly for morphine, c. 1860s-1920s.</p>
-</div>
-<p>One of the first of the new shapes was the
-&ldquo;French square,&rdquo; a tall bottle with beveled corners
-introduced in the early 1860s (<a href="#fig17">Fig. 17</a>). The French
-<span class="pb" id="Page_35">35</span>
-square was followed by more elaborate rectangular,
-round, and oval shapes, many of them adapted with one
-or more flat sides to accommodate the paper labels or
-plate-molded lettering with which pharmacists usually
-marked their wares. The &ldquo;Philadelphia oval&rdquo; shown in
-<a href="#fig17">Figure 17</a>C, plate-molded with the name of an 1867-1902
-Charleston pharmacy, was a favorite shape.</p>
-<p>Despite such advances as Louis Pasteur&rsquo;s bacteriological
-discoveries, ideas of medical treatment in
-the nineteenth century remained primitive by modern
-standards. Without many of the vaccines and antibiotics
-now available, people dosed themselves with a
-wide range of substances which most twentieth century
-invalids would hold in dim regard. For instance,
-pharmacists distributed morphine in small bottles such
-as that shown in <a href="#fig17">Figure 17</a>E. Vegetable extracts that
-would not now be in anybody&rsquo;s pharmacopoeia were often
-sold in panel bottles (<a href="#fig17">Fig. 17</a>B).</p>
-<p>One of the few restrictions placed on the more
-dangerous medicaments was packaging. In 1872 the
-American Medical Association, concerned over accidental
-poisoning, issued a recommendation that potentially
-harmful substances be bottled in distinctively
-colored containers that were also recognizable by
-touch. One result of this directive was blue quilted
-poison bottles (<a href="#fig17">Fig. 17</a>D). A specialty of Whitall,
-Tatum &amp; Co., a major manufacturer of pharmaceutical
-wares, these bottles were manufactured until about
-1920. Other companies continued to produce poison
-bottles until the 1930s, when it was decided that the
-bright colors and fanciful shapes were more an attraction
-than a deterrent to children exploring the medicine
-cabinet.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_36">36</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig18">
-<img src="images/p16.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="567" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 18. Patent medicine bottles. A. Maltine
-bottle, double Philadelphia shape.
-Embossed THE MALTINE MF&rsquo;G CO. CHEMISTS
-NEW YORK, a company name used from 1875
-to 1898. B. Bromo-Caffeine bottle, c.
-1881-1920s. Embossed KEASBEY &amp; MATTISON
-CO. AMBLER, PA. C. Horsfords Acid Phosphate
-bottle, eight-sided. Embossed
-RUMFORD CHEMICAL WORKS and on base,
-PATENTED MARCH 10, 1868, c. 1868-1890.</p>
-</div>
-<p>A better-known but less savory branch of nineteenth
-century medicine was the patent medicine industry,
-which exploded into notoriety with its extravagant
-use of the new late nineteenth century advertising
-techniques. While most patent remedies were alcohol- or
-narcotic-based frauds, the term patent medicine
-meant simply any medicine sold without a prescription
-and included a number of legitimate and
-effective over-the-counter remedies. The 1906 Pure
-Food and Drug Act and subsequent acts of Congress were
-intended to control dangerous substances and put an
-end to spurious advertising claims, and resulted in
-the alteration or removal from the market of many
-<span class="pb" id="Page_37">37</span>
-patent medicines. Others, such as Bromo-Seltzer,
-survived the legislation and continued to be sold for
-years.</p>
-<p>Most patent medicines were in fact not patented,
-for that would have meant revealing the formula to
-competitors and consumers alike. Nevertheless, the
-nature of many of the more potent over-the-counter
-remedies was not entirely unknown. Hostetter&rsquo;s Bitters,
-for example, was regulated by the South Carolina
-Dispensary along with whiskey and beer.</p>
-<p>Only three patent medicine bottles were recovered
-from the Middleton Place privy deposit, and all appear
-to have been rather tame digestive remedies of the
-sort that might be sold today. The amber bottle on
-the left (<a href="#fig18">Fig. 18</a>A) contained Maltine, probably a
-digestive and nutritional supplement rather than a
-cure. The blue bottle (<a href="#fig18">Fig. 18</a>B), the same shape that
-was later used for Bromo-Seltzer, probably contained
-Bromo-Caffeine, an antacid and laxative whose main
-ingredient was magnesia. Bromo-Caffeine was the principal
-product of the Keasbey &amp; Mattison Co., which
-operated in Philadelphia from 1873 to 1882, and in
-Ambler, Pennsylvania, from 1882 to 1962. The blue-green
-bottle (<a href="#fig18">Fig. 18</a>E) contained Horsford&rsquo;s Acid
-Phosphate of Lime, a phosphate-based preparation sold
-by the Rumford Chemical Works of Providence, Rhode
-Island, from 1868 until at least the turn of the century.
-On later bottles, however, the company name
-reads from top to bottom rather than from bottom to
-top.</p>
-<p>The predecessor to these sturdy containers was a
-thin-walled cylindrical bottle used by the apothecaries
-and pharmacists of the eighteenth and early nineteenth
-centuries (<a href="#fig19">Fig. 19</a>). All free-blown or dip-molded,
-these bottles were used as late as the 1850s,
-and because of the Civil War, perhaps even later in
-some parts of the South. The two bottle bases at
-right are turned up to show the blow-pipe pontil scar
-made by holding the bottle with a blow-pipe while its
-<span class="pb" id="Page_38">38</span>
-neck and lip were formed. The long neck on the right
-is probably not from a cylindrical bottle but from a
-globular flask that was used in larger sizes for wine
-and other beverages, and in smaller sizes for medicines
-and essences. The style of its collar dates
-this bottle to after about 1820.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig19">
-<img src="images/p17.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="455" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 19. Apothecary&rsquo;s vials, 18th or early
-19th century. The neck and base fragments
-are not all from the same bottles.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p17a.jpg" id="ncfig6" alt="Base fragments." width="800" height="255" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_39">39</div>
-<h2 id="c9"><span class="small">WINE AND SPIRITS BOTTLES</span></h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p17b.jpg" id="ncfig7" alt="uncaptioned" width="800" height="654" />
-</div>
-<p>Perhaps the oldest use for glass bottles has been
-the storage and transport of alcohol. Some of the
-oldest bottles from the Middleton Place privy are wine
-and spirits bottles. Bottles made in the same dark
-green glass as the three pictured below left were used
-by the earliest colonists for various wines and spirits,
-and, although the bottle shapes have varied over
-the centuries, the tradition continues in the green
-wine bottles of the present day.</p>
-<p>With the improvement of glassmaking techniques in
-the nineteenth century, alcohol bottles became more
-diverse and specialized. Although a simple cylindrical
-bottle (<a href="#fig20">Fig. 20</a>B) remained a standard for various
-types of spirits, flasks, like those later used by the
-South Carolina Dispensary (Fig. <a href="#fig22">22</a>B and C), became
-more and more common for whiskey. Beer bottles developed
-a distinctive shape (<a href="#fig21">Fig. 21</a>), and different
-shapes evolved for different types of wines. <a href="#fig20">Figure 20</a>A
-<span class="pb" id="Page_40">40</span>
-is a Bordeaux wine bottle, used since the early
-nineteenth century for the sauternes and clarets of
-the French Bordeaux district. The amber miniature
-shown in <a href="#fig20">Figure 20</a>D is a two-ounce sample bottle of
-the shape normally used for German Rhine wines. By
-the beginning of the twentieth century, most types of
-alcohol bottles could be purchased in miniature sizes
-for use in advertising and promotion.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig20">
-<img src="images/p18.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="684" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 20. Wine and spirits bottles. A.
-Turn-molded, probably c. 1870s. B. Three-piece
-mold, c. 1850-1880. C. Three-piece
-mold, sand pontil, c. 1820-1880. D. Rhine
-wine sample bottle, c. 1870s-1920s.</p>
-</div>
-<h2 id="c10"><span class="small">BEER BOTTLES</span></h2>
-<p>The three late nineteenth century bottles shown
-below represent one of the oldest pastimes in America.
-<span class="pb" id="Page_41">41</span>
-Until the late nineteenth century, however, most
-American beers were locally produced ales, stouts, and
-porters that were not bottled but sold in kegs to
-taverns. Modern lager beer was first introduced by
-German immigrants in the 1840s, but it was not until
-the 1870s that the expanding railway system, together
-with the food preservation techniques developed by
-Louis Pasteur in 1870, made it feasible to brew and
-bottle lager beer for a nationwide market.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig21">
-<img src="images/p18a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="679" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 21. Beer bottles. A. Pint champagne
-beer, Lightning stopper, c. 1892-1895.
-Embossed in plate mold THE PALMETTO
-BREWING CO. CHARLESTON S. C.; on back
-THIS BOTTLE NOT TO BE SOLD. B and C.
-Export beer bottles, a type used after the
-1870s. The tooled crown finish dates bottle
-B between about 1892 and 1925.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Lager beer was less alcoholic but more effervescent
-than earlier beers. Increased bottling of lager
-<span class="pb" id="Page_42">42</span>
-and carbonated soft drinks spurred the search for new
-bottle seals capable of withstanding more pressure
-than the traditional cork, which was subject to leakage
-and had to be tied down to prevent its popping out
-altogether. Two of the most successful of the dozens
-of stoppers patented in the decades following 1870
-were Henry Putnam&rsquo;s levered 1882 Lightning stopper
-(<a href="#fig21">Fig. 21</a>A), and William Painter&rsquo;s 1892 crown cap (<a href="#fig21">Fig. 21</a>B),
-the closure still used on most beer bottles.</p>
-<p>With these and other developments, production of
-bottled &ldquo;export&rdquo; lager increased rapidly through the
-1880s and 1890s. Keeping pace with the growth of the
-beer industry, however, was the group that was to
-prove its undoing: the American temperance movement.
-The temperance movement became an organized lobbying
-force with the 1893 founding of the Anti-Saloon
-League, and thereafter exerted increasing pressure on
-Congress and the state legislatures. &ldquo;Dry&rdquo; agitation
-in South Carolina led to the implementation from 1893
-to 1907 of a statewide dispensary system to control
-distribution of beer, wine, and spirits; by 1916,
-South Carolina and 22 other states had prohibited all
-sale of non-medicinal alcohol. National wartime legislation
-banned the manufacture of distilled spirits in
-1917 and beer and wine in 1918. The Volstead Act of
-1919 extended this ban until the eighteenth amendment
-forbidding the production or sale of any beverage with
-more than .5% alcohol could take effect in January
-1920.</p>
-<p>Prohibition completely changed the face of the
-American brewing industry and almost completely destroyed
-the tradition of the small local brewer. Many
-brewers tried to survive by selling soft drinks and
-&ldquo;near beer,&rdquo; a lager with less than .5% alcohol.
-&ldquo;Near beer,&rdquo; however, could not stand up to the competition
-of home brewers and bootleggers, and most
-breweries either turned to the manufacture of other
-products or closed down altogether. Two months after
-the sale of wine and beer was again permitted in
-April, 1933, only 31 breweries had reopened. In 1940,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_43">43</span>
-seven years after the lifting of all national restrictions
-on alcohol, beer production finally reached its
-pre-Prohibition level, but the number of breweries in
-operation was less than half the number in 1910.</p>
-<h2 id="c11"><span class="small">SOUTH CAROLINA DISPENSARY BOTTLES</span></h2>
-<p>The South Carolina Dispensary system, in operation
-from 1893 to 1907, was a nearly unique and completely
-unsuccessful attempt to control alcohol abuse
-by placing a state&rsquo;s entire retail liquor trade into
-the hands of its government. Touted by its sponsor,
-Governor &ldquo;Pitchfork Ben&rdquo; Tillman, as a means of encouraging
-temperance, guaranteeing purity of product,
-and returning alcohol revenues to the citizens, the
-dispensary was born as an eleventh hour compromise
-between pro- and anti-Prohibition forces in the state
-legislature. The measure as enacted satisfied neither
-side, and the dispensary remained a volatile issue in
-state politics until its repeal 14 years later.</p>
-<p>The system functioned by buying up wholesale
-spirits from local and out-of-state manufacturers,
-repackaging or relabeling them at a Columbia distribution
-center, and retailing them to the public through
-locally operated dispensaries. Beer, which was never
-bottled by the dispensary, was sold privately under
-special license, and alcohol of any sort could be
-brought into the state for individual consumption. In
-the beginning, all liquors were sold in special dispensary
-bottles, but by the turn of the century, the
-dispensary was handling hundreds of products, many of
-them pre-packaged national brands.</p>
-<p>Litigation and often violent public resistance
-(an 1894 &ldquo;whiskey rebellion&rdquo; left three dead) plagued
-the system in its early years. By 1905 the internal
-corruption had become so pervasive that a legislative
-investigating committee recommended closing the system
-as unmanageable. Despite the now-handsome profit that
-it was returning to the state treasury, the South
-<span class="pb" id="Page_44">44</span>
-Carolina dispensary was abolished by the Carey-Cothran
-Act of the state legislature in 1907.</p>
-<p>South Carolina Dispensary bottles came in three
-basic shapes: Union flasks, Jo-Jo flasks, and cylindrical
-bottles and jugs. Bottles made before 1899
-were embossed with palmetto trees (<a href="#fig22">Fig. 22</a>A and C),
-and those made after 1899, when public disapproval
-forced the removal of the state symbol from liquor
-bottles, were embossed with an intertwined SCD monogram.
-Bottles were manufactured for the dispensary by
-over 20 different glass factories, but after 1902 all
-but one brief contract went to the Carolina Glass
-Company of Columbia.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig22">
-<img src="images/p19.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="702" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 22. South Carolina Dispensary bottles.
-A. Cylindrical palmetto bottle,
-1893-1899. B. Monogrammed Jo-Jo flask with
-embossed CFLG Co basemark, 1899-1902. C.
-Palmetto Jo-Jo flask, 1893-1899.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_45">45</div>
-<h2 id="c12"><span class="small">FOOD CONTAINERS</span></h2>
-<p>Although olive oil, pickles, and other foods that
-do not require sterilization have been packed in glass
-and ceramic containers for centuries, the preserving
-of hot foods in airtight glass or metal containers is
-a comparatively recent development. Housewives in the
-eighteenth century knew how to preserve fruits by
-boiling them in glass jars that were subsequently
-corked and sealed with wax, glue, or pitch, but the
-idea of canning as we know it was popularized by
-Nicholas Appert, a French confectioner who in 1809 won
-a prize from Napoleon for his method of keeping food
-fresh for soldiers in the field. Appert succeeded in
-preserving over 50 kinds of food, including meats and
-vegetables, and published an essay detailing his
-method of boiling food in a wide-mouthed jar and sealing
-it with a firmly driven cork. The process was
-quickly copied in England and America, where seafood,
-fruit, and pickles were first packed for wholesale in
-New York and Boston about 1820.</p>
-<p>A major problem with Appert&rsquo;s method of preserving
-in glass was the irregular finish of hand-made
-bottles, which often prevented the cork stopper from
-forming an absolutely airtight seal. For commercial
-packers, an early and lasting solution was the tin-plated
-canister, patented in England in 1810 and in
-the United States in 1825. An inexpensive and effective
-closure for glass containers had to await John
-Mason&rsquo;s 1858 patent of the threaded jar seal, which
-consisted of a molded screw thread that allowed the
-cap to seal on the shoulder rather than the uneven lip
-of the jar. Home canners still use a similar screw-top
-jar today.</p>
-<p>Many Americans, both civilian and military, had
-their first taste of commercially canned foods during
-the Civil War. Increasing varieties of meats and
-vegetables were packed in tin cans in the late nineteenth
-century, but glass bottles remained&mdash;and still
-remain&mdash;chiefly the package of condiments, sauces, and
-<span class="pb" id="Page_46">46</span>
-other foods that require a reclosable cap.</p>
-<p>These limited uses can nonetheless result in a
-large number of empty containers. Food bottles are
-usually one of the most numerous items found in a
-household trash heap. At Middleton Place, only four
-of a total of seventy-seven bottles were food containers,
-and all had originally held the preserves,
-flavorings, and oils that are usually packaged in
-glass. <a href="#fig23">Figure 23</a>A shows a &ldquo;One-pound American preserve,&rdquo;
-a jar sold at the turn of the century by at
-least one glass company, and <a href="#fig23">Figure 23</a>B is a typical
-late nineteenth/early twentieth century olive oil bottle.
-<a href="#fig24">Figure 24</a> shows both the excavated example and a
-1920 catalogue illustration of a white pressed glass
-container for Armour&rsquo;s Beef Extract, a by-product of
-the packing business produced by Armour &amp; Co. beginning
-in 1885.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig23">
-<img src="images/p20.jpg" alt="" width="1556" height="1104" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 23. Preserve jar and olive oil bottle,
-c. 1860s-1920s.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_47">47</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig24">
-<img src="images/p20a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="607" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 24. Armour Beef Extract jar, c. 1900-1920s.
-Armour &amp; Co. began producing beef
-extract in 1885, but this glass container
-was not used until around the turn of the
-century.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="box">
-<p class="jr1">None Genuine without</p>
-<p class="center"><span class="smaller">4 OZ. NET WEIGHT</span></p>
-<p class="center"><span class="sc">Armour&rsquo;s
-<br /><span class="large"><b>Extract <sup>of</sup> Beef</b></span></span></p>
-<p class="center"><span class="smaller">MANUFACTURED &amp; PACKED BY</span>
-<br />ARMOUR &amp; CO,
-<br />Chicago. U.S.A.</p>
-</div>
-<h2 id="c13"><span class="small">BOTTLES MADE AFTER 1900</span></h2>
-<p>This final group of bottles and jars have nothing
-in common except their date. The two clear glass bottles
-at left are standard desktop ink bottles made
-after the 1904 introduction of the Owens bottle machine
-and before screw top inks replaced the corked
-variety around 1930 (<a href="#fig25">Fig. 25</a>). The conical ink in the
-center was one of the earliest shapes for desk-top ink
-bottles, introduced when ink was first bottled in
-small individual containers in the 1840s. The contents
-of the ointment jar at right, made after 1916,
-are unknown. Patent records indicate that the May 15,
-1916, date was neither a trademark registration nor a
-patent issue. It may be a false patent date, put on
-the bottle to lend the contents an air of legitimacy.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_48">48</div>
-<p>Although other artifacts, such as the Austrian
-porcelain in <a href="#fig11">Figure 11</a> and the beef extract jar in
-<a href="#fig24">Figure 24</a>, may have been manufactured in the twentieth
-century, these three containers were the only items in
-the privy pit that were definitely made after Susan
-Middleton&rsquo;s 1900 abandonment of the plantation. As
-such, they were the only evidence archeologists had
-that these nineteenth century objects were probably
-deposited in the twentieth century. All three are
-items likely to have been in use at the time of the
-Smith family&rsquo;s 1925 move to Middleton Place, and they
-were probably discarded at that time.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig25">
-<img src="images/p21.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="274" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 25. Twentieth century bottles. A. Cylinder
-ink bottle, machine-made, c. 1904-1930.
-B. Cone ink, machine-made, c. 1904-1930.
-Embossed on base, CARTER&rsquo;s MADE IN
-USA. Carter&rsquo;s Ink Company began bottling
-ink in Massachusetts in 1858. C. Screw top
-ointment pot, white pressed glass. Embossed
-on base, AUBREY SISTERS MAY 15,
-1916.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_49">49</div>
-<h2 id="c14"><span class="small">LAMP GLASS</span></h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p21b.jpg" id="ncfig8" alt="uncaptioned" width="366" height="800" />
-</div>
-<p>In 1859, drillers in Pennsylvania brought in the
-nation&rsquo;s first producing oil well, an event that was
-to alter radically the lives of generations of Americans.
-The first revolution achieved by this versatile
-new fuel was not in mechanical power, but in lighting.
-A working oil field made possible the manufacture of
-kerosene, a promising coal and petroleum-based illuminant
-that had been patented in New York in 1854 but
-had not been put into production because of the scarcity
-of one of its principal ingredients. Kerosene
-burned more brightly, steadily, and efficiently than
-almost any known fuel except gas, which suffered from
-the twin disadvantages of requiring immovable fixtures
-<span class="pb" id="Page_50">50</span>
-in the wall or ceiling, and of being generally unavailable
-outside large urban areas. The abundance of
-petroleum from the Pennsylvania fields made kerosene
-one of the cheapest fuels available, and by the mid-1860s,
-its use had far outstripped that of gas lighting.
-In many rural areas, it remained the only practical
-form of household lighting until electrification
-of these areas in the 1930s.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig26">
-<img src="images/p22.jpg" alt="" width="406" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 26. Student
-lamp chimney. This
-glass was used in
-reading lamps like
-those illustrated in
-<a href="#fig27">Figure 27</a>. The kerosene-fueled
-student
-lamp was an 1863
-Prussian design that
-became popular in
-the United States in
-the 1870s.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Early kerosene lamps often resembled the oil
-lamps of the first half of the century, and many were
-oil lamps converted to kerosene. Among the new designs
-that became popular in the 1870s was the
-adjustable student or reading lamp (Figs. <a href="#fig26">26</a> and <a href="#fig27">27</a>),
-an 1863 Prussian invention used through the early
-twentieth century. In the 1880s decorated lamp chimneys
-came into fashion. One of the earliest, simplest,
-and most enduring of these styles was the familiar
-&ldquo;pearl top&rdquo; chimney rim, patented by the George
-A. Macbeth Company in 1883 (<a href="#fig28">Fig. 28</a>). Similar crimped
-rims were produced by the Thomas Evans Company, which
-in 1899 merged with Macbeth to become, by virtue of a
-semiautomatic lamp chimney machine, the nation&rsquo;s largest
-glass chimney manufacturer. Demand for glass
-lamp chimneys was curtailed by the spread of electric
-power in the early twentieth century, and, although it
-continued in production, the lamp chimney industry did
-not fully mechanize until after the 1920s.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_51">51</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig27">
-<img src="images/p22a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="674" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 27. Kerosene student and piano lamp,
-reproduced from 1895 and 1907 department
-store catalogues.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig28">
-<img src="images/p22c.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="363" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 28. &ldquo;Pearl top&rdquo; and crimped lamp
-chimneys. The true pearl top rim on the
-far left was patented by the George A.
-Macbeth Co. in 1883. The variations shown
-on the right became popular about the same
-time.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_52">52</div>
-<h2 id="c15"><span class="small">LABORATORY GLASS</span></h2>
-<p><a href="#fig29">Figure 29</a> is a laboratory beaker of a type manufactured
-in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,
-probably a relic of William and Susan Middleton&rsquo;s
-inventor son Henry. It is free-blown in lead
-glass, one of many glass compositions used for American
-laboratory equipment before Corning Glass Works
-introduced low-expansion Pyrex glass in 1915.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig29">
-<img src="images/p23.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="573" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 29. Free-blown laboratory beaker,
-probably late 19th or early 20th century.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_53">53</div>
-<p>Henry lived at Middleton Place with his parents
-until the 1870s, when he went to study at Cambridge
-University under the Scottish physicist James Clerk
-Maxwell. Henry lived in England until his death in
-1932.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_54">54</div>
-<h2 id="c16"><span class="small">CONCLUSIONS</span></h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p24.jpg" id="ncfig9" alt="uncaptioned" width="800" height="556" />
-</div>
-<p>The artifacts from the Middleton Place privy
-present a unique opportunity to observe one aspect of
-this plantation&rsquo;s past. This collection of ceramics,
-bottles, and other items constitute the refuse discarded
-by the occupants of Middleton Place following
-the Civil War. It reflects their needs and tastes and
-represents an unconscious record of activities a century
-ago. Artifacts in the collection include items
-from an earlier time as well as things purchased
-throughout the last half of the nineteenth century.</p>
-<p>These materials also reveal much about the
-privy&rsquo;s history. When compared with collections discarded
-around contemporary buildings, the artifacts
-from Middleton Place are similar to those often associated
-with abandoned buildings. The artifacts in the
-Middleton Place privy, then, are likely to have been
-deposited there, not as the result of day-to-day living,
-but as a consequence of cleaning out the rubbish
-of the house&rsquo;s earlier occupants. We may identify the
-privy artifacts as a collection of items accumulated
-during a time of refurbishing as in the 1920s when J.
-<span class="pb" id="Page_55">55</span>
-J. Pringle Smith moved into the family residence and
-began restoring it.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig30">
-<img src="images/p24a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="434" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 30. Many hours are spent in the
-laboratory conserving and studying the
-artifacts.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Although interesting and informative as individual
-objects, the privy artifacts are much more informative
-as an &ldquo;assemblage&rdquo; resulting from past activities.
-The archeologist must study assemblages, like
-pieces of a puzzle, to reconstruct, interpret, and
-explain past events that produced them. It is important
-to record carefully all the artifacts found together
-as well as their relationships to one another
-and to the deposit from which they were removed.
-Artifacts taken from the ground without proper recording
-are removed from their archeological context,
-and the information they hold is forever lost. Aimless
-&ldquo;treasure&rdquo; digging has destroyed much of our historical
-heritage. The Middleton Place privy collection
-illustrates how proper care, recording, and analysis
-can reveal new information. With foresight and
-planning, archeology can increase knowledge of the
-past for ourselves and for future generations.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_56">56</div>
-<h2 id="c17"><span class="small">APPENDIX I</span>
-<br />CERAMIC MANUFACTURERS&rsquo; MARKS</h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p25.jpg" id="ncfig10" alt="CERAMIC MANUFACTURERS&rsquo; MARKS" width="800" height="1247" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_57">57</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>A. Arthur J. Wilkinson, Royal Staffordshire Pottery, Burslem, Staffordshire. White ironstone plate, 1891-1896.</dt>
-<dt>B. John Edwards, Fenton, Staffordshire. White ironstone plate, c. 1891-1900.</dt>
-<dt>C. John Maddock and Sons, Burslem, Staffordshire. White ironstone plate, 1891-1896.</dt>
-<dt>D. C. C. Thompson &amp; Co., East Liverpool, Ohio. White ironstone nappy, 1884-1889.</dt>
-<dt>E. Limoges, France. White porcelain saucer, c. 1875.</dt>
-<dt>F. Haviland &amp; Co., Limoges, France. White porcelain plate, c. 1876-1891.</dt>
-<dt>G. Unidentified mark, decal-printed porcelain plate.</dt>
-<dt>H. John and George Alcock, Cobridge, Staffordshire. Light blue, transfer-printed bowl, 1839-1846.</dt>
-<dt>I. Josiah Wedgwood, Burslem, Staffordshire. Impressed on creamware sauce tureen, 1769 to present.</dt>
-<dt>J. Unidentified impressed mark, white porcelain platter.</dt></dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_58">58</div>
-<h2 id="c18"><span class="small">APPENDIX II</span>
-<br />SIGNIFICANT DATES IN THE AMERICAN GLASS INDUSTRY</h2>
-<table class="center">
-<tr><td class="l">First three-piece hinged mold </td><td class="r">c. 1808</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Two-piece hinged mold first used in America </td><td class="r">by 1809</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">First widespread use of slanting collar finish </td><td class="r">c. 1820</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Ricketts patent for three-piece mold with lettered base </td><td class="r">1821</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">First side-lever glass press </td><td class="r">late 1820s</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">&ldquo;Lacy&rdquo; pressed glass </td><td class="r">1820s-1840s</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Popularity of smooth-patterned pressed glass tableware sets </td><td class="r">c. 1840s-1880s</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Development of jawed lipping tool for bottles </td><td class="r">pre-1840</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Amasa Stone receives first U.S. patent for lipping tool </td><td class="r">1856</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Introduction into U.S. of non-pontil holding devices for bottles </td><td class="r">late 1840s-1850s</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Formula for kerosene patented by Abraham Gesner </td><td class="r">1854</td></tr>
-<tr class="pbtr"><td colspan="2">
-<span class="pb" id="Page_59">59</span>
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Development of two-piece mold with separate post base </td><td class="r">pre-1858</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Mason jar patent </td><td class="r">1858</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Blow-back mold in general use </td><td class="r">c. 1858-1900</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">First oil well in Pennsylvania leads to widespread use of kerosene fueled lamps </td><td class="r">1859</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Introduction of French Square pharmacy bottles </td><td class="r">early 1860s</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Student lamp patented in Prussia </td><td class="r">1863</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Leighton formula for improved lime glass </td><td class="r">1864</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Development of plate mold for embossed bottles </td><td class="r">pre-1867</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Widespread embossing of bottles </td><td class="r">1860s-1920s</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Empontilling of bottles almost entirely replaced by use of holding devices </td><td class="r">1870s</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Greatest popularity of turn-molded bottles </td><td class="r">1870s-1920s</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Student lamp introduced in U.S. </td><td class="r">1870s</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Louis Pasteur developed sterilization techniques for beer </td><td class="r">1870</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Anheuser-Busch begins first commercial bottling of American beer </td><td class="r">early 1870s</td></tr>
-<tr class="pbtr"><td colspan="2">
-<span class="pb" id="Page_60">60</span>
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Heavily embossed and colored poison bottles </td><td class="r">1872-1930s</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Improved finishing processes result in smoother and more uniformly applied bottle finishes </td><td class="r">by 1880</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Argobast patent for semiautomatic press-and-blow machine for wide-mouthed jars </td><td class="r">1881</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">H. W. Putnam acquires patent rights for lightning stopper </td><td class="r">1882</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Borosilicate glass developed in Germany </td><td class="r">1883</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Macbeth-Evans Co. patents &ldquo;pearl top&rdquo; lamp chimney </td><td class="r">1883</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">William Painter patents crown cap </td><td class="r">1892</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Enterprise Glass Co. puts Argobast semiautomatic into commercial production </td><td class="r">1893</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">South Carolina dispensary system </td><td class="r">1893-1907</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Michael Owens patents semiautomatic turn-molding machine for light bulbs, tumblers, and lamp chimneys </td><td class="r">1894</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">First lamp chimney and tumbler production on Owens turn-mold machine </td><td class="r">1898</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Most wide-mouthed jars produced on semiautomatic machines </td><td class="r">by 1901</td></tr>
-<tr class="pbtr"><td colspan="2">
-<span class="pb" id="Page_61">61</span>
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Owens automatic bottle machine patented </td><td class="r">1903</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Owens machine put into commercial production: first narrow-necked machine-made bottles </td><td class="r">1904</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">First production of narrow-necked bottles on semiautomatic machines </td><td class="r"><i>c.</i> 1907</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Corning Glass Works develops Pyrex heat-resistant glass </td><td class="r">1915</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Use of manganese to decolor glass </td><td class="r">1917</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">State prohibition law goes into effect in South Carolina </td><td class="r">1916</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">National beer and wine production halted under Wartime Food Control Act and Volstead Act </td><td class="r">1918-1920</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">National prohibition of alcohol under eighteenth amendment and Volstead Act </td><td class="r">1920-1933</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Machine-made bottles comprise 90% of total United States production </td><td class="r">1925</td></tr>
-</table>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_62">62</div>
-<h2 id="c19"><span class="small">APPENDIX III</span>
-<br />MARKS LEFT BY DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES OF BOTTLE MANUFACTURE</h2>
-<p>Free-blown bottles usually date before the second
-half of the nineteenth century and are characterized
-by an absence of mold lines of any sort. Because no
-molds were used, these bottles are often asymmetrical.
-Dip-molded bottles, or bottles molded for basic body
-shape below the shoulder, are also generally pre-Civil
-War and can only tentatively be distinguished from
-free-blown bottles by their symmetry below the shoulder
-and a slight tapering from shoulder to base.
-Bottles blown in a two-piece mold have mold lines
-extending up two opposite sides, usually to just below
-the tooled lip. On early nineteenth century bottles
-of this sort, the mold lines continue across the center
-of the base, but after the 1850s, most two-piece
-molds had a separate base part, either a cup bottom,
-in which the seam encircled the outer edge of the
-base, or a post bottom, which left a circular seam on
-the bottom of the bottle. Most bottles from the Middleton
-Place privy were blown in two-piece molds with
-cup bottoms.</p>
-<p>The three-piece mold leaves a single horizontal
-line around the shoulder of the bottle, and vertical
-lines extending up either side of the shoulder. The
-height of these lines can vary from partway up the
-shoulder to nearly to the top of the neck. A turn-molded
-bottle has been rotated in the mold to erase
-mold marks and will exhibit faint horizontal scratches
-and striations on the body and neck.</p>
-<p>Embossing, very popular after the Civil War,
-usually consists of the name of a company or product
-printed in raised letters on the sides or base of the
-bottle. Isolated numbers and letters on or just above
-the base are usually, but not always, mold numbers
-used by the manufacturer for identification. Embossed
-letters are sometimes carved into the body of the
-<span class="pb" id="Page_63">63</span>
-mold, but for smaller runs a plate mold, with a removable
-lettered plate on one or more sides, was used.</p>
-<p>Mold lines on bottles finished with a specialized
-lipping tool are usually obliterated by faint horizontal
-striations extending to about a quarter inch below
-the lip. The two-piece blow-back mold, however,
-leaves mold seams to the very edge of the lip, and a
-lip surface that has been ground smooth rather than
-shaped with a lipping tool.</p>
-<p>A pontil mark is a circular scar left on the base
-by the iron rod used to hold the bottle for finishing
-the neck and lip. Although there are many different
-methods of empontilling, only two types of marks were
-found on bottles from the Middleton Place privy. One
-is a &ldquo;sand pontil mark,&rdquo; a roughened grainy area covering
-most of the base, apparently the result of dipping
-the glasscoated pontil iron in sand before attaching
-it. The other is a &ldquo;blow-pipe pontil mark,&rdquo;
-which results from empontilling a bottle with the same
-pipe that was used to blow it. A blow-pipe mark is a
-distinct ring of glass the same size as the bottle
-neck.</p>
-<p>Pressed glass is formed with a plunger in a mold
-on one or more pieces. Pressed glass items are comparatively
-thick-walled, have smooth molded lips, usually
-with mold seams, and often are distinguished by a
-short, straight shear mark, like an isolated mold
-line, on the inside base. This mark is from the severing
-of the &ldquo;gob&rdquo; of glass before it is dropped into
-the mold. Bottles that are made on either automatic
-or semi-automatic machines will have mold lines encircling
-the top of the lip, as well as on the sides
-and base.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_64">64</div>
-<h2 id="c20"><span class="small">APPENDIX IV</span>
-<br />ARTIFACT CATALOGUE FROM THE MIDDLETON PLACE PRIVY EXCAVATION</h2>
-<table class="center">
-<tr class="th"><th colspan="2"><i>Artifacts</i> </th><th><i>No. of Fragments</i> </th><th><i>Minimum No. of Whole Items</i></th></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Ceramics</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Porcelain</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Undecorated Haviland &amp; Co. plate </td><td class="r">9 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Undecorated saucer, D &amp; Co., Limoges </td><td class="r">5 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Undecorated saucer </td><td class="r">6 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Undecorated plates </td><td class="r">17 </td><td class="r">2</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Undecorated platter </td><td class="r">13 </td><td class="r">2</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Gold-banded cup </td><td class="r">9 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">&ldquo;Cornflower&rdquo; pattern tea or bread plate </td><td class="r">4 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Decal-printed tea plate or saucer, hallmark Alice / Austria </td><td class="r">5 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Decal-printed Austrian teacup </td><td class="r">11 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">British meat dish, hand-painted oriental design </td><td class="r">16 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr class="pbtr"><td colspan="4">
-<span class="pb" id="Page_65">65</span>
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Chinese export porcelain serving dishes </td><td class="r">4 </td><td class="r">4</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Creamware</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Banded Wedgwood sauce tureen </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Undecorated baker </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Whiteware</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">J &amp; G Alcock &ldquo;Tyrol&rdquo; pattern transfer-printed bowl </td><td class="r">5 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Blue transfer-printed mug, rural English scene </td><td class="r">6 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Fragment of blue transfer-printed cup or bowl, bucolic scene </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Undecorated ironstone or graniteware nappy </td><td class="r">5 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Undecorated ironstone or graniteware plates </td><td class="r">23 </td><td class="r">4</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Undecorated ironstone or graniteware cup </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Molded white ironstone chamber pot </td><td class="r">4 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">English majolica pitcher handle </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr class="pbtr"><td colspan="4">
-<span class="pb" id="Page_66">66</span>
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Glass Tableware</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">&ldquo;Four Band&rdquo; style pressed glass tumbler </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Fluted pressed glass tumbler </td><td class="r">2 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">&ldquo;Thumbprint&rdquo; style pressed glass tumbler </td><td class="r">5 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Engraved tumbler, floral design </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Wheel-cut champagne flute glass </td><td class="r">2 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">&ldquo;Almond Thumbprint&rdquo; pressed wine glass </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">&ldquo;Mascotte&rdquo; pattern pressed wine glass </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Pressed glass lid </td><td class="r">2 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Cut glass pitcher </td><td class="r">9 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Fluted cut glass decanters </td><td class="r">8 </td><td class="r">2</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Free-blown bowls </td><td class="r">75 </td><td class="r">2</td></tr>
-<tr class="pbtr"><td colspan="4">
-<span class="pb" id="Page_67">67</span>
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Bottles and Jars</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Food Containers</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Armour &amp; Co. beef extract jar, white milk glass </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Olive oil bottles, aquamarine glass </td><td class="r">2 </td><td class="r">2</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">American preserve jar, clear glass </td><td class="r">4 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Alcohol Bottles</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Palmetto Brewing Co. champagne beer bottle, aquamarine glass </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Export beer bottles, amber glass </td><td class="r">2 </td><td class="r">2</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">South Carolina Dispensary Jo-Jo flask, clear glass </td><td class="r">4 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">South Carolina Dispensary Jo-Jo flask, aquamarine glass </td><td class="r">3 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">South Carolina Dispensary cylindrical whiskey bottle, clear glass </td><td class="r">2 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Unembossed Union flasks, amber glass </td><td class="r">15 </td><td class="r">2</td></tr>
-<tr class="pbtr"><td colspan="4">
-<span class="pb" id="Page_68">68</span>
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Unembossed Union flask, aquamarine glass </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Rhine Wine sample bottle, amber glass </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Dark Green wine or spirits bottles </td><td class="r">21 </td><td class="r">4</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Medicine Bottles</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Panknin Apothecary plate-molded prescription bottles, French Square shape, clear glass </td><td class="r">3 </td><td class="r">3</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Panknin Apothecary plate-molded prescription bottles. Philadelphia oval shape, clear glass </td><td class="r">4 </td><td class="r">4</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Unembossed French square prescription bottles, clear glass </td><td class="r">20 </td><td class="r">14</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Narrow-mouthed round prescription bottles, clear glass </td><td class="r">2 </td><td class="r">2</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Narrow-mouthed round prescription bottles, aquamarine glass </td><td class="r">3 </td><td class="r">3</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Narrow-mouthed round prescription bottles, light green glass </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Wide-mouthed round prescription bottles, clear glass </td><td class="r">3 </td><td class="r">3</td></tr>
-<tr class="pbtr"><td colspan="4">
-<span class="pb" id="Page_69">69</span>
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Unembossed Baltimore oval prescription bottle, clear glass </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Unembossed Philadelphia oval prescription bottles, clear glass </td><td class="r">2 </td><td class="r">2</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Unembossed taper neck oval prescription bottles, clear glass </td><td class="r">2 </td><td class="r">2</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Neck fragment from round or oval prescription bottle, clear glass </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Paneled pharmacy bottles, clear glass </td><td class="r">26 </td><td class="r">3</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Paneled pharmacy bottle aquamarine glass </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Free-blown apothecary vials, aquamarine glass </td><td class="r">8 </td><td class="r">4</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Maltine Mf&rsquo;g Co. bottle, double Philadelphia oval shape, amber glass </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Keasbey &amp; Mattison Bromo-Caffeine bottle, round, cobalt blue </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Rumford Chemical Works Horsford Acid Phosphate bottle, octagonal, blue-green glass </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr class="pbtr"><td colspan="4">
-<span class="pb" id="Page_70">70</span>
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Bullock &amp; Crenshaw decagonal vial, clear lead glass </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Unidentified embossed French square bottle, amber glass </td><td class="r">5 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Whitall Tatum quilted poison bottle, cobalt blue </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Ointment or Cosmetic Jars</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">White milk glass patch box with lid </td><td class="r">2 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Aubry Sisters white milk glass screw top ointment pot </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Pharmaceutical Accessories</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Corks </td><td class="r">2 </td><td class="r">2</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Clear glass Lubin stopper </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Clear glass medicine dropper </td><td class="r">2 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Ink, Glue, and Polish Bottles</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Clear glass conical ink bottles, machine-made, Carter&rsquo;s Ink Co. </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Clear glass cylinder ink bottle, machine-made </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr class="pbtr"><td colspan="4">
-<span class="pb" id="Page_71">71</span>
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Amber glass conical ink bottle, blow-molded </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Bell mucilage bottle, aquamarine glass </td><td class="r">2 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">British brown stoneware blacking or master ink bottle </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Tappan&rsquo;s Relucent gold and silver polish bottle </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Ink bottle cork </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Lamp Glass</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Student lamp chimney </td><td class="r">2 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">&ldquo;Pearl top&rdquo; and crimped lamp chimney </td><td class="r">19 </td><td class="r">4</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Laboratory Glass</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Pontil-marked beaker </td><td class="r">2 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Metal</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Pewter Spoon </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Brass curtain rings </td><td class="r">7 </td><td class="r">7</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Pill box with lid </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Square-cut spike </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Machine-cut nails </td><td class="r">4 </td><td class="r">4</td></tr>
-<tr class="pbtr"><td colspan="4">
-<span class="pb" id="Page_72">72</span>
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Hand-wrought nails </td><td class="r">3 </td><td class="r">3</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Hazel hoe </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Coins</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Liberty head quarters </td><td class="r">5 </td><td class="r">5</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Liberty head nickel </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Personal Items</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">French toothbrushes </td><td class="r">2 </td><td class="r">2</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Lady&rsquo;s leather shoe heel </td><td class="r">2 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">White clay pipestem </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Other</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Isinglass stove windows </td><td class="r">3 </td><td class="r">3</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Delft tile fragment </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Terracotta drainpipe fragment </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Window glass </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Slate tile fragment </td><td class="r">1 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">TOTAL </td><td class="r">473 </td><td class="r">164</td></tr>
-</table>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_73">73</div>
-<h2 id="c21"><span class="small">SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY</span></h2>
-<p>The information contained in this booklet is a
-partial synopsis of archeological reports published by
-the Institute of Archeology and Anthropology, University
-of South Carolina, as Numbers 148 and 174 of the
-<i>Research Manuscript Series</i>. For a detailed treatment
-of the history and archeology of Middleton Place, and
-a complete listing of bibliographic sources, the
-reader is referred to <i>Middleton Place: initial archeological
-investigations at an Ashley River rice plantation</i>
-by Kenneth E. Lewis and Donald L. Hardesty
-(1979), and <i>The Middleton Place privy: disposal behavior
-and the archeological record</i> by Kenneth E. Lewis
-and Helen W. Haskell (1981). General reference works
-on historical archeology and artifacts are listed below.</p>
-<dl class="undent"><dt>Baron, Stanley</dt>
-<dd class="t">1962   <i>Brewed in America: a history of beer and ale in the United States.</i> Little, Brown, &amp; Co., Boston.</dd>
-<dt>Cheves, Langdon</dt>
-<dd class="t">1900   Middleton of South Carolina. <i>South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine 1:(3)</i>: 228-262.</dd>
-<dt>Collard, Elizabeth</dt>
-<dd class="t">1967   <i>Nineteenth century pottery and porcelain in Canada.</i> McGill University Press, Montreal.</dd>
-<dt>Cox, Warren E.</dt>
-<dd class="t">1970   <i>The book of pottery and porcelain.</i> Crown Publishers, New York.</dd>
-<dt>Daniel, Dorothy</dt>
-<dd class="t">1971   <i>Cut and engraved glass, 1771-1905.</i> William Morrow &amp; Co., New York.</dd>
-<dt class="pb" id="Page_74">74</dt>
-<dt>Douglas, R. W. and S. Frank</dt>
-<dd class="t">1972   <i>A history of glassmaking.</i> G. T. Foulis &amp; Co., Henley-on-Thames.</dd>
-<dt>Godden, Geoffrey A.</dt>
-<dd class="t">1974   <i>British pottery: an illustrated guide.</i> Barrie &amp; Jenkins, London.</dd>
-<dt>Huggins, Philip K.</dt>
-<dd class="t">1971   <i>The South Carolina dispensary.</i> Sandlapper Press, Columbia.</dd>
-<dt>Hughes, G. Bernard</dt>
-<dd class="t">1960   <i>English and Scottish earthenware 1660-1880.</i> Abbey Fine Arts, London.</dd>
-<dt>Lee, Ruth Webb</dt>
-<dd class="t">1960   <i>Early American pressed glass.</i> Northboro, Massachusetts.</dd>
-<dt>Lehner, Lois</dt>
-<dd class="t">1980   <i>Complete book of American kitchen and dinner wares.</i> Wallace Homestead, Des Moines.</dd>
-<dt>McKearin, George P. and Helen McKearin</dt>
-<dd class="t">1966   <i>American glass.</i> Crown Publishers, New York.</dd>
-<dt>McKearin, Helen and Kenneth M. Wilson</dt>
-<dd class="t">1978   <i>American bottles and flasks and their ancestry.</i> Crown Publishers, New York.</dd>
-<dt>Munsey, Cecil</dt>
-<dd class="t">1970   <i>The illustrated guide to collecting bottles.</i> Hawthorn Books, New York.</dd>
-<dt>No&euml;l Hume, Ivor</dt>
-<dd class="t">1969   <i>Historical archaeology.</i> Alfred A. Knopf, New York.</dd>
-<dd class="t">1970   <i>A guide to artifacts of colonial America.</i> Alfred A. Knopf, New York.</dd>
-<dt class="pb" id="Page_75">75</dt>
-<dt>Revi, Albert C.</dt>
-<dd class="t">1964   <i>American pressed glass and figure bottles.</i> Thomas Nelson &amp; Sons, New York.</dd>
-<dt>Russell, Loris</dt>
-<dd class="t">1968   <i>A heritage of light.</i> University of Toronto Press, Toronto.</dd>
-<dt>Scoville, Warren C.</dt>
-<dd class="t">1948   <i>Revolution in glassmaking: entrepreneurship and technological change in the American glass industry, 1880-1920.</i> Harvard University Press, Cambridge.</dd>
-<dt>South, Stanley A.</dt>
-<dd class="t">1977.   <i>Method and theory in historical archeology.</i> Academic Press, New York.</dd>
-<dt>Toulouse, Julian H.</dt>
-<dd class="t">1969a   A primer on mold seams. <i>Western Collector</i> 7(11): 526-535.</dd>
-<dd class="t">1969b   A primer on mold seams. <i>Western Collector</i> 7(12): 578-587.</dd>
-<dt>Wetherbee, Jean</dt>
-<dd class="t">1980   <i>A look at white ironstone.</i> Wallace Homestead, Des Moines.</dd>
-<dt>Wright, Louis B.</dt>
-<dd class="t">1976   <i>South Carolina, a bicentennial history.</i> W. W. Norton &amp; Co., New York.</dd></dl>
-<h2 id="trnotes">Transcriber&rsquo;s Notes</h2>
-<ul>
-<li>Silently corrected a few typos.</li>
-<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li>
-<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li>
-</ul>
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MIDDLETON PLACE PRIVY HOUSE ***</div>
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