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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Problems in American Democracy
+by Thames Ross Williamson
+
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+Title: Problems in American Democracy
+
+Author: Thames Ross Williamson
+
+Release Date: September, 2004  [EBook #6460]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
+[This file was first posted on December 16, 2002]
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+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, PROBLEMS IN AMERICAN DEMOCRACY ***
+
+
+
+
+Etext prepared by Scott Pfenninger, Charles Franks and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team.
+
+
+
+PROBLEMS IN AMERICAN DEMOCRACY
+
+BY
+
+THAMES ROSS WILLIAMSON
+
+ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ECONOMICS AND SOCIOLOGY IN SMITH COLLEGE;
+EDITOR OF "READINGS IN AMERICAN DEMOCRACY."
+
+
+_Problems are the growing pains of civilization, offering
+opportunities for personal achievement and pointing the way to
+national progress._
+
+
+
+
+
+TO
+
+My Mother
+
+WHOSE NAME APPEARS IN NO HALL OF FAME, BUT WHOSE LIFE IS AN UNBROKEN
+RECORD OF SERVICE TO HER HOME AND TO HER COUNTRY [Blank Page]
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+There is an increasing demand for a textbook which will bring the
+student into direct contact with the great current issues of American
+life, and which will afford practical training to those who soon must
+grapple with the economic, social, and political problems of our own
+time. It is with the hope of meeting such a demand that this text has
+been prepared.
+
+The plan of the book calls for a word of explanation. It is poor
+pedagogy to expect the student to attack the defects of American life,
+and at the same time to place in his hands a book which deals
+predominantly with the mechanism of government. As well send a boy to
+a hardware store to buy tools before he is told whether he is to make
+a mouse-trap or a boat. Furthermore, to spend much more time on the
+mechanism of government than on the actual problems of democracy is a
+mistake in emphasis. Government is a means, not an end. It is a tool
+by means of which we attack and solve our problems.
+
+Therefore the student of this text begins, not with the mechanism of
+government, but with the historical background of American democracy,
+its origin, development, and promise for the future. Following this is
+a brief survey of the economic life of the nation, because that
+economic life constitutes the fundamental basis of our problems.
+Considerable space has been devoted to a problem growing directly out
+of economic conditions, _i.e._ the question of social justice or
+industrial reform. This is the most pressing question before any
+modern people, but strangely enough one which heretofore has been
+neglected by our schools.
+
+Because they tend to arise primarily from a bad economic situation,
+such social problems as industrial relations, health in industry, and
+immigration are next considered. From social problems the text passes
+to the economic and social functions of government, and thence to the
+question of making government effective. The mechanism of government
+has been placed last, and for the reason already given, _i.e._ because
+a knowledge of the framework of government is valuable only after the
+citizen knows something of the needs which that mechanism must be made
+to fill.
+
+It has not been easy to compress into a single volume the most
+important of our national problems. Obviously, a rigid selection has
+been necessary. In this selection the aim has been to discuss the more
+important issues of American life, whether economic, social, or purely
+political. In dealing with these issues, the attempt has been made to
+keep in mind the student's previous preparation; on the other hand,
+the civic demands which the future will make upon him have not been
+ignored. Some of the problems are difficult, but they are also of
+vital importance. Very shortly the student will be confronted, in his
+everyday activities, with such puzzling matters as socialism, the
+control of immigration, and taxation reform. If the school does not
+prepare him to grapple with these questions intelligently, he can only
+partially fulfill the obligations of citizenship.
+
+Throughout the text the aim has been to go directly to the heart of
+the problem under consideration. The student is not burdened with a
+mass of data which would prove confusing, and which would be out of
+date before he is out of school. Instead, an effort has been made to
+outline, first the essential nature of the problem, and second the
+fundamental principles which affect its solution. Care has been taken
+to cultivate the problem attitude, and to encourage the spirit of
+independent investigation and open-minded judgment on the part of the
+student.
+
+It goes without saying that the success of this book will depend
+largely upon the use which the teacher makes of it. The text aims to
+supply the basic facts and the fundamental principles involved in
+specific problems, but the teacher must interpret many of those facts
+and principles, and ought, in addition, to furnish illustrative
+material. The book is not intended to be an encyclopedia, but rather a
+suggestive guide.
+
+The text covers the fundamentals of three distinct fields: economics,
+sociology, and government. Sufficient reference and topic work is
+offered to enable teachers to expand the text along particular lines.
+Thus Part II might serve as a nucleus around which to build up a
+special course in economics, while Part III would serve as a basis for
+a similar course in applied sociology, if for some reason it were not
+feasible to take up other parts of the book.
+
+Though the text is the result of the coöperative efforts of a
+considerable number of specialists, its treatment of the problems of
+American life is neither dogmatic nor arbitrary. The effort has been
+to treat all of our problems sanely and hopefully, but at the same
+time to make it clear that many of these questions are still unsettled
+and the best method of disposing of them is yet hotly debated. This
+fact has strongly influenced the manner in which the problems have
+been treated.
+
+
+TOPICS AND READINGS
+
+Following each chapter are suggestions for work to supplement the
+text. These suggestions are of six kinds, and are intended to meet a
+variety of needs.
+
+A number of easy questions on the text is first supplied.
+
+Following these is a number of required readings to supplement each
+chapter of the text. The student may be asked to read a single chapter
+from Williamson's _Readings in American Democracy_, collected and
+arranged so as to furnish in compact form and in a single volume
+supplementary material which otherwise the teacher would have to find
+in a number of separate books. In case the use of the _Readings_ is
+not feasible, some or all of the alternative required readings may be
+available.
+
+The required readings are followed by a number of questions thereon.
+Questions on the material contained in Williamson's _Readings in
+American Democracy_ will be found at the end of each chapter in that
+volume; questions on the required readings cited as alternative to
+this volume will be found at the end of each chapter in the text.
+
+Topic work is provided in two groups. Topics in the first group form a
+link between the text and the everyday experience of the student on
+the one hand, and between the activities of the student's local
+community and national problems on the other. The student is called
+upon, for example, to investigate the attitude of the local press
+toward controversial questions, or to examine the administration of
+local charitable relief. Topic work of this sort not only quickens the
+interest of the student, but it encourages original investigation and
+independent thought. It lets the student know what is going on in his
+community, and it informs individuals and institutions beyond the
+school that this agency is beginning to connect with the problems of
+the municipality, state, and nation. This sort of topic work also
+allows the student to test the accuracy of the text, and to interpret
+local conditions in the light of broad, national tendencies.
+
+The second group of topics contains material for report work. In the
+case of practically all of these topics, the student is referred
+specifically to books and other publications.
+
+Beginning with Chapter XVIII of the text, the topics are followed by a
+series of questions for classroom discussion. Some of these may be
+turned into classroom debates. Others allow the student to challenge
+statements in the text. A few of these questions have never been
+satisfactorily answered by anyone, yet the student must face them in
+the world outside the school, and it cannot be time wasted to
+understand their content now.
+
+
+ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
+
+In the preparation of this text the author has received valuable
+assistance from a number of sources. Though such assistance in no way
+diminishes his responsibility for the shortcomings of the book, the
+author desires here to acknowledge the aid extended him.
+
+The entire manuscript has been carefully worked over and criticized by
+Clarence D. Kingsley, Chairman of the Commission on the Reorganization
+of Secondary Education. Payson Smith, Commissioner of Education for
+the State of Massachusetts offered valuable suggestions in connection
+with certain parts of the manuscript. The thanks of the author are
+also due to L. L. Jackson Assistant Commissioner of Education for the
+State of New Jersey.
+
+Invaluable aid has been received from numerous members of the faculty
+of Harvard University. Parts of the text were read and criticized by
+A. Lawrence Lowell, President; Roscoe Pound, Dean of the Law School;
+and Paul H. Hanus, Dean of the Graduate School of Education.
+Professors Edward Channing and F. J. Turner, and Dr. Marcus L. Hanson
+offered valuable suggestions in connection with the historical
+chapters.
+
+In the Department of Economics, helpful criticisms were contributed by
+Professors F. W. Taussig, T. N. Carver, O. M. W. Sprague, C. J.
+Bullock, W. Z. Ripley, and E. E. Lincoln; and by Dr. E. A. Monroe and
+Dr. Mixter.
+
+Various chapters dealing with social problems were read and criticized
+by Professors Richard Cabot, James Ford, R. F. Foerster, and Dr. Niles
+Carpenter of the Department of Socials Ethics, as well as by Dr. John
+M. Brewer of the Department of Education. Substantial aid was received
+from Professors W. B. Munro, A. B. Hart, and A. N. Holcombe; and from
+Dr. A. C. Hanford, in the preparation of the chapters on political
+problems.
+
+Professor Edwin R. A. Seligman of the Department of Economics, and
+Professor Lindsay Rogers of the Department of Government, in Columbia
+University, contributed helpful suggestions.
+
+Professor Irving Fisher of Yale College read and criticized some of
+the material on economic subjects. Professor John L. Silberling at
+Dartmouth College went over the chapters dealing with the economic
+problems and pointed out numerous opportunities for their improvement.
+
+Professor Frederick A. Cleveland of Boston University read the
+chapters on political problems. Professor Abbott P. Usher of the
+Department of Economic History helped with several of the chapters,
+while Professor Ernest R. Groves of the same institution kindly
+criticized the chapter on Rural Life.
+
+Henry Lefavour, President of Simmons College, and Sara H. Stites, Dean
+of the same institution, read various of the chapters on economic and
+social problems.
+
+Stuart Queen, Director of the Boston School for Social Workers, read
+the chapters on social problems, and strengthened especially the
+chapter on Dependency.
+
+At Smith College, the author is indebted to several of his colleagues,
+especially, perhaps, to Professors J. S. Basset and Sidney B. Fay of
+the Department of History, and to Professors Esther Lowenthal, Julius
+Drachsler, Harriette M. Dilla, and to Miss McMasters, of the
+Department of Economics and Sociology.
+
+At Amherst College the author is under great obligations to Professor
+J. W. Crook of the Department of Economics, and to Dr. John M. Gaus of
+the Department of Government.
+
+At the Massachusetts Agricultural College the author is indebted to
+Kenyon L. Butterfield, President, and to Professor Newell L. Sims, for
+help on the chapters dealing with social problems.
+
+A number of teachers in the West kindly helped with various portions
+of the book. At the University of Wisconsin the author is under
+obligations to Professors John R. Commons and Donald D. Lescohier of
+the Department of Economics.
+
+A. S. Roberts of the University of Illinois read various of the
+historical chapters.
+
+At the University of Iowa, the author is especially grateful for the
+help of Professor F. E. Horack of the Department of Government.
+
+Professor Charles Ellwood of the University of Missouri read and
+criticized the Chapter on the Family.
+
+Especially valuable were the suggestions which Professor James E. Le
+Rossignol of the University of Nebraska offered with respect to the
+Chapters on Socialism.
+
+At Leland Stanford University the author acknowledges his obligations
+to Professor Eliot Jones of the Department of Economics.
+
+In the United States Department of State, the author is indebted to
+Arthur N. Young for a critical reading of the Chapter on Single Tax.
+
+In the United States Department of Labor, the author is under
+obligations to John B. Andrews for many suggestions on the Chapter on
+Industrial Relations.
+
+Gifford Pinchot, President of the National Conservation Association,
+kindly read and criticized the Chapter on Conservation.
+
+Edward R. Johnstone, Superintendent of the Training School at
+Vineland, N. J., kindly read and criticized several of the chapters on
+social problems.
+
+Edward T. Devine of New York City offered valuable suggestions with
+regard to the Chapter on Dependency.
+
+Owen R. Lovejoy, Secretary of the National Child Labor Committee,
+strengthened the Chapter on Health in Industry.
+
+The Chapter on Crime and Correction was notably improved by the
+suggestions of Reginald Heber Smith, member of the Massachusetts Bar,
+and author of the admirable _Justice and the Poor._
+
+J. P. Warbasse, President of the Coöperative League of America, went
+over the Chapter on Profit Sharing and Coöperation painstakingly.
+
+The Chapter on the Negro was criticized helpfully by Dr. W. E. B.
+DuBois, Editor of the _Crisis._
+
+W. M. Steuart, Director of the United States Census, kindly supplied
+advance figures on the 1920 Census.
+
+The author is also indebted to Houghton Mifflin Company, Ginn and
+Company, and the Macmillan Company, either for advance information on
+certain of their new books, or for permission slightly to adapt some
+of the material appearing in books copyrighted by them.
+
+Lastly, the author is grateful to his wife for valuable assistance in
+correcting the proof.
+
+THAMES ROSS WILLIAMSON.
+
+_Cambridge, Mass._
+
+February 7, 1922.
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+PART I--FOUNDATIONS IN AMERICAN DEMOCRACY
+
+
+CHAPTER
+
+      I. The Background of American Democracy
+
+     II. The Origin of American Democracy
+
+    III. The Development of American Democracy
+
+     IV. Essentials of American Constitutional Government
+
+      V. The Problems of American Democracy
+
+
+PART II--AMERICAN ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
+
+
+A. ECONOMICS OF AMERICAN INDUSTRY
+
+     VI. The Nature of American Industry
+
+    VII. What is Meant by Production
+
+   VIII. Exchanging the Products of Industry
+
+     IX. Distributing the Income of Industry
+
+      X. Bases of the Capitalistic System
+
+
+B. PROGRAMS OF INDUSTRIAL REFORM
+
+     XI. Single Tax
+
+    XII. Profit Sharing and Coöperation
+
+   XIII. The General Nature of Socialism
+
+    XIV. Militant Socialism: The I. W. W.
+
+     XV. Militant Socialism: The Bolshevists
+
+    XVI. The Case Against Socialism
+
+   XVII. A Democratic Program of Industrial Reform
+
+
+PART III--AMERICAN SOCIAL PROBLEMS
+
+
+  XVIII. Industrial Relations
+
+    XIX. Health in Industry
+
+     XX. Immigration and Assimilation
+
+    XXI. Crime and Correction
+
+   XXII. The Negro
+
+  XXIII. The Family
+
+   XXIV. Dependency: Its Relief and Prevention
+
+    XXV. Rural Life
+
+   XXVI. Education
+
+
+PART IV--AMERICAN POLITICAL PROBLEMS
+
+
+A. SOME ECONOMIC FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT
+
+  XXVII. Public Interest in Business: Regulation
+
+ XXVIII. Public Interest in Business Ownership
+
+   XXIX. The Tariff
+
+    XXX. Conservation
+
+   XXXI. Credit and Banking
+
+  XXXII. Taxation
+
+
+B. MAKING GOVERNMENT EFFECTIVE
+
+ XXXIII. Who Shall Share in Government
+
+  XXXIV. The Political Party
+
+   XXXV. Choosing the Agents of Government
+
+  XXXVI. Honesty and Efficiency in Office
+
+ XXXVII. The Extension of Popular Control
+
+XXXVIII. Public Opinion
+
+
+PART V--THE MECHANISM OF GOVERNMENT
+
+
+A. THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
+
+  XXXIX. The Federal System of Government
+
+     XL. The President of the United States
+
+    XLI. The National Administration
+
+   XLIL. Nature and Powers of Congress
+
+  XLIII. Congress in Action
+
+   XLIV. The Federal Courts
+
+B. STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT
+
+    XLV. Constitutional Basis of State Government
+
+   XLVI. The State Executive
+
+  XLVII. The State Legislature
+
+ XLVIII. The State Courts
+
+   XLIX. Municipal Government
+
+      L. Rural Local Government
+
+         Bibliography
+
+         Appendix
+
+         The Constitution of the United States
+
+         Index
+
+
+
+
+
+PROBLEMS IN AMERICAN DEMOCRACY
+
+
+
+
+
+PART I--FOUNDATIONS IN AMERICAN DEMOCRACY
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE BACKGROUND OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY
+
+
+1. THE MEANING OF NATIONAL GREATNESS.--We apply the term greatness to
+nations that have made substantial contributions to civilization. By
+civilization is meant a well-rounded and highly developed culture, or,
+to say the same thing in different words, an advanced state of
+material and social well-being.
+
+Civilization is so vast and so many-sided that it may receive
+contributions in very diverse forms. The invention of the hieroglyphic
+system of writing is among the leading achievements of ancient Egypt,
+but the art and literature of Greece have been no less conspicuous in
+the onward sweep of human progress. The promotion of the science of
+navigation by the Phoenicians, and the development of law and
+architecture by Rome, illustrate a few of the forms in which peoples
+may confer marked benefits upon the world. The advancement of music
+and painting by Italy, France, and other European nations, and the
+application and expansion of the idea of parliamentary government by
+England, are further examples of ways in which nations may earn for
+themselves the title of greatness.
+
+2. THE CONDITIONS OF NATIONAL GREATNESS.--In order that a nation may
+become great, _i.e._ make some distinct contribution to civilization,
+two conditions must be fulfilled.
+
+The first condition of national greatness is that the land under that
+nation's control must be encouraging to man's honest, helpful efforts.
+[Footnote: As used in this chapter the term "land" is held to include
+not only such natural resources as soil, minerals, forests, and bodies
+of water, but climate as well.] The vigorous Scandinavians have made
+great advances in inhospitable Iceland and Greenland, the French have
+reclaimed an important section of Algeria, and the British have worked
+wonders with some of the barren parts of Australia; nevertheless, it
+is with great difficulty that prosperous communities are developed in
+lands relatively barren of natural resources, or unusually severe in
+climate.
+
+A high and stable civilization has rarely arisen in the tropics,
+because there the overabundance of Nature renders sustained work
+unnecessary, while the hot, enervating climate tends to destroy
+initiative and ambition. It is no accident that the greatest nations
+of modern times are located chiefly within the stimulating temperate
+zones, where Nature is richly endowed, but where, too, her treasures
+are rarely bestowed upon those who do not struggle consistently for
+them.
+
+The second condition of national greatness is an intelligent and
+industrious population, willing to abide by the law, and devoted to
+the building of homes. The combination of an unpromising land and an
+inferior population effectually prevents the rise of a high
+civilization. And just as the choicest of men can do relatively little
+in an unfriendly land, so the most promising of countries may be
+despoiled or temporarily ruined by a slothful or lawless population.
+
+From the standpoint of civilization, the best results are obtained
+when a virile and law-abiding people exercise control over a land rich
+in natural resources and possessed of a stimulating climate. France
+and Great Britain in Europe, and Canada and the United States in North
+America, are examples of great nations which have been built up in
+such lands and by such peoples.
+
+3. THE ATTRACTIVENESS OF NORTH AMERICA.--It will be interesting to
+examine North America in the light of the two conditions of national
+greatness discussed in the preceding section. We may note, first of
+all, that by far the greater part of the territory now comprising the
+United States and Canada is distinctly favorable to settlement. This
+territory lies almost entirely within the temperate zone: it has
+unattractive spots, but in general it is neither so barren of
+resources as to discourage the home-maker, nor so tropical in its
+abundance as to reward him without his putting forth considerable
+effort. Particularly within the bounds of the United States is a well-
+balanced national life encouraged by the diversity of soils and the
+wide variety of climate. [Footnote: For a fuller discussion of the
+natural resources of the United States, see Chapter VI.] Certainly the
+continent of North America fulfills the first condition of national
+greatness.
+
+4. THE COMING OF THE EUROPEAN.--The discovery of America in 1492
+opened a new era in world history. The nations of western Europe were
+disappointed when their earlier explorers found the way to Cathay
+blocked by a new land-mass, but the Spanish discovery of treasure in
+Mexico and South America soon turned disappointment into keen
+interest. No magic palaces or spice islands were found, but there were
+revealed two virgin continents inviting colonial expansion on a scale
+previously unknown. Of the European powers which at various times laid
+claim to parts of the New World, Spain, France, Holland, and England
+occupy significant positions in the background of American democracy.
+We may briefly notice the influence of each of these four powers upon
+America.
+
+5. SPAIN.--Though the Spanish were the first in the field, the motives
+of the colonists limited their ultimate success in the new land. The
+earlier Spaniards were missionaries and treasure-seekers, rather than
+home builders and artisans. The early discovery of great quantities of
+gold and silver had the effect of encouraging the continued search for
+treasure. In this treasure-quest, often fruitless, the Spanish
+practically confined themselves to Mexico and the region to the south.
+In these areas they did valuable work in Christianizing and educating
+the natives, but little industrial progress was made. Except for the
+missionary work of the Spanish, their earlier colonization was largely
+transient and engaged in for the purpose of exploitation.
+
+6. FRANCE.--France disputed the claim of Spain to North America soon
+after the opening of the sixteenth century. The French attempted to
+settle in Florida and in South Carolina, but the opposition of the
+near-by Spanish forced the newcomers to leave. In 1524 Verrazano
+explored the North Atlantic coast for the French, and ten years later
+Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence and founded the claim of France to
+that section of the New World.
+
+Following the example of Spain, France dispatched missionaries to the
+New World to convert the Indians. Soldiers and trappers were sent out
+to develop the valuable fur trade by the establishment of widely
+separated forts and trading posts. But the French settlers had no
+popular lawmaking bodies, being completely under the power of the
+king. Only along the St. Lawrence, where agricultural colonies were
+planted, did the French really attach themselves to the soil.
+Elsewhere there were few French women and therefore few normal French
+homes, and when in 1763 all of the French possessions east of the
+Mississippi were ceded to England, it was largely true that the French
+colonies had not yet taken root in the country. Infinite courage,
+devotion, and self-sacrifice were ultimately wasted, largely because
+of the lack of homes, the absence of self-government, and the failure
+to develop an industrial basis of colonization.
+
+7. HOLLAND.--The Dutch became aware of the commercial possibilities of
+the New World when in 1609 Henry Hudson discovered the river which
+bears his name. Trading posts were soon established in the
+neighborhood, and in 1621 the West India Company was given full
+authority to plant colonies in New Netherland. A brisk trade in furs
+developed, but though the Company grew rich, the colonists were not
+satisfied. The agriculturists along the Hudson had the benefit of a
+fertile soil and a genial climate, but they operated their farms under
+a feudal land system which allowed an overlord to take most of their
+surplus produce. Moreover, the Dutch governors were autocratic, and
+the settlers had little voice in the government of the colony. Loyalty
+to Holland waned as the Dutch saw their English neighbors thriving
+under less restrictive laws and a more generous land system, so that
+when in 1664 the colony passed into the possession of the English, the
+majority of the settlers welcomed the change.
+
+8. ENGLAND.--The Spanish had been in the New World a century before
+the English made any appreciable impression upon the continent of
+North America. In 1583 Sir Humphrey Gilbert had made an unsuccessful
+attempt to found a colony on the coast of Newfoundland, and a few
+years later Sir Walter Raleigh's venture at Roanoke Island proved
+equally disastrous. Colonization was retarded until 1588, in which
+year England's defeat of the Spanish Armada destroyed the sea power of
+her most formidable rival. The English may be said to have made
+serious and consistent attempts at colonization only after this event.
+
+Like France, England desired to set herself up as a successful
+colonizing rival of Spain. Impelled by this motive, the earlier
+English adventurers sought treasure rather than homes. But the high
+hopes of the early English joint stock companies were not justified.
+Those who had looked to America for treasure were disappointed: no
+gold was forthcoming, and such groups as the Jamestown settlers of
+1607 very nearly perished before they learned that America's treasure-
+house could be unlocked only by hard work. In spite of heavy
+investments and repeated attempts at colonization, these first
+ventures were largely failures.
+
+9. THE COMING OF THE HOME-MAKER.--It may truly be said that the seeds
+of national greatness were not planted in America until home-making
+succeeded exploitation by governments and joint stock companies. Home-
+making received little or no encouragement in the early Spanish,
+French, and Dutch colonies. Almost from the first, England allowed her
+colonies a large measure of self-government, but it is significant
+that these colonies made little progress so long as they were
+dominated by joint stock companies intent upon exploitation. It was
+only when individuals, and groups of individuals, settled
+independently of the companies that the colonies began to thrive. The
+first really tenacious settlers on the Atlantic seaboard were groups
+of families who were willing to brave the dangers of an unknown land
+for the sake of religious freedom, economic independence, and a large
+share of self-government. It was with the coming of these people that
+our second condition of national greatness was fulfilled.
+
+10. GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES.--The English annexation of New
+Netherland in 1664, and the concessions of the French in 1763, left
+the English in undisputed possession of the greater part of the
+Atlantic seaboard. The English colonies in this area grew with
+astonishing rapidity. Cheap land, religious freedom, and the privilege
+of self-government attracted settlers from all parts of northern
+Europe. At the close of the seventeenth century there were 260,000
+English subjects in North America; in 1750 there were approximately
+1,000,000; and in 1775 there were probably 3,000,000.
+
+Although in most sections the dominant element was of English
+extraction, other nationalities contributed to the population. Along
+the Delaware, Swedes were interspersed with the English, while in
+Pennsylvania there were large groups of Germans. Numerous Dutch
+settlers had continued to live along the Hudson after New Netherland
+had passed into English hands. Some of the most frugal and industrious
+of the settlers of Georgia and South Carolina were French Huguenots,
+while along the seaboard and inland the Scotch-Irish were found
+scatteringly in agriculture and trade. Such was the composition of the
+people who were destined to begin an unexampled experiment in
+democracy, an experiment upon the successful termination of which
+rests our chief claim to national greatness.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What is meant by civilization?
+
+2. What two conditions must be fulfilled in order that a nation may
+become great?
+
+3. In what way does America fulfill the first condition?
+
+4. Discuss the character of the early Spanish colonization.
+
+5. What were the chief reasons for the failure of the French in
+America?
+
+6. What were the chief defects of the Dutch colonial system in
+America?
+
+7. Compare the earlier English colonization with that of Spain,
+France, and Holland.
+
+8. When were the seeds of national greatness planted in America?
+
+9. Who were the first really tenacious settlers on the Atlantic
+seaboard?
+
+10. Outline the growth of the English colonies.
+
+11. Upon what does our chief claim to national greatness depend?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy,_ chapter i.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Bogart, _Economic History of the United States,_ chapter ii.
+
+3. Coman, _Industrial History of the United States,_ chapter i.
+
+4. Huntington and Gushing, _Principles of Human Geography,_ chapters i
+and xii.
+
+5. Smith, _Commerce and Industry,_ introduction.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Discuss the statement, "Civilization is a product of adversity."
+(Smith, page 2.)
+
+2. What is the effect of tropic abundance upon civilization? (Smith,
+page 2.)
+
+3. What is the relation of efficiency to climate? (Huntington and
+Cushing, page 6.)
+
+4. In what way is civilization related to density of population?
+(Huntington and Cushing, page 10.)
+
+5. What is an ideal climate, and where is such a climate found?
+(Huntington and Cushing, page 254.)
+
+6. How does national progress depend upon beasts of burden? (Smith,
+page 8.)
+
+7. Name some of the political motives of colonization in America.
+(Bogart, pages 29-30.)
+
+8. Name the chief religious motives of colonization. (Bogart, page
+30.)
+
+9. What were the chief economic motives of colonization? (Bogart,
+pages 31-34.)
+
+10. Why did the English finally prevail in the struggle for the
+Atlantic seaboard? (Coman, pages 19-21.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Check up your own experience carefully in order to determine during
+what season of the year you work most effectively. What light does
+your answer throw upon Topic 5?
+
+2. To what extent is the climate of your section favorable to an
+energetic life? To what extent, if to any, is it discouraging to
+initiative and ambition?
+
+3. Trace the influence of the geography of your section upon the
+economic life of your community.
+
+4. The nature of civilization.
+
+
+II
+
+5. Relation of civilization to climate. (Huntington, _Civilization and
+Climate,_ pages 148-182.)
+
+6. The relation of cheap food to the growth of population. (Carver,
+_Sociology and Social Progress,_ pages 235-243.)
+
+7. The effect of desert life upon health and spirits. (Carver,
+_Sociology and Social Progress,_ pages 273-275.)
+
+8. Effect of the climate of North America upon persons of European
+descent. (Bullock, _Selected Readings in Economics,_ pages 1-22.)
+
+9. The influence of the Appalachian barrier upon American colonial
+history. (Semple, _American History and Its Geographic Conditions_
+chapter iii.)
+
+10. The Spanish in America. (Consult any standard history text.)
+
+11. The French in America. (Consult any standard history text.)
+
+12. The Dutch in America. (Consult any standard history text.)
+
+13. The English in America. (Consult any standard history text.)
+
+14. The qualities of an ideal people. (Carver, _Elementary Economics,_
+chapter iv.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE ORIGIN OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY
+
+
+11. THE NATURE OF GOVERNMENT.--A government may be defined as an
+agency through which the purposes of a state or nation are formulated
+and carried out. This agency develops where men live in groups. One of
+the chief objects of government is to adjust individual interests, or,
+to say the same thing in slightly different words, to control members
+of the group in their social relations.
+
+Where groups are small and culture is at a low level, government may
+consist in little more than the arbitrary rules of a self-appointed
+chieftain. From this stage there are numerous gradations up to the
+great complex governments of the leading nations of to-day. With the
+origin and general development of government we are not here
+concerned, and we may accordingly confine our attention to those types
+of modern government which throw light upon the development of
+American democracy.
+
+12. THE ABSOULUTE MONARCHY.--An absolute monarchy may be defined as a
+government in which supreme power or sovereignty is lodged in one
+individual. This monarch holds his position for life, generally with
+hereditary succession. Often the absolute monarchy arose out of the
+ancient chieftainship, when, as the result of territorial expansion
+and cultural development, the chief of a group of tribes became the
+king of a settled and civilized people. The absolute monarchy existed
+in most of the countries of Europe previous to the end of the
+eighteenth century. In its most extreme form the absolute monarchy
+rested upon the claim of the monarch that he ruled by "divine right,"
+_i.e.,_ that God had authorized him to rule. France in the era of
+Louis XIV is one of the best known examples of a modern nation ruled
+by a "divine right" monarch.
+
+13. THE LIMITED MONARCHY.--When a monarch has been restricted in his
+powers a limited or constitutional monarchy is said to exist. Almost
+always the establishment of a limited monarchy has been preceded by a
+series of struggles between king and people. In many cases these
+struggles have been precipitated or intensified by the monarch's abuse
+of power. A striking example is offered by English history. As the
+result of his arbitrary rule, King John was in 1215 obliged to sign
+the Magna Charta, by which act he gave up many important powers. The
+limits thus set upon the kingly power were affirmed and extended by
+the Petition of Right of 1628 and by the Bill of Rights of 1689. A
+similar limiting process has gone on in other countries, either by the
+framing of constitutions, or by the enlargement of the powers of
+legislatures, or by both methods. To-day the absolute monarchy is
+practically unknown among civilized nations.
+
+14. THE REPUBLIC.--The republic is a form of government in which
+ultimate power or sovereignty resides with the people as a whole
+rather than with a single individual. Instead of a monarch there is
+generally an elective president, with varying powers. The republic is
+a very old form of government, but in the republics of Greece, Rome
+and Venice the powers of government were exercised by a class composed
+of a small minority of the people. In modern republics a larger
+proportion of the adult population participates in government.
+
+A republic may arise in any one of several ways, but most of the
+republics of modern times have grown out of monarchical conditions,
+either directly or indirectly. Our republic arose as a reaction
+against English monarchy, while the French republic came into being as
+the result of the destruction of a monarchical government. Most of the
+republics of Latin America date from the throwing off of the Spanish
+yoke in the first half of the nineteenth century. More recently, the
+World War has given rise to a number of European republics, composed
+of peoples formerly under the control of monarchical governments.
+
+15. DEMOCRACY AS A POLITICAL IDEA.--The term democracy is derived from
+two Greek words which taken together mean "control by the people."
+Strictly speaking, democracy is a _form_ of government only where a
+small group governs itself directly, _i.e.,_ without making use of the
+representative device. This "pure" democracy, such as existed in the
+early New England town, becomes a representative democracy, or a
+republic, when a greater population and an increasing political
+complexity require the people to act through their representatives,
+rather than as a body. In the sense that democracy is popular control,
+the term democracy may conceivably be applied to any form of
+government. The present government of Great Britain, for example, is
+technically a limited monarchy, yet the gradual extension of popular
+control has made it one of the most democratic governments in the
+world. Nevertheless, the modern republic is so generally associated
+with the democratic movement that many authorities speak of a
+democracy as identical with a republic. For the time being we may use
+the term democracy to describe a form of government in which
+considerable control is exercised by the people. More briefly,
+democracy may be thought of as self-government.
+
+16. WHY DEMOCRACY DEVELOPED IN AMERICA.--There are four reasons why
+democracy developed early in America.
+
+The first is to be found in the conditions of pioneer life in the
+colonies. The wilderness forced self-government upon the settlers.
+Clearing the forests, subduing the Indians, and conquering animal foes
+was stern work, which weeded out the indolent and inefficient, and
+rewarded the capable and self-reliant. Pioneer conditions did not
+encourage a cringing or submissive spirit, but fostered independence
+and individualism. The spirit of equality tended to become a dominant
+feature of American life, for despite the existence of social classes,
+the great majority of the population had to rely for their living upon
+their own efforts. Under such conditions self-reliance and self-
+government were natural developments.
+
+The selected character of the colonists is a second reason for the
+rise of democracy in America. Restless spirits who had chafed under
+the restraints of monarchy in Europe, thronged to the new land. Once
+here they often found the older American communities intolerant, and
+so struck out into the wilderness to found new and, to them, more
+democratic colonies. The founding of Rhode Island by Roger Williams,
+and the settlement of the Connecticut valley by Thomas Hooker,
+illustrate this tendency.
+
+It should be remembered, thirdly, that the English colonists brought
+with them very definite ideas as to the rights of man. The concessions
+granted by the Magna Charta were made an essential part of their
+political philosophy. The belief that all men were born free and
+equal, and that government derives its just powers from the consent of
+the governed, became prominent in early American politics. Where the
+democratic tendencies of the settlers were reinforced by such
+traditions, an oppressive government could not last. In Carolina in
+1670, for example, an attempt to set up an undemocratic government
+failed, and when half a century later a similar attempt was made in
+Georgia, the settlers objected so ardently that the founders of the
+colony were obliged to grant the privilege of self-government.
+
+A fourth explanation of the rise of democracy in America is that, left
+to themselves, the settlers came to feel that self-government was
+morally right. Largely removed from the traditions of monarchy, they
+soon realized the elemental significance of government. Seeing
+government as a device to help people get along together, they
+concluded that that government is best which most helps the masses of
+the people. The existence of a British monarch was a small factor in
+the everyday life of the early settlers, and from this it was a short
+step to asserting that his control over them was unjust. Living under
+primitive economic conditions, the minds of the people turned
+naturally to freely formed agreements as a basis of group action.
+Under such conditions democracy appeared to the colonists as moral,
+just, and natural.
+
+17. APPLYING THE DEMOCRATIC IDEA.--Partly because of the isolation of
+early American life, and partly because England was busy with European
+politics, the settlers were left relatively free to work out their
+ideas of democracy. The Pilgrims had not yet set foot upon the new
+land when they drew up the Mayflower Compact, by the terms of which
+they agreed to establish a pure democracy in their new home. In 1639
+the inhabitants of three Connecticut towns came together in a mass
+meeting, and drew up the Connecticut Fundamental Orders, which many
+authorities regard as the first written constitution in this country.
+Aside from the fact that the Orders created a small republic in the
+heart of the wilderness, they are of importance because they issued
+directly from the people, without suggestion from, or direction by,
+any outside agency. Elsewhere in New England, too, local self-
+government was a spontaneous growth. Usually the settlers grouped
+themselves in small, compact communities known as towns, the freemen
+coming together in the town meeting for the purpose of passing laws
+and electing officials. The town meeting constituted a pure democracy,
+in which the freemen governed themselves consciously and directly.
+
+18. SPREAD OF THE REPRESENTATIVE IDEA.--The principle of
+representative government appeared very early in English history,
+expressing itself most clearly in the houses of Parliament. The
+principle was early transplanted to America, for in 1619 we find the
+London Company establishing in Virginia a House of Burgesses, the
+first representative assembly in the New World. The representative
+democracy spread rapidly through the colonies, in many cases replacing
+the pure democracy as a form of local government. In Massachusetts
+Bay, for example, the population of the colony became so dispersed,
+and the complexity of its government so great, that it was necessary
+for most freemen to remain at home, and to content themselves with
+choosing a small number of individuals to represent their interests.
+These representatives gathered in the General Court and transacted the
+business of the colony.
+
+19. THE SEPARATION OF POWERS.--As government develops in scope and
+complexity, there is a tendency for the agents of government to
+specialize in various types of work. A more or less recognizable
+separation of the governmental machinery into legislative, executive,
+and judicial branches had long been a feature of English government.
+Early in the seventeenth century this principle was transferred to the
+government of the English colonies in America. There was established
+in each colony a legislative branch for the enactment of laws, an
+executive branch to see that the laws were enforced, and a judicial
+branch for the interpretation of the laws. This separation of
+functions was more definite in America than in England because the
+jealousy existing between colonial legislature and colonial executive
+tended sharply to separate their powers. In America, too, the
+judiciary was more clearly an independent branch of government than in
+England.
+
+20. THE COLONIES AS SELF-GOVERNING STATES.--It has often been said
+that for a considerable period prior to the American Revolution, the
+thirteen colonies were in reality self-governing states. For most
+practical purposes they were independent, indeed, some American
+patriots insisted that they were only nominally subject to England. In
+each colony there was an assembly chosen by a restricted number of
+voters. This popular assembly championed the cause of the colonists
+against the governor, who in most of the colonies was primarily an
+agent of the Crown. After the middle of the eighteenth century, the
+struggles between assembly and governor increased in number and in
+intensity, and victory rested more and more often with the assembly.
+[Footnote: For the similarities existing among the various colonial
+governments see Chapter XXXIX.]
+
+21. EFFECT OF THE REVOLUTION UPON AMERICAN GOVERNMENTS.--The
+Revolution did not greatly affect the character of American
+governments. Democracy, at first weak and ill diffused, had been
+spreading steadily during the preceding century, and when at last the
+break with England came, it found the states trained in self-
+government and able to conduct their own affairs. In many cases the
+Revolution simply erased the name of the king from documents and
+institutions already American in spirit and character. The states
+either retained their old charters as constitutions, as in the case of
+Connecticut and Rhode Island, or framed new constitutions based upon
+the experience of colonial government. The popular legislative
+assembly was everywhere retained. The common law of England continued
+in force, and the system of courts was retained in practically its
+pre-Revolution form. The basis of state government had been laid long
+before the Revolution, the new states simply accepting the basic
+political principles with which they, as colonies, had long been
+familiar. The defeat of English claims was only an incident in the
+irresistible progress of American democracy.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What is one of the chief objects of government?
+
+2. What is the essential feature of the absolute monarchy?
+
+3. Give an example of a country once ruled by a "divine right"
+monarch.
+
+4. Explain the difference between an absolute and a limited monarchy.
+
+5. What is the distinction between a monarchy and a republic?
+
+6. Name some modern republics and explain their origin.
+
+7. Explain clearly the nature of political democracy, and show its
+relation to the monarchy and to the republic.
+
+8. What are the four reasons for the rise of democracy in early
+America?
+
+9. Trace the early application of the democratic idea in America.
+
+10. Where in America was the representative principle first applied?
+
+11. Explain the principle of the "separation of powers."
+
+12. To what extent were the colonies self-governing states?
+
+13. Explain the effect of the Revolution upon American governments.
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy,_ chapter ii.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Bryce, _Modern Democracies,_ vol. i, chapters i and xii.
+
+3. Beard, _American Government and Politics,_ chapter i.
+
+4. McLaughlin, _Steps in the Development of American Democracy,_
+chapter i.
+
+5. Turner, _The Frontier in American History,_ chapter i.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. What was the extent of democracy in the world a century ago?
+(Bryce, page 3.)
+
+2. Why is the study of democracy increasingly important? (Bryce, pages
+4-5.)
+
+3. What is the fundamental significance of local self-government?
+(Bryce, pages 131-133.)
+
+4. In what way has the advance of the frontier meant a steady movement
+away from the influence of Europe? (Turner, page 4.)
+
+5. How did the frontier promote individualism? (Turner, page 30.)
+
+6. What intellectual traits are fostered by pioneer life? (Turner,
+pages 37-38.)
+
+7. Explain the significance of the Virginia House of Burgesses.
+(McLaughlin, pages 11-13.)
+
+8. Discuss the character of the colonial governor. (Beard, pages 3-7.)
+
+9. What were the chief powers of the colonial legislature? (Beard,
+page 8.)
+
+10. Describe the colonial judiciary. (Beard, pages 12-14.)
+
+11. What was the extent of the suffrage in colonial times? (Beard,
+pages 8-10.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Illustrate the nature of government by tracing the origin and
+development of a club or society of which you are a member, or with
+which you are familiar.
+
+2. Early pioneer life in your community, with
+particular reference to social and economic conditions. (Consult local
+histories, or, where possible, interview an old settler in your
+section.)
+
+3. Origin and development of local government in your section.
+(Proceed as with Topic 2.)
+
+4. The origin of the first constitution of your State.
+
+5. A classification of the present-day governments of the world on the
+basis of their democratic character.
+
+
+II
+
+6. Genesis of the limited monarchy. (White, _The Making of the English
+Constitution,_ pages 253-285.)
+
+7. Origin and development of Parliament. (White, _The Making of the
+English Constitution,_ pages 298-322.)
+
+8. Origin and development of the English judiciary. (White, _The
+Making of the English Constitution,_ pages 122-252.)
+
+9. Historical evolution of democracy. (Bryce, _Modern Democracies,_
+vol. 1, chapter iv.)
+
+10. Theoretical basis of democracy. (Bryce, _Modern Democracies,_ vol.
+1, chapter v.)
+
+11. Difficulty of defining the term "democracy." (Bryce, _Modern
+Democracies,_ vol. 1, chapter iii.)
+
+12. American political theory before the Revolution. (Beard,
+_Readings in American Government and Politics,_ pages 14-16.)
+
+13. Contributions of the West to American Democracy. (Turner, _The
+Frontier in American History,_ chapter ix.)
+
+14. Development of the General Court in Massachusetts. (Osgood, _The
+American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century,_ vol. i, pages 141-166.)
+
+15. A Boston town meeting. (Beard, _Readings in American Government
+and Politics,_ pages 11-13.)
+
+16. Local government in Virginia. (Bruce, _Economic History of
+Virginia in the Seventeenth Century,_ vol. ii, chapter xx. Beard,
+_Readings in American Government and Politics,_ pages 13-14.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY
+
+
+22. LOCAL VERSUS NATIONAL SPIRIT.--The outbreak of the American
+Revolution proved that the colonies were so deeply attached to
+democracy that they were willing to fight for it. But the spirit which
+animated the Revolution was local, rather than national. The colonial
+protests which in 1776 reached their climax in the Declaration of
+Independence, had to do almost entirely with the rights of the
+colonies as individual states, and with the determination of those
+states to defend the principle of self-government. The war created
+thirteen practically independent states, among which the spirit of
+state sovereignty was much stronger than was the inclination to form
+an indissoluble union. The Revolution emphasized local and state
+interests rather than intercolonial coöperation, and however much the
+colonists appreciated local democracy in 1776, they had yet to learn
+to think in terms of a national patriotism. A brief review of the
+attempts at union before 1787 will serve to illustrate this important
+point.
+
+23. EARLY ATTEMPTS AT UNION.--The first notable attempt at union was
+made in 1643, when Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New
+Haven formed a league, chiefly for the purpose of mutual defense. This
+league was in force for forty years, and rendered effective service in
+the Indian wars.
+
+In 1754 delegates from seven of the colonies met at Albany and adopted
+a plan of union proposed by Benjamin Franklin. The plan provided for a
+colonial army, the control of public lands, legislation affecting the
+general welfare, and the levying of taxes for intercolonial projects.
+In America Franklin's plan was regarded with considerable favor, but
+it was never given serious consideration by the British Parliament.
+The project fell through.
+
+Still later (1765) delegates from nine of the colonies met in the
+Stamp Act Congress, for the purpose of drawing up a protest against
+the taxation policy of the mother country.
+
+The two continental congresses may also be regarded as steps toward
+union. The first of these met in 1774 and concerned itself chiefly
+with a declaration of rights and grievances. The second (1775-1781)
+assumed revolutionary powers, and, with the consent of the people,
+exercised those powers during the greater part of the war period.
+
+24. THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION.--Nothing so clearly illustrates the
+sectional feeling of that era as the history of the Articles of
+Confederation. The Articles were adopted by the Second Continental
+Congress in 1777, but on account of the tardiness with which some of
+the states ratified them, they were not put into actual operation
+until March 1, 1781. By the terms of the Articles the states yielded
+some of their powers, the central government being given the right to
+declare war, borrow and coin money, establish post offices, and
+otherwise act for the general good. On the other hand, the Articles
+declared that "each state retains its sovereignty, freedom and
+independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right which is not by
+this federation delegated to the United States."
+
+Thus the new government was a confederation or league of states,
+rather than a federal government such as we have to-day. There was no
+national executive, and no judiciary. All authority was concentrated
+in a one-chambered congress, in which each state was represented by
+not fewer than two and not more than seven members. The delegates were
+subject to recall by the legislatures of their respective states. Each
+state had one vote, which was determined by a majority of the state's
+delegates who were present when the vote was taken.
+
+25. DEFECTS OF THE CONFEDERATION GOVERNMENT.--The government
+established by the Articles of Confederation had a number of grave
+defects. The fundamental difficulty was that the central government
+had no real authority or power. The Congress of the Confederation
+could reach individuals only through the action of the state
+governments, and these it could not coerce. Thus the Congress could
+declare war, and make requisitions upon the states for troops, but it
+could not enlist a single soldier. It could make laws, but had no
+power to enforce them. It could make treaties with foreign
+governments, but could not oblige the states to respect those
+agreements. The central government could not levy taxes, but was
+obliged to accept whatever sums the states chose to contribute. The
+Confederation government could not even protect itself, or the states,
+against violence. It lacked force, and without the ability to exert
+force, a government is a government in name only.
+
+Not only did the central government fail to enlist the respect and
+support of the states, but it could not induce the states to respect
+or support one another. Congress had no power to regulate either
+foreign or domestic commerce, each state being free to control the
+commercial activities of its citizens as it saw fit In many cases the
+states engaged in trade wars, that is, they levied heavy duties upon
+the commerce of one another, or even refused to allow their citizens
+to buy goods from, or sell goods to, persons in neighboring states.
+Matters calling for unity of action and friendly coöperation, such as
+roads and canals, were ignored or neglected because of interstate
+jealousy. Whereas they should have united against the grave dangers of
+the period immediately following the war, the states often wasted time
+and energy in controversy and strife.
+
+26. FAILURE OF THE CONFEDERATION GOVERNMENT.--The Confederation
+government, established in 1781, functioned weakly during the
+remaining two years of the war, and then declined rapidly in power and
+influence. The defects of the Articles could not be remedied, for
+amendment was by unanimous consent only, and on every occasion that an
+amendment was proposed, one or more states refused their assent.
+
+According to John Fiske, the five years following the peace of 1783
+constituted the most critical period in the history of the American
+people. Business was demoralized. Most of the states were issuing
+worthless paper money, and several of them passed laws impairing the
+obligation of contracts. In a movement known as Shay's Rebellion
+(1786-1787), a portion of the debtor class of Massachusetts attempted
+to prevent the collection of debts. Paper money depreciated so greatly
+that in many places it ceased to pass as currency. The central
+government could not raise money to meet its ordinary expenses, and in
+1783 Congress was forced to flee Philadelphia to escape the wrath of
+some eighty Pennsylvania soldiers whom it could not pay.
+
+Demoralization and civil strife at home were matched by ridicule and
+suspicion abroad. Congress could not pay the interest on the national
+debt. As early as 1783 our foreign credit was gone. Many European
+statesmen scoffed at the American government. France denied the
+existence of a general government in America. In England our
+diplomatic representatives suffered numerous humiliations. They were
+told, for example, that the British would not relinquish the western
+forts promised us by the Treaty of Paris until our national government
+was able to force the several American states to observe the treaty.
+
+27. OBSTACLES TO UNION.--There are three important reasons why the
+states failed to draw together into a firm union before 1787.
+
+In the first place, each state considered itself a sovereign body, and
+of governments above and beyond itself it was naturally suspicious.
+Many of the Americans had regarded the British government as a super-
+government, imposed against the will of the American people, and
+maintained in spite of their protests. The Dominion of New England,
+which, prior to the adoption of the Articles of Confederation, had
+been the nearest approach to union, was recalled with anger and in
+fear. This plan, forced upon the Americans in 1686 by the king, united
+eight of the colonies under the rule of Governor Andros. The union was
+dissolved by the Bloodless Revolution of 1688, but the arbitrary rule
+of Andros was long cited by the Americans as proof of the despotic
+character of any government beyond that of the individual states.
+
+A second explanation of the failure of the states to unite before 1787
+is to be found in the social and economic differences existing among
+the states. Most of the inhabitants of New England were grouped in
+small, compact communities, and were engaged in shipbuilding and
+commerce, rather than in agriculture. There was an aristocratic group,
+but most of the people belonged to the middle class, and were simple
+and even severe in their tastes. In the middle colonies, on the other
+hand, most of the people were small farmers of mixed religious and
+racial character. Social classes existed to a considerable extent.
+Finally, the South was devoted to large plantations, cultivated by
+black slaves. Social lines were sharply drawn, and a genuine
+aristocratic class was already well formed.
+
+A third reason for the weakness of the coöperative spirit among the
+states is to be found in the lack of means of transportation and
+communication. Travel was mostly confined to natural waterways, or to
+rude paths over which horses proceeded with great difficulty. As late
+as 1800 it often took a horseman longer to go from Boston to New York
+than it now takes to go by rail from New York to San Francisco and
+back again. There were no railroads in those days, no telephones, no
+telegraph, and practically no postal service. Life was primarily
+rural, even on the seacoast. Most interests centered about the local
+community, or at farthest, about the colony or state. In many sections
+there was little exchange of products or of ideas. From the resulting
+isolation there developed a strong feeling of localism or
+provincialism. Ignorance and suspicion of intercolonial affairs gave
+rise to misunderstandings, and emphasized differences and disputes
+which in themselves were unimportant. Thus jealousy and hostility
+often sprang up where mutual confidence and coöperation were sorely
+needed.
+
+28. NEGATIVE FORCES FAVORING UNION.--The failure of the Articles of
+Confederation is one of the most discouraging chapters in the
+development of American democracy. And yet it is an indispensable
+chapter, for it demonstrated, far more convincingly than could any
+theoretical argument, that there must be one great American nation
+rather than thirteen or more unrelated republics. Six years of
+practical experience with the Articles of Confederation taught the
+absolute necessity of a strong central government. The weaknesses of
+the Confederation government constituted the most spectacular of the
+forces favoring union in 1787, and yet these forces were negative in
+character: the states accepted the Constitution of 1787 not so much
+because they were attracted by it, as because they saw little chance
+of getting along without it.
+
+29. POSITIVE FORCES FAVORING UNION.--It should be noted, on the other
+hand, that for a long period previous to the adoption of the
+Constitution of 1787, certain positive forces were impelling the
+states toward union. In their Old World homes most of the settlers had
+occupied somewhat the same social position, and had been used to
+somewhat the same economic conditions. This common background
+constituted, in their New World homes, a unifying force of great
+importance. Long before 1787, too, the great majority of the settlers
+were of English descent, speaking the English language, and, except
+for the Roman Catholics of Maryland, professing some form of
+Protestantism.
+
+In spite of the numerous jealousies and rivalries among the various
+sections of the country, there were at work forces which tended to
+break down the spirit of localism or provincialism. Though the
+Revolution established thirteen separate states, the war had
+encouraged the Americans to feel that they were a single people with a
+common destiny. The soldiers of various sections had rubbed elbows
+with one another during the French and Indian wars, and during the
+Revolution. This had served to encourage a feeling of comradeship
+between the inhabitants of different communities. The population of
+the country was doubling every twenty years, and groups previously
+isolated were coming into contact with one another. Interstate
+coöperation was not only more necessary than ever before, but it was
+less difficult to bring about. Highways were being improved, and the
+postal service gradually extended, with the result that a more
+wholesome social life was made possible.
+
+In an economic sense the American people were increasingly
+interdependent. Especially on the frontier many communities were still
+economically self-sufficing, but to an increasing extent the
+development of commerce and manufacturing was everywhere calling for a
+closer coöperation between various sections of the country. The
+Annapolis Convention of 1786, indeed, was called for the purpose of
+promoting commercial coöperation among the states. According to
+Professor Beard, the formation of the Federal Constitution itself may
+in large measure be traced to the desire throughout the country for
+interstate coöperation in industry and commerce.
+
+30. AMERICAN DEMOCRACY IN 1787.--The constitutional convention of 1787
+expanded American democracy from a local idea to a political concept
+of national proportions. But though this was an important step
+forward, American democracy had not yet been fully developed.
+Religious freedom, indeed, had been guaranteed by the Constitution,
+but the suffrage was still narrowly restricted. The adoption of the
+Constitution was due primarily to negative forces; the full
+development of the positive forces, upon which the ultimate integrity
+of the union rests, was to be delayed for almost a century. The states
+technically abandoned state sovereignty when they accepted the
+Constitution of 1787, but not until the Civil War had been won was
+permanent union assured. Most important of all, American democracy was
+in 1787 only a political concept. There was at that time no suspicion
+that democracy was later to be expanded into a philosophy of life,
+applicable not only to purely governmental affairs, but to the
+individual in his economic and social relations as well.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Distinguish between local and national spirit in the Revolutionary
+period.
+
+2. Describe the first notable attempt at union.
+
+3. What plan of union was proposed by Benjamin Franklin in 1754?
+
+4. Name several other early attempts at union.
+
+5. Outline the character of the Articles of Confederation.
+
+6. What were the chief defects of the Confederation government?
+
+7. Describe the failure of the Confederation government.
+
+8. Outline clearly the three important reasons for the failure of the
+states to unite before 1787.
+
+9. Explain the phrase, "Negative forces favoring union."
+
+10. To what extent was the constitutional convention of 1787 the
+result of positive forces?
+
+11. Explain clearly the statement that in 1787 American democracy had
+not yet been fully developed.
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter iii.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Becker, _Beginnings of the American People_, chapter v.
+
+3. Fiske, _The Critical Period of American History_, chapter iv.
+
+4. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States_, chapter
+xix.
+
+5. McLaughlin, _The Confederation and the Constitution_, chapter xiii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READING
+
+1. In what sense was Benjamin Franklin the first American? (Becker,
+pages 190-200.)
+
+2. Describe the commercial warfare carried on by the several states
+during the critical period. (Fiske, pages 144-147.)
+
+3. Explain why American credit in Europe failed during the critical
+period. (Fiske, pages 155-157.)
+
+4. Describe the attempts to patch up the Confederation government.
+(McLaughlin, chapter xiii.)
+
+5. Explain the statement that "division is sometimes the prelude to
+more effective union." (Becker, pages 189-191.)
+
+6. What did the Alexandria Conference of 1785 accomplish? (Guitteau,
+page 215.)
+
+7. What was the Virginia plan? (Guitteau, page 217.)
+
+8. What was the New Jersey plan? (Guitteau, page 217.)
+
+9. What was the "Great Compromise"? (Guitteau, page 218.)
+
+10. What was the Three-Fifths Compromise? (Guitteau, pages 218-219.)
+
+11. Describe the opposition to the ratification of the Constitution
+(Guitteau, pages 222-224.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Trace the beginnings of railroad transportation in your section,
+and describe the effect of improved methods of transportation upon the
+ability of different communities in your section to coöperate with one
+another. (Consult local histories.)
+
+2. To what extent does the newspaper help you to understand the
+character and ideals of individuals beyond your community?
+
+3. Contrast the telephone and the postal service as influencing the
+development of the coöperative spirit in the city. In rural districts.
+
+4. To what extent would improved methods of transportation and
+communication lead to a closer coöperation between the rural and urban
+districts in your state?
+
+5. To what extent has the economic interdependence of different
+members of your community led to a better understanding? To a closer
+identity of interests?
+
+
+II
+
+6. Difficulties of travel in colonial times. (Crawford, _Social Life
+in Old New England_, chapter _x_.)
+
+7. Postal facilities in the colonial period. (Bogart, _Economic
+History of the United States_, pages 82-83.)
+
+8. Diversity of economic interests among the colonies. (Bogart and
+Thompson, _Readings in the Economic History of the United States_,
+pages 29-42.)
+
+9. Union under the Continental Congresses. (Beard, _American
+Government and Politics_, pages 21-25.)
+
+10. The delegates to the Constitutional Convention of 1787.
+(McLaughlin, _The Confederation and the Constitution_, pages 187-190.)
+
+11. The work of the Constitutional Convention. (Beard, _American
+Government and Politics_, pages 44-53. See also any other standard
+text on American history or government.)
+
+12. Madison's criticism of the Articles of Confederation. (Beard,
+_Readings in American Government and Politics_, pages 38-43.)
+
+13. Hamilton's plea for a strong national government. (Beard,
+_Readings in American Government and Politics_, pages 47-49.)
+
+14. The influence of economic interests upon the Constitution of 1787.
+(Beard, _An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United
+States_, pages 324-325.)
+
+15. The outlook for American democracy in 1789. (Bryce, _Modern
+Democracies_, vol. ii, chapter xxxviii.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT
+
+
+31. THE AIM OF THIS CHAPTER.--The form of government established in
+this country by the Constitution of 1787 is known as a republic. A
+republic may be defined as a representative democracy, or, in the
+popular sense of the term, simply as a democracy. Now, to point out
+that a government is democratic does not necessarily mean that it is a
+sound government. Granting that self-government is morally right, the
+fate of a democracy will depend, partly upon the character of the
+people, and partly upon the nature of the governmental machinery
+through which that people expresses its will. The proof of democracy
+is in its workings. The aim of this chapter is not to pass judgment
+upon democracy, but rather to outline the essential characteristics of
+American constitutional government. When this background has been
+secured we shall be in a position to begin a detailed study of applied
+democracy, to point out its merits, to call attention to its defects,
+and to consider how and to what extent it may be improved.
+
+32. STRENGTH.--American constitutional government is a strong
+government. The weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation were
+avoided in framing the Constitution of 1787. Whereas the Confederation
+government was really headless, the Constitution of 1787 provided for
+a strong executive. The Confederation Congress could not levy taxes,
+but the Congress of the United States has adequate powers in this
+regard. There can be no recurrence of one of the chief financial
+troubles of the Revolutionary period, for at the present time the
+several states may neither coin money nor emit bills of credit. The
+Federal government has exclusive control of foreign affairs, so that
+no state may individually enter into any agreement with a foreign
+power. The Federal Constitution is the supreme law of the land, and no
+state action may contradict it. Unity has given us strength, and great
+crises, such as the Civil War and the World War, have ended by
+increasing that strength.
+
+33. THE CHECK AND BALANCE SYSTEM.--A striking characteristic feature
+of American constitutional government is the check and balance system.
+By this system we mean all those constitutional provisions which
+divide and subdivide governmental power among various sets of public
+agents. [Footnote: For a fuller discussion of the check and balance
+system see Chapter XXXIX.]
+
+This division of powers is threefold. First, there is a division of
+power between the Federal government and the governments of the
+several states. The states are obliged to act in concert on most
+questions involving the nation as a whole, but the Federal
+Constitution safeguards the rights of the states by reserving to them
+all powers not specifically delegated to the Federal government.
+Second, in both Federal and state governments, power is still further
+distributed among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches in
+such a way that each branch constitutes a check upon the other two.
+Third, in both Federal and state governments there is a division of
+power within each of the three branches of government. Thus both the
+President of the United States and the governors of the various states
+are at least partially controlled by subordinate executive officials,
+while in the legislative branch of both Federal and state governments
+the upper and lower houses constitute a check upon one another. In the
+case of both Federal and state judicial systems there is a division of
+jurisdiction.
+
+34. THE CHECK AND BALANCE SYSTEM SECURES STABILITY.--American
+government is not only strong, it is stable. This stability is due
+chiefly to the admirable way in which different governmental agents
+are balanced against one another. The check and balance system renders
+us safe from the danger of anarchy, for though ultimate control is
+vested in the people, sufficient powers are entrusted to the
+governmental mechanism to protect it against popular passion. The
+system likewise protects us against despotism. So long as the
+Constitution endures, neither the Federal government nor the
+governments of the states may destroy each other. The undue
+concentration of political power is likewise rendered difficult by the
+division of power between the legislative, executive, and judicial
+branches of both Federal and state governments.
+
+The significance of a properly applied check and balance system
+appears clearly when we compare our government with that of various
+other republics. In many of the ancient republics, for example, the
+powers of government were so unequally and so indefinitely divided
+that republican government degenerated either to despotism or to
+anarchy. Within the last century many Latin-American republics have
+modeled their governments after ours, and yet some of these republics
+are constantly threatened by either revolution or despotism. The
+explanation of this, according to Elihu Root, is that these republics
+have adapted our check and balance system so carelessly that they find
+it difficult, if not impossible, to maintain a really stable
+government. [Footnote: Here we are pointing out the fundamental merits
+of the check and balance system; later (Chapters XXXIV, XXXV, and
+XXXVI) we shall have occasion to notice some of the disadvantages of
+this system.]
+
+35. THE RIGHTS OF THE INDIVIDUAL.--We have not purchased strength and
+stability at the expense of personal freedom, for both Federal and
+state constitutions specifically safeguard the rights of the
+individual. The fundamental guarantees set forth in the Magna Charta,
+the Petition of Right, and the Bill of Rights were cherished by the
+American colonists, and in 1791 they formed the basis of the first ten
+Amendments to the Federal Constitution. Provisions similarly designed
+to safeguard individual rights are found in the constitution of every
+state in the Union. [Footnote: For an enumeration of these rights, see
+the first ten Amendments to the Federal Constitution, Appendix.
+Consult also the Bill of Rights in the constitution of your state.]
+From the beginning of our national history a fundamental principle of
+American government has been to allow the individual as much freedom
+of thought and action as is compatible with the general welfare.
+
+36. CONTROL BY THE PEOPLE.--Under American constitutional government,
+sovereignty resides with the people as a whole, though the people act
+through their chosen representatives. There is no power in American
+government beyond that created or permitted by the people themselves.
+The suffrage, so narrowly restricted in the eighteenth century, has
+since widened to include the great majority of adults, both male and
+female. Elections are frequent, so that ill-chosen officials may not
+long abuse their position. The Initiative, the Referendum and the
+Recall are methods of popular control which in many sections are
+spreading. Constitutional amendment in the United States is not easy;
+on the other hand, if any considerable percentage of the voters evince
+a sustained desire for change, an amendment is the normal
+result. [Footnote: In Part IV of the text we shall consider the
+dangers of an over-extension of popular control; here it is only
+necessary to point out that American government is essentially
+government by the people.]
+
+37. EFFICIENCY.--The division of functions between the Federal and
+state governments on the one hand, and between state and local
+governments on the other, provides a solid foundation for the
+economical administration of government.
+
+The Federal government attends to most matters which are of national
+importance, and which cannot properly be looked after by the states
+individually. For example, foreign relations, the postal service, and
+the coinage of money, are Federal functions. The separation of Federal
+and state functions is not always clear, but such matters as
+contracts, property rights, crime, and education are probably best
+administered by the state. There is, similarly, no sharp dividing line
+between the functions of state and local governments, but at present
+it appears that the local authorities are the most efficient
+administrators of roads and bridges, water and paving, the elementary
+schools, and similar concerns.
+
+The essential economy of this threefold division of functions is that
+each of the three sets of officials tends to concern itself with those
+matters with which it is best acquainted, and which are most
+advantageously administered by it.
+
+38. UNITY.--The earlier European critics of our government declared
+that the division of powers between Federal and state governments
+would encourage civil strife. It is true that this division of powers
+has resulted in a decentralized rather than in a centralized form of
+government. It is equally true that the quarrel over states' rights
+was the fundamental cause of the Civil War. But that war settled the
+question of states' rights once and for all, and there has never again
+been any serious question as to the proper status of states and Union.
+American democracy has been found compatible with unity.
+
+Nor has the decentralized character of American government kept us
+from presenting a united front in foreign wars. The concentration of
+war powers in the hands of President Lincoln during the Civil War was
+matched by the temporary dictatorship wielded by President Wilson
+during the World War. In both cases, the national executive became,
+for the period of the emergency, as powerful and as efficient as the
+executive of a highly centralized monarchy. This ability to exhibit
+unity of control and singleness of purpose in war-time enables us to
+claim for our form of government one of the most important assets of
+the centralized monarchy.
+
+39. THE SPIRIT OF PROGRESS.--Certainly one test of good government is
+the extent to which it renders the masses of the people happy and
+prosperous. American government has not yet exhausted the
+possibilities of helpfulness, but one of the chief aims of our
+political system is to encourage the individual in every pursuit which
+is legal and honorable. Lord Bryce has called America the land of
+Hope, because in spite of the defects of American government, a
+feeling of buoyancy and optimism is characteristic of our political
+institutions. America might also be called the land of Sane Endeavor,
+for we lend force and justification to our optimism by consistently
+working for the attainment of our ideals. To improve every condition
+of American life, and yet to work in harmony with the principles of
+constitutional government, that is our ideal. Progress must come
+through authorized channels, for, as Abraham Lincoln has said, "a
+majority, held in restraint by constitutional checks and limitations,
+and always changing with the deliberate changes of popular opinion and
+sentiment, is the only true sovereign of a free people, and whoever
+rejects it does of necessity fly to anarchy or despotism."
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Upon what does the fate of a democracy depend?
+
+2. Contrast the strength of our present government with the strength
+of the government established by the Articles of Confederation.
+
+3. What is the check and balance system? Explain clearly.
+
+4. Show how the check and balance system renders American government
+stable.
+
+5. Why is stability not a feature of some of the Latin-American
+republics which have adapted our check and balance system?
+
+6. What can be said as to the rights of the individual under American
+constitutional government?
+
+7. To what extent is American government subject to popular control?
+
+8. How does American government provide for a solid foundation for the
+economical administration of government?
+
+9. What charge did the earlier European critics bring against American
+government? Has history substantiated or disproved this charge?
+Explain.
+
+10. Compare the American democracy with a monarchy with respect to
+efficiency in war-time.
+
+11. Why may America be called the land of Hope? To what extent may it
+properly be called the land of Sane Endeavor?
+
+12. What did Lincoln say as to the only true sovereign of a free
+people?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter iv.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Beard, _American Government and Politics_, chapter viii.
+
+3. Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_, vol. ii, chapters c and cii.
+
+4. Cleveland and Schafer, _Democracy in Reconstruction_, pages 48-66.
+
+5. Root, _Addresses on Government and Citizenship_, pages 98-117.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. What is meant by the doctrine of limited government? (Beard, pages
+145-147.)
+
+2. What are the two classes of constitutional limitations upon the
+Federal government? (Beard, pages 147-148.)
+
+3. Describe the position of the judiciary in American government.
+(Beard, pages 164-165.)
+
+4. What was the attitude of the republics of Greece and Rome toward
+the individual? (Root, page 98.)
+
+5. Contrast this attitude with the "Anglo-Saxon idea." (Root, pages
+98-99.)
+
+6. Why is it important that a constitution be a written document?
+(Cleveland and Schafer, pages 54-S5.)
+
+7. Why is it dangerous to suspend the constitutional guarantees of
+personal liberty? (Root, pages 114-115.)
+
+8. What faults have philosophers and popular writers generally
+attributed to democratic governments? (Bryce, pages 613-614.)
+
+9. To what extent are these faults attributable to American democracy?
+(Bryce, pages 614-629.)
+
+10. Explain the capacity of our government to develop great vigor.
+(Bryce, pages 650-652.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Make a study of a club or society of which you are a member, or
+with which you are familiar. To what extent does its organization
+illustrate the check and balance system?
+
+2. Classify local or state officials in your commonwealth, in order to
+show differences in term and differences in the method of choosing
+them. To what extent do these differences constitute a check and
+balance system?
+
+3. Make a list of the guarantees of personal liberty which are
+contained in the constitution of your state. Compare this list with
+similar lists made from the constitutions of other states. Compare the
+list with the first ten Amendments to the Federal Constitution.
+
+4. Methods by which the constitution of your state may be amended.
+
+5. Make a list of the chief public activities in your community or
+section. Which are local, which state, and which Federal? Do you
+believe that any of these functions could be more advantageously
+performed by some other division of government than that which is now
+performing it? Give reasons.
+
+
+II
+
+6. "Why democracy is best." (Tufts, _The Real Business of Living_,
+chapter xxxvii.)
+
+7. Philosophy of the American constitutional system. (Beard, _Readings
+in American Government and Politics_, pages 49-53.)
+
+8. The relation of Federal and state governments in the United States.
+(Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States_, chapter
+xxi.)
+
+9. Framework of American government. (Bryce, _Modern Democracies_ vol.
+ii, chapter xxxix.)
+
+10. The check and balance system. (Bryce, _Modern Democracies_, vol.
+ii, chapter lxiii. See also any standard text on American government.)
+
+11. The theory of the separation of powers. (Beard, _Readings in
+American Government and Politics_, pages 138-140.)
+
+12. The supremacy of Federal law. (Beard, _Readings in American
+Government and Politics_, pages 140-143.)
+
+13. The meaning of liberty. (Bryce, _Modern Democracies_, vol. i,
+chapter vi.)
+
+14. The meaning of equality. (Bryce, _Modern Democracies_, vol. i,
+chapter vii.)
+
+15. A brief comparison of the American and European systems of
+government. (Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_, vol i, chapter xxv.)
+
+16. American democracy contrasted with other democratic governments.
+(Bryce, _Modern Democracies, vol_. ii, pages 446-452.)
+
+17. Democracy compared with undemocratic forms of government. (Bryce,
+_Modern Democracies_, vol. ii, chapter lxxiv.)
+
+18. Efficiency of American democracy in the World War. (West, _The War
+and the New Age_, chapter x.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE PROBLEMS OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY
+
+
+40. NO GOVERNMENT IS PERFECT.--All government is a compromise, in that
+it is adopted or created for the purpose of harmonizing the interests
+of the individual with the interests of the group. The types of
+government are numerous, varying with the character of the group, and
+with the particular conditions under which it exists. But we know of
+no government which is perfect: all have shortcomings, some very
+serious, others less so. There is nothing to be gained, therefore, by
+debating whether or not American government is imperfect. A much more
+profitable question is this: What are the faults of American
+democracy, and how may they be eliminated or minimized? The most
+constructive work which the American citizen is called upon to do is
+to grasp the character of the problems confronting his country, and
+then to attempt their solution.
+
+41. THE WIDENING CIRCLE OF PROBLEMS.--The last two centuries have
+constituted an age of rapid change and development in all of the major
+phases of civilization. There have been rapid shifts in population,
+particularly in the younger countries of the world. Important
+discoveries have greatly increased our knowledge of natural science;
+epoch-making inventions have revolutionized manufacturing, commerce
+and transportation. In every civilized land there have been
+readjustments of political beliefs, as well as important changes in
+intellectual, religious, and social standards. Such an age is
+peculiarly an age of problems: it is a period of change and stress, a
+time of readjustment, of adaptation to changed conditions, of growth,
+and of development.
+
+We in America are confronted by an ever widening circle of problems,
+and this chiefly for two reasons. In the first place, we have felt the
+impact of those forces which for the last two centuries have been
+creating problems the world over. In the second place, the whole
+period of our national development has fallen within this age of
+change and readjustment This means that we have had to grapple with
+the problems common to all modern countries during a period in which
+the origin and development of American democracy have been creating
+purely domestic problems. These facts at least partially explain the
+growing importance of the problems of American democracy during the
+past century.
+
+42. EFFECT OF AN ENLARGED SOCIAL CONSCIENCE.--Many of the issues of
+contemporary American life have come into prominence because we have
+enlarged the concept of democracy within the last century. The term
+democracy has come to imply, not merely a form of government, but
+actually a philosophy of life stressing justice and happiness for the
+individual, whether in his political, social, or economic capacity.
+The more humanitarian our view, the more situations calling for remedy
+fall within it. Child labor, to give a single example, was not
+generally considered an evil a century ago, but to-day an enlarged
+social conscience condemns it.
+
+43. NECESSITY OF AVOIDING PATERNALISM.--The solution of many national
+problems implies an extension of government control. Now, it is not
+generally appreciated that while an enlarged social conscience has
+increased the number of our problems, the individualistic strain in
+the American nature resists that paternalism which at present appears
+necessary to an effective treatment of certain problems. We are behind
+Germany in legislation designed to prevent industrial accidents,
+lessen the evils of unemployment, and otherwise protect the worker
+against the risks of industry. But Germany has built up this system of
+social insurance by restricting personal liberty, and by greatly
+extending the power of government over the individual. The great task
+confronting our government is to do as much for the individual as any
+paternalistic government, without endangering his rights by an undue
+extension of governmental control.
+
+44. THE COMPLEXITY OF OUR PROBLEMS.--The mistake is sometimes made of
+thinking that national issues can be nicely defined, and separated
+from one another. The human mind has its limitations, and we are prone
+to emphasize the outline and content of particular problems in order
+to perceive their essential character the more clearly. But though
+this is permissible for purposes of study, we must bear in mind that
+the questions which we are to discuss are connected with one another
+in a most baffling way. To understand the administration of charity,
+for example, we ought to know the social, economic, and political
+background of the community under observation. The thorough study of
+this background would lead us to crime, education and other problems,
+which in turn have their connections with issues still further removed
+from the immediate problem of charity. The thorough understanding of a
+specific question thus implies consideration of many inter-related
+questions. Likewise, the solution of a particular question affects and
+is affected by the whole mass of related phenomena.
+
+45. IMPORTANCE OF THE ECONOMIC BACKGROUND.--It would be unwise,
+perhaps, to claim that any definite group of problems is of greater
+importance than any other group. But at least we may say that some
+problems are primary in origin, while others appear to be secondary,
+_i.e._ derived from those called primary. In the chapters which
+follow, the attempt has been made to arrange the groups of problems
+with some regard to their primary or secondary origin. Probably the
+most fundamental problems which face us to-day are those of economic
+organization. Properly to understand these problems the student must
+first grasp the essential facts of American industry. We shall begin
+our study of the problems of American democracy, therefore, with a
+survey of the economic life of the nation. Only after we have mastered
+the principles upon which American industry is based, shall we be in a
+position to solve the problems which arise directly from the nature of
+our economic organization.
+
+46. INDUSTRIAL REFORM.--Our industrial life is so clearly based upon
+certain fundamental institutions, such as private property, free
+contract, and free competition, that an industrial "system" is said to
+exist. Certain great evils, notably poverty, have accompanied the
+development of this system. We shall discuss a number of programs
+designed to eliminate these evils. The doctrine of single tax is of
+interest as advocating the abolition or confiscation of land value.
+The coöperative conduct of industry is of increasing importance of
+late years. We must also reckon with socialism as a movement which
+seeks the redistribution of wealth. Under the general head of
+socialism we shall have occasion to notice a small but active group
+known as the Industrial Workers of the World, and the larger, though
+related, group which recently conducted a socialist experiment in
+Russia. The discussion of socialism completed, we shall sum up the
+attitude of American democracy toward the whole problem of industrial
+reform.
+
+47. SOCIAL PROBLEMS.--Of the social problems which grow out of a bad
+economic situation, none is more vital than the fostering of peace and
+good will between labor and capital. Following the discussion of
+industrial relations, we shall have occasion to notice a whole series
+of social questions which have either been derived from, or
+accentuated by, the rapid industrialization of our country. Grave
+questions arise in connection with immigration, health, and the
+cityward drift. The consideration of the problems of the city in turn
+directs attention to the necessity of a normal rural life, and to the
+importance of safeguarding the American home. Dependency is a familiar
+problem, but one which, in the light of an awakened community spirit,
+is now being studied from new and interesting angles. Last among
+social problems is the fundamental matter of education. It is not too
+much to claim that the ultimate fate of American democracy depends, to
+a great extent, upon the vigor and intelligence with which we improve
+and extend our educational system.
+
+48. RELATION OF GOVERNMENT TO BUSINESS.--Since our material well-being
+rests upon an economic basis, the public has a vital interest in
+business. The rise of great corporations and the necessity of
+safeguarding the public from monopolistic abuses make necessary a
+careful examination into the relation of government to business. We
+shall meet with this question: Shall the government regulate, or
+actually own, businesses of vital importance to the public? Equally
+knotty, but fully as interesting, is the tariff question. Should
+Congress tax foreign goods entering this country, and, if so, upon
+what principles should this tax be determined? This will bring us to
+the general problem of taxation, a subject to which the American
+people will probably devote an increasing amount of attention in the
+next few decades. The question of conserving our natural resources
+must also be discussed. Last in this group of problems may be
+mentioned the question of money and banking. In discussing this
+important subject we shall notice, among other things, the interesting
+Federal reserve system, which, it is hoped, will protect us from
+panics in the future.
+
+49. PROBLEMS IN EFFECTIVE GOVERNMENT.--The economist has good reason
+for declaring that the getting of a living is one of the most
+fundamental concerns in life; on the other hand, no people can long
+get a comfortable living without the aid of a helpful system of
+government. Government must be made effective. This introduces us to
+another series of problems. First of all, who shall share in
+government? And how may we improve the methods by which we select the
+agents of government? How may corruption and inefficiency be
+eliminated from American government? What is the significance of the
+Initiative, the Referendum, and the Recall?
+
+These questions must prove of fascinating interest to those who think
+of democracy as a living institution which is constantly growing,
+developing, adapting itself to changed conditions.
+
+50. WHAT IS THE PROMISE OF AMERICAN LIFE?--Rich in natural resources,
+ample in extent, encouraging to man's helpful efforts, America
+fulfills the first condition of national greatness. Intelligent and
+industrious, law-abiding and, devoted to the building of homes, our
+population fulfills the second condition.
+
+Here we have all the raw materials out of which to build a great
+nation. Already we have made marked contributions to civilization, and
+yet it should not be forgotten that our chief claim to national
+greatness rests upon the promise which we show of being able to
+perfect American democracy.
+
+To what extent will this promise actually be realized? As a nation we
+are yet young, as a people we have scarcely begun the greatest
+experiment in democracy which the world has ever seen. Shall we
+endure, shall we attain to a half-success, shall we succeed
+gloriously?
+
+Much depends upon the extent to which each of us assumes the
+responsibilities of citizenship. Those who have gone before us
+conquered a wilderness, expanded and preserved the Union. But it is
+not for us complacently to accept the result. Much has been done, but
+much more remains to be done. Our goal is the greatest possible
+perfection of our economic, social and political life. Each age may be
+said to have its peculiar burdens and responsibilities: the prime task
+of the colonist was to foster the tender shoot of democracy; that of
+the western pioneer was to fashion homes out of a wilderness; the
+burden of our generation is to grapple with the present-day problems
+of American democracy. Without a high sense of personal
+responsibility, coupled with an intelligent and consistent effort, we
+can never reach the high goal admittedly possible.
+
+51. THE POINT OF VIEW IN PROBLEM STUDY.--To see American democracy and
+to see it as a whole should be our aim throughout the remainder of
+this book. Now this is not easy. The danger is that the unwary student
+will interpret the large amount of space devoted to "problems" as
+meaning that American life is preeminently unsettled and defective.
+This is a temptation to be guarded against. Though we shall uncover
+many defects, it should be remembered that we are predominantly a
+normal, healthy, prosperous people. But our virtues demand our
+attention less urgently than do our defects. If we seem to be
+overconcerned with the defects of American life, the student should
+not conclude that American life is primarily defective. Rather, he
+ought to realize that it is precisely because a situation involves a
+problem that our attention is challenged.
+
+Nor should problems be looked upon as something to be ashamed of.
+Where life is dull and civilization static, there are relatively few
+problems; where life is progressive and civilization steadily
+advancing, problems are numerous and pressing. Problems imply
+adjustment, development, the desire for improvement and advancement.
+They are signs of progress, the growing pains of civilization. If we
+bear this in mind, we shall be in a fair position to see American
+democracy in true perspective, without undue distortion of our
+viewpoint, and without prejudice to our judgment.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Why is there nothing to be gained by debating whether or not
+American democracy is imperfect?
+
+2. Why has the circle of our problems been steadily widening during
+the last century?
+
+3. Trace the relation between an enlarged social conscience and the
+number of problems confronting us.
+
+4. What is one danger of paternalism?
+
+5. Give a definite example to illustrate the complexity of our modern
+problems.
+
+6. Discuss the importance of the economic background in problem study.
+
+7. What problems may be included under the term "industrial reform"?
+
+8. What problems arise in connection with public interest in business?
+
+9. Name some of the problems arising in connection with the need for
+effective government.
+
+10. What is the importance of individual responsibility in studying
+the problems of American democracy?
+
+11. Outline clearly the point of view to be maintained in studying
+these problems.
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter v.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_, vol. ii, chapters ci, cxiv,
+cxix, and cxxii.
+
+3. Dunn, _The Community and the Citizen_, pages vii-xii.
+
+4. McLaughlin, _Steps in the Development of American Democracy_,
+chapter viii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. What, according to Lord Bryce, are the essential intellectual
+traits of the masses of the American people? (Bryce, pages 825-826.)
+
+2. Lord Bryce says that "there are elements in the life of the United
+States which may well make a European of any class prefer to dwell
+there rather than in the land of his birth." What are these elements?
+(Bryce, pages 870-873.)
+
+3. What comment does Lord Bryce make upon the quality of humor in the
+American character? (Bryce, page 876.)
+
+4. What three advantages does the United States have over European
+countries in the matter of grappling with modern problems? (Bryce,
+page 912.)
+
+5. Explain the statement that "Democracy rests on faith." (McLaughlin,
+pages 181-182.)
+
+6. What is meant by the statement that "Democracy is fundamentally a
+matter of human relationships"? (McLaughlin, pages 189-190.)
+
+7. What, according to Lord Bryce, are the four chief defects of
+American democracy? (Bryce, page 632.)
+
+8. What are the essential qualities which civic education should aim
+to cultivate? (Dunn, pages xi-xii.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Make a list of the problems which in any way affect you as a
+citizen in the community. List these problems in the order in which
+they occur to you, or are discovered by you. Comment upon the confused
+and disorderly appearance of the problems so listed.
+
+2. Classify the problems on your list according as they are economic,
+social or political.
+
+3. Classify the problems on your list according as they are local,
+state or national.
+
+4. Comment upon the complexity and inter-relationship of the problems
+so classified.
+
+5. What agencies, public, semi-public, or private, are studying the
+problems on your list?
+
+6. What difference of interest do the citizens of your community show
+in local, state and national problems?
+
+
+II
+
+7. Defects of democratic government the world over. (Bryce, _Modern
+Democracies_, vol. ii, pages 452-454.)
+
+8. The background of the problems of American democracy. (Merriam,
+_American Political Ideas_, chapter i.)
+
+9. The hindrances to good citizenship. (Bryce, _Hindrances to Good
+Citizenship_.)
+
+10. The promise of American life. (Croly, _The Promise of American
+Life,_ chapter i.)
+
+11. Attitude of the individual in a democracy. (Hughes, _Conditions of
+Progress in Democratic Government_.)
+
+12. The power of ideals in American history. (Adams, _The Power of
+Ideals in American History_.)
+
+13. Ideals of citizenship. (Woodburn and Moran, _The Citizen and the
+Republic_, chapter xx.)
+
+14. The future of democracy. (Bryce, _Modern Democracies_, vol. ii,
+chapter lxxx.)
+
+
+
+
+PART II--AMERICAN ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
+
+
+A. ECONOMICS OF AMERICAN INDUSTRY
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE NATURE OF AMERICAN INDUSTRY
+
+
+52. MAGNITUDE OF AMERICAN INDUSTRY.--In colonial times the major part
+of American industry was concentrated along the Atlantic seaboard; to-
+day it extends over a large part of the continent. A century and a
+half ago our industrial system was still a relatively simple one,
+giving rise to few pressing problems of national importance; at the
+present time it is a vast and complicated affair, closely bound up
+with many of the most vital problems which confront American
+democracy. The activities which are commonly grouped under the head of
+"American industry" are so numerous and so varied that a description
+of all of them would carry us beyond the limits of this chapter.
+Nevertheless, it is important that we secure some understanding of
+these activities. A few pages may profitably be spent, therefore, in
+discussing certain basic facts of American industry.
+
+53. FAVORABLE LOCATION OF THE UNITED STATES.--Let us commence by
+noting that the location of the United States is favorable to the
+development of industry. Of the two American continents, the northern
+has the greater natural advantages. Each continent is roughly in the
+form of a triangle with the apex or smaller end pointing southward,
+but whereas the larger end of the South American triangle is within
+the tropic zone and only the tapering end is within the more favorable
+temperate zone, the greater part of the North American triangle is
+within the temperate zone. With regard to location for world trade the
+northern continent again has the advantage: the ports of South America
+face a relatively empty ocean on the west and the little-developed
+continent of Africa on the east; the ports of North America, in
+addition to being more numerous and more suitable for commerce than
+those of the southern continent, face the teeming Orient on the west,
+and the great markets of Europe on the east. Moreover, the United
+States occupies the choicest portions of the North American continent.
+Our neighbor Canada has a cold and snow-bound frontier on her north,
+while on our south Mexico and the Central American countries lie near
+the tropics. The heart of temperate America, on the other hand, is
+included within the territory of the United States.
+
+54. POPULATION.--Scarcely less important than the favorable location
+of the United States is the character of the people occupying the
+country. From less than four million in 1790, our population has
+increased so rapidly that in 1920 there were 105,710,620 people within
+the bounds of continental United States. As the population has
+increased, it has spread over the Appalachians, into the great
+Mississippi basin, and westward to the Pacific Ocean. Accompanying the
+increase and westward spread of the population has come a greater
+variety of racial types. Although our population was varied in
+colonial times, the great majority of the settlers were from the
+British Isles and northwestern Europe. In the latter part of the
+nineteenth century immigration from northern Europe declined and more
+and more immigrants began to come from southern and southeastern
+Europe. So universal has been the attraction of America, that our
+present population includes elements from every important country in
+the world. From the industrial standpoint, the dominant
+Characteristics of this composite American people are energy and
+versatility.
+
+55. NATIONAL WEALTH.--Generations of industrious people have helped to
+make the United States the wealthiest nation in the world. It has been
+estimated that in 1850 our national wealth amounted to $8,000,000,000.
+By 1900 the remarkable progress of American industry had increased
+this figure to more than $88,000,000,000. In 1912 our wealth was
+probably in excess of $180,000,000,000. Industrial and financial
+disturbances during the period of the World War make later estimates
+hazardous, nevertheless it is interesting to note that in 1921 the
+wealth of the United States was estimated as being between
+$350,000,000,000 and $400,000,000,000. According to this estimate, the
+wealth of this country exceeded, in 1921, the combined wealth of Great
+Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and Belgium. In weighing the value of
+this comparison, however, we must take into consideration the heavy
+destruction of wealth in western Europe because of the World War.
+
+56. WHAT THE AMERICAN PEOPLE ARE DOING.--A large percentage of the
+inhabitants of the United States are engaged in some form of
+productive work. According to the most recent estimates there are
+approximately fifty million persons, male and female, over ten years
+of age, engaged in gainful occupations in this country. Of these about
+fourteen million are engaged in agriculture and allied industries,
+while more than eleven million are busy in manufacturing pursuits.
+Almost four million are found in some form of trade, and another four
+million are employed in domestic and personal service. Transportation,
+clerical work, and professional callings utilize the services of
+several additional million. The great majority of those employed in
+American industry are men, although the number of women in industry is
+steadily increasing. Children have been found in industrial pursuits
+since colonial times, but of recent years there is a growing movement
+to restrict or prohibit the employment of children in gainful
+occupations.
+
+57. FORESTS AND MINERALS.--The natural resources of the United States
+play a large part in our industrial life. One fourth of the territory
+of the United States is still covered with timber. We are abundantly
+supplied with coal and iron, the two most important industrial
+minerals. Our coal deposits outrank, both in quantity and in quality,
+those of any other country. Iron is found in most of the states in the
+Union, the high-grade deposits of the Lake Superior area being of
+special importance. We produce more than half of the world's supply of
+copper, which, after coal and iron, is the most important industrial
+mineral. Our supply of petroleum and natural gas is large, and in
+spite of the waste which has characterized our use of these important
+commodities, our production of both is still great. Gold, silver,
+zinc, lead and phosphates are produced in the United States in large
+quantities. Indeed, we have ample supplies of practically all of the
+minerals of importance to industry, except platinum, tin, and nickel.
+
+58. AGRICULTURE.--Until very recently, at least, agriculture has been
+by far our most important industry. Of the two billion acres
+comprising continental United States, approximately half are under
+cultivation. In most sections of the country the quality of the soil
+is good, and rainfall is ample. We have long led the world in the
+value of farm crops grown. Our production of wheat, corn, oats,
+barley, rye, and dairy products totals an enormous figure. The steady
+enclosure of lands formerly used for grazing stock is restricting our
+production of food animals, but we are still important as a producer
+of meats. Most of the world's tobacco is grown in this country. The
+world's supply of cotton is derived mainly from southern United
+States. Finally, our soil is of such variety, and our climate so
+diversified, that the danger of a general crop failure is slight. A
+loss in one part of the country is almost certain to be offset by good
+crops in another.
+
+59. MANUFACTURING.--In colonial times American manufactures were
+subjected to more or less restraint by Great Britain, but after the
+Revolution these industries entered upon a period of free and rapid
+development. Modern machinery was introduced rapidly after 1800, large
+scale production was developed, transportation was fostered, and
+larger and larger markets were supplied with the products of American
+manufacturers. Particularly since the Civil War has the importance of
+our manufactures increased. This increase has been due chiefly to the
+large scale production of foodstuffs, including meats and flour;
+textiles; iron and steel products; shoes; chemicals; and agricultural
+machinery. According to recent census figures it would appear that we
+are passing from a predominantly agricultural life to a stage in which
+manufacturing is of relatively greater importance.
+
+60. TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION.--The physical geography of the
+United States encourages the development of adequate means of
+transportation and communication. The St. Lawrence-Great Lakes system
+gives easy access to the most fertile section of the continent. The
+Mississippi and its tributaries drain a million square miles of farm
+land. We have, in addition to 18,000 miles of navigable rivers, a
+greater coast line available for commerce than has the whole of
+Europe. New York is the world's greatest seaport.
+
+Few mountain ranges hamper the development of transcontinental
+railroads in this country, and of these only one, the Rockies, is a
+serious obstacle to effective transportation. Our railroad mileage is
+enormous, a half dozen transcontinental lines being supplemented by
+numerous smaller roads and feeding lines. We have more than 2000 miles
+of canals in operation. Cheap and rapid transportation between the
+different parts of the country, supplemented by adequate means of
+communication by telephone, telegraph, and the postal service,
+undoubtedly has been one of the greatest factors in our national
+prosperity.
+
+61. DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN TRADE.--The great majority of our products
+are not shipped to foreign markets, but are utilized within the
+country. We are still so young and so undeveloped a country that our
+manufacturers have been kept busy supplying the domestic market. This
+fact, together with the American manufacturer's lack of knowledge
+concerning the possibilities of foreign trade, explains our neglect of
+foreign markets. In proportion as our manufacturers catch up with the
+domestic market, and in proportion as their knowledge of foreign
+markets increases, it is likely that they will give more and more
+attention to customers in other countries.
+
+But though a very small proportion of our products are sent abroad,
+the foreign trade of the United States exceeds in value the foreign
+trade of any other country. This predominance is due, not so much to
+our search for foreign markets, as to the steady demand in other
+countries for three classes of goods in the production of which we
+have a distinct advantage. These three classes of goods are, first,
+raw materials of which we have a great abundance, such as cotton and
+copper; second, specialties invented and patented by Americans, such
+as inexpensive automobiles, typewriters, and phonographs; and, third,
+commodities which may be advantageously produced by large-scale
+methods, such as agricultural machinery and the cheaper grades of
+textiles.
+
+62. SUMMARY AND FORECAST.--We have very briefly surveyed some of the
+basic facts of American industry. On the one hand, the favorable
+location and the rich natural resources of the United States have
+furnished a substantial basis for industrial progress. On the other
+hand, we must note that the American people are energetic and
+versatile,--combining, to a happy degree, the qualities of initiative
+and originality, perseverance and adaptability. The great wealth and
+prosperity of the country as a whole have been the result of the
+combination of a favorable land and an able people.
+
+This is not the whole of the story, of course. It must be admitted
+that, with all of our wealth, we continue to face serious charges of
+poverty and industrial maladjustment. These charges are of great
+importance, but it should be remembered that no problem can be solved,
+or even intelligently attacked, until the essential facts are well in
+hand. We have briefly described the nature of American industry. What
+we have now to do, as a preliminary to considering the problem of
+poverty and industrial reform, is to analyze the economic laws in
+accordance with which American industry has developed. The essential
+facts of the next four chapters cannot be weighed too carefully.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. To what extent has the character of American industry changed in
+the last century and a half?
+
+2. Compare North America with South America with respect to natural
+advantages.
+
+3. Outline the changes which have occurred in the population of the
+United States since 1790.
+
+4. Trace briefly the increase in our national wealth since 1850.
+
+5. What are the chief occupations of the American people?
+
+6. Name three important industrial minerals, and comment on our supply
+of each.
+
+7. What are the chief characteristics of American agriculture?
+
+8. Outline the growth of our manufacturing industries.
+
+9. How are transportation and communication encouraged by the physical
+geography of the United States?
+
+10. Why is our domestic trade of relatively greater importance than
+our foreign trade?
+
+11. To what three types of goods is our predominance in foreign
+markets due?
+
+12. What qualities of the American people have contributed to their
+industrial success?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy,_ chapter vi.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Bishop and Keller, _Industry and Trade,_ chapters i and ii.
+
+3. Bogart, _Economic History of the United States,_ chapter i.
+
+4. Fetter, _Modern Economic Problems,_ chapter i.
+
+5. King, _Wealth and Income of the People of the United States,_
+chapter iii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Describe briefly each of the six regions into which continental
+United States may be divided. (Bogart, pages 11-12.)
+
+2. Why has the animal life of the North American continent declined in
+significance since colonial times? (Bogart, page 8.)
+
+3. Into what five divisions may the forests of the United States be
+classified? (Bishop and Keller, pages 27-28.)
+
+4. What may be said as to the temperature of the United States?
+(Bogart, pages 12-13.)
+
+5. What may be said as to the extent of rainfall in the United States?
+(Bogart, page 13.)
+
+6. Explain the importance of water power in the United States.
+(Bogart, pages 3-4.)
+
+7. What changes in farm land values have been brought about in the
+last century? (King, pages 22-27.)
+
+8. Discuss the value of urban land in the United States. (King, pages
+15-21.)
+
+9. Why is it extremely difficult to measure the wealth of the United
+States? (Fetter, pages 6-10.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Trace the growth in the population of your state since 1880. What
+have been the chief sources of this increase?
+
+2. To what extent has the population of your state been affected by
+immigration from Europe? What attracts immigrants to your state? Have
+there been any changes in the character of this immigration since
+1880?
+
+3. Classify the population of your state on the basis of occupation.
+(Secure data from the State Board of Labor, or State Bureau of
+Statistics.)
+
+4. Estimate the material wealth of your community. What light does the
+result throw upon the difficulties of summarizing the wealth of the
+nation?
+
+5. Discuss the importance in the economic life of your section of
+
+(a) Agriculture,
+
+(b) Mining,
+
+(c) Forestry,
+
+(d) Manufacturing.
+
+
+II
+
+6. The economic geography of your section. (Consult Dryer, _Elementary
+Economic Geography_.)
+
+7. A comparison of America three hundred years ago with the America of
+to-day. (Price, _The Land We Live In_, chapters i and ii.)
+
+8. Character of the American population. (Burch and Patterson,
+_American Social Problems_, chapter ix.)
+
+9. An analysis of the American character. (Bryce, _The American
+Commonwealth_, vol. ii, chapters cxiv and cxv.)
+
+10. Ways of getting a living. (Carver, _Elementary Economics_, chapter
+xv.)
+
+11. Geographical distribution of cities and industries in the United
+States. (Semple, _American History and Its Geographic Conditions,_
+chapter xvi.)
+
+12. Agricultural industries in the United States. (Bishop and Keller,
+_Industry and Trade,_ part ii. Smith, _Commerce and Industry,_
+chapters i, in, iv, v, and vi.)
+
+13. Animal industries in the United States. (Bishop and Keller,
+_Industry and Trade,_ part iii. Smith, _Commerce and Industry_,
+chapter ii.)
+
+14. Power. (Smith, _Commerce and Industry_, chapter ix.)
+
+15. Mineral industries in the United States. (Bishop and Keller,
+Industry and Trade, part iv. Smith, _Commerce and Industry_, chapters
+viii, xiii, xiv, and xv.)
+
+16. Manufacturing industries in the United States. (Bishop and Keller,
+_Industry and Trade_, part v.)
+
+17. Trade routes of North America. (Smith, _Commerce and Industry_,
+chapter xvi.)
+
+18. The foreign trade of the United States. (Dryer, _Elementary
+Economic Geography_, chapter xxxii. See also any other recently
+published text on this general field.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+WHAT IS MEANT BY PRODUCTION
+
+
+63. WHY MEN WORK.--Ultimately everyone depends upon work for his
+living. Young children commonly live upon the earnings of their
+parents; most normal adults, on the other hand, depend upon their own
+efforts for their living. Since every individual probably works
+because of a combination of motives, it is possible somewhat to
+analyze the reasons why men work. The most fundamental reason for
+working is in order to preserve one's life. This assured, the
+individual is in a position to work in order to preserve the lives of
+those who are near and dear to him. When the necessities of life have
+been provided, work is commonly continued for the sake of acquiring
+comforts or luxuries.
+
+Under a well-regulated legal system these efforts of the individual
+also benefit the community, but until he is able to support himself
+and his family, the average individual does not consciously make the
+public interest the chief end of his labors. However altruistic a man
+may be, he will not be able to labor consistently in behalf of others,
+unless he will thereby serve his own interests as well, or unless his
+personal needs have already been met.
+
+64. THE OLD WAY OF GETTING A LIVING.--The economic history of
+eighteenth century England illustrates two rather distinct methods of
+getting a living, one of which may be called the old, and the other
+the new. Up to about the middle of the century, the masses of
+Englishmen, in common with the people of other countries, got a very
+poor living. Most common necessities were made in the home and for
+purely family use. Shoes, clothing, tools, and similar articles were
+produced laboriously and on a small scale. In comparison with
+industrial conditions in the nineteenth century, there was at that
+time little industrial coöperation [Footnote: By coöperation is here
+meant simply the working together of different persons or groups of
+persons. Coöperation in this sense is to be distinguished from
+coöperation as discussed in Chapter XII.], little division of labor,
+little suspicion that men were, in spite of hard work engaged in for
+long hours, getting a very poor living. The trouble was, partly, that
+men had not yet fully realized the possibilities of helping one
+another, and partly that they were ignorant of how to make Nature
+really an efficient aid in getting them a living.
+
+65. THE NEW WAY OF GETTING A LIVING.--After the middle of the
+eighteenth century the invention of a series of remarkable machines
+enabled Englishmen greatly to increase their productivity, first in
+the manufacture of textiles, and later in numerous other industries.
+By subdividing their labor more and more minutely, and by each
+specializing in the particular type of work which he could do best,
+men found that their total output could be greatly increased. This
+complex division of labor, made possible by the use of water and steam
+power to run machines and to move vehicles of transportation, reduced
+the difficulty of getting a good living, that it constituted a
+veritable revolution in industry. Indeed, this change is known in
+history as the Industrial Revolution.
+
+66. EFFECTS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION.--In the last century and a
+half the Industrial Revolution has spread to every important civilized
+country in the world, everywhere encouraging the application of
+machine methods to more and more industries. This change from
+production on a small scale, and often by hand, to large-scale
+production in factories equipped with complex machines, has had
+important results. It has so increased our control over Nature that
+even the humblest workman of to-day enjoys many comforts denied kings
+a few centuries ago. On the other hand, the Industrial Revolution has
+tended to create a numerous class which depends entirely upon wages,
+and to set off against this class an employing group which possesses
+and controls most of the income-producing equipment of industry. The
+significance of this last development will become clearer as we go
+along.
+
+67. NATURE OF MODERN PRODUCTION.--In the study of modern production
+two fundamental facts confront us. The first is that the economist
+does not define production as merely the making of material objects.
+We desire material objects only if they will satisfy our wants. Since,
+also, the satisfaction of wants is the important thing, it is clear
+that the performance of a service, such as teaching or painting, may
+be more important than the manufacture of a material object which no
+one wants. Production may thus be defined as the satisfaction of human
+wants. The manufacturer of a material object is productive only if
+that object is wanted by someone; he who supplies personal or
+professional service is productive if that service satisfies the wants
+of someone.
+
+The second fundamental fact which confronts the student of modern
+production is the complexity of our industrial system. Three hundred
+years ago most of the commodities in daily use were made, either in
+the home and by the family members, or by small groups of artisans
+working together under relatively simple conditions. To-day production
+is a vast and complicated process. To the eye of the untrained
+observer a great mass of factories, farms, railroads, mills, machines,
+ships, and busy laborers appears without order and, often, without
+purpose. The task immediately before us is to analyze this mass, and
+to point out the nature of the various factors which contribute to the
+productive power of a community.
+
+68. NATURE A FIRST FACTOR IN PRODUCTION.--Nature is defined by the
+economist as inclusive of all of the materials and forces furnished in
+the form of land and its products, oceans, lakes, rivers, rain,
+humidity, and climate. Since Nature is rather a vague term, and since,
+also, the economist looks upon land as the most important element in
+Nature, we may lump together all of the materials and forces of Nature
+and apply the term "land."
+
+Taken in this sense, land is clearly of great importance in
+production. We build houses and factories upon it, we use it as a
+basis of transportation, we harness its motive power, and we make
+extensive use of the innumerable raw materials which it furnishes.
+Without land there could be no production, in the sense in which the
+economist understands the word.
+
+69. MAN'S LABOR A SECOND FACTOR IN PRODUCTION.--Something besides
+land, or Nature, is necessary before our wants can be satisfied.
+Nature is often careless of our needs and desires. True, she offers us
+berries, coal, firewood, and many other commodities which are
+practically ready to use, but even these articles will not satisfy our
+wants unless we go to the trouble to secure possession of them. In an
+important sense Nature is passive, and if she is to furnish us with a
+living, we must engage in labor. This labor may be mental or physical,
+the important point being that it is effort undertaken to increase our
+control over Nature. Savages are content to use products in
+substantially the form in which Nature provides them; civilized
+peoples work over the products of Nature until the utility or want-
+satisfying power of those products has been greatly increased. Man's
+living improves as he progresses from indolence to hard physical
+labor, then from hard physical labor alone to a combination of
+physical and mental labor intelligently directed.
+
+70. CAPITAL A THIRD FACTOR IN PRODUCTION.--Land to furnish raw
+materials, and man to make use of those materials,--what more is
+necessary? Nothing else would be necessary if all of Nature's gifts
+were readily accessible, and if man unaided could make the best use of
+them. But Nature hides or disguises many of her treasures, and man is
+physically weak. Hence he has hit upon the device of making tools to
+help him in his contest with Nature. During the period of the
+Industrial Revolution many simple tools were supplanted by complicated
+devices run by power and called engines and machines. To the economist
+tools and similar devices are a form of capital, capital being defined
+as inclusive of everything which man has created, or caused to be
+created, in order to help in further production. [Footnote: Land has
+not been created by man but is a gift of Nature. Land, therefore, is
+not a form of capital.]
+
+The fashioning of hammers and saws, the construction of railways, and
+the manufacture of machinery, all these operations create capital. The
+systematic creation and use of capital is one of the distinguishing
+features of modern civilization. The laborer alone can produce little;
+aided by capital he can produce much. Capital is not important if one
+is willing to live like a savage; on the other hand, it is
+indispensable if one wishes to enjoy the benefits of civilization.
+
+71. COÖRDINATION A FOURTH FACTOR IN PRODUCTION.--Land, labor, and
+capital are factors in production. Two hundred years ago nothing else
+was essential to production. The average individual had his own land,
+produced his own tools or capital, and relied chiefly or entirely upon
+his own labor.
+
+But the Industrial Revolution enlarged and complicated production. It
+created an industrial system in which the individual is generally a
+specialist, producing a surplus of his one product, but dependent upon
+numerous other persons for most of the things which he personally
+consumes. To-day, for example, there are numerous individuals raising
+cattle, the hides of which are to be made into shoes; other
+individuals are perfecting means of transportation so that those hides
+may be carried to market; still other persons concern themselves only
+with the building of factories or with the manufacture of machines
+with which to work those hides into shoes. These various individuals
+and groups may never see each other, nevertheless they aid one
+another.
+
+The secret of this often unseen and unconscious coöperation is that
+there are individuals who specialize in the work of connecting up, or
+coördinating, the other factors which are necessary to the production
+of shoes. These individuals, about whom we shall have more to say in
+the next chapter, constitute an important economic group. They
+coördinate, in the example given above, the cattle grower, the
+railroad manager, the tanner, the factory builder, and the
+manufacturer, and thus make possible a kind of national or even
+international coöperation which would otherwise be impossible. Those
+whose function it is to promote this coöperation are, therefore,
+indispensable factors in modern production.
+
+72. GOVERNMENT A FIFTH FACTOR IN PRODUCTION.--A cursory examination of
+modern industry would convince the observer that land, labor, capital,
+and coördination are important factors in production. There is, in
+addition, a factor which is so fundamental, and of such essential
+value, that it is sometimes overlooked altogether. This is the work of
+the government in protecting productive enterprises. Government aids
+in production by suppressing theft, violence, and fraud; by allowing
+individuals to engage in helpful businesses; by enforcing contracts
+entered into legally; and by punishing many kinds of monopolistic
+abuses. [Footnote: We shall take up the problem of monopoly in
+Chapters XXVII and XXVIII.] The whole fabric of American prosperity is
+built upon the foundation of law and order.
+
+73. SUMMARY AND FORECAST.--Production in the economic sense consists
+in doing that which will satisfy human wants. Modern production is a
+vast and complicated process, involving the coöperation of five
+factors: land, labor, capital, coördination, and government. In a
+later chapter we shall find that there are wide differences of opinion
+as to the relative importance of some of these factors. We shall find,
+indeed, that the most vital economic problems which confront American
+democracy depend for their solution upon a clear understanding of the
+facts stated or implied in this chapter. The student ought not,
+therefore, to accept hastily the statement that land, labor, capital,
+coördination, and government are necessary in production, but ought
+rather to reason out just how and why each is actually helpful in
+American industry.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What are the chief reasons why men work?
+
+2. Describe the "old way of getting a living."
+
+3. Just what is meant by the "new way of getting a living"?
+
+4. What were the chief effects of the Industrial Revolution?
+
+5. What is the economist's definition of production?
+
+6. Just how does Nature help in production?
+
+7. Explain the relation of Nature to land.
+
+8. Show how man's labor is necessary in production.
+
+9. What is the nature and function of capital?
+
+10. Discuss coördination as a factor in production.
+
+11. Name a fifth factor in production.
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter vii.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Carver, _Elementary Economics_, chapters ix-xiii.
+
+3. Adams, _Description of Industry_, chapter v.
+
+4. Ely, _Outlines of Economics_, chapter viii.
+
+5. Smith, _Wealth of Nations_, Book I, chapters i and ii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. What instinct in man gives rise to the division of labor? (Smith,
+chapter ii.)
+
+2. Name and distinguish between the two kinds of division of labor.
+(Carver, pages 77-82.)
+
+3. How does pin making illustrate the principle of the division of
+labor? (Smith, chapter i.)
+
+4. How does the meat packing industry illustrate the principle of the
+division of labor? (Ely, page 125.)
+
+5. To what extent does the cotton mill illustrate the principle of the
+division of labor? (Ely, pages 124-125.)
+
+6. What are the three fundamental advantages which result from the
+division of labor? (Smith, chapter i; Carver, pages 75-76; Ely, page
+126.)
+
+7. What are the effects of the complex division of labor upon the
+worker? (Ely, pages 127-128.)
+
+8. Describe the chief sources of power utilized by man. (Carver,
+chapter x.)
+
+9. Discuss the origin of capital. (Carver, chapter xi.)
+
+10. What are the two factors which give value to land? (Carver, page
+111.)
+
+11. Explain the statement that thousands of individuals coöperate to
+furnish the humblest workman with food and clothing. (Smith, chapter
+i.)
+
+12. What is the secret of modern industrial efficiency? (Adams, page
+87.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Visit a factory, mill or shop in your vicinity and study the
+organization of the plant with regard to the application of the
+principle of the division of labor. Secure the amount of output per
+man by dividing the total product by the number of workmen coöperating
+in its production. Compare the output per man under these conditions
+with the probable output per man if each workman were working
+separately, without material assistance from other workmen.
+
+2. Study, both by inquiry and by observation, the effects of the
+division of labor upon the health and spirits of the workmen in the
+factory, mill or shop visited.
+
+3. Classify the industries in your locality on the basis of whether
+they rely chiefly or entirely upon human, animal, water, steam or
+electric power. Why does each industry not utilize some other form of
+power than that actually used?
+
+4. Classify some of the familiar occupation groups in your community
+according as they derive their incomes chiefly or entirely from land,
+labor, capital, or the process of coördinating land, labor, and
+capital. Test the productivity of each group by the standard advanced
+in section 67 of the text.
+
+5. Attempt to show to what extent each of the five factors of
+production has contributed toward the erection and furnishing of your
+schoolhouse.
+
+
+II
+
+6. The Industrial Revolution in England. (Ely, _Outlines of
+Economics_, chapter iv. Cheyney, _Introduction to the Industrial and
+Social History of England_, chapter viii.)
+
+7. Colonial industries. (_Lessons in Community and National Life_,
+Series A, pages 73-83; Series B, pages 17-25; Series C, pages 17-25.
+See also Bogart, _Economic History of the United States_, chapter iv.)
+
+8. The Industrial Revolution in the United States. (Bogart, _Economic
+History of the United States_, chapter xii. Ely, _Outlines of
+Economics_, chapter vi. Marshall and Lyon, _Our Economic
+Organization_, chapter viii.)
+
+9. The significance of the cotton gin. (Consult an encyclopedia.)
+
+10. Cyrus McCormick and the reaper. (Consult an encyclopedia.)
+
+11. The story of a loaf of bread. (Wood, _The Story of a Loaf of
+Bread_. Additional material on this subject may be secured by writing
+to the International Harvester Company, Chicago.)
+
+12. The story of iron and steel. (Smith, _The Story of Iron and
+Steel_, pages 23-126.)
+
+13. Development of business organization. (_Lessons in Community and
+National Life_, Series A, pages 169-178.)
+
+14. Economic work of the United States government. (Dryer, _Economic
+Geography_, chapter xxxiii.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+EXCHANGING THE PRODUCTS OF INDUSTRY
+
+
+74. RELATION OF THE DIVISION OF LABOR TO EXCHANGE.--In the self-
+sufficing stage that existed in industry a few hundred years ago,
+there was generally little necessity for the exchange of products.
+Each family produced most of the commodities which it needed, and
+depended relatively little upon the products of persons outside the
+family circle.
+
+But the complex division of labor which developed out of the
+Industrial Revolution has made the exchange of products increasingly
+important. To-day the typical workman concentrates upon one particular
+kind of work, and is content to exchange a share of his earnings for
+the numerous goods and services which he cannot supply for himself.
+Exchange thus increases the total output of the community or nation by
+permitting individuals to specialize in those commodities which they
+can produce most effectively.
+
+75. RELATION OF TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION TO EXCHANGE.--
+Exchange is largely dependent upon transportation and communication.
+In the United States, for example, not only do the individuals of a
+particular community specialize in various types of work, but the
+different sections of the country are devoted to the production of
+those commodities for which they are best suited. Thus it is largely
+true that New England is best suited to manufacturing, the South to
+the growing of cotton, and certain parts of the West to the production
+of lumber and foodstuffs. The suitability of a region to a particular
+class of products is due, partly to location, partly to the nature of
+the soil and the climate, and partly to the inclination and training
+of the people. But whatever its causes, this territorial division of
+labor could not be carried out without an efficient system of
+transportation and communication. Communication by mail, telephone,
+and telegraph is necessary to allow producers and consumers in
+different parts of the country to keep in touch with one another.
+Transportation by land and water is necessary if the surplus products
+of one section are to be exchanged for the surplus products of other
+sections.
+
+76. TYPES OF COÖRDINATORS.--Those who perform the work of coördination
+in industry are commonly referred to indiscriminately as business men,
+middlemen, or entrepreneurs. [Footnote: the term "entrepreneur" is
+awkward and little known, but no more satisfactory term is available.]
+The meaning of these three terms is distinguished with difficulty, but
+to avoid confusion later on the essential character of each should be
+pointed out here. The term business man is very wide, and is commonly
+inclusive of all who actively engage in any sort of business. The
+primary function of the middleman is to act as a connecting link
+between various industrial enterprises. The entrepreneur, on the other
+hand, is primarily an individual who coördinates land, labor, and
+capital with the intention of initiating and conducting a business
+enterprise. In so far as he acts as a connecting link between other
+industrial agents, the entrepreneur is a middleman, but the middleman
+is usually thought of as an individual who connects up existing
+businesses, rather than initiating a new enterprise. To the functions
+of the entrepreneur we shall return in the next chapter; here it is
+the middleman proper who is our chief concern.
+
+77. IMPORTANCE OF THE MIDDLEMAN.--The chief stages of shoe manufacture
+may serve to illustrate the great importance of the middleman in
+exchange. The middleman, anticipating a demand for beef and hides,
+connects the cattle grower with the live-stock market. Still later it
+is a middleman who offers raw hides to the tanner, and who sees that
+the wholesale leather merchant comes into business contact with the
+tanner. The banker or broker who connects the entrepreneur with the
+money with which to set up a shoe factory may be called a middleman,
+as may the individual who aids the entrepreneur in getting the
+required amounts of land and labor with which to start manufacturing.
+When, under the direction of the entrepreneur, the shoe has been
+manufactured, it is often a middleman who connects the shoe wholesaler
+with the finished product. The jobber who buys large quantities of
+shoes from the wholesaler and sells them to the retailer in small lots
+is a middleman. The advertising man whose description and pictorial
+representation of the shoe causes the consumer to buy it of the
+retailer is also a middleman.
+
+78. NOT ALL MIDDLEMEN ARE SOCIALLY NECESSARY.--By coördinating the
+work of these various individuals, many of whom are themselves
+middlemen, the middlemen whom we have been describing allow the
+community to secure the full benefit of the division of labor and of
+exchange. Where there exist just enough middlemen to coördinate with
+maximum efficiency the various industrial agents of a community, the
+community gains. When, on the other hand, there are more middlemen at
+work than are really needed to perform the work of industrial
+coördination, the community loses. This loss is a double one: first,
+the working energy of the superfluous middlemen is wasted, or at least
+is applied uneconomically; second, middlemen are paid, directly or
+indirectly, out of the product which they handle, so that the handling
+of a commodity by an unnecessarily large number of middlemen means
+higher prices for the ultimate consumers of that commodity. [Footnote:
+The existence of superfluous middlemen constitutes a grave problem, to
+which more and more attention is being given. Various aspects of this
+problem are discussed in Chapters XII and XXV.]
+
+79. BARTER.--We have seen _what_ the middleman does; it remains to
+point out _how,_ or by means of what mechanism, he performs his
+functions. When savages, and civilized peoples living under primitive
+conditions, wish to exchange their surplus goods, they generally
+resort to barter, _i.e.,_ they exchange one commodity directly for
+another. Where the division of labor has been so little developed that
+the goods to be exchanged are relatively few, this may work very well,
+but in modern industry barter would be inexpedient, if not impossible.
+The farmer who had a surplus of cattle and desired a piano might have
+great difficulty in finding a man who had a surplus piano and who also
+desired cattle. Even though the farmer liked the piano in question,
+and even though the owner of the piano were pleased with the farmer's
+cattle, it might be impossible to measure the value of the piano in
+units of cattle.
+
+80. NATURE AND FUNCTION OF MONEY.--To facilitate exchange civilized
+peoples make an extensive use of money. Money may be defined as
+anything that passes freely from hand to hand as a medium of
+exchange. [Footnote: The terms "money" and "capital" are often used
+interchangeably. Strictly speaking, however, money is a form of
+capital. Moreover, it is only _one_ form of capital] In modern times
+gold, silver, nickel, and copper coins have been the most familiar
+forms, though paper currency is also an important form of money. There
+is nothing mysterious about money: it is simply a means of
+facilitating exchange by saving time and by guaranteeing accuracy in
+measuring the relative values of commodities.
+
+Let us see how money actually aids in the exchange, say, of cattle and
+pianos. The farmer disposes of his cattle to a middleman, receiving in
+return money, the authenticity of which is guaranteed by the
+government's stamp upon its face. There is no difficulty in making
+change, for money can be so minutely divided as to measure the value
+of an article rather exactly. The farmer does not fear that he could
+not use the money received for the cattle, for money is generally
+accepted in exchange for any commodity. The farmer now offers the
+money to the piano-owner, who is probably a middleman. Again the fact
+that money is finely divisible allows an accurate money measure of the
+value of the piano. The owner of the piano, if he is satisfied with
+the amount of money offered, does not hesitate to accept the farmer's
+money, since he, too, realizes that he can use the money to purchase
+the things that he in turn desires.
+
+81. VALUE AND PRICE.--We have used the term "value" several times; as
+part of our preparation for the study of the great problem of
+industrial reform, we must understand precisely what is meant by the
+term.
+
+Suppose, for the sake of clearness, that we speak of a market as a
+definite place where goods are bought and sold. Individuals take or
+send their surplus products to the market for sale; individuals
+desiring to buy commodities likewise resort to the market. In the
+market commodities are said to have value, that is to say, they have
+power in exchange. The power of a commodity in exchange is measured in
+money, and the amount of money for which a commodity will exchange is
+called its price. Price is thus a measure, in terms of money, of the
+value of a commodity.
+
+The value of a commodity in the market is dependent, partly upon its
+utility, or want-satisfying power; and partly upon its scarcity. In
+other words, the value of a commodity depends partly upon the
+intensity with which it is desired by persons able and willing to
+purchase it, and partly upon its available supply. Price is set as the
+result of the interaction of the forces of supply and demand, this
+interaction commonly taking the form of a bargaining process between
+prospective sellers and prospective buyers.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Explain clearly the relation between the division of labor and
+exchange.
+
+2. To what extent is exchange dependent upon transportation and
+communication?
+
+3. Name three types of coördinators, and distinguish between them.
+
+4. Illustrate the functions of the middleman with reference to the
+shoe industry.
+
+5. Where there exist in a community more middlemen than are really
+needed, what double loss results?
+
+6. What is barter?
+
+7. Why is barter not extensively used in modern industry?
+
+8. Define money.
+
+9. What is the primary function of money?
+
+10. Give an illustration of the service performed by money.
+
+11. Define value. Distinguish between value and price.
+
+12. Upon what two factors is value dependent?
+
+13. How is price set or determined?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter viii.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Adams, _Description of Industry_, chapter viii.
+
+3. Carver, _Elementary Economics_, chapters xix, xx, xxi, xxii, and
+xxiv.
+
+4. Hayward, _Money, What It Is and How to Use It_, chapter viii.
+
+5. Smith, _Wealth of Nations_, Book 1, chapters iii and iv.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Name some commodities which at one time or another have been used
+as money. (Carver, pages 215-216.)
+
+2. Why were precious metals first coined? (Smith, chapter iv.)
+
+3. What is meant by the phrase "Time is money"? (Carver, page 183.)
+
+4. What is the function of the bank check? (Hayward, pages 58-60.)
+
+5. Explain the meaning of scarcity. (Carver, page 203.)
+
+6. What are the characteristics of a modern market? (Adams, pages 139-
+148.)
+
+7. What is meant by the "higgling of the market"? (Adams, page 139.)
+
+8. What is the "first law of the market"? (Carver, page 201.)
+
+9. What are the four industrial agencies on which the organization and
+practice of the modern market depend? (Adams, pages 148-152.)
+
+10. What is meant by the "widening of the market"? (Carver, page 171.)
+
+11. Explain the statement that "the division of labor is limited by
+the extent of the market." (Smith, chapter iii.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. In the production of what commodities do the people of your section
+tend to specialize? To what extent is this specialization due to the
+nature of the soil and climate? To geographical location? To the
+training of the people?
+
+2. What becomes of the surplus products of your section? Trace these
+products as nearly as possible to the ultimate consumer.
+
+3. List the articles of food which appear on your dinner table and
+attempt to discover the source of each.
+
+4. To what extent does the exchange of products in your section take
+place by means of canals, inland waterways, ocean-going vessels, motor
+truck, horse teams, railroads?
+
+5. To what extent are the telephone and telegraph used to facilitate
+exchange in your section?
+
+6. Visit a near-by market and study the operations there, with
+reference to the facts discussed in this chapter.
+
+7. List and classify the middlemen of your community.
+
+
+II
+
+8. Internal trade and transportation in the United States a century
+ago. (Bogart and Thompson, _Readings in the Economic History of the
+United States_, pages 240-251.)
+
+9. Transportation and communication in the United States since 1860.
+(Bogart, _Economic History of the United States_, chapters xxiv and
+xxv.)
+
+10. Early forms of money. (Bullock, _Selected Readings in Economics_,
+pages 387-399.)
+
+11. Forms of money at the present time. (Adams, _Description of
+Industry_, chapter x.)
+
+12. Why coinage is necessary. (Bullock, _Selected Readings in
+Economics_, pages 399-400.)
+
+13. The minting of coins. (_Lessons in Community and National Life_,
+Series C, pages 177-185.)
+
+14. Paper money. (_Lessons in Community and National Life_, Series C,
+pages 185-192.)
+
+15. Functions of money. (Adams, _Description of Industry_, chapter x.)
+
+16. The commercial bank. (_Lessons in Community and National Life_,
+Series A, pages 187-192.)
+
+17. An English fair in the eighteenth century. (Bullock, _Selected
+Readings in Economics_, pages 325-333.)
+
+18. The development of business organization. (Marshall and Lyon, _Our
+Economic Organization_, chapters ix and x.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+DISTRIBUTING THE INCOME OF INDUSTRY
+
+
+82. THE PROBLEM PRIOR TO THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION.--The distribution
+of industrial income has to do with dividing the products of industry,
+or the money which represents those products, among the various
+individuals who have aided in their creation.
+
+The problem of distribution has existed ever since men first combined
+for purposes of production, but until the period of the Industrial
+Revolution the question was relatively unimportant. When, three
+hundred years ago, most necessities were produced within the family
+circle, there was little or no question as to whether or not
+individuals outside the family ought to be rewarded for having helped
+in the production of those commodities. If one member of the family
+made an entire pair of shoes, for example, he was clearly entitled to
+those shoes, at least so far as economic principles are concerned.
+Even where different members of the family combined to produce a pair
+of shoes or an article of clothing, the small number of persons
+involved, as well as the close identity of interests among the family
+members, kept the problem of distribution from becoming a serious one.
+
+83. EFFECT OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION UPON THE PROBLEM.--The
+Industrial Revolution greatly increased the importance of the problem
+of distribution. Indeed, the growth of the factory system, and the
+greater and greater complexity of the division of labor, have made the
+distribution of industrial income the basic problem in our economic
+and social life. Many commodities are still produced by individuals
+working independently, or by the joint efforts of the members of a
+family, but the vast majority of commodities are now produced by the
+joint efforts of numerous individuals who are not bound together by
+family ties. The production of a factory-made shoe, for example,
+involves large numbers of people, including the cattle grower, the
+transportation agent, the tanner, numerous laborers, the individuals
+who supply land and capital to the entrepreneur, and the entrepreneur
+who conducts the enterprise. The welfare of millions of people is
+involved in the distribution of industrial income among individuals
+who coöperate in such enterprises as this.
+
+84. DIFFICULTY OF THE PROBLEM.--Under modern industrial conditions
+most commodities are produced by the combined efforts of large numbers
+of people. All these people help along the productive process, though
+in different ways and to a varying degree. Since all help, all are
+entitled to payment. But this is less simple than it sounds. How shall
+we determine how much each one helps, and how shall we decide how much
+each one is to receive?
+
+At the outset of the discussion, we can be sure of at least one fact,
+_i.e._ that since all the individuals involved in a given enterprise
+must be paid out of the value of the finished product, the combined
+sums received by them cannot long exceed the total value of that
+product. Unfortunately, this fact is often overlooked. Many of the
+individuals who aid in production often become so intent upon securing
+their share, that they are over-ready to explain their contribution to
+the product, but loath to give due credit to those who have coöperated
+with them. It is the belief that some individuals receive too little
+of the joint income of industry, while other individuals receive too
+large a share, which has given rise to the charge of injustice in the
+distribution of wealth.
+
+85. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ENTREPRENEUR IN DISTRIBUTION.--For the sake of
+clearness, let us continue to illustrate the nature of distribution by
+reference to the shoe industry, carried on under conditions which are
+not unduly complicated.
+
+The individual having control of the actual manufacture of the shoes
+is the entrepreneur. It is he who, in anticipation of a demand for
+shoes, has initiated the enterprise. Suppose, for the sake of
+simplicity, that the entrepreneur has secured land from the land-
+owner, capital from the capitalist, and labor from the workmen.
+Protected in a legitimate enterprise by the government, he has set
+himself up as a manufacturer of shoes. Since he is in control of the
+enterprise, it is he who pays the land-owner, the capitalist, and the
+laborers, for their respective contributions toward the finished
+shoes.
+
+The amounts received by the individuals coöperating with the
+entrepreneur are not, however, arbitrarily determined. The
+entrepreneur must bow to economic law, and give these individuals what
+free competition in industry sets as a proper reward for their
+respective services. Let us examine into this conformity to economic
+law.
+
+86. THE LAND-OWNER RECEIVES RENT.--The land-owner is rewarded because
+he extends the use of land to the entrepreneur. A land-owner could not
+be expected to, and will not, allow the entrepreneur free use of this
+land. The land-owner must therefore be paid for the use of the land.
+The entrepreneur, on the other hand, is able and willing to pay for
+the use of the land because upon it he expects to build a factory in
+which to manufacture shoes. He therefore pays the land-owner an amount
+of money called rent. The amount of rent paid for a piece of land
+depends partly upon how much the entrepreneur wants the land, and
+partly upon the available supply of land of the type wanted. This is
+equivalent to saying that rent is determined by the interaction of the
+two forces of supply and demand.
+
+87. THE CAPITALIST RECEIVES INTEREST.--Besides land, the entrepreneur
+needs machinery, office equipment, raw materials, the services of
+laborers, and numerous other aids in production. Let us assume that
+the entrepreneur borrows of a capitalist the money required to procure
+these necessities. The entrepreneur can afford to pay interest for the
+use of this money, since with the aid of the goods and services which
+it will buy, he can produce more shoes than would otherwise be
+possible. Not only can he afford to pay interest, but he is obliged to
+pay it, since otherwise he could not secure the required loan. Though
+some people tend carelessly to overlook this fact, saving and
+abstinence are necessary to the accumulation of money. The individual
+who has money, therefore, cannot be expected to allow the entrepreneur
+to use it without payment, especially not when, as we have just seen,
+the entrepreneur can acquire wealth by the use of the goods and
+services which that money will buy.
+
+The amount of interest which the capitalist receives for the use of
+his money will depend, as will rent, upon the law of supply and
+demand. If there is a large amount of funds available for investment,
+and at the same time few borrowers, then a given capitalist must be
+content to accept a relatively low rate of interest, lest his refusal
+cause the entrepreneur to close a bargain with a competing capitalist.
+If, on the other hand, available funds are scarce and entrepreneurs
+are greatly in need of money, then capitalists are at an advantage and
+entrepreneurs must offer relatively high rates of interest.
+
+88. THE LABORERS RECEIVE WAGES.--The payment which the laborers
+receive for their part in the production of the shoes is called wages.
+Since the laborers help in shoe manufacture, the employer can afford
+to pay them. Not only can he afford to pay them, but he must pay them.
+Otherwise the laborers would not work for this particular
+entrepreneur, but, in a freely competitive market, would offer their
+services to a competing employer.
+
+Wages, like rent and interest, depend upon the conditions of supply
+and demand. If, in comparison with other aids in production, the
+services of laborers are wanted badly, and if, at the same time, there
+is a scarcity of the desired type of labor, then wages will be high.
+If, on the other hand, there is an over supply of laborers, and also a
+small demand for that type of labor, then wages will tend to be low.
+
+89. THE GOVERNMENT RECEIVES TAXES.--In addition to paying the land-
+owner, the capitalist, and the laborers for their share in producing
+the shoes, the entrepreneur must pay taxes to the government. These
+taxes may be considered as payment for that maintenance of law and
+order without which the economical manufacture of shoes would be
+impossible. The share which goes to the government is determined by a
+unique method: the government does not try to secure as large a share
+of the product as possible, but strives, on the contrary, to exact as
+little as possible, and still meet its expenses. The subject of
+taxation requires special treatment [Footnote: See Chapter XXXII.] and
+does not, therefore, call for further mention in this chapter.
+
+90. THE ENTREPRENEUR RECEIVES PROFITS.--That share of the income
+derived from the sale of the shoes which goes to the entrepreneur is
+called profits. It is only fair that the entrepreneur receive some
+reward, for it is he who conceived the idea of shoe manufacture and
+then carried out the project. Without his efforts the land-owner, the
+capitalist, and the laborers would not have combined in this
+enterprise, with the result that there would have been fewer shoes in
+the community. Fewer shoes would probably mean more expensive shoes.
+And not only does the entrepreneur deserve some reward for thus adding
+to the well-being of the community, but if he did not receive that
+reward, he would not go to the trouble of initiating and maintaining a
+shoe manufacturing establishment.
+
+The share going to the entrepreneur is determined less exactly than is
+the share of the land-owner, the capitalist, and the laborers. In
+dividing up the income of the business, the shoe manufacturer must, in
+an important sense, put himself last. Before there are finished shoes
+to sell, he must pay the land-owner rent, the capitalist interest, and
+the laborers wages. Before he is allowed to count out his own share he
+must also pay taxes to the government, pay insurance on his plant, and
+set aside an amount sufficient to keep his buildings and machinery in
+repair. He cannot evade the payment of rent, interest, or wages on the
+plea that these payments will diminish his profits. He has contracted
+to pay the landlord, the capitalist, and the laborers, and he must
+fulfill that contract. If, after paying all of his expenses, there is
+anything left, the entrepreneur retains it as profits. Sometimes this
+share is very large, sometimes it is so small as to force the
+entrepreneur out of business. In any case, the chief risks and
+responsibilities of the whole enterprise are concentrated upon the
+entrepreneur, rather than upon the land-owner, the capitalist, or the
+laborers.
+
+91. THE DETERMINANTS OF EACH SHARE.--To sum up, the share of the joint
+industrial income going respectively to the land-owner, the
+capitalist, and the laborers is determined by the interaction of the
+forces of supply and demand, operating under conditions of free
+competition. The entrepreneur's demand for land, labor, or capital
+will depend upon whether or not he sees an opportunity, under a
+particular set of circumstances, to add to his product by the
+employment of each or all of these factors. Where the supply of
+laborers is large, relatively to demand, the promised product of any
+one laborer is likely to be relatively small, and in this case the
+entrepreneur or employer will be unwilling or even unable to offer a
+particular laborer high wages. Under these circumstances the
+competition of the many laborers for the few jobs will accordingly
+bring about lower wages. Where, on the other hand, the supply of
+laborers is small, relatively to demand, the chances that a particular
+laborer will be able to add to the product are relatively great, and
+the competition of employers for laborers will result in higher wages.
+The same reasoning is applicable to rent and interest. The automatic
+operation of the law of supply and demand, functioning in a freely
+competitive market, determines the shares which go to land, labor, and
+capital. The share going to the individual entrepreneur is, as has
+already been pointed out, a residual share, _i.e._ what is left over.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What is meant by the distribution of industrial income?
+
+2. Why was this distribution of relatively small importance prior to
+the Industrial Revolution?
+
+3. In what way did the Industrial Revolution accentuate the importance
+of the problem of distribution?
+
+4. What are the chief difficulties which confront the student of this
+problem?
+
+5. What belief has given rise to the charge of injustice in the
+distribution of wealth?
+
+6. Explain the significance of the entrepreneur in distribution.
+
+7. What is the nature of rent?
+
+8. Why does the capitalist receive interest?
+
+9. Why does the laborer receive wages?
+
+10. What is the government's share in distribution?
+
+11. What is the nature of profits, and how are they determined?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter ix.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Carver, _Elementary Economics_, chapters xxx and xxxi.
+
+3. King, _Wealth and Income of the People of the United States_,
+chapter vii.
+
+4. Thompson, _Elementary Economics_, chapters xx to xxiv inclusive.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. What is meant by non-competing groups? (Thompson, page 296.)
+
+2. What are the chief causes of the difference in wages in different
+occupations? (Carver, page 268.)
+
+3. Upon what factors does the efficiency of the laborer depend?
+(Thompson, page 303.)
+
+4. What is the functional theory of wages? (Carver, pages 261--262.)
+
+5. Have wages increased or decreased since 1850? (King, page 173.)
+
+6. What is the relation of risk to interest? (Thompson, pages 351--
+353.)
+
+7. What is meant by the term "unearned increment"? (Thompson, pages
+335--337.)
+
+8. Define profits. (King, pages 155--156.)
+
+9. Have profits increased since 1880? (King, page 177.)
+
+10. Name some of the characteristics of the business man. (Thompson,
+pages 357--358.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Select for study some common commodity which passes through all or
+most of the stages of manufacture in your community, as, for example,
+a hammer, a shoe, flour or canned goods. Make a list of the various
+individuals who are connected with the production of this commodity.
+By whom are these various individuals paid? Does it appear to you that
+their services bear a close relation to the sums which they receive?
+Explain fully.
+
+2. Select for study a plot of land which the owner has leased to a
+tenant in your community. Why is the tenant willing to pay rent for
+this plot? Why is he able to pay rent? Do you believe that under the
+existing circumstances he would be able to pay an increase of 10% in
+the rent? An increase of 50%? Explain.
+
+3. Select for study an enterprise in your community in which the
+employer utilizes various groups of workmen. Classify the workmen on
+the basis of the amount of wages received. Why does the employer pay
+some high wages and others low wages?
+
+4. Select for study a successful entrepreneur in your community.
+Outline, either as the result of hearsay, or personal interviews with
+him, the qualities to which he apparently owes his success.
+
+5. Make a study of an enterprise in your community which has either
+recently failed, or which is not now in a thriving condition. Attempt
+to discover the reasons for the failure to progress.
+
+
+II
+
+6. The law of variable proportions. (Carver, _Elementary Economics_,
+chapter xxix.)
+
+7. The nature of income. (King, _Wealth and Income of the People of
+the United States_, chapter v.)
+
+8. Relation of public education to income. (Thompson, _Elementary
+Economics_, pages 299-303.)
+
+9. Reasons for the scarcity of capital. (Carver, _Elementary
+Economics_, chapter xxxvi.)
+
+10. The productivity of capital. (Taussig, _Principles of Economics_,
+vol. ii, chapter xxxviii.)
+
+11. Historical changes in the rate of interest. (Bullock, _Selected
+Readings in Economics_, pages 563-568.)
+
+12. The rent of land. (Carver, _Elementary Economics_, chapter
+xxxiii.)
+
+13. Causes of the scarcity of labor. (Carver, _Elementary Economics_,
+pages 270-271.)
+
+14. Historical changes in the rate of wages. (Bullock, _Selected
+Readings in Economics_, pages 533-543.)
+
+15. The nature of profits. (Carver, _Elementary Economics_, chapter
+xxxvi.)
+
+16. Relation of profits to risk. (Taussig, _Principles of Economics_,
+vol. ii, chapter xlix, section 1.)
+
+17. Qualities of a successful entrepreneur. (Taussig, _Principles of
+Economics_, vol. ii, chapter xlix, sections 3 and 4.)
+
+18. Motives of business activity. (Taussig, _Principles of Economics_,
+vol. ii, chapter xlix, section 6.)
+
+19. The government's share in distribution. (Carver, _Elementary
+Economics_, chapter xxxvii.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+BASES OF THE CAPITALISTIC SYSTEM
+
+
+92. THE "CAPITALISTIC SYSTEM."--Modern industry is sometimes said to
+be headless, because the numerous individuals engaged in it are not
+systematically controlled or directed by a single agency. It is often
+said to be planless, since laborers, employers, and other industrial
+agents concentrate upon their individual desires and needs, rather
+than upon the needs of the community or nation as a whole.
+
+And yet there is in modern industry a certain regularity of outline,
+and a general tendency to follow the economic laws discussed in the
+preceding three chapters. This circumstance prevents us from
+concluding that our industrial life is entirely a haphazard affair. It
+may, indeed, be said that we have an industrial system. Because of the
+great importance in it of capital, this system is commonly known as
+the "capitalistic system." The underlying principles of this system
+have already been mentioned or implied; nevertheless it will be to our
+interest in this chapter to develop and organize these principles so
+as to indicate just how they constitute the bases of capitalism.
+
+93. ATTITUDE OF GOVERNMENT TOWARD INDUSTRY.--"It is the duty of the
+government," Gladstone once said, "to make it easy for the people to
+do right, and difficult for them to do wrong." According to the theory
+of the capitalistic system, that is "right" which renders the
+individual and the community stronger, happier, and more prosperous in
+useful pursuits, while that is "wrong" which weakens or demoralizes
+the citizen and the community. The chief economic function of
+government is thus to discourage men from harmful and destructive
+acts, and to encourage them in activities which are helpful and
+productive.
+
+Professor Carver points out that the method by which animals get their
+living is either destructive, deceptive, persuasive, or productive.
+Any one of these four methods may at least temporarily increase the
+well-being of the individual, but only the productive method is
+certain to benefit the community as well. A good government will
+therefore seek to prevent people from advancing their individual
+interests by killing, robbing, or deceiving their fellows. This
+suppression of violence and fraud leaves open to individuals only the
+productive method of getting a living, so that they cannot benefit
+themselves without at the same time adding to the prosperity of the
+community. From the standpoint of capitalism, thus, a good government
+maintains an attitude toward industry which is primarily negative:
+such a government hampers the economic activities of individuals very
+little or not at all, so long as they do not practice harmful methods
+of getting a living.
+
+94. PRIVATE PROPERTY.--Most men are self-centered. In even a highly
+developed society, men ordinarily will not work consistently except in
+their own behalf, or in the behalf of a very few people for whom they
+care intensely. This instinct of self-interest is the kernel of
+industrial progress, but it can result in material prosperity only
+when government suppresses violence and fraud. The lowest savages are
+undoubtedly self-centered, but so long as they must rely upon brute
+force to retain their possessions, there is little inducement to
+acquire wealth. It is only when law suppresses robbery and fraud, and
+otherwise protects the individual in his property rights, that the
+acquisitive instinct will cause him to exert himself in productive
+ways. Because it satisfies the individual's desire to secure the good
+things of life, the institution of private property is the greatest
+known spur to economic activity, It is only in those countries where
+individuals are protected in their property rights that we find an
+active, progressive, and prosperous people.
+
+95. ENFORCEMENT OF CONTRACTS.--We have already seen that among the
+members of a modern industrial society there is a high degree of
+interdependence, corresponding, in an important sense, to the
+interdependence between the parts of a machine. As we have seen, the
+typical individual in industry is a specialist, concentrating upon one
+particular kind of work, and depending upon his fellows to supply him
+with goods and services which he cannot supply for himself. Now, such
+a condition of interdependence could never have arisen were it not for
+the fact that government fosters the spirit of confidence among
+individuals. Many persons can be trusted to fulfill the agreements or
+contracts which they make with their fellows, but many cannot. A prime
+function of government, therefore, is to enforce contracts entered
+into voluntarily and in legal form. This is clearly essential to our
+material prosperity, for if men are to rely upon the word of those who
+sell them goods or services, or to whom they sell goods or services,
+all of the individuals concerned must be dependable.
+
+96. COMPETITION.--A good government will shunt men into productive
+activities, and it will insist upon the fulfilment of lawful
+contracts. Subject to these two limitations, individuals are
+relatively free to seek their own well-being. But an earmark of
+economic goods is scarcity, that is, there are at a given time and
+place fewer of them than are desired. Men must therefore compete with
+one another for goods and services. The lower animals compete for food
+with tooth and claw; among civilized men government tries to raise
+competition to an ethical plane by tending to suppress all but the
+productive methods of competition.
+
+Where competition is so restricted and safeguarded, advocates of
+capitalism assert that the results are overwhelmingly good. Where
+there is free competition, _i.e._ free competition in productive
+enterprise, employers commonly pay their laborers as high a wage as
+they feel is justified under the particular circumstances, lest their
+workmen abandon them for rival employers. Under similar conditions,
+laborers will generally endeavor to render the best possible service,
+so that the employer will prefer them to other laborers. This assumes,
+of course, that competition is effective, _i.e.,_ that there is
+neither an oversupply or an undersupply of either employers or
+employees.
+
+Where, again, there is free competition in productive enterprise, the
+price of commodities produced by a given concern cannot rise too far,
+for consumers will either buy those commodities of rival producers, or
+will use substitutes. If, on the other hand, prices drop so low that
+producers make little or no profits, they will withdraw from business.
+
+Free and effective competition thus means rivalry in satisfying wants,
+that rivalry being engaged in for the sake of private gain.
+Competition tends to harmonize the interests of the individual with
+the interests of the community, by making the success of the
+individual depend primarily upon what he accomplishes for his fellows.
+
+97. VALUE UNDER CONDITIONS OF FREE COMPETITION.--In a competitive
+market, as we have seen, value depends upon scarcity and utility. No
+one will ordinarily pay for a commodity unless it will satisfy his
+wants, i.e. unless it has utility. But even though a commodity has
+utility, no one will ordinarily pay for it unless it is so scarce that
+he cannot get as much of it as he wishes without paying for it. Air,
+for example, has great utility, but it is so abundant that it can
+ordinarily be secured without payment. Hence it has no value.
+
+Price, the measure of value in terms of money, will be determined,
+under conditions of free competition, by the interaction of utility
+and scarcity. Diamonds are high in price because they satisfy intense
+desires and are scarce; bread is cheap because while possessing great
+utility, it is relatively abundant. Skilled labor receives high wages
+because in addition to its utility it is relatively scarce; unskilled
+labor often receives low wages because while possessing utility it is
+relatively abundant. This principle is of the very greatest
+consequence, and in considering the programs of industrial reform we
+shall come back to it again.
+
+98. FREEDOM.--A large measure of personal liberty is a characteristic
+of the capitalistic system, To an increasing extent, government is
+restricting economic activity to productive channels, but with this
+qualification, the individual is comparatively free to do as he likes.
+The laborer is free to move about in search of work, free to seek a
+better job, free to accept or to reject work offered him. He may
+abandon his job when he chooses, and remain idle as long as he
+chooses, or is able. He is repressed by no paternalistic government,
+embarrassed by no feudal system. He is part and parcel of the
+competitive system, guiding his own actions and accepting
+responsibility for them. To a large extent, the employer is similarly
+free to hire or discharge men as he sees fit, to initiate a new
+business, or to withdraw from business altogether. In every case the
+individual is free, so far as legal restrictions are concerned, to use
+his money as he chooses. Whether it is hoarded, invested, or wasted is
+largely a matter for him to determine.
+
+99. BENEFITS OF THE CAPITALISTIC SYSTEM.--The material prosperity of
+the modern world has been attained under the capitalistic system of
+industry. The system was not invented, but has developed and spread
+from small beginnings because the experience of centuries has proved
+it to be the best known system which is applicable to human industry.
+The starting point of all material prosperity has been the gradual
+development of government which suppresses violence and fraud, which
+enforces contracts, and which makes possible the rise of the
+institution of private property. The inception of the Industrial
+Revolution, and its spread beyond England to Europe, America, and,
+later, to Asia, were possible only because these bases of capitalism
+were already laid. To a large extent, thus, the steam engine, the
+railroad, the steamship, the electric light, and countless other
+inventions which have helped to revolutionize the world we live in,
+may be traced directly or indirectly to individual freedom and to the
+protection of property rights. In so far as science, art, and
+literature depend, to a considerable degree, upon material prosperity,
+we may go so far as to say that capitalism is the most important
+single basis of modern civilization.
+
+100. DEFECTS OF THE CAPITALISTIC SYSTEM.--But capitalism is not
+without its defects. The lack of centralized control in industry
+allows of planless production. [Footnote: During our participation in
+the World War, it is largely true that much of the productive energy
+of the country was organized and directed as a unit. This was a
+temporary expedient, however, resorted to for the purpose of winning
+the war.] Entrepreneurs frequently produce without adequate knowledge
+of demand, and without knowledge of rival production. When business is
+booming and profits are high, it often happens that so many
+individuals go into business that eventually there is over-production,
+i.e. there are more goods at a particular time than can be sold at a
+profit. Crises, unemployment, and "hard times" are often the direct
+result of this over-production. Malnutrition, disease, vice, crime,
+and pauperism are often its indirect results.
+
+In still other ways the capitalistic system allows of an uneconomical
+expenditure of labor and capital. There is no adequate method of
+directing labor and capital toward the production of durable and
+helpful commodities, and away from the production of luxuries and such
+harmful commodities as have not been made illegal. Under competitive
+conditions, too, a number of shops or stores may exist in a community
+that might easily be served by a single firm. This is wasteful
+duplication, just as advertising is a waste when it goes beyond the
+point of informing the public as to whereabouts and character of
+commodities. Still another source of waste is traceable to an
+excessive number of middlemen, each of whom adds to the price of the
+product as it passes through his hands.
+
+101. THE INEQUALITY OF WEALTH.--In all of the great industrial
+countries of the world, including the United States, the existing
+distribution of wealth is roughly in the form of a pyramid, i.e., at
+the top or apex of the pyramid there is a relatively small number of
+persons who enjoy large incomes, while at the base there is a large
+number with relatively small incomes. This inequality is explained by
+Professor Taussig on two grounds: First, it is likely that some
+individuals originally secured an economic advantage over their
+fellows because of inborn superiority of some kind. Second, the
+economic advantage thus secured has been maintained from generation to
+generation by inheritance. Where, for example, wealth is invested so
+that the principal remains intact while a large annual income is
+thrown off as interest, the heirs may live in affluence, regardless of
+ability or desert. Thus we have a leisure class emerging as the result
+of inborn differences between men, supplemented by the accumulation of
+wealth and its transmission by inheritance.
+
+102. THE QUESTION OF INDUSTRIAL REFORM.--It goes without saying that
+great inequalities in the distribution of wealth are undesirable. If
+any improvement is humanly possible, we ought not to rest content so
+long as millions of our citizens have too few of the good things of
+life, while others have much more than is necessary for comfort and
+happiness. The test of an economic system is whether or not it
+provides a good world to live in, and so long as large numbers of
+individuals have fewer necessities and comforts than it is possible to
+give them, our economic system must be considered defective. The
+people as a group are both the means and the end of progress.
+Democracy cannot rest upon any other basis than the greatest good to
+the greatest number.
+
+103. APPROACHING THE PROBLEM.--In approaching the problem of
+industrial reform it is necessary to cultivate a fair and sane
+attitude. We must attack all of the problems of American democracy,
+certainly. But in so far as some of these problems involve the
+integrity of the capitalistic system, we should distinguish between
+ills which are clearly traceable to that system, and defects which
+obviously would exist under any industrial system. Capitalism cannot
+be discredited, for example, by pointing out that crime exists in all
+capitalistic countries. Though capitalism may accentuate some types of
+crime, our knowledge of human nature leads us to suspect that a
+considerable amount of crime would exist under any known system of
+industry. Again, criticism should be constructive; it is easy to point
+out the defects of an institution, but it is quite another thing to
+provide a good substitute for that institution.
+
+The problem before us is a double one: First, can we remedy the
+defects of the capitalistic system? And, if so, by what method shall
+we proceed? Second, if the defects of capitalism cannot be remedied,
+what industrial system shall be substituted for capitalism? It is not
+a question of whether or not capitalism is faulty, but of whether it
+is more faulty than the system that would be substituted for it. The
+virtues of capitalism, most authorities believe, clearly outweigh its
+defects, and though some other system may eventually prove to have as
+great virtues with fewer defects, the burden of proof is upon those
+who advocate other systems than capitalism. Until the advantage is
+clearly shown to be on the side of a rival system, it will be wise to
+retain capitalism.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Is it correct to speak of a "capitalistic system"?
+
+2. What is the chief economic function of government?
+
+3. Name the four methods of getting a living. Which will be encouraged
+by a good government?
+
+4. To what extent is the attitude of a good government toward industry
+a negative one?
+
+5. What is the relation of government to the institution of private
+property?
+
+6. What is the importance of laws requiring the enforcement of
+contracts?
+
+7. Why is there competition?
+
+8. How does competition tend to harmonize the interests of the
+individual with those of the community?
+
+9. Why are diamonds high in price? Why is bread low in price?
+
+10. What is the relation of capitalism to economic freedom?
+
+11. What can be said as to the benefits of capitalism?
+
+12. What are the chief defects of capitalism?
+
+13. Outline the existing distribution of wealth.
+
+14. On what two grounds does Professor Taussig account for this
+situation?
+
+15. What facts should be borne in mind in attacking the problem of
+industrial reform?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter x.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Ely, _Outlines of Economics_, chapter ii.
+
+3. Fetter, _Modern Economic Problems_, chapter ii.
+
+4. Hobson, _Evolution of Modern Capitalism_, chapter i.
+
+5. Seligman, _Principles of Economics_, chapter ix.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Define capitalism. (Hobson, page 1.)
+
+2. How has the development of mines affected the growth of capitalism?
+(Hobson, page 6.)
+
+3. What is the relation of colonization to capitalism? (Hobson, pages
+10-12.)
+
+4. What is the relation of capitalism to a large labor supply?
+(Hobson, pages 13-14.)
+
+5. Define private property. (Ely, page 21.)
+
+6. Discuss the theories of private property. (Fetter, pages 18-20.)
+
+7. What were the earliest forms of private property? (Seligman, page
+126.)
+
+8. What was the effect of the domestication of animals upon the
+institution of private property? (Seligman, pages 126-127.)
+
+9. What are the limitations of private property? (Fetter, pages 20-
+21.)
+
+10. What is meant by the term "vested interests"? (Ely, pages 25-26.)
+
+11. What is "fair" competition? (Ely, pages 29-30.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Suppose an unscrupulous individual fraudulently secured possession
+of property belonging to you. What steps would you take to secure
+justice?
+
+2. What penalties are inflicted in your state for highway robbery,
+embezzlement, theft, forgery, and similar crimes against property?
+
+3. Suppose that you are a florist and that you have ordered a large
+quantity of flowers from a greenhouse keeper for your Decoration Day
+trade. Assume that you could not sell the flowers at a profit if they
+arrived later than Decoration Day. Assume, also, that you have reason
+to suspect that the greenhouse keeper will not be prompt in delivering
+the flowers ordered. Draw up a contract (to be signed by him) which
+would protect you against his tendency to carelessness.
+
+4. Select for study an isolated rural district, a small town, or a
+section of a suburb in which the community secures its supply of a
+given commodity from a single shop or store. Compare the price of the
+commodity, and its quality, with the price and quality of a similar
+commodity in stores located in communities served by several competing
+stores. What do you conclude as to the value of competition?
+
+5. Make a study of bill-board advertising, listing the number of
+advertisements inviting purchase of competing commodities. Write to a
+bill-board advertising company for advertising rates, and draw your
+conclusions as to (_a_) the cost of advertising, and (_b_) the waste
+involved in advertising competing commodities.
+
+Make a similar study of magazine advertising, writing to the
+advertising manager of the magazine selected for study, in order to
+secure advertising rates.
+
+
+II
+
+6. Relation of good government to economic prosperity. (Carver,
+_Elementary Economics_, chapter vii.)
+
+7. Competition. (Seligman, _Principles of Economics_, chapter x.)
+
+8. Methods of struggling for existence. (Carver, _Elementary
+Economics_, page 40.)
+
+9. The development of economic freedom. (Seligman, _Principles of
+Economics_, chapter xi.)
+
+10. Distribution of wealth in the United States. (Taussig, _Principles
+of Economics_, vol. ii, chapter liv; King, _Wealth and Income of the
+People of the United States_, chapter ix.)
+
+11. Place of machinery in the capitalistic system. (Hobson, _Evolution
+of Modern Capitalism_, pages 27-29.)
+
+12. The impersonality of modern life. (_Lessons in National and
+Community Life_, Series B, pages 97-104.)
+
+13. The extent of poverty in modern life. (Burch and Patterson,
+_American Social Problems_, chapter xvi.)
+
+
+
+
+B. PROGRAMS OF INDUSTRIAL REFORM
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+SINGLE TAX
+
+
+104. DEFINITIONS.--The words "single tax" refer to a policy under
+which all public revenue is to be raised by a single tax on land
+value. All other taxes are to be abolished. By land value is meant the
+value of the land itself, irrespective of all improvements, such as
+ditches, drains, and buildings. Everything done on the land to
+increase its value would be counted as an improvement, and would thus
+be exempt from taxation. This would leave only location value and
+fertility to be taxed. By location value is meant that value which is
+due to the situation of the land. For example, land in a wilderness
+has little or no location value, but if, later, schools, stores,
+railroads, and other elements of community life develop in that
+region, the land may take on great value because of its location in
+the community. The fertility value of land is that value which is due
+to natural endowment in the way of moisture, climate, and soil
+elements.
+
+105. HENRY GEORGE AND HIS WORK.--The doctrine of single tax is closely
+associated with the name of Henry George, an American reformer who
+died in 1897. His theory was best developed in his book, _Progress and
+Poverty_, published in 1879. In this book George points out that in
+spite of the progress of the world, poverty persists. This is due
+chiefly, he contends, to the fact that land-owners take advantage of
+the scarcity of good land to exact unduly high prices for its use.
+According to George, this monopoly of the gifts of Nature allows
+landowners to profit from the increase in the community's
+productiveness, but keeps down the wages of the landless laborers.
+"Thus all the advantages gained by the march of progress", George
+writes, "go to the land-owner, and wages do not increase."
+
+George proposed to use the single tax as an engine of social reform,
+that is to say, to apply it with the primary view of leveling the
+inequalities of wealth. Value due to improvements was to be exempt
+from taxation, so that land-owners might not be discouraged from
+making improvements on their land. On the other hand, it was proposed
+that the single tax take all of the income due to location and
+fertility. This, according to George, would "render it impossible for
+any man to exact from others a price for the privilege of using those
+bounties of Nature to which all men have an equal right."
+
+106. RESULTS CLAIMED FOR THE SINGLE TAX.--George claimed that the
+application of the single tax was highly desirable. If, through the
+medium of this tax, the government were to take from the land-owners
+all the location and fertility value of their land, two great benefits
+were to result. First, rich landlords would be deprived of much
+unearned wealth. Second, the wealth so secured, called the unearned
+increment, could be used to make life easier for the poor. Ultimately,
+George went so far as to claim, the single tax would "raise wages,
+increase the earnings of capital, extirpate pauperism, abolish
+poverty, give remunerative employment to whoever wishes it, afford
+free scope to human powers, lessen crimes, elevate morals and taste
+and intelligence, purify government, and carry civilization to yet
+nobler heights." The steps by which George arrived at this gratifying
+conclusion are obscure, and practically every modern economist agrees
+that too much has been claimed for the theory. Nevertheless, there is
+much to be said on both sides of this interesting question.
+
+107. ARGUMENTS FOR THE SINGLE TAX.--Single taxers claim that it is
+just to take from land-owners that land value which is not due to
+their individual efforts. Fertility, on the one hand, is due
+originally to the bounty of Nature, and as such belongs to all men
+alike, rather than to particular individuals. Location value, on the
+other hand, is due to community growth, and should therefore be taken
+for the benefit of the community at large.
+
+A very strong argument in favor of the single tax is that land cannot
+be hidden from the tax assessor, as can stocks, bonds, jewels, and
+other forms of personal property. A single tax on land would,
+therefore, be relatively easy to apply.
+
+A tax on the location and fertility value of land would not discourage
+industry. Location value is largely or entirely due to community
+growth, rather than to the efforts of the individual land-owner.
+Fertility, of course, is largely a natural endowment, and as such
+cannot be destroyed by a tax. The land would continue to have all of
+its location value, and probably much of its fertility value, whether
+or not the owner were taxed.
+
+Another argument is that a single tax on land would eliminate taxes on
+live stock, buildings, and all other forms of property except land,
+and that this would encourage the development of the forms of property
+so exempted. This would stimulate business.
+
+It has also been said that the single tax would force into productive
+use land which is now being held for speculative purposes. It is
+claimed that many city tracts remain idle because the owners are
+holding them in the hope of getting a higher price in the future.
+According to the single taxer, a heavy tax would offset this hope of
+gain, and would force speculators either to put the land to a
+productive use, or to sell it to someone who would so employ it.
+
+A last important argument in favor of the single tax is that it might
+force into productive work certain capable individuals who are now
+supported in idleness by land rents. Professor Carver has pointed out
+that if the single tax deprived such persons of their incomes, they
+would be forced to go to work, and thus the community would gain by an
+increase in the number of its productive workers.
+
+108. ARGUMENTS AGAINST THE SINGLE TAX.--The most important objection
+to the single tax is that the confiscation of land, or, what amounts
+to the same thing, the confiscation of the income which land yields,
+is unjust. "Pieces of land," Professor Seager points out, "have
+changed hands on the average dozens of times in the United States, and
+present owners have in most cases acquired them not as free gifts of
+Nature, nor as grants from the government, but by paying for them,
+just as they have had to pay for other species of property." Where
+individuals have acquired land in good faith, and under the protection
+of a government which guarantees the institution of private property,
+the confiscation of land value would be demoralizing to the community
+and unfair to its land-owning citizens.
+
+Another difficulty lies in the ease with which value due to permanent
+improvements is confused with value due to location or fertility.
+Where money has been expended in draining land, removing stones or
+applying fertilizer, it is hard to tell, after a few years, what part
+of the value of the land is due to improvements. The possibility of
+this confusion would cause some land-owners to neglect to improve
+their land, or might even cause them to neglect to take steps to
+retain the original fertility. Thus the single tax might result in the
+deterioration of land values.
+
+It is also objected that the single tax would provide an inelastic
+taxation system. This means that it would tend to bring in an equal
+amount of revenue each year, whereas the revenue needs of government
+vary from year to year. A good tax system will accommodate itself to
+the varying needs of the government, always meeting the expenses of
+government, but at the same time taking as little as possible from the
+people. [Footnote: Some opponents of the single tax declare that the
+heaviest possible tax on land would yield only a fraction of the
+revenue needed to finance the government. Single taxers, however,
+maintain that the tax would yield more than enough revenue to meet
+public expenditures. The merits of this argument are uncertain.]
+
+It is doubtful whether the single tax would force into productive use
+land now being held by speculators. Even though a heavy tax were laid
+upon such land, it would not be utilized unless there were an
+immediate use to which it could profitably be put.
+
+A last important argument against the single tax is that there is no
+good reason for removing the tax burden from all except land-owners.
+Land is only one form of wealth, and it is unfair not to tax
+individuals who hold property in some other form. Some land value is
+indeed unearned, but there are other forms of unearned wealth, as, for
+example, monopoly gains and inherited property. Taxes ought to be
+levied upon these forms of unearned wealth, as well as upon the
+unearned income from land. It is desirable, too, to levy at least a
+light tax upon the propertyless classes, in order to encourage them to
+feel an interest in, and a sense of responsibility for, the conduct of
+their government.
+
+109. SERVICE RENDERED BY THE SINGLE TAX AGITATION.--Economists are
+unanimous in agreeing that the single tax, as expounded by Henry
+George, is too drastic and special a reform to find wide favor.
+Nevertheless, the single taxers have performed a valuable service by
+emphasizing the fact that in many cases the income from land is
+largely or entirely unearned. It would be manifestly unjust to
+dispossess present-day land-owners who have acquired land in good
+faith; on the other hand, most economists agree that we ought to
+reform our tax system so as to take for the community a larger share
+of the future unearned increment of land values. As Professor Taussig
+has pointed out, no one has a vested right in the indefinite future.
+The taking of this future unearned increment, it is hardly necessary
+to add, would not constitute a single tax, but rather a heavy land
+tax. Many other taxes would continue to be levied. [Footnote: The
+general problem of taxation is discussed in Chapter XXXIL]
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Define the single tax.
+
+2. What is location value?
+
+3. Define fertility value.
+
+4. Who was Henry George?
+
+5. What benefits, according to George, were to result from an
+application of the single tax?
+
+6. Give the chief arguments in favor of the single tax.
+
+7. Give the chief objections to the doctrine.
+
+8. What service has been rendered by the single tax agitation?
+
+9. What is the attitude of most economists toward the future unearned
+increment of land?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xi.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Carver, _Elementary Economics_, chapter xlv.
+
+3. George, _Progress and Poverty_, book ix.
+
+4. _International Encyclopedia_, vol. 21, article on "Single Tax."
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Who were the Physiocrats? (Carver, page 372.)
+
+2. What is the "ethical argument" in favor of the single tax?
+(_International Encyclopedia_, vol. 21, page 136.)
+
+3. What is the "expediency argument" in favor of the single tax?
+(_International Encyclopedia_, vol. 21, page 136.)
+
+4. What is meant by "mining" the soil, and what is the relation of
+this practice to the single tax? (Carver, pages 375-376.)
+
+5. What, according to George, would be the effect of the single tax
+upon production? (George, book ix, chapter i.)
+
+6. What, according to George, would be the effect of the single tax
+upon the distribution of wealth? (George, book ix, chapter ii.)
+
+7. What are the present aims of the single tax movement?
+(_International Encyclopedia_, vol. 21, page 137.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Select for study a plot of farm or garden land in your locality.
+
+(a) What is the market value of the land?
+
+(b) Is it more or less valuable than similar plots in the same
+neighborhood? Why?
+
+(c) To what extent is the value of the plot selected for study due to
+natural fertility?
+
+(d) To what extent is the value due to location?
+
+(e) To what extent is the value due to permanent improvements, such as
+drains, ditches, hedges, fences, or the use of fertilizer to retain or
+increase the natural fertility?
+
+(f) If you were the owner of this plot, to what extent, if to any,
+would your future use of this land be affected by the adoption of the
+single tax program?
+
+2. Select for study a plot of ground in your locality which has been
+idle for a number of years.
+
+(a) Why has this ground been idle so long?
+
+(b) Do you believe that this land is being held for speculative
+purposes?
+
+(c) If so, suppose that a very heavy tax stimulated the owner to put
+the land to some use. Do you know of a productive use to which it
+could be put?
+
+
+II
+
+3. The life of Henry George. (Consult an encyclopedia.)
+
+4. The economic background of Henry George's doctrine. (Young, _The
+Single Tax Movement in the United States_, chapter ii.)
+
+5. Is land-ownership a monopoly? (Seligman, _Principles of Economics_,
+page 391.)
+
+6. Tactics of the single tax movement. (Young, _The Single Tax
+Movement in the United States_, chapter xii.)
+
+7. Relation of the single tax to socialism. (Young, _The Single Tax
+Movement in the United States_, pages 307-312.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+PROFIT SHARING AND COÖPERATION
+
+
+A. PROFIT SHARING
+
+110. THE NATURE OF PROFIT SHARING.--The essence of profit sharing is
+that the workmen in a given enterprise receive, in addition to their
+regular wages, a share in the profits which would ordinarily go
+entirely to the entrepreneur. The share going to the employees varies
+with the establishment, but generally from one quarter to three
+quarters of the profits are divided among them.
+
+Distribution is by various methods. The workmen may receive their
+share in cash at the end of the year. Sometimes the money is placed in
+a provident fund for the workmen as a body; in other cases it is
+deposited in savings banks to the account of the individual workmen.
+In still other cases the workman's share is invested in the business
+for him, the workman thereafter receiving dividends on this invested
+capital.
+
+In every case, however, the division of profits among the individual
+laborers is on the basis of the wages received, that is to say, the
+higher the regular wage received by a workman, the larger will be his
+share of the profits set aside for distribution. Generally, too, only
+workmen who are steadily employed are allowed to share in the
+distribution of profits.
+
+111. LIMITS OF PROFIT SHARING.--Profit sharing was once considered a
+remedy for many of our industrial troubles, but it is now generally
+conceded that the plan is decidedly limited in scope. Profit sharing
+increases the income of the workmen involved, but for this very reason
+it is often bitterly opposed by the trade unions. The unions fear, of
+course, that the plan will make the workmen interested chiefly in the
+employees of their particular establishment, rather than in the
+workmen in the trade as a whole. The trade unions also maintain that
+profit sharing is often administered in a patronizing manner, which is
+offensive to the self-respect of the workmen.
+
+To a large extent, the spread of profit sharing depends upon the
+development of altruism among employers. But unfortunately altruistic
+employers are rare, and the majority of entrepreneurs will not adopt
+the profit-sharing plan unless it promises to result in some distinct
+advantage to themselves. This attitude explains, in part, the failure
+of many profit-sharing experiments. Employers have sometimes tried out
+profit sharing in the hope that it would prevent strikes and other
+labor troubles. In some cases this expectation has been realized; in
+many other cases serious labor troubles have continued. This
+continuance of labor troubles has rendered profit sharing less
+attractive to certain types of employers.
+
+In certain cases employers have experimented with profit sharing in
+the hope that it would stimulate efficiency and economy on the part of
+the workmen. Sometimes the immediate effect of the adoption of the
+plan has been to make the workmen more efficient and more interested
+in their tasks, but after the novelty of the scheme has worn off they
+have generally fallen back into their former pace. In justice to the
+workmen, it should be noted here that in most enterprises the
+conditions of the market and the employer's managerial ability have
+more influence upon profits than have the personal efforts of
+individual workmen. Where workmen realize this, they tend to lose
+faith in their ability to influence the share accruing to them under
+the profit-sharing plan.
+
+A last important reason why profit sharing is limited in scope is that
+in many hazardous enterprises, such as mining, agriculture, fishing,
+or building construction, the refusal and inability of the workmen to
+share in possible losses prevent the adoption of the plan. A mining
+corporation, for example, may make large profits one year, and lose
+heavily the second year. Profit sharing is here inadvisable, if not
+impossible. The distribution among the workmen of a large share of the
+profits accruing at the end of the first year might so deplete the
+financial reserves of the entrepreneur that he would be unable to meet
+the losses of the second year.
+
+B. COÖPERATION
+
+112. RELATION OF PROFIT SHARING TO COÖPERATION.--Profit sharing
+permits the workmen to secure more than a regular wage from a given
+enterprise, without, however, giving them any control over the
+management of the business. Coöperation goes a step farther, and
+attempts to dispense with either a number of middlemen or with the
+managing employer, or with both middlemen and employer. In the case of
+a profit-sharing scheme in which the share of the profits accruing to
+the workmen is invested in the business for them, ultimate control of
+the enterprise may come into the hands of the workmen through profit
+sharing. In such a case the plant might be conducted coöperatively. In
+practically every instance, however, coöperation does not grow out of
+profit sharing, but arises independently.
+
+113. ESSENCE OF COÖPERATION.--The essence of coöperation is that a
+group of individuals undertake to perform for themselves those
+functions which are commonly carried on by the business man.
+Coöperatives are often workmen, though not necessarily so.
+
+Under the coöperative plan, all of the profits of the enterprise are
+divided among the coöperators; on the other hand, the risks of the
+business must also be borne by them. Management of the enterprise is
+conducted partly by officers or committees serving without pay, and
+partly by paid agents. The general policies of the business are
+settled by the coöperators acting as a body.
+
+Coöperation seeks to exchange the centralized control of the business
+man for the diffuse control of a group of coöperators. This
+arrangement, its advocates hope, will permit wealth and power to be
+distributed among more and more people, and especially among those
+classes that possess relatively little property. Let us inquire
+briefly into the four types of coöperation.
+
+114. CONSUMERS' COÖPERATION.--Consumers' coöperation, also known as
+distributive coöperation or coöperation in retail trade, is the most
+common form of coöperation. It is also probably the most successful
+form.
+
+In this form of coöperation, a number of individuals contribute their
+savings to a common fund, buy certain desired commodities at wholesale
+prices, and distribute these among themselves. Generally, the
+coöperative store sells to its members at the regular retail price,
+but at stated intervals throughout the year the profits of the
+business are distributed among the coöperatives in proportion to the
+amount of their individual purchases. Thus the difference between the
+wholesale and the retail price--minus the expense of conducting the
+store--goes to the coöperators, instead of to a store keeper or other
+middleman.
+
+One of the best examples of consumers' coöperation is the Rochdale
+Society of Equitable Pioneers, established in England in 1844. This
+type of coöperation has also been remarkably successful in Germany,
+Belgium, and other continental countries. The idea was taken up in the
+United States about the middle of the nineteenth century, and at the
+present time there are in this country about 2000 coöperative stores,
+many of them doing a thriving business. These stores are located
+chiefly in New England, the North Central States, and the West, few
+being found in the South.
+
+115. COÖPERATION IN CREDIT.--Credit coöperation may take any one of a
+number of forms. In one of the best known forms, a group of persons
+form a credit society by contributing a proportion of their personal
+savings to a common fund. On the strength of this capital, and of
+their own individual liability, they borrow more capital. The total
+amounts thus got together are then loaned to the members of the
+society at a specified rate of interest. This rate of interest is
+higher than that at which the group had borrowed money from outside
+sources; nevertheless, it is lower than the rate members would have to
+pay if they individually sought loans at a bank. This is the aim of
+coöperation in credit: to enable persons of small means to secure
+loans without paying the high rates which as individuals they would
+ordinarily have to meet, if, indeed, they as individuals could secure
+loans under any conditions.
+
+Credit coöperation has been most successful in Germany, particularly
+among artisans and small farmers. It has also attained considerable
+success among the small tradesmen and artisans of Italy. In the United
+States coöperation in credit is less highly developed, but recently
+its influence has been slowly increasing. In many cases it supplies
+the principle underlying building and loan associations in this
+country.
+
+116. COÖPERATION IN MARKETING.--The coöperative principle has also
+been applied to the marketing of agricultural products. In Denmark,
+for example, it has been found that farmers can market their dairy
+products coöperatively, and thus save for themselves much of the
+profit that would otherwise go to commission agents and other
+middlemen. A similar saving has been effected in Holland, Belgium,
+and, to some extent, in France. Of recent years, coöperation in
+marketing has become important in the United States, finding
+particular favor among the farmers of the Middle and Far West. At the
+present time there are in this country more than two thousand
+coöperative cheese factories, and more than three thousand coöperative
+creameries. There are also more than a thousand societies for the
+coöperative marketing of fruit, as well as numerous live-stock selling
+agencies.
+
+117. COÖPERATION IN PRODUCTION.--The three forms of coöperation which
+we have been considering seek to eliminate unnecessary middlemen from
+industry. In producers' coöperation, on the other hand, the attempt is
+made to get rid of the entrepreneur, or managing employer. A group of
+workmen get together, subscribe or borrow the required capital,
+purchase tools, materials, and plant, and set up as producers. They
+seek markets for their product, direct the enterprise either as a
+group or through salaried agents, share the profits among themselves,
+and accept the risks of the enterprise.
+
+Coöperation in production has been tried repeatedly in the various
+countries of Europe, but without success. True producers' coöperative
+associations have also met with almost universal failure in the United
+States, though experiments have been made in a variety of industries,
+and in nearly every part of the country. Formerly the Minneapolis
+Coöpers were a coöperative group which seemed destined to attain a
+considerable success in production, but this group has now abandoned
+the coöperative principle. The coöperative marketing of fruit, cheese,
+and other agricultural products is, of course, not true producers'
+coöperation, but rather the coöperative marketing of commodities
+produced by individual enterprisers.
+
+118. BACKWARDNESS OF COÖPERATION IN THE UNITED STATES.--In all forms
+of coöperation, progress has been much slower in this country than in
+Europe. There are several reasons for this. For one thing, American
+workmen move about to a greater extent than do European workmen,
+whereas coöperation succeeds best where the coöperators have a fixed
+residence and develop a strong sense of group solidarity. The fact
+that our population is made up of diverse racial types likewise checks
+the growth of the feeling of solidarity.
+
+An important reason for the backwardness of the coöperative movement
+in this country is that American workmen "make, rather than save
+money," whereas coöperation requires thrift, and a willingness to
+practice small economies. Again, the efficiency and progressiveness of
+our industrial system renders coöperative ventures less necessary in
+this country than in some parts of Europe. It is particularly true
+that retail stores in the United States are more efficient than
+similar shops in England and on the Continent.
+
+Altogether, the most successful coöperators in this country are not
+native-born Americans, but groups of Finns, Russians, Slovaks, and
+other peoples of immediately foreign derivation. It is among these
+groups that the thrift and group solidarity demanded by coöperation
+are best found.
+
+119. LIMITS OF COÖPERATION.--Consumers' coöperation, coöperation in
+credit, and coöperation in marketing all seek to improve the
+capitalistic system by eliminating some of the unnecessary middlemen
+from our industrial life. In so far as this is true, these forms of
+coöperation are desirable developments, and deserve to succeed. Though
+the movement is limited by the considerations set forth in the
+preceding section, it is to be hoped that these three forms of
+coöperation will in the future show a considerable development in this
+country.
+
+Producers' coöperation is a different affair. Rather than attempting
+to decrease the number of unnecessary middlemen, it attempts to
+supersede the entrepreneur or managing employer where he is most
+needed. For this reason producers' coöperation will probably continue
+a failure. To run a modern business of any size at all requires a
+degree of intelligence, imagination, judgment, courage, and
+administrative ability which is altogether too rare to be found among
+casual groups of laborers. Varied experience, high ability, the
+determination to accept the risks of the enterprise, and a consistent
+singleness of purpose are necessary in modern production. Even though
+coöperators are able to secure an amount of capital sufficient to
+initiate production, they rarely have the requisite ability or
+experience; too often they object to accepting the risks of the
+enterprise; practically never can they administer the business with
+that unity of control which characterizes the most successful business
+enterprises.
+
+120. BENEFITS OF COÖPERATION.--While no longer considered a far-
+reaching industrial reform, the coöperative movement brings with it
+many benefits. Coöperation in retail trade, credit, and marketing cuts
+down the waste between consumer and producer, and thus helps
+substantially to reduce the cost of living. Coöperation in production,
+though it fails to reach its chief objective, has the virtue of
+demonstrating to groups of workmen that the entrepreneur is of far
+more value in our industrial life than they might otherwise have
+realized. Aside from these advantages, coöperation in any form is an
+important educative force. It fosters the spirit of solidarity and
+mutual helpfulness among members of a group or community. It teaches
+thrift. It trains the coöperating individuals to exercise foresight
+and self-control. Altogether the training which it affords is
+productive of good citizenship.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Explain clearly the nature of profit sharing.
+
+2. What is the attitude of the trade unions toward profit sharing?
+
+3. What is the attitude of the employer toward profit sharing?
+
+4. Does profit sharing result in increased efficiency on the part of
+the workmen? Explain.
+
+5. What is the relation of profit sharing to coöperation?
+
+6. What are the essential features of coöperation?
+
+7. Explain the principle involved in consumers' coöperation.
+
+8. Where has this form of coöperation been most successful?
+
+9. What are the essential features of credit coöperation?
+
+10. Where is credit coöperation most successful?
+
+11. What is the aim of coöperation in marketing?
+
+12. In what way does producers' coöperation differ from the other
+forms of coöperation?
+
+13. To what extent is producers' coöperation a success?
+
+14. Why is coöperation backward in this country?
+
+15. Outline the chief benefits of coöperation.
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xii.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Fay, _Coöperation at Home and Abroad_, part iv, chapter v.
+
+3. Harris, _Coöperation, the Hope of the Consumer_, chapter vi.
+
+4. _International Encyclopedia_, vol. 19, article on "Profit Sharing"
+and vol. 6, article on "Coöperation."
+
+5. Taussig, _Principles of Economics_, vol. ii, chapter lxix.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. What is the principle upon which profit sharing is based?
+(_International Encyclopedia_, vol. 19, page 244.)
+
+2. Discuss the origin of profit sharing in the United States.
+(_International Encyclopedia, vol. 19, page 244.)
+
+3. Give some examples of profit sharing in this country.
+(_International Encyclopedia_, vol. 19, pages 244-245.)
+
+4. Describe the earlier forms of coöperation in this country.
+(_International Encyclopedia_, vol. 6, page 44.)
+
+5. For what purpose was the "Rochdale plan" originated? (Harris, page
+88.)
+
+6. Discuss voting rights under the Rochdale plan. (Harris, pages 90-
+91.)
+
+7. Describe the store service under the Rochdale plan. (Harris, pages
+93-94.)
+
+8. How does the Rochdale plan promote thrift? (Taussig, pages 348-
+349.)
+
+9. Why has coöperation succeeded in Great Britain? (Taussig, page
+350.)
+
+10. What is the Schulze-Delitzsch plan? (Taussig, pages 352-353.)
+
+11. What is the Raiffeisen plan? (Taussig, page 354.)
+
+12. Among what classes of the population is coöperation of greatest
+importance? (Taussig, pages 347-349.)
+
+13. How does coöperation teach self-government? (Fay, pages 324-325.)
+
+14. How has coöperation encouraged thrift? (Fay, page 329.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Make a study of a profit-sharing plan in your locality. (Write to
+the Bureau of Labor Statistics at your State Capitol, asking for the
+names and addresses of employers in your locality who have
+experimented with profit sharing.)
+
+2. Interview, or write to, an employer, explaining the essence of
+profit sharing, and asking his opinion as to its practicability in his
+business.
+
+3. Interview, or write to, the officials of a trade union, regarding
+their attitude toward profit sharing.
+
+4. Write to the Coöperative League of America, 2 West 13th Street, New
+York City, asking for free literature on coöperation in your section.
+If any of the groups of coöperators in your section are found to be
+close at hand, make a study of a typical coöperative group.
+
+5. Draw up a plan for a coöperative buying club, and discuss with your
+fellow students the chances for its success. (Consult Harris,
+_Coöperation, the Hope of the Consumer_, chapter xiv.)
+
+6. Draw up a plan for the coöperative marketing of some agricultural
+product in your section. Send a description of the plan, giving
+advantages, etc., to a farm journal in your section. (Consult Powell,
+_Coöperation in Agriculture>/i>, chapter iv, and Coulter, _Coöperation
+Among Farmers_.)
+
+
+II
+
+7. Profit sharing as a method of securing industrial peace. (Burritt,
+and others, _Profit Sharing_, chapter vii.)
+
+8. Profit sharing as a means of stabilizing labor. (Burritt, and
+others, _Profit Sharing,_ chapter vi.)
+
+9. Relation of coöperation to advertising. (Harris, _Coöperation, the
+Hope of the Consumer,_ chapter xix.)
+
+10. Credit coöperation in Germany. (Fay, _Coöperation at Home and
+Abroad,_ part i, chapter ii.)
+
+11. Coöperation in dairying. (Fay, _Coöperation at Home and Abroad,_
+part ii, chapter vi.)
+
+12. Coöperation among New England farmers. (Ford, _Coöperation in New
+England,_ chapters vi-ix.)
+
+13. Coöperation among immigrants in New England. (Ford, _Coöperation
+in New England,_ chapter iii.)
+
+14. Coöperation in the fruit industries. (Powell, _Coöperation in
+Agriculture,_ chapter viii.)
+
+15. The relation of thrift to nation-building. (_Annals,_ vol.
+lxxxvii, pages 4-9.)
+
+16. The relation of coöperation to socialism. (Fay, _Coöperation at
+Home and Abroad,_ pages 350-355; Sonnichsen, _Consumers' Coöperation,_
+part ii, chapter ii.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE GENERAL NATURE OF SOCIALISM
+
+
+121. SOCIALISM IS A VAGUE TERM.--It is often said that the term
+"socialism" is so vague that it is useless to attempt to define it.
+The word is used to cover all sorts of schemes of industrial and
+social reform. Sometimes a person whose viewpoint concerning politics
+or business has become more liberal appears to himself or to others as
+a socialist. From the standpoint of many individuals, all those who
+advocate the extension of government control are socialists. Still
+others label as socialists all reformers with whose ideas they are not
+in accord. It very often happens that persons who pass in the
+community for socialists are not recognized as such by the official
+socialist parties. Indeed, certain official socialist groups go so far
+as to declare that other official socialist groups are "not really
+socialists," either in thought or in action.
+
+122. A DEFINITION OF SOCIALISM.--In spite of this confusion it is
+possible to formulate a rather precise definition of socialism.
+Leaving until later the distinction between the chief socialist
+groups, we may say that the following definition covers all who are
+strictly socialists: Socialism is an economic theory which aims to
+abolish the capitalistic system, and to substitute for it "a system of
+collective ownership and democratic management of the socially
+necessary means of production and distribution." In rather more simple
+language, socialism intends that all income-producing property shall
+be owned and directed by the state. The state is to own and operate
+land, factories, workshops, railroads, and all other means of
+production. Private property and the competitive system are to be
+abolished. [Footnote: Socialism does not seek to abolish the private
+ownership of food, clothing, and other forms of consumers' goods, yet
+both socialists and non-socialists accept the unqualified statement
+that "socialism seeks to abolish private property." because it is the
+private ownership of producers' goods rather than of consumers' goods,
+which constitutes a cornerstone of the capitalistic system.] All
+business is to be conducted by the government, and all persons are to
+be employees of the government. The distribution of wealth is to be
+directed by the government.
+
+123. RELATION OF SOCIALISM TO OTHER RADICAL THEORIES.--The terms
+"communism" and "socialism" call for careful distinction. What is now
+known as socialism was formerly known as communism. For example, Karl
+Marx, the founder of modern socialism, called himself a communist. His
+followers later abandoned the name, and began calling themselves
+socialists. Still later, during the World War, a group of Russian
+socialists, popularly known as the bolshevists, revived the term
+communist in the sense used by Marx. Strictly speaking, however,
+communism is generally thought of to-day as a type of small community
+organization in which all wealth, including both the instruments of
+production and consumers' goods, is owned by the community. Socialism,
+on the other hand, proposes that the state own and operate only the
+instruments of production, leaving food, clothing, and other
+consumers' goods to be owned and enjoyed by individuals.
+
+Socialism is often thought of in connection with the doctrine of
+anarchy. Anarchism and socialism are alike in that both object to one
+man having authority over another. Anarchism agrees with socialism
+that capitalism is bad because it gives the employer power over the
+laborer. But at this point the two theories begin sharply to diverge.
+Socialism desires to abolish private property and to concentrate all
+authority in the hands of the state. The anarchist maintains that this
+is simply a transference of authority, and declares that authority in
+any form is an evil. Thus where socialism seeks to enlarge the powers
+of the state, anarchism objects to the existence of any governmental
+authority whatsoever.
+
+In addition to communism and anarchism, there are a number of
+interesting theories that are more or less closely associated with the
+socialist movement. These will not be discussed here, for two reasons:
+first, an adequate treatment of them would permit the problem of
+industrial reform to take up a disproportionate share of our time;
+second, many of these theories, while interesting, are relatively
+unimportant, from the standpoint of American democracy at least. We
+may, therefore, confine ourselves to socialism proper, as defined in
+Section 122.
+
+124. KARL MARX AND HIS INFLUENCE.--The germ of socialism can be traced
+back as far as Plato, but the modern movement takes its main impetus
+from the teachings of Karl Marx. Karl Marx was a German Jew, who lived
+between 1818 and 1883. Marx early became known for his radical views
+on political and economic subjects. In 1848, he published, in
+collaboration with Frederick Engels, the well-known Communist
+Manifesto. The Manifesto, which has been called the "birth-cry of
+modern socialism," gives in concise form the essence of the socialist
+doctrine. In 1864 Marx helped organize the "International," a
+federation of radical thinkers, with affiliations in the different
+countries of Europe. In 1867 he published the first volume of his
+famous work, _Capital_, which elaborated the views set forth in the
+Manifesto, and which has since been adopted as the "Bible of
+Socialism." Due to the great influence which Marx has exerted upon
+socialist doctrine, he may justly be called the founder and
+inspiration of modern socialism.
+
+125. THE SOCIALIST INDICTMENT.--The claims of socialism, as formulated
+by Marx and elaborated by his followers, constitute a serious
+indictment of present-day society. Socialists point out, for example,
+that the capitalistic system has numerous faults. They call attention
+to the fact that capitalism involves enormous wastes in materials and
+men; they show that luxurious and injurious goods are produced; and
+they maintain that in the past natural resources have often been
+monopolized by a few. They believe the system of private property to
+be unjust, and declare that free competition involves needless
+duplication of effort. At the present time, it is contended, all the
+good things of life go to a few, while the masses remain in poverty
+and misery. Socialists declare that the fruits of capitalism are
+unemployment, industrial accidents, crime, vice, poverty, disease, and
+premature death. These charges are serious, and Chapter XVI will be
+devoted to their critical examination. In this chapter we are
+concerned chiefly with an exposition of the socialist doctrine.
+
+126. ECONOMIC INTERPRETATION OF HISTORY.--Formerly a great principle
+of socialism was the claim that all history has been determined by
+economic forces. According to this view, our whole social and
+political life, including our basic ideas concerning religion, art,
+science, and government, are only the reflected result of economic
+forces. History, Marx contended, is the record of how one class has
+gained wealth and power at the expense of another class. The present
+state of society, he asserted, is the result of the exploitation of
+the masses by a few.
+
+With this principle we need not further concern ourselves. It is an
+academic appendage to the socialist doctrine, and at the present time
+is not stressed by socialists. The majority of socialists now concede
+that while economic forces have been important in history, social,
+religious, and political forces are also important. In view of this
+admission, the chief importance of the doctrine of the economic
+interpretation of history is its theoretical connection with the two
+great cornerstones of socialism: the theory of surplus value, and the
+theory of class struggle.
+
+127. THEORY OF SURPLUS VALUE.--Marx claimed that practically all
+wealth has been created by the laborers alone, and that all persons
+other than laborers are parasites. To those who have carefully studied
+Chapter VIII the error of this claim must appear self-evident,
+nevertheless, this concept of value is the basis of all socialist
+attacks upon government and industry. Marx developed this theory as
+follows:
+
+The value of an article is determined solely by the amount of labor
+expended upon its production. But although the laborer creates all
+wealth, the capitalist is enabled, by virtue of his monopolistic
+control over the instruments of production, to prevent this wealth
+from going entirely to the laborer. [Footnote: By "capitalists"
+socialism means not only individuals with money to loan, but
+"employers" in general, whether middlemen, entrepreneurs, or true
+capitalists. ] Socialism declares that the capitalist holds the
+laborer in virtual slavery, the laborer receiving only enough of the
+wealth created by him to enable him to keep alive, while the surplus
+of this wealth goes to the capitalist. The capitalist is thus a
+parasite who performs no useful task, but robs the laborers of the
+fruits of their industry. Marx did not regard profits as reward for
+business enterprise, but called them "plunder." Capitalism, according
+to this view, is a system of theft, involving "misery, oppression,
+slavery, degradation, and exploitation."
+
+128. CLASS STRUGGLE.--Marx declared that the capitalistic system was
+doomed to destruction. He maintained that as time went on, wealth
+would tend to concentrate more and more in the hands of the capitalist
+or employing class. Trusts and monopolies would become more common,
+and gradually capitalism would become so unwieldy and so unworkable a
+mechanism that it would finally fall to pieces of its own weight.
+Crises, panics, and trade depressions were supposed to be indications
+of this inevitable disaster.
+
+The tendency for wealth to concentrate in the hands of a few was to be
+accompanied by the growing poverty of the masses. Marx believed that
+the middle classes would eventually disappear, leaving only the
+wealthy employers and the miserable laborers. The individuals
+comprising these two classes would steadily draw apart into two great
+armies which were destined to battle to the death. Socialism denies
+that employers and laborers have anything in common, and insists that
+between these two groups a struggle must go on until the employing
+class is abolished.
+
+129. WHAT IS THE ULTIMATE AIM OF SOCIALISM?--Nothing could here be
+more important than to know the ultimate aim of socialism,
+nevertheless, there is among socialists no agreement as to the
+framework of the system which they expect to substitute for
+capitalism. All socialists desire collective ownership and direction
+of the instruments of production, but beyond this there is practically
+nothing in the way of a constructive socialist program. Generally, it
+is declared that when capitalism has been abolished, the working
+classes will organize industry on the basis of communal ownership. In
+the socialist commonwealth there is to be no class struggle, for the
+reason that there are to be no classes. There is to be a just
+distribution of wealth, together with an abolition of poverty,
+unemployment, and all forms of social injustice. But as to how this is
+to be accomplished we have no proof. The so-called constructive
+program of socialism is not so much a definite agreement as to aims
+and methods, as it is a confused and disordered expression of the
+attitude of different socialist groups toward capitalism. Indeed, when
+socialists are asked to advance a concrete and definitely constructive
+program, the reply is often made that the advent of socialism is so
+far distant that the constructive side of its program is of no
+immediate consequence.
+
+130. NEGATIVE CHARACTER OF SOCIALISM.--But although the constructive
+program of socialism is vague and unreal, its destructive or negative
+program is definite and very real. Socialism is opposed to government
+as it exists to-day, and to that extent, it disapproves of the
+Constitution of the United States. The capitalistic system is to be
+destroyed. The institution of private property is to be abolished.
+Free competition and private initiative are to be abolished or greatly
+restricted. All business is to be under the thumb of the government.
+Personal liberty is to be narrowed down. Some socialists even go so
+far as to declare war upon the family and the church, but though a
+number of socialist leaders favor the abolition of the institution of
+marriage, and are professed atheists, it should be borne in mind that
+the great majority of socialists are not openly hostile to the home
+and the church. Indeed, the average socialist is probably as friendly
+to these institutions as is the average non-socialist.
+
+131. SOCIALIST ATTITUTE TOWARD VIOLENCE.--It is important to
+understand the methods of socialism. Throughout the greater part of
+his life, Karl Marx openly advocated violence and revolution as a
+means of securing the downfall of capitalism. Socialists, says the
+Communist Manifesto, "disdain to conceal their views and aims. They
+openly declare that their ends can be attained only by the forcible
+overthrow of all existing social conditions." Toward the end of his
+life, Marx changed this view somewhat, and apparently came to believe
+that the overthrow of the capitalistic system might come gradually and
+without bloodshed. In accordance with this later view, there is to-day
+a considerable socialist group which disavows violence. Members of
+this group are known as political socialists.
+
+On the other hand, many socialists cling to Marx's earlier insistence
+upon violence and bloodshed as a means of attaining socialist ends.
+Members of the latter class are known as militant socialists, as
+opposed to those who disavow violence and rely chiefly upon political
+weapons. The two best-known groups of militant socialists are the
+Industrial Workers of the World and the Russian bolshevists.
+
+132. POLITICAL SOCIALISM.--Many political socialists are personally so
+mild and agreeable that the thought of unlawful action would never be
+associated with them. The political socialist relies chiefly upon the
+growing political power of the working class to effect the abolition
+of capitalism. This emphasis upon political weapons has been
+particularly noticeable among socialists living in democratic
+countries where the franchise is widely extended, and where the will
+of the people is reflected through the action of their chosen
+representatives. The political socialist makes a large use of
+propaganda. He tries to stir up the workingman, to create in him a
+feeling of solidarity with his fellow workmen, and to incite a feeling
+of antipathy toward, and dislike for, the employing class. The
+political socialist emphasizes or exaggerates the undesirable side of
+the laborer's life, and endeavors by promises of an industrial
+millennium to rouse him to political action. "Workingmen of the world,
+unite, you have nothing to lose but your chains," is the slogan of the
+political socialist.
+
+133. ALL SOCIALIST TEACHINGS TEND TOWARD VIOLENCE.--Though large
+numbers of political socialists are peaceful and responsible citizens,
+it should be noted that all socialist teachings tend to result in
+violence. The insistence of socialism upon the class struggle, the
+deliberate encouragement of industrial ill-will and the general policy
+of obstructing the activities of government, all lead inevitably to
+violence. Strikes involving bloodshed have in many instances been
+traced to the teachings of political socialism. During the World War,
+many political socialists in the United States supported our cause,
+but others of this group opposed the selective draft, attempted to
+demoralize our military forces, and impeded the conduct of the war by
+giving aid and succor to German agents. By a series of slight steps,
+political socialism, theoretically law-abiding and harmless, may drift
+into treasonable and revolutionary acts. The difference between
+political and militant socialism is thus one of degree only.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Define socialism.
+
+2. What is the relation between the terms "communism" and
+"socialism."?
+
+3. How are anarchism and socialism related?
+
+4. Who was Karl Marx, and what has been his influence upon socialism?
+
+5. Outline the socialist indictment.
+
+6. What is meant by the "economic interpretation of history"?
+
+7. Explain clearly Marx's theory of surplus value.
+
+8. Just what is meant by the class struggle?
+
+9. Discuss the character of the socialist program.
+
+10. Explain the attitude of Marx toward violence.
+
+11. Distinguish between political and militant socialism.
+
+12. Name the two chief groups of militant socialists.
+
+13. In what respect do all socialist teachings tend to result in
+violence?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xiii.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. _International Encyclopedia_, vol. 21, article on "Socialism."
+
+3. Le Rossignol, _Orthodox Socialism_, chapter i.
+
+4. Marx and Engels, _The Communist Manifesto_, all.
+
+5. Skelton, _Socialism, a Critical Analysis_, chapter ii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Explain why increasing social discontent among certain groups may
+be due to improvement in their social and economic condition.
+(Skelton, page 17.)
+
+2. What, according to socialists, has been the effect upon the workers
+of the introduction of machinery into industry? (Le Rossignol, page
+9.)
+
+3. What, according to Marx, has been the effect of the factory system
+upon the laborer? (Skelton, pages 33-34.)
+
+4. What is meant by "wage slavery"? (Skelton, pages 30-32.)
+
+5. What is meant by the "iron law of wages"? (Le Rossignol, page 9.)
+
+6. What, according to socialism, has been the effect of capitalism
+upon the moral tone of the workers? (Skelton, pages 37-40.)
+
+7. Who are the bourgeoisie? (_Communist Manifesto._)
+
+8. Who are the proletariat? (_Communist Manifesto._)
+
+9. What, according to Marx and Engels, are the aims of socialism?
+(_Communist Manifesto._)
+
+10. What does Marx mean by "class consciousness"? (_International
+Encyclopedia,_ vol. 21, page 235.)
+
+11. What changes would occur in human character, in the opinion of the
+socialists, if socialism were to supplant capitalism? (Le Rossignol,
+page 10.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Ask each of a number of prominent citizens in your community to
+define socialism. Compare the definitions secured with that given in
+section 122. What do you conclude as to the indefiniteness of the term
+"socialism"?
+
+2. Make a brief study of the social classes in your community. Does it
+appear that all of the community's citizens may be grouped into either
+a wealthy employing class or into an impoverished laboring class?
+Compare your conclusion with Marx's statement. (Section 128.)
+
+3. Select for study a shop, factory or mill in your locality.
+
+(a) Does it appear that the interests of the laborers and the employers
+are identical or in opposition?
+
+(b) Carefully observe the actual conduct of the business. Does it
+appear to you that the laborers alone create the product? Give your
+reasons.
+
+(c) Do the laborers under observation appear to be getting barely
+enough wages to enable them to keep alive? Check up your conclusion by
+visiting the homes of some of the laborers in question.
+
+4. Write to the Department of Justice, Washington, D. C., for
+information regarding the activities of American socialists during the
+World War.
+
+
+II
+
+5. Robert Owen and his work. (Consult an encyclopedia.)
+
+6. Utopian socialism. (Skelton, _Socialism, a Critical Analysis_,
+chapter iv; Carver, _Elementary Economics_, chapter xliii.)
+
+7. Examples of Utopian communities in the United States. (Hinds,
+_American Communities_. See also an encyclopedia under "Communism.")
+
+8. The nature of anarchism. (Carver, _Elementary Economics_, chapter
+xlvi.)
+
+9. The life of Karl Marx. (Consult an encyclopedia.)
+
+10. The law of capitalistic development. (Skelton, _Socialism, a
+Critical Analysis_, chapter vii.)
+
+11. The economic interpretation of history. (Skelton, _Socialism, a
+Critical Analysis_, chapter v.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+MILITANT SOCIALISM: THE I. W. W.
+
+
+134. ORIGIN OF THE I.W.W.--The letters I.W.W. are a convenient
+abbreviation which is used to designate a group of militant socialists
+calling themselves the Industrial Workers of the World. The I.W.W.
+resemble a French socialist group known as syndicalists, and on that
+account the I.W.W. are sometimes called the American syndicalists. As
+a matter of fact, the I.W.W. are a distinct group, and are in no way
+affiliated with the French syndicalists.
+
+The I.W.W. movement can be traced to a miners' strike in Colorado in
+1903. As the result of the labor unrest which this strike accentuated,
+a conference of radical labor leaders was called in Chicago in 1904,
+to discuss the question of forming a socialist organization which
+should advocate methods more drastic than those of political
+socialism. In the summer of 1905 a second convention was held in
+Chicago, and a constitution was drawn up and subscribed to. Section 1
+of Article I of this constitution reads: "This Organization shall be
+known as the 'Industrial Workers of the World.'"
+
+135. THE I.W.W. AND THE POLITICAL SOCIALISTS: SIMILARITIES.--Like the
+political socialists, the I. W. W. go back to Karl Marx for their
+basic teachings. William D. Haywood, one of the I. W. W. leaders,
+accepted Marx's theory of surplus value in these terms: "The theory of
+surplus value is the beginning of all socialist knowledge. It shows
+the capitalist in his true light, that of an idler and a parasite. It
+proves to the workers that capitalists should no longer be permitted
+to take any of their product." The I. W. W. also stress the class
+struggle. The preamble to their constitution declares that "the
+working class and the employing class have nothing in common," and
+asserts that "between these two classes a struggle must go on until
+all the workers of the world organize as a class, take possession of
+the earth, and the machinery of production, and abolish the wage
+system." In these important particulars there is agreement between the
+I. W. W. and the political socialists.
+
+136. THE I.W.W. AND THE POLITICAL SOCIALISTS: DIFFERENCES.--The chief
+difference between the two groups is one of method. The political
+socialists prefer political action to violence; the I.W.W. prefer
+violence to political action. The I.W.W. believe that political
+methods are altogether too slow and unreliable, and accordingly they
+have so far refused to affiliate with any political party. The extreme
+limits to which the I.W.W. have gone in the matter of violence have
+caused many political socialists to disavow this militant group. The
+attempt has even been made to prove that the I.W.W. are not socialists
+at all, though as a matter of fact they are as truly so as is any
+other socialist group.
+
+137. I.W.W. METHODS: THE STRIKE.--The I.W.W. use the strike, not as a
+means of securing better working conditions, but as a method of
+fomenting revolution. "Instead of the conservative motto, 'A fair
+day's wages for a fair day's work,'" declares the preamble to their
+constitution, "we must inscribe on our banner the revolutionary
+watchword, 'Abolition of the wage system.'" In their use of the
+strike, the I.W.W. accordingly oppose conciliation or arbitration of
+any kind, and whether or not they gain their point, they go back to
+work with the intention of striking again at the next opportune time.
+This policy has been formulated by the I.W.W. in the following words:
+"Strike; win as much as possible; go back to work; recuperate; strike
+again... whatever concessions from capitalism the workers secure,
+sooner or later they will strike again."
+
+The principal strikes initiated in pursuance of this policy occurred
+at McKees Rocks, Pennsylvania, in 1909; Lawrence, Massachusetts, in
+1912; Butte, Montana, in 1914; and Bisbee, Arizona, in 1916. Violence
+and lawlessness have been prominent features of each of these strikes.
+
+138. I.W.W. METHODS: SABOTAGE.--The word sabotage is of French origin,
+and is used to describe any sort of deliberate action on the part of
+workmen which results in the destruction of the employer's property.
+Sabotage is a species of guerrilla warfare, designed to foment the
+class struggle. Louis Levine, an I. W. W. sympathizer, has said that
+"stirring up strife and accentuating the struggle as much as is in his
+power is the duty" of the I. W. W. Some of the commoner forms of
+sabotage are injuring delicate machinery, exposing the employer's
+trade secrets to rival employers, lying to customers about the quality
+of the goods, crippling locomotives so that they cannot be operated,
+slashing the harness of teamsters, shipping perishable goods to the
+wrong destination, burning forests and wheat fields, sawing lumber
+into unusual lengths, and allowing foodstuffs to spoil or deteriorate.
+
+139. I.W.W. METHODS: DESTRUCTION OF LIFE.--In their effort to destroy
+the existing order of society, some of the I.W.W. are frankly willing
+to go as far as assassination. I.W.W. leaders have advised their
+followers, both orally and through their writings, to extend the term
+sabotage to cover the destruction of human life. During the World War
+the I.W.W. caused a loss of life by putting poison in canned goods,
+and by causing train wrecks. They have advocated the placing of ground
+glass in food served in hotels and restaurants. Since the organization
+was formed in 1905, several bomb outrages resulting in loss of life
+have been charged against the I.W.W., but in justice to this group, it
+must be observed that these crimes have never been proved to have been
+committed by authorized I. W. W. agents.
+
+140. NEGATIVE CHARACTER OF THE I.W.W.--The I.W.W. resemble the
+political socialists in their failure to offer a definite system which
+could be substituted for the capitalistic system. Some of the I. W.
+W., it is true, have formulated a plan by means of which society is
+some day to be organized primarily on an industrial basis. According
+to this program, the workers of a given industry, say the railroad
+industry, will be organized into a single union, rather than, as at
+present, into a number of trade unions, such as an engineers' union,
+as distinct from the firemen's union, the brakemen's union, etc. The
+railroad union would in turn become a branch of a great transportation
+union, and the transportation union would in turn become a division of
+the "One Big Union," which is to include all workers in all countries
+of the world.
+
+If this plan were approved by the entire I. W. W. organization, it
+would mean that the I. W. W. intended industry to be controlled by a
+super-organization of workingmen, all other persons to be excluded
+from any control whatsoever. As a matter of fact, this is the program
+of only a faction of the I. W. W. The idea of "One Big Union" is
+opposed by a second group, which insists that after the destruction of
+capitalism, industry must be handed over to the exclusive control of
+small units of laborers, unaffiliated with, and uncontrolled by, any
+larger organization. Beyond the formulation of these two opposing
+views, a constructive I. W. W. program has never been developed.
+Attention continues to be centered upon the destruction of the present
+system.
+
+141. UNDEMOCRATIC CHARACTER OF THE I. W. W.--The I. W. W. oppose our
+present democracy. They oppose our Constitution and its fundamental
+guarantees of personal liberty, individual rights, and private
+property. They seek revolution, not in order to secure justice for the
+masses, but in order to place the laboring class in complete power in
+industry and government. They announce their intention of continuing
+the class struggle "until the working class is able to take possession
+and control of the machinery, premises, and materials of production
+right from the capitalists' hands, and to use that control to
+distribute the product of industry _entirely_ among the workers."
+
+142. LIMITED APPEAL OF THE I. W. W. PROGRAM.--It is a testimonial to
+the common sense of American workmen that the I. W. W. have made
+little headway. Until the Lawrence strike in 1912, the movement
+centered in the Far West, and it is even now practically confined to
+those parts of the West where industry is less well organized, and
+where family life is less stable. Miners, lumbermen, and railway
+construction workers are prominent in the movement. In general, the I.
+W. W. theory appeals chiefly to the lower strata of unskilled labor,
+to young and homeless workers, to transients, and to unassimilated
+immigrants. The better trained and the more intelligent American
+workmen reject the program of the I. W. W. These latter workmen
+believe in bettering their condition through the gradual development
+and enforcement of industrial standards, made possible by lawful
+coöperation with the employer. The truth of this statement is borne
+out by the fact that whereas the I. W. W. number scarcely 30,000, the
+American Federation of Labor has more than 4,000,000 members.
+Numerically the I. W. W. are unimportant, and it is chiefly their
+violent and spectacular tactics which attract attention.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What do the letters I. W. W. stand for?
+
+2. How did the I. W. W. organization come into existence?
+
+3. In what ways are the I. W. W. like the political socialists?
+
+4. In what way do the I. W. W. differ from the political socialists?
+
+5. What use do the I. W. W. make of the strike?
+
+6. Define sabotage, and give some examples.
+
+7. Discuss "destruction of life" as an I. W. W. aim.
+
+8. Upon what basis do the I. W. W. expect to reorganize society?
+
+9. What is meant by "One Big Union"?
+
+10. What is the attitude of the I. W. W. toward democracy?
+
+11. To what classes of the population does the I. W. W. theory make
+its chief appeal?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xiv.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Bloomfield, _Modern Industrial Movements_, pages 40-50 and 78-86.
+
+3. Hoxie, _Trade Unionism in the United States_, chapter vi.
+
+4. _International Encyclopedia_, vol. 12, article on "Industrial
+Workers of the World."
+
+5. Preamble to the Constitution of the Industrial Workers of the
+World.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Name some of the unions represented in the I.W.W. convention of
+1905. (_International Encyclopedia,_ page 150.)
+
+2. What do the I.W.W. insist must be the outcome of the class
+struggle? (Preamble to the constitution.)
+
+3. What sort of an organization do the I. W. W. believe to be
+essential if the condition of the workers is to be improved? (Preamble
+to the constitution.)
+
+4. What are the three reasons why the I.W.W. expect to take over
+industry? (Bloomfield, page 80.)
+
+5. What may be said as to the present attitude of the I.W.W. toward
+political parties? (International Encyclopedia,_ page 151.)
+
+6. What are some of the differences between the I.W.W. and the French
+syndicalists? (Bloomfield, pages 49-50.)
+
+7. What is the origin of the word sabotage? (Bloomfield, page 80.)
+
+8. To what extent is the I.W.W. movement supplied with able leaders?
+(Hoxie, pages 149-150.)
+
+9. Discuss the membership of the I. W. W. (Hoxie, pages 139-140.)
+
+10. Explain the attitude of the masses of American workmen toward the
+I.W.W. (Hoxie, pages 157-161.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Interview, or write to, the officials of a trade union in your
+community with reference to the attitude of the trade union toward the
+I.W.W. (Many trade unions are bitterly opposed to the I.W.W.; others
+are more tolerant of this form of militant socialism.)
+
+2. Investigate the conditions surrounding any strike which has been
+initiated in your neighborhood by the I.W.W. (Consult the officials of
+a local trade union. Consult, also, the files of local newspapers and
+the _Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature._)
+
+3. A number of states have recently passed laws restricting the
+destructive tactics of the I.W.W. Ascertain whether or not your state
+has passed such laws. (Write to the state library at the state
+capitol.)
+
+Also write to the proper authorities in several other states, asking
+for a copy of such laws, if any have been passed in those states.
+
+
+II
+
+4. Origin of the I.W.W. (Groat, _Organized Labor in America,_ chapter
+xxvii.)
+
+5. The theory of "direct action." (Bloomfield, _Modern Industrial
+Movements_, pages 62-67.)
+
+6. Conflict of aims and ideals within the I. W. W. organization.
+(Hoxie, _Trade Unionism in the United States_, chapter vi.)
+
+7. Sabotage. (Groat, _Organized Labor in America_, chapter xxviii.)
+
+8. Theory of the "general strike." (Brooks, _American Syndicalism: The
+I. W. W._, chapter x.)
+
+9. Syndicalism. (_International Encyclopedia_, vol. 21, article on
+"Syndicalism.")
+
+10. Relation of the I. W. W. theory to anarchism. (Brooks, _American
+Syndicalism: The I. W. W._, chapter xiv.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+MILITANT SOCIALISM: THE BOLSHEVISTS
+
+
+143. SIGNIFICANCE OF BOLSHEVISM.-The term "bolshevist" is used to
+designate a group of militant socialists that seized power in Russia
+in the fall of 1917. Strictly speaking, the bolshevists were purely a
+Russian group, nevertheless, they are of interest to students of
+American democracy. Until the outbreak of the World War socialism was
+primarily a theory, the claims of which could not definitely be
+settled for the reason that it had never been applied on a large
+scale. Bolshevism is significant because it is the only instance in
+the history of the world where nation-wide socialism has actually been
+put into operation. The peculiar conditions surrounding the Russian
+experiment may prevent any detailed conclusions as to the availability
+of bolshevist experience for other countries; on the other hand, the
+general results of that experiment must throw some light upon what we
+might expect if a socialist experiment were made in other countries.
+It is important, therefore, that we inquire into the nature of the
+Russian socialist state.
+
+144. ORIGIN OF THE BOLSHEVISTS.--There is a popular impression that
+since the word bolshevist means "majority" in the Russian language,
+the bolshevists represented or constituted a majority of the Russian
+people. This is not true, as the history of the group shows. The
+origin of the bolshevists dates from a convention of the Russian
+Social-Democratic party in 1903, at which time a majority
+(_bolshinstvó_) took an extreme stand upon the policies then being
+discussed in convention. In the years that followed the bolshevists
+became known as the radical or extreme wing of the Russian Social-
+Democratic party, as opposed to the menshevists, or moderate wing.
+
+It appears that as early as 1905 the bolshevists planned to secure
+control of the Russian government. The opportunity presented itself
+during the World War, which Russia had entered early in August, 1914.
+In March, 1917, a non-bolshevist group initiated a revolution, which
+overthrew the government of the Czar and established a provisional
+government under the leadership of Alexander Kerensky. This government
+immediately instituted a number of democratic reforms, including the
+extension of the suffrage to all men and women who were Russian
+citizens. These citizens elected delegates to a constituent assembly,
+but at this point the bolshevists, seeing that the voters of Russia
+were overwhelmingly against bolshevism, attacked the new government.
+The constituent assembly was forcibly dissolved, its defenders
+slaughtered, and on November 7, 1917, the bolshevists seized the reins
+of government. Thus bolshevism as a government came into being as the
+result of suppressing the lawfully expressed will of the Russian
+people.
+
+145. THE BOLSHEVIST CONSTITUTION: LIBERAL ELEMENTS.--On July 10, 1918,
+the bolshevists adopted a constitution. This remarkable document was a
+strange compound of liberal and despotic elements. It made a number of
+important promises to the people of Russia, announcing, for example,
+that the new government would "put an end to every ill that oppresses
+humanity." In pursuit of this ideal, the church was separated from the
+state, and complete freedom of conscience was accorded all citizens of
+Russia. Citizens were to enjoy complete freedom of speech and of the
+press. For the purpose of "securing freedom of expression to the
+toiling masses," provision was made for the free circulation
+throughout the country of newspapers, books, and pamphlets. Full and
+general education to the poorest peasantry was also promised. Capital
+punishment was declared abolished, and a solemn protest against war
+and violence of every kind was adopted.
+
+146. THE BOLSHEVIST CONSTITUTION: RESTRICTED SUFFRAGE.--These liberal
+provisions were offset, however, by a number of important restrictions
+upon the voting rights of the people. Article IV of the bolshevist
+constitution declared that the right to vote should not be extended to
+the following groups: all persons employing hired laborers for profit,
+including farmers who have even a single part-time helper; all persons
+receiving incomes from interest, rent, or profits; all persons engaged
+in private trade, even to the smallest shop-keeper; all ministers of
+religion of any kind; all persons engaged in work which was not
+specifically defined by the proper authorities as "productive and
+useful to society"; members of the old royal family; and individuals
+formerly employed in the imperial police service. The constitution
+further provided that representation in the various deliberative
+assemblies (called soviets, or councils) should be arranged so that
+one urban bolshevist would be equal, in voting strength, to five non-
+bolshevist peasants. Lastly, the constitution significantly neglected
+to provide any machinery whereby the voters, either as individuals or
+in groups, could make nominations for any governmental office. The
+power of nomination was assumed by various bolshevist officials.
+
+147. THE BOLSHEVIST CONSTITUTION: PROVISION FOR A DESPOTISM.--The
+bolshevist constitution frankly provided for a despotism. "For the
+purpose of securing the working class in the possession of complete
+power," reads the concluding section of chapter two of the
+constitution, "and in order to eliminate all possibility of restoring
+the power of the exploiters, (the capitalist or employing class), it
+is decreed that all workers be armed, and that a socialist Red Army be
+organized and the propertied class disarmed." These steps, the
+constitution goes on to state, were to be taken for the express
+purpose of introducing nation-wide socialism into Russia.
+
+148. "DICTATORSHIP OF THE PROLETARIAT."--Shortly after the publication
+of the constitution, Lenin and Trotzky, the two bolshevist leaders,
+established what was called the "dictatorship of the proletariat." The
+word proletariat refers vaguely to the working classes, but the
+bolshevists interpreted the term to cover only that portion of the
+workers which was pledged to the support of socialist doctrine. Lenin
+admitted that a small number of bolshevized workingmen, the
+proletariat, was maintaining, by force of arms, a despotic control
+over the masses of the people. "Just as 150,000 lordly landowners
+under Czarism dominated the 130,000,000 of Russian peasants," he once
+declared, "so 200,000 members of the bolshevist party are imposing
+their will on the masses." According to these figures, the controlling
+element in Russia included less than one sixth of one per cent of the
+people.
+
+From the first, the great majority of the peasants stolidly resisted
+the socialization of the country, but this did not discourage the
+bolshevist leaders. "We have never spoken of liberty," said Lenin
+early in 1921. "We are exercising the dictatorship of the proletariat
+in the name of the minority because the peasant class in Russia is not
+yet with us. We shall continue to exercise it until they submit. I
+estimate the dictatorship will last about forty years."
+
+149. SUPPRESSION OF DEMOCRACY.--The democratic tendencies evidenced
+under the Kerensky regime, and apparently encouraged by some of the
+provisions of the bolshevist constitution, were quickly checked by the
+dictatorship. It became the policy of the government to deprive "all
+individuals and groups of rights which could be utilized by them to
+the detriment of the socialist revolution." The semblance of a
+representative system was retained, but voting power was so
+distributed as to allow an oligarchic group to control the
+government's policies. This group had the power to disallow elections
+which went against it, as well as the power to force the dismissal
+from local Soviets of anti-bolshevist members. The right to vote could
+be arbitrarily withdrawn by order of the central authorities. Free
+speech and the right to enjoy a free press were suppressed. Lenin
+admitted that bolshevism "does not represent the toiling masses," and
+declared that "the word democracy cannot be scientifically applied to
+the bolshevist party." Both Lenin and Trotzky declared that they had
+no fixed policy except to do whatever at the moment seemed expedient,
+regardless of previous statements or promises.
+
+150. ABOLITION OF THE CAPITALIST SYSTEM.--Socialism, so long a theory,
+became a practical concern at the moment that the bolshevists secured
+control of the government. Private property in land was abolished, the
+arable land of Russia being apportioned among agriculturists without
+compensation to the former owners. All mines, forests, and waterways
+of national importance were taken over by the central government,
+while the smaller woods, rivers, and lakes became the property of the
+local Soviets. Banking establishments were seized and looted by
+bolshevist forces. Factories, railroads, and other means of production
+and transport were taken over. Inheritance was abolished. Private
+initiative in business was forbidden. Members of the capitalist or
+employing classes were imprisoned, murdered, or driven from the
+country. In a word, the capitalistic system was destroyed, and the
+economic and political machinery of the country came under the full
+control of a small socialist group, maintained in power by armed
+force.
+
+151. PARALYSIS OF INDUSTRY UNDER SOCIALISM.--The substitution of
+socialism for capitalism in Russia was followed by disaster. The
+workers were unable to carry on the industries which had been handed
+over to them. Discouraged by repeated errors in administration, and
+demoralized by their sudden rise to power, they neglected their work
+and pillaged the factories and shops in which they had formerly been
+employed. The elimination of the managing employers resulted in a
+decrease in output, and to aggravate the situation the laborers
+continued to insist upon a shorter and shorter working day. In
+desperation the government attempted to keep the people at their tasks
+by force. The workers were exploited to a degree previously unknown,
+even in Russia. They worked longer hours and for less pay than
+formerly. In many places they were attached to their tasks like
+medieval serfs, and even harnessed to carts like beasts of burden. The
+trade unions were abolished, and the workers were forbidden to strike,
+on pain of imprisonment or death. Yet despite these measures the
+output of factories, mills, and mines steadily decreased. Industry
+stagnated, and business fell away. The millions of Russia were
+starving in a land of plenty.
+
+152. RETURN TO CAPITALISTIC METHODS.--To save the country from
+economic ruin, Lenin turned to capitalism. Free initiative and open
+competition in trade were again allowed. The socialization of
+railroads, mills, and natural resources was halted. The arable land,
+which under socialism had not grown enough food to support even the
+peasants living upon it, was again cultivated under the wage system.
+The capitalists and managing employers who were alive and still in
+Russia, were gathered together and placed in charge of industry. The
+laborers, who had been promised an eight- or six-hour day and complete
+control of industry, were now forced by the bolshevist government to
+work long hours under their former employers for practically no pay.
+By 1919 the essential features of the capitalistic system had been
+accepted by Lenin and Trotzky, the bolshevists continuing in power as
+a despotic group which maintained authority over the laborers and the
+employers by armed force. The theory that all except the laborers are
+parasites had been exploded.
+
+153. WAS SOCIALISM GIVEN A FAIR TRAIL IN RUSSIA?--To point out that an
+experiment has failed is one thing; to prove that it has been
+attempted under fair conditions is quite another. We cannot,
+therefore, condemn the bolshevist experiment without some regard for
+the conditions under which it was conducted.
+
+Undoubtedly, the bolshevists had to contend against several important
+difficulties. The majority of the Russian people are illiterate
+peasants, who had had, at the time of the overthrow of the Czar in
+1917, little or no training in self-government. In 1917, Russia was,
+moreover, in a state of political demoralization, the result of three
+years of war, concluded by a military debacle and a disorderly peace.
+The suddenness with which socialism was introduced was also a factor
+which handicapped the bolshevists.
+
+On the other hand, many favorable conditions were present. With
+respect to natural resources, Russia is one of the richest countries
+in the world. She has practically everything necessary to a healthy
+and self-sufficing industrial life. Over this wealth the bolehevists
+had full control. Lenin, the bolshevist chief, is conceded to have
+been a remarkable executive, so that the socialist experiment was
+conducted by a man not only well versed in Marxian doctrine, but
+capable of exercising an intelligent and authoritative control of the
+government. The bolshevist territory was blockaded by Great Britain,
+France, and the United States, but trade connections between Russia
+and the two last-named countries had been unimportant. Trade
+connections with Germany and Sweden on the west, and China on the
+east, were not broken off.
+
+It is clear that the socialist experiment in Russia was attended by
+important advantages and disadvantages. Whether or not bolshevism had
+an absolutely fair trial is as yet impossible to say. On the other
+hand, the disastrous failure of the experiment would seem to indicate
+that it could not have met with any great degree of success under
+fairly favorable conditions. The admissions of the bolshevist leaders
+themselves, together with the conclusions of the most impartial
+investigators of the experiment, justify the conclusion that socialism
+in Russia failed because it was based upon false principles. The
+bolshevists have been accused of having instituted a reign of terror,
+bringing in its train lawlessness, murder, desecration of the church,
+and the most brutal savagery. Into these charges we cannot go; it is
+enough that the most reliable evidence goes to show that bolshevism,
+as a nation-wide application of socialist doctrine, was a failure.
+
+154. FAILURE OF BOLSHEVIST PROPAGANDA BEYOND RUSSIA.--Bolshevism, in
+common with other varieties of socialism, sought to break down
+national barriers and to establish a dictatorship of the proletariat
+in all of the countries of the world. Some of the milder socialists in
+western Europe and America disavowed the acts of the Russian group,
+but the majority of socialists beyond Russia appear to have at least
+secretly sympathized with the bolshevists. Encouraged by this
+attitude, Lenin and Trotzky frankly admitted their intention of
+fomenting world-wide revolution. The bolshevist government
+appropriated large sums for propaganda in countries beyond Russia, and
+socialist sympathizers everywhere advocated an attempt to overthrow
+"world capitalism." In the period of unrest immediately following the
+World War there was some response to bolshevist propaganda in a number
+of countries, but sounder opinion prevailed, and in 1920 Lenin
+admitted that the workingmen of Europe and America had definitely
+rejected his program. The one case of nation-wide socialism had proved
+too great a failure not to impress the laboring classes in the more
+advanced countries of the world as a visionary and unworkable scheme.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Why is bolshevism of interest to students of American democracy?
+
+2. Explain the origin of the bolshevists.
+
+3. How did the bolshevists come into power?
+
+4. To what extent was the bolshevist constitution liberal?
+
+5. To what extent did it restrict the suffrage?
+
+6. What did the bolshevist constitution say concerning a "red" army?
+
+7. Explain the phrase, "dictatorship of the proletariat."
+
+8. How did the bolshevists suppress democracy in Russia?
+
+9. Outline the steps by which the bolshevists destroyed capitalism.
+
+10. What were the effects of this destruction?
+
+11. Why did Lenin return to capitalism?
+
+12. Was bolshevism given a fair trial?
+
+13. What was the fate of bolshevist propaganda beyond Russia?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xv.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Bloomfield, _Modern Industrial Movements_, pages 295-302.
+
+3. Bolshevist constitution, reprinted in the above reference, pages
+243-258; copies may also be secured by writing to _The Nation_, New
+York City.
+
+4. Brasol, _Socialism versus Civilisation_, chapter iii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. What occurred in Russia on October 28, 1917? (Brasol, page 113.)
+
+2. What was the substance of the bolshevist announcement of the
+overthrow of the Kerensky government? (Brasol, page 114.)
+
+3. What was the attitude of the menshevists toward the bolshevists
+after the latter had seized control in Russia? (Brasol, pages 120-
+122.)
+
+4. What opinion did the bolshevists express with regard to world
+civilization? (Bolshevist constitution, chapter iii.)
+
+5. In what body did the constitution vest supreme control over the
+bolshevist government? (Bolshevist constitution, chapter v.)
+
+6. What was the food situation in bolshevist Russia? (Brasol, page
+129.)
+
+7. Discuss the output of coal and iron under bolshevist rule. (Brasol
+pages 132-133.)
+
+8. Describe agricultural conditions under the bolshevists. (Brasol,
+pages 133-135)
+
+9. Describe the condition of transportation in bolshevist Russia.
+(Brasol, pages 135-141.)
+
+10. What were the results of the bolshevist attempt to fix prices by
+governmental decree? (Brasol, pages 154-155.)
+
+11. What was the attitude of bolshevism toward the peasants?
+(Bloomfield, page 297.)
+
+12. What was the relation between bolshevist theory and bolshevist
+practice? (Bloomfield, pages 299-300.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Make as thorough a study as the time allows of material appearing
+in newspapers and magazines, between November, 1917, and the present
+time, on the subject of bolshevism. (Consult newspaper files, and also
+the _Readers' Index to Periodical Literature_.)
+
+(a) Classify the material according as it consists of direct
+quotations from bolshevist leaders, or of indirect quotations.
+
+(b) Classify the material according as it is favorable to bolshevism,
+unfavorable, or neutral.
+
+(c) Classify the material according as it consists of reports of
+persons who had themselves actually investigated the situation in
+Russia, or reports based upon hearsay evidence.
+
+(d) What conclusions do you draw from this study?
+
+
+II
+
+2. The essential elements of the bolshevist constitution.
+
+3. Bolshevist propaganda in the United States. (_Hearings before a
+sub-committee of the Committee on the Judiciary, U. S. Senate_.
+Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1919.)
+
+4. Attitude of the United States government toward bolshevism.
+(_Memorandum on certain aspects of the Bolshevist Movement in Russia_,
+Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1919.)
+
+5. Bolshevism and the Russian trade unions. (_Current History
+Magazine_, published by the New York _Times_, September, 1920.)
+
+6. The character of Lenin. (Bloomfield, _Modern Industrial Movements_,
+page's 203-271.)
+
+7. Return of the bolshevists to capitalism. (Bloomfield, _Modern
+Industrial Movements_, pages 291-295.)
+
+8. Socialist attempts to explain or justify the failure of bolshevism.
+(Brasol, _Socialism versus Civilisation_, chapter iv.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+THE CASE AGAINST SOCIALISM
+
+
+155. ADMINISTRATIVE DIFFICULTIES CONFRONTING SOCIALISM.--Under
+socialism the work of government would be greatly increased. Thousands
+of intricate administrative rules would have to be drawn up for the
+control and direction of activities now attended to by individuals
+animated by personal interest.
+
+Now, it is seriously to be questioned whether the most highly
+centralized government could effectively administer the innumerable
+activities of our complex industrial life. Upon what basis would land
+be distributed? How would individuals be apportioned among the various
+employments? Upon what basis would the wages of millions of workmen be
+determined? Could so mechanical an agency as government foresee future
+business conditions expertly enough to direct the productive forces of
+the nation effectively? If prices are no longer to be fixed by
+competition, how, and by means of what agency, are they to be
+determined?
+
+These are only a few of the vital questions which would arise in
+connection with the administration of a socialist state. Various
+suggestions have been made with regard to some of these difficulties,
+but there is among socialists no general agreement as to the answer of
+any one of these questions. They continue to constitute, in the eyes
+of practical men, a grave obstacle to socialism.
+
+156. DANGERS OF A SOCIALIST BUREAUCRACY.--Governmental power would
+have to be very highly centralized if a socialist state were
+effectively to administer the nation's economic activities as a unit.
+But this very concentration of power might easily result in the
+development of a bureaucracy. Waste and the possibility of corruption
+have unfortunately characterized even those governments over which the
+people exercise considerable control; it seems probable that the
+greater centralization of authority demanded by socialism would
+increase rather than decrease these dangers.
+
+It is to be noted here that the socialists, who might be supposed to
+consider as paramount the interests of society or of the public, are
+the very people who are least inclined to do anything of the kind.
+[Footnote: This concept was suggested to me by Professor Thomas Nixon
+Carver of Harvard University.] Socialists look upon the state only as
+an agency for benefiting particular groups of individuals. The
+emphasis of political socialism upon class struggle, the frank
+admissions of the I.W.W. that they seek to suppress all but the
+laboring class, and the establishment by the bolshevists of a
+dictatorship of the proletariat, all these facts indicate that
+socialists seek the welfare of particular groups rather than the
+welfare of the general public.
+
+But class legislation is repugnant to the principles of American
+democracy. We believe in government by the masses and for the masses;
+furthermore, we are committed to the ideal of as much individual
+freedom and as little governmental compulsion as is compatible with
+the good of both individual and community. The concept of a socialist
+bureaucracy, administered in the interests of particular groups, runs
+counter to our fundamental beliefs and ideals.
+
+157. SOCIALISM WOULD DESTROY PERSONAL INITIATIVE.--One of the
+strongest arguments against socialism is that it would destroy
+personal initiative. Socialism runs counter to human nature by under-
+valuing the principle of self-interest. Economists are generally
+agreed that the abolition of the institution of private property would
+cause the ambition of the individual to slacken. In spite of its
+defects, it is the competitive system, with its promise of reward to
+the energetic and the capable, which is largely responsible for the
+miraculous prosperity of modern times. Men ordinarily will not undergo
+systematic training, perfect inventions, strive to introduce greater
+and greater economies into their business, or undertake the risk of
+initiating new enterprises, unless they are assured that they will be
+able to enjoy the fruits of their labor.
+
+And not only would socialism discourage ambition by abolishing private
+enterprise, but it might encourage inefficiency and shiftlessness.
+Every man would be guaranteed a job, every individual would be
+protected against want. It is even likely that a socialist state would
+undertake to rear and provide for the offspring of its citizens. Human
+experience indicates that this degree of paternalism would encourage
+laziness and increase irresponsibility.
+
+It is sometimes said that under socialism men would work as eagerly
+for social esteem as they now work for financial gain. This would be a
+highly desirable condition, but unfortunately there is nothing in
+human experience to justify the hope that such a state of affairs will
+speedily be realized. The spread of altruism in the modern world is
+heartening, but no sensible person will shut his eyes to the fact
+that, for the immediate future at least, self-interest promises to be
+much more widespread than altruism. The love of gain may not be the
+highest motive in life, but it is better than none, and for a long
+time to come it will probably be the one which appeals most strongly
+to the average man. Socialists and non-socialists alike deplore the
+domination which self-interest exercises over human affairs. But
+whereas the non-socialist wisely tries to adapt a program of
+industrial reform to this hard fact, many socialists appear to believe
+that because the principle of self-interest often works out badly,
+they ought to act as though that principle did not exist.
+
+158. SOCIALIST THEORY OF DISTRIBUTION UNSOUND.--Both socialists and
+non-socialists admit that poverty is an undesirable condition. But
+over the method of improving the condition of the poor the socialist
+and the non-socialist disagree. The defender of capitalism begins by
+pointing out that, under competitive conditions, the unskilled laborer
+is poor primarily because his labor is not highly productive. The
+socialist ignores this fact, and insists that the laborer shall
+receive a share of wealth which shall be adequate to his needs. As we
+shall have occasion to point out in the next chapter, this attitude of
+the socialist indicates a fundamental defect in his theory. Socialism
+pays more attention to who shall eat and how much shall be eaten, than
+it does to the more fundamental question of how food is to be
+produced, and how much can actually be produced. Laws may oblige an
+employer to give his workmen twice as much as they add to the value of
+his product, but though this will benefit the workmen while it lasts,
+such a practice would, if widely adopted, lead to industrial
+bankruptcy. [Footnote: It is assumed, in this section, that the
+productivity of the laborer is determined from the point of view of
+the employer. This is in accordance with the productivity theory which
+was discussed in Chapter IX.]
+
+159. SOCIALIST THEORY OF VALUE UNSOUND.--Many of the defects of the
+socialist doctrine are traceable to the fact that it rests upon false
+assumptions. One of these false assumptions is that commodities have
+value in proportion as labor has been expended upon them. This labor
+theory of value has been discarded by every authoritative economist of
+modern times. As has been pointed out in Chapter VIII, value depends
+upon scarcity and utility. The soundness of the scarcity-utility
+theory, as well as the unsoundness of the labor theory, may be brought
+out with reference to three classes of goods.
+
+First, there are commodities which have value in spite of the fact
+that no labor has been expended upon them. Virgin land, the gift of
+Nature, is the most important example. Articles of this class have
+value because they satisfy men's wants, _i.e._ have utility, and
+because they are scarce. Labor has nothing to do with their original
+value.
+
+Second, there are commodities which have no value, even though much
+labor has been expended upon them. A building erected in a desert or
+in a wilderness is an example. Unwanted books, or paintings by unknown
+artists are other examples. Commodities in this class may represent a
+great expenditure of labor, and still have no value, first because
+they do not satisfy anyone's wants, and second because they are not
+scarce, _i.e._ there are not fewer of them than are wanted.
+
+Third, articles may have a value which is out of proportion to the
+amount of labor expended upon them. The value of diamonds, old coins,
+and rare paintings is disproportionate to the actual amount of labor
+involved in their production. A sudden change in fashion may cause the
+value of clothing and other commodities to rise or fall, with little
+or no regard for the amount of labor expended upon them. In each case
+it is not labor that determines value, but scarcity and utility.
+
+160. LABOR NOT THE ONLY FACTOR IN PRODUCTION.--Labor is an important
+factor in production, but land, capital, coördination, and government
+are also of vital importance to any modern industrial community. The
+great error of the socialist is that he over-estimates the importance
+of the laborer, and minimizes or altogether denies the importance of
+the individuals with whom the laborer coöperates in production. This
+error is explainable: the laborer does most of the visible and
+physical work of production, while the part played by the landowner,
+the capitalist, and the entrepreneur is less physical and often is
+apparently less direct. The complexity of the industrial mechanism
+very often prevents the laborer from appreciating the true relation
+existing between his own physical labor, and the apparently indirect
+and often non-physical efforts of those who coöperate with him. It is
+in this connection that producers' coöperation and bolshevism have
+performed a great service. They have demonstrated, by the out-and-out
+elimination of the managing employer, that the laborer alone cannot
+carry on modern industry. Such actual demonstrations of the value of
+factors of production other than labor are of far more service in
+correcting the viewpoint of the socialist than is any amount of
+theoretical argument.
+
+161. THEORY OF CLASS STRUGGLE UNWARRANTED.--The theory of class
+struggle is based upon the claim that the laborer produces all wealth.
+But we have seen this claim to be unfounded; therefore the theory of
+class struggle is built upon an error. Ultimately, the theory of class
+struggle tends to injure the very class which seeks to gain by
+advocating it, for true and permanent prosperity for the laboring
+class (as well as for all other classes) can result only when all of
+the factors of production work together harmoniously. Fundamentally
+the quarrel between capital and labor [Footnote: The phrase "capital
+and labor" is loose and inaccurate, but is in common use. Used in this
+sense the word "capital" refers to the capitalist and employing
+classes, while the word "labor" refers to the workers. See Section
+181, Chapter XVIII, for a fuller discussion.] is as suicidal as though
+the arms of a human body refused to coöperate with the other members.
+There are, indeed, many antagonisms between capital and labor, but
+socialism seeks to foment, rather than to eliminate them. Socialism
+preaches social solidarity and prosperity for all, but by inciting the
+class struggle it makes for class hatred and a disharmony between
+capital and labor which decreases prosperity and threatens economic
+ruin.
+
+162. HISTORY HAS DISPROVED SOCIALISM.--Karl Marx bases his theory of a
+future socialist state upon a number of predictions, none of which has
+come true. According to Marx, socialism was inevitable. He declared
+that the centralization of wealth in the hands of the capitalists, on
+the one hand, and the increasing misery of the workers on the other,
+would accentuate the class struggle and bring about the downfall of
+capitalism. As a matter of fact, laws are more and more restricting
+the undue concentration of wealth in the hands of a few. The middle
+classes, far from disappearing, as Marx predicted, are increasing in
+numbers and in wealth. The working classes are not becoming poorer and
+more miserable, but are securing a larger and larger share of the
+joint income of industry.
+
+The socialist revolution came in 1917, not in the most enlightened
+country in the world, as Marx had predicted, but in Russia, one of the
+most backward of civilized countries. This revolution did not
+demonstrate the superiority of socialism over capitalism, but revealed
+the fundamental weaknesses of socialism, and led to a more widespread
+recognition of the merits of the capitalistic system.
+
+In the progressive countries of western Europe and America, the
+likelihood of a socialist revolution has been greatly diminished by
+two developments. These developments, both of which were unforeseen by
+Marx, are as follows: first, the improving condition of the workers
+has rendered socialist doctrine less appealing; second, the increasing
+effectiveness of legislation designed to remedy the defects of
+capitalism has caused attention to be directed to legislative reform
+rather than to socialism. With many who were formerly socialists, the
+supreme question has become, not how to destroy the present order, but
+how to aid in perfecting it by means of appropriate legislation.
+
+163. SOCIALISM CLAIMS TOO MUCH.--Socialism often appeals strongly to
+people who are unable to distinguish between plans which are
+realizable and promises which cannot be fulfilled. For example,
+socialism promises greatly to increase the productive power of the
+nation, to shorten the hours of labor, and to insure a just
+distribution of wealth. These reforms, it is claimed, would be
+accompanied by the elimination of unemployment, poverty, vice, and
+attendant evils. It is maintained that socialism would encourage a
+higher moral tone and a healthier and more vigorous social life than
+now exist.
+
+Without doubt these are desirable aims, but we must face the hard fact
+that socialism is not likely to attain them.. Some of the ills which
+socialism claims to be able to cure are neither attributable to
+capitalism, nor open to remedy by socialism. For example, crises and
+unemployment are often due to the alternations of good and bad
+harvests, to the varying degrees of severity in successive winters, to
+new mechanical inventions, and to changes in fashion. These forces are
+beyond the effective control of any state. This being so, it is unfair
+for socialists to attribute their evil effects to capitalism. It is
+likewise unwarranted that socialism should claim to be able
+effectively to control these forces.
+
+Other industrial evils are due to the infirmities of human nature, and
+to the fact that we are a highly civilized people living more and more
+under urban conditions. Crime, vice, and disease are grave social
+problems which demand solution, but it is unfair for socialism to
+charge these evils against capitalism. Such defects are due partly to
+the fact that we are human, and partly to the fact that much of modern
+life is highly artificial. Unless socialism contemplates a return to
+small, primitive communities, there is nothing to indicate that it
+would be able materially to reduce crime, vice, nervous strain, or
+ill-health. Indeed, there is no evidence to show that socialism could
+make as effective headway against these evils as we are making under
+capitalism.
+
+164. DEFECTS OF SOCIALISM OUTWEIGH ITS MERITS.--It is only after the
+advantages of a system or an institution have been carefully weighed
+against its disadvantages that its value appears. A socialist system
+would have some obvious merits. It might eliminate unemployment, since
+everyone would be an employee of the state, and, as such, would be
+guaranteed against discharge. Charitable aid would probably be
+extended to many people now left to their own resources.
+
+But certainly socialism could not cure ills which are due either to
+natural causes, or to the infirmities of human nature. The abolition
+of private initiative and of private property would strike at the root
+of progress. Socialism would also probably give rise to a series of
+new problems, such as the evils arising out of a bureaucratic form of
+government. As its program now stands, it is probably fair to say that
+the defects of socialism greatly outweigh its merits.
+
+165. SOCIALISM UNDER-RATES CAPITALISM.--The ardor of the socialist
+often causes him to underestimate the merits of capitalism, and to
+exaggerate its defects. The striking achievements of capitalism, so in
+contrast with the negative character of socialism, are not generally
+appreciated by the socialist. On the other hand, the socialist places
+an undue emphasis upon the defects of the present system. The radical
+agitator too often overlooks the millions of happy, prosperous homes
+in this and other countries; he too often sees capitalism in terms of
+poverty, crises, unemployment, vice, disease, and extravagance.
+
+Our age is not to be despaired of. An age of progress is always an age
+of adaptation and of adjustment, and it is precisely because American
+democracy is both a progressive ideal and a living, growing
+institution that it is confronted with problems. The socialist
+indictment is not a prelude to chaos, for through the process of
+adjustment we are making steady progress in solving our problems.
+Capitalism has served us well, and though it has defects, these are
+clearly outweighed by its merits. So long as we know of no other
+system which would work better, we are justified in retaining
+capitalism.
+
+166. NECESSITY OF A DEFINITE PROGRAM OF INDUSTRIAL REFORM.--Socialism
+appeals to certain types of people because it offers a confident
+program, even though it is a mistaken and probably a dangerous
+program. And it is the almost universal failure of non-socialists to
+advance a substitute program that is responsible for a large share of
+the resentment which industrial evils have aroused among non-
+socialists. _If not socialism, what?_ is the cry. We are challenged to
+move, to do something, to present a reform program which will justify
+the rejection of socialism.
+
+Lest our survey of industrial reform seem negative and devoid of
+constructive elements, therefore, the next chapter will be devoted to
+what may be called a democratic program of industrial reform. The
+basic idea of this program is that poverty is as unnecessary as
+malaria or yellow fever, and that we can abolish poverty without
+sacrificing private property, personal initiative, or any of the other
+institutions which we hold dear.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What are some of the administrative difficulties which would
+confront a socialist state?
+
+2. Why would socialism tend to give rise to a bureaucratic government?
+
+3. In what way does socialism run counter to human nature?
+
+4. In what way does the socialist differ from the non-socialist in his
+attitude toward the principle of self-interest?
+
+5. In what way is the socialist theory of distribution unsound?
+
+6. Demonstrate the unsoundness of the labor theory of value, with
+reference to three classes of goods.
+
+7. How may we explain the socialist's tendency to overestimate the
+importance of labor, and to underestimate the value of other factors
+of production?
+
+8. Explain clearly the statement that "history has disproved
+socialism."
+
+9. In what way does socialism claim too much?
+
+10. Name some industrial evils which socialism probably could not
+cure.
+
+11. What is meant by the statement that "socialism under-rates
+capitalism"?
+
+12. Why is it necessary for non-socialists to advance a program of
+industrial reform?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xvi.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Brasol, _Socialism versus Civilization_, chapter ii.
+
+3. Bullock, _Selected Readings in Economics_, pages 681-705.
+
+4. Ely, _Outlines of Economics_, chapter xxxi.
+
+5. Le Rossignol, _Orthodox Socialism_, chapters viii and ix.
+
+6. Skelton, _Socialism, a Critical Analysis_, chapter iii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. What is the "American conception of equality"? (Brasol, pages 75-
+76.)
+
+2. Why is the wage system a necessary feature of modern
+industrial life? (Brasol, page 93.)
+
+3. What is the importance of the spirit of enterprise in increasing
+national wealth? (Brasol, page 99.)
+
+4. What effect has the development of entrepreneur ability had upon
+the condition of the laboring classes? (Le Rossignol, pages 112-113.)
+
+5. Could collective production be carried on in a democratic country?
+(Bullock, pages 682-683.)
+
+6. Could socialism increase the productivity of the nation? (Bullock,
+pages 685-688.)
+
+7. What are some of the difficulties which a socialist state would
+encounter in distributing wealth? (Bullock, pages 688-693.)
+
+8. What difficulties would confront a socialist state in fixing wages?
+(Bullock, pages 696-705.)
+
+9. What has been the effect of the Industrial Revolution upon the
+condition of the laboring classes? (Le Rossignol, pages 107-108.)
+
+10. Explain why Marx's prediction of an increasing concentration of
+wealth in the hands of a few has not come true. (Le Rossignol, pages
+128-130.)
+
+11. To what extent is socialism too pessimistic about the present
+order? (Le Rossignol, page 138.)
+
+12. To what extent does socialism overestimate industrial evils?
+(Skelton, page 53.)
+
+13. What service has been rendered by socialism? (Ely, page 638.)
+
+14. What, according to Skelton, is the fundamental error of socialism?
+(Skelton, pages 60-61.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Make a list of a number of familiar commodities, and divide them
+into three classes for the purpose of testing the error of the labor
+theory of value, and the truth of the scarcity-utility theory.
+(Consult Section 159.)
+
+2. Make a study of unemployment in your locality, with particular
+reference to unemployment due to
+
+(a) climatic changes,
+
+(b) changes in fashion,
+
+(c) accidents, such as fire, flood or earthquake.
+
+3. Interview an elderly friend or relative, with the purpose of
+securing a definite idea of the condition of the working classes a
+half century ago. Contrast with the condition of the laborers to-day.
+
+4. Make a list of the notable inventions of the nineteenth century. To
+what extent has each increased the productivity and well-being of the
+various occupational groups in your community?
+
+
+II
+
+5. History of socialism. (Consult an encyclopedia.)
+
+6. Varieties of socialism. (Ely, _Outlines of Economics_, chapter
+xxx.)
+
+7. The Iron Law of wages. (Le Rossignol, _Orthodox Socialism_, chapter
+iii.)
+
+8. The socialist's attitude toward industrial crises. (Le Rossignol,
+_Orthodox Socialism_, chapter vi.)
+
+9. Objections to the socialist's attitude toward production. (Ely,
+_Strength and Weakness of Socialism_, part iii, chapter vi.)
+
+10. Objections to socialism as a scheme of distribution. (Ely,
+_Strength, and Weakness of Socialism_, part iii, chapter viii.)
+
+11. Socialism and American ideals. (Myers, _Socialism and American
+Ideals_.)
+
+12. Social justice without socialism. (Clark, _Social Justice without
+Socialism_.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+A DEMOCRATIC PROGRAM OF INDUSTRIAL REFORM
+
+[Footnote: The title of this chapter, as well as the material in
+Sections 170-175, has been adapted, by permission, from the writings
+and lectures of Thomas Nixon Carver, Professor of Economics in Harvard
+University.]
+
+
+167. THERE IS NO SIMPLE REMEDY FOR THE DEFECTS OF CAPITALISM.--The
+economic system of a modern civilized nation is a vast and complicated
+affair, and its defects are both numerous and deep-lying. No one
+really familiar with the problem would propose so simple a remedy as
+socialism for so complex a disease as industrial maladjustment.
+History affords many examples of schemes that were designed to
+eliminate poverty from the world suddenly and completely, but no such
+scheme has succeeded.
+
+Let it be understood at the outset of this chapter, therefore, that
+really to eliminate the basic defects of our industrial system we must
+resort to a series of comprehensive reforms rather than to a single
+scheme or theory. These reforms must be so wisely planned and so
+carefully executed as to attack the evils of capitalism from a number
+of angles simultaneously. The attack must be partly by legislative,
+and partly by non-legislative methods.
+
+The series of reforms referred to above must have three aims: first,
+to give every individual exactly what he earns; second, to make it
+possible for every individual to earn enough to support himself and
+his family at least decently; and third, to teach every individual to
+use wisely and economically the income which he receives.
+
+A program embodying these three aims has the disadvantage of seeming
+commonplace and slow of fulfillment to those who prefer novel and
+sensational schemes, but it has the advantage of being both workable
+and safe.
+
+168. THE NATURE OF JUSTICE.--Among the advocates of socialism the word
+"justice" is much used, but apparently little understood. Justice in
+industry implies that every individual shall receive precisely what he
+earns, no more, no less. If a monopolist secures unearned profits,
+there is injustice. If a laborer adds to the value of a product to the
+extent of five dollars, there is injustice if he receives less than
+five dollars in wages. Similarly, there is injustice if the laborer
+earns only four dollars, but receives five dollars. Wherever there is
+an unfair distribution of wealth, there is a double injustice: some
+individual gets a share of wealth which he did not earn and to which,
+therefore, he is not entitled; while the individual who did earn that
+wealth is deprived of it.
+
+169. THE IMPORTANCE OF THIS.--All right-thinking reformers will agree
+with the socialist that much or all of the unearned wealth of the
+moneyed classes ought to be taken for the benefit of the community.
+But he who accepts the democratic program of industrial reform will
+not sanction the socialist's proposal to eliminate poverty primarily
+by decreeing higher wages.
+
+In the first place, this proposal of the socialist is unjust. A man
+who earns three dollars a day may not be able to live on that amount,
+and it may be desirable for some agency to give him more than three
+dollars a day. But that would be charity, not justice. It would be, as
+we have just seen, a double injustice.
+
+In the second place, such a practice would lead inevitably to national
+bankruptcy. Under the competitive system, wages tend to be determined
+by productivity. To attempt to eradicate poverty primarily by the
+raising of wages is futile, for employers cannot long pay out in wages
+more than the laborer adds to the product. Some employers might do so
+for a long time, and all employers might do so for a short time, but
+if the practice were nation-wide and long-continued, it would result
+in economic ruin. To put a premium upon propagation by guaranteeing
+every man a job, and to pay him, not according to productivity, but
+according to need, would be equivalent to building up a gigantic
+charitable institution. Charity is a necessary and laudable function,
+but the proper care of the dependent classes is possible only when the
+majority of the people are not only self-supporting, but actually
+produce a surplus out of which the unfortunate can be cared for. If
+applicants for charity too largely outnumber those producing a
+surplus, national bankruptcy results.
+
+In the third place, an increase in wages might not benefit even those
+receiving higher wages unless they were able and willing to spend
+their income wisely and economically.
+
+170. THE REDISTRIBUTION OF UNEARNED WEALTH.--The first step in our
+program is to apply the principle of justice to the problem of
+unearned wealth. The student should be careful at this point to
+distinguish between wealth which has been earned, however great, and
+wealth which has been acquired by unjust methods. American democracy
+will tolerate no interference with wealth which has been earned; on
+the other hand, it demands that unearned riches be redistributed in
+the form of services performed by the government for the people as a
+whole.
+
+There are three chief methods of redistributing unearned wealth. The
+first is by means of increased taxes on land. As was pointed out in
+the chapter on single tax, that income from land which is due, not to
+the efforts of the owner, but either to natural fertility or to the
+growth of the community, may be considered as unearned. While the
+single tax is too drastic a reform, it is unquestioned that we need
+heavier taxes upon the unearned increment arising from land.
+
+A second method of redistributing unearned wealth is through the
+application of inheritance taxes. Reserving the whole problem of
+taxation for later discussion, [Footnote: See Chapter XXXII.] it may
+be said here that in many cases large sums are willed to individuals
+who have done little or nothing to deserve them. In so far as this is
+true, and in so far as such a tax does not discourage the activities
+of fortune builders, the inheritance tax is a desirable means of
+redistributing unearned wealth.
+
+The last method of redistributing unearned wealth is by a tax on those
+elements in profits which are due to the abuse of monopoly conditions.
+[Footnote: Monopoly will be treated more fully in Chapters XXVII and
+XXVIII.] Complete monopoly rarely exists, but in many businesses there
+is an element of monopoly which allows the capitalist or entrepreneur
+to secure a measure of unearned wealth. In the interest of justice,
+much or all of this ought to be taken for the use of the community.
+
+171. SOMETHING MORE THAN JUSTICE IS NECESSARY.--It is an error to
+suppose that justice would necessarily eliminate either low wages or
+poverty. As we have seen, justice would require the redistribution of
+a large amount of unearned wealth. But much more important is the
+question of large numbers of laborers whose wages are undesirably low.
+If the rule of justice were applied to this latter class, that is, if
+they were given just what they earned, many would continue to be poor.
+Indeed, if justice were strictly administered, it is even possible
+that among a few groups poverty would increase, since some individuals
+are incapable of really earning the wages they now receive.
+
+Something more than justice, therefore, is necessary. We must not only
+see that a man gets as much as he produces, no more, no less, but we
+must make it possible for every individual actually to produce or earn
+enough to support himself decently or comfortably. This, in essence,
+is the distinction between the socialist and the liberalist, _i.e._ he
+who accepts the democratic program of industrial reform: the socialist
+would practice injustice and invite economic ruin in a vain effort to
+eliminate poverty; the liberalist seeks the abolition of poverty
+without violating either justice or economic law.
+
+172. WHY WAGES ARE LOW.--A little thought will show that directly or
+indirectly poverty is sometimes the result of low wages. It follows,
+thus, that the source of some poverty would be dried up if an increase
+in wages could be secured in an economical manner. To come to the
+heart of the problem, wages are low because productivity is low. That
+is to say, employers operating under conditions of free competition
+will pay laborers in proportion as the latter give promise of adding
+to the value of the product. When men are scarce, relatively to the
+supply of land and capital, the employer will be justified in offering
+high wages, because under those circumstances the productivity of each
+of his prospective employees will be high. He will actually offer high
+wages, because if he does not, the laborers will tend to hire out to
+his competitors. But if laborers are plentiful, relatively to the
+supply of the other factors of production, the employer will be forced
+to offer lower wages, because under the circumstances each of the
+prospective employees shows promise of being able to add relatively
+little to the value of the product. In such a case, the employer will
+actually offer low wages because he need not fear that his competitors
+will hire all of the laborers applying for jobs.
+
+Thus when laborers are plentiful, relatively to the demand, the
+automatic functioning of the law of supply and demand will result in
+low wages. We need not waste time debating whether or not there ought
+to be such a thing as the law of supply and demand; a far more
+profitable exercise is to recognize that such a law exists, and to
+consider how our program of industrial reform may be adapted to it.
+
+173. AN ECONOMICAL REMEDY FOR LOW WAGES.--Low wages are generally the
+result of low productivity, and low productivity is in turn the result
+of an oversupply of laborers relatively to the demand. Granting the
+truth of these premises, an economical remedy for low wages involves
+two steps: first, the demand for labor [Footnote: By "labor" is here
+meant those types of labor which are poorly paid, because
+oversupplied. Unskilled day labor is an example.] must be increased;
+and second, the supply of labor must be decreased. Any measure which
+will increase the demand for labor, relatively to the demand for the
+other factors of production, will increase the productivity of labor,
+and will justify the payment of higher wages. Competition between
+prospective employers will then actually force the payment of higher
+wages. Similarly, any measure which will decrease the supply of labor
+will strengthen the bargaining position of the laborer, and, other
+things remaining equal, will automatically increase wages.
+
+174. INCREASING THE DEMAND FOR LABOR.--If we bear in mind that modern
+industry requires a combination of the various factors of production,
+it will be seen that the utilization of laborers depends upon the
+extent to which land, capital, and entrepreneur ability are present to
+combine with those laborers. Where there is a large supply of these
+factors, many laborers can be set to work. Thus one way of increasing
+the demand for labor is to increase the supply of land, capital, and
+entrepreneur ability.
+
+The available supply of land can be increased by several methods.
+Irrigation, reclamation, and dry farming increase the available supply
+of farm land. The fertility of land may be retained and increased by
+manuring, rotation of crops, and careful husbandry. Improved
+agricultural machinery will also enable land to be used in larger
+quantities and in more productive ways. And while we do not think of
+man as actually creating land, the draining of swamps and the filling
+in of low places increases the available amount of both farm and urban
+land. By whatever means the amount of available land is increased, the
+effect is to open more avenues to the employment of laborers.
+
+The supply of capital may be increased chiefly by the practice of
+thrift among all classes of the population. Capital arises most
+rapidly when individuals produce as much as possible, and spend as
+little as possible for consumers' goods. Any measure which will
+discourage the well-to-do from wasteful or luxurious ways of living,
+and at the same time encourage the poor to save systematically, even
+though they save only a trifle, will add to the supply of available
+capital. Every increase in the supply of capital will enable more and
+more laborers to be set to work.
+
+Entrepreneur ability may be increased by a variety of methods. The
+training of men for business callings increases the supply of
+entrepreneurs. Taxes on inheritances, excess profits, and the unearned
+increment of land will tend to force into productive work many capable
+men who now either idle away their lives, or retire from business
+prematurely. It is also important that the well-to-do classes be
+encouraged to rear larger families, since it is these classes which
+can best afford to give their children the higher forms of training
+and education. Lastly, it is desirable to teach that leisure is
+disgraceful, and that whether one is rich or poor, the useful and
+productive life is the moral and patriotic life. "He who does less
+well than he can does ill."
+
+175. DECREASING THE SUPPLY OF LABOR.--Hand in hand with measures
+deigned to increase the demand for labor should go consistent efforts
+to decrease the supply of unskilled and poorly paid labor. One of the
+most effective means of accomplishing this is to restrict by law the
+immigration to this country of masses of unskilled workers which glut
+the American labor market and force down the wages of unskilled
+workmen already here. The general problem of immigration will be
+discussed elsewhere; here it is only necessary to note that as an
+economic proposition unrestricted immigration is undesirable.
+
+The supply of unskilled labor may be somewhat restricted by additional
+laws. It is clear that we ought to pass and enforce laws which would
+prevent the propagation of mental defectives. There ought also to be
+laws which would discourage the marriage of individuals who show no
+promise of being able to rear and support children who are physically
+fit. It might not be expedient to pass legislation requiring a certain
+minimum income of persons intending to marry, but from the purely
+economic point of view, such laws would certainly be advisable.
+
+Much in this general field can be done by non-legislative methods.
+Young people can be taught the desirability of postponing marriage
+until their earnings justify the acceptance of such a responsibility.
+Just as the well-to-do should be encouraged to prefer family-building
+to social ambition, so the poorer classes ought to be encouraged to
+postpone marriage until, through education or training, the proper
+support of a family is assured. This end must be secured through moral
+and social education, rather than through legislation.
+
+The encouragement of thrift among the poorer classes of the population
+is an important factor in decreasing the supply of unskilled labor.
+Thrift increases savings, and by making possible education or
+apprenticeship in a trade, it enables the children of the unskilled
+worker to pass from the ranks of the poorly paid to the ranks of the
+relatively well paid. Thus not only does the practice of thrift by the
+poor add to the amount of capital in existence, and thus indirectly
+increase the demand for labor, but it helps the poor directly and
+immediately.
+
+Vocational education is of fundamental importance in decreasing the
+supply of unskilled labor. It renders higher wages economically
+justified by training individuals away from overcrowded and hence
+poorly paid jobs, and toward those positions in which men are scarce,
+and hence highly paid. If vocational education turns unskilled workmen
+into entrepreneurs, such education has the doubly beneficial effect of
+lessening the supply of unskilled labor, and of increasing the demand
+for labor. The importance of trade schools, continuation schools, and
+other agencies of vocational education can hardly be exaggerated.
+
+Employment bureaus and labor exchanges are essential to the democratic
+program of industrial reform. Just as vocational education must move
+individuals from overcrowded to undercrowded occupations, so the
+employment bureau should move laborers from places where they are
+relatively little wanted, and hence poorly paid, to places where they
+are relatively much wanted, and hence better paid. A coördinated
+system of national, state, and municipal employment bureaus is a
+valuable part of our program of industrial reform.
+
+176. IMPORTANCE OF PERSONAL EFFICIENCY.--We have seen that the
+bargaining position of the laborer may be strengthened by any and all
+measures which would increase the demand for his labor, relatively to
+the demand for the other factors of production. As a general
+proposition, this strengthened position would tend automatically to
+result in higher wages.
+
+Along with these measures it should not be forgotten that the
+industrial position of the individual worker tends to improve in
+proportion as he increases his personal efficiency. It is of the
+greatest importance that the individual should strive to secure as
+thorough an education as possible, and that he safeguard himself
+against accident and disease. He should realize, also, that employers
+seek men who are not only competent, but whose personal habits are
+attractive and trust-inspiring. Regardless of the scarcity or
+oversupply of labor, personal efficiency will tend to enable the
+worker to receive larger wages than would otherwise be possible.
+
+177. SOMETHING MORE THAN HIGH WAGES IS NECESSARY.--We have taken some
+time to point out how wages might be increased without violating
+economic law. But high wages do not necessarily mean the abolition of
+poverty, indeed, actual investigations have proved that often poverty
+exists regardless of whether wages are high or low. A family of four,
+for example, might be well fed, comfortably clothed, and otherwise
+cared for in a normal manner, on, say, three dollars a day, provided
+that sum were utilized wisely. A second family of equal size, however,
+might spend six dollars a day so carelessly that the children would be
+denied such vital necessities as medical attention and elementary
+education, while neither parents nor children would be adequately
+provided with food or clothing.
+
+178. INCOME MUST BE UTILIZED WISELY.--Thus an indispensable factor in
+the abolition of poverty is the economical utilization of income.
+Aside from the fact that it increases the amount of capital in
+existence, thrift is imperative if a family is to get the full benefit
+of its income. In both the home and the school the child should be
+taught the proper care and utilization of money. He should receive, in
+addition, fundamental instruction in such matters as expense-
+accounting and budget-making. Of similarly great value is the training
+of boys and girls to a proper appreciation of the home-making ideal,
+to which subject we shall return later. [Footnote: See Chapter XXIII.]
+
+It is fortunate that we are directing more and more attention to these
+and similar measures, for they strike at the heart of one of the great
+causes of poverty--the inability of the individual to make the proper
+use of his income. Unless our citizens are trained to spend money
+wisely, and to distinguish clearly between the relative values of
+services and commodities, an increase in wages will never eliminate
+malnutrition, illiteracy, and other elements of poverty.
+
+179. SUMMARY.--For the sake of clearness, let us summarize the
+essential features of the democratic program of industrial reform.
+
+The first aim of this program is to give every individual precisely
+what he earns, no more, no less. Applying the principle of justice
+would result in heavy taxes on unearned wealth secured through
+inheritance, or as rent from land, or as monopoly profits.
+
+The second aim of our program arises from the fact that justice might
+not improve the condition of the laboring class, since some laborers
+manifestly could not earn enough to support themselves and their
+families decently.
+
+In addition to administering justice, therefore, we must put the
+individual in a position to earn an amount adequate to his needs. This
+involves two lines of action: first, the bargaining position of the
+laborer must be strengthened by measures designed to increase the
+demand for his labor, relatively to the demand for the other factors
+of production; second, increasing the personal efficiency of the
+worker will render him more attractive to the employer.
+
+The third aim of the democratic program of industrial reform is to
+teach the individual to use his income wisely and economically. Only
+after this has been done can we be assured that the raising of wages
+will materially improve the condition of the worker.
+
+180. SOCIAL PROBLEMS.--There is an important word to be said here. The
+democratic program of industrial reform is economically sound, and
+ultimately it would eliminate poverty. But it is not an immediate cure
+for all of the social and economic ills of American democracy. There
+will long continue to be persons whom no amount of care can render
+capable of earning enough to support themselves. There are many other
+individuals who may ultimately become self-supporting, but who for
+some time to come will need special care and attention. There are,
+lastly, many other individuals who are partially or entirely self-
+supporting,--women and children, for example,--but whose social and
+economic interests need to be safeguarded by legislation. The
+democratic program of industrial reform could ultimately eliminate
+many of the basic social problems now confronting us; meantime we are
+under the necessity of grappling with such questions as labor
+disputes, the risks of industry, crime, and dependency. Indeed, no
+matter how vigorously and intelligently we attack the defects of
+capitalism, it is probable that we shall always have to face grave
+social problems. Part III of the text will accordingly be devoted to a
+consideration of American social problems.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Why is there no simple remedy for the defects of capitalism?
+
+2. What are the three aims of the program advanced in this chapter?
+
+3. What is the nature of justice?
+
+4. In what sense is an unfair distribution of wealth a double
+injustice?
+
+5. Under what conditions would the raising of wages tend to result in
+national bankruptcy?
+
+6. What are the three chief methods of redistributing unearned wealth?
+
+7. Why does the elimination of poverty demand something more than
+justice?
+
+8. What is the fundamental cause of low wages? Explain clearly.
+
+9. What is an economical remedy for low wages?
+
+10. Why will higher wages result from an increase in the demand for
+labor?
+
+11. By what three methods may the demand for labor be increased?
+
+12. Name some of the methods whereby the supply of labor may be
+decreased.
+
+13. What is the importance of personal efficiency in our program?
+
+14. What is the relation of wages to poverty?
+
+15. What is the importance of an economical utilization of income?
+
+16. Summarize the argument in this chapter.
+
+17. Why is the program outlined not an immediate panacea for all
+social and economic ills?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xvii. Or all
+of the following:
+
+2. Carver, _Elementary Economics_, chapters xiv, xxix, xxxi, and
+xivii.
+
+3. Carver, _Essays in Social Justice_, chapter i.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Why does the need for justice arise? (_Essays_, page 3.)
+
+2. What is the first duty of the state? (_Essays_, page 9.)
+
+3. What is moral law? (_Essays_, page 23.)
+
+4. What is the relation of meekness to national strength? (_Essays_,
+pages 33-34.)
+
+5. What is meant by a "balanced nation"? (_Elementary Economics_,
+pages 118-119.)
+
+6. What is the aim of balancing a population? (_Elementary Economics_,
+page 119.)
+
+7. Name an important method of securing this balance. (_Elementary
+Economics_, pages 119-120.)
+
+8. What classes of the population multiply the least rapidly? Why is
+this undesirable? (_Elementary Economics_, page 120.)
+
+9. What is the object of the "geographical redistribution of
+population"? (_Elementary Economics_, page 120.)
+
+10. Explain the working of the "law of variable proportions" in
+industry. (_Elementary Economics_, pages 258-260.)
+
+11. Why are there differences of wages in different occupations?
+(_Elementary Economics_, page 268.)
+
+12. What is the "law of population"? (_Elementary Economics_, page
+273.)
+
+13. What is the effect of immigration upon wages? (_Elementary
+Economics_, pages 273-274.)
+
+14. What are the two ways of getting men to do what is necessary for
+the prosperity of the nation? Of these two ways, which is preferable?
+(_Elementary Economics_, pages 387-388.)
+
+15. What are the dangers of freedom? (_Elementary Economics_, pages
+389-390.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Make a study of the occupational groups in your locality for the
+purpose of discovering which of these groups receive the lowest wages.
+Can you connect the fact that they receive low wages with their
+numerical strength?
+
+2. Is the supply of unskilled labor in your community affected by
+European immigration? If so, attempt to trace the relation of this
+immigration to low wages in your community.
+
+3. What classes of workmen receive the highest wages in your locality?
+What is the relation of these high wages to the restricted number of
+this type of workman?
+
+4. Study the methods by means of which land in your locality is
+utilized. In what ways, if in any, could various plots be made to
+employ more laborers?
+
+5. By what means could the supply of capital in your locality be
+increased? In what ways might this increased supply of capital be
+utilized? To what extent would the utilization of this increased
+supply of capital justify the employment of additional laborers?
+
+6. Do you believe that your community needs more entrepreneurs? What
+reason have you for believing that a training school for the technical
+professions would increase the productivity of your community?
+
+7. Write to the Bureau of Education in your state for data relative to
+the status of vocational education in your commonwealth.
+
+8. Interview one or more officials of a bank in your community for the
+purpose of learning of the ways in which banks encourage thrift.
+
+9. Write to the Bureau of Labor Statistics in your state for
+information relative to the status of public employment bureaus in
+your commonwealth.
+
+
+II
+
+10. Causes of inequality. (Taussig, _Principles of Economics_, vol.
+ii, chapter liv.)
+
+11. The Malthusian doctrine. (Malthus' _Essay on Population_. If this
+essay is not available, consult an encyclopedia under "Malthus.")
+
+12. The principle of self-interest. (Carver, _Essays in Social
+Justice_, chapter iii.)
+
+13. How much is a man worth? (Carver, _Essays in Social Justice_,
+chapter vii.)
+
+14. Causes of the scarcity of labor. (Carver, _Elementary Economics_,
+pages 269-271.)
+
+15. The importance of consumption. (Carver, _Elementary Economics_,
+chapters xxxviii and xxxix.)
+
+16. Importance of thrift. (_Annals_, vol. lxxxvii, pages 4-8.)
+
+17. Luxury. (Carver, _Elementary Economics_, chapter xl.)
+
+18. Choosing a vocation. (Parsons, _Choosing a Vocation_.)
+
+
+
+
+PART III--AMERICAN SOCIAL PROBLEMS
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS
+
+
+181. LABOR AND CAPITAL.--Strictly speaking, five distinct factors are
+involved in production: land, labor, capital, coördination, and
+government. As a matter of fact, we are accustomed to speak of the
+immediate conduct of industry as involving only two factors: labor and
+capital. Used in this sense, the term labor refers to the masses of
+hired workmen, while the term capital is held to include not only the
+individual who has money to invest, _i.e._ the capitalist proper, but
+also the entrepreneur, or managing employer.
+
+Labor and capital coöperate actively in production, while the other
+factors remain somewhat in the background. As we have seen, both labor
+and capital are essential to industry, and fundamentally their
+interests are reciprocal. But in spite of this basic harmony, there
+are many points of difference and antagonism between labor and
+capital. This chapter discusses the more important of these
+disagreements, and outlines some suggested methods of reducing or
+eliminating them.
+
+182. THE FACTORY SYSTEM AND THE LABORER.--Wherever it has penetrated,
+the Industrial Revolution has concentrated large numbers of landless
+laborers in industrial establishments controlled by relatively few
+employers. Very early in the development of the factory system, the
+laborer saw that he was at a relative disadvantage in bargaining with
+employers. Not only does the average laborer lack funds to tide him
+over a long period of unemployment, but the fact that his labor is
+generally his sole reliance obliges him to secure work at all hazards.
+The anxiety and discontent of laborers have been increased by the
+realization that the factory system affords little opportunity for the
+average workman to rise to the position of an employer. Most laborers
+are unable to secure either the training or the capital necessary to
+set themselves up as independent business men.
+
+183. RISE OF LABOR ORGANIZATIONS.--The risks and limitations which the
+factory system imposes upon the laboring classes have encouraged
+workmen to organize for the purpose of promoting their mutual
+interests. The individual gains, it has been found, when his interests
+are supported by a group of workmen acting as a unit, and bringing
+their united pressure to bear upon the employer. The labor
+organization has been the result of this discovery. A labor
+organization may be defined as a more or less permanent and continuous
+association of wage earners, entered into for the purpose of improving
+the conditions of their employment.
+
+The first labor organizations in the United States were formed early
+in the nineteenth century, but it was not until about 1850 that the
+trade union assumed national importance. After 1850, however, and
+particularly after the Civil War, the trade union grew rapidly. In
+1881 a number of national trade unions combined to form the American
+Federation of Labor. This body, while exercising no real authority
+over the trade unions comprising it, is nevertheless an important
+agency in coördinating trade union policies throughout the country. It
+is important, also, as a means of formulating and expressing the aims
+and ideals of the working classes. The Federation had a membership of
+2,604,701 in 1914, and in 1920 included more than 4,500,000 members.
+With the exception of the railroad brotherhoods, nearly all of the
+important trade unions in the country are affiliated with the American
+Federation of Labor.
+
+184. RISE OF EMPLOYERS' ASSOCIATIONS.--The growing power of the trade
+union after 1850 stimulated the growth of employers' associations. In
+1886 the first national employers' association was organized under the
+name of the Stove Founders' National Defence Association. Later there
+was formed a number of other important associations, including the
+National Association of Manufacturers, the National Council for
+Industrial Defence, and the American Anti-Boycott Association.
+
+The primary purpose of the employers' association is the protection of
+the employers' interests against trade union aggression. Some of the
+associations are frankly hostile to the trade union movement, while
+others take the stand that the organization of laborers is undesirable
+only if the power of the trade union is abused. The promotion of
+friendly relations between labor and capital is increasingly an
+important concern of the employers' association.
+
+185. WHAT THE TRADE UNION WANTS.--One of the basic aims of the trade
+union is either to raise wages or to prevent their reduction. Because
+of the constant shiftings of supply and demand, the prices of
+commodities are rarely stationary for very long. Over any extended
+period of time prices are either rising or falling. During a period of
+rising prices the workmen are at a relative disadvantage, [Footnote:
+Rising prices affect all who purchase commodities, of course, but here
+we are intent upon the position of the laborer only.] because they
+have to pay for commodities higher prices than they had anticipated
+when they contracted to work for a definite wage. In such a case, the
+union attempts to secure higher wages for its members. When, on the
+other hand, prices are falling, the workmen gain, because they do not
+have to pay as high prices as they had anticipated. In this latter
+case, the laborers attempt to maintain their advantage by opposing any
+reduction in wages.
+
+The desire of the trade unions to improve the general condition of the
+working classes has steadily widened the program of organized labor.
+Shorter hours and better conditions of work are important trade union
+demands. Unions quite generally approve the principle of a minimum
+wage, [Footnote: The principle of the minimum wage is discussed in the
+next chapter, Sections 205-207.] at least for women and child workers.
+Formerly, and to some extent even now, the unions have opposed the
+introduction of labor-saving machinery on the grounds that it
+displaces workmen and hence causes unemployment. Union members
+generally prefer to be paid by the hour or by the day, rather than so
+much per unit of product. The reason given for the preference is that
+strain and undue fatigue often result from _piece-work,_ as the system
+of pay on the basis of units of product is called. Trade unions
+universally demand that employers recognize the principle of
+collective bargaining, by which is meant the privilege of workmen
+dealing with the employer collectively or through the union. Very
+often, also, the unions demand the closed shop, that is to say, a shop
+from which all non-union employees are excluded.
+
+186. WHAT THE EMPLOYER WANTS.--Price movements likewise affect the
+employer. But whereas the laborer is at a relative disadvantage when
+prices are rising, the employer tends to gain, for the reason that he
+secures for his product higher prices than he had expected. [Footnote:
+In a period of rising prices, the employer's costs also tend to rise,
+but generally not so rapidly as do prices.] Suppose, for example that
+a shoe manufacturer can make a profit if a pair of shoes sells for
+$4.00. If later the price rises to $5.00 and his expenses remain
+stationary or very nearly so, he reaps an unusually large profit. And
+whereas in a period of falling prices the laborer tends to gain, the
+employer often loses heavily, for the reason that he must sell at a
+relatively low price goods produced at a relatively high cost. If, in
+the case given above, the price of the pair of shoes falls from $4.00
+to $3.00, while the expenses of the manufacturer remain stationary, or
+very nearly so, he may make little or no profit. Thus while prices are
+rising the employer attempts to maintain his advantage by resisting an
+increase in wages, while in a period of falling prices he seeks to cut
+down his expenses by reducing wages. In either case the immediate
+interests of workmen and employer are antagonistic.
+
+Just as the growing complexity of the industrial situation has
+enlarged the trade union program, so the aims of employers have
+steadily increased in number and in importance. On the grounds that it
+restricts the fullest utilization of his plant, the employer very
+often objects to a shortening of the working day, even where there is
+a corresponding decrease in the day-wage. Some employers are unwilling
+to provide sanitary workshops for their employees, or otherwise to
+improve the conditions of employment. The employer generally objects
+to the minimum wage, as constituting an interference with his "right"
+to offer workmen what wages he chooses. Collective bargaining is
+accepted by many employers, but many others insist upon the right to
+hire and discharge men as they see fit, without being forced to
+consider the wishes of the union. Employers often oppose the closed
+shop, and insist upon the open shop, an open shop being defined as one
+in which workmen are employed without regard to whether or not they
+are members of a union.
+
+187. METHODS OF INDUSTRIAL WARFARE.--Both capital and labor back up
+their demands by a powerful organization using a variety of weapons.
+The trade union generally attempts to enforce its demands by threat
+of, or use of, the _strike_. A strike is a concerted stoppage of work
+initiated by the workmen as a group. Sometimes accompanying the strike
+is the _boycott_, which may be defined as a concerted avoidance of
+business relations with one or more employers, or with those who
+sympathize with those employers. The strike is generally accompanied
+by the practice of _picketing_, by which is meant the posting of union
+agents whose duty it is to attempt to persuade non-union workmen not
+to fill the places of the striking workmen. Pickets may also attempt
+to persuade customers not to patronize the employer against whom a
+strike has been launched. Sometimes picketing leads to _intimidation
+and violence_ on the part of either strikers or representatives of the
+employers.
+
+In turn, the employer may employ a variety of weapons against workmen
+with whom he cannot agree. An employer may make use of the _lockout_,
+that is, he may refuse to allow his labor force to continue at work.
+Many employers also use the _blacklist_,  _i.e._ the circulation of
+information among employers for the purpose of forewarning one another
+against the employment of certain designated workmen. The employer may
+also attempt to end a strike by persuading non-union men to fill the
+places vacated by the strikers. Such men as accept are known as
+_strike-breakers_. On the plea that the strike may result in the
+destruction of his property, the employer may resort to the
+_injunction_. This is an order secured from a court, and restraining
+certain laborers in the employer's interest.
+
+188. THE COST OF INDUSTRIAL WARFARE.--The struggles of labor against
+capital constitute a species of warfare which involves the general
+public. Regardless of whether a particular dispute ends in favor of
+the laborers or the employer, every strike, lockout, or other
+interference with industrial coöperation lessens the amount of
+consumable goods in existence. Thus aside from the fact that
+industrial warfare encourages class antagonisms, it is an important
+cause of the relative scarcity of goods, and the resulting tendency of
+prices to rise. Often great injury results from a dispute which
+originally was of small proportions. In 1902, for example, the
+anthracite coal strike cost the country more than $100,000,000, though
+the strike had been initiated because of a local dispute over
+recognition of the union. In 1919, when we were suffering from a
+general scarcity of goods, there occurred in this country more than
+three thousand strikes, involving a loss of more than $2,000,000,000
+in decreased production.
+
+189. NECESSITY OF INDUSTRIAL PEACE.--Industrial warfare very often
+results in the correction of abuses, but in many cases it seems to
+bring little or no benefit to either labor or capital. In any case, it
+is a costly method, and one which constitutes a menace to the peace of
+the community. American democracy demands that in the settlement of
+disputes between labor and capital, industrial warfare be replaced by
+some method less costly, less violent, and more in harmony with the
+principles of justice and civilized behavior. Responsibility for the
+present extent of industrial warfare cannot definitely be placed upon
+either capital or labor, but at least both sides should be obliged to
+recognize that the public is a third party to every industrial
+dispute. We should insist upon fair play for both capital and labor,
+but we should likewise insist that the interests of the public be
+safeguarded.
+
+190. SOME METHODS OF INDUSTRIAL PEACE.--As has already been pointed
+out, profit sharing is not of great importance in lessening industrial
+unrest. Various systems of bonuses and pensions have temporarily
+improved the position of some groups of workmen, but experience has
+proven both bonuses and pensions to be limited in scope. Employers are
+often unwilling to adopt such devices as these, while the laborers
+frequently regard them as paternalistic measures which at best are a
+poor substitute for the higher wages to which they consider themselves
+entitled. Existing evils are often lessened by welfare work, which
+includes such measures as the establishment of schools, libraries, and
+playgrounds for the laborers. But in many cases welfare work is
+initiated by the employer for the purpose of diverting the attention
+of the workmen from their fundamental grievances, and for this reason
+it is often opposed by the workmen. All of the measures enumerated in
+this section are of more or less value, but as methods of combating
+industrial warfare, they have proved to be palliative, rather than
+remedial or preventive.
+
+191. THE TRADE AGREEMENT.--In some industries there is a growing
+tendency for employers not only to recognize the union, but also to
+make a collective contract, or trade agreement, with the unionized
+workmen. The trade agreement may lead to the formation of councils in
+which representatives of both workmen and employer attempt to reach a
+friendly agreement upon disputed matters. The trade agreement has been
+particularly successful in many industries in England. In this country
+it is best known in the soft coal mining industry in eastern United
+States, and in the needle trades of New York City. On the whole, the
+trade agreement has not been markedly successful in the United States.
+Although it smoothes out minor differences, the unions still prefer to
+back their more important demands by use of the strike.
+
+192. VOLUNTARY ARBITRATION.--Since 1898 the several states have been
+giving an increasing amount of attention to the creation of boards of
+industrial conciliation, mediation, and arbitration. [Footnote: The
+words conciliation, mediation, and arbitration are variously used, but
+the following distinction may be of use. Mediation is an attempt to
+get the disputants to come together for the purpose of discussing
+their grievances. Conciliation is aid extended to the disputants in
+the actual settlement of the dispute. Arbitration implies that a third
+party settles the dispute and renders a decision.] Most states now
+have some provision for a board whose duty it is to attempt to
+eliminate industrial warfare. The powers and duties of these boards
+vary from state to state. In some states the board may investigate
+labor disputes on its own initiative, but it is not obliged to make an
+investigation. In other states the investigation of industrial
+disputes is compulsory.
+
+Boards of the type discussed in this section have no power to _compel_
+the disputants to arbitrate their troubles, though they may _persuade_
+the parties involved to resort to arbitration. When the disputants
+agree to allow the state board to arbitrate the dispute, and when also
+they previously promise to abide by the decision of the board, the
+award of the state board is binding upon both sides. When the parties
+to the dispute have not previously agreed to abide by the award, the
+board cannot force an acceptance of its decision, but can only rely
+upon public sentiment to help effect a just settlement.
+
+193. COMPULSORY ARBITRATION IN NEW ZEALAND AND AUSTRALIA.--The
+frequent refusal of labor and capital willingly to submit their
+differences to arbitration has led to the development of the principle
+of compulsory arbitration.
+
+In New Zealand, compulsory arbitration was adopted as early as 1894.
+In that country the arbitrating body is known as the court of
+arbitration, the decisions of which are absolute and binding. At the
+discretion of the court, the awards handed down may be extended to
+embrace other employees or employers in the same trade, or in the same
+locality, or in the whole country. Violations of the award, either by
+labor or by capital, are punishable by heavy fines. An even more
+drastic form of compulsory arbitration has been adopted in Australia.
+
+Due to the influence of many complicating factors, the status of
+compulsory arbitration in these two countries is uncertain. Many
+students of the question maintain that this form of arbitration has
+materially reduced industrial warfare; on the other hand, other
+authorities declare that compulsory arbitration in New Zealand and
+Australia has not markedly improved industrial relations.
+
+194. COMPULSORY ARBITRATION IN THE UNITED STATES.--Although the
+principle of compulsory arbitration has been familiar to American
+students of labor problems for more than a quarter of a century, there
+is as yet very little sentiment in favor of its application to
+industrial disputes in this country. The explanation of this is not
+far to seek. Individualism is so strong in the United States that
+compulsory arbitration is regarded by many Americans as an unwarranted
+interference in private business. It is still generally true that both
+labor and capital prefer to settle their disputes in open struggle.
+Equally important, perhaps, is the feeling that compulsory arbitration
+laws would nullify the constitutional guarantee that no citizen shall
+be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law.
+[Footnote: For an explanation of this point, see Chapter XIX, Section
+214.]
+
+However, a definite step toward compulsory arbitration was taken when
+in 1920 the State of Kansas established a Court of Industrial
+Relations "for the purpose of preserving the public peace, protecting
+the public health, preventing industrial strife, disorder, and waste,
+and securing regular and orderly conduct of the businesses directly
+affecting the living conditions of the people." The law of 1920
+declared illegal the suspension of work in those industries which are
+designated as essential and necessary to the community life.
+Industrial disputes arising in such industries are subject to
+compulsory arbitration by the court. The merits of this court are
+still being debated. Some authorities declare that the court has
+already demonstrated its value, but other observers claim that so far
+this tribunal has not operated to reduce labor troubles in Kansas.
+
+195. STATUS OF THE DEMANDS OF LABOR.--For a number of years the
+attitude of labor has been clearly aggressive, while the attitude of
+capital has tended to be one of resistance. In view of this fact, the
+simplest way of considering the merits of the industrial situation is
+to examine the demands of labor. The justice of these demands cannot
+be gone into here, but a few words of general application may be
+helpful.
+
+The proper determination of wages depends, of course, upon the
+particular circumstances. No general rule can be laid down, except the
+very obvious one that wages cannot permanently go so high as to wipe
+out profits in an industry, nor yet so low as to render it impossible
+for the workmen to secure a decent living.
+
+The steady improvement of living and working conditions is desirable,
+and is a challenge to any progressive society.
+
+Shorter work hours are desirable, wherever the cutting down of the
+working day does not too greatly hamper production. Many economists
+feel that an eight-hour day will prove a social gain only if
+introduced gradually. They believe that it should be introduced in
+proportion as the industrial productivity of the country increases to
+compensate for the shortening of the working day.
+
+Opposition to the introduction of labor-saving machinery is both
+useless and short-sighted. The officials of most unions now advise
+workmen not to oppose the adoption of machinery, but rather to fit
+themselves to operate the machines.
+
+The question of a closed shop or an open shop is largely a matter of
+opinion. The problem will probably continue to be disputed for a long
+time to come. Many students of labor conditions feel that the closed
+shop is justifiable only when accompanied by the open union. By an
+open union is meant a union into which all laborers competent to do
+the work are admitted freely. Where the open union principle is
+adopted, Professor Taussig points out, the closed shop is no longer a
+monopolistic device to shut out competition and raise wages for a
+small group. It becomes, instead, a means of promoting mutual aid and
+collective bargaining.
+
+Many employers still refuse to recognize the principle of collective
+bargaining, but from the social point of view collective bargaining is
+desirable. In many cases it so strengthens the position of the
+laborers that they are able to compete with the employer more nearly
+on terms of equality. Under such conditions competition in the labor
+market is in a healthy state. The difficulty is, of course, that some
+unions may take advantage of their strengthened position to enforce
+unduly severe conditions upon the employer.
+
+196. THE OUTLOOK.--Although it is probable that industrial
+disagreements will long endure, we have a right to expect that
+continued progress will be made in settling these disputes peaceably.
+By many it is believed that compulsory arbitration is the most
+effective method of securing industrial peace, but for reasons already
+given, the extension of this form of arbitration will probably be slow
+in this country. English experience would indicate that we have not
+yet exhausted the possibilities of the trade agreement, but though
+this device is becoming better known in the United States, both the
+American laborer and the American employer are still disposed to
+settle their differences by means of the strike, the lockout, and
+similar weapons.
+
+The present century is an age of industrial stress and change, and it
+is possible that the ultimate solution of the disputes between labor
+and capital has not yet been advanced. From the data now at hand,
+however, it is maintained by many that labor disputes must ultimately
+be eradicated through the development of industrial democracy.
+Industrial democracy implies the joint direction of industrial
+policies by employer and employees, working together harmoniously and
+in the spirit of equality. When industrial democracy is attained,
+according to this view, mutual trust and the spirit of friendly
+coöperation will enable labor and capital to adjust their differences
+peaceably and economically, without dictation from any outside source.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Why are we accustomed to speak of labor and capital as the two
+chief factors in production?
+
+2. Why have labor organizations arisen?
+
+3. Name some employers' associations.
+
+4. Contrast the aims of the union with the aims of the employers'
+association.
+
+5. Discuss the methods of industrial warfare.
+
+6. Why is industrial warfare undesirable?
+
+7. What is the attitude of American democracy toward industrial
+warfare?
+
+8. Name some minor methods of industrial peace.
+
+9. Discuss the character of the trade agreement.
+
+10. Distinguish between conciliation, mediation, and arbitration.
+
+11. Discuss compulsory arbitration in New Zealand and Australia.
+
+12. What is the significance of the Kansas Court of Industrial
+Relations?
+
+13. What is the outlook for industrial peace in this country?
+
+14. Define industrial democracy.
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xviii.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Bullock, _Elements of Economics_, chapter xiii.
+
+3. Carlton, _History and Problems of Organized Labor_, chapter v.
+
+4. Ely, _Outlines of Economics_, chapter xxii.
+
+5. Fetter, _Modern Economic Problems_, chapter xx.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. What are the three types of labor organizations? (Fetter, page
+299.)
+
+2. Who were the Knights of Labor? (Bullock, page 316.)
+
+3. What is the economic justification of the trade union? (Ely, pages
+445-446.)
+
+4. Outline the history of the American Federation of Labor. (Carlton,
+pages 74-82.)
+
+5. What are some of the secondary functions of the trade union?
+(Fetter, pages 298-299.)
+
+6. Among what groups of workers is the trade union strong? Among what
+groups is it weak? (Fetter, page 300.)
+
+7. What effect has unionism had upon wages? (Fetter, pages 306-307.)
+
+8. What is meant by limitation of output? (Ely, pages 449-450.)
+
+9. What is a standard wage? (Bullock, pages 320-321.)
+
+10. What is the legal status of the strike? (Bullock, pages 328-329.)
+
+11. What is scientific management? (Bullock, pages 339-340.)
+
+12. What will probably be the future development of the trade union?
+(Ely, pages 468-469.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Origin and growth of the trade union movement in your section.
+
+2. Select some one trade union for study. Obtain information on the
+following points, either by means of literature issued by the union,
+or by personal interview with union officials:
+
+(a) Aims of the union.
+
+(b) Insurance benefits.
+
+(c) Political activities of the union.
+
+(d) Strike procedure.
+
+(e) Attitude toward arbitration.
+
+3. Select for study an employers' association in your locality. Obtain
+information on the following points. (If no association is available,
+consult a friendly employer):
+
+(a) Attitude of the employer toward the trade union movement.
+
+(b) Attitude toward the closed shop.
+
+(c) What the employer does when a strike is launched against him.
+
+(d) Use of the injunction.
+
+(e) Attitude of the employer toward arbitration.
+
+4. If possible, investigate an actual strike and report upon it.
+
+5. The laws of your state with regard to mediation, conciliation, and
+arbitration. Do you think further legislation on this subject is
+advisable?
+
+
+II
+
+6. History of the trade union movement in the United States. (Consult
+any available text on labor problems. See also Carlton, _Organized
+Labor in American History_.)
+
+7. The Knights of Labor. (Any standard text on labor problems, or an
+encyclopedia.)
+
+8. Trade union policies. (_Bullock, Selected Readings in Economics_,
+pages 589-613.)
+
+9. Program of the American Federation of Labor. (Any standard text on
+labor problems, or an encyclopedia.)
+
+10. The theory of price changes. (Taussig, _Principles of Economics_,
+vol. i, chapter xxii.)
+
+11. The problem of adjusting wages to prices. (Bloomfield, _Selected
+Articles on Problems of Labor_, pages 56-75.)
+
+12. Reducing the labor turnover. (_Annals_, vol. ixxi, pages 1-81.)
+
+13. Scientific management. (Any standard text on labor problems. See
+also Hoxie, _Scientific Management and Labor_.)
+
+14. Incorporation of the trade union. (Bloomfield, _Selected Articles
+on Problems of Labor_, pages 262-267. Commons, _Trade Unionism and
+Labor Problems_, chapter vi.)
+
+15. Employers' associations. (Any standard text on labor problems.)
+
+16. Principles of industrial relations, as formulated by the Chamber
+of Commerce of the United States of America. (Write to the Chamber's
+headquarters, Washington, D. C., for copies. Also reprinted in Edie,
+_Current Social and Industrial Forces_, pages 346-381.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+17. Closed shop versus open shop.
+
+18. Should trade unions be obliged to incorporate?
+
+19. To what extent does compulsory arbitration constitute an
+unwarranted interference in private business?
+
+20. The shortening of the working day.
+
+21. Effect of the World War upon relations between labor and capital.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+HEALTH IN INDUSTRY
+
+
+197. INDUSTRY AND HEALTH.--Wherever the Industrial Revolution has
+progressed beyond the initial stages, there has been an enormous
+increase in wealth and prosperity. At the same time, serious evils
+have accompanied the transition from a relatively simple agricultural
+stage to a stage dominated by the factory system. The tendency toward
+overcrowding in rapidly growing cities, the difficulties of
+maintaining a normal family life where mother or children are employed
+in factories, and the danger of overstrain, accident and disease in
+industrial pursuits, all these factors render very important the
+problem of health in industry.
+
+Though health in industry is only one phase of the general problem of
+health, it will be impossible here to exhaust even that one phase. We
+shall accordingly confine ourselves to the discussion of three
+questions: first, child labor; second, the employment of women in
+industrial pursuits; and third, the insurance of our industrial
+population against accident, sickness, old age and unemployment.
+
+198. CHILD LABOR: EXTENT AND CAUSES.--There are in this country more
+than two million children between the ages of ten and fifteen, engaged
+in gainful occupations. In all sections of the country large numbers
+of children are found in agriculture, this industry generally being
+beyond the scope of child labor laws. The employment of children in
+factories, mines, quarries, mills, and shops, on the other hand, is
+now considerably restricted by law. This is true of all parts of the
+country. However, child labor is still of wide extent in the United
+States, due to the large number of children found in agriculture,
+domestic service, street trades, stores, messenger service, and
+tenement homework.
+
+Of the immediate causes of child labor one of the most important is
+the poverty of the parents. Where the parents are themselves day
+laborers, it is often considered necessary or desirable to increase
+the family earnings by putting the children to work.
+
+From the standpoint of the employer child labor is rendered possible
+and even desirable by the development of types of work easily
+performed by small children. In many cases the tendency of parents to
+put young children to work is encouraged by the lax administration of
+school attendance laws. This tendency has also been encouraged by the
+indifference of the public to the evil effects of child labor.
+
+199. EFFECTS OF CHILD LABOR.--Students of the problem of child labor
+unanimously condemn the practice of habitually employing young
+children outside the home. Where poorly paid children compete with men
+and women, they serve either to displace adults, or, by competition,
+to lower the wages of adults.
+
+The effects upon the children themselves are injurious. Stunted,
+crippled, and diseased bodies are the result of steady work at too
+tender an age. Schooling is interrupted, so that child workers
+generally develop into illiterate and inefficient adults. When
+children are forced into gainful occupations at an early age, the
+family life is disrupted, and proper home training is difficult, if
+not impossible. Still another factor is the greater temptation to vice
+and crime confronting the child outside the home.
+
+200. CHILD LABOR LAWS.--Since 1870 the growing acuteness of the child
+labor problem, together with an aroused public opinion, has served to
+increase the number of laws restricting child labor. At the present
+time, forty-five states forbid the employment in certain industries of
+children under fourteen years of age.
+
+A Federal child labor law was passed in 1916, but two years later the
+measure was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. [Footnote:
+For an explanation of this point, see Section 214 of this chapter.] In
+1919 a new Federal law was enacted. In order to avoid the charge of
+unconstitutionality, this measure attacks child labor _indirectly_.
+The law levies an excise tax of ten per cent on the entire net profits
+received from the sale of all the products of any mine, quarry, mill,
+cannery, workshop, factory, or manufacturing establishment, which
+employs children contrary to certain age and hour specifications. The
+effect of this ten per cent tax is so to reduce the profits of the
+employers affected, as virtually to prohibit child labor. By this
+means the act prohibits child labor in several important groups of
+industrial establishments.
+
+The difficulty with the law is that it touches only about fifteen per
+cent of our two million child workers. It does not affect, for
+example, the large number of children employed in agriculture,
+domestic service, street trades, stores and restaurants, messenger
+service, and tenement homework.
+
+201. MINIMUM PROVISIONS OF A GOOD CHILD LABOR LAW.--The passage of
+more comprehensive child labor laws is being advocated by a number of
+social agencies, notably by the National Child Labor Committee. The
+minimum provisions of a good child labor law have been set forth by
+the committee somewhat as follows:
+
+As a general proposition, no child should be regularly employed in a
+gainful occupation who is under sixteen years of age. There should be
+an even higher age limit for child workers in quarries, mines, and
+other dangerous places. Children should not work more than eight hours
+a day. Nor should they be allowed to engage in night work until they
+have reached the age of, say, twenty years. All child applicants for
+industrial positions should first be required to pass educational
+tests and a physical examination. A good child labor law should
+provide for a corps of factory inspectors, as well as for other means
+of securing the efficient administration of the law. Lastly, it is
+important that there be close coöperation between employers and the
+school authorities in the matter of child labor.
+
+202. INCREASED NUMBER OF WOMEN IN INDUSTRY.--There have always been
+women in industry, but of recent years the proportion of women so
+engaged has increased so rapidly as to create a serious social
+problem. From needlework, domestic service, and teaching, women have
+spread rapidly into trade, commerce, and the professions. A few years
+ago transportation and police work were monopolized by men, but to-day
+women are entering these fields rapidly. Though they outnumber men
+only in domestic and personal service, women are numerous in
+practically every important calling except plumbing and street
+cleaning. Altogether more than 8,000,000 women are engaged in gainful
+occupations in the United States.
+
+203. WHY WOMEN RECEIVE LOWER WAGES THAN MEN.--Women generally receive
+lower wages than men. One reason for this is the physical weakness of
+women, which renders them less desirable in many types of work. Social
+conventions, home attachments, and, often, the lack of the venturesome
+spirit, combine to keep women from moving about in search of improved
+working conditions to the same extent as men. The expectation of
+marriage causes many young women to neglect to increase their
+efficiency, and this at least prevents their wages from increasing as
+rapidly as those of young men who undergo consistent training. The
+trade union is still little developed among women workers, a factor
+which often prevents higher wages from being secured. Low wages are
+often traceable to the fact that there is an over supply of girls and
+women in the labor market. Large numbers of girls and women are
+partially supported at home, and are able and willing to work for
+"pin-money" only. Many employers take advantage of this fact to offer
+very low wages.
+
+204. LEGISLATION REGULATING THE LABOR OF WOMEN.--Although it would
+seem desirable to keep young children out of industry altogether,
+there is a general agreement among students of the problem that the
+labor of women ought to be further regulated rather than actually
+prohibited. A number of states have already enacted laws designed to
+safeguard women in industry. In some states the number of working
+hours for women has been cut from eleven to nine, while in other
+states the maximum number of hours during which women may work is
+eight. Some states prohibit night work for women in industrial
+establishments. The great majority of the states now provide for
+proper rest periods, guarded machinery, the ventilation of workrooms,
+and, where practicable, seats for women employees. To the extent that
+women actually do the same amount and quality of work as men, there is
+a growing feeling that men and women ought to receive equal pay.
+
+205. THE MINIMUM WAGE.--A minimum wage law is one which specifies that
+in certain occupations laborers may not be paid less than a stipulated
+wage. The aim of the minimum wage is to protect the laborer against
+employment which, under freely competitive conditions, does not pay
+wages high enough to guarantee a decent living.
+
+The first minimum wage law in the United States was passed by
+Massachusetts in 1912. The movement grew rapidly, and by 1921 more
+than a dozen additional states had adopted minimum wage laws. In some
+states the law applies only to specified industries; in others it
+covers all occupations. In some states the law covers only the
+employment of women, but in most cases the principle of the minimum
+wage applies to women and minors under eighteen, or even twenty-one
+years of age. In some foreign countries the minimum wage is also
+extended to the labor of men, but in the United States men are
+everywhere exempted from the operation of such laws.
+
+206. ARGUMENTS IN FAVOR OF THE MINIMUM WAGE.--The champions of the
+principle of the minimum wage advance a number of arguments in its
+favor. It is contended that no industry is socially desirable if it
+cannot pay a living wage, for when wages fall below a certain minimum,
+poverty, ill-health, and vice are natural results. When laborers are
+themselves unable to improve their economic position, it is said, it
+becomes the duty of the state to guarantee them a living wage. Another
+argument in favor of the minimum wage is that it not only eliminates
+considerable poverty, but it makes possible a healthier and more
+contented labor force. It is claimed that strikes and social unrest
+are partially eliminated by the minimum wage.
+
+207. ARGUMENTS AGAINST THE MINIMUM WAGE.--In spite of the rapid spread
+of minimum wage legislation in this country, the principle has met
+with considerable opposition. It is claimed by some that where poverty
+is due to bad personal habits, the mere payment of a higher wage will
+not abolish poverty. It is also urged that because of price changes,
+and because of differing concepts of a standard of living, it is
+difficult to determine what is really a living wage. Some employers
+maintain that the minimum wage is contrary to economic law, since it
+forces the payment of a wage which the laborer often does not earn.
+The compulsory nature of the minimum wage is also opposed on the
+grounds that it constitutes an undue interference with individual
+rights. [Footnote: Formerly an important argument against the minimum
+wage was this: There are large numbers of people who cannot _earn_ the
+minimum wage, and because employers will tend not to employ them, such
+persons will have to be supported by charity. The force of this
+argument is reduced, however, by the fact that most minimum wage laws
+now make special provision for the part-time employment of such
+persons.]
+
+208. THE RISKS OF INDUSTRY.--In spite of the fact that most States now
+have detailed laws providing for the guarding of machinery and the
+supervision of dangerous occupations, a half million persons are
+injured or killed annually in industrial employments in the United
+States. A considerable amount of ill-health is traceable to working
+with drugs and acids. Continued work in dusty mills and shops, as well
+as long exposure to the excessively dry or excessively moist
+atmosphere required by certain manufacturing processes, also give rise
+to "occupational" diseases. Old age frequently brings poverty and
+distress, in spite of a life of hard work. Lastly, the laborer runs
+the risk of unemployment.
+
+209. THE PRINCIPLE OF SOCIAL INSURANCE.--As a general rule, laborers
+do not voluntarily insure themselves against illness, unemployment,
+accident, or old age. This is partly because they lack the necessary
+funds, and partly because they lack the foresight necessary for such
+action. If, therefore, the risks of industry are adequately to be
+insured against, the initiative must be taken by some one other than
+the laborer. As a result of this situation, there has developed the
+principle of social insurance. Social insurance, as distinguished from
+insurance by trade unions or private agencies, is compulsory, and is
+administered, or at least supervised, by the state or Federal
+authorities.
+
+From the standpoint of the community, social insurance may be
+justified on four grounds. First, the risks of industry are largely
+beyond the control of the individual workman, and hence he ought not
+to be held wholly responsible for the penalties which industry may
+inflict upon him. Second, the community gets the benefit of the
+laborer's efforts, and thus ought to feel morally obligated to
+safeguard his employment. Third, an injury to the laborer restricts
+the productivity of the community by crippling or removing one of its
+productive agents. Fourth, compulsory insurance is a social necessity,
+for where nothing has been laid aside for a rainy day, the
+interruption of earnings subjects the laborer and his family to
+hardship and disaster. Wisely administered social insurance prevents a
+great deal of poverty and distress which would otherwise constitute an
+added burden upon charitable organizations.
+
+210. INSURANCE AGAINST ACCIDENT.--Accident insurance has been a
+feature of social insurance programs in Germany, France, and Great
+Britain for almost a half century, but in this country it was not
+until 1910 that compulsory insurance against industrial accidents
+began to be effective. Since 1910, however, the movement has grown
+rapidly, and at the present time the majority of the states provide
+for compensation to workmen for accidents sustained in connection with
+their work. Formerly our courts quite generally held that when a
+workman could be shown to have suffered an accident because of
+"personal negligence," the injured person was not entitled to
+compensation. Under the accident insurance laws of most states it is
+now held, however, that the personal negligence of the injured workman
+does not forfeit his right to receive compensation.
+
+In most states the cost of accident insurance is borne primarily by
+the employer.
+
+211. INSURANCE AGAINST SICKNESS. [Footnote: Sometimes known as health
+insurance.]--Compulsory sickness insurance has been highly developed
+in several European countries, but so far we have left insurance of
+this type to private effort. The question is attracting considerable
+attention in this country, however, and it is believed that this form
+of social insurance will soon be provided for by state law. In 1914
+the American Association for Labor Legislation outlined a model
+sickness insurance law. Such a law would provide a sickness benefit
+for a number of weeks, arrange for medical care, and, in case of
+death, pay a funeral benefit. The cost of such insurance would be
+divided equally between workmen and employer, while the state would
+bear the cost of administering the law. This cost would be
+considerable, because illness may be feigned, and hence there would
+have to be more careful supervision than in the case of accident
+insurance.
+
+212. INSURANCE AGAINST OLD AGE.--Compulsory insurance against old age
+is an important feature of social insurance systems in European
+countries, but it is very little known in the United States. We are
+familiar with the Federal pensioning of military veterans, and with
+local pensions for firemen and policemen, as well as with state and
+local pensions for teachers. Such insurance does not, however, touch
+the question of aged employees in industrial pursuits. Trade unions
+sometimes provide a measure of old age insurance for their members,
+but the proportion of workmen affected by this practice is very small.
+
+In 1920, a beginning toward compulsory old age insurance was made,
+when a Federal law provided for compulsory old age insurance for the
+civil service employees of the Federal government. The question of
+compulsory old age insurance is also being agitated in a number of
+states.
+
+213. SHOULD SOCIAL INSURANCE EXTEND TO UNEMPLOYMENT?--It is contended
+by many that to insure workmen against the loss of their jobs would
+encourage shiftlessness, and that for this reason the principle of
+social insurance ought not to apply to unemployment.
+
+It is obvious that a considerable share of unemployment is traceable
+to personal negligence, and it is probably true that insurance against
+unemployment would discourage thrift and foresight on the part of many
+workmen. On the other hand, it has been shown statistically that a
+large share of unemployment is due to crop failures, market
+fluctuations, and other conditions beyond the control of the workmen.
+In so far as this is true, there would be a great deal of unemployment
+whether it were insured against or not. Because, therefore, some
+unemployment is inevitable, and because unemployment is in many cases
+beyond the control of the individual, it becomes necessary, or at
+least desirable, for the state to insure workmen against this
+unavoidable risk.
+
+Insurance against unemployment has never been tried out in this
+country, but it is likely that we shall some day follow the example of
+the leading European countries, and include this type of protection in
+our general program of social insurance.
+
+214. OBSTACLES TO LABOR LEGISLATION.--Labor legislation of the type
+discussed in this chapter is making rapid headway in the United
+States. Nevertheless, it should be noted that in this field we are
+behind the more advanced countries of western Europe. The chief
+explanation of this relative backwardness is that the extension of
+labor legislation in this country has met with considerable
+opposition. The reasons for this opposition may be summed up as
+follows:
+
+First, the spirit of individualism is so strong in this country as
+effectively to check legislation which appears paternalistic. The weak
+position of women and children in industry has somewhat lessened the
+force of this argument in the case of laws designed to safeguard these
+two groups, but labor legislation in behalf of men is still regarded
+suspiciously in many quarters.
+
+Second, it is difficult to secure uniform laws among the several
+states. Labor legislation in this country has been primarily a state
+concern, but the attitude of the various states toward social
+insurance, the minimum wage, and other types of labor legislation, has
+been so divergent that the resulting laws have often been conflicting.
+In many cases states fear to enact laws which they believe will hamper
+local employers and encourage the migration of capital to states which
+are more lenient in this regard.
+
+Third, an important obstacle to labor legislation in the United States
+has been the difficulty of enacting laws which the courts will not
+declare unconstitutional. The constitutional provision [Footnote: See
+the fifth amendment to the Federal Constitution, Appendix.] that no
+one shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due
+process of law has often been interpreted by the courts in such a way
+as to nullify laws designed to safeguard the interests of the working
+classes. For example, a law restricting the employment of women might
+be declared unconstitutional on the grounds that it interferes with
+the "liberty" of women to work as many hours, and for as small a wage,
+as they choose.
+
+Within the last decade, however, the obstacle of constitutionality
+appears to have declined in importance. Our Supreme Courts often
+reverse their own decisions, as well as negative the decisions of the
+lower courts, and it is therefore difficult to ascertain what is truly
+the trend of judicial decision. Nevertheless, many authorities believe
+that we are on the verge of an era in which the courts will weigh
+labor legislation primarily in the light of its social benefit, and
+only secondarily with respect to how it squares with the
+technicalities of the Constitution.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What three questions are discussed in this chapter?
+
+2. What is the extent of child labor in the United States?
+
+3. What are some of the causes of child labor?
+
+4. What are the chief results of child labor?
+
+5. Discuss Federal legislation with respect to child labor.
+
+6. Outline the minimum provisions of a good child labor law.
+
+7. Why do women generally get lower wages than men?
+
+8. What is meant by the minimum wage?
+
+9. What are the chief arguments in favor of the minimum wage?
+
+10. Give the chief arguments against it.
+
+11. What is meant by social insurance?
+
+12. Discuss the four forms of social insurance. Which have been
+applied in this country?
+
+13. What are the three great obstacles to labor legislation in this
+country? Which of these appears to you to be the most important? Which
+appears to you to be the easiest to overcome?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xix. Or all
+of the following:
+
+2. Burch and Patterson, _American Social Problems_, chapter xiv.
+
+3. Ely, _Outlines of Economics_, chapter xxviii.
+
+4. Fetter, _Modern Economic Problems_, chapter xxiii.
+
+5. Taussig, _Principles of Economics_, Vol. ii, chapter viii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Why is child labor not always the cheapest labor? (Burch and
+Patterson, page 172.)
+
+2. What is the sweat shop system? (Burch and Patterson, page 174.)
+
+3. What are the chief occupations in which women are found? (Burch and
+Patterson, page 175.)
+
+4. What is meant by the "dangerous trades"? (Burch and Patterson,
+pages 176-177.)
+
+5. What is the extent of railway accidents in this country? (Burch and
+Patterson, pages 178-179.)
+
+6. What are the main causes of irregular earnings? (Taussig, page
+323.)
+
+7. What form of social insurance was first developed in this country?
+(Ely, page 588.)
+
+8. Outline the British Workmen's Compensation Act. (Taussig, page
+325.)
+
+9. What are the main features of the German system of old age
+insurance? (Taussig, page 331.)
+
+10. What difficulties are encountered in insuring workmen against
+unemployment? (Taussig, pages 337-340.)
+
+11. What is the "contributory principle" in social insurance? (Fetter,
+pages 363-364.)
+
+12. What are the chief objections to social insurance? (Ely, pages
+593-594.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+1. The extent of child labor in your state.
+
+2. Control of child labor by the laws of your state.
+
+3. The difficulties of enacting child labor legislation to cover the
+employment of children in agriculture. Interview some one familiar
+with farming conditions for data on this topic.
+
+4. Relation of child labor to the administration of the school
+attendance laws in your community.
+
+5. Extent to which women are employed in industrial establishments in
+your community or state.
+
+6. Interview a friendly employer on the relative desirability of men
+and women employees.
+
+7. The status of the minimum wage in your state.
+
+8. Social insurance in your state.
+
+9. Interview the officials of a trade union concerning the payment of
+sickness insurance by the union.
+
+10. The emergency treatment of injured workmen in a near-by mill or
+factory. Compare this treatment with the treatment outlined in the
+references which are appended to Topic 21.
+
+
+II.
+
+11. Causes of child labor. (Mangold, _Problems of Child Welfare,_ part
+iv, chapter i.)
+
+12. Effects of child labor. (Mangold, _Problems of Child Welfare,_
+part iv, chapter iii.)
+
+13. Women in industry. (Select some phase of this problem for report.
+Consult Butler, _Women and the Trades;_ MacLean, _Women _Workers and
+Society_; Kelley, _Some Ethical Gains through Legislation; Annals,_
+vol. lxv; Abbot, _Women in Industry,_ and similar works.)
+
+14. Relation of home conditions to industrial efficiency. (_Annals,_
+vol. lxv, pages 277-288.)
+
+15. Industrial efficiency of women compared with that of men. (Lee,
+_The Human Machine and Industrial Efficiency,_ chapter x.)
+
+16. Housing the unskilled worker. (Wood, The _Housing of the Unskilled
+Wage-earner._)
+
+17. Work of the National Housing Association. (Write to the
+association office in Washington, D. C., for descriptive literature.)
+
+18. Summary of Irving Fisher's report on national vitality. (_Bulletin
+of the Committee of One Hundred on National Health,_ etc., prepared
+for the National Conservation Commission, by Irving Fisher,
+Washington, 1909.)
+
+19. Preventable diseases. (Hutchinson, _Preventable Diseases._)
+
+20. Occupational diseases. (Oliver, _Diseases of Occupation._)
+
+21. How to act in case of an accident. (Gulick, _Emergencies; Tolman,
+Hygiene for the Worker,_ chapter xvi.)
+
+22. The right to leisure time. (Kelley, _Some Ethical Gains through
+Legislation,_ chapters in and iv.)
+
+23. Legal status of workmen's compensation. (_Annals_, vol. xxxviii,
+No. i, pages 117-168.)
+
+24. Health insurance. (Rubinow, _Standards of Health Insurance_,
+chapters iii and iv.)
+
+25. The police power. (Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the
+United States_, chapter xii.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+26. The minimum wage for men.
+
+27. Should old age and sickness insurance be made a feature of the
+social insurance program of your state?
+
+28. Should pensions be paid out of public funds to mothers having
+dependent children?
+
+29. Should labor legislation be enacted primarily by the Federal or by
+the state governments?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+IMMIGRATION AND ASSIMILATION
+
+
+215. RACIAL ELEMENTS IN OUR POPULATION.--The Federal census of 1920
+gave the population of continental United States as 105,710,620.
+Approximately nine tenths of this population is white, while about one
+tenth is negro. Those who are neither white nor negro, namely,
+American Indians and Asiatics, together constitute less than one half
+of one per cent of the population.
+
+The great majority of our people are either European immigrants, or
+the descendants of European immigrants who came to this country within
+the last century and a half. With reference to European immigration we
+distinguish three groups: the foreign-born, the native-born children
+of the foreign-born, and natives. Natives include those whose
+ancestors have been in this country two or more generations. On the
+basis of this classification, about one seventh of our population is
+foreign-born while over one third is either foreign-born or the
+native-born children of foreign-born parents.
+
+The ease with which immigrants have adapted themselves to American
+life prevents any accurate classification of nationalities in our
+population, but probably Great Britain and Ireland, Germany, Italy,
+Russia, (including Poland), and Austria-Hungary have, in the order
+named, contributed the largest numbers.
+
+216. THE "OLD" IMMIGRATION.--European immigration to the United States
+may be divided into two groups, the "old" and the "new." The "old"
+immigration extended from the beginning of our national history to
+about the year 1880, and was derived chiefly from Great Britain and
+Ireland, Germany, and the Scandinavian countries. Between 1820 (the
+first year for which we have accurate records) and 1880, about nine
+tenths of our immigrants came from these countries.
+
+The striking features of the "old" immigration should be noted. In
+comparison with present-day immigration, it was relatively small in
+volume. In view of the abundance here of free land, and our consequent
+need for pioneers, the small volume of immigration prevented the rise
+of any serious problem. Moreover, the "old" immigration was largely
+made up of individuals who were similar to the original American
+colonists in political ideals, social training, and economic
+background. The "old" immigration therefore merged with the native
+stock fairly easily and rapidly.
+
+217. THE "OLD" GIVES WAY TO THE "NEW" IMMIGRATION.--In the period
+centering about the year 1880 there was a distinct shift in the
+immigration movement. Whereas before 1880 most of our immigrants had
+been Anglo-Saxons and Teutons from northern Europe, after 1880 the
+majority of our immigrants were members of the Mediterranean and
+Slavic races from southern and southeastern Europe. Before 1880 about
+nine tenths of the aliens coming to our shores were from northern
+Europe and only one tenth were from southern and southeastern Europe.
+In the period since 1880, less than one fourth of our immigrants have
+come from northern Europe, while more than three fourths have been
+derived from southern and southeastern Europe. The bulk of this new
+immigration has come from Russia, Poland, Austria-Hungary, Greece,
+Turkey, Italy, and the Balkan countries.
+
+218. INCREASING VOLUME OF IMMIGRATION.--Since it is in connection with
+the "new" immigration that the modern immigration problem arises, it
+will be profitable to inquire more fully into the character of the
+movement after about 1880.
+
+Not only has the character of immigration changed since the eighties,
+but the volume of immigration has steadily increased. Of approximately
+35,000,000 immigrants who have come to our shores since 1800, more
+than half have come within the last thirty-five years. The peak of
+immigration was reached in the decade preceding the World War, when as
+many as a million and a quarter of immigrants landed in this country
+in a single year. This heavy flow was interrupted by the World War,
+but after the signing of the armistice in the fall of 1918, a heavy
+immigration again set in. [Footnote: Various classes of immigrants
+are excluded from the United States by the immigration laws summarized
+in section 223 of this chapter. In addition to these laws, which may
+be said to constitute the basis of our permanent immigration policy,
+President Harding signed, in May, 1921, a bill relative to the
+temporary exclusion of aliens who would ordinarily be admissible. This
+temporary exclusion act provided that between July 1, 1921, and June
+30, 1922, the number of immigrants entering the United States from any
+other country might not exceed three per cent of the former immigrants
+from that country who were within the bounds of the United States at
+the time of the last census.]
+
+219. DISTRIBUTION OF THE "NEW" IMMIGRATION.--One of the most
+significant facts in connection with the immigration problem is that
+our immigrant population is unequally distributed. About two thirds of
+the immigrants in this country are in the North Atlantic division;
+about a quarter of them are located in the North Central division;
+while less than one tenth are located in the western and southern
+sections of the country combined. Three fourths of our foreign-born
+live in the cities of the North Atlantic and North Central divisions.
+Forty per cent of the present population of New York City is foreign
+born, while in Boston and Chicago more than a third of the population
+is foreign born. In the smaller manufacturing cities of the North
+Atlantic division it often happens that from half to four fifths of
+the population is foreign born.
+
+220. ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION.--In the earlier part of our
+national history free land was abundant and immigration relatively
+small in volume; after the eighties free land disappeared and
+immigration increased rapidly. It was toward the end of the nineteenth
+century, therefore, that the economic aspect of the immigration
+problem became acute. In the last decades of that century
+manufacturing developed rapidly, and American cities became important
+centers of population. Large numbers of immigrants were attracted by
+the opportunities for employment in urban centers. An addition to this
+factor, immigrants continued to concentrate in the cities, partly
+because of the spirit of clannishness, partly because of the
+disappearance of free land, and partly because the development of
+agricultural machinery reduced the demand for agricultural laborers.
+Still another influence was the fact that the unfamiliar American farm
+was less attractive to the southern European immigrant than was the
+opportunity of performing unskilled labor in the city. To-day four
+fifths of our immigrants are unskilled laborers who are employed
+chiefly in mining, construction work, transportation, and domestic
+service.
+
+From the economic standpoint, the chief objection to unrestricted
+immigration is that it prevents the wages of American workmen from
+rising as rapidly as would otherwise be the case. The newly arrived
+immigrant usually has a lower standard of living than has the native
+American; that is to say, the immigrant is content with less in the
+way of food, clothing, house room and education than is the native.
+When newly arrived immigrants come into competition with native
+workmen, the immigrant generally offers to work for a lower wage than
+the native. But though relatively low, this wage is so much higher
+than the newly arrived immigrant has been used to, that he feels
+justified in marrying early and rearing a large family. This adds to
+the supply of unskilled labor.
+
+In order to compete with the recent immigrant, the native must accept
+relatively low wages. In order to get along on these relatively low
+wages, the native must either lower his standard of living or postpone
+marriage. Sometimes he has lowered his standard of living; sometimes
+he has preferred to retain his relatively high standard of living, and
+to get along on the decreased wage either by postponing marriage, or
+by permanently abandoning his plans for a normal family life. It is
+contended, therefore, that an oversupply of unskilled immigrant labor
+in this country has had at least two injurious results. First, it has
+kept the standard of living of American workmen from rising as rapidly
+as would otherwise have been possible. Second, it has caused the birth
+rate to decline among the native groups.
+
+221. SOCIAL EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION.--The tendency of immigrants to
+concentrate in American cities gives rise to a number of serious
+social problems. Urban congestion is unqualifiedly bad. It is
+difficult or impossible for immigrants living in crowded quarters to
+maintain proper health standards. Nor does overcrowding conduce to
+healthy morals. The foreign born do not show an unusual tendency
+toward crime, which is remarkable when we consider the immigrant's
+ignorance of our laws, as well as the ease with which unscrupulous
+persons exploit him. On the other hand, the children of the foreign
+born often show a strong tendency toward crime and vice, a fact which
+is attributed to the bad social conditions surrounding their homes.
+The percentage of dependency among immigrants is rather high. This is
+not surprising, however, for many immigrants must go through an
+adjustment period in which lack of financial reserves is likely to
+force them to call upon charitable agencies for temporary aid.
+
+222. DIFFICULTY OF ASSIMILATING THE "NEW" IMMIGRATION.--Those who made
+up the "old" immigration assimilated rapidly: they were relatively
+like the native stock in manners and customs, the volume of
+immigration was relatively small, and the newcomers spread out into
+frontier communities where habitual contact with natives was
+unavoidable.
+
+Those who make up the "new" immigration have assimilated less rapidly:
+they are relatively unlike the native stock in language, race, and
+customs; the volume of immigration is very great; and rather than
+being uniformly distributed, the "new" immigrants tend to concentrate
+in cities where they are often little subject to contact with natives.
+Members of foreign "colonies" not only tend to remain ignorant of
+American life, but unfamiliarity with self-government encourages their
+exploitation by political "bosses." It is admitted by the most careful
+students that the lack of proper civic ideals among unassimilated
+foreigners in American cities is a large element in the corruption of
+our municipal governments.
+
+223. RESTRICTIVE LEGISLATION.--Exclusive control of immigration is
+vested in the Federal government. During the Civil War Congress
+actually encouraged immigration, but since 1882 our policy has been
+one of restriction. In the latter year the first general immigration
+act was passed, though considerable legislation on the subject was
+already on the statute books. Supplementary laws were enacted from
+time to time, the most important piece of legislation since 1900 being
+the Immigration Act of 1917. A brief summary of this and previous acts
+will serve to show the nature and extent of Federal control over
+immigration.
+
+The chief aim of our immigration laws has been so to restrict
+immigration as to protect us against undesirable persons. In the
+interest of health, persons afflicted with contagious diseases, such
+as tuberculosis, and trachoma,--a virulent eye disease,--are excluded.
+Certain persons whose character is clearly immoral are excluded.
+Polygamists are excluded. The Act of 1917 excludes anarchists, and
+likewise bars from our shores all criminals, except those who have
+committed political offenses not recognized by the United States. In
+order to reduce unnecessary tax burdens, as well as to safeguard
+community health, we also exclude insane persons, idiots, epileptics,
+beggars, and other persons likely to become public charges. Contract
+laborers are specifically excluded, the Act of 1917 using the term
+"contract labor" to include anyone "induced, assisted, encouraged, or
+solicited" to come to this country "by any kind of promise or
+agreement, express or implied, true or false, to find employment."
+Persons over sixteen years of age are excluded from the United States
+if they cannot read English or some other language. [Footnote: Certain
+near relatives of admissible aliens, purely political offenders, and
+persons seeking refuge from religious persecution, are exempted from
+this literacy test, however.]
+
+The bars against Asiatics call for a special word.
+
+224. ASIATIC IMMIGRATION.--By Asiatic immigration is here meant
+Chinese and Japanese immigration, immigrants from other parts of Asia
+being relatively unimportant.
+
+The discovery of gold in California in 1849 caused a large number of
+Chinese coolies to migrate to this country. This immigration grew
+steadily until 1882, in which year the entrance of Chinese laborers
+into the United States was forbidden. Our exclusion policy has been
+repeatedly reaffirmed, as the result of which there are to-day fewer
+than 70,000 Chinese in this country. The majority of these are found
+on the Pacific Coast, engaged as small tradesmen, truck farmers, or
+personal servants.
+
+Japanese immigration to this country did not become noticeable until
+about 1900. After that date, however, the volume of Japanese
+immigration so alarmed the Pacific Coast states that a Japanese
+exclusion policy was formulated as early as 1907. At present the only
+classes of Japanese that are allowed to reside in this country
+permanently are "former residents," "parents, wives or children of
+residents," or "settled agriculturists," the latter being Japanese
+already in possession of land here. There are at present fewer than
+120,000 Japanese in this country. Most of them are found on the
+Pacific Coast, engaged in occupations similar to those of the Chinese
+in the same area. [Footnote: Chinese and Japanese students desiring to
+study in this country are allowed to enter the United States by
+special arrangement.]
+
+Those most familiar with the situation are practically unanimous in
+declaring for the continued exclusion of Chinese and Japanese
+immigrants. In the case of both races, the standard of living is so
+much lower than that of native Americans that open competition between
+the newly arrived Asiatic and the native American would result in the
+latter being driven from the labor market. The most important social
+reason for the exclusion of these two races is that the differences of
+race and religion existing between Asiatics and native Americans
+render assimilation of the Chinese and Japanese extremely difficult,
+if not impossible.
+
+225. THE FUTURE OF IMMIGRATION.--A half century ago the belief was
+current that an immigration policy was unnecessary, since the sources
+of immigration would eventually dry up. The sources of the "old"
+immigration have dried up somewhat, but new sources have been opened
+up in southern and southeastern Europe. Immigration is a pressing
+social problem, and it is likely that it will be even more pressing in
+the future. The American frontier has disappeared and our boundaries
+are fixed. Urbanization is proceeding at a rapid rate, industry is
+becoming more complex, public opinion is more insistent that such
+social problems as immigration shall be solved.
+
+226. WHAT SHALL BE OUR ATTITUDE TOWARD IMMIGRATION?--There is no good
+reason why immigration should be absolutely prohibited. On the other
+hand, the most public-spirited students of the question believe that
+the careful restriction of immigration is imperative. Clearly, it is
+our duty to accept only such immigrants as show promise of becoming
+capable and efficient American citizens. It is also clearly our duty
+to accept even this type of immigrant only in such numbers as we can
+conveniently assimilate. We must not be selfish with America, but we
+should not be misled by the statement that anyone in Europe has a
+"right" to make his home in this country. Those who come to this
+country are personally benefited, no doubt, but unrestricted
+immigration may lower the tone of American life and permanently injure
+our social and political institutions. America is for the present
+generation, but is also for posterity. The millions of unborn have as
+much right to be considered as have the millions now clamoring at our
+gates. For this reason, the "right" of an individual to migrate to
+America must be interpreted in the light of what he will mean to the
+future of this country.
+
+227. HELPING THE IMMIGRANT IN HIS NEW HOME.--The readjustment,
+assimilation, or "Americanization" of the immigrant is a problem of
+vital importance. The term "Americanization" is variously interpreted,
+and must be used with care. Americanization ought not to force the
+immigrant to give up his native tongue, or his old-country customs. It
+ought to be a mutually helpful process, whereby native Americans would
+help the immigrant in adjusting himself to his new environment, while,
+in turn, the immigrant would be permitted and encouraged to make his
+own contribution to American life. Since the immigrant has little or
+no opportunity to contribute to American life until he has become
+adjusted to his new home, it follows that the most fundamental part of
+an Americanization program is one of helping the immigrant solve his
+problems.
+
+In carrying out this part of the Americanization program it is
+essential that the newly arrived alien be protected against
+unscrupulous persons who seek to exploit him. Adequate laws ought to
+be supplemented by the work of immigrant aid societies and other
+private organizations whose duty it would be to protect immigrants
+against dishonest boarding houses, swindlers, unreliable banks, and
+other forms of imposition. Friendly help of this type will do much
+toward encouraging and inspiring the alien in his new life.
+
+Improvement in the immigrant's economic status is an important part of
+an Americanization program. Not only does the undue concentration of
+immigrants in cities spell ill-health and a great temptation to crime
+and vice, but immigrant laborers sometimes secure lower wages in
+cities than they would receive in the more sparsely settled parts of
+the country. Of considerable interest, therefore, is the recent
+development of plans for redistributing immigrants into the rural and
+sparsely populated districts. [Footnote: The movement to transfer
+immigrants to the rural districts is not unqualifiedly good; indeed,
+it may do more harm than good. For the dangers of this movement, see
+Chapter XXV.] Since 1907 the Division of Information in the Bureau of
+Labor Statistics has done valuable work in finding employment for
+immigrants in rural districts. Much remains to be done, however.
+
+The school, of course, is an important agent of Americanization.
+Whether or not the immigrant retains his old-country language, he
+ought to learn to speak, read and write English. The school is
+likewise an important means of instructing the newcomers and their
+children in the essentials of American history and government. Where
+the school is being used as a real community center, the institution
+becomes truly a method of introducing the foreign-born to the everyday
+activities of American life. The increasing emphasis upon the racial
+traits of different immigrant groups, with a view to encouraging
+unique contributions to the culture of the community, deserves special
+notice.
+
+Americanization measures of the type touched upon in this section help
+to build the nation on a sound foundation of friendly and intelligent
+coöperation.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What proportion of our population is foreign-born? What proportion
+is native?
+
+2. Distinguish between the "old" and the "new" immigration.
+
+3. Describe the increasing volume of immigration.
+
+4. Outline the distribution of immigrants in this country.
+
+5. What are the economic effects of immigration?
+
+6. Explain the relation of immigration to the wages and standard of
+living of American workmen.
+
+7. What are the social effects of immigration?
+
+8. What factors impede the assimilation of the "new" immigrants?
+
+9. What classes of aliens are excluded from this country? What is
+"contract labor"?
+
+10. What is the nature of Asiatic immigration? Why are Asiatics
+excluded?
+
+11. Does it seem likely that the immigration problem will be more or
+less acute in the future? Why?
+
+12. What should be our attitude toward immigration?
+
+13. What is the chief aim of a good Americanization program?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xx.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. _Annals_ of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,
+vol. xciii, pages 134-138, 156-161.
+
+3. Burch and Patterson, _American Social Problems_, chapters ix and x.
+
+4. Ellwood, _Sociology and Modern Social Problems_, chapter x.
+
+5. Roberts, _The Problem of Americanization_, chapters iii and iv.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Define a foreigner. (_Annals_, page 135.)
+
+2. What is Professor Walker's theory of immigration? (Burch and
+Patterson, pages 95-96.)
+
+3. Compare the "old" and the "new" immigration in 1882. (Ellwood, page
+217.)
+
+4. Compare the "old" and the "new" immigration in 1907. (Ellwood, page
+218.)
+
+5. What are the three most important groups of immigrants at the
+present time? (Burch and Patterson, pages 108-111.)
+
+6. What is the extent of illiteracy among the immigrant population?
+(Burch and Patterson, pages 115-116.)
+
+7. Discuss the occupational distribution of immigrants. (Ellwood,
+pages 223-224.)
+
+8. What is the "racial" argument against unrestricted immigration?
+(Ellwood, pages 234-235.)
+
+9. How can the average citizen help in the Americanization movement?
+(Roberts, pages 45-47.)
+
+10. Why should the Americanization worker make himself familiar with
+the condition under which the immigrant works? (Roberts, pages 48-53.)
+
+11. What is the significance of the club life of immigrant groups?
+(Roberts, pages 57-61.)
+
+12. What is the importance of the "advisory council" in
+Americanization work? (Roberts, pages 86-87.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+1. Classify the residents of your community according as they are (a)
+Foreign born (b) Native-born children of foreign-born parents, or (c)
+Natives.
+
+2. Study your community with the aim of determining whether or not the
+character of its immigrant class has changed within the last twenty-
+five years.
+
+3. Classify the immigrant groups of your community on the basis of
+occupation. Notice in particular the proportion of immigrants engaged
+in agriculture and in the trained professions.
+
+4. Make a visit to a near-by foreign colony, and report to the class
+upon your observations.
+
+5. Interview the officials of a trade union on the effect of
+Unrestricted immigration upon wages.
+
+6. Draw up a workable plan for the redistribution of immigrants in
+your state.
+
+7. Draw up a plan for an Americanization survey in your state. (Write
+to the Bureau of Education in the U. S. Department of the Interior,
+for Bulletin, 1919, No. 77, on State Americanization.)
+
+8. Race elements in the population of the American colonies. (Commons,
+_Races and Immigrants in America_, chapter ii.)
+
+9. History of immigration to the United States. (Any standard text on
+immigration.)
+
+10. The journey to America. (Abbot, _The Immigrant and the Community_,
+chapter i; Steiner, _On the trail of the Immigrant_; Antin, _They Who
+Knock at Our Gates_. See also Miss Antin's _The Promised Land_.)
+
+11. Assisted immigration. (R. Mayo Smith, _Emigration and
+Immigration_, chapter ix.)
+
+12. Geographical distribution of immigration. (Semple, _American
+History and its Geographic Conditions_, chapter xv.)
+
+13. Economic aspects of immigration. (Consult any standard text on
+immigration.)
+
+14. "Birds of passage." (Consult any standard text on immigration.)
+
+15. Immigration and the trade unions. (Carlton, _History and Problems
+of Organized Labor_, chapter xi. See also any standard text on
+immigration.)
+
+16. Social aspects of immigration. (Consult any standard text on
+immigration.)
+
+17. Political aspects of immigration. (Consult any standard text on
+immigration.)
+
+18. Chinese immigration. (Coolidge, _Chinese Immigration_; Hall,
+_Immigration_, chapter xv; Jenks and Lauck, _The Immigration Problem_,
+pages 231-237; _Annals_, vol. xciii, pages 7-13; Gulick, _American
+Democracy and Asiatic Citizenship_.)
+
+19. Japanese immigration. (_Annals_, vol. xciii, part i; Jenks and
+Lauck, _The Immigration Problem_, pages 241-252; Steiner, _The
+Japanese Invasion_; Gulick, _American Democracy and Asiatic
+Citizenship_.)
+
+20. Americanization. (_Annals_, vol. xciii, part in; Woods, _Americans
+in Process_; Steiner, _From Alien to Citizen_; Bogardus, _Essentials
+of Americanization_; Roberts, _The Problem of Americanization_)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+21. Is assisted immigration an evil?
+
+22. Can immigrants be redistributed effectively by governmental
+agencies?
+
+23. Should we retain the literacy test as part of our immigration
+policy?
+
+24. At the present time many aliens journey across the Atlantic only
+to find that, for various reasons, they cannot be admitted to this
+country. How might the resulting disappointment and loss of time and
+money be avoided?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+CRIME AND CORRECTION
+
+
+228. THE NATURE OF CRIME.--A crime is an act which is punishable by
+law because it is considered injurious to the community. If the
+average man were a hermit, living entirely alone, his actions would
+affect only himself, and he would be subjected to little or no control
+by any community. But the average man is a member of a highly
+civilized community, and what he does, or what he fails to do, often
+profoundly affects other individuals. Members of the community
+therefore agree upon standards of conduct, to which individuals must
+conform. [Footnote: Where democracy does not exist, or is only
+partially developed, laws may be imposed upon the group from without.
+In such a country as the United States, however, legal standards of
+conduct are preeminently the result of mutual agreements, freely
+entered into.] It is the failure to conform to these standards which
+constitutes a crime, and which entails punishment by law.
+
+What constitutes a crime depends, of course, upon the level of
+civilization reached by a community, and upon the interpretation which
+it places upon right conduct. A deed considered heroic in one age may
+be considered a crime in a later century. In the days of chivalry, for
+example, it was sometimes considered heroic to rob or even kill wicked
+nobles in order to distribute their wealth to the poor. At the present
+time, of course, such acts would constitute a crime.
+
+229. THE CAUSES OF CRIME.--The causes of crime are so various and so
+complex that their accurate classification is impossible. But some
+light may be thrown upon the subject if we think of crime as
+influenced by economic, social, personal, and political factors.
+
+Looking at crime from an economic point of view, it is obvious that
+poverty often accompanies crime. In many cases, it is claimed, such
+crimes as larceny, forgery, and robbery are directly traceable to
+poverty. Similarly, it is said that unemployment and industrial
+accidents may incite individuals to crime. Many authorities claim,
+however, that while bad economic conditions accompany and often
+encourage crime, such conditions alone are not a direct cause of
+crime. According to this latter view, poverty, for example, will not
+cause a person to commit a crime unless he is feeble-minded, depraved
+in morals, or otherwise defective in character.
+
+While there is a good deal of dispute as to whether or not poverty is
+a direct cause of crime, it is quite generally agreed that a bad
+economic situation gives rise to social conditions which can be
+definitely connected with criminality. The strain and artificiality of
+urban life, together with the difficulty of obtaining inexpensive and
+wholesome recreation in the poorer sections of large cities, has a
+close connection with crime. The overcrowding so common in tenement
+districts renders difficult or impossible the maintenance of high
+moral standards. Where mother or children are habitually employed
+outside the home, the young are often denied proper home training.
+Divorce, desertion, or the death of the bread-winner may break up the
+family and indirectly give rise to illiteracy, vice, and crime.
+
+Often indistinguishable from the social causes are the personal causes
+of crime. Where alcoholism or vicious habits are given as the cause of
+crime, it may be impossible to say whether social or personal defect
+is primarily to blame. Illiteracy, superficially a _personal_ cause of
+crime, may often be traced to a bad _social_ environment. Thus an
+individual may be illiterate because his parents were unwilling or
+unable to send him to school, or because evil companions discouraged
+him from study. Such personal causes as mental defect are extremely
+important, indeed, many students maintain that bad economic and social
+conditions are negligible causes of crime, unless found in connection
+with low mentality and a depraved moral sense.
+
+Last among the causes of crime we may consider defects in government.
+The laws of a community may be so numerous, or so unwisely worded,
+that even responsible individuals violate them without understanding
+the nature of their act. After children have committed petty offenses
+through carelessness or a sense of mischief, the harshness of the
+police may so embitter or antagonize the culprits that their criminal
+tendencies are intensified. An important cause of crime is the custom,
+still common in many states, of imprisoning young and first offenders
+in county jails, where they are allowed to mingle with, and learn
+about crime from, hardened and depraved criminals.
+
+230. THE REMEDIES FOR CRIME.--The causes of crime suggest the nature
+of its remedies. Wherever bad economic conditions either directly or
+indirectly encourage crime, the remedy is, of course, the relief or
+abolition of poverty. This problem has already been discussed.
+
+Since bad social conditions are often the result of poverty, any
+measures which will lessen poverty will also remove many of the so-
+called social causes of crime. Education, the safeguarding of the
+home, constructive charity, and similar measures will also help to
+remove the social causes of crime. These questions are discussed
+elsewhere in this text, and need not be gone into here.
+
+The improvement of economic and social conditions will ultimately help
+to eliminate bad heredity, vice, and other of the personal causes of
+crime.
+
+With the understanding, then, that the eradication of the economic,
+social and personal causes of crime is discussed elsewhere, we may
+here confine ourselves to the question of preventing crime by
+remedying the defects of government.
+
+231. JUSTICE AS AN IDEAL.--Justice has constituted one of the basic
+ideals of the English-speaking peoples since the days of Magna Charta.
+"To no one will we sell, and to no one will we refuse or delay, right
+or justice," declared that great document. This conception was later
+glorified into an ideal which, after having persisted for four
+centuries in England, was brought to the New World by the English
+colonists. The first ten amendments to the Federal Constitution and
+the Bill of Rights contained in the constitutions of the several
+states have been called by Lord Bryce "the legitimate children of
+Magna Charta." Since the beginning of our history, thus, a great
+cornerstone of American democracy has been the concept of sound and
+equitable law, impartially and effectively administered.
+
+232. THE DENIAL OF JUSTICE.--Within the last decade we have come to
+realize that in many of the criminal courts of this country justice is
+an ideal rather than a fact. "The administration of criminal law in
+all the states of this Union," said Chief Justice Taft a few years
+ago, "is a disgrace to civilization."
+
+Our criminal law is administered unjustly in two ways.
+
+First, it sometimes allows the rich, the cunning, and the powerful
+offenders to escape the penalty for their crimes. In many states the
+court dockets are so crowded that influential offenders are not
+convicted for years, if at all. Rich prisoners may be released on
+bail, and consideration of their case so delayed that the evidence
+disappears. Public interest is diverted to new cases, and eventually
+the case may be quietly dismissed. Mr. Taft points out that we lead
+the world in the number of serious crimes which go unpunished. Appeals
+are allowed almost as a matter of course, so that in many serious
+criminal trials the original verdict is only the beginning of the
+case.
+
+Second, the law which often allows the powerful and crafty to avoid
+punishment may operate to deny justice to the poor. Ignorant prisoners
+are in many cases so bewildered by cumbersome and technical court
+procedure that they allow their cases to be disposed of without
+adequate protection of their rights. Often they have no one to advise
+them as to their constitutional rights and privileges. If they are not
+only ignorant but poor, they find themselves unable to employ proper
+counsel. The Constitution indeed recognizes the right of an accused
+person to have counsel, but in many states if a man is too poor or too
+ignorant to secure a lawyer, he is obliged to stand trial without
+anyone to represent or advise him. In some states, the court appoints
+a lawyer to represent such defendants. Sometimes the assigned counsel
+is dishonest, and too often his primary object is to get a fee rather
+than to secure justice for his client. Generally the counsel so
+appointed is inexperienced, and consequently no match for an able and
+experienced prosecuting attorney, whose reputation may depend upon the
+number of convictions that he secures.
+
+233. THE REFORM OF CRIMINAL PROCEDURE.--The reform of criminal
+procedure is assuming great importance as a problem of American
+democracy. In many states there is a demand for a wider and more
+energetic use of the Bertillon and finger print systems for the
+identification of criminals. Because of the fact that in our large
+cities a heavy percentage of crimes are committed without the
+subsequent arrest of the culprit, there is a growing demand for the
+improvement of our police systems. Our criminal law needs to be
+simplified, so that justice may not be delayed by technicalities, long
+arguments on the admissibility of evidence, and the abuse of the right
+of appeal. Probably a good many of the delays and technicalities of
+legal procedure could be avoided if at the trial the judge were to
+exercise a greater amount of control over the proceedings.
+
+The reform of criminal procedure has a double aim. First, it aims to
+reorganize and perfect criminal procedure so that persons who have
+committed an offense will be apprehended and always made to pay the
+penalty for their crimes. Toward the achievement of this ideal we have
+as yet done very little. We are still woefully behind such a country
+as England, where justice is administered with relative rapidity and
+sureness. Second, the reform of criminal procedure aims to prevent the
+law from bearing with undue weight upon the poor and ignorant. Here we
+are making greater progress. Let us notice what is being done to
+guarantee justice to persons who are unable adequately to safeguard
+their own legal rights.
+
+234. THE LEGAL AID SOCIETY.--A valuable institution is the legal aid
+society, which originated in New York City in 1876, and which has
+since spread to other parts of the country. Of the forty legal aid
+societies now in existence in this country, some of the better known
+are located in New York City, Los Angeles, Kansas City, Boston, and
+Chicago. The legal aid society is generally a private organization,
+created and maintained by public-spirited citizens who believe that
+the poor and ignorant ought to be given legal advice free of charge,
+or upon the payment of a nominal fee. These societies extend advice on
+both civil and criminal matters. The legal aid society helps
+materially to secure justice by acquainting the individual with his
+legal rights, and by acting as his counsel in court. Such
+organizations are especially valuable in safeguarding the rights and
+privileges of immigrants in large cities. The total number of persons
+helped annually by legal aid societies in the United States is over
+100,000.
+
+235. THE PUBLIC DEFENDER.--The Public Defender movement is an
+outgrowth of the feeling that it is unfair for the court to assign an
+inexperienced and sometimes unreliable lawyer to defend a penniless
+prisoner, while the case is prosecuted by a skilful district attorney.
+In spite of the presumption that the prisoner is innocent until he is
+proved guilty, such practices as this have operated as though the
+prisoner were presumed to be guilty.
+
+In 1912 Oklahoma attempted to remedy this evil by appointing a Public
+Defender whose duty it should be to aid in the defense of persons
+unable to employ counsel. The next year the city of Los Angeles
+appointed a Public Defender who, as a sworn public counsel of
+experience and integrity, makes it his business to defend poor
+prisoners without charge. A few years later, Portland, Oregon, and
+Omaha, Nebraska, appointed similar officers. Since 1916 many other
+cities, and a few states, have provided for a Public Defender of some
+kind, although in many cases the provision is as yet inadequate. In
+all cities in which the plan has been given a trial, the Public
+Defender has been instrumental in securing justice for the poor, and
+in raising the moral tone of the criminal trial. By eliminating much
+unnecessary delay from the criminal trial, the Public Defender has
+also helped to reduce court expenses.
+
+236. CHANGING IDEALS IN PENOLOGY.--In the early stages of society the
+spirit of revenge seems to have been a chief motive in the punishment
+of criminals, although the desire to prevent crime must also have been
+a factor. With the progress of civilization revenge declined in
+importance, and the punishment of the criminal seems to have been
+undertaken chiefly for the purpose of preventing future crimes. Long
+periods of imprisonment, inhuman punishments, and the frequent use of
+the death penalty were characteristic of this attitude toward crime.
+Curiously enough, punishments were imposed according to the
+seriousness of the crime committed, without regard to the character
+and needs of the criminal.
+
+Of recent years the theory of punishment has been still further
+modified. In the first place, we have begun to doubt if punishment
+always serves a useful purpose. Punishment does not always deter
+criminals, and for this reason it is likely that the death penalty and
+other cruel and inhuman methods of punishment may be dispensed with,
+without a resultant increase in the amount of crime. In the second
+place, punishment has taken on a new aim. More and more we are coming
+to believe that it should be imposed, not according to the seriousness
+of the crime committed, but according as the individual criminal needs
+to be punished in order to effect his reformation. This new attitude
+is based upon the assumption that the criminal is a person who is not
+adapted to the conditions of modern life, and that the chief aim of
+the authorities should be so to reform him that he will become a
+useful member of society. In case reform seems impossible, the
+criminal should be segregated in an institution.
+
+237. INDIVIDUALIZED TREATMENT OF OFFENDERS.--The emphasis now placed
+upon reformation has made necessary a new point of view on the part of
+the public. We are beginning to make use of a mass of data furnished
+by physiology, psychology, and sociology, and on the basis of these
+data to subject prisoners to individualized treatment. Instead of
+herding all offenders into a single institution such as the county
+jail or the penitentiary, we are beginning to inquire, first of all,
+whether the prisoner might not be treated most effectively outside
+prison walls. For those offenders who seem to require institutional
+treatment, we are developing a whole series of institutions, designed
+to care for special types of abnormality. Industrial and farm colonies
+for petty offenders and occasional criminals, hospitals and colonies
+for the mentally defective, industrial schools and reformatories for
+certain types of juvenile offenders, and penitentiaries for hardened
+offenders, all these are included in the correctional system of the
+more progressive states.
+
+238. SUBSTITUTES FOR IMPRISONMENT.--The belief is growing that young
+offenders, first offenders, and those committing petty crimes, may
+often be corrected without actual imprisonment. Increasingly common is
+the probation system, the essence of which is to suspend the sentence
+of the court upon certain conditions. The offender is placed in charge
+of a court officer who will stand in the relation of friend and
+guardian to him, in order to supervise his conduct and to attempt his
+reformation. The success of the probation system depends largely upon
+the care and judgment with which probation officers control their
+charges.
+
+The use of the fine deserves mention. Generally the sentence for a
+petty offense is a fine, with imprisonment as an alternative in case
+the prisoner is unable to pay the fine. Realizing the corrupting
+influence of the jail sentence for first or slight offenders, court
+officials in many cities are making the payment of the fine less
+difficult. In Buffalo, Indianapolis, Chicago, and other cities it is
+customary in some cases to allow the payment of a fine in instalments.
+This ultimately secures the fine; it has a disciplinary effect upon
+the offender; and it keeps him out of jail.
+
+239. MENTAL DEFECTIVES.--Recent progress in medicine and psychology
+has demonstrated that many criminals are mentally defective. Such
+persons are not fully responsible for their acts, and nothing is to be
+gained by committing them to prison. They need special treatment in
+institutions for the insane, the feeble-minded, and the otherwise
+defective. In recognition of this fact, the criminal courts of our
+larger cities now make extensive use of psychopathic experts. It is
+the duty of these experts to determine the mental status of the
+prisoner, and, in case he is found to be mentally defective, to
+recommend the type of treatment needed.
+
+This is an admirable development, provided care is taken to prevent
+the abuse of the insanity plea by influential criminals who, though
+normal mentally, seek to evade responsibility for their deliberate
+crimes.
+
+240. THE JUVENILE OFFENDER.--It has been proved that a large
+percentage of hardened criminals begin their careers by some careless
+or mischievous act for which they were severely or unwisely punished.
+Formerly, juvenile offenders were treated much as were adult
+criminals; more recently we are coming to believe that children ought
+not to be committed to penal institutions, but rather should be put on
+probation, or sent to correctional institutions of a special type.
+Wherever possible, institutional treatment of every kind ought to be
+avoided, for the crimes of children are clearly in a different class
+from those of the adult. In New York City a few years ago, for
+example, half the children brought into court were there because of
+the lack of recreation facilities. Petty theft and malicious mischief
+are often traceable to bad home influences and the unnatural
+surroundings of the city. These circumstances, coupled with the fact
+that immature children are often unaware of the seriousness of their
+lawless acts, justify the special treatment of the juvenile offender.
+
+241. THE JUVENILE COURT.--The juvenile court has been created to meet
+the special needs of the youthful offender. An early institution of
+this kind was established in Chicago in 1889. Shortly afterward Denver
+established a juvenile court, and since then many other cities have
+taken up the idea. In some states county judges are authorized to
+suspend the ordinary rules of procedure where the defendant is under
+eighteen years of age.
+
+A typical juvenile court provides separate judges and separate
+hearings for youthful prisoners. It avoids publicity, investigates the
+home life of the youthful offender, and attempts by kindly treatment
+to guide him back into a wholesome, honest life. In some cases
+delinquent children are sent back to school, in other cases they are
+placed on probation, in still other cases special institutional
+treatment is provided. Every effort is made to keep juvenile offenders
+from associating with habitual criminals. The aim of the court is not
+to punish the offender for a particular offense, but to weigh all the
+circumstances which have influenced his life, and to correct his wrong
+tendencies. Work of this type is preventive in the fullest sense of
+the word.
+
+242. THE INDETERMINATE SENTENCE.--The realization that punishment
+ought to fit the criminal rather than the crime has led to the
+indeterminate sentence. Though not yet widely applied, this reform is
+attracting more and more attention. A logical application of the
+indeterminate sentence would require prisoners to be committed to
+prison, not for a specific term, but for an indefinite period. The
+actual length of the prison term would depend upon the prison record
+of the individual, and upon the promise that he showed of becoming a
+useful and normal citizen if released. According to this plan,
+occasional criminals, and persons enticed or forced into wrong-doing,
+would be entitled to release (regardless of the character of the
+crime) as soon as it became apparent that they would not repeat the
+offense. Hardened criminals, on the other hand, might remain in prison
+permanently, even though committed for a trifling offense. Certainly
+we ought not to continue to commit and to re-commit hardened criminals
+for short terms, when their past conduct proves that they have neither
+the intention nor the ability to make proper use of their freedom.
+
+243. THE FUNCTION OF THE MODERN PRISON.--In addition to the principle
+of the indeterminate sentence, modern penology has approved a whole
+series of supplementary measures. The ideal prison of to-day is not a
+gloomy dungeon, but a great plant which attempts to turn criminals
+into useful citizens through the use of the school, the chapel, the
+workshop, the gymnasium, the library, and even the theatre.
+Discipline, the fundamental weakness of offenders against the law, is
+a cornerstone of prison life. More and more prisons are adopting the
+merit system, according to which prisoners are graded and promoted to
+additional privileges on the basis of behavior. In many prisons these
+privileges may include an "honor system" and "inmate self-government."
+The prison attempts to supply the deficiencies in the convict's early
+training. Prisoners are taught to take care of their bodies. They are
+taught useful trades, according to their abilities. If illiterate they
+may go to the prison school. Religious exercises and moral instruction
+are employed to develop a sense of moral values.
+
+When consistent good behavior and earnest endeavor in prison duties
+indicate that the prisoner is entitled to another chance in the
+outside world, he may be paroled, that is to say, he may be released
+on certain conditions. Generally prisoners are not paroled until some
+person is found who will guarantee them employment. In many states the
+work of the parole board is ably supplemented by unofficial prisoners'
+aid societies which help the released man to readjust himself to a
+free life. After a certain period of satisfactory conduct on parole
+the prisoner is entitled to a full and unconditional discharge. The
+whole aim of the parole system is to supervise the actions of the
+prisoner, without adding to his irritation or humiliation, but with
+sufficient strictness to guard him against temptation and to replace
+him in prison if he proves unworthy of the trust bestowed upon him.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What is a crime?
+
+2. In what way may bad economic conditions be connected with crime?
+
+3. What are the social causes of crime? What are the personal causes?
+
+4. In what way are defects of government related to crime?
+
+5. Summarize the remedies for crime.
+
+6. Trace the influence of Magna Charta upon our ideal of justice.
+
+7. How does the administration of our criminal law often result in
+injustice?
+
+8. Why is it necessary to reform our criminal procedure?
+
+9. What is the nature and function of the legal aid society?
+
+10. What is a Public Defender? How does he help secure justice?
+
+11. Trace the development of the theory of punishment.
+
+12. What is the purpose of the "individualized treatment of
+offenders"?
+
+13. What is the function of a probation system?
+
+14. How should mentally defective criminals be treated?
+
+15. Describe the work of the Juvenile Court.
+
+16. Outline the purpose of the indeterminate sentence.
+
+17. What are the chief functions of a modern prison?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xxi.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States_, chapter
+xiii.
+
+3. Lewis, _The Offender_, part iii, chapter i.
+
+4. Smith, _Justice and the Poor_, pages 105-127.
+
+5. Wines, _Punishment and Reformation_, chapter ii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Distinguish between crime, vice and sin. (Wines, page 11.)
+
+2. Define criminal law. (Wines, page 12.)
+
+3. What is the distinction between public and private wrongs?
+(Guitteau, pages 140-141.)
+
+4. What are the first steps in a criminal action? (Guitteau, pages
+142-143.)
+
+5. What is an indictment? (Guitteau, page 143.)
+
+6. Outline the steps in a criminal trial. (Guitteau, pages 144-146.)
+
+7. What is a sumptuary law? (Wines, page 7.)
+
+8. What are the eight distinct protections afforded by our criminal
+law? (Smith, page 108.)
+
+9. What is the great defect of these protections? (Smith, page 111.)
+
+10. What can be said as to the future development of the Public
+Defender movement? (Smith, page 127.)
+
+11. Is the average age of offenders declining or increasing? (Lewis,
+page 254.)
+
+12. What is the relation of the school to crime? (Lewis, pages 262-
+270.)
+
+13. What is the relation of recreational facilities to crime? (Lewis,
+pages 276-285.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Make a classification of the criminal courts of your state.
+
+2. The use of psychopathic experts in the criminal courts of your
+state.
+
+3. Make a study of a near-by county jail. (Compare data gathered with
+Queen, _The Passing of the County Jail_.)
+
+4. The legal aid bureau in your state.
+
+5. The parole system in your state.
+
+6. Classify the correctional institutions in your state. What types of
+offenders are sent to each?
+
+7. Interview, or write to, a prison official in your state regarding
+the practicability of the indeterminate sentence.
+
+
+II
+
+8. Criminal law procedure in England. (_Annals_, vol. lii, pages 200-
+207; Kaye, _Readings in Civil Government_, pages 328-335.)
+
+9. Criminal law procedure in the United States. (Beard, _American
+Government and Politics_, pages 568-577.)
+
+10. Defects in the enforcement of the law. (Reinsch, _Readings on
+American State Government_, pages 173-181.)
+
+11. The courts and the criminal. (Osborne, _Society and Prisons_,
+chapter ii; Lewis, _The Offender_, part i, chapter iii.)
+
+12. Reform of criminal procedure in the United States. (_Annals_, vol.
+lii, pages 102-107.)
+
+13. The county jail. (Queen, _The Passing of the County Jail_.)
+
+14. Crime prevention from the standpoint of the police. (Woods, _Crime
+Prevention_; Lewis, _The Offender_, part ii, chapter ii; _Annals_,
+vol. lii, pages 56-60.)
+
+15. Overcrowding in its relation to crime. (Riis, _The Battle with the
+Slum_; Addams, _The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets_.)
+
+16. Juvenile crime. (Mangold, _Problems of Child Welfare_, Part V.)
+
+17. The Junior Republic. (George, _The Junior Republic_.)
+
+18. The work of Judge Ben Lindsay of Denver. (Consult an
+encyclopedia.)
+
+19. The legal aid society. (Smith, _Justice and the Poor_, part iii.)
+
+20. The Public Defender. (Smith, _Justice and the Poor_, pages 105-
+130.)
+
+21. Probation and parole. (Lewis, _The Offender_, part i, chapter v.)
+
+22. The Jukes. (Dugdale, _The Jukes_.)
+
+23. The Kallikak family. (Goddard, _The Kallikak Family_.)
+
+24. The criminal theories of Lombroso. (Consult an encyclopedia.)
+
+25. Modern prison systems. (Henderson, _Modern Prison Systems_.
+Individual students may be assigned to the study of the prison systems
+of particular countries.)
+
+26. Industrial training in prison. (Lewis, _The Offender_, part i,
+chapters x and xii; _Annals_, vol. xlvi.)
+
+27. The discharged convict. (Booth, _After Prison, What_?)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+28. Is crime increasing in the United States?
+
+29. The practicability of the indeterminate sentence.
+
+30. Should capital punishment be abolished?
+
+31. Advantages and disadvantages of the "honor system" in prison.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+THE NEGRO
+
+
+244. ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN NEGRO.--Early in the seventeenth century
+the scarcity of labor in the American colonies led to the introduction
+of African Negroes as slaves. In response to the demand for slave
+labor on the southern plantations, the importation of Negroes
+increased steadily during the next century. The slave trade was
+nominally abolished in 1808, but Negroes continued to be brought in
+until the Civil War period. In September, 1862, President Lincoln
+proclaimed abolished both the slave trade and the institution of
+slavery in the United States. The legality of this act was
+substantiated in 1865 by the Thirteenth Amendment to the Federal
+Constitution.
+
+245. RISE OF THE NEGRO PROBLEM.--The Emancipation Proclamation,
+followed by the Thirteenth Amendment, conferred freedom upon four
+million slaves. In 1868 the Fourteenth Amendment made the freed
+Negroes citizens of the United States, and in 1870 the Fifteenth
+Amendment enfranchised them. Largely as the result of these measures,
+the problem of the slave developed into the present Negro problem. The
+racial differences between the white and the Negro, as well as the
+demoralizing effects of slavery, promised to render difficult the
+adjustment of the Negro to American life. The situation was made more
+serious by the suddenness of emancipation, and by the fact that the
+vote was extended the Negroes before most of them were ready for it.
+The economic, social, and political upheaval effected in the South by
+the war, together with the bitterness with which many southern white
+men regarded the newly freed Negroes, also contributed to the
+difficulty of the situation. Lastly, the Negro became a problem
+because of the lack of a national program in his behalf.
+
+246. NUMBERS AND DISTRIBUTION.--In 1920 the Federal census gave
+10,463,131 as the Negro population of the United States. According to
+these figures the Negro constitutes slightly less than one tenth of
+our total population. Eighty-five per cent of the Negroes live in the
+South. In Mississippi and South Carolina the Negro exceeds the white
+population, while in several other southern states the Negro
+constitutes from one fourth to one half of the total population.
+
+About three fourths of our Negroes live in the rural districts. There
+is, however, an important migratory movement which operates to
+decrease this percentage. There is a growing tendency for southern
+Negroes to leave the rural districts and to move cityward. Chiefly
+because of the economic attractions of urban life, many rural Negroes
+are moving toward the southern city; in search of social equality as
+well as greater economic opportunities, many southern Negroes are
+migrating to the cities of the North.
+
+247. ADAPTABILITY OF THE NEGRO.--From one important angle,
+civilization is the process of getting along with one's environment,
+partly by changing that environment, and partly by adapting one's self
+to external conditions. An important characteristic of the Negro, not
+usually taken into account, is his adaptability. Ours is predominantly
+a white man's civilization, and we are accustomed to think of the
+Negro as an individual who finds it more or less difficult to fit into
+our way of living. And yet one reason for believing that the Negro has
+a capacity for modern civilization is that he has survived until the
+present time. Compare the Negro in this regard with the American
+Indian, who, despite his many noble traits, has fared poorly under the
+white man's civilization. The Indians of Cuba, for example, were so
+proud and unbending that they died out under the slavery which the
+early Spanish imposed upon them; the Negro, because of his
+teachableness and his passive strength, not only survived slavery, but
+has weathered freedom under very disadvantageous circumstances.
+
+248. PROGRESS SINCE THE CIVIL WAR.--The Negro has made considerable
+progress since the Civil War. Many Negroes have become independent
+farmers and artisans, owning a considerable amount of property.
+Despite the backwardness of Negro schools, great progress has been
+made in the matter of decreasing Negro illiteracy. Whereas at the
+close of the Civil War some ninety per cent of the Negroes were
+illiterate, less than a third of our present Negro population is
+illiterate. In art, literature and science the Negro has already made
+a tolerable showing. Altogether it is likely that an able and
+constructive leadership is being developed among the Negroes.
+
+249. PRESENT ECONOMIC CONDITION.--In spite of the substantial progress
+made since the Civil War, however, the present economic condition of
+the Negro is unsatisfactory. The great majority of Negroes are
+unskilled laborers of a shiftless disposition. Because he is
+frequently neither a dependable nor an efficient worker, the average
+Negro tends to receive low wages. The Negro is not skilled in
+manufacturing or mechanical lines, and he is kept out of the higher
+trades and professions by reason of illiteracy and social barriers.
+Very often the southern Negro is a tenant farmer, carelessly tilling a
+small plot of land and mortgaging his crop in order to secure the bare
+necessities of life. Large families, inadequately supported, and
+reared under insanitary living conditions, are characteristic of the
+southern Negro. The failure to save money, and the inability to
+protect themselves against exploitation by unscrupulous white men, are
+characteristic weaknesses of many Negroes.
+
+250. PRESENT SOCIAL CONDITION.--Though decreasing steadily, Negro
+illiteracy is still high. This is a serious evil. Not only does
+illiteracy bar the Negro from the education and training of which he
+is in such great need, but it allows unscrupulous persons to swindle
+and exploit him. The Negro furnishes an abnormally large proportion of
+our prison population. Whether or not this is partly the result of
+racial characteristics, it is certain that the bad economic and social
+conditions surrounding Negro life lead to a high degree of
+criminality. In justice to the Negro it should be noted that in many
+communities he is apprehended and convicted more often than is the
+white culprit. Acts which would go unpunished or even unnoticed if
+committed by white men often arouse the community and lead to severe
+punishment when committed by Negroes. Statistics on Negro crime are
+also influenced by the fact that the poverty of the Negro often causes
+him to go to jail while the white offender escapes with a fine.
+
+A serious evil is race mixture between Negroes and whites. This has
+gone on since colonial times, until at the present time probably more
+than half of the Negroes in the United States have some degree of
+white blood. Such mixtures, while probably not disastrous from the
+standpoint of biology, have unfortunate consequences socially.
+Generally the mulatto offspring are forced to remain members of the
+Negro group, where they are subjected to social surroundings which too
+often encourage disease, vice, and degeneracy. The majority of the
+states now have laws forbidding marriage between Negroes and whites.
+Both white and Negro leaders agree that race mixture ought to be
+stopped.
+
+251. PRESENT POLITICAL CONDITION.--The Fifteenth Amendment declared
+that "the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be
+denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of
+race, color, or previous condition of servitude." Yet in many southern
+states the Negro is barred from the polls. In many northern cities
+where the Negro is allowed the ballot, his ignorance and
+irresponsibility make him the prey of political "bosses" who control
+his vote. The question of Negro suffrage will be treated later;
+[Footnote: See Chapter XXXIII.] here we may content ourselves with
+noting that the Negro's right to vote is often restricted. In the
+South, at least, it is also true that the Negro has but little share
+either in making the laws or in administering them.
+
+252. URGENT NATURE OF THE NEGRO PROBLEM.--The Negro problem was never
+of more pressing importance than it is to-day. Illiteracy is still
+perilously high, Negro crime is becoming more serious, and the
+cityward tendency of the Negro is increasing his susceptibility to
+disease and vice. In spite of prohibitive laws, racial intermixture is
+continuing, and the problem of the mixed blood is becoming more and
+more acute. Social unrest among the masses of southern Negroes is
+increasing. The World War created new aims and aspirations among
+thousands of Negroes. New leaders are arising to preach racial
+equality for the Negro; old leaders are in many cases becoming more
+impatient with the attitude of the white population.
+
+253. HESITANCY IN ATTACKING THE PROBLEM.--The American people have
+been singularly backward about grappling with the problem of fitting
+ten million Negro citizens into the fabric of American democracy. One
+explanation of this backwardness is that until recently many have
+believed that the Negro would die out under freedom. This expectation
+has not been realized, for while the Negro population is increasing
+less rapidly than is the white population, it is nevertheless
+increasing. The Negro is not dying out. Nor can he be deported to
+Liberia or other colonies, as was often suggested in the last century.
+The Negro is here to stay, and his problems must be solved.
+
+254. NEED OF A CONSISTENT PROGRAM.--Many institutions and individuals
+have attacked various phases of the Negro problem with courage and
+success, but we are in need of a unified and comprehensive program
+rather than of a series of unrelated endeavors. Above all what is
+needed is not impassioned opinion or cure-all schemes, but rather the
+development of a sound and comprehensive program which shall attack
+the problem from a number of angles at the same time. Such a program
+must have a double end in view: First, the immediate needs of the
+Negro must be met; second, we must permit the Negro to be trained
+toward a position in which he will be able to play a useful and
+honorable role in our national life. Thus the great comprehensive
+purpose of this program is to help the Negro adapt himself to American
+life, to aid him in fitting in with our economic, social, and
+political institutions, and to encourage him to contribute to the
+development of American culture to the best of his ability.
+
+255. EDUCATION.--Education is the most important element of any
+program designed to help the Negro. Ability to read and write, the
+habit of study, training in correct thinking, all are of such basic
+value that it is difficult to understand why we have so long neglected
+the education of the Negro. We spend three or four times as much for
+the education of the white child _per capita_ as for the education of
+the Negro child. Negro schools are sparsely distributed; they are
+poorly equipped, and they are sadly hampered by lack of competent
+teachers. Clearly we must spend vast sums on Negro education, if we
+are to expect marked improvement in the Negro's social and economic
+condition. We cannot expect the Negro to cease being a problem until
+he has been trained in the fundamentals of citizenship. "The
+inadequate provision for the education of the Negro," says the
+Southern University Race Commission, "is more than an injustice to
+him; it is an injury to the white man. The South cannot realize its
+destiny if one third of its population is undeveloped and
+inefficient."
+
+256. ECONOMIC ADJUSTMENT.--The Negro cannot be expected to become a
+thrifty, responsible citizen until he is rendered capable of earning a
+decent living at productive work. He must acquire the habit of working
+steadily and efficiently under a system of free contract. This
+economic readjustment, many students of the Negro problem believe,
+will be attained largely through industrial education. We already have
+several excellent industrial training schools for Negroes, including
+Hampton and Tuskegee. The latter was made famous by Booker T.
+Washington, an ex-slave who devoted his life to the economic
+readjustment of his people.
+
+A great deal more must be done in this direction. In spite of the
+excellent beginnings made at Hampton and Tuskegee, not more than one
+per cent of our Negroes have the privilege of industrial education.
+More adequate instruction is needed in methods of agriculture and
+stock raising, in the various crafts, and in those professions for
+which the Negro seems fitted. The South needs labor badly, but she
+cannot use her millions of Negroes effectively until they are turned
+into competent and dependable workers. The Negro appears to have
+little aptitude for mechanical work, or for mill and factory
+employment. Diversified agriculture on a small scale seems to be the
+most promising industry for him, and one in which he ought
+consistently to be encouraged.
+
+257. THE NEED FOR COÖPERATION.--No permanent solution of the Negro's
+difficulties can be attained without the friendly coöperation of all
+parties concerned. Most of our Negroes live in the South, but the
+Negro is no more a purely southern question than Japanese immigration
+is a purely Californian problem. We are one nation, and the problems
+of one section are the problems of the whole. The South must not be
+left alone, either to neglect the Negro, or to struggle with his
+difficulties as best she can. Generous aid must be extended her by the
+North, East, and West, before we can expect a solution of the Negro
+question.
+
+Furthermore, there must be coöperation between the leaders of the
+Negro and white races, otherwise energy will be wasted and inter-
+racial bitterness created. Very promising beginnings in this direction
+have recently been made in the South. Nevertheless it is to be
+regretted that many leaders, both white and Negro, are still prone to
+propose "remedies" for the Negro problem which serve their own
+interests, but which show little or no regard for the rights of the
+other group, or for the welfare of the nation.
+
+Above all, there must be a firm resolve to work toward a fair
+solution, and an earnest desire to be just and humane. Hard and
+unpleasant facts cannot be argued away, but at least they can be
+treated rationally. No solution can be reached except through law and
+order. Neither violence nor deceit can solve this or any other
+problem. Race riots and lynchings are proof that those who engage in
+them are unfit to carry on the work of American democracy.
+
+258. THE PROMISE OF THE NEGRO.--There is a good deal of discussion as
+to whether or not the Negro race is merely backward, or whether it is
+an inferior race. Those contending that the Negro is only backward
+believe that ultimately he can be fitted into the fabric of American
+life; those insisting that he is inferior declare that all attempts to
+adapt the Negro to American life will prove unavailing.
+
+Academic discussions of this sort are not to the point. As to whether
+or not the Negro is backward or inferior, and as to precisely what
+each of these terms implies, there must always be a good deal of
+dispute. For practical purposes it is enough to admit that the Negro
+cannot now do many of the things which the average white man can do,
+and that in so far as this is true, the Negro is less effective as a
+citizen.
+
+At the same time, it should be frankly recognized that the Negro has
+shown himself capable of substantial progress. It will be more
+appropriate to discuss the inferiority of the Negro when he has failed
+to react to the most comprehensive, intelligent, and consistent
+program which we are able to draw up. This we have not yet done, and
+until it is done, we shall have less cause to deny to the Negro a
+capacity for civilization than the Negro will have cause to complain
+of our unhelpful attitude toward him. So far as we now know, there is
+no scientific justification for believing that the masses of American
+Negroes cannot ultimately be trained to a useful sphere in American
+life.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. How were Negroes first introduced into this country?
+
+2. When did the modern Negro problem come into existence?
+
+3. What proportion of our population is Negro?
+
+4. Where are most of our Negroes found?
+
+5. What is meant by saying that the Negro is adaptable?
+
+6. In what particulars has the Negro made substantial progress since
+the Civil War?
+
+7. What is the present economic condition of the Negro?
+
+8. Why is the social condition of the Negro unsatisfactory?
+
+9. What can be said as to the present political condition of the
+Negro?
+
+10. Why have we delayed the development of a comprehensive plan for
+meeting the needs of the Negro?
+
+11. What is the importance of Negro education?
+
+12. Why is the economic readjustment of the Negro important?
+
+13. Discuss the need for coöperation in meeting the Negro's problems.
+
+14. What is the promise of the American Negro citizen?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy,_ chapter xxii.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. _Annals_ of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,
+vol. xlix, "The Negro's Progress in Fifty Years," pages 47-58.
+
+3. Washington, _Tuskegee and its People_, chapter i.
+
+4. Williamson, _Sociology of the American Negro_, chapters xii, xvi,
+and xxvii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Discuss the recent decrease in Negro illiteracy. (Williamson,
+chapter xii.)
+
+2. What difficulty is encountered in applying mental tests to Negroes?
+(Williamson, chapter xii.)
+
+3. Outline the results of mental tests of the Negro. (Williamson,
+chapter xii.)
+
+4. Summarize the chief characteristics of the Negro race. (Williamson,
+chapter xvi.)
+
+5. What Negro faults might be turned into virtues? (Williamson,
+chapter xvi.)
+
+6. Discuss the role of the mulatto leader. (Williamson, chapter xvi.)
+
+7. What is Tuskegee Institute? (Washington, page 19.)
+
+8. What are the chief aims of Tuskegee Institute? (Washington, page
+21.)
+
+9. What was Booker T. Washington's concept of education? (Washington,
+pages 28-30.)
+
+10. What progress in Negro education has been made since 1880?
+(_Annals_, pages 51-52.)
+
+11. What four forces retard the economic development of the Negro in
+the South? (_Annals_, page 55.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+II
+
+1. African background of the American Negro. (Williamson, _Sociology
+of the American Negro_, part i.)
+
+2. Slavery. (Hart, _Social and Economic Forces in American History_,
+chapter xix; Callender, _Selections from the Economic History of the
+United States_, pages 768-793; Williamson, _Sociology of the American
+Negro_, chapter v.)
+
+3. Gains and losses under slavery. (Williamson, _Sociology of the
+American Negro_, chapter xxiv.)
+
+4. The Negro in business. (Atlanta University Publications, No. 4.)
+
+5. The Negro in professional occupations. (_Annals_, vol. xlix, pages
+10-18.)
+
+6. The Negro as an unskilled laborer. _Annals_, vol. xlix, pages 19-
+28.
+
+7. The Negro as a skilled worker. (Atlanta University Publications,
+No. 17.)
+
+8. The system of Negro tenancy. (_Annals_, vol. xlix, pages 38-46.)
+
+9. The Negro in the city. (Wolfe, _Readings in Social Problems_,
+chapter xviii; _Annals_, vol. xlix, pages 105-119.)
+
+10. The Negro family. (Atlanta University Publications, No. 13;
+Tillinghast, _The Negro in Africa and America_, part iii, chapter iii;
+_Annals_, vol. xlix, pages 147-163.)
+
+11. Negro organizations. (_Annals_, vol. xlix, pages 129-137.)
+
+12. The Negro church. (Atlanta University Publications, No. 8;
+Tillinghast, _The Negro in Africa and America_, part iii, chapter iii;
+Washington, _The Story of the Negro_, vol. ii, chapter xiii.)
+
+13. The mulatto. (Williamson, _Sociology of the American Negro_,
+chapters xx, xxi, and xxii.)
+
+14. Race relationships in the South. (_Annals_, vol. xlix, pages 164-
+172; Storey, _Problems of To-day_, chapter iii.)
+
+15. Negro education. (_Annals_, vol. xlix, part iv; Wolfe, _Readings
+in Social Problems_, pages 769-783; Washington, _The Story of the
+Negro_, vol. ii, chapter v; Tillinghast, _The Negro in Africa and
+America_, part iii, chapter iv.)
+
+16. The work of Booker T. Washington, (Washington, _Up from Slavery_.
+See also an encyclopedia.)
+
+17. Tuskegee Institute. (Washington, _Tuskegee and its People_.)
+
+18. The Negro's part in the development of the South. (_Annals_, vol.
+xxxv, pages 124-133; Washington, _The Future of the American Negro_.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+THE FAMILY
+
+
+259. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FAMILY.--From whatever angle we approach
+society, the family is the ultimate unit and basis. The whole fabric
+of civilization, whether considered from an economic, a social, or a
+political standpoint, depends upon the integrity of the family, and
+upon the wholesomeness of the home life centering about the father,
+mother, and children. The home is the nursery of our fundamental
+institutions: it is the origin of our physical and mental
+inheritances; it is the center of our training for private and public
+life; it is the moral and religious fount which nourishes the ideals
+and beliefs which fashion our lives and mould our character. A nation
+built upon decaying homes is bound to perish; a nation composed of
+normal prosperous families is in a good way to perpetuate itself. It
+is of the very greatest importance, therefore, that we inquire into
+the character and tendencies of the American family.
+
+260. THE FAMILY IN THE MIDDLE AGES.--Fully to appreciate the nature of
+the modern family we must know something of the family as it existed
+in Europe in the Middle Ages.
+
+Unity was the striking characteristic of the medieval family.
+Economically it was very nearly self-sufficing, that is to say, most
+of the food, clothing, and other necessities consumed by it were
+prepared by the family members. Very little in the way of education
+and recreation existed beyond the family circle. In religious
+activities the family played an important role, family worship under
+the leadership of the father being a common domestic function. The
+medieval family was stable, partly because legal and religious
+authority was concentrated in the hands of the father, partly because
+the family members were economically interdependent, and partly
+because the social and religious interests of the family members
+tended to coincide. Divorce was uncommon, and the children generally
+remained in the home until their majority had been attained.
+
+261. THE FAMILY IN MODERN TIMES.--We have already seen that since the
+close of the Middle Ages, and especially during the last two
+centuries, important economic, social, and political changes have been
+going on in civilized society. In common with other social
+institutions, the family has been greatly influenced by these changes.
+The family which we have described as the medieval type has been
+either destroyed or greatly modified, and a new type is being
+developed. Probably this new type of family will present substantial
+gains over the family of the Middle Ages, nevertheless the period of
+transition is fraught with danger. A great problem of American
+democracy is to aid in the social readjustment of the family. In order
+that we may be competent to aid in this readjustment, let us discover
+in what ways the family has been modified by the economic, social, and
+political changes referred to above.
+
+262. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND THE FAMILY.--We have examined
+somewhat in detail the effect of the Industrial Revolution upon our
+economic life; it remains to be pointed out that the same phenomenon
+has profoundly affected the character of our most vital social
+institution, the family.
+
+Directly or indirectly, the Industrial Revolution has affected family
+life among all classes of the population. To some extent capitalism
+has given rise to a class of idle rich, living upon the proceeds of
+permanent investments, and resorting to extravagance and loose methods
+of living in order to occupy their time. This development is doubly
+unfortunate. In the first place it renders difficult the maintenance
+of normal homes among the idle rich. In the second place, the tendency
+of certain types of individuals to imitate and envy the idle rich
+encourages false standards and leads to a depraved moral sense.
+
+To those classes which furnish the majority of our professional men,
+the complex division of labor has brought a serious danger. So great
+is the need of specialized training among these groups that marriage
+is often delayed until after the age of thirty. The individual is then
+in a better position to support a family, but often his habits are so
+firmly fixed that he finds it difficult to adapt himself to family
+life.
+
+Even more important, perhaps, have been the effects of the Industrial
+Revolution upon the masses of wage earners. Men earning low wages are
+often unable to marry, or, if they assume that responsibility, they
+are unable properly to support their families. In spite of the fact
+that capitalism has greatly increased our material welfare, the
+dependence of large numbers of people upon day wages increases the
+hazards of family life. Industrial accidents, occupational diseases,
+or the interruption of earnings by strikes and unemployment,--any one
+of these mishaps may work a hardship upon the wage-earner's family.
+Poverty may induce child labor, deprive the family of proper food and
+other necessities, and retard the education of the children. Finally
+it may so emphasize the elements of strain and worry that parents are
+unable to give proper attention to the training of their children.
+
+263. THE FACTORY SYSTEM AND THE HOME.--The Industrial Revolution has
+lessened the economic importance of the home. The typical modern
+family is no longer self-sufficing, but is dependent upon the factory
+system for many commodities formerly prepared within the home circle.
+Spinning, weaving, tailoring, shoe-making, soap-making, and other
+industries have moved out of the home and into the factory. Even the
+preparation of food is increasingly a function of agencies outside the
+home. Especially in cities there has been a steady development of
+restaurants, delicatessen shops, and factories engaged in the large-
+scale preparation of bread, canned soups, and other food products.
+
+There is thus less work to be done in the home than formerly; at the
+same time the development of our industrial life has notably increased
+the amount of work to be done outside the home. The outcome of these
+two complementary forces has been that not only the father, but often
+the mother and the half-grown children as well, have been drawn into
+industry. As the result of this development, the economic
+interdependence of the family has been destroyed, and the way has been
+opened to the disintegration of the home. Social contacts between
+family members have decreased, while the specialized character of the
+individual's daily work has operated to break down the common
+interests which family members formerly had outside the home.
+
+264. LACK OF PREPARATION FOR HOME-MAKING.--The factory system has
+rendered more difficult the preparation of our boys and girls for
+home-making. Where boys go out to work at an early age and are
+deprived of home training during the adolescent period, neither father
+nor mother has the opportunity properly to acquaint them with the
+nature and responsibilities of home-making. Girls very often are
+reared without adequate knowledge of cooking, sewing, and other
+household arts. This is due, partly to the transfer of many of the
+domestic functions to specialists beyond the home, and partly to the
+fact that where girls go into industry they spend most of their time
+outside the home. In the case of both boys and girls, the decreased
+amount of time spent in the home not only prevents proper training by
+the parents, but it stresses outside interests which are too often
+opposed to domestic ideals. Many parents either allow or encourage
+their children to acquire frivolous habits. As the result of all of
+these factors, both young men and young women frequently marry without
+having been properly prepared for the responsibilities of home-making.
+
+265. DIFFICULTIES OF HOME-MAKING IN CROWDED CITIES.--With the
+development of manufacturing, a larger and larger proportion of our
+people have made their homes in large cities. To many, city life has
+brought increased opportunities for education and recreation,
+nevertheless it is difficult to maintain a normal home life in a
+crowded city. Urban life is highly artificial Simple and wholesome
+amusements are less common than expensive and injurious forms of
+recreation. The noise and jar of city life often result in strain and
+jaded nerves. The scarcity and high cost of house room is, for many
+city dwellers, an unavoidable evil. The poor are cramped into small,
+uncomfortable tenements, while even the well-to-do are frequently
+found in congested apartment houses. Under such circumstances, the
+home often becomes merely a lodging place. Social life is developed
+out of, rather than in, the home. For the children of the poor there
+is often no yard and no adequate provision for recreation. Among the
+rich, conditions are somewhat better, though in fashionable apartment
+houses children are frequently objected to by neighboring tenants or
+banned by landlords.
+
+266. ECONOMIC INDEPENDENCE OF WOMEN.--Until very recently a married
+woman was economically dependent upon her husband. But one of the
+effects of the Industrial Revolution has been to make many women
+economically independent. Women are entering the industrial field with
+great rapidity, and their presence there is now taken as a matter of
+course. Many women now avoid marriage, partly because domestic
+interests fail to attract them, and partly because they have become
+genuinely interested in industry. Where domesticity is the ultimate
+aim, many women delay marriage because self-support renders them both
+able and desirous of retaining their independence for a considerable
+period.
+
+Domestic tranquillity is sometimes disturbed by the fact that wives
+were formerly self-supporting girls. In most cases wives are dependent
+upon their husbands in money matters, a situation which is apt to
+irritate women who were formerly self-supporting. The husband is often
+inclined to rate the generalized character of housework as being of
+less importance than his own highly specialized work. The wife's
+irritation at this may be increased by the fact that often she, too,
+believes that her domestic duties are less dignified and less valuable
+than her former work.
+
+Not only has the former independence of the wife made her less
+tolerant of domestic wrongs and slights, but the realization that she
+can support herself, frequently encourages her to seek a divorce. The
+temptation to take this step is increased by the fact that public
+opinion now rarely frowns upon a divorced woman. This is in striking
+contrast to the situation two hundred years ago, when most divorced
+women were not only unable to support themselves, but were socially
+ostracized.
+
+267. POLITICAL EMANCIPATION OF WOMEN.--Until very recently women have
+been legally and politically subordinate to men. As recently as a
+century ago women in the leading countries of the world were allowed
+neither to vote, nor to contract debts in their own name, nor to hold
+or will property.
+
+But within the last century women have been emancipated politically.
+Property rights have been extended them; the growth of the woman's
+movement has resulted in the winning of female suffrage. Economic
+independence and social freedom have combined with political
+emancipation to emphasize the spirit of individualism among women.
+Politics and club work have, in the eyes of many wives and mothers,
+become more attractive than domestic concerns, with a resultant
+neglect of the home. Higher education for women, including a wider
+knowledge of legal matters, has acquainted women with their legal
+rights and privileges, and has made them familiar with the steps
+necessary to secure a divorce.
+
+268. INDIVIDUALISM MAY BE EXAGGERATED.--The American people are
+celebrated for their strongly individualistic character. This trait is
+closely related to the initiative and self-reliance which have helped
+toward our industrial success; on the other hand, individualism may be
+carried to the point of selfishness. It is desirable, of course, that
+both men and women maintain high standards of living, and that they
+cultivate their respective personalities. It should be noted, however,
+that marriage is often delayed or altogether avoided because of
+selfish ambition and the desire to live a care-free and self-centered
+life. The insistence which many young people place upon personal
+rights has encouraged the belief that marriage is intended for man's
+and woman's convenience, rather than for the building of normal homes
+and the development of community life. In too many marriages the
+contracting parties selfishly refuse to make the mutual concessions
+necessary in married life and so wreck their domestic happiness.
+
+269. THE DIVORCE EVIL.--Family instability has been increased by the
+demoralizing influences which we have been discussing. A familiar
+symptom of family instability is the divorce rate. One out of every
+eight or nine marriages in the United States is dissolved by divorce.
+Not only do we have more divorces than all of the rest of the world
+together, but our divorce rate is increasing three times as fast as is
+our population.
+
+The value of these statistics is affected by two factors. In the first
+place, much domestic unhappiness does not express itself in the
+separation of husband and wife. Or, where such separation does take
+place, it may not be through the divorce court. Among the city poor,
+for example, desertion is four times as common as is divorce. Thus the
+divorce rate indicates only a share of family instability.
+
+The second modifying factor, however, lessens the force of our divorce
+statistics. A high divorce rate is to be interpreted with care. Our
+divorce rate is higher than that of European countries, but it should
+be remembered that in those countries where customs, laws, and
+religious beliefs are relatively conservative, families may be held
+together legally in spite of the fact that they have already
+disintegrated. Thus family life may be as unstable in a country in
+which the divorce rate is low, as in a country in which the divorce
+rate is high.
+
+270. LAXITY OF OUR DIVORCE LAWS.--Although divorce may sometimes be
+necessary, it is clear that in many of the states of the Union divorce
+laws are too lax. The practice of the states as regards divorce is
+divergent: in South Carolina divorce is absolutely prohibited; in the
+remaining states there is a variable number of grounds upon which
+divorce may be secured. Divorces are often rushed through the courts,
+partly because of the overworked character of the divorce tribunals,
+and partly because public opinion tolerates the lax administration of
+divorce laws. In some states divorces have been secured in fifteen
+minutes, being granted without any attempt at solemnity, with no
+adequate investigation, and with numerous opportunities for collusion
+between the parties involved. The effect of this laxness has been to
+encourage the dissolution of the home for trivial and improper causes.
+
+271. THE QUESTION OF STRICTER DIVORCE LAWS.--Uniform divorce laws
+among the several states are now being agitated. The essential
+provisions of such laws may be outlined as follows: It is desirable to
+have a court of domestic relations, which shall carefully and wisely
+attempt a reconciliation of husband and wife before divorce
+proceedings are resorted to. Applicants for divorce should be _bona
+fide_ residents of the state in which the suit is filed, and should be
+required to reside in the state two years before a decree of absolute
+divorce is granted. In some states at least, the number of grounds
+upon which divorce may be secured should be reduced. An adequate
+investigation should be undertaken, both in order to determine the
+justice of the suit, and to prevent collusion. The primary aim of the
+divorce laws should be to allow relief from a vicious and hopelessly
+wrecked union, but at the same time to prevent the misuse of the
+statutes by irresponsible and unscrupulous persons.
+
+272. LAXITY OF OUR MARRIAGE LAWS.--The fact that unwise marriages are
+an immediate cause of divorce leads back to the question of our
+marriage laws. Marriage laws often permit the mating of couples unfit
+for home-making. In some states the authorities are not overcareful to
+prevent the marriage of persons who are mentally defective. There is
+among the several states no agreement as to the legal age of marriage,
+and no agreement as to the relationship within which marriage is
+forbidden. Hasty unions have been encouraged by the lack of solemnity
+which characterizes civil marriage. Marriage is more and more a civil
+contract, devoid of religious sanctions and spiritual associations.
+Many consider marriage as a civil relation not radically different
+from any other contract. The effect of this changed attitude has been
+to encourage the enactment of loose marriage laws, and the careless
+administration of sound marriage laws.
+
+273. THE QUESTION OF STRICTER MARRIAGE LAWS.--Stricter marriage laws
+are being advocated in many states. We know far too little about
+eugenics to warrant prediction as to the type of individuals best
+fitted to build normal homes, but it is clearly desirable to prohibit
+the marriage of all mental defectives. There are also good reasons for
+the restriction of the marriage of minors, of persons between whose
+ages there is a wide disparity, and of persons who are members of
+widely divergent races. It would probably check hasty marriages to
+increase the length of time elapsing between the issuance of the
+marriage license and the performance of the ceremony. If modern
+marriages were more distinctly upon a religious basis, it is likely
+that many persons who now rush thoughtlessly into marriage would be
+led seriously to reflect upon the significance of the step.
+
+274. LAW NOT THE UTLIMATE REMEDY FOR FAMILY INSTABILITY.--The careful
+enactment and wise administration of sound laws on marriage and
+divorce will undoubtedly check the number of unhappy and unsuccessful
+marriages. Nevertheless, law is not the ultimate remedy for family
+instability. Unduly restrictive marriage laws may result in abnormal
+tendencies among certain classes of the population, while severe
+prohibitions upon divorce may prevent individuals from securing
+release from a hopelessly wrecked marriage. Divorce is only a symptom
+of deeper-lying evils. Really to remove the dangers which threaten the
+integrity of the family we must go deeper than legislation.
+
+275. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL READJUSTMENT.--One fundamental method of
+safeguarding the family is to counteract the injurious effects of the
+Industrial Revolution. Poverty must be lessened or eliminated, so that
+men will be enabled to marry and support families decently. The evils
+of overcrowding must be attacked in the interest of a normal home
+life. Mothers' pensions and social insurance are desirable methods of
+protecting the laborer's family against the risks of industry. The
+prohibition of child labor and the safeguarding of women in industry
+will also tend to keep the family intact, and to permit proper home
+training. In short, any measures which will help individuals to adjust
+themselves to the economic and social changes of the present age will
+provide a more firm and solid foundation for a normal family life.
+
+276. EDUCATION AND THE FAMILY.--Far more fundamental than legislation
+on marriage and divorce is the training of young people toward a
+fuller appreciation of the responsibilities of home-making. In the
+problem of family instability, laws reach symptoms, while education
+attacks causes. By education is here meant not merely formal training
+in the school, but character-building of every type. This includes
+training in the home, in the school, and in the church. Only when boys
+and girls are accorded sound training by these various agencies will
+they be properly prepared to make homes.
+
+Our whole educational system ought to emphasize the importance of a
+pure and wholesome family life. The sanctity of the marriage bond, the
+seriousness of family responsibilities, and the duty to rear a normal
+healthy family, ought to be impressed upon every boy and girl. Young
+people should be taught to consider adolescence as a period of
+preparation for home-building. During this period it is the duty of
+the boy to fit himself for the proper support of a family, while the
+girl ought to feel obligated to become familiar with the tasks and
+duties of housekeeping. The choice of a husband or wife ought to be
+made, not on the basis of passing fancy, but with regard to a life of
+mutual service. Extreme individualism ought to be discouraged;
+personal pleasure ought to be interpreted in the light of marriage as
+a partnership. Above all, marriage should be faced with the
+realization that it requires adaptation and concessions on the part of
+both husband and wife. Mutual consideration and respect must
+predominate in the future American family, while the spirit of
+impatience and selfishness must be eliminated.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What is the significance of the family?
+
+2. What were the essential characteristics of the medieval family?
+
+3. Why is the modern family in a period of transition?
+
+4. Outline the effect of the Industrial Revolution upon the family.
+
+5. To what extent has the factory supplanted the home as an industrial
+center?
+
+6. Discuss the difficulties of home-making in crowded cities.
+
+7. How have many groups of women become economically independent?
+
+8. Discuss the political emancipation of women.
+
+9. What is the extent of divorce in this country? What two factors
+must be taken into account in interpreting these figures?
+
+10. To what extent are our divorce and marriage laws lax?
+
+11. What proposals have been made toward the correction of this evil?
+
+12. Why is law not the ultimate cure for family instability?
+
+13. What is the importance of economic and social readjustment in the
+problem of the family?
+
+14. What should be the chief aims of education with regard to
+preparation for home-making?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_ chapter xxiii.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Burch and Patterson, _American Social Problems_, chapter xxii.
+
+3. Ellwood, _Sociology and Modern Social Problems_, chapters v, vi,
+vii, and viii.
+
+4. Goodsell, _The Family as a Social and Educational Institution_,
+chapters xi, xii, and xiii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Discuss the origin of human marriage. (Ellwood, pages 97-108.)
+
+2. Distinguish between the maternal and paternal types of family.
+(Ellwood, pages 110-128.)
+
+3. What was the character of the early Roman family? (Ellwood, pages
+132-138.)
+
+4. What influence has Christianity exerted upon the family? (Ellwood,
+pages 142-144.)
+
+5. Summarize the ways in which industry may disintegrate the family.
+(Goodsell, pages 461-464.)
+
+6. What is the origin of higher education for women in this country?
+(Goodsell, pages 439-441.)
+
+7. Discuss the divorce rate in this country. (Ellwood, pages 148-154;
+Burch and Patterson, pages 315-321; Goodsell, pages 457-459.)
+
+8. Name the various grounds upon which divorce may be secured.
+(Ellwood, pages 154-157; Burch and Patterson, pages 321-322.)
+
+9. Why is our divorce rate increasing? (Burch and Patterson, pages
+322-327.)
+
+10. What proposal has been made relative to a uniform divorce law?
+(Burch and Patterson, pages 327-328.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Interview an elderly friend for the purpose of discovering how many
+commodities now produced outside the home were made within the family
+circle a half century ago.
+
+2. Make a list of the advantages which the city offers over the
+country or the small town. Make another list showing wherein it is
+more difficult to maintain a normal home in the city than in the more
+sparsely settled districts of the country.
+
+3. The extent to which girls and women in your community are going
+into industrial pursuits.
+
+4. The marriage laws of your state.
+
+5. The divorce laws of your state.
+
+6. What amendments, if any, would you offer to the marriage and
+divorce laws of your state?
+
+
+II
+
+7. The primitive family. (Goodsell, _The Family as a Social and
+Educational Institution,_ chapter ii.)
+
+8. The family in the early stages of civilization. (Burch and
+Patterson, _American Social Problems,_ chapter vi.)
+
+9. Influence of Christianity upon the family. (Goodsell, _The Family
+as a Social and Educational Institution,_ chapter vi.)
+
+10. The family in the Middle Ages. (Goodsell, _The Family as a Social
+and Educational Institution,_ chapter vii.)
+
+11. The English family in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
+(Goodsell, _The Family as a Social and Educational Institution,_
+chapter ix.)
+
+12. The family in the American colonies. (Goodsell, _The Family as a
+Social and Educational Institution,_ chapter x.)
+
+13. The feminist movement. (_Annals,_ vol. lvi, part i.)
+
+14. The home in the crowded city. (Riis, _Peril and Preservation of
+the Home._)
+
+15. Desertion. (Colcord, _Broken Homes._)
+
+16. Divorce statistics. (Willcox, _The Divorce Problem,_ a study in
+statistics; Lichtenberger, _Divorce_, chapter v.)
+
+17. Uniform divorce laws. (Wolfe, _Readings in Social Problems,_
+chapter xv.)
+
+18. Education for family building. (_Annals,_ vol. lxvii, pages 47-
+53.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+19. Should Congress be granted the power, through constitutional
+amendment, to pass a Federal divorce law?
+
+20. Should men be required to have a minimum income before being
+granted a marriage license?
+
+21. Is domestic science more or less important now than it was a
+century ago?
+
+22. Are the chances of a successful marriage greater or less if
+marriage takes place after both parties are more than twenty-five
+years of age?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+DEPENDENCY: ITS RELIEF AND PREVENTION
+
+
+277. THE MEDIEVAL NEIGHBORHOOD.--Throughout the earlier part of the
+medieval period the majority of the common people of western Europe
+lived in small agricultural communities. There was little in the way
+of trade or travel, for the area comprising the village or the feudal
+manor was relatively self-sufficing. The interests of the people
+centered almost wholly about the local neighborhood into which they
+had been born, and in which they lived and died. Life was stable, and
+the daily work of the peasants entailed few hazards. When, because of
+illness or accident, individuals were temporarily unable to support
+themselves, informal aid was extended them by neighbors and friends.
+In case of a more serious dependency, growing out of physical or
+mental defect, for example, the aid extended by neighbors might be
+supplemented by help from the feudal lord. The few strangers in the
+community found the monasteries always open to them, regardless of the
+character of their need.
+
+278. BREAKDOWN OF THE MEDIEVAL NEIGHBORHOOD.--During the latter half
+of the medieval period, and during the earlier part of the modern
+period, a number of factors combined to break down this early type of
+neighborhood. The Crusades, the decay of feudalism, and the
+Renaissance disrupted the stable, isolated, and self-sufficing life of
+the medieval neighborhood. The discovery of America and the growth of
+towns and cities stimulated trade and travel. People moved about more,
+strangers came into the community, family contacts and friendships
+were broken, and community life became more impersonal. For many
+people a change of habitation or of occupation increased the hazards
+of life, while the decline of the neighborhood spirit made informal
+aid by neighbors and friends less available. To meet the growing needs
+of the dependent classes, the Church extended and improved its system
+of almsgiving. To a greater extent than ever before the monasteries
+became havens of refuge for the helpless and friendless. The clergy
+not only themselves dispensed alms, but encouraged the wealthy laity
+to do likewise.
+
+Unfortunately, however, the aim of almsgiving in this period was not
+so much to help the dependent back to self-support, as to increase the
+piety of the individual dispensing the alms. Pauperism was looked upon
+as inevitable, and the moral effect upon the giver was generally of
+more importance than was the use that the needy made of the alms
+received.
+
+279. RISE OF THE URBAN NEIGHBORHOOD.--The breakdown of the medieval
+neighborhood was completed by the Industrial Revolution. The factory
+system drew large numbers of countrymen to the cities. Here they
+worked long hours in insanitary work-shops, and lived in crowded
+tenements devoid of many improvements which we now regard as necessary
+to health and comfort. Home life was disrupted, and neighborhood ties
+were broken in the process of adjusting agricultural laborers to the
+factory system. The medieval neighborhood began to be supplanted by a
+new type of neighborhood, one primarily urban and impersonal in
+character. This new type of neighborhood brought with it greater
+hazards for the poor, and at the same time offered fewer opportunities
+for mutual aid between neighbors. Under such circumstances, the
+problem of dependency became increasingly serious.
+
+280. EXTENT OF DEPENDENCY IN MODERN TIMES.--One of the vital problems
+of American democracy is the proper care of those individuals who are
+unable, either to support themselves, or otherwise to protect
+themselves against the hazards of modern life. The extent to which
+individuals are dependent for help upon agencies outside their family
+circle is unknown. Statistics are meager, and the complex nature of
+dependency renders it difficult of measurement. Perhaps a reasonable
+estimate of dependency in the United States is that at some time
+during the year about five per cent of the population seeks charitable
+assistance. The total amount expended annually for the care of the
+dependent classes in the United States is more than half a billion
+dollars.
+
+281. CAUSES OF DEPENDENCY.--The causes of dependency in a modern
+community are difficult to analyze. Generally the applicant for
+charity is not in a state of dependency because of a single isolated
+cause, but because of a number of combined causes, interlocking in a
+most confusing way. In the effort to throw light upon this tangled
+situation, let us briefly survey the problem from the economic,
+social, personal, and political viewpoint.
+
+From the economic viewpoint much dependency is the result of
+maladjustments in industry. Most laborers have little or no savings,
+so that when unemployment, strikes, industrial accidents, or crises
+interrupt their earnings, they are soon forced to fall back upon
+charity. Economic causes figure in from fifty to eighty per cent of
+charity cases, either as minor or major factors. In the majority of
+these cases the unemployment or other handicap of the laborer is due
+to industrial maladjustments beyond his power to control.
+
+Closely connected with the economic causes of dependency are the
+social causes. The crowding of large numbers of workmen into cities
+leads to abnormal living conditions, which encourage ill-health,
+disease, and vice. Among unskilled laborers, poverty and the large
+number of children often prevent the young from securing a helpful
+amount of education. The lack of wholesome and inexpensive recreation,
+and the existence of costly and injurious forms of entertainment,
+encourage unwise expenditure of savings, and, to that extent, may
+influence dependency. Child labor and the employment of mothers in
+industry prevent a normal family life, and may be intimately
+associated with illiteracy, low moral standards, and pauperism.
+
+Often indistinguishable from social causes are the personal causes of
+dependency. Laziness, irresponsibility, and thriftlessness figure in
+from ten to fifteen per cent of charity cases. Penniless old age is
+often the outcome of bad personal habits in youth and middle life.
+Idling, gambling, and other vicious habits are important causes of
+pauperism. Sickness is a factor in at least a third of charity cases,
+while disease figures in seventy-five per cent of such cases. Physical
+or mental defect is of great importance in dependency, often
+accompanying bad personal habits as either cause or effect. The
+feeble-minded, the epileptic, and the insane constitute a serious
+burden upon the community.
+
+Defects in government have in some cases either encouraged dependency,
+or have perpetuated it. In so far as we have neglected legislation
+designed to reduce the force of industrial maladjustments, political
+factors may be said markedly to influence dependency. Our tardiness in
+protecting the labor of women and children is certainly responsible
+for a share of dependency. Our failure to adopt a comprehensive
+program of social insurance has added to the burden upon charity.
+Housing is receiving more and more attention in our cities, yet the
+living quarters in many districts continue to be sources of ill-health
+and vice. Probably we shall eliminate a share of dependency when we
+shall have established a comprehensive system of state and Federal
+employment bureaus. The wise restriction of immigration is also
+important, as is the matter of vocational education for the unskilled
+classes.
+
+282. THE GIVING OF ALMS.--Until the period of the Reformation in
+Europe, the distribution of alms by the clergy and by pious laymen was
+the chief method of dealing with the problem of dependency. Then the
+Reformation crippled the temporal power of the Church, and
+ecclesiastical almsgiving declined in importance. The place formerly
+held by the Church was filled, partly by public almshouses or
+workhouses, and partly by indiscriminate and unorganized almsgiving on
+the part of kind-hearted individuals. Individuals distributed alms
+chiefly to dependents with whom they were personally acquainted, and
+whose needs could be effectively met without their being removed to an
+institution. Wandering dependents, and unfortunates whose needs were
+relatively serious and permanent, were cared for in the almshouse.
+This latter institution developed very early in England, and appeared
+in colonial America in the seventeenth century. Until about 1850 it
+was often the only institution in American communities which cared for
+the helpless adult dependent. The almshouse, as it existed in this
+country a few decades ago, has been described as a charitable catch-
+all, into which were crowded paupers, the insane, the feeble-minded,
+the blind, the orphaned, and other types of dependents.
+
+283. ALMSGIVNG PROVES INADEQUATE.--The attempt to meet the problem of
+modern dependency solely by the giving of alms illustrates the
+difficulty of employing an ancient and simple method of treatment for
+a disease which has become highly complex.
+
+Almsgiving by individuals very often pauperizes rather than helps the
+individual to help himself. When the dominant aim of the almsgiver is
+to satisfy himself as to his piety, it is only by accident that the
+alms really help the recipient. Very often what is needed is not money
+or material aid in other form, but wise direction and friendly advice.
+There is still a great deal of unwise and indiscriminate almsgiving by
+individuals, but the spread of new ideals of social help is probably
+cutting down the amount.
+
+The almshouse, as it existed in the last century, was productive of
+much evil. Very often superintendents were allowed to run these
+institutions for personal profit, a practice which allowed the
+exploitation and neglect of the inmates. The practice of herding into
+this generalized institution every variety of dependent had great
+drawbacks. Specialized care and treatment were impossible. Disease was
+transmitted, and vice encouraged, by the failure properly to segregate
+various types of dependents. Inmates were in many cases allowed to
+enter and leave the institution at will, a privilege which encouraged
+shiftlessness and improvidence.
+
+284. THE EVOLUTION OF NEW IDEALS.--After the middle of the last
+century our attitude toward the dependent classes began to change
+rapidly. There was a gradual abandonment of almsgiving as the sole
+method of attacking dependency. Rising standards of conduct
+contributed to the development of new ideals, some of them now fairly
+well established, and some of them still in the formative process. The
+general content of these new ideals may be briefly described as
+follows:
+
+The primary aim of those who come in contact with the dependent
+classes should be to help those classes, rather than to satisfy pious
+aspirations or to indulge sentimental promptings. Rather than
+believing that alms are helpful because they are gratefully received,
+we should first discover what will help the dependent, and then train
+ourselves and him to take satisfaction in that which is helpful.
+
+Poverty is not to be taken for granted. It is neither inevitable nor
+irremedial. It is a social disease which we must attack with the aim
+of destroying.
+
+When individuals are found in an emergency they should be given
+relief, regardless of personal merit. The extension of relief in case
+of fire, flood or other accident is only an act of humanity.
+
+A different and more productive form of help is remedial work. This
+type of work often accompanies and follows relief work. It is
+corrective, for example, the finding of employment for a friendless
+man, or the medical treatment of a sick man, is remedial work.
+
+A still higher form of social work is preventive. Hand in hand with
+the giving of work to friendless men, and the curing of sick men, for
+example, we must undertake measures which will prevent a recurrence of
+unemployment on the one hand, and illness on the other. Preventive
+work is often indirect, but ultimately it is the most important type
+of social work.
+
+Recently there has been a reaction against almsgiving or pure charity,
+and a distinct tendency to develop what may be called the concept of
+social service. Charity is too often concerned with the pauper class;
+social service is a wider term and includes not only what was formerly
+known as charity, but also child welfare, settlement work, folk
+dancing, and other socializing activities which are helpful in a
+modern community, but which have nothing to do with alms. Charity too
+often pauperizes and degrades; social service encourages self-help and
+self-expression in the vital social relations. Formerly charity was
+almost exclusively the function of the pious and the sympathetic; the
+present tendency is for social service to become a distinct
+profession, administered by highly trained specialists.
+
+285. THE STAGE OF SPECIALIZATION.--One of the signs that we are
+recognizing the growing need of an individualized treatment of
+dependents, is the degree to which our social service agencies are
+becoming specialized. The treatment of the dependent may take either
+an institutional or a non-institutional form. Let us briefly notice
+the specialization in each of these forms.
+
+The almshouse, almost universal a century ago, is being rapidly
+displaced by a series of specialized institutions. In most states
+there are now separate institutions for the treatment of the
+pauperized, the diseased, the blind, the deaf, the insane, the feeble-
+minded, and the otherwise dependent. Inmates of these institutions are
+given special treatment by experts. When the defect has been remedied,
+the patient is released; in case remedy is impossible, the individual
+is segregated and accorded humane and sympathetic treatment during the
+rest of his life. This prevents the untold harm of releasing defective
+and irresponsible people into the community. Institutions of this
+character are largely under state control, and are intended primarily
+for individuals who cannot be properly treated in their homes.
+
+Dependents who are only slightly or temporarily handicapped, or who
+are not in need of special treatment, may be best cared for in their
+homes and by private individuals or associations. In this non-
+institutional form of social service there is also a high degree of
+specialization. The casual almsgiver has been succeeded by a whole
+series of social service agencies. Prisoners' aid societies,
+employment bureaus, immigrant aid societies, flower missions,
+Americanization clubs, recreation centers, housing clubs, community
+nursing clubs, and scores of other organizations have sprung up. Every
+large city in the United States has several hundred of these
+organizations, each attacking social problems of a special type.
+
+286. NECESSITY OF COÖRDINATION.--Specialization in social service has
+been followed by the development of means of coördinating the various
+specialized agencies.
+
+That there is urgent need of such coördination has been repeatedly
+called to our attention. It is still true that often the institutions
+for the dependent classes within a single state pursue different
+methods, and so limit their separate fields that many types of
+dependents are inadequately cared for.
+
+Among the large number of private agencies there has been a great
+waste of time and energy. The fact that each society is independent of
+its fellows has meant that in some fields of social service efforts
+were duplicated, while other fields were neglected. Cases demanding
+treatment by several agencies could not be given adequate care because
+of the lack of correlation among such agencies. Beggars often imposed
+upon a number of different societies by assuming different names. Each
+society had its own periods of campaigning for funds, a practice which
+meant an excess of tag-days and campaigns and a waste of time and
+energy on the part of social workers.
+
+287. COÖRDINATION OF PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS.--The coördination of public
+institutions for the dependent and defective classes proceeded rapidly
+after 1880. At present the situation in the various states is somewhat
+as follows:
+
+The actual administration of local institutions is generally in the
+hands of the town or county authorities. Large cities, however, often
+have a system of institutional relief separate from that of the county
+in which they are located. In many states the local authorities are
+subject to some measure of central supervision by a state board, which
+is called by various names. In most cases this is merely an advisory
+board with power to inspect state institutions, and to make
+recommendations to the governor or state legislature. More recently,
+there is a tendency to go still further, and to reorganize and
+consolidate the various state institutions so as to bring them
+directly under the control of a state board or commission. In several
+states the board is already one of control, that is to say, it has the
+power not only to inspect the various institutions of the state, but
+also the power to appoint their superintendents, and, in general, to
+administer the institutional relief of the state.
+
+288. COÖRDINATION OF PRIVATE AGENCIES.--The movement to coördinate
+social service agencies of a private nature has been relatively slow
+and unsatisfactory. This has been due, partly to the large number of
+societies involved, and partly to the lack of any centralized
+authority to supervise such organizations. In some large cities there
+has been a considerable degree of consolidation among societies which
+are purely charitable, but among the large number of social service
+organizations which are not purely charitable, the coördinating
+process has not gone beyond the functional stage. In this stage the
+various social service agencies of a city remain separate and
+distinct, but may become members of a council or federation which
+serves to coördinate their various functions. [Footnote: In this
+functional coördination the "consolidated" or "united" charities of
+the city generally appear as a single organization.]
+
+The aim of this functional coördination is to secure the greatest
+degree of coöperation possible without the actual amalgamation of the
+coöperating agencies. Imposition by beggars is unlikely, because a
+clearing house of information keeps the various agencies informed as
+to the work of one another. By periodic reference to a centralized
+system of card indices, different societies may keep informed to what
+types of social work are being duplicated, and as to which lines of
+effort are being neglected. Where the social service agencies of a
+city are thus coördinated, an applicant applies to the central agency
+and is then directed to the organization best suited to meet his
+needs. Such coördinating agencies stress the necessity of scientific
+work which will aid in the adjustment of personal relations and help
+secure the maximum of result with the minimum of expenditure.
+
+289. THE NEIGHBORHOOD OF THE FUTURE.--The small, stable, and
+relatively unprogressive neighborhood of the early European period has
+disappeared before the important economic, social, and political
+changes of the last five centuries. The typical neighborhood of modern
+times is larger, more inclined to be made up of transient and
+dissimilar types of people, and more impersonal. It is more
+progressive, but more likely to hold hazards for the average
+individual. The whole period since the Industrial Revolution has been
+one of neighborhood readjustment, of which many aspects of the
+problems of crime, the family, and dependency are phases. The new type
+of neighborhood has probably come to stay, but there are indications
+that life in the community of the future will prove less and less
+hazardous. The development of professional social service, growing out
+of the charity movement, but now embracing community work of every
+kind, will probably lessen the evils of the modern neighborhood, and
+retain its desirable features.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Describe the character of the medieval neighborhood.
+
+2. What factors contributed to the breakdown of the medieval
+neighborhood?
+
+3. What effect did the Industrial Revolution have upon the
+neighborhood?
+
+4. What is the extent of dependency in modern times?
+
+5. What are the economic causes of dependency?
+
+6. What are the social causes of dependency?
+
+7. What are the personal causes of dependency?
+
+8. How may defects in government contribute to dependency?
+
+9. Discuss the giving of alms in early Europe.
+
+10. Why is almsgiving inadequate as a method of treating dependency?
+
+11. Outline the new ideals which recently have begun to influence the
+treatment of the dependent.
+
+12. What is the nature of social service?
+
+13. Discuss specialization in social service.
+
+14. Why is coördination a necessary step when social service agencies
+have become highly specialized?
+
+15. What may be said as to the character of the neighborhood of the
+future?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xxiv.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Devine, _Misery and its Causes_, chapter v.
+
+3. Devine, _Principles of Relief_, chapter ii.
+
+4. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States_, chapter
+xiv.
+
+5. Warner, _American Charities_, revised edition, chapters iii and
+xxii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Why is it difficult to classify the causes of poverty? (Devine,
+Misery and its Causes_, pages 167-169.)
+
+2. What are the objective causes of dependency? (Warner, page 41.)
+
+3. What are the subjective causes of dependency? (Warner, page 42).
+
+4. What is the Charity Organization Society? (Warner, page 450.)
+
+5. Why did the Charity Organization Society arise? (Warner, page 451.)
+
+6. Where did the first society of this type arise? (Warner, page 451.)
+
+7. Discuss the methods of the Charity Organization Society. (Warner,
+page 458.)
+
+8. What is the nature of the machinery employed by the Charity
+Organization Society? (Warner, page 458.)
+
+9. What are the essentials of a sound relief policy? (Devine,
+_Principles of Relief_, page 13.)
+
+10. Under what circumstances should charitable aid be refused?
+(Devine, _Principles of Relief_, page 21.)
+
+11. What is meant by the term "medical charities"? (Guitteau, page
+154.)
+
+12. What is the great aim of social service? (Devine, _Misery and its
+Causes_, page 235.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Make a study of your neighborhood with regard to some or all of the
+following points: (a) Increase in population (b) Changes in the racial
+type of the population (c) Changes in the occupational tendencies of
+the population (d) Changes in the spirit of neighborliness (e) Changes
+in the administration of relief to dependents.
+
+2. Study the causes of dependency in your community with regard to the
+influence of economic, social, personal and political factors. (For
+this information, interview local social workers.)
+
+3. Study an actual charity case, and make a diagram or sketch showing
+the number of factors involved.
+
+4. Make a visit to an almshouse (sometimes called the poorhouse), and
+report to the class upon conditions there.
+
+5. List and classify the types of institutions which care for
+dependents in your state.
+
+6. The extent to which institutions for the dependent have been
+coördinated in your state.
+
+7. Classify the agencies which are performing some type of
+professional social service in your community.
+
+8. Interview a local social worker with regard to his or her ideals of
+social service. (Compare the result with the ideals set forth in
+Section 284 of this chapter.)
+
+
+II
+
+9. The personal causes of degeneration. (Warner, _American Charities_,
+chapter iv.)
+
+10. The social causes of degeneration. (Warner, _American Charities_,
+chapter vi.)
+
+11. Desertion. (Devine, _Principles of Relief_, chapter xi.)
+
+12. Dependent children. (Devine, _Principles of Relief_, chapter ix;
+Warner, _American Charities_, chapter xii.)
+
+13. Relief in the home. (Devine, _Principles of Relief_, chapter vi.)
+
+14. Relief in disasters. (Devine, _Principles of Relief_, part iv.)
+
+15. Beggars and impostors. (Conyngton, _How to Help_, chapter ix.)
+
+16. Volunteer work in charitable relief. (Devine, _The Practice of
+Charity_, chapter vi.)
+
+17. The social settlement. (Conyngton, _How to Help_, chapter xxvi.)
+
+18. The insane and the feeble-minded. (Warner, _American Charities_,
+chapters xiv and xv.)
+
+19. Medical charities. (Cabot, _Social Work_; Henderson, _Introduction
+to the Study of the Dependent, Defective and Delinquent Classes_, part
+ii, chapter viii.)
+
+20. Organization of charity in England. (Henderson, _Introduction to
+the Study of the Dependent_, etc., chapter iv.)
+
+21. Organization of charity in France. (Henderson, _Introduction to
+the Study of the Dependent_, etc., chapter ix.)
+
+22. Organization of charity in Holland. (Henderson, _Introduction to
+the Study of the Dependent_, etc., chapter v.)
+
+23. Organization of charity in Germany. (Henderson, _Introduction to
+the Study of the Dependent_, etc., chapter i.)
+
+24. The spirit of social work. (Devine, _The Spirit of Social Work_.)
+
+25. Tendencies in social service. (Warner, _American Charities_,
+chapter xxiii.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+26. To what extent is the number of inmates in institutions for the
+dependent classes an accurate guide to the extent of dependency
+throughout the state or nation?
+
+27. Should all institutions for the dependent classes be placed under
+the direct control of the state authorities?
+
+28. Should the state authorities attempt to administer relief to
+dependents who remain in their homes?
+
+29. Should the giving of alms by individuals be abandoned in favor of
+the practice of treating dependency entirely through professional or
+official agencies?
+
+30. What should we do when street beggars ask us for money?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+RURAL LIFE
+
+
+290. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF RURAL LIFE.--Agriculture is our oldest and
+most basic industry. Almost half of our people are found in the rural
+districts, most of them subsisting directly upon the products of farm,
+forest, and range. Directly or indirectly our cities are largely
+dependent upon the country. The foodstuffs consumed in cities, as well
+as the vast quantities of raw materials used by our manufacturing
+industries, come largely from the rural districts. To some extent even
+our urban population is recruited from the ranks of the country folk.
+Altogether, American rural life is a matter of vital concern to the
+nation. "Our civilization rests at bottom," Theodore Roosevelt once
+said, "upon the wholesomeness, the attractiveness, and the
+completeness, as well as the prosperity, of life in the country."
+
+291. NATURE OF THE RURLAL PROBLEM.--Contrary to popular belief, the
+rural problem arises not so much from the actual degeneration of rural
+society, as from the fact that many rural districts have failed to
+progress as rapidly as have urban communities. Compared with his
+predecessor of a century ago, the farmer of to-day is better fed,
+better clothed and housed, and better able to secure adequate
+education and recreation. At the same time the relatively greater
+advances which urban communities have made in economic and social
+activities render the improvement of rural life highly desirable. The
+specific problem of rural life is to develop in the country economic
+and social institutions which are especially adapted to the farmer's
+needs. Not until this is done shall we be able to maintain on our
+farms a class of people who can make the maximum contribution to
+American life in all of its phases.
+
+292. THE RURAL PROBLEM IS OF RECENT ORIGIN.--The most spectacular
+development in American economic life has been the introduction and
+growth of the factory system. Commerce and manufactures were important
+during even the colonial period, and during the first half century of
+our national history our dominant economic interest was the fostering
+of manufacturing, domestic trade, and transportation. With the
+development of manufacturing came the growth of the cities, and with
+the growth of the cities added attention was called to immigration,
+crime, health, and related social problems. Farm life, so familiar and
+apparently so healthful, was not thought of as constituting a national
+problem until late in the nineteenth century.
+
+293. THE CITYWARD DRIFT.--A half century ago more than three fourths
+of our population was rural; to-day less than half of the people of
+the United States live in the country. Both urban and rural districts
+have been steadily increasing in population since the opening of the
+nineteenth century, but since 1900 the city population has increased
+three times as fast as has the rural population. One reason for this
+more rapid growth of the cities is that since the eighties the
+majority of our immigrants have flocked to the cities rather than to
+the rural districts. Another reason, however, is that the country
+people have been drifting to the towns and cities. This cityward drift
+has an important bearing upon the character of rural life.
+
+294. REASONS FOR THE CITYWARD DRIFT.--A number of factors explain the
+tendency of rural people to move to the cities. The perfection and
+wider use of farm machinery have decreased the need for farm laborers,
+and the excess laborers have gone to the towns and cities. The fact
+that urban industries offer shorter hours, better pay, and cleaner
+work than does farming has attracted many young country people. The
+isolation of farm life and its frequent lack of comforts have impelled
+many country dwellers to move to the cities. Some country people have
+gone to the city in order to be near schools and churches, and in
+order to have access to competent doctors and well-equipped hospitals.
+The craving for a more fully developed social life than many rural
+districts afford, has been an additional cause of the cityward drift.
+Unfortunately, the glamour of urban life, with its spectacles and its
+artificial pleasures, has also been a factor in the movement away from
+the country.
+
+295. WHEREIN THE CITYWARD DRIFT IS DESIRABLE.--In some respects the
+cityward drift is a desirable development. When laborers who are no
+longer needed on the farms move cityward, the cityward drift may have
+the beneficial effect of removing such laborers to where they can find
+employment. It should also be remembered that successful rural life
+requires qualities which may be lacking in many individuals born and
+raised in the country. In so far as the cityward drift is composed of
+such individuals, it may be a helpful movement, since individuals
+unsuited to rural life may find themselves adapted to some type of
+urban life. When unneeded and unhelpful individuals are removed from
+the country, the rural population may be more efficient and more
+prosperous, even though relatively more sparse.
+
+296. WHEREIN THE CITYWARD DRIFT IS UNDESIRABLE.--In so far as the
+cityward drift brings to the city individuals unsuited to urban
+conditions, the movement away from the country may be undesirable. It
+is certainly undesirable when the individuals in question are really
+suited to rural life. The tendency of young people to move to the
+cities may ultimately deprive the country of its natural leaders.
+Certainly the colleges and factories of the cities often drain the
+country of its most able and ambitious boys and girls. The cityward
+migration of such persons may strengthen the urban population, but it
+weakens rural society and retards the progress of rural institutions.
+
+297. STATUS OF THE "BACK TO THE LAND" MOVEMENT.--Some reformers have
+sought to offset the cityward drift by an artificial "back to the
+land" movement. In so far as it would bring to the country persons
+really able to contribute to rural life, this movement is a desirable
+one. In so far as it would bring to the country persons unprepared or
+unable to adapt themselves to rural conditions, such a movement is
+injurious. On the basis of the data now available, we are warranted in
+concluding that the "back to the land" movement is founded upon
+sentiment and caprice rather than upon sound principles. It attacks
+the rural problem at the wrong end. If the natural leaders of the
+country are repelled by rural life and attracted by urban conditions,
+the remedy is not to create an artificial movement toward the country,
+but rather to make rural life so attractive that country boys and
+girls will prefer it to city life. The chief question before us is
+this: How can the country be made so attractive that individuals
+interested in, and suited to, rural life may be encouraged to lend
+themselves to its fullest development? Let us see what is being done
+toward answering this question.
+
+298. HOW THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IS HELPING TO MAKE RURAL LIFE
+ATTRACTIVE.--The material prosperity of the American farmer is due, in
+considerable part, to the activities of the Federal government. For
+more than a half century the Department of Agriculture has
+systematically encouraged various phases of agricultural industry. The
+Department conducts investigations and experiments designed to give
+farmers helpful information concerning soils, grains, fruits, and live
+stock. It distributes seeds gratuitously, and attempts to encourage
+scientific methods among farmers. The Department issues a Year-book, a
+Monthly Weather Review, a Crop Reporter, and a series of Farmers'
+Bulletins. Among the more important subdivisions of the department are
+the bureau of animal industry, the bureau of soils, the bureau of
+markets, and the office of farm management. The work of the Department
+of Agriculture is ably supplemented by the work of the Reclamation
+Bureau, which, under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior,
+is increasing the productivity of waste and arid lands.
+
+299. THE FEDERAL FARM LOAN ACT.--The growing need of credit facilities
+among farmers resulted in 1916 in the passage of the Federal Farm Loan
+Act. By the terms of this act, the United States is divided into
+twelve districts, in each of which a Federal land bank is established.
+A Federal Farm Loan Board has general charge of the entire system, but
+each Farm Loan Bank is allowed a large measure of freedom in its own
+district in the organization of local Farm Loan Associations. A local
+association is made up of a number of farm owners, or persons about to
+become owners, who desire to borrow money. The Bank will not deal with
+the individual farmer except through the local association, but when a
+farmer has been vouched for by this association, he may receive from
+the Bank of his district a loan at not more than six per cent
+interest. The Bank authorizes loans for the purchase or improvement of
+land, for the purchase of live stock, and for the erection of farm
+buildings. Loans must be secured by first mortgages not exceeding in
+amount fifty per cent of the assessed value of the land and twenty per
+cent of the value of the improvements thereon pledged as security.
+Loans may run from five to forty years, and provision is made for the
+gradual payment, in small sums, of both principal and interest.
+
+300. MARKETING NEEDS OF THE FARMER.--A problem vitally affecting not
+only the farmer but the urban consumer as well, has to do with the
+marketing of farm produce. The price of farm produce often doubles or
+trebles between the farm and the urban kitchen. This is largely
+because of a cumbersome marketing system and an overabundance of
+middlemen. Often the farmer gets entirely too little for his produce,
+while the city housewife pays too much for it. If the farmer is to
+secure a larger return for his labor, and if the cost of foodstuffs in
+cities is to be reduced, we must devise more efficient methods of
+marketing farm produce.
+
+There is a general agreement among experts that in the marketing of
+farm produce there ought to be some method of securing the coöperation
+of farmer, urban consumer, and government. The further improvement of
+country roads, together with the development of trolleys, motor
+trucking and other means of farm-to-city transport would reduce
+haulage charges. The number of public markets in cities should be
+increased, so that farm produce might be sold to consumers without the
+interference of unnecessary middlemen. The grading and standardization
+of farm products would also facilitate sale by making it unnecessary
+for prospective purchasers minutely to examine goods offered by the
+farmers. In some cases farmers might advantageously sell their produce
+directly to urban consumers. The coöperative marketing of farm
+produce, also has the effect of reducing the number of middlemen.
+[Footnote: See Chapter XII, Section 116.]
+
+One of the most important phases of marketing reform is the regulation
+of commission dealers. Many farmers commonly ship their produce to
+commission dealers in the city. These dealers are supposed to sell
+this produce and to return to the farmer the money thus secured, minus
+a small commission. In many instances these middlemen return to the
+farmer smaller sums than market conditions entitle the farmer to. At
+the same time, commission dealers often add an excessive amount to the
+price which they in turn ask of retailers and consumers. In a few
+states commission dealers handling farm produce must now be licensed.
+They are obliged to keep records which will enable an inspector to
+tell whether or not they have made false returns to farmers concerning
+the condition of goods on arrival, the time at which sold, and the
+price secured. A dealer convicted of dishonest methods loses his
+license. The future should see an extension of this licensing system.
+
+301. OTHER ECONOMIC NEEDS OF THE FARMER.--The economic position of the
+farmer has been materially strengthened within the last forty years,
+yet much remains to be done before farming may be considered an
+altogether satisfactory and attractive occupation. Tenancy in rural
+districts needs to be studied carefully. Tenancy is not necessarily an
+evil, especially where it is a step toward ownership, but its rapid
+increase in this country has caused many serious problems to arise.
+From both the economic and the social point of view it is desirable
+that farmers own their land. Tenants have no permanent interest in the
+upkeep of the farm or in the rural community. Where tenancy is
+widespread, land and buildings deteriorate, and the development of
+rural institutions is slow.
+
+Machinery is shortening the hours of labor for the farmer, and
+scientific farming is increasing his efficiency; nevertheless, in most
+sections of the country rural life still means long hours of hard
+labor for small returns. Many farmers still work ten hours a day in
+winter, twelve in summer, and from thirteen to fifteen in the harvest
+season. Despite this sustained effort, the perishable character of his
+product, the uncertainty of weather conditions, and his dependence
+upon commission dealers, too often jeopardize the returns to the
+farmer.
+
+302. RURAL HEALTH.--We have noticed that in some cases people have
+moved to the city because in the country doctors tend to be both
+scarce and poorly trained, while frequently hospitals are
+inaccessible.
+
+Recently a number of influences are counteracting this relative
+backwardness. The isolation of the rural dweller is disappearing
+before the automobile and the telephone. In many sections able doctors
+are increasingly plentiful. In most rural districts which are near
+large cities, there is now an efficient system of visiting nurses,
+free clinics, and health bulletins. Health campaigns are spreading the
+fundamental principles of sanitation into many of the outlying
+districts also.
+
+But these measures, while helpful, are only a beginning. In the more
+isolated rural sections especially, ignorance of sanitary methods is
+still a serious evil. Many rural dwellers still rely upon traditional
+but ineffective remedies for common complaints. Quacks having nostrums
+and injurious patent medicines to sell often prey upon rural
+communities in which there is no adequate provision for doctors,
+nurses, and hospitals. Rural diet is often so heavy as to encourage
+stomach disorders. Farmhouses are in many cases poorly ventilated in
+summer and overheated in winter. Stables and stock pens are invariably
+so close to the farmhouse as to render difficult the protection of the
+dwelling against flies and mosquitoes.
+
+303. THE RURAL SCHOOL.--The chief educational institution in rural
+districts has long been the small district school, inadequately
+supported and often inefficiently conducted.
+
+But recently rural education has shown many signs of improvement. In
+most sections of the country the development of farm machinery has so
+reduced the amount of manual labor on the farm that rural children are
+enabled to remain in school for a longer period than formerly. The
+district school is in many cases being supplanted by the consolidated
+school. Under the consolidation plan, a single large and well-equipped
+school-house takes the place of a number of separate, small schools,
+indifferently equipped. When consolidation is accompanied by improved
+means of transporting children to school, the advantages of the plan
+are numerous. Because consolidation is a more economical arrangement
+than the old district plan, it allows larger salaries to be offered.
+This in turn allows the rural school to secure a higher grade of
+teacher. The trained educator is also attracted by the fact that the
+consolidation of rural schools allows curricula to be standardized and
+enlarged. Scientific agriculture and allied subjects are slowly
+finding their way into the rural grade school. The rural high school
+is beginning to appear.
+
+In some sections of the country, on the other hand, the rural school
+is still in an unsatisfactory condition. In a number of states the
+rural school needs a more intelligent and consistent support from the
+taxpayers, in order that better teachers, more and better
+schoolhouses, and better working equipment may be provided. In many
+sections of the country there is very little understanding of the
+advantages of school consolidation and the necessity of more adequate
+rural education. It is desirable that rural schools be more closely
+correlated with the admirable work being done by experiment stations
+and agricultural colleges. The agricultural press might well coöperate
+with the rural schools in attacking the problems of country life.
+Without doubt the rural school curriculum should place more emphasis
+upon practical agriculture and other subjects which will demonstrate
+the dignity and attractiveness of rural life. Finally, it is desirable
+that an increasing use be made of the schoolhouse as a social center.
+
+304. THE RURAL CHURCH.--The rural church, though an older institution
+than the rural school, is advancing less rapidly. In many sections the
+cityward drift has drained the able ministers to the city, leaving
+inferior men to carry on the work of the rural church. Other rural
+sections have never had the benefit of an able clergy. In every part
+of the country it often happens that country ministers are not only
+inadequately trained, but are uninterested in rural problems.
+
+One of the greatest needs of the American farming community,
+therefore, is for a vitalized church. In many places rural districts
+are overchurched, and there is great need of some such consolidation
+as has been developed among rural schools. This development would so
+decrease the number of ministers needed that higher salaries could be
+offered. This, in turn, would attract more highly trained ministers to
+the country. It is also desirable that rural ministers be trained to a
+keener appreciation of the economic and social problems of the
+country, with a view to making religion a practical help in solving
+the problems of everyday life. An efficient and vitalized church could
+advantageously be used as a focal point for the development of every
+phase of rural community life.
+
+305. ISOLATION THE MENACE OF RURAL LIFE.--Isolation may be said to be
+the menace of rural life, as congestion is the menace of urban life.
+In many out-of-the-way rural districts isolation has resulted in moral
+inertia and intellectual dullness. Isolation has weighed particularly
+hard upon the farmer's wife. Often she is called upon, not only to
+rear a large family, but to cook and keep house for hired men, raise
+poultry and garden stuff, and even to help in the fields during the
+harvest season. In spite of this deadening routine, she has had fewer
+chances than the farmer to go to town, to meet people, or otherwise to
+secure a share of social life.
+
+306. COMMUNITY SPIRIT IN THE COUNTRY.--In view of the injurious
+effects of rural isolation, it is encouraging to note the beginnings
+of a genuine community spirit in country districts. To a considerable
+extent this development is the result of improved means of
+transportation and communication. The coming of the automobile, the
+telephone, and the trolley, the development of the rural free
+delivery, the parcel post, and the agricultural press,--all these
+factors have been important. The farmer has been enabled to share more
+and more in the benefits of city life without leaving the farm. Even
+more important, perhaps, improved methods of transportation and
+communication have stimulated social intercourse among farmers.
+Coöperation in church and school work has been encouraged. Clubs and
+community centers are more practicable where farmers make use of the
+automobile and the telephone. The fair and the festival are also
+proving to be admirable methods of developing the coöperative spirit
+in rural life.
+
+The growing realization among students of rural life that a strong and
+constructive community spirit is not only desirable but possible, is
+encouraging an interest in rural problems. The development of such a
+spirit must ultimately stimulate a healthy social life in the country,
+with a resultant increase in health and prosperity, not only for the
+farmer but for the nation as a whole.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What is the significance of rural life?
+
+2. What is the nature of the rural problem?
+
+3. Why is the rural problem of recent origin?
+
+4. What is meant by the cityward drift?
+
+5. To what extent is this drift desirable? To what extent is it
+undesirable?
+
+6. What can be said as to the "back to the land" movement?
+
+7. How does the Department of Agriculture help the farmer?
+
+8. What is the object of the Federal Farm Loan Act?
+
+9. Why is the marketing of farm products a problem?
+
+10. What are some suggestions for solving this problem?
+
+11. Discuss the recent improvement in rural health.
+
+12. In what way is rural health still in an unsatisfactory condition?
+
+13. What is the purpose of consolidating the rural schools?
+
+14. What can be said as to the condition of the rural church?
+
+15. What is the effect of isolation upon farm life?
+
+16. What has been the effect of improved means of transportation and
+communication upon community spirit in rural districts?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xxv.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Butterfield, _The Farmer and the New Day_, chapter iii.
+
+3. Carney, _Country Life and the Country School,_ chapter i.
+
+4. Carver, _Rural Economics,_ chapter vi.
+
+5. Ely, _Principles of Economics,_ chapter xxxix.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. In what way is the rural problem threefold? (Butterfield, pages 30-
+31)
+
+2. What changes have taken place since 1850 with regard to the size of
+American farms? (Ely, pages 596-603.)
+
+3. What problem arises in connection with the control of land in this
+country? (Butterfield, pages 40-41.)
+
+4. Is absentee landlordism a danger in American rural life? (Ely, page
+605.)
+
+5. How could farm management in this country be improved?
+(Butterfield, pages 42-45.)
+
+6. Discuss coöperation among Danish farmers. (Carver, pages 357-358.)
+
+7. Discuss agricultural credit in Europe. (Ely, pages 611-613.)
+
+8. In what way is rural local government a problem? (Butterfield, page
+47.)
+
+9. Name an important defect of the rural church. (Carver, pages 343-
+344.)
+
+10. What are the chief organizations which are aiding in the
+reconstruction of the rural community? (Carney, page 13.)
+
+11. What is the importance of community building in the country?
+(Carney, pages 9-10.)
+
+12. What is the importance of federating all of the social
+organizations of a rural community? (Carney, page 16.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Nature of the cityward drift in your section.
+
+2. Extent to which there is a "back to the land" movement in your
+section.
+
+3. Work of the Federal Farm Loan Bank of your district. If possible,
+interview a farmer as to the advantages and disadvantages of the
+Federal Farm Loan system.
+
+4. Work of the agricultural college in your state.
+
+5. Use of the automobile by farmers in your locality.
+
+6. Food markets in your neighborhood.
+
+7. Draw up a program for reducing the cost of food distribution in
+your section. (Consult King, _Lower Living Costs in Cities_, chapter
+xiii.)
+
+
+II
+
+8. Transportation in rural districts. (Vogt, _Introduction to Rural
+Sociology_, chapter iv; Gillette, _Constructive Rural Sociology_,
+chapter ix; Waugh, _Rural Improvement_, chapter iii.)
+
+9. The marketing of farm products. (Weld, _The Marketing of Farm
+Products; Annals_, vol. xlviii, pages 91-238; King, _Lower Living
+Costs in Cities_, chapter x; Harris, _Coöperation, the Hope of the
+Consumer_, chapter iii.)
+
+10. Tenancy. (_Annals_, vol. xl, pages 29-40; Vogt, _Introduction to
+Rural Sociology_, chapter v.)
+
+11. Rural hygiene. (Ogden, _Rural Hygiene_; Gillette, _Constructive
+Rural Sociology_, chapter xi; Vogt, _Introduction to Rural Sociology_,
+chapters vii and viii.)
+
+12. Immigrant communities in the country. (_Annals_, vol. xl, pages
+69-80.)
+
+13. Rural housing. (_Annals_, vol. li, pages 110-116; Waugh, _Rural
+Improvement_, chapter x.)
+
+14. The country town. (Anderson, _The Country Town_.)
+
+15. The rural school. (Bailey, _The Training of Farmers_, pages 173-
+194; Vogt, _Introduction to Rural Sociology_, chapter xv; Galpin,
+_Rural Life_, chapter vii; King, _Education for Social Efficiency_,
+chapters iii and iv; Butterfield, _The Farmer and the New Day_,
+chapter vii.)
+
+16. The country church. (Butterfield, _The Country Church and the
+Rural Problem_; Gill and Pinchot, _The Country Church_; Carney,
+_Country Life and the Country School_, chapter iii; Gillette,
+_Constructive Rural Sociology_, chapter xv; Vogt, _Introduction to
+Rural Sociology_, chapters xvii and xviii; Galpin, _Rural Life_,
+chapter xi; _Annals_, vol. xl, pages 131-139.)
+
+17. The Grange. (Carney, _Country Life and the Country School_,
+chapter iv.)
+
+18. The farmer in politics. (Vogt, _Introduction to Rural Sociology_,
+chapter xii.)
+
+19. Clubs and organizations in rural districts. (Gillette,
+_Constructive Rural Sociology_, chapter xiii; Waugh, _Rural
+Improvement_, chapter v; Galpin, _Rural Life_, chapters viii, x; Vogt,
+_Introduction to Rural Sociology_, chapter xiv; _Annals_, vol. xl,
+pages 175-190.)
+
+20. The Country Life movement. (Bailey, _The Country Life Movement in
+the United States_; Carney, _Country Life and the Country School_,
+chapter xiii; Gillette, _Constructive Rural Sociology_, chapter viii.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+21. The relative advantages of life in the city and life in the
+country.
+
+22. Should immigrants be encouraged to settle in rural districts?
+
+23. Advantages and disadvantages of tenancy from the standpoint of the
+rural community.
+
+24. To what extent should country people copy the social institutions
+of the city rather than develop institutions of their own?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+EDUCATION
+
+
+307. THE MEANING OF EDUCATION.--A half century ago education might
+have been defined as the process of acquiring certain types of book
+knowledge which contributed to the culture of the individual. More
+recently the concept of education has been broadened and deepened.
+Present-day education aims not only to add to the culture of the
+individual, but to vitalize the community as well. Education is no
+longer limited to the schoolroom, but includes all agencies and
+activities which in any way help toward a fuller and more responsible
+citizenship. Education is no longer confined to infancy and youth, but
+is a life-long process. Our educational system no longer assumes that
+the needs and capacities of all pupils are similar, but attempts so to
+diversify training that each individual will be enabled to develop his
+peculiar powers and to contribute to American life in the manner best
+suited to his individual ability. Taken in its widest sense, education
+has seven great objectives. These are health, command of fundamental
+processes (such as reading, writing, and arithmetic), worthy home-
+membership, vocation, citizenship, worthy use of leisure, and ethical
+character. [Footnote: These objectives have been formulated by the
+National Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education.]
+
+308. EDUCATION AND DEMOCRACY.--Two centuries ago the education of the
+masses was politically a matter of small concern, for most governments
+were conducted by a narrowly restricted class. But in a democracy
+education is fundamental. The idea that the masses should govern
+themselves is an appealing one, but before self-government is safe a
+comprehensive educational system must have made substantial inroads
+upon illiteracy and ignorance. Not only must the citizen of a
+democracy be individually capable, but his capacity to coöperate with
+his fellows must be large. Under an undemocratic government the people
+rely upon their rulers; in a democracy they must rely upon their own
+joint efforts. From both an individual and a social standpoint,
+therefore, democracy demands more of its educational system than does
+any other form of government.
+
+309. DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES.--Education was an
+important concern in most of the American colonies, and especially so
+in New England. After 1800 the common school system was extended
+rapidly, the district school passing westward with the pioneer
+movement. Educational facilities continued to expand and to diversify
+until at the end of the Civil War period there were more than seven
+million children in the elementary schools of this country. The period
+following the Civil War also saw the beginnings of the high school, a
+characteristic American educational institution which arose to take
+the place of the older Latin grammar schools and the private
+academies. Normal schools for the training of teachers, and colleges
+and universities for higher education, developed rapidly after 1880.
+Today there are more than three quarters of a million teachers in the
+United States, instructing more than 25,000,000 students in
+institutions ranging from kindergarten and elementary schools to
+colleges and universities.
+
+310. MERITS OF OUR EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM.--The merits of our educational
+system are of great significance. We are definitely committed to the
+ideal of an educated citizenry. It has been the policy of the several
+states to establish and maintain free public schools. School
+attendance is compulsory, on full or part time, for children up to a
+certain age, the age varying from state to state. No public school is
+sectarian, the freedom of religious thought and action guaranteed by
+the Federal Constitution having been continued into our public school
+system. The public schools stimulate democratic tendencies by bringing
+together large masses of children from all walks of life. Our school
+system likewise has an Americanizing influence upon a large number of
+foreigners because their children study in our public schools and then
+carry into their homes the influence of the school. Within the last
+quarter of a century our schools have greatly extended their
+functions, becoming, in many cases, genuine community centers.
+
+311. FINANCIANG THE SCHOOLS.--The substantial advances made in
+American education during the last century are a cause for
+congratulation. At the same time, our standards of education are
+rising so rapidly that a number of educational problems are becoming
+acute.
+
+An important problem has to do with the financial support of our
+rapidly expanding school system. In many states the schools are
+inadequately supported by the tax payers. In some of these states the
+public schools are not readily accessible to large numbers of
+children, while in the schools that are accessible the equipment is
+often inadequate to the demands made upon it. In many states teachers
+still receive insufficient salaries.
+
+Our schools ought not to suffer from lack of funds. Ours is the
+richest country in the world, and our school system is one of the most
+vital and fundamental of our institutions. Often the failure of
+taxpayers properly to support the schools is due to either or both of
+the following causes: First, failure to appreciate the importance of
+education; second, the lack of accessible wealth as a basis of
+taxation. The first objection must be met by so perfecting our
+educational system that taxpayers will be convinced that money
+invested in schools means large profits in the form of a more
+efficient and prosperous citizenship. The second objection calls for
+the reform of our taxation system.
+
+312. CONTROL OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES.--In the United States
+education is a state rather than a national function. There is no
+Federal administration of schools, each state having its independent
+system. Each state has a system of elementary education, and nearly
+every state has a secondary or high school system. Nearly all of the
+states also have state universities in which instruction is either
+free or is available at a nominal charge. The public schools are
+supported chiefly by local taxes and are controlled mainly by the
+local authorities. In most states local outlays are supplemented, to a
+greater or less degree, by state contributions. State support is
+almost always accompanied by a measure of state control, though the
+extent of this control varies widely among the several states.
+
+313. THE QUESTION OF UNIFORM STANDARDS.--To what extent should there
+be uniformity within our school system? We have no national system of
+education, and the lack of coördination between the educational
+systems of the several states has many undesirable features.
+Educational standards vary widely from state to state, and often from
+county to county within the same state. The confusion growing out of
+this situation has given rise to the demand for the systematization or
+standardization of our school facilities.
+
+The question is a difficult one. Most authorities believe that
+education ought not to be centralized under the Federal government,
+but ought, rather, to remain a state function. But even though it is
+not desirable to allow the Federal government to take over the chief
+educational powers of the state, it is believed by many that some
+national agency might render valuable service in coördinating the
+educational programs of the several states. At present many educators
+feel that the Federal government should insist upon minimum standards
+in education in the various states of the Union.
+
+Standardization within each state is considered desirable by most
+authorities. All of the educational facilities of a given commonwealth
+probably ought to be coördinated under some supervising state agency.
+The administrative ideal in state education is so to systematize the
+schools of the state that they will be bound together by a common
+purpose, guided by the same set of established principles, and
+directed toward the same social ends.
+
+314. SCHOOL ATTENDANCE.--A serious defect of our educational system
+arises in connection with school attendance. In many states the school
+attendance laws are laxly enforced. It is claimed that at no one time
+is more than three fourths of our school population enrolled in the
+schools. Of those who do comply with the school attendance laws, there
+is a considerable percentage which cannot acquire an adequate
+education within the limits of the compulsory school period. Only
+about one third of the pupils who enter the first year of the
+elementary school reach the four-year high school, and only about one
+in nine is graduated. Of those who enter high school, about one third
+leave before the beginning of the second year, about one half are gone
+before the beginning of the third year, and fewer than one third are
+graduated.
+
+Within the last decade there has been a marked tendency among the
+several states to enforce school attendance laws more strictly. No
+less encouraging is the growing belief among educators that the school
+attendance period ought so to be adjusted that every child will be
+guaranteed the working essentials of an education. There is grave
+doubt as to the wisdom of raising the minimum age at which children
+may withdraw from school, but at least greater efforts ought to be
+made to keep children in school at least for part-time schooling
+beyond the present compulsory period. As will be pointed out
+presently, much is already being done in this direction.
+
+315. EDUCATION AS PREPARATION FOR DAILIY LIFE.--It is sometimes said
+that our educational system neglects practical activities for subjects
+that have no immediate connection with the problems of daily life.
+Many citizens have thoughtlessly condemned the whole program of
+education because they have observed that particular schools have
+allowed pupils to go forth with a fund of miscellaneous knowledge
+which neither helps them to get a better living, nor aids them in
+performing the duties of citizenship. On the basis of these and allied
+considerations, there is a growing demand that education be made more
+"practical."
+
+There is much to be said for and against this attitude. Some
+enthusiasts are apparently carrying the demand for "practical"
+education too far. The growing importance in our industrial life of
+efficiency and practical training should not blind us to the fact that
+education is cultural as well as occupational or vocational. The
+education of an individual is not estimated alone by the degree to
+which he succeeds in practical affairs, but as well by the extent to
+which he shows evidence of training in the appreciation of moral,
+artistic, and literary values. It is sometimes difficult to see that
+the study of literature, ancient languages, and similar subjects is
+preparation for life, and yet wise training in these fields may prove
+as important as studies which aid more directly and immediately in
+getting a living.
+
+On the other hand, our educational system must take note of the
+growing importance of industrial activities. Since education is
+preparation for life, the school must accommodate itself to the
+changes which are now taking place in our economic and social
+organization. As modern society becomes more complex, more tinged with
+industrial elements, more a matter of coöperation and interdependence,
+education must become more highly evolved, more attentive to
+vocational needs, and more emphatic in the stress which it lays upon
+the actual duties of citizenship.
+
+The more complex the needs of daily life, therefore, the greater the
+necessity of shifting emphasis in education. But in thus shifting the
+emphasis in education we must be careful not to disturb the balance
+between cultural and "practical" subjects. To discriminate between
+what should be taught and what should be omitted from the curriculum,
+to retain the finest elements of our cultural studies, but at the same
+time to fit our citizens to meet the demands of office, shop, and
+factory,--these are the tasks of the educator.
+
+316. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.--Vocational training is one of the most
+significant developments in modern education. This type of education
+is designed to train the young person to earn a good living in that
+branch of work for which he seems best fitted. Some of the supporters
+of vocational education believe that this specialized form of training
+ought to be commenced very early and in connection with the regular
+curriculum. Others think that vocational education should not be
+attempted until the child has been given enough generalized training
+to enable him properly to perform the fundamental duties of
+citizenship.
+
+But whatever its relation to the curriculum, vocational education is
+of great significance. If combined with vocational guidance it not
+only prevents the boy or girl from aimlessly drifting into an
+unskilled occupation, but it singles out for special attention
+children who show special aptitude for particular trades and
+professions. Vocational education for the blind, the deaf, the
+crippled, and the otherwise disabled is social service of the finest
+and most constructive type.
+
+317. FEDERAL ENCOURAGEMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.--In February,
+1917, Congress passed the Smith-Hughes Act, establishing a Federal
+Board for Vocational Education. This board promotes vocational
+education in coöperation with the several states, and administers the
+Federal aid granted to the states under the Act. Each state accepting
+the provisions of the Act must provide a state board to control a
+system of vocational schools. Evening, part-time, and continuation
+schools offer instruction in agriculture, industry, commerce,
+transportation, and the professions. Each state must also agree to
+appropriate, either through the state or locally, an amount of money
+for teachers' salaries, equivalent to the sum received from the
+Federal board. Such states must also agree to provide proper buildings
+and meet the running expenses of the system. In the first year under
+this Act, the Federal appropriations amounted to more than a million
+and a half dollars. This sum is to be increased annually until the
+year 1925-1926, when the states will receive $7,000,000 from the
+Federal government in support of vocational education.
+
+318. LIMITATIONS OF THE CONVENTIONAL SCHOOL TERM.--A few decades ago,
+the typical school in an American city offered instruction to certain
+classes of young people between nine o'clock in the morning and three
+or four o'clock in the afternoon, for from 150 to 180 days a year.
+During the rest of the time the schoolhouse was idle.
+
+This policy greatly restricted the education of important groups of
+people. Adult immigrants were barred from the elementary public
+schools. Persons desiring educational guidance in special fields often
+found that the school offered them no help. Cripples, men and women
+employed in the daytime, and other individuals who found it impossible
+or inconvenient to attend school during the conventional time limits,
+were restricted in educational opportunity. Many boys and girls who
+drop out of school because of the necessity of going to work, do so
+before their education has been completed. For most of these classes,
+the inability to take advantage of the regular school term has meant
+the denial of adequate education.
+
+319. WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT.--Recently the "wider use of the
+school plant" movement is helping these classes to secure or continue
+their education. For unassimilated immigrants, day and evening courses
+in citizenship are now provided in many cities and towns. In many
+cities vacation schools have been established for the convenience of
+children who have failed in their studies, or who are able and willing
+to make unusual progress in various subjects. For those who work by
+day there is often a chance to go to school by night. For those who
+find it inexpedient to leave their homes, there are, in many places,
+travelling libraries and correspondence courses. In some western
+states the farmer now has an opportunity of taking extension courses
+from the State university during those seasons in which his work is
+lightest. For pupils who are under the necessity of partially or
+entirely supporting themselves, some cities now have part-time or all-
+around-the-year schools.
+
+320. THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTER.--Closely associated with the
+movement to extend school facilities to those who would ordinarily be
+debarred from them, is the movement toward making the school a social
+center. Many city and some rural schools now provide free to the
+general public lectures on science, art, literature, and business.
+Moving pictures, dramatics, and other forms of entertainment are
+becoming a regular feature of this type of school work. In many
+schools the gymnasiums are available to the public under reasonable
+restrictions. Folk singing and dancing are being encouraged in
+numerous schools. Schoolrooms devoted by day to regular school courses
+are in many places being used during the evening for the discussion of
+public questions. In these and other ways the school is becoming a
+center of life for the community. It is extending into the homes of
+the people and is becoming the instrument of the community rather than
+of a particular group.
+
+321. EDUCATION AND SOCIAL PROGRESS.--We may sum up the problems so far
+discussed in this text by noting that their solution calls for three
+different types of treatment.
+
+First, we must strike at the root of poverty by giving every
+individual just what he earns, by making it possible for every
+individual to earn enough to support himself and his family decently,
+and by teaching him to spend his income wisely and economically.
+
+Second, wise and careful laws must be passed for the purpose of
+correcting and lessening the social defects of American democracy.
+
+Third, education must be relied upon to render the individual able and
+willing to do his duty toward himself and his country. The boys and
+girls of to-day are the voters and home-makers of to-morrow, and the
+responsibility of preparing those boys and girls for the efficient
+conduct of community life rests almost entirely upon the school. Thus
+education is one of the most basic factors in social progress. Neither
+a reorganized economic system, nor the most carefully drawn laws on
+social questions will solve the problems of American democracy until
+the individual citizen is trained to a proper appreciation of his
+responsibilities toward himself and toward his country.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What is the scope of education?
+
+2. What is the relation of education to democracy?
+
+3. Trace briefly the development of education in this country.
+
+4. Enumerate the chief merits of our educational system.
+
+5. What problem arises in connection with financing the schools?
+
+6. Explain the failure of some taxpayers properly to support the
+schools.
+
+7. Discuss the control of education in this country.
+
+8. Outline the problem of uniform educational standards.
+
+9. To what extent is school attendance a problem?
+
+10. What are the chief tasks of the educator?
+
+11. Discuss the purpose of vocational education.
+
+12. What is the nature of the Smith-Hughes act?
+
+13. What are the limitations of the conventional school term?
+
+14. What is meant by the "wider use of the school plant" movement?
+
+15. To what extent is the school becoming a social center?
+
+16. What is the relation of education to social progress?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xxvi. Or all
+of the following:
+
+2. Cubberley, _Changing Conceptions of Education_, all.
+
+3. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States_, chapter
+xviii.
+
+4. McMurry, _How to Study_, part i.
+
+5. Perry, _Wider Use of the School Plant_, chapter i.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Discuss briefly the progress made in education since the Civil War.
+(Cubberley, pages 38-42.)
+
+2. Name an important defect of our educational system as it existed in
+the eighties. (Perry, page 3.)
+
+3. Discuss the development of the high school. (Guitteau, pages 174-
+175.)
+
+4. To what extent does the Federal government aid State education?
+(Guitteau, page 176.)
+
+5. Compare briefly the four types of school administration. (Guitteau
+pages 177-180.)
+
+6. What are the chief sources of school revenues? (Guitteau, pages
+182-183.)
+
+7. What has been the effect of immigration upon our educational
+system? (Cubberley, pages 14-15.)
+
+8. What is the function of the vacation school? (Perry, pages 6-7.)
+
+9. What is meant by the problem of leisure time? (Cubberley, page 20.)
+
+10. Outline briefly the present tendencies in education. (Cubberley,
+pages 49-69-)
+
+11. Outline the principal factors in study. (McMurry, pages 15-23.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVERSTGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Trace the development of public school education in your state.
+
+2. Classify the types of schools in your state.
+
+3. Draw up a list of the more important provisions in your state
+constitution regarding education.
+
+4. Sources of school revenues in your community.
+
+5. State supervision of the public schools in your commonwealth.
+
+6. Influence of the Smith-Hughes act upon education in your state.
+
+7. Use of the school as a social center in your community.
+
+8. The meaning of education. (Butler, _The Meaning of Education_;
+Henderson, _What is it to be Educated?_ Hadley, _The Education of the
+American Citizen_; Baldwin, _The Relation of Education to
+Citizenship_.)
+
+9. The beginnings of American education. (Cubberley, _Public Education
+in the United States_, chapter ii.)
+
+10. The reorganization of elementary education. (Cubberley, _Public
+Education in the United States_, chapter x.)
+
+11. Education through play. (Curtis, _Education through Play_.)
+
+12. The use of leisure time. (_Annals_, vol. lxvii, pages 115-122.)
+
+13. Wider use of the school plant. (Cubberley, _Public Education in
+the United States_, chapter xiii; _Annals_, vol. lxvii, pages 170-202.
+Perry, _Wider Use of the School Plant_.)
+
+14. The relation of the school to the community. (Dewey, _Schools of
+To-morrow_, chapter vii.)
+
+15. Physical education. (Sargent, _Physical Education_.)
+
+16. The education of Helen Keller. (Keller, _The Story of My Life_.
+See also an encyclopedia.)
+
+17. The education of the crippled child. (Hall and Buck, _Handicrafts
+for the Handicapped_.)
+
+18. Education for efficiency. (Eliot, _Education for Efficiency_;
+Davenport, _Education for Efficiency_.)
+
+19. Vocational education. (Taylor, _A Handbook of Vocational
+Guidance_; Bloomfield, _The Vocational Guidance of Youth_; Leake,
+_Industrial Education, Its Problems, Methods and Danger_.)
+
+20. Choosing a vocation. (Parsons, _Choosing a Vocation_.)
+
+21. The United States Bureau of Education and the immigrant;
+(_Annals_, vol. lxvii, pages 273-283.)
+
+22. Education and social progress. (Ellwood, _Sociology and Modern
+Social Problems_, chapter xvi.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+23. Do grammar school graduates who fail to enter high school stop
+their education at this point because of poverty, because of the
+attraction of industry, or because of dissatisfaction with school?
+
+24. The question of free text books.
+
+25. The question of uniform text books throughout your state.
+
+26. At what point in the school curriculum should vocational education
+be begun?
+
+27 How are ancient languages, ancient history and the fine arts
+helpful in daily life?
+
+28. The question of a more intensive use of your school building as a
+social center.
+
+
+
+
+PART IV--AMERICAN POLITICAL PROBLEMS
+
+
+A. SOME ECONOMIC FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+PUBLIC INTEREST IN BUSINESS: REGULATION
+
+
+322. NECESSITY OF PUBLIC INTEREST IN BUSINESS.--Although individuals
+carry on business primarily for their own ends, the economic
+activities of men affect not only themselves, but the community as
+well. If every individual voluntarily confined his attention to those
+forms of business which strengthened the community as well as adding
+to his own prosperity, there would be little need for laws regulating
+the conduct of business. But because experience has shown that some
+persons will seek to benefit themselves in ways that react to the
+injury of the community, it becomes necessary for law to adjust
+private and public interests. A community cannot remain indifferent to
+the economic activities of its citizens. Public interest in business
+is a fundamental necessity, if the community is to be safeguarded
+against the abuses of free enterprise.
+
+323. NATURE OF PUBLIC INTEREST IN BUSINESS.--In general, the object of
+laws regulating business is either to encourage helpful business
+methods, or to discourage harmful business methods. A good deal of
+legislation has been designed positively to encourage helpful business
+methods, yet it remains true that the most significant of our
+industrial laws have been aimed primarily at the discouragement of
+harmful business. A fundamental American ideal is to insure to the
+individual as much freedom of action as is consistent with the public
+interest. Thus we believe that if harmful business is controlled or
+suppressed, private initiative may be trusted to develop helpful
+business methods, without the aid of fostering legislation. In this
+and the following chapter, therefore, we may confine our attention to
+legislation designed to suppress harmful business methods.
+
+324. THE NATURE OF MONOPOLY.--We may begin the discussion by inquiring
+into the nature and significance of monopoly.
+
+Under openly competitive conditions the free play of supply and demand
+between a number of producers and a number of prospective consumers
+fixes the price of a commodity. In such cases consumers are protected
+against exorbitant prices by the fact that rival producers will
+underbid each other in the effort to sell their goods.
+
+But if the supply of a good, say wheat, is not in the hands of several
+rival producers, but is under the control of a unified group of
+persons, competition between the owners of the wheat is suppressed
+sufficiently to enable this unified group more nearly to dictate the
+price for which wheat shall sell. In such a case a monopoly is said to
+exist. Complete control of the supply of a commodity is rare, even for
+short periods, but modern business offers many instances of
+enterprises which are more or less monopolistic in character.
+
+The essential danger of monopoly is that those who have secured
+control of the available supply of a commodity will use that control
+to benefit themselves at the expense of the public. By combining their
+individual businesses, producers who were formerly rivals may secure
+the chief advantage of large-scale management. That is to say, the
+cost of production per unit may be decreased, because several combined
+plants might be operated more economically than several independent
+concerns. If the cost of production _is_ decreased the combining
+producers can afford to lower the price of their product. But if they
+are practically in control of the entire supply, they will not lower
+the price unless it serves their interests to do so. Indeed it is more
+likely that they will take advantage of their monopoly to raise the
+price.
+
+325. TYPES OF MONOPOLY.--Monopolies are variously classified, but for
+our purpose they may be called either _natural_ or _unnatural_.
+
+A _natural_ monopoly may exist where, by the very nature of the
+business, competition is either impossible or socially undesirable.
+Examples of this type of monopoly are gas and water works, street
+railways, steam railways, and similar industries. These will be
+discussed in the next chapter.
+
+Where an _unnatural_ monopoly exists, it is not because the essential
+character of the business renders it unfit for the competitive system,
+but because competition has been artificially suppressed. The
+traditional example of an unnatural monopoly is that form of large-
+scale combination which is popularly known as a trust.
+
+326. ORIGIN OF THE TRUST.--After the Civil War, rivalry in many
+industries was so intense as to lead to "cutthroat" competition and a
+consequent reduction in profits. For the purpose of securing the
+advantages of monopoly, many previously competing businesses combined.
+In 1882 John D. Rockefeller organized the Standard Oil Company, the
+first trust in this country. The plan drawn up by Mr. Rockefeller
+provided that the owners of a number of oil refineries should place
+their stock in the hands of a board of trustees. In exchange for this
+stock, the owners received trust certificates on which they were paid
+dividends. Having control of the stock, the trustees were enabled to
+manage the combining corporations as one concern, thus maintaining a
+unified control over supply, and opening the way to monopoly profits.
+
+327. PRESENT MEANING OF THE TERM "TRUST."--The plan initiated by Mr.
+Rockefeller was so successful that other groups of industries adopted
+it. After 1890 the original trust device was forbidden by statute, and
+the _trust proper_ declined in importance. But there continued to be a
+large number of industrial combinations which, under slightly
+different forms, have secured all of the advantages of the original
+trust. In some cases previously competing corporations have actually
+amalgamated; in still other cases, combining concerns have secured the
+advantages of monopoly by forming a holding company. A holding company
+is a corporation which is created for the express purpose of "holding"
+or controlling stock in several other corporations. This the holding
+company does by buying a sufficient amount of the stock of the
+combining concerns to insure unity of management and control. Since
+the holding company and similar devices secure the chief advantages of
+the original trust, the word "trust" is now used to designate any
+closely knit combination which has monopolistic advantages.
+
+328. GROWTH OF THE TRUST MOVEMENT.--The trust movement developed
+rapidly after 1882. There were important combinations in the oil, tin,
+sugar, steel, tobacco, paper, and other industries. By 1898 there had
+been formed some eighty trusts, with a total capitalization of about
+$1,000,000,000. At the beginning of 1904 the number of trusts exceeded
+three hundred, while their combined capital totaled more than
+$5,000,000,000. The largest single trust was the United States Steel
+Corporation, which was capitalized at almost a billion and a half
+dollars. At the beginning of 1911, in which year the Supreme Court of
+the United States ordered two important trusts to dissolve, the
+combined capital of the trusts was probably in excess of
+$6,000,000,000.
+
+329. ABUSE OF POWER BY THE TRUSTS.--Trusts have often abused their
+monopolistic powers. They have often used their wealth to corrupt
+legislatures and to attempt to influence even the courts, in the
+effort to prevent laws and court decisions from restricting their
+monopoly. The corruption of railway corporations and of political
+parties has been partly due to the evil influence of the trusts.
+Trusts have often crushed out independent concerns that endeavored to
+compete with them. This has been accomplished, partly by inducing
+railroads to discriminate against independent concerns and in favor of
+the trusts, partly by cutting prices in competitive markets until
+independent concerns were crushed out, and partly by the use of
+bribes, threats, and other unfair methods. After competition had been
+suppressed, the trusts took advantage of their monopoly to raise
+prices on their products, thus imposing a heavy burden upon the
+public.
+
+330. THE SHERMAN ANTI-TRUST ACT. (1890.)--During the eighties a number
+of states attempted to control the trust movement. But the Federal
+government has exclusive jurisdiction over interstate business, and
+for this reason the action of the states was limited to the control of
+the relatively unimportant trust business lying entirely within their
+respective borders. The fact that an increasing proportion of trust
+business was interstate in character stimulated interest in Federal
+anti-trust legislation, and in 1890 the Sherman Anti-trust Act was
+passed. This Act declared illegal "every contract, combination in the
+form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or
+commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations."
+
+331. FAILURE OF THE SHERMAN ACT.--For more than twenty years after its
+passage, the Sherman Act did little to curb the growth of the trusts,
+indeed, the most marked tendency toward trust formation occurred
+_after_ 1890. Numerous suits were brought under the Act, but the
+lukewarm attitude of the courts rendered difficult the administration
+of the law. After 1911 the courts held that the restraint of trade was
+illegal if "unreasonable," but few juries could be found that could
+agree upon the difference between a "reasonable" and an "unreasonable"
+restraint of trade. Lastly, combinations which had been organized
+under the original trust plan were not disheartened by court decrees
+ordering them to dissolve, but reorganized under some device which was
+practically as effective as the trust plan, but which did not
+technically violate the Sherman act.
+
+332. FURTHER LEGISLATION IN 1914.--Finally in 1911 the government
+succeeded in dissolving the Standard Oil Company and the American
+Tobacco Company, two of the largest trusts in the country. This
+success encouraged the Department of Justice to institute other suits,
+and stimulated such general interest in the trust problem that in 1914
+Congress passed two new Anti-trust Acts. These were the Clayton Act
+and the Federal Trade Commission Act. The general effect of these laws
+was to strengthen anti-trust legislation by correcting some of the
+fundamental defects of the Sherman Act, and by still further extending
+the power of the Federal government over monopolistic combinations.
+
+333. The Clayton Act of 1914.--The Clayton Act forbids "unjustifiable
+discriminations in the prices charged to different persons," and also
+prohibits the lease or sale of goods made with the understanding that
+the lessee or purchaser shall not patronize competing concerns. The
+Act specifies a number of other practices which constitute
+unreasonable restraints of trade. Somewhat complicated limitations are
+imposed upon interlocking directorates, by which is meant the practice
+of individuals being on the board of directors of different
+corporations. [FOOTNOTE: The danger of the interlocking directorate,
+of course, is that individuals who are directors in two or more
+corporations may attempt to suppress competition between those
+corporations. This may lead to monopoly.] The Act likewise forbids the
+acquisition by one corporation of stock in another corporation when
+the effect may be "to substantially lessen competition" between such
+corporations, or "to tend to create a monopoly."
+
+334. THE FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION ACT OF 1914.--The second of the two
+Acts of 1914 created a Federal Trade Commission of five members,
+appointed by the President. The Commission has the power to require
+annual or special reports from interstate corporations in such form
+and relating to such matters as it may prescribe. At the request of
+the Attorney General, the Commission must investigate and report upon
+any corporation alleged to be violating the anti-trust laws. The most
+important power of the Commission is undoubtedly that of issuing
+orders restraining the use of "unfair methods of competition in
+commerce." This clause aims at prevention rather than at punishment,
+and if its power is wisely used it will check monopoly in the early
+stages. Most authorities claim that in this regard the work of the
+Commission has already proved definitely helpful.
+
+335. THE OUTLOOK.--Since 1911, and especially since the passage of the
+two Acts of 1914, the trust situation has materially improved. The
+vague and wholly inadequate powers of the old Sherman Act have been
+clarified and supplemented by the more specific provisions of the
+Clayton and Federal Trade Commission Acts. Fairly adequate machinery
+for the investigation and prosecution of trusts is now provided. The
+present laws cover not only combinations making use of the old trust
+device, but also combinations employing other methods of exercising
+monopoly control. The Federal Trade Commission Act provides for
+publicity, so that public opinion may have a chance to enforce the
+principle of fair play and open competition in business. The trust
+problem in the United States is not yet solved, but the careful
+control which we are now exercising over this type of organization
+justifies the belief that the trust evil will become less important as
+time goes on.
+
+336. THE TRUST PROBLEM OF THE FUTURE. In connection with the matter of
+making anti-trust legislation more effective, a new and pressing
+problem is arising. This has to do with the necessity of
+distinguishing, first, between the legitimate and the illegitimate
+practices of trusts [Footnote: Large-scale combination or management
+allows important economies to be practiced. Plant can be used more
+advantageously, supervision is less costly, supplies can be purchased
+in large quantities and hence more cheaply, etc. The securing of these
+economies constitutes a legitimate feature of large-scale combination
+or management.]; and second, between combinations which are
+monopolistic and combinations in which there is no element of
+monopoly.
+
+We are coming to realize a fact which in Europe has long been a matter
+of common knowledge, namely, that trusts are never wholly and
+unqualifiedly bad. The law should not aim to destroy trusts, but
+rather should attempt so to regulate their activities that their
+economical features will be preserved while their harmful practices
+will be suppressed. Laws should also recognize the fact that many
+large-scale combinations have in them no element of monopoly, and that
+such combinations should be exempted from anti-trust prosecution. In
+drawing up anti-trust legislation, prohibitions and restrictions
+should be as concise and as definite as possible, both in order to
+facilitate the execution of the law, and in order to prevent hardships
+being worked upon combinations which have consistently observed the
+rules of fair play in competitive business.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Why is public interest in business necessary?
+
+2. What is the nature of public interest in business?
+
+3. What is the nature of monopoly?
+
+4. What are the two types of monopoly? Give an example of each.
+
+5. Describe the origin of the trust.
+
+6. Explain clearly the meaning of the word "trust" as it is now used.
+
+7. During what period of our history was trust development greatest?
+
+8. In what sense have trusts abused their power?
+
+9. What was the purpose of the Sherman act of 1890?
+
+10. How did the act work out in practice?
+
+11. What important development is associated with the period 1911-1914?
+
+12. What are the main provisions of the Clayton act?
+
+13. What is the purpose of the Federal Trade Commission act?
+
+14. Outline the problem of the future with respect to trusts.
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xxvii.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Durand, _The Trust Problem_, chapter i.
+
+3. Ely, _Outlines of Economics_, chapter xiii.
+
+4. Fetter, _Modern Economic Problems_, chapter xxviii.
+
+5. Seager, _Principles of Economics_, chapter xxv.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. What are the four methods by which industrial combinations have
+taken place? (Fetter, pages 433-434.)
+
+2. What are the three types of trusts? (Durand, page 9.)
+
+3. What is a pool? (Durand, page 9.)
+
+4. Name some of the important trusts which were formed between 1890
+and 1899. (Fetter, pages 435-436.)
+
+5. Name some of the most successful trusts. (Seager, page 456.)
+
+6. What is the relation of trust development to the tariff? (Seager,
+pages 464-465.)
+
+7. What is the evil of over-capitalization? (Seager, pages 465-466;
+Ely, pages 221-223.)
+
+8. What are the chief advantages claimed for the trust? (Ely, pages
+228-230; Durand, page 28.)
+
+9. What are some of the devices used in "unfair competition"? (Ely,
+pages 239-240.)
+
+10. What are the three ways of dealing with the trust evil? (Durand,
+pages l0-11.)
+
+11. How has the trust evil been handled in other countries? (Ely,
+pages 245-246.)
+
+12. What can be said as to the ultimate solution of the trust problem?
+(Durand, page 30.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. The chartering of corporations in your state
+
+2. History of anti-trust legislation in your state.
+
+3. Outline the present laws of your state relative to monopolistic
+combinations.
+
+4. Trust development in your state, or in your section of the country.
+
+
+II
+
+5. The nature of monopoly. (Ely, _Outlines of Economics,_ chapter xii;
+Seager, _Principles of Economics,_ chapter xxiii.)
+
+6. Causes of trust formation. (Van Hise, _Concentration and Control,_
+pages 21-25.)
+
+7. Purposes of trust formation. (Van Hise, _Concentration and
+Control,_ pages 25-31.)
+
+8. Forms of industrial combination. (Van Hise, _Concentration and
+Control,_ pages 60-72.)
+
+9. Text of the Sherman anti-trust act. (_Ripley, Trusts, Pools and
+Corporations,_ pages 484-485; Durand, _The Trust Problem,_ appendix i.)
+
+10. Early Supreme Court decisions relative to the Sherman act.
+(Ripley, _Trusts, Pools and Corporations,_ pages 506-549.)
+
+11. The Sherman act in actual operation. (Hamilton, _Current Economic
+Problems,_ pages 433-441.)
+
+12. The "rule of reason." (Ripley, _Trusts, Pools and Corporations,_
+pages 606-702.)
+
+13. Difficulty of regulating trusts. (Durand, _The Trust Problem,_
+chapter in.)
+
+14. Text of the Federal Trade Commission act. (Durand, The _Trust
+Problem,_ appendix in.)
+
+15. Relation of the Federal Trade Commission to the courts. (_Annals,_
+vol. lxiii, pages 24-36.)
+
+16. Relation of the Federal Trade Commission to our foreign trade.
+(_Annals,_ vol. lxiii, pages 67-68.)
+
+17. Alleged advantages of trusts. (Durand, The _Trust Problem,_
+chapter iv; Van Hise, _Concentration and Control,_ pages 8-21.)
+
+18 Trust regulation in foreign countries. (Van Hise, _Concentration
+and Control_, chapter iv.)
+
+19. The history of some one trust, as, for example, the American Sugar
+Refining Company, the United States Steel Corporation, the American
+Tobacco Company, or the International Harvester Company. (Consult any
+available literature.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+20. What is a reasonable as opposed to an unreasonable restraint of
+trade?
+
+21. How is it possible to tell when combination has resulted in
+monopoly?
+
+22. To what extent is the mere size of an industrial organization an
+indication of monopoly?
+
+23. Does monopoly always result in a higher price being asked for the
+monopolized article?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+PUBLIC INTEREST IN BUSINESS: OWNERSHIP
+
+
+337. BASIS OF NATURAL MONOPOLY.--The most important examples of
+_natural_ monopoly are found in those industries which are known as
+public utilities. Public utilities include gas and electric light
+works, waterworks, telephone and telegraph plants, and electric and
+steam railways.
+
+These industries are by their very nature unsuited to the competitive
+system. This is chiefly because they operate under the principle of
+decreasing cost, that is to say, the greater the volume of business
+handled by a single plant, the less the cost of production per unit.
+In order to serve 100,000 customers with gas, for example, it may be
+necessary to make an initial outlay of $90,000 in plant and supplies.
+With this identical plant, however, the gas works could really
+manufacture gas sufficient to serve more than 100,000. If, later, the
+city grows and the number of customers using gas doubles, the gas
+works, already having its basic plant, will not have to expend another
+$90,000, but only, say, an additional $30,000.
+
+This principle has the double effect of virtually prohibiting
+competition and of encouraging combination. Since a street or a
+neighborhood can be served with water or gas more cheaply by a single
+plant than by several competing plants, competing plants tend to
+combine in order to secure the economies resulting from decreasing
+cost and large-scale production. On the other hand, the cost of
+duplicating a set of water mains or a network of street car tracks is
+so prohibitive as to render competition undesirable, both from the
+standpoint of the utility and from the standpoint of the public.
+
+This natural tendency toward monopoly, together with the social
+importance of public utilities, has given rise to a demand that
+businesses of this type be publicly owned. The problem of public
+ownership may be considered under two heads: first, the municipal
+ownership of local utilities; and, second, the national ownership of
+steam railroads.
+
+
+A. MUNICIPAL OWNERSHIP
+
+338. REGULATION OF LOCAL UTILITIES.--In many American cities it was
+formerly the custom of the city council to confer valuable privileges
+upon public service corporations on terms that did not adequately
+safeguard the public interest. In making such grants, called
+franchises, city councils often permitted private corporations the
+free use of the streets and other public property for long periods of
+time or even in perpetuity.
+
+The abuses growing out of the careless use of the franchise granting
+power have recently led to a more strict supervision of franchises to
+public service corporations. In most cities, franchises are no longer
+perpetual, but are limited to a definite and rather short period, say
+fifty years. To an increasing extent, franchises are drawn up by
+experts, so that the terms of the grant will safeguard the interests
+of the public. In many states there are now public service commissions
+that have the power to regulate privately owned utilities. The chief
+aim of such commissions is to keep informed as to the condition of the
+utilities, and to fix rates and charges which the commission considers
+fair and reasonable.
+
+339. ARGUMENTS FOR MUNICIPAL OWNERSHIP.--Those favoring municipal
+ownership, as opposed to regulation, declare that the conditions
+affecting rates change so rapidly that no public service commission
+can fix rates fairly or promptly. Public ownership would save the cost
+of regulation, in many cases a considerable item. It is maintained
+that regulation is inevitably a failure, and that in view of the
+social importance of public utilities, ownership is a logical and
+necessary step.
+
+Important social gains are claimed for municipal ownership. It is said
+that where the plan has been tried, it has promoted civic interest and
+has enlisted a higher type of public official. If all utilities were
+municipally owned, state legislatures and city councils would no
+longer be subjected to the danger of corruption by private
+corporations seeking franchises. If utilities were owned by the
+municipality, it is claimed, service and social welfare rather than
+profits would become the ideal. The public plant could afford to offer
+lower rates, because it would not be under the necessity of earning
+high profits. Finally, service could be extended into outlying or
+sparsely settled districts which are now neglected by privately owned
+companies because of the high expense and small profits that would
+result from such extension.
+
+340. ARGUMENTS AGAINST MUNICIPAL OWNDERSHIP.--Other students of the
+problem believe that public regulation of utilities is preferable to
+municipal ownership. Those holding this view maintain that on the
+whole regulation has proved satisfactory, and that ownership is
+therefore unnecessary.
+
+Rather than improving the public service by enlisting a higher type of
+public official, it is maintained, municipal ownership would increase
+political corruption by enlarging the number of positions which would
+become the spoils of the political party in power. The periodic
+political changes resulting from frequent elections in cities would
+demoralize the administration of the utilities. Under our present
+system of government, municipal ownership means a lack of centralized
+control, a factor which would lessen administrative responsibility and
+encourage inefficiency.
+
+The opponents of municipal ownership also contend that the
+inefficiency resulting from this form of control would increase the
+cost of management. This increased cost would in turn necessitate
+higher rates. Moreover, municipal ownership might increase enormously
+the indebtedness of the municipality, since either private plants
+would have to be purchased, or new plants erected at public expense.
+
+341. EXTENT OF MUNICIPAL OWNERSHIP.--Some cities have tried municipal
+ownership and have abandoned the scheme as unworkable. In some
+instances this failure has been due to the inherent difficulties of
+the case, in other instances the inefficiency of the city
+administration has prevented success. In still other cities ownership
+of various utilities has proved markedly successful.
+
+Most American cities now own their own waterworks, and about one third
+of them own their own gas or electric light plants. A few cities own
+either a part or the whole of their street railways. Municipal
+ownership of public utilities is still in its infancy, but the
+movement is growing.
+
+342. CONDITIONS OF MUNICIPAL OWNERSHIP.--Past experience indicates
+several mistakes to be avoided in any future consideration of the
+problem of municipal ownership.
+
+The terms upon which the city purchases a utility ought not to be so
+severe as to discourage the future development of new utilities by
+private enterprise.
+
+Public ownership is practicable only when the utility has passed the
+experimental stage, for governmental agencies cannot effectively carry
+on the experiments, nor assume the risks, so essential to the
+development of a new enterprise.
+
+Any discussion of public ownership ought to include a consideration of
+social and political factors, as well as matters which are strictly
+economic.
+
+The question of municipal ownership should be decided purely on the
+basis of local conditions and for particular utilities. The successful
+ownership of street railways in one city does not necessarily mean
+that a second city may be equally successful in operating this
+utility. Nor does the successful administration of a gas works by one
+city necessarily mean that the same city can effectively administer
+its street railways.
+
+
+B. NATIONAL OWNERSHIP OF RAILROADS
+
+343. DEVELOPMENT OF RAILROADS IN THE UNITED STATES.--The railroad
+history of the United States began when the Baltimore & Ohio was
+opened to traffic in 1830, but until the middle of the century
+transportation in this country was chiefly by wagon roads, rivers, and
+canals. After 1850 the westward expansion and the development of
+industry throughout the country greatly stimulated railway building.
+Encouraged by lavish land grants and other bounties extended by both
+state and Federal governments, railroad corporations flung a network
+of railroads across the continent. Local roads were transformed, by
+extension and consolidation, into great trunk lines embracing
+thousands of miles. From 9,021 in 1850 our railway mileage increased
+to 93,267 in 1880, to 193,345 in 1900, and to approximately 260,000 in
+1922.
+
+344. THE PRINCIPLE OF DECREASING COST.--While the rapid development of
+American railroads has had an inestimable effect upon our national
+prosperity, railway development has brought with it serious evils. In
+order to understand the nature of these evils, let us notice that with
+railroads, as with municipal utilities, the cost per unit of product
+or service declines with an increase in the number of units furnished.
+A railroad must maintain its roadbed, depots, and terminals whether
+one or an hundred trains are run, and whether freight or passenger
+cars run empty or full. Many of the railroad's operating expenses also
+go on regardless of the volume of business. Thus the cost of handling
+units of traffic declines as the volume of that traffic increases.
+
+These circumstances influence rate-making in two ways. In the first
+place, railroads can afford to accept extra traffic at a relatively
+low rate because carrying extra traffic adds relatively little to the
+railroad's expenses. In the second place, rates in general cannot be
+definitely connected with the expense of carrying specific
+commodities, hence rates are often determined on the basis of
+expediency. This means that high rates are charged on valuable
+commodities because those commodities can pay high rates, while low
+rates are charged on cheap goods, because those goods cannot stand a
+high charge. This is called "charging what the traffic will bear."
+
+345. EVILS ATTENDING RAILROAD DEVELOPMENT.--Since many of the expenses
+of the railroad go on regardless of the amount of traffic carried,
+railroads are constantly searching for extra business. Competition
+between railroads has tended to be very severe. Rate-wars have been
+common, because of the small cost of handling extra units of traffic.
+In the struggle for business, railroads once habitually offered low
+rates on competitive roads or lines, and then made up for this
+relatively unprofitable practice by charging high rates on non-
+competitive roads. The desire for extra business, together with the
+pressure exerted by trusts and other large shippers, encouraged
+railroads to make rates which discriminated between products, between
+localities, and even between individuals. The ruinous character of
+competition often led to monopolistic combinations which proceeded to
+charge the general public exorbitant rates, but which rendered poor
+service.
+
+346. EARLY STATE LEGISLATION.--During the early stages of railroad
+development, the railroads were generally regarded as public
+benefactors for the reason that they aided materially in the
+settlement of the West. But after about 1870 the railroads began to be
+accused of abusing their position. A greater degree of legal control
+over the roads was demanded.
+
+The first attempts at the regulation of railroad corporations were
+made by several of the states. For fifteen years various commonwealths
+tried to control the railroads through state railway commissions armed
+with extensive powers. These commissions eliminated some of the more
+glaring abuses of railroad combination, but for several reasons state
+regulation was relatively ineffective. The states had, of course, no
+authority over interstate business, and most railroad revenues were
+derived from this type of business. State laws regulating railroads
+were often declared unconstitutional by the courts. Lastly, powerful
+railroad corporations often succeeded in bribing state legislatures to
+refrain from taking action against them. Due to these influences,
+state regulation was generally conceded to be a failure.
+
+347. FEDERAL LEGISLATION.--The failure of state laws effectively to
+control the railroads led to the enactment by Congress of the
+Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. This Federal act created an
+Interstate Commerce Commission of seven members, appointed by the
+President, and charged with the enforcement of the Act. The Act also
+prohibited discriminations, and forbade unjust and unreasonable
+rates. It required that railroads should make rates public, and that
+they should not change rates without due notice. Pooling was
+forbidden, that is to say, railroads apparently competing with one
+another were no longer to merge or pool their combined business with
+the understanding that each was to get a previously determined share
+of the joint profits. The objection to pooling was that it suppressed
+competition and encouraged monopoly.
+
+In the years that followed, however, the Interstate Commerce Act
+checked railroad abuses very little. The machinery of the Act was so
+defective as to render difficult the successful prosecution of
+offenders. Railroad interests exerted an evil influence upon
+government officials who were attempting to enforce the Act. The
+administration of the law was also markedly impeded by the fact that
+the courts tended to interpret the Act of 1887 in such a way as to
+limit the powers of the Commission.
+
+To a considerable extent discriminations and unnecessarily high rates
+continued until after the opening of the twentieth century. Then in
+1903 the Elkins Act revived some of the waning powers of the
+Commission. Three years later (1906) the Hepburn Law increased the
+membership of the Commission, improved its machinery, and extended and
+reinforced its control over rates. In 1910 the Mann-Elkins Act
+strengthened the position of the Commission in several particulars.
+
+In spite of this additional legislation, however, the rather sorry
+record of railroad regulation up to the time of the World War
+repeatedly raised the question of national ownership of railroads.
+
+348. ARGUMENTS IN FAVOR OF NATIONAL OWNERSHIP OF RAILROADS.--The
+arguments in favor of national ownership of railroads are similar to
+those advanced in behalf of the municipal ownership of local
+utilities.
+
+The failure of regulation, coupled with the social importance of the
+railroads, is said to render ownership imperative. Government
+ownership of railroads is said to have succeeded in several of the
+countries of Europe, notably in Prussia.
+
+It is believed by many that government ownership would attract a high
+grade of public official. It is also thought that with the change to
+public ownership the corruption of state legislatures by railroads
+would cease. Since the roads would be taken out of private hands and
+administered as a unit by the Federal government, discriminations and
+other unfair practices would cease.
+
+It is also held that under public ownership service rather than
+profits would become the ideal. Since profits would no longer be
+necessary, lower rates could be offered. Government ownership would
+allow the elimination of duplicating lines in competitive areas, and
+would permit the extension of new lines into areas not immediately
+profitable. Thus railroads now operated solely for private gain would
+become instruments of social as well as industrial progress.
+
+349. ARGUMENTS AGAINST NATIONAL OWNERSHIP OF RAILROADS.--Opponents of
+national ownership maintain that the experience of Prussia and other
+European countries is no guide to railroad management in this country.
+Differences in political organization between this and European
+countries, for example, render unreliable the results of public
+ownership in Prussia and other parts of Europe.
+
+Many opponents of government ownership contend that the elimination of
+private control would increase, rather than decrease, political
+corruption. Various political interests, they say, would bring
+pressure to bear in favor of low rates for their particular sections
+of the country.
+
+It is often maintained that the substitution of public for private
+ownership would discourage personal initiative because public
+officials would take little genuine interest in the railroads. It is
+said that government administration of railroads would be marked by
+waste and inefficiency. This would necessitate higher rates instead of
+permitting rates to be reduced. The large initial cost of acquiring
+the roads is urged against public ownership, as is the gigantic task
+of administering so vast an industry.
+
+A last important objection to public ownership is that it would cause
+rates to be rigid. Rates would be fixed for relatively long periods
+and by a supervisory agency, rather than automatically changing with
+business conditions as under private ownership. This rigidity would
+force business to adapt itself to rates, instead of allowing rates to
+adapt themselves to business needs.
+
+350. GOVERNMENT CONTROL OF RAILROADS, 1917-1920.--Shortly after our
+entry into the World War, the congested condition of the railroads,
+together with the urgent need for a unified transportation system, led
+to a temporary abandonment of private control. On December 28, 1917,
+President Wilson took over the nation's railroads under powers
+conferred upon him by Congress. The roads were centralized under
+Director-General McAdoo, assisted by seven regional directors who
+administered the railroads in the different sections of the country.
+
+The Act empowering the President to take over the railroads provided
+that such control should not extend beyond twenty-one months after the
+conclusion of the treaty of peace with Germany. But there has never
+been a well-organized movement for government ownership of railroads
+in this country, and when after the signing of the armistice in
+November, 1918, the immediate return of the roads to private control
+was demanded, there was little opposition. A number of plans proposing
+various combinations of public and private control were rejected, and
+on March 1, 1920, the roads were returned to their former owners.
+
+351. RESULTS OF GOVERNMENT CONTROL DURING THE WORLD WAR.--Government
+control of the nation's railroads between 1917 and 1920 resulted in a
+number of important economies. Repair shops were coördinated so as to
+be used more systematically and hence more economically. The
+consolidation of ticket offices in cities effected a substantial
+saving. The coördination of terminals allowed a more economical use of
+equipment than had been possible under private control. The
+unification of the various railroad systems allowed a more direct
+routing of freight than would otherwise have been possible. There was
+also a reduction in some unnecessarily large managerial salaries.
+
+On the other hand, the quality of railroad service declined under
+government control. The personal efficiency of many types of railroad
+employees also decreased. Most important of all, there was a sharp
+increase in both freight and passenger rates.
+
+The period of war-time control was abnormal, hence the record of the
+roads under government control during this period cannot be taken as
+wholly indicative of what would happen under permanent government
+control in peace time. But it should be noted that, on the whole, the
+record of the Railroad Administration between 1917 and 1920 was good.
+That the above-mentioned economies were effected cannot be denied.
+Moreover, the decline in service and efficiency, as well as the
+increase in rates, is at least partially explained by abnormal
+conditions over which the Railroad Administration had no control. The
+winter of 1917-1918 was the most rigorous in railroad history. This
+circumstance, combined with the unusually heavy demands for the
+transportation of war equipment, helped to demoralize the service from
+the very beginning of the period of government control. For a number
+of years previous to 1917 there had been an acute shortage of box cars
+and other equipment, which also helps to explain the poor quality of
+service furnished during the war. The labor force was demoralized by
+the drafting for war service of many trained railroad employees. (It
+is claimed that certain railroad officials sought to discredit
+government control by hampering the administration of the roads, but
+this charge cannot be proved.)
+
+352. THE TRANSPORTATION ACT OF 1920.--Government control in war time
+revealed the true status of the railroads as nothing else could. It
+was seen that up to the period of the World War Federal legislation on
+railroads had in some cases been too indulgent, but in other cases so
+severe as to work a hardship upon the roads. To pave the way for a
+fairer and more effective regulation of the nation's railroads, the
+Transportation Act of 1920 was passed. At present the railroads are
+privately owned, but publicly regulated by the Interstate Commerce
+Commission, according to the provisions of the Interstate Commerce Act
+of 1887, the Elkins Act of 1903, the Hepburn Law of 1906, the Mann-
+Elkins Act of 1910, and the Transportation Act of 1920.
+
+353. SUMMARY OF PRESENT LEGISLATION ON RAILROADS.--At the present time
+all unfair discriminations are generally forbidden. But it is now
+recognized that under certain conditions a discrimination may be
+economically justified. Therefore, when the inability to levy a
+discriminatory rate would work a hardship upon a railroad, the
+Commission is authorized to suspend the rule. Pooling is likewise
+generally forbidden, but here again the Commission may authorize the
+practice at its discretion. Limitations are placed upon the power of
+railroads to transport commodities in which they are interested as
+producers.
+
+All interstate rates are to be just and reasonable, and the Commission
+is empowered to say what constitutes just and reasonable rates. In
+order to prevent rate wars, the Commission is now empowered to fix
+minimum as well as maximum rates. The Act of 1920 also gives the
+Commission the power to establish _intra_-state rates, where such
+rates unjustly discriminate against interstate or foreign commerce. An
+_intra_-state rate, of course, is one which has to do only with
+freight or passenger movements which begin and end within the borders
+of a single state.
+
+The Act of 1920 extended government control over the railroads in a
+number of important particulars. To check certain financial abuses,
+the Commission now has supervision over the issue of railroad
+securities. For the purpose of increasing the social value of the
+nation's railroads, the Act of 1920 instructs the Commission to plan
+the consolidation of existing roads into a limited number of systems.
+Another clause in the Act of 1920 provides that no railroad may
+abandon lines, build new lines, or extend old ones, without the
+consent of the Commission. In times of national emergency, moreover,
+the Commission may direct the routing of the nation's freight, without
+regard to the ownership of the lines involved. Lastly, the Act of 1920
+made provision for a permanent arbitration board for the settlement of
+labor disputes in the railroad industry.
+
+354. THE OUTLOOK.--In view of the defective character of regulatory
+legislation previous to 1900, government ownership of railroads did
+not seem unlikely. But since the acts of 1903, 1906, and 1910, and
+especially since the passage of the Transportation Act of 1920, there
+has been such high promise of efficient regulation as to minimize the
+movement toward government ownership. Not only are old abuses now more
+likely to be remedied, but the Interstate Commerce Commission is now
+empowered to relieve the roads of many undeserved burdens. Especially
+is the Commission keenly appreciative of the necessity of stabilizing
+the credit of the railroads. Until this is done the investing public
+will have little confidence in the railroad business, and the roads
+will continue to be inadequately financed.
+
+Perhaps the greatest problem now before the Commission is to complete
+the "physical valuation" of the railroads begun in 1913. This
+valuation aims to discover, by investigations conducted by expert
+appraisers, the actual value of all railroad property in the United
+States at the present time. On the basis of this valuation the
+Commission believes that it can estimate the probable amount of
+invested capital which the railroads represent. After this has been
+done, the Commission can calculate what rates the railroads must
+charge in order to earn a fair dividend on their money. The completion
+of this physical valuation is, therefore, necessary if the Interstate
+Commerce Commission is to fix rates which are just and reasonable from
+the standpoint of the public on the one hand, and from the standpoint
+of the railroads on the other.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What is the economic basis of natural monopoly?
+
+2. Describe the regulation of local utilities.
+
+3. Give the chief arguments in favor of municipal ownership.
+
+4. What arguments are advanced against municipal ownership?
+
+5. What is the extent of municipal ownership in this country?
+
+6. Name some of the fundamental conditions of municipal ownership.
+
+7. Outline briefly the development of railroads in this country.
+
+8. How does the principle of decreasing cost apply to railroads?
+
+9. Discuss the evils resulting from railroad development.
+
+10. Why did State regulation fail to eliminate these evils?
+
+11. Discuss the nature and effect of the Interstate Commerce Act.
+
+12. Give the chief arguments in favor of national ownership of
+railroads.
+
+13. What are the chief arguments against this step?
+
+14. When and why were the railroads taken over by the Government?
+
+15. Explain clearly the nature of the results of government control
+of railroads.
+
+16. Enumerate the laws under which the Interstate Commerce Commission
+now administers the railroads.
+
+17. Summarize present railroad legislation with regard to
+
+(a) discriminations,
+
+(b) rates, and
+
+(c) the extension of Federal control authorized under the Act of 1920.
+
+18. What is the greatest problem now before the Commission?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xxviii.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Ely, _Outlines of Economics_, chapter xxvii.
+
+3. Fetter, _Modern Economic Problems_, chapters xxvii and xxx.
+
+4. King, _Regulation of Municipal Utilities_, chapter i.
+
+5. Seager, _Principles of Economics_, pages 419-431, and chapter xxiv.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. What is meant by Transportation Economics? (Ely, page 557.)
+
+2. Explain clearly why public utilities are natural monopolies.
+(Seager, pages 419-426.)
+
+3. What is the origin of the right to regulate public utilities in
+the public interest? (King, page 4.)
+
+4. Why must municipal utilities be regulated or controlled? (King,
+pages 11-16.)
+
+5. What is the relation of unregulated municipal utilities to bad
+politics? (King, pages 17-19.)
+
+6. What are the legal duties of corporations controlling municipal
+utilities? (King, page 10.)
+
+7. What forms may municipal ownership take? (Fetter, pages 461-462.)
+
+8. How does uniformity of product favor monopoly? (Fetter, page 463.)
+
+9. Why did the railroads receive liberal help from state and Federal
+governments during the period of railroad development? (Fetter, page
+413.)
+
+10. Distinguish between local and personal discriminations. (Fetter,
+pages 416-417.)
+
+11. Discuss the nature of the early state railroad
+commissions.(Fetter, pages 420-422.)
+
+12. In what respects was the Interstate Commerce act amended by the
+legislation of 1903, 1906 and 1910? (Seager, pages 442-443.)
+
+13. What was the nature of the Commerce Court? (Seager, page 444.)
+
+14. What is the most convincing argument against the public ownership
+of the telegraph and the telephone? (Seager, page 445.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Make a list of the natural monopolies in your locality.
+
+2. To what extent are the public utilities in your locality controlled
+by the (a) municipality, the (b) state, the (c) Federal government?
+
+3. The franchise-granting power in your state.
+
+4. The regulation of local utilities in your municipality.
+
+5. Extent of municipal ownership in your section. If possible, visit a
+municipally owned utility and report upon it.
+
+6. Interview an official of some local utility upon the desirability
+of municipal ownership of that utility.
+
+7. The history of railroad development in your section.
+
+8. Outline the more important laws enacted by your state legislature
+relative to railroads.
+
+9. Service and rates in your locality during the period of government
+control, 1917-1920.
+
+
+II
+
+10. Regulation of local utilities through the franchise. (King,
+_Regulation of Municipal Utilities_, part ii.)
+
+11. Regulation of local utilities through the utility commission.
+(King, _Regulation of Municipal Utilities_, part iii.)
+
+12. Standards of service for local utilities. (_Annals_, vol. liii,
+pages 292-306.)
+
+13. The case for municipal ownership. (King, _Regulation of Municipal
+Utilities_; Thompson, _Municipal Ownership_)
+
+14. The case against municipal ownership. (King, _Regulation of
+Municipal Utilities_; Porter, _Dangers of Municipal Ownership_.)
+
+15. Early development of railroads in the United States. (Coman,
+_Industrial History of the United States_, pages 232-248; Bogart,
+_Economic History of the United States_, chapters xxiv and xxv;
+_Lessons in Community and National Life_, Series C, pages 217-233.)
+
+16. Geographical distribution of railroads. (Semple, _American History
+and its Geographic Conditions_, chapter xvii.)
+
+17. Combinations in the railroad industry. (_Lessons in Community and
+National Life_, Series A, pages 219-224; Bogart, _Economic History of
+the United States_, chapter xxix; Johnson, _American Railway
+Transportation_, chapter iii.)
+
+18. Rate-making. (Johnson, _American Railway Transportation_, chapter
+xx; Bullock, _Elements of Economics_, pages 212-217.)
+
+19. Physical valuation of the railroads. (_Annals_, vol. lxiii, pages
+182-190.)
+
+20. Railroad regulation and the courts. (Johnson, _American Railway
+Transportation_, chapter xxvii.)
+
+21. War-time control of railroads in the United States. (_Annals_,
+vol. lxxxvi, all; Dixon, _War Administration of the Railways in the
+United States and Great Britain_, part i.)
+
+22. Report of the Interstate Commerce Commission upon the desirability
+of government ownership of railroads in the United States. (Cleveland
+and Schafer, _Democracy in Reconstruction_, pages 382-396.)
+
+23. War-time control of railroads in Great Britain. (Dixon, _War
+Administration of the Railways in the United States and Great
+Britain_, part ii.)
+
+24. Railroad management in England and France. (Johnson, _American
+Railway Transportation_, chapter xxiii.)
+
+25. Railroad management in Italy and Germany. (Johnson, _American
+Railway Transportation_, chapter xxiv.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+26. The success with which public utilities in your community have
+been regulated.
+
+27. Should the franchise-granting power in your state be still further
+restricted?
+
+28. The success of municipal ownership in your locality.
+
+29. The relation of "stock watering" or "overcapitalization" to high
+profits. (See Taussig, _Principles of Economics_, vol ii, page 385.)
+
+30. Is public ownership of railroads more practicable under a
+democratic or under an autocratic form of government?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+THE TARIFF
+
+
+355. THE PRINCIPLE OF EXCHANGE.--In Chapters VII and VIII it was
+pointed out that when individuals divide up their labor so that each
+becomes a highly specialized workman there is a resultant increase in
+the community's productivity. Similarly, when one section of the
+country is adapted primarily to manufacturing, while another section
+is peculiarly suited to farming, there is a gain in national
+productivity when each of these areas specializes in those activities
+which it can carry on most effectively, and is content to resort to
+trade in order to secure the benefit of industries specialized in
+elsewhere. So far as the economic principle is concerned, there is
+likewise a gain when different countries specialize in those forms of
+production at which their citizens are most effective, and are content
+to secure through international trade the products of specialization
+in other countries.
+
+356. NATURE OF THE TARIFF.--But though all civilized nations allow and
+even encourage the division of labor among their individual citizens
+and among the various areas within their own boundaries, many
+countries restrict the degree to which their citizens may exchange
+their surplus products for the surplus products of foreign producers.
+In the United States, for example, Congress has the power to levy a
+duty or tariff on foreign-made goods which are brought into this
+country for sale.
+
+This tariff may be levied primarily to increase national revenue, in
+which case the rate of duty is generally too low to keep foreign goods
+out of our markets. When the tariff is purely a revenue measure, "free
+trade" is said to exist. On the other hand, a tariff may be so high
+that domestic goods will be protected in our markets against
+competition from foreign-made goods of a similar grade. In this case a
+protective tariff is said to exist, though such a measure also brings
+in revenue. Most tariff measures, indeed, contain both "revenue" and
+"protective" elements, and it is only when a tariff act is _primarily_
+a protective measure that we speak of it as a protective tariff.
+
+357. THE MEANING OF "PROTECTION."--Let us be sure that we understand
+exactly what is meant by "protection." Suppose that in the absence of
+a protective tariff an English-made shoe can be produced and brought
+to this country at a total cost of $3.00. Let us assume that this shoe
+competes in the American market with an American-made shoe which is of
+similar grade, but which, for various reasons, it costs $3.50 to
+produce. Suppose, further, that both English and American producer
+must make a profit of $0.50 per pair of shoes, or go out of business.
+In the resulting rivalry, the English shoe can sell for $3.50 and make
+a profit. Competition would force the American producer to sell his
+shoe for $3.50 also, but since this would give him no profit, he would
+be forced out of business. In such a case the American manufacturer
+might secure the passage of a protective tariff on this type of shoe,
+so that the English shoe would be charged $0.75 to enter this country
+for sale here. This would bring the total cost of the English shoe up
+to $3.75, and to make a profit the shoe would have to sell for $4.25.
+But since the American shoe can be sold for $4.00, the English shoe is
+forced out of the market. [Footnote: If, in this example, the duty
+were, say, $.25, the foreign shoe could continue to enter our markets
+and compete with the American shoe. In this case the tariff would be a
+_revenue_, and not a _protective_ measure.]
+
+The tariff question arises primarily in connection with the matter of
+protection, and may be stated as follows: Ought Congress to interfere
+with international trade by levying protective duties on imports; and,
+if so, just how and to what extent should such duties be levied?
+
+358. TARIFF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.--The first tariff measure in
+our national history was the Act of 1789. This was a revenue measure,
+though it gave some degree of protection to American industries. Down
+to the close of the War of 1812 our tariff was mainly for revenue
+purposes. After the close of that war a heavy duty on foreign iron and
+textile products was imposed for the purpose of protecting domestic
+producers against the cheaply-selling English goods which were
+flooding our markets. After 1816 it became our policy to combine in
+the same tariff act high protective duties with revenue duties. In
+1824 the general level of duties was raised. In 1828 Congress
+endeavored to lay a tariff which would suit all sections of the
+country, but the attempt failed.
+
+Between 1828 and 1842 the tariff was gradually lowered. Between 1842
+and 1861 our tariff policy was unsettled, but in the latter year the
+domestic disturbances brought on by the Civil War resulted in the
+passage of a tariff which turned out to be highly protective. In the
+period immediately following the Civil War the tariff continued to be
+very high, due chiefly to pressure from industrial interests which had
+secured protection from the war rates. In spite of attempted reform in
+1870, 1873, and 1883, the tariff continued to be highly protective.
+
+In 1894 the Democrats reduced the tariff somewhat, and in 1909 the
+Republicans attempted to satisfy a popular demand for lower rates by
+the passage of the Payne-Aldrich Act. This measure reduced some rates,
+but not enough to satisfy the popular mind. In 1912 the Democrats
+returned to power, and the following year passed the Underwood-Simmons
+Act, lowering the rates on many classes of commodities, and placing a
+number of important articles on the free list. In 1920 the Republican
+party again secured control of the government, and the tariff was
+raised. At present our tariff is highly protective.
+
+359. COMPROMISE CHARACTER OF TARIFF.--Our tariff history is full of
+inconsistencies. The pendulum has swung first to low duties and then
+to severely high duties. No tariff has satisfied all the interests
+involved; indeed, no other issue, with the possible exception of
+slavery, has provoked as much political strife as the tariff. Every
+tariff is essentially a compromise, for a duty upon practically any
+commodity which we might select will benefit some of our citizens,
+while it will either prove of no use to other individuals or will
+actually injure them. Animated by self-interest, the farmer, the
+lumberman, the miner, or the manufacturer, each desires a protective
+duty on the commodity which he produces, and a low rate, or no duty at
+all, upon commodities which he consumes. As a result, the tariff has
+become a sectional problem, in the solving of which Congressmen have
+too often considered as paramount the economic interests of the
+particular locality which they represent.
+
+360. NATURE OF THE TARIFF ARGUMENT.--The tariff question generally
+divides men into two camps, those favoring "free trade," and those
+demanding duties that are highly protective. From the standpoint of
+economics, the most vital argument against protection is that there is
+no fundamental reason why there should not be free trade between
+nations. Protection is economically wasteful because it diverts
+capital and labor from industries in which we are relatively effective
+to industries in which our productivity is relatively low. High
+protection is thus said to decrease national productivity, and to
+impose a burden upon the consumer by preventing him from purchasing
+cheaper foreign-made goods.
+
+In view of these facts, the free trader claims that to the extent that
+the tariff is an economic proposition, the burden of proof rests upon
+the protectionist. If this assertion is accepted, the tariff argument
+consists of the attempts of the protectionist to outweigh the above
+economic argument for free trade by putting forth economic arguments
+for protection, and by developing social and political reasons for a
+protective tariff.
+
+361. AN EARLIER TARIFF ARGUMENT.--Formerly one of the most important
+arguments for protection was the home market theory. This theory was
+advanced in 1824 by Henry Clay. In the effort to win the agricultural
+interests to protection, Clay maintained that a protective tariff on
+manufactures would develop urban centers, and that this would increase
+the purchasing power of the city dwellers. This increased purchasing
+power, Clay declared, would assure the farmer of a steady domestic
+market, not only for his staples, but also for perishable goods which
+could not be shipped to foreign countries.
+
+Though still heard in tariff discussions, this argument now exerts
+less influence than formerly. Perfected means of transportation have
+tended to place domestic and foreign markets on an equal footing.
+Moreover, the population of our cities has increased so much more
+rapidly than has the productivity of our farms, that it is unnecessary
+artificially to create a home market for the farmer's produce.
+
+362. THE WAGES ARGUMENT.--At the present time one of the most
+important arguments in favor of a protective tariff is that it either
+creates or maintains a relatively high level of wages for workmen
+engaged in the protected industries. Those advancing this argument
+believe that free trade would lower wages and depress the standard of
+living for large groups of workmen.
+
+The free trader maintains that high wages do not depend upon
+protection, and this for three reasons: First, equally high wages are
+often paid in protected and unprotected industries alike; second, high
+wages do exist in a number of protected industries, but many of these
+industries also paid high wages before protection had been secured;
+third, there is nothing in a protective tariff to force employers to
+pay more than the current wage. Rather than raising wages, Professor
+Taussig maintains, "protection restricts the geographical division of
+labor, causes industry to turn to less advantageous channels, lessens
+the productivity of labor, and so tends to lower the general rate of
+wages."
+
+363. THE VESTED INTERESTS ARGUMENT.--An important argument in favor of
+continued protection is that the introduction of free trade would ruin
+valuable manufacturing businesses which have been built up under
+protection, and which are unprepared or unable to maintain themselves
+against foreign competition. In the case of such industries, it is
+maintained, the removal of protection might result in economic
+disaster. Factories would have to close, investments would depreciate,
+and numerous laborers would be thrown out of employment.
+
+There is great force in this argument. Even the most ardent free
+trader will admit that a sudden removal of tariff duties might be
+demoralizing to industries long used to protection. Nevertheless, the
+vested interests argument is not so much an argument for continued
+protection as it is a reason why there should be a gradual rather than
+a sudden removal of protective duties. If protection were to be scaled
+down gradually and wisely, there is no reason why capital invested in
+industries unable to stand foreign competition could not be gradually
+transferred to industries unaffected by foreign competition.
+
+364. TARIFF ARGUMENTS ACCENTUATED BY THE WORLD WAR.--Three arguments
+in favor of protection have taken on greater importance because of the
+World War.
+
+One of these is the anti-dumping argument. From the standpoint of the
+American tariff, dumping is the practice which some foreign producers
+have of temporarily selling their surplus goods in this country at an
+abnormally low price. [Footnote: Some American producers in turn
+"dump" in foreign markets, but with this practice we are not here
+concerned.] If dumping were permanent, we would gain because we would
+be getting goods at a much lower price than we could manufacture them.
+The evil of dumping grows out of the fact that it tends to force
+domestic producers out of business. Then later the foreign supply may
+diminish, in which case we suffer from a shortage of goods. If foreign
+producers do continue to supply the American market they may take
+advantage of the fact that American competitors have been forced out
+of business, and demand monopoly prices. The free trader admits the
+force of the anti-dumping argument, and concedes that the intense
+economic rivalry growing out of the World War rendered desirable
+tariff rates which would protect domestic producers against dumping.
+
+Another protectionist argument which has gained in strength because of
+the War is the "infant industries" argument. Protectionists claim that
+industries really adapted to this country may be prevented from
+arising here because of their inability, while still in the
+experimental stage, to meet strong competition from well-established
+foreign producers. When an industry is in the experimental stage the
+cost of production is relatively high, and the price will be
+correspondingly high. Well established and economically-conducted
+businesses can undersell these experimental or "infant" industries.
+Protection for such "infant" industries is therefore sought until such
+time as they will be able to stand foreign competition. The free
+trader has generally replied that such protection may be desirable in
+some cases, but maintains that care should be taken to make such
+protection both moderate and temporary, otherwise protection will
+perpetuate industries for which we are really unsuited. During the
+World War American producers began to manufacture dyes and chemicals
+formerly imported from Germany. The industrial importance of these
+products gave weight to the belief that the new industries which
+sprang up in this country during the War were entitled to protection
+against foreign competition.
+
+A third protectionist argument which was strengthened by the World War
+is the military or self-sufficiency argument. It has long been the
+claim of the protectionist that high tariff duties encourage the
+development in this country of all industries producing the
+necessities of life, as well as all supplies which are vital in war
+time. High protection was thus defended on the grounds that it
+permitted the United States to be nationally self-sufficing, thus
+allowing us to be relatively independent of other countries,
+especially in war time. Previous to the World War many free traders
+scoffed at this argument as resting upon an unjustified fear of war,
+but this attitude was changed by the dangers to which we were
+subjected by the interruption of our foreign trade during the war. At
+present the military or self-sufficiency argument is of great
+importance.
+
+365. THE TREND TOWARD PROTECTION.--Of late years, therefore, there has
+been a distinct trend toward protection in this country. The fear of
+dumping, the desire to protect infant industries established during
+the World War, and the increased importance of the military or self-
+sufficiency argument have been factors in this trend. Another factor
+has been that the Republican party, traditionally committed to a
+policy of high protection, returned to power in 1920. A last important
+influence has been an increased need for Federal revenue. The World
+War not only increased our indebtedness, but the advent of national
+prohibition in 1919 cut off a source of Federal revenue formerly very
+important.
+
+366. TARIFF NEEDS.--From the standpoint of practical politics, one of
+the greatest needs of our time is for an intelligent and public-
+spirited handling of tariff problems. The tariff is a technical and
+highly complex question, upon which politicians have heretofore had
+too much to say, and trained economists too little. Too often, vague
+claims and political propaganda have carried more weight than have
+facts.
+
+It is asserted by many that the tariff can never be taken out of
+politics, but this is perhaps too strong a statement. In this
+connection an interesting development was the establishment in 1916 of
+the United States Tariff Commission. This Commission consists of six
+members appointed by the President for twelve years. Not more than
+three of the members may belong to the same political party. It is the
+duty of the Commission to investigate conditions bearing upon the
+tariff and to report its findings to Congress. It is hoped that this
+plan will place at the disposal of Congress scientific data on which
+to base tariff legislation. So far the Commission has not materially
+reduced the influence of politics upon tariff legislation, though it
+is perhaps too soon to expect results.
+
+It is sometimes said that our tariff policy ought to be less
+changeable. Certain it is that our tariff history is full of
+inconsistencies and irrational fluctuations. But the question of a
+tariff policy is a thorny one. Manifestly, business should not be
+forced to accommodate itself to a purely political manipulation of the
+tariff; on the contrary, the tariff ought to vary with changes in
+business conditions at home and abroad. Whatever may be implied by a
+tariff "policy," it is also certain that the tariff should somewhat
+accommodate itself to revenue needs. Beyond these somewhat general
+statements, however, it is hardly safe to say what should be the basic
+elements in a national tariff policy.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Explain the gain from exchange.
+
+2. What is meant by the tariff? Distinguish between a revenue and a
+protective tariff.
+
+3. State the tariff problem.
+
+4. Outline briefly the tariff history of the United States.
+
+5. Why is tariff practically always a compromise?
+
+6. Discuss the home market argument.
+
+7. What can be said for and against the wages argument?
+
+8. What is the vested interests argument?
+
+9. What effect did the World War have upon the anti-dumping argument?
+
+10. What is the military or self-sufficiency argument?
+
+11. How did the war affect the infant industries argument?
+
+12. Why was there a trend toward protection after the World War?
+
+13. What is the nature and purpose of the United States Tariff
+Commission?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xxix.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Carver, _Elementary Economics_, chapter xxvii.
+
+3. Fetter, _Modern Economic Problems_, chapter xv.
+
+4. Seager, _Principles of Economics_, chapter xxii.
+
+5. Thompson, _Elementary Economics_, chapter xix.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. What is the extent of the protective tariff throughout the world?
+(Fetter, page 218.)
+
+2. Distinguish between a specific and an ad valorem duty. (Fetter,
+pages 219-220.)
+
+3. What is meant by a free list? (Fetter, pages 220-221.)
+
+4. What is the fundamental proposition of the free trader? (Carver,
+page 244; Thompson, pages 262-263.)
+
+5. What is the "no buying no selling" argument? (Thompson, page 263.)
+
+6. What is the balance-of-trade argument? (Carver, page 245.)
+
+7. What is the origin of the present tariff system? (Seager, pages
+394-395.)
+
+8. What is the political argument in tariff discussions? (Seager,
+page 397.)
+
+9. What is the relation of tariff to political corruption? (Seager,
+page 405.)
+
+10. What was the character of the Payne-Aldrich tariff of 1909?
+(Fetter, pages 233-234.)
+
+11. What was the character of the Underwood tariff of 1913? (Fetter,
+pages 234-236.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. The home market argument with reference to conditions in your
+section.
+
+2. The infant industries argument with reference to conditions in your
+section.
+
+3. Commodities essential to the prosperity of your community which are
+imported from abroad.
+
+4. The attitude of your section of the country toward the tariff. Has
+this attitude changed in the past fifty years?
+
+5. Write to your Representative in Congress for his opinion on the
+need of a "fixed tariff policy."
+
+6. Interview several friendly business men on their attitude toward
+the tariff.
+
+7. Interview a member of the Democratic party upon the attitude of his
+party toward the tariff.
+
+8. Interview a member of the Republican party upon the attitude of his
+party toward the tariff.
+
+
+II
+
+9. The principle of international trade. (Taussig, _Principles of
+Economics_, vol. 1, chapter xxxiv; Fetter, _Modern Economic Problems_,
+chapter xiii.)
+
+10. The gain from international trade. (Taussig, _Principles of
+Economics_, vol. 1, chapter xxxv.)
+
+11. The infant industries argument as applied to American industries.
+(Taussig, _Tariff History of the United States_, Part 1, chapter i.)
+
+12. The Civil War tariff. (Taussig, _Tariff History of the United
+States_. Consult also any economic history of the United States, or
+any standard text on economics.)
+
+13. Tariff administration. (_Cyclopedia of American Government_.)
+
+14. Political aspects of the tariff. (Tarbell, _The Tariff in Our
+Times_, chapter xii.)
+
+15. The history of any important tariff since the Civil War. (Consult
+Taussig, _Tariff History of the United States_; Fetter, _Modern
+Economic Problems_, chapter xv; any standard work on the economic
+history of the United States; or any encyclopedia under "Tariff.")
+
+16. The tariff in Germany. (Ashley, _Modern Tariff History_, part i.)
+
+17. The tariff in France. (Ashley, _Modern Tariff History_, part iii.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+18. Why has the wages argument increased in importance within the last
+half century?
+
+19. How could our protective tariff be abolished without endangering
+present investments in protected industries?
+
+20. The question of a national tariff policy.
+
+21. To what extent should the formulation of our tariff acts take into
+consideration the wishes of foreign producers who desire to sell their
+goods in this country?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+CONSERVATION
+
+
+367. ATTITUDE OF THE EARLY SETTLER TOWARD NATURAL RESOURCES.--The
+chief concern of the early American settler was to turn a virgin
+continent into homes as quickly and as easily as possible. During the
+seventeenth, eighteenth, and most of the nineteenth century, our
+natural resources were very abundant, while labor and capital were
+relatively scarce. As the settlers spread across the Appalachians and
+into the great West, it was to be expected, therefore, that the home-
+maker should use labor and capital as carefully as possible and that
+he should use generously such resources as forests, water power, and
+soil fertility. Little blame attaches to the early settler for this
+attitude, indeed he acted in accordance with sound economic law. This
+economic law declares that under any particular set of circumstances
+factors of production should be carefully used in proportion as they
+are scarce, and generously used in proportion as they are abundant.
+
+368. RESULT: GROWING SCARCITY OF NATURAL RESOURCES.--The rapid
+settlement of the West was essential to our national unity and
+development. Nevertheless, the extensive and even lavish use of
+natural wealth since colonial times has lately called attention to the
+scarcity of resources formerly considered overabundant.
+
+More than three fourths of our original forest area has been culled,
+cut over, or burned, since colonial times. Wholesale logging methods
+have swept vast areas bare of valuable timber. Careless cutting has
+wasted a quarter of our timber supply. In the lumber mill about 40 per
+cent of the entire volume of the logs is lost by wasteful methods of
+work. Since 1870 forest fires have annually destroyed more than
+$50,000,000 worth of timber. Altogether our timber supply is
+diminishing three or four times as fast as we are replenishing it.
+
+By holding sod in place, forests furnish a sponge-like reservoir which
+absorbs rainfall and then retains it sufficiently to insure that it
+will be paid out only gradually. The process of cutting down forests,
+called deforestation, destroys the sod, so that streams formerly fed
+from forested areas by a steady process become dangerously swollen in
+certain seasons and greatly reduced in size at other times. One effect
+of this alternation of freshets with abnormally dry periods is a loss
+of steady and dependable water power.
+
+Deforestation has also an injurious effect upon agriculture. When
+heavy rains wash valuable surface soil from the tops and sides of
+hills these denuded areas are rendered less valuable for grazing,
+while the overabundance of top soil in the valleys retards effective
+cultivation. Agriculture also suffers from the fact that streams which
+would ordinarily furnish a steady supply of irrigation water are often
+either in a state of flood or practically dried up.
+
+Despite the excellent work done by the Department of Agriculture,
+American farming methods are in many sections of the country both
+careless and wasteful. The abundance of land in past years seemed to
+justify our free use of it, nevertheless such use has in many cases
+resulted in a serious loss of fertility. Careless tillage and a
+failure to rotate crops have resulted in a heavy loss of nitrogen,
+potassium, phosphorus, and other essential soil elements.
+
+Heretofore we have used coal very lavishly. Often as much coal has
+been wasted as has been mined. Mining corporations have often
+neglected low grade coal deposits, and have abandoned mines without
+having first removed all of the accessible high grade coal. Imperfect
+combustion, both in dwellings and in industrial establishments, is
+said to waste more than a third of our coal, as well as creating a
+costly and injurious smoke nuisance. Our consumption of coal is
+doubling every ten years. In view of the fact that our coal deposits
+are limited, this increasing consumption is a serious development.
+
+Iron, too, has been used wastefully. The bog iron deposits of the
+Atlantic coast were used up before 1800, and as the result of an
+intense industrial development since 1850, the supply of high grade
+ores is being speedily diminished. Oil and gas have been used
+lavishly, and even, in some cases, deliberately wasted.
+
+369. HIGH PRICES.--The lavish use of natural resources which has
+characterized the American people since colonial times has been an
+important factor in the cost of living. In early days there was an
+abundance of resources and few people to use them; at present the
+supply of many of our resources is greatly diminished, and there is a
+much larger population seeking to use them. In the case of every
+natural resource the supply is either limited or is failing to
+increase as rapidly as are the demands upon it. The result is higher
+prices for coal, wood, iron, oil, gas, and similar commodities. It is
+at least partly due to the heavy drain upon our resources that the
+cost of building homes, heating them, feeding the population, and
+carrying on the varied activities of American industry is steadily
+increasing.
+
+370. MONOPOLY.--Throughout the history of our natural resources there
+has been a strong tendency toward monopoly. Natural resources should
+be safeguarded for the benefit of the people as a whole, yet much of
+our natural wealth has been monopolized by individuals. Four fifths of
+our timber lands are privately owned, and of that four fifths about
+half is controlled by 250 companies. Two thirds of the developed water
+power in this country is controlled by a small group of power
+interests. Defective land laws, the lax administration of good laws,
+and extravagant land grants to railroads have allowed private fortunes
+to be built up without a proportionate advantage to the public. Coal
+and petroleum deposits are controlled largely by a few corporations,
+while a heavy percentage of our copper and iron deposits is in private
+hands.
+
+371. THE CONSERVATION MOVEMENT.--After the middle of the nineteenth
+century the growing scarcity of many natural resources called
+attention to the need of conserving them. Conservation means to
+utilize economically, rather than to hoard. It means, furthermore,
+that resources should be used so that both the present and future
+generations will reap a proper benefit from America's great natural
+gifts. Thus conservation seeks, Mr. Van Hise once said, "the greatest
+good to the greatest number, and for the longest time." The dawn of
+the conservation idea stimulated a reaction against the careless
+administration of natural resources. Toward the end of the 19th
+century, there was an increasing amount of legislation encouraging the
+legitimate use of natural resources on the one hand, and repressing
+monopoly on the other. After the opening of the twentieth century
+interest in conservation increased. In 1908 President Roosevelt called
+a conference of the governors of the various states for the purpose of
+considering this vital problem, and from that meeting dates a definite
+and nationwide conservation policy in this country.
+
+Some of the effects of this changing attitude toward natural resources
+may now be noted.
+
+372. FORESTS AND WATER POWER.--In 1891 a Federal law provided for a
+system of national forest reservations. These reservations now include
+a substantial proportion of our forests, and are steadily extending
+their limits. Since 1897 there has been a Bureau of Forestry which has
+performed invaluable services. Forest fires have been reduced, denuded
+areas have been reforested, forest cutting has been controlled, and a
+constructive program of forest culture developed. Forest reserves
+under the control of the individual states now total more than
+10,000,000 acres. Of late years there has been an increasing use of
+dams and reservoirs for the storage of flood waters and the
+development of water power. This regulation of streams gives a uniform
+flow of water both for navigation and for irrigation purposes.
+
+373. THE LAND.--The desire to encourage the home-maker has long been
+the motive power behind our public land policy, but unfortunately many
+of our earlier land laws did not prevent peculators and large
+corporations from fraudulently securing control of land intended for
+the _bona fide_ or genuine settler. Within the last quarter of a
+century our land laws have been reorganized, with the double aim of
+doing justice to this type of settler, and of suppressing speculation
+and monopoly. As the result of Land Office investigations in 1913,
+more than 800,000 acres were returned to the public domain, on the
+ground that they had been secured through fraud.
+
+The Department of Agriculture has steadily extended its scope. Better
+methods of cultivation, lessons in soil chemistry, and experiments
+with new and special crops have helped conserve the resources of the
+land. An elaborate system of experiment stations has been built up
+since 1887. The Weather Bureau in the Department of Agriculture saves
+millions of dollars' worth of property annually by sending out
+warnings of frost, storm, and flood.
+
+Reclamation is increasingly important. New crops are being developed
+for the semi-arid areas of the West. Swamp lands in the East and South
+are being drained. Levees and breakwaters along the Mississippi are
+helping to prevent the loss of arable land through the river's changes
+in course.
+
+Even more important is the irrigation movement. In 1894 the Carey Act
+gave Federal encouragement to several western states in irrigation
+projects, and in 1902 the Reclamation Act provided for the
+construction of irrigation works under the direction of the Secretary
+of the Interior. The plan provided by the Act of 1902 is self-
+supporting, the expense of the construction and improvement of the
+irrigation system being met from the sale of public lands. The
+administration of the Reclamation Act has already resulted in millions
+of acres being brought under cultivation.
+
+374. MINERALS.--Until 1873 coal lands were disposed of on practically
+the same terms as agricultural lands. But after that date laws
+restricting the purchase of coal lands began to be increasingly
+severe. In 1910 Congress withdrew from public sale nearly 100,000,000
+acres of coal, petroleum, and phosphate lands. At the present time the
+discovery of coal on land secured by settlers for purely farming
+purposes entitles the government to dispose of the coal deposits under
+special conditions. There is also a tendency for the government to
+demand higher prices of individuals buying public coal lands.
+
+In some quarters there is a demand that all coal lands be leased
+rather than sold. The Federal government has not yet yielded to this
+demand, but Colorado and Wyoming now lease rather than sell their coal
+lands. Under the lease system in these states, the state retains
+ownership, but allows private individuals a definite commission per
+ton of coal mined. The lease system is also advocated in the case of
+lands containing iron, oil, and gas deposits, on the grounds that it
+safeguards the interests of the public and at the same time allows the
+mining corporations a fair profit.
+
+375. REASONS FOR OPTIMISM.--In spite of the appalling waste which has
+been characteristic of our administration of natural resources, the
+outlook is distinctly encouraging. Resources used by past generations
+are gone forever, but at last we are making rapid strides in
+conserving what is left. Not only this, but we are perfecting plans
+for an increased supply of those resources which can be replenished.
+
+The admirable work of our Forest Service promises not only to reduce
+the present waste of wood products, but actually to increase the
+supply of timber. The Service deserves high praise both for its work
+in saving and replenishing forests, and for its wise handling of
+forest problems involving other resources. "By reasonable thrift,"
+runs a report of the Forest Service, "we can produce a constant timber
+supply beyond our present need, and with it conserve the usefulness of
+our streams for irrigation, water supply, navigation, and power."
+
+We now appear thoroughly awake not only to the necessity of
+safeguarding what is left of the public domain, but also to the
+necessity of increasing the productivity of inferior lands. There are
+still in this country more than 300,000,000 acres of unappropriated
+and unreserved land. Three fourths of this area is at present fit only
+for grazing, but the rapid development of kaffir corn, durum wheat,
+Persian clover, and other crops suitable for dry soils bids fair
+greatly to increase the productivity of this land.
+
+The irreplaceable character of our mineral deposits, together with the
+tendency for large industrial interests to monopolize minerals. has
+greatly stimulated the conservation of these resources. A valuable
+step forward has been the reclassification of public lands to allow of
+special treatment of lands containing mineral deposits. Coal is still
+used lavishly, but nine tenths of our original deposits are still in
+existence. Furthermore, water power, electricity, and other
+substitutes for coal are being developed. Our high grade iron ores
+will be exhausted in a few decades, but an iron shortage may be
+prevented by more careful mining, the use of low grade ores, and the
+use of substitutes.
+
+376. DIFFERENT RESOURCES CALL FOR DIFFERENT TREATMENT.--A wise
+conservation policy will take note of the fact that different
+resources call for different types of treatment. Coal, petroleum, oil,
+and gas are limited in extent and are practically irreplaceable. These
+should be taken from the earth and utilized as economically as
+possible. The same is true of the metallic minerals, such as iron and
+copper, though here the use of substitutes is of greater importance
+than in the case of non-metallic minerals.
+
+Water can best be conserved by the wise development of water power
+sites, and by the careful utilization of streams.
+
+Forests may be renewed, but slowly. Their conservation requires the
+prevention of fires, the reduction of waste in cutting and milling,
+the use of by-products, and scientific reforestation.
+
+Soil elements may also be renewed, though slowly and with difficulty.
+Reforestation prevents erosion and thus conserves soil fertility.
+Systems of crop rotation designed to retain nitrogen, potassium, and
+phosphorus are valuable.
+
+377. SOME CONSERVATION NEEDS.--The above considerations indicate some
+of our conservation needs. It is believed by most students of
+conservation that the Federal forest holdings should be extended and
+consolidated. There is need for more stringent forest fire
+regulations, especially in the case of private forests. In order to
+reforest the denuded areas and to grow timber scientifically some such
+plan as the German system of forest culture might be adopted. There is
+urgent need of a systematic development of our inland Waterways. The
+construction of more dams and reservoirs, the dredging of rivers and
+harbors, the coördination of canals and inland waterways, and the
+improvement of the Mississippi-Great Lakes system, all these would be
+helpful measures. Irrigation and other reclamation projects, including
+the drainage of swamp lands, should be developed systematically.
+American farming methods ought still further to be improved. We are in
+need of laws penalizing wasteful methods of mining and prohibiting
+uneconomical methods of combustion. Probably the system of leasing
+rather than selling mineral lands should be extended.
+
+A last vital need in conservation is coöperation between state and
+Federal authorities, and between private individuals and public
+agencies. This is of great importance. Where rivers course through
+several states, and where forest fires in one section threaten
+adjacent forest areas, coöperation must be secured. The Governors'
+Conference of 1908 stimulated coöperation between the states and the
+Federal government, and since 1909 the National Conservation
+Association has been a means of coördinating the work of all persons
+and agencies interested in conservation. There is still, however,
+little coöperation between state or Federal governments on the one
+hand, and private owners on the other. It is a matter of special
+regret that although four fifths of our forests are privately owned,
+both fire prevention and scientific forestry are little developed on
+private estates.
+
+378. THE QUESTION OF ADMINISTRATION.--Though it is conceded on all
+sides that our natural resources ought to be utilized economically,
+there is much discussion as to whether the states or the Federal
+government ought to dominate the conservation movement.
+
+Those favoring the extension of Federal control over conservation
+point out that forest control, irrigation, conservation of water
+power, and similar projects are distinctly interstate in character,
+and are thus properly a Federal function. Federal administration is
+said to be necessary in order to insure fair treatment of different
+localities. Finally, it is maintained, the states have either
+neglected the question of conservation, or have handled it in their
+own interests rather than with regard to the national welfare.
+
+A strong party maintains, on the other hand, that conservation is
+primarily a state function. The movement is said to be too large for
+the Federal government to handle. It is contended that there is no
+specific warrant in the Constitution for the Federal control of
+conservation. It is also claimed that Federal administration of
+natural resources has been accompanied by waste and inefficiency.
+Conservation is said to be a local question, best administered by
+those most interested in the problem, and, by reason of their
+proximity to it, most familiar with it.
+
+The problem of administration is a difficult one. In a number of cases
+the claims for and against Federal control are obviously sound. But
+from the standpoint of the public the whole matter is of secondary
+importance: the problem of administration ought to be decided on the
+basis of what is best under particular circumstances. Some phases of
+conservation are probably best looked after by the states, others by
+the Federal government, still others by the state and Federal
+governments jointly. The problem of conflicting authority ought
+somehow to be solved. Conservation is too vital a matter to be
+hampered by the question of method or means.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What was the attitude of the early settler toward natural
+resources?
+
+2. Discuss the growing scarcity of natural resources.
+
+3. What is the relation of lavish use of natural resources to the cost
+of living?
+
+4. What part has monopoly played in the history of our natural
+resources?
+
+5. Describe the origin and early development of the conservation
+movement.
+
+6. Outline the conservation of forests and water power.
+
+7. How is land being conserved?
+
+8. What is the purpose of the Reclamation Act of 1902?
+
+9. What measures have recently been taken to safeguard our mineral
+deposits?
+
+10. Why may the present outlook for conservation be said to be
+optimistic?
+
+11. Outline our conservation needs.
+
+12. Why is coöperation essential to the conservation movement?
+
+13. Give the chief arguments for and against Federal administration of
+conservation.
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xxx.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Coman, _Industrial History of the United States_, chapter xi.
+
+3. Reed, _Form and Functions of American Government_, chapter xxxiii.
+
+4. Van Hise, _Conservation of Natural Resources in the United States_,
+Introduction.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Into what two classes may natural resources be divided? (Van Hise,
+page 1.)
+
+2. Discuss the sale of the public domain under the early land acts.
+(Reed, page 382.)
+
+3. Outline the destruction of fur-bearing animals by the early
+settlers. (Coman, page 377.)
+
+4. Explain the effects of depleted pasturage in the West. (Coman,
+pages 381-382.)
+
+5. What are the aims of the Inland Waterways movement? (Coman, page
+394.)
+
+6. What part did Gifford Pinchot play in the Conservation movement?
+(Van Hise, pages 4-5.)
+
+7. What is the origin of the National Conservation Commission? (Van
+Hise, pages 7-8.)
+
+8. What is the nature of the North American Conservation Conference?
+(Van Hise, page 9.)
+
+9. Describe the character of the National Conservation Association.
+(Van Hise, pages 12-13.)
+
+10. Why should the Conservation movement be carried forward as rapidly
+as possible? (Van Hise, page 14.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Interview an old resident with regard to the relative abundance of
+forests, cheap land, and wild game in your locality a half century
+ago.
+
+2. Extent and utilization of forests in your state.
+
+3. Draw up a comprehensive plan for the prevention of forest fires.
+
+4. Extent of unused land in your state. What is being done to make
+this land more productive?
+
+5. Classify the mineral deposits of your state. By whom are they
+controlled?
+
+6. List the water-power sites in your locality. Draw up a plan for
+reforestation which would include constructive measures for the
+conservation of land and water power as well as forests.
+
+7. If possible, visit a lumber camp or a mine, and observe the methods
+of work.
+
+8. Outline a plan for a local conservation club, to be affiliated with
+the National Conservation Association.
+
+
+II
+
+9. The principles of conservation. (Van Hise, _Conservation of Natural
+Resources_, pages 359-362.)
+
+10. Relation of population to conservation. (Van Hise, _Conservation
+of Natural Resources_, pages 375-380.)
+
+11. The use of our forests. (Van Hise, _Conservation of Natural
+Resources_, pages 218-260.)
+
+12. Water power. (Van Hise, _Conservation of Natural Resources_, pages
+106-185; Huntington and Gushing, _Principles of Human Geography_,
+chapter ix.)
+
+13. Irrigation. (Van Hise, _Conservation of Natural Resources_, pages
+185-202; Huntington and Gushing, _Principles of Human Geography_,
+chapter xvii.)
+
+14. Inland waterways. (Huntington and Gushing, _Principles of Human
+Geography_, chapter vi.)
+
+15. Federal control of water in Switzerland: (_Annals_, vol. xxxiii,
+No. 3, pages 113-121.)
+
+16. Land laws of the United States. (Van Hise, _Conservation of
+Natural Resources_, pages 279-297.)
+
+17. Legal problems of reclamation. (_Annals_, vol. xxxiii, No. 3,
+pages 180-192.)
+
+18. The work of Gifford Pinchot. (Consult an encyclopedia.)
+
+19. The Congress of Governors, 1908. (Van Hise, _Conservation of
+Natural Resources_, appendix i.)
+
+20. The North American Conservation Conference. (Van Hise,
+_Conservation of Natural Resources_, appendix ii.)
+
+21. The National Conservation Association. (Van Hise, _Conservation of
+Natural Resources_, appendix iii.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+22. To what extent should state governments regulate private forests?
+(Consult _Annals_, vol. xxxiii, No. 3, pages 26-37.)
+
+23. Should all mineral lands be leased rather than sold?
+
+24. Is the adoption of a program of scientific forest culture at this
+time economically justified?
+
+25. Under our present laws is it possible effectively to coördinate
+the conservation work of state and Federal governments?
+
+26. Are higher prices an effective check to the excessive use of
+forest and mineral products?
+
+27. State versus Federal administration of conservation. (Consult the
+Debaters Handbook Series.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI
+
+CREDIT AND BANKING
+
+
+379. SOME PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS.--Money may be defined as anything
+that passes freely from hand to hand as a medium of exchange. Money is
+of two types: first, coin, including gold, silver, nickel, and copper
+coins; and second, paper money, including several kinds of
+certificates and notes. Both types of money, coin and paper, are
+called "cash." Credit refers to a promise to pay money or its
+equivalent at a future date. A bank is an institution which makes it
+its special business to deal in money and credit. A check is a written
+order directing a bank to pay a certain sum of money to a designated
+person. A bank note is a piece of paper money or currency which
+constitutes the bank's promise to pay in coin and on demand without
+interest, the sum named on the face of the note. A reserve fund is an
+amount of money or securities which a bank habitually keeps on hand as
+a partial guarantee that it will be able to meet its obligations.
+
+380. TYPES OF BANKS.--Of the several types of banks, the savings bank
+is perhaps the most familiar to young people. A savings bank will
+receive deposits of one dollar or more, and will pay interest on these
+amounts. But the savings bank does not pay out money on checks drawn
+against deposits. Indeed, it may require a formal notice of several
+days before deposits can be withdrawn.
+
+In many states there are trust companies. In addition to performing
+the function of a commercial bank, trust companies take care of
+valuable papers, execute trusts and wills, and sometimes guarantee
+titles to land.
+
+The investment bank is usually a private institution, conducted
+chiefly in the interests of certain large industrial organizations.
+
+A fourth type of bank is the commercial bank, with which this chapter
+is chiefly concerned. The commercial bank derives its name from the
+fact that it deals largely with business men. If classified on the
+basis of their charters, rather than on the basis of function,
+commercial banks may be either National, State, or private banks.
+
+381. PRIMARY FUNCTION OF THE COMMERCIAL BANK. [Footnote: Throughout
+the remainder of this chapter the word "bank" should be taken as
+referring to the commercial bank.]--The primary function of a
+commercial bank is to receive the deposits of persons who have saved
+sums of money for which they have no immediate use, and to make loans
+to persons who desire them. Of course, those who have deposited sums
+with a bank may draw on their accounts at any time, either themselves
+demanding sums of the bank, or directing the bank, by means of checks,
+to pay specified sums to others. But experience has taught the bank
+that if it keeps on hand a reserve fund equal to from five to about
+thirty-five per cent of the sums for which it is liable to depositors,
+it will ordinarily be able to meet all the demands for cash which
+depositors will be likely to make upon it. The bank may then loan out
+to business men the remainder of the money deposited with it. This not
+only encourages production, but it allows the bank to secure a reward
+for its services. This reward is in the form of interest paid by those
+who borrow of the bank.
+
+382. THE NATURE OF BANK CREDIT.--When an individual actually deposits
+with a bank $100 in cash, the bank becomes owner of the $100, and in
+turn writes down on its books the promise to pay to the depositor, as
+he shall direct, amounts totaling $100. The depositor receives a
+check book, and may draw part or all of the $100, as he likes.
+
+Now it may happen that an individual may wish to increase his checking
+account at the bank, but that he has no actual cash with which to make
+a deposit with the bank. In this case he may give the bank his
+promissory note, together with stocks, bonds, or other forms of
+wealth, which the bank holds as security. In return, the bank credits
+him with a "deposit." This means that the bank extends its credit to
+the individual, by undertaking to honor checks for sums not actually
+received from the depositor.
+
+The bank has received valuable security from the borrower and hence
+feels justified in extending him a deposit credit. But, why does a
+bank feel _safe_ in undertaking to pay out sums of money which it does
+not actually have in its vaults? The answer is that the bank attempts
+to keep on hand a reserve fund sufficient to meet all demands for cash
+which may be made upon it. If the reserve fund is relatively large,
+the bank will ordinarily loan its credit freely. If the cash reserve
+is relatively low, the conservative bank may refuse further loans, on
+the grounds that its cash reserve is too low to justify the acceptance
+of additional obligations. The only safe alternative to this is for
+the bank in some way to increase its reserve fund, and then proceed to
+extend the amount of credit justified by this increased reserve.
+
+383. DANGERS OF BANK CREDIT.--The integrity of these various
+operations rests upon the confidence which people have in the bank's
+ability to make good its promises. Confidence in the deposit credit of
+a bank exists when the past experience of depositors has taught them
+that the bank in question will habitually exchange either coin or bank
+notes for checks. Bank notes are ordinarily accepted in the place of
+coin, because people believe the credit of the bank issuing those
+notes to be so firmly established that the bank would be able and
+willing to exchange coin for its notes, upon demand. A bank is
+enabled to meet these obligations promptly, it should be remembered,
+because it keeps on hand, against the demands of depositors, a reserve
+fund of cash, or securities which by law it is allowed to count as
+cash. If all of the depositors of a bank suddenly and simultaneously
+demanded the full amount of their deposits in coin, the bank would be
+unable to accommodate them; as a matter of fact, business men normally
+leave in the bank that share of their deposits which they do not
+actually need. So long as men have confidence in a bank, they will
+prefer checks and bank notes to the less convenient coin, unless they
+need coin for some special purpose.
+
+If properly managed a bank is a profitable business for everyone
+concerned. But even though properly managed, a bank may occasionally
+find itself in a precarious position. There are few matters which the
+average person comprehends as vaguely as banking, and few things which
+more vitally interest him than the safety of his money. These two
+facts combine to render banking extremely sensitive to every rumor of
+unsoundness. The careful regulation of banking by law is therefore
+necessary.
+
+384. THE NATIONAL BANKING SYSTEM.--The Civil War plunged our
+government into serious financial straits. To improve the finances of
+the Federal government there was created, in 1863, a system of
+national banks. The original act of 1863 is still the basis of our
+banking system, though it has since been modified a number of times,
+notably in 1913.
+
+We speak of a "national banking system," but as a matter of fact this
+term is inexact. From the beginning of their history, the so-called
+national banks were "national" only in the sense that they were
+chartered by the Federal government, and were subject to examination
+by Federal inspectors. These national banks constituted no definite
+system: they transacted business much as other banks did, they had no
+branches, and they had little to do with one another. There was little
+team-work, and no effective leadership, so that in time of a
+threatened panic the different parts of the "system" worked at cross-
+purposes instead of as a unit.
+
+385. WHY A BANKING SYSTEM MUST BE ELASTIC.--A good banking system will
+be elastic, _i.e._ it will respond promptly to the varying needs of
+business. Money and credit constitute a mechanism by means of which
+business is handled, just as the labor force of a factory constitutes
+a means of handling the output of the factory. If the output of the
+factory increases, a larger labor force is needed; if the output
+dwindles, fewer laborers are needed. Similarly, if business increases
+in volume, an increased amount of money and credit is necessary to
+handle the increased volume of business. If, on the other hand,
+business declines, the volume of money and credit ought to decline
+also. Otherwise, there will be so much money and credit in
+circulation, relatively to the amount of goods, that high prices will
+result.
+
+High prices will result for the following reason: Money and credit are
+used to exchange against goods. As a general proposition, all the
+available goods in a community are in a process of exchanging against
+all of the available money and credit in the community. If goods are
+relatively few and money and credit are relatively plentiful, a small
+amount of goods can command a large amount of money and credit, _i.e._
+the goods will sell for high prices. A sound banking system,
+therefore, will allow an expansion of money and credit instruments
+when business is booming, and will permit the contraction of the
+mechanism of exchange when business is growing dull.
+
+The old national banking system was inelastic in two ways: first, it
+provided an inelastic supply of deposit credit; second, it provided an
+inelastic supply of currency or bank notes.
+
+386. INELASTICITY OF DEPOSIT CREDIT (RESERVES).--It will be recalled
+that the amount of loans which a bank may make depends upon the
+maintenance of an adequate reserve fund. From this it follows that the
+larger the reserve fund the more loans the bank will feel justified in
+making. Similarly, if the reserve fund shrinks, sound banking demands
+that loans be curtailed. Keeping these facts in mind, there were two
+reasons why the supply of deposit credit was inelastic before 1913.
+
+In the first place, individual banks kept only a part of their
+reserves actually in their vaults. The remainder, and sometimes the
+larger part, of their reserves was maintained in the form of deposits
+in other banks. Banks in towns and small cities habitually kept part
+of their reserves in the form of deposits in the banks of large
+cities, and the latter in turn kept part of their reserves in the
+banks of New York City, the financial center of the country. Hence the
+cash reserves of the country tended to collect in New York, where they
+were utilized by New York banks as a basis for extending loans.
+
+This was a dangerous arrangement. In the fall of the year large
+amounts of cash were demanded in the West, in order to pay farm hands
+and otherwise "move the crops." At such times the small western banks
+had to demand their deposits in larger banks, while these in turn had
+to call for their deposits in the New York banks. The New York banks
+were often embarrassed by these demands, because they made a practice
+of fully utilizing the funds left with them, as a basis for extending
+loans. The call in the West for cash meant a curtailment of these
+loans with a consequent demoralization of eastern money markets.
+
+In the second place, individual banks were unable to extend loans to
+customers beyond the point justified by the amount of reserves in
+their vaults, or deposited to their credit in other banks. A bank with
+a total reserve of $10,000 might feel justified in loaning its credit
+to the extent of $100,000, but in case demands for additional loans
+were made upon it, sound banking practice would oblige it to refuse
+accommodation. Otherwise it might later find itself unable to get
+enough cash to pay out against claims made in the form of checks. This
+practice of curtailing loans when reserves were depleted was
+demoralizing to business, since the disappointed customer might find
+his entire business blocked, and this in turn would inconvenience or
+seriously injure all those who were connected with him in a business
+way. Before 1913, each bank stood as a unit, and when its reserves
+were depleted it could not secure temporary aid from other banks.
+There was no centralized control, and no method whereby national banks
+might secure help of one another.
+
+387. INELASTICITY OF CURRENCY (BANK NOTES).--We have seen that an
+increased volume of business demands an increased volume of money and
+credit. In the previous section it was pointed out that before 1913
+the volume of _deposit credit_ in this country was inelastic. We must
+now notice that _bank notes_, or _paper currency_, are just as truly a
+part of the volume of money and credit as is deposit credit, and we
+must note, also, that just as deposit credit was inelastic before
+1913, so the issue of bank notes was inelastic. Previous to 1913 it
+often happened that the supply of bank notes was smallest when
+business was expanding, and that the issue of bank notes increased
+during dull business periods. This statement requires some
+explanation.
+
+The Act of 1863 provided that National banks might issue bank notes
+only after depositing in the Federal Treasury an amount of United
+States government bonds sufficient to render the bank notes absolutely
+safe. Naturally, the banks made heavy purchases of bonds when the bond
+market was depressed, and tended to purchase relatively few bonds when
+those securities were high in price. Since the only reason for
+purchasing bonds was to enable the b banks to issue notes, more notes
+were issued when bonds were low in price, and fewer were issued when
+bonds were high. Unfortunately, the same general conditions that
+stimulated business also tended to raise the price of bonds, while the
+causes of slack business often operated to lower bond prices. This
+means that when business was expanding, and more notes were needed,
+bonds were so high that few were purchased, and consequently few notes
+were issued. Similarly, when business was dull, more bonds were
+purchased, and more notes issued.
+
+388. THE PANIC OF 1907.--The panic of 1907 attracted attention to
+these two great defects of the old national banking system, _i.e._ the
+inelasticity of deposit credit and the inelasticity of currency. In
+the fall of 1907, a bumper crop caused Western banks to make unusually
+large demands for cash upon the New York banks. Unfortunately, this
+depletion of reserves came at precisely the time when the demand upon
+New York banks for loans was greatest. There was thus increased
+pressure exerted upon New York banks for loans, but less justification
+for extending them. In response to the pressure for loans, some New
+York banks over-extended their credit. In October the inability of a
+few prominent banks to pay in cash all of the demands made upon them
+started a series of bank "runs." Even solvent institutions were unable
+to meet their obligations promptly and many failures occurred. A large
+number of banks were technically insolvent, that is to say, their
+assets were invested in forms which prevented their immediate
+conversion into cash, so that for the time being demands for cash
+could not be met. The lack of an effective banking system prevented
+these banks from securing temporary aid from banks more favorably
+situated.
+
+389. REFORM.--The panic of 1907 stimulated financial experts to
+attempt to remedy the defects of our banking system. In 1908 a
+monetary commission was appointed to investigate banking experience at
+home and abroad. As the result of this investigation it appeared
+advisable to establish a system which should secure some of the
+advantages of such centralized banking systems as have long existed in
+many European countries. A single central government bank was at first
+recommended by experts, but this was deemed politically inexpedient.
+In view of this fact resort was had to a compromise between a
+centralized and a decentralized system. This compromise was effected
+by the Federal Reserve Act of 1913.
+
+390. FRAMEWORK OF THE FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM.--The Act of 1913 is
+administered by the Federal Reserve Board, consisting of the Secretary
+of the Treasury and the Comptroller of the Currency, _ex officio_, and
+five other members appointed for ten years by the President. The
+country is divided into twelve districts, in each of which there is
+located a Federal Reserve bank. In each district every National bank
+must subscribe six per cent of its capital and surplus for stock in
+the Federal Reserve bank, and thus become a "member" bank. State banks
+and trust companies may, upon the fulfilment of certain conditions,
+become member banks. Each Federal Reserve bank is governed by a board
+of nine directors, six of whom are elected by the member banks of its
+district, and three of whom are appointed by the Federal Reserve
+Board. The Federal Reserve banks are bankers' banks, that is, they do
+not ordinarily deal directly with individuals, but with member banks
+only.
+
+391. ELASTICITY OF DEPOSIT CREDIT (RESERVES).--The piling up of bank
+reserves in New York is impossible under the Federal Reserve system.
+The reserves of any member bank do not ordinarily move beyond the
+district, for a member bank may count as legal reserve only those
+funds which it has placed on deposit in the Federal Reserve bank of
+its district. There exists what may be called district centralization
+of reserves; that is to say, all of the legal reserves of all the
+member banks of a particular district are concentrated in the Federal
+Reserve bank of the district, and can be utilized as a unit by that
+Federal Reserve bank. If in time of stress the total reserves of the
+district are insufficient, the Federal Reserve Board may arrange for
+the temporary transfer of surplus funds from one Federal Reserve
+district to another. This secures one of the most important advantages
+of a central bank without actual centralization.
+
+Elasticity of deposit credit is also provided for in the
+"rediscounting device." A bank discounts commercial paper when it
+loans an individual, say, $980, on the security of a $1000 promissory
+note. The $20 represents an amount which the bank counts out, or
+discounts, as payment for the service. A further operation, long known
+in Europe as rediscounting, was authorized by the Act of 1913. When
+the reserves of a member bank are too low to justify further
+extensions of deposit credit, the bank can send certain types of
+discounted paper to the Federal Reserve bank of its district, and
+receive in return either a deposit credit or a special form of paper
+currency called Federal Reserve notes.
+
+392. ELASTICITY OF CURRENCY (BANK NOTES).--When, in return for
+discounted commercial paper, the Federal Reserve bank extends a
+deposit credit to the member bank, the _deposit credit_ of the member
+bank is rendered more elastic. When, on the other hand, the Federal
+Reserve bank sends the member bank Federal Reserve notes in exchange
+for discounted paper, the result is a certain elasticity in the
+_currency_.
+
+The Federal Reserve notes are a new type of currency. They are secured
+by the maintenance, in the vaults of the Federal Reserve banks, of a
+forty per cent gold reserve for their redemption. Since these notes
+are issued to member banks in return for rediscounted paper, the
+expansion of business and the resultant tendency of member banks to
+send discounted paper to the Federal Reserve bank for rediscount
+causes the volume of Federal Reserve notes to expand. When the need
+for additional currency has subsided, there is an arrangement whereby
+a certain amount of the Federal Reserve notes may be withdrawn from
+circulation. This is important, for if the amount of money in
+circulation continues to be enormous after business has declined,
+inflation and high prices result. _A truly elastic banking system
+necessitates contraction as well as expansion._
+
+393. THE OUTLOOK.--On the whole, it would seem that the Federal
+Reserve System is a happy compromise between the centralized banking
+systems of Europe and the highly decentralized system existing in
+this country prior to 1913. The Federal Reserve system allows us to
+secure the main benefits of a great central bank without the political
+difficulties attendant upon the existence of such a bank. It does a
+great deal to make elastic our supply of money and credit. The Federal
+Reserve Board can mobilize the entire banking strength of the country
+in time of stress, so that the strength of one member bank is the
+strength of the whole system. Since it controls not only a substantial
+proportion of the bank reserves of the country, but also the privilege
+of note issue on the security of rediscounted paper, the Federal
+Reserve Board can administer the member banks as a unit. The system
+may not eliminate panics, but it is fair to expect that it will reduce
+their number and lessen their violence.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Distinguish between money and credit.
+
+2. Name and distinguish between the four types of banks.
+
+3. What is the primary function of a commercial bank?
+
+4. Explain clearly the nature of bank credit.
+
+5. If the cash reserve of a bank is low, and the bank is confronted
+with demands for loans, in what two ways may it dispose of these
+demands?
+
+6. What dangers attend the extension of bank credit?
+
+7. Describe the national banking system.
+
+8. Why should a banking system be elastic?
+
+9. Explain the inelasticity of deposit credit before 1913.
+
+10. Discuss the inelasticity of bank note issue under the old national
+banking system.
+
+11. What was the significance of the panic of 1907?
+
+12. Outline the framework of the Federal Reserve System.
+
+13. Explain in detail how the Act of 1913 provides for elastic deposit
+credit.
+
+14. Explain the "rediscounting device."
+
+15. How does the Act of 1913 provide for an elastic bank note issue?
+
+16. What is the present outlook with respect to our banking system?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xxxi.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Ely, _Outlines of Economics_, chapter xv.
+
+3. Fetter, _Modern Economic Problems_, chapter ix.
+
+4. Seager, _Principles of Economics_, chapter xx.
+
+5. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States_, chapter
+xxx.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Outline the financial powers of Congress. (Guitteau, page 361.)
+
+2. Describe the First and Second United States banks. (Guitteau, pages
+369-370.)
+
+3. What were the main functions of the national banks? (Guitteau,
+pages 371-373.)
+
+4. What are collateral loans? (Seager, pages 346-347.)
+
+5. What are the limitations upon the use of bank credit? (Seager,
+pages 352-353.)
+
+6. In what ways are depositors in national banks protected? (Seager,
+pages 358-359.)
+
+7. What is the Independent Treasury system? (Ely, pages 297-298.)
+
+8. Explain the relation of "moving the crops" to bank credit. (Ely,
+pages 298-299.)
+
+9. How does the Bank of England secure elastic reserves? (Ely, page
+302.)
+
+10. What was the Aldrich-Vreeland Act? (Ely, pages 305-306.)
+
+11. Enumerate some of the powers of the Federal Reserve banks.
+(Fetter, page 121.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Write to a number of banks in your vicinity asking for literature
+describing the varied services which they offer the public.
+
+2. Outline some of the more important banking laws of your state.
+
+3. What are the limits of the Federal Reserve district in which you
+live? In what city is the Reserve Bank located? Why do you suppose it
+is located in this city?
+
+4. List the banks in your vicinity that are members of the Federal
+Reserve system.
+
+5. Interview an official of a bank belonging to the Federal Reserve
+System upon the advantages of such membership.
+
+6. Interview a friendly official of a bank which does not belong to
+the system. Try to ascertain the reasons why this bank does not belong
+to the Federal Reserve System.
+
+
+II
+
+7. Nature and function of money. (Ely, _Outlines of Economics_,
+chapter xiv; Fetter, _Modern Economic Problems_, chapter iii.)
+
+8. Functions of a bank. (White, _Money and Banking_, part iii, chapter
+i; Fetter, _Modern Economic Problems_, chapter vii; Fiske, _The Modern
+Bank_, chapter iv.)
+
+9. The bank statement. (White, _Money and Banking_, part iii,
+chapter ii.)
+
+10. The clearing house. (White, _Money and Banking_, part iii,
+chapter iii; Fiske, _The Modern Bank_, chapter x.)
+
+11. The credit department of a modern bank. (Fiske, _The Modern
+Bank_, chapter xvii.)
+
+12. Bank reserves. (Fiske, _The Modern Bank_, chapter xxii.)
+
+13. Greenbacks. (White, _Money and Banking_, part ii, chapter iii.)
+
+14. The check system. (Dunbar, _Theory and History of Banking_,
+chapter iv.)
+
+15. Colonial finance. (Dewey, _Financial History of the United
+States_, chapter i.)
+
+16. The First United States Bank. (White, _Money and Banking_, part
+iii, chapter vi.)
+
+17. The Second United States Bank. (White, _Money and Banking_,
+part iii. chapter vii.)
+
+18. The national banking system. (White, _Money and Banking_, part
+iii, chapter xiv; Dewey, _Financial History of the United States_,
+chapter iv; Fetter, _Modern Economic Problems_, chapter viii.)
+
+19. The panic of 1907. (Coman, _Industrial History of the United
+States_, pages 335-337; Noyes, _Forty Years of American Finance_,
+chapter xv; White, _Money and Banking_, part iii, chapter xviii.)
+
+20. The Bank of England. (Dunbar. _Theory and History of Banking_,
+chapter viii.)
+
+21. The Bank of France. (Dunbar, _Theory and History of Banking_,
+chapter ix.)
+
+22. The German bank. (Dunbar, _Theory and History of Banking_,
+chapter x.)
+
+23. Organization of the Federal Reserve System. (_Annals_, vol.
+lxiii, pages 88-97.)
+
+24. The Federal Reserve act and foreign trade. (_Annals_, vol. lxiii,
+pages 132-141; Kemmerer, _The A B C of the Federal Reserve System_,
+chapter ix.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+25. Should we adopt a centralized banking system such as exists in
+England, France and Germany? (See the Debaters' Handbook Series.)
+
+26. Should all State banks and trust companies be required by law to
+become members of the Federal Reserve System?
+
+27. What would be the best method of acquainting the general public
+with the fundamental principles of banking?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXII
+
+TAXATION
+
+
+394. THE INCREASING COST OF GOVERNMENT.--In the United States, as in
+other modern civilized countries, the cost of government is steadily
+increasing. The settlement of the Great West, the depletion of natural
+resources and the transition from a primitive to an industrial economy
+have obliged our government to pay out larger and larger sums for the
+services of public officials, and for the materials and commodities
+used for public purposes. The growth--of our cities and the increasing
+complexity of our industrial life have greatly increased the number of
+activities which it is to our advantage to carry on, not individually,
+but collectively or through the agency of government. The spread of
+altruism and the widening of the concept of social service have caused
+the extension of governmental activity in such new fields as social
+insurance, recreation, and public health. Altogether, our total
+government expenditure is more than seventeen times as large as it was
+a half century ago, while the per capita expenditure is more than five
+times as great.
+
+395. SOURCES OF PUBLIC REVENUE.--Writers on taxation generally
+enumerate as sources of public revenue, public industries, the public
+domain, gifts, confiscations, fees, special assessments, fines, and
+taxes. At various times and in different countries of the world, all
+of these have been important, but in the United States at the present
+time taxes are by far the most important source of public revenue.
+
+A tax may be defined as a compulsory contribution exacted from the
+individual by the government, for the purpose of defraying expenses
+incurred for the common welfare. The government does not return to the
+individual taxpayer a definite commodity or service. In return for
+taxes the government indeed renders many valuable services, such as
+public education, the safeguarding of health, and protection from
+domestic violence and foreign war. But on account of the collective
+character of these services, no attempt is made to apportion the
+payment exacted of the individual to the benefit which he as an
+individual receives.
+
+Until recently our national government secured most of its revenue
+from taxes on imports, and from excises or internal taxes on such
+commodities as tobacco and liquor. Since national prohibition went
+into effect (1919), the Federal revenues are derived mainly from taxes
+on imports, from income and inheritance taxes, and from taxes on
+corporations.
+
+More than three fourths of the receipts of state and local governments
+are derived from the general property tax, the amounts collected from
+other sources being as yet relatively unimportant. The general
+property tax is supposed to be levied upon all the property in the
+possession of taxpayers, though as we shall see a little later, this
+tax works out very badly. The old "poll" or head tax was formerly
+important, but at present less than two thirds of one per cent of
+state and local revenues are derived from this source. In most states
+it is being abandoned because of its small yield, and because of the
+difficulty and expense in collecting it.
+
+
+A. DEFECTS IN AMERICAN TAXATION
+
+396. LACK OF A TAX SYSTEM.--The fundamental defect of American
+taxation is the lack of a definite and coördinated system. The tax
+laws of most states have been radically changed during the last few
+decades, and are still in a process of development. In many states old
+taxes are being modified or abandoned, and new taxes adopted. But too
+often this is being done without regard for the taxation reform of
+other states or of the Federal government. As a result, the tax burden
+weighs unequally upon different classes, while between state and
+state, or between state and Federal government, there is an
+overlapping of tax power. The effect of this overlapping is to create
+undue confusion, and to demoralize both tax officials and taxpayers.
+
+397. LEGAL RESTRICTIONS UPON TAXING POWER.--A serious defect of
+American taxation is the lack of correspondence between taxing power
+and fiscal needs. Let us inquire into this.
+
+The Federal government has important functions to perform, but has
+practically unlimited taxing power. So far as the national government
+is concerned, the problem of finding sources of revenue is relatively
+simple.
+
+The functions assumed by the state governments are as yet relatively
+few and inexpensive, while the power of the state to tax is but
+slightly abridged by the Federal Constitution. States have relatively
+little difficulty in making both ends meet.
+
+Local governments, and especially municipal governments, have a large
+number of functions which are increasingly important. Of the total
+government expenditure in this country, about 35 per cent is made by
+the Federal government, 10 per cent by the state governments, and 55
+per cent by the local governments. But whereas Federal and state
+governments have relatively adequate taxing powers, the taxing powers
+of local governments are narrowly restricted by the state constitution
+and statutes. Such local functions as health, public school education,
+and recreation are constantly demanding greater expenditures, yet
+local governments as yet have few opportunities for securing necessary
+funds.
+
+398. DEFECTS IN TAX ASSESSMENT.--The defects of tax assessment are
+clearly illustrated in the workings of the general property tax,
+called by some authorities the worst tax in the civilized world. The
+basis of levy is the work of local assessors, who are generally
+elective. The assessors estimate the value of millions of dollars'
+worth of property, and their estimates are the basis of the tax rates
+for not only township and county, but generally for the state as well.
+Incapable and dishonest assessors often work injustice by
+underestimating the value of some forms of property, and
+overestimating the value of other forms. In addition, political
+pressure is brought to bear upon the assessor to cause him to
+undervalue the property of the township or county as a whole, so that
+the local unit will bear a relatively small share of the taxes of the
+state.
+
+The estimates of the local assessors are commonly subject to
+correction by a county, and sometimes by a state, board of
+equalization. The duty of such a board is to make assessments uniform
+and just, but notwithstanding the efforts of these bodies, unequal and
+unfair assessments have persisted.
+
+399. DIFFICULTY OF TAXING INTABGIBLE PROPERTY.--Where taxation is on
+the basis of assessment, it often happens that the tax burden rests
+unequally upon different forms of property. Property in tangible form,
+such as land, cattle, and houses, is easily discoverable, and hence
+cannot easily evade the payment of taxes. But intangible property,
+such as bonds, stocks, or mortgage, can easily be hidden, so that
+owners of this type of property often evade their share of the tax
+burden.
+
+This evasion is often practiced in the case of the general property
+tax, which is intended to reach both tangible and intangible property.
+The general property tax worked well a century ago when the greater
+share of wealth existed in tangible form, because local assessors
+could easily locate such things as land and live stock. But the rapid
+development of corporations, bringing with it a rapid increase in the
+proportion of intangible forms of property, has rendered the general
+property tax grossly unjust. The assessors of the general property tax
+cannot easily discover intangible property, unless taxpayers coöperate
+with them. The all too frequent lack of such coöperation causes a
+disproportionate share of the tax burden to fall upon tangible
+property. The general property tax is haphazard, ineffective, and
+demoralizing to both tax officials and taxpayers.
+
+400. DOUBLE TAXATION.--By double taxation is meant the taxation of an
+individual or different individuals twice for the same thing. Double
+taxation is of two kinds.
+
+The first type of double taxation is illustrated by the taxation of
+both tangible property and the paper claim upon that property. For
+example, a state may tax a land-owner on his land, and also tax
+another resident of the state on the mortgage which he holds against
+that land. Or it may happen that a state will tax the land, buildings
+and other tangible equipment of a corporation, and at the same time
+tax those of its residents who hold stock in that corporation, _i.e._
+individuals who hold paper evidence of ownership in the tangible
+equipment of the corporation. More generally, however, this type of
+double taxation arises when the holder of the paper claim resides in
+one state, while the tangible property lies in another state. In such
+a case, it is common for one state to tax the paper claim, and for the
+other state to tax the property itself. This type of double taxation
+is manifestly unfair, and often imposes a ruinous burden upon
+property.
+
+The second type of double taxation is illustrated by the overlapping
+of similar taxes between state and state, or between Federal and state
+governments. Because it is the practice of most states to seek revenue
+without regard to the taxing activities of other states, or of the
+Federal government, it may happen that corporations, incomes, or
+inheritances are taxed by more than one agency of government. If a
+scientific and coördinated tax system were deliberately to provide for
+this, the supposition would be that such taxation were reasonable and
+just, because intended to bear with equal weight upon all forms of
+property in the taxable class. But because such taxation is haphazard,
+it bears with unequal weight upon corporations and individuals, and is
+therefore unjust.
+
+Moreover, it encourages the evasion of tax burdens. Individuals and
+corporations sometimes migrate from localities or states in which they
+are subject to double taxation, to localities or states in which the
+danger of such taxation is less. This in turn has the evil effect of
+tempting states and municipalities to neglect taxes on corporations,
+incomes, and inheritances for the sake of attracting wealthy
+individuals and large industrial organizations from neighboring areas.
+
+
+B. SOME SUGGESTED TAX REFORMS
+
+401. IDEALS OF TAXATION.--Summarizing the views of the more generally
+accepted writers on taxation, we may say that the following are the
+basic ideals in taxation:
+
+Taxes should take as little as possible from the people and still meet
+the needs of government. Taxes should be uniform, that is, all taxable
+articles of the same class should be levied upon at the same rate. It
+is also important that the time, manner, and amount of the tax should
+not be arbitrary, but that the individual's convenience as regards the
+terms of payment should be considered. From the standpoint of the
+government, taxes should be easy to administer and economical to
+collect.
+
+A good tax system will be elastic, so that taxes may easily be
+increased or decreased, according as the revenue needs of the
+government change. The ability to pay ought to have some influence
+upon the extent to which an individual is taxed. Taxes should adapt
+themselves somewhat to the local sentiment as to what is expedient or
+socially desirable.
+
+Finally, taxation policies should be systematized and coördinated.
+
+402. ESSENTIALS OF A TAX SYSTEM.--The construction of an ideal tax
+system in this country would involve three steps.
+
+In the first place, each branch of government should be enabled to
+secure revenues actually needed for justifiable purposes. In this
+regard the greatest need is to increase the taxing powers of our
+municipalities. This is imperative if the cities of the future are to
+care for their citizens properly.
+
+A second fundamental step relates to the separation of taxing power.
+Each branch of government should pretty well confine its use of the
+taxing power to definite types of taxable wealth. The Federal
+government, for example, might secure most of its revenue from import
+duties, excises, an income tax, and stamp taxes of various kinds. Many
+taxation experts believe that the states ought to confine themselves
+mainly to license, corporation, inheritance, and, possibly, income
+taxes. Local governments might well secure most of their revenue from
+taxes on franchises, licenses, and real estate. Such a separation of
+taxing power might aid in the adjustment of fiscal needs to taxing
+power, as well as helping to remedy the evil of double taxation.
+However, a complete separation of taxing powers is not necessarily
+desirable, and certainly it is not practicable, for there is a growing
+tendency toward duplication in income, inheritance, and other taxes.
+At the present time, for example, not only the Federal government, but
+many of the states levy income and inheritance taxes.
+
+A third fundamental step would be the coördination of local, state,
+and Federal taxing authorities. The central aim of such coördination
+should be so to distribute tax burdens that no form of taxable wealth
+would escape its just burden, and so that no form of wealth would be
+subjected to unduly heavy taxation. There is a growing feeling that to
+prevent double taxation and similar evils, all local taxing bodies
+ought to be coördinated under the state authorities, while for similar
+reasons the Federal government ought to have some measure of direction
+or control over that share of state taxation which is interstate in
+its effects.
+
+403. REFORM OR ABOLITION OF THE GENERAL PROPERTY TAX.--The reform of
+state and local taxation logically begins with the general property
+tax.
+
+In many states attempts are being made to reform this tax. In some
+cases "tax ferrets" are employed to discover tax evaders, a policy
+which may easily lead to corruption and favoritism. In other states
+the conviction is growing that local elective assessors ought to be
+supplanted by a permanent corps of state assessors, appointed under
+the merit system. This would reduce the danger of unequal and unfair
+assessments.
+
+In other states there is a tendency to abandon the general property
+tax altogether. In New York, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and other
+states, there is a marked tendency to turn over the general property
+tax to local governing bodies. In such cases it is intended that the
+state shall depend for most of its revenue upon income, corporation,
+inheritance, and license taxes.
+
+The future will doubtless see a more widespread tendency toward the
+reform or abolition of the general property tax. In some states,
+however, such changes in the taxation system require constitutional
+amendment, and constitutional amendment is often a slow and tedious
+process.
+
+404. REFORM IN LAND TAXATION.--Coupled with plans for the reform or
+abolition of the general property tax are proposals for the reform of
+land taxation. A primary aim of these proposals, some of which suggest
+elements of the single tax doctrine, is to secure a more correct
+assessment of land values. In many cases a state does not now tax the
+holder of a mortgage when the mortgaged land is also within the state
+and thus directly subject to taxation. This is a desirable
+development, but we ought to go still further, so that the holder of a
+mortgage would not be taxed whether or not he lived in the same state
+as the owner of the land. A mortgage is obviously not social wealth,
+but a paper claim on wealth, and this wealth ought not to be taxed
+twice.
+
+Some authorities believe that the tax rate on land ought substantially
+to be increased, when it appears that such land is being held for
+speculative purposes. To encourage improvements, it is also proposed
+that certain permanent improvements on land be temporarily exempted
+from taxation. Lastly, it would appear socially desirable to levy
+special taxes on urban sites, so as to secure for the community some
+share of the future unearned increment.
+
+405. THE INCOME TAX.--All taxes ultimately come out of income, but
+when we speak of an income tax we refer to a direct levy upon income
+as it arises, chiefly in the form of wages, salaries, and profits. A
+Federal income tax was levied during the Civil War, but in the
+nineties the Supreme Court held that such a tax violated the
+constitutional provision that Congress shall not lay direct taxes
+except in proportion to the population of the states. In 1913 the
+Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution permitted Congress to lay and
+collect taxes on incomes without apportionment among the several
+states, and without regard to any census or enumeration.
+
+Since 1913 Congress has passed several income tax laws, and a number
+of the states have also adopted this form of taxation. The essential
+features of these laws are as follows. Incomes below a certain amount
+are exempt from taxation. The limit of untaxable income is raised for
+married persons living together. In calculating their net income,
+individuals may make allowance for debts, business expenses, and
+certain other items. Upon all taxable income above a certain minimum
+there is then levied a flat rate, constituting a "normal" tax. Where
+incomes exceed a certain amount, there is an additional tax. Thus the
+income tax is said to be "progressive," that is, the larger the income
+the higher the tax rate.
+
+Many benefits are claimed for the income tax. It falls upon those best
+able to pay, and it is not easily evaded or shifted by the person upon
+whom it is levied. It is elastic and can readily be increased or
+reduced according as revenue needs change. Its progressive character
+is a feature which is considered socially desirable.
+
+The chief defects of the income tax are two. In the first place, the
+effectiveness of the tax depends upon the willingness of the
+individual to declare his full income. This is not always done,
+especially where the income tax is regarded as an undue interference
+in the private affairs of the individual. Second, wealthy individuals
+often migrate to states where there is either no income tax or only a
+relatively light one. This last defect of course applies only to the
+state income tax.
+
+406. THE INHERITANCE TAX.--Taxes upon inheritances have come into
+prominence since the opening of the twentieth century. Since 1916 the
+Federal government has levied an inheritance tax. At the present time
+most of the states also levy this form of tax upon property passing by
+will or under the inheritance laws of the state. The essential
+features of the tax are everywhere the same. Small legacies are
+generally exempt. Legacies to direct heirs are either exempt, or are
+taxed at a lower rate than are legacies to collateral heirs. The rates
+are progressive, that is to say, they increase with the size of the
+legacy.
+
+Many benefits are claimed for the inheritance tax. It brings in a
+large revenue, and falls upon those who are best able to pay. The tax
+cannot be shifted and it cannot easily be evaded. It is easily
+assessed and collected, because all wills must pass through the
+probate court. It is held that the state has a social claim upon the
+property of an individual who has amassed wealth under the protection
+of its laws, and that this property ought not to be transferred intact
+to those who did not aid in its accumulation.
+
+If carried too far the inheritance tax would undoubtedly discourage
+the accumulation of wealth, but tax authorities are already guarding
+against this danger. On the whole, the inheritance tax is an important
+addition to our tax system. Its scope is being rapidly extended: rates
+are being raised, the principle of progression is being more
+frequently applied, and exemptions allowed direct heirs are being
+reduced. The tax is increasingly used in the effort to redistribute
+unearned wealth, though the extent to which this is true depends very
+largely upon local sentiment.
+
+407. CORPORATION TAXES.--The rapid growth of American industry has
+been accompanied by an enormous increase in the number and importance
+of industrial corporations. The proper taxation of these bodies is now
+challenging the attention of both state and Federal governments.
+
+The difficulties of taxing corporations are two: First, how to prevent
+that form of double taxation which results from the fact that several
+states may levy taxes of varying weight upon interstate corporations.
+Second, how to prevent that form of double taxation which imposes a
+burden both upon the tangible property of the corporation and upon the
+stocks and bonds representing ownership in that tangible property.
+
+A number of taxation experts suggest meeting the last-named difficulty
+by exempting from taxation stocks, bonds, and other securities, and by
+imposing, instead, a tax directly upon the capitalization of the
+corporation itself. In the case of corporations which are local and of
+moderate size, this might be effected by the reform of tax laws within
+a single state. Where, on the other hand, corporations are distinctly
+interstate in character, such reform would require either a careful
+coördination of the tax laws of the several states, or a corporation
+tax which should be purely Federal in character.
+
+The first difficulty mentioned above would likewise have to be met,
+either by the coördination of state tax systems, or by allowing taxes
+on interstate corporations to be levied solely by the Federal
+government.
+
+It is claimed by some economists that the virtual impossibility of
+effectively coördinating the tax laws of the various states renders it
+imperative that all interstate corporations be taxed solely by the
+Federal government. In such a case the Federal government would be
+taxing interstate corporations partly for its own benefit, and partly
+as the agent of the various states. It is said also that such a
+Federal tax should be levied on corporations at the source, _i.e._
+upon capitalization rather than upon stocks and bonds. Being applied
+at the source, it would reach all forms of corporation wealth. It
+would be easy and economical to administer. So far as corporations are
+concerned, a purely Federal tax on interstate corporations might
+prevent both forms of double taxation.
+
+Even though the states consented to a purely Federal tax on interstate
+corporations, however, it might prove difficult for state and Federal
+governments to agree upon a fair division of the joint revenues
+derived from such a tax.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Why is the cost of government increasing?
+
+2. Name some sources of public revenue.
+
+3. What is a tax?
+
+4. What is the fundamental defect of American taxation?
+
+5. In what way is there an inadequate apportionment of taxing power to
+fiscal needs in American government?
+
+6. What is the chief difficulty of tax assessment?
+
+7. Why is it difficult to tax intangible property?
+
+8. Enumerate the fundamental defects of the general property tax.
+
+9. Distinguish between the two forms of double taxation.
+
+10. Outline some fundamental ideals in taxation.
+
+11. What are the three steps necessary in the formulation of a
+satisfactory tax system in this country?
+
+12. To what extent is the general property tax being reformed or
+abolished?
+
+13. Discuss the reform of land taxation.
+
+14. Describe the nature of the income tax.
+
+15. What are the benefits and defects of such a tax?
+
+16. Describe the inheritance tax. What are its benefits? What are its
+dangers?
+
+17. What are the two difficulties in the way of taxing corporations?
+What are some suggested methods of meeting these difficulties?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xxxii.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Bullock, _The Elements of Economics_, chapter xv.
+
+3. Ely, _Outlines of Economics_, chapter xxxiv.
+
+4. Fetter, _Modern Economic Problems_, chapter xvi.
+
+5. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States_, chapter
+xvii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Classify the purposes of public expenditures. (Guitteau, pages 187-
+188.)
+
+2. What is the "police function" of government? (Fetter, page 241).
+
+3. What is a franchise tax? (Guitteau, pages 201-202.)
+
+4. What is the "magic fund" delusion? (Bullock, page 370.)
+
+5. Distinguish between proportional, regressive, and progressive
+taxation. (Bullock, page 373.)
+
+6. What is an excess profits tax? (Bullock, pages 382-383.)
+
+7. What is the importance of the license tax? (Bullock, pages 392-
+393).
+
+8. Distinguish between direct and indirect taxation. (Ely, pages 710-
+711.)
+
+9. What are "taxes on transactions"? (Ely, pages 719-720.) 10. What is
+meant by the shifting or incidence of taxation? (Fetter, pages 252-
+253.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Make a list of enterprises supported out of public funds and
+providing services free to all, regardless of the payment of taxes.
+
+2. Discover which of the following taxes are levied in your state:
+general property tax, income tax, inheritance tax, poll tax, license
+tax, transaction tax, sales tax, luxury tax, mortgage tax, franchise
+tax, excess profits tax.
+
+3. Are tax assessors in your locality appointed or elected? Are there
+county or state boards of equalization in your state? How are these
+boards chosen?
+
+4. Interview a friendly tax assessor concerning the difficulties of
+determining property values. Does he believe that people
+systematically undervalue their own property? What proposals does he
+make for the reform of the present method of assessment?
+
+5. Interview a friendly taxpayer. What is his attitude toward the poll
+tax? the general property tax? the income tax? What proposals does he
+make for the reform of taxation in your state?
+
+6. The general property tax in your state.
+
+7. Status of the income tax in your state.
+
+8. Status of the inheritance tax in your state.
+
+9. The taxation of corporations in your state.
+
+
+II
+
+10. Federal revenues. (Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the
+United States_, chapter xxix.)
+
+11. Public expenditures. (Ely, _Outlines of Economics_, chapter
+xxxi; Seager, _Principles of Economics_, chapter xxvi; Plehn,
+_Introduction to Public Finance_, Part II, chapter i; Bullock,
+_Selected Articles on Public Finance_, chapter iii; Ford, _The Cost
+of Our National Government_.)
+
+12. The power of Congress to tax. (Young, _The New American
+Government and its Work_, chapter v; Beard, _American Government and
+Politics_, chapter xiii.)
+
+13. Taxation in American cities. (_Annals_, vol. xxviii, pages 155-
+172.)
+
+14. Personal taxes. (Fetter, _Modern Economic Problems_, chapter
+xviii.)
+
+15. The poll tax. (Bullock, _Selected Articles on Public Finance_,
+chapter x.)
+
+16. Breakdown of the general property tax. (Taussig, _Principles of
+Economics_, vol. ii, chapter lxix.)
+
+17. Protection against improper state taxation. (Young, _The New
+American Government and its Work_, chapter xxv.)
+
+18. Double taxation. (Seligman, _Essays in Taxation_, chapter iv.)
+
+19. The corporation tax. (Seligman, _Essays in Taxation_, chapters vi
+and vii.)
+
+20. Separation of state and local revenues. (Seligman, _Essays in
+Taxation_, chapter xi; Bullock, _Selected Articles on Public Finance_,
+pages 445-460.)
+
+21. Excises. (Plehn, _Introduction to Public Finance_, chapter vi.)
+
+22. Customs duties. (Plehn, _Introduction to Public Finance_, chapter
+vii.)
+
+23. The excess profits tax. (_Annals_, vol. lxxvii, pages 147-159.)
+
+24. The incidence of taxation. (Plehn, _Introduction to Public
+Finance_, chapter xi.)
+
+25. Financing the United States in the World War. (Plehn,
+_Introduction to Public Finance_, Part iv; _Annals_, vol. lxxvii,
+all.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+26. As a principle of taxation, which is more important, the payment
+of taxes according to the benefit derived, or payment according to
+ability?
+
+27. What is the remedy when individuals conceal from the tax
+authorities the amount of their intangible wealth?
+
+28. Does the income tax constitute an undue interference in the
+private affairs of the individual?
+
+29. To what extent does the inheritance tax tend to discourage the
+accumulation of wealth?
+
+30. To what extent should the poor be taxed?
+
+31. Can the adequate taxation of corporations be secured without
+resorting to a corporation tax which shall be purely Federal in
+character?
+
+32. Should the national debt be paid? (See Bullock, _Selected Articles
+on Public Finance,_ chapter xxiv.)
+
+
+
+
+B. MAKING GOVERNMENT EFFECTIVE
+
+CHAPTER XXXIII
+
+WHO SHALL SHARE IN GOVERNMENT?
+
+
+408. DISTINCTION BETWEEN CITIZENSHIP AND THE SUFFRAGE.--Citizenship
+implies membership in a nation. A citizen owes allegiance to his
+government, and in return is entitled to the fundamental advantages of
+organized government, such as the protection of life, liberty and
+property at home and abroad. Suffrage, on the other hand, is the
+privilege of sharing in government by the exercise of the vote. Most
+voters are also citizens, but less than a third of the citizens of the
+United States are voters. Citizenship is determined by the Federal
+authorities, the Constitution declaring that all persons born or
+naturalized in the United States are citizens thereof. The suffrage is
+a privilege which is controlled by the individual states, subject to
+certain regulations imposed by the Federal government.
+
+409. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SUFFRAGE.--In a representative democracy such
+as the United States, the question of the suffrage is of fundamental
+importance. Public officials are agents which have been chosen to
+administer the affairs of government. Every public official in the
+United States is either chosen directly by the people, or is chosen by
+agents who themselves have been selected at the polls. The right to
+vote is thus the right to share in the control of government. And not
+only are voters making rules and regulations for their own government,
+but they are governing those citizens to whom the suffrage has not
+been extended. It is because of this double responsibility resting
+upon the American voter that a fundamental problem of effective
+government is concerned with the suffrage.
+
+410. SUFFRAGE IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES.--In
+colonial times the American suffrage was narrowly restricted. Though
+the theory that all men were free and equal was known in political
+circles, the actual conduct of government was largely in the hands of
+the propertied classes. With a few exceptions, no Negro was allowed to
+vote. As a general rule, women were also debarred from the suffrage.
+Even white adults were denied the exercise of the suffrage unless they
+could meet certain property and religious qualifications.
+
+The Declaration of Independence laid emphasis upon the principle that
+governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed.
+Nevertheless this principle was not held to apply to the internal
+politics of the American states, and so there was at this time no
+widespread feeling that all adults had an equal right to share in
+government. In an important sense, the American Revolution was fought
+to maintain the principle that England could not govern the colonies
+without their consent. But here again it should be noted that none of
+the states that won independence interpreted that principle to mean
+that all of their free adult citizens had a right to govern themselves
+through the vote. Colonial standards of suffrage were largely carried
+over into our earlier national history, and in 1789 probably less than
+five per cent of the American people were voters. Interpreted in terms
+of the suffrage, American democracy was still very narrowly
+restricted.
+
+411. SUFFRAGE AS A NATURAL RIGHT.--According to the doctrine of
+natural rights, all men are born free and equal, and are entitled to
+certain fundamental rights of which they may not be deprived. Many of
+the colonists were familiar with this theory, but not until after 1800
+did it constitute an important basis for maintaining that all adult
+white males were entitled to the suffrage. After the opening of the
+nineteenth century, however, it was more common for propertyless men
+to maintain that just as they had a natural right to life, liberty,
+and the pursuit of happiness, so they had a natural right to the
+suffrage. The principle that governments derive their just powers from
+the consent of the governed was by many interpreted to mean that men
+possessing property had no right to govern men who could not meet the
+property qualifications accompanying the suffrage. The cry of "No
+taxation without representation," was also raised in the interests of
+white adult males who paid taxes, but who were not allowed to vote.
+
+412. EXTENSION OF THE SUFFRAGE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.--During the
+first three quarters of the nineteenth century, the suffrage widened
+steadily. Religious qualifications practically disappeared before
+1850. After a long drawn out struggle most of the eastern states
+practically eliminated the property qualification from their suffrage
+laws. This change was due, in large part, to the influence of the
+doctrine of natural rights. There were additional factors, of course.
+In many places along the Atlantic seaboard, for example, the extension
+of the suffrage was somewhat in response to the influence of the
+doctrine of natural rights, but it was also partly due to the economic
+pressure exerted by the increasing number of landless laborers who
+were crowding into the manufacturing cities and towns.
+
+The extension of the suffrage during this period is closely associated
+with the development of the West. Whereas the eastern states removed
+property and religious qualifications only after a struggle, many
+western states imposed few or no restrictions upon the suffrage, but
+from the start were committed to the principle of equality at the
+polls. The doctrine that governments derive their just powers from the
+consent of the governed was popular in the West; indeed, it was here
+that the doctrine was first applied to the problem of suffrage in a
+definite and practical manner. In the more sparsely settled portions
+of the country, able-bodied men were more important than social
+distinctions and religious ties, so much so, in fact, that some of the
+western states attracted settlers by giving the vote to aliens who had
+announced their intention of becoming citizens. After the Civil War
+some of the southern states made similar advances to European
+immigrants.
+
+After the Civil War the suffrage movement was profoundly affected by
+the Negro question. The Thirteenth Amendment, adopted in 1865, had
+merely abolished slavery. In the subsequent discussion over the status
+of the Negro, some white men held that the theory of natural rights
+entitled the freed Negroes to the suffrage. This view was opposed by
+many, particularly in the South. Nevertheless, in 1868 the Fourteenth
+Amendment to the Constitution provided that any state denying any of
+its male adult citizens the right to vote might suffer a reduction in
+its congressional representation. Two years later (1870) the Fifteenth
+Amendment went a step further, and declared that the right of citizens
+of the United States to vote might not be denied or abridged on
+account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
+
+The nineteenth century also witnessed an increased interest in woman
+suffrage. The proposition was not unknown even in colonial times, but
+the earlier state constitutions and statutes had almost invariably
+excluded women from the vote. After the middle of the century the
+woman suffrage movement grew rapidly, stimulated, to a considerable
+extent, by the movement for abolition and Negro suffrage. In 1852
+Susan B. Anthony assumed leadership of the woman suffrage movement,
+and in 1875 she drafted a proposed amendment to the Federal
+Constitution which would provide for woman suffrage throughout the
+country. The territory of Wyoming had extended women full suffrage in
+1869, and a decade later the right to vote in school elections had
+been extended the women of Michigan, Minnesota, and several other
+States. By 1896 Colorado, Idaho, and Utah had extended full suffrage
+to women.
+
+413. DECLINE OF THE NATURAL RIGHTS THEORY.--During the latter half of
+the nineteenth century the doctrine of natural rights was of declining
+importance as a basis of the suffrage. The doctrine was illogical, for
+not even its most ardent advocates would go so far as to maintain that
+paupers and mental defectives had an inherent right to vote. Nor did
+anyone claim that persons under twenty-one years of age had such a
+right.
+
+As time went on, the connection between the suffrage and the doctrine
+of natural rights seemed more and more remote. Men came gradually to
+believe that the suffrage was not a right but a _privilege_, and that
+the capacity of the individual to use the vote in the public interest
+was the factor which should determine whether or not he should enjoy
+the suffrage. This changed viewpoint reflected itself in several
+important shifts in the suffrage movement.
+
+414. SHIFTS IN THE SUFFRAGE MOVEMENT.--To a considerable extent the
+decline of the doctrine of natural rights was accompanied by increased
+restrictions upon the right to vote. We have noted that many western
+and a few southern states formerly made a practice of extending the
+vote to aliens who had announced their intention of becoming citizens.
+After the seventies there was a tendency for such states to withdraw
+this privilege, and to make citizenship a prerequisite to voting. One
+reason for this changed attitude was that as time went on immigrant
+labor was less in demand in the West and South. Still another factor,
+however, was the abuse of the ballot among unassimilated immigrant
+groups in our cities.
+
+After the middle of the nineteenth century, there was a growing
+feeling, originating in New England and spreading westward, that
+illiterate voters were a menace to sound government. Accordingly,
+educational tests were imposed in a number of states. These tests
+generally require voters to be able to read and write.
+
+The enfranchisement of the Negro was followed by reaction. The
+exercise of the suffrage by ignorant Negroes suddenly admitted to full
+suffrage, resulted in gross abuses of political power. As a result
+many southern states eventually passed laws which virtually deny the
+vote to the larger part of the possible Negro electorate. In some
+cases white election officials administer the educational test so
+strictly as to exclude most Negroes. In other cases a property or poll
+tax qualification has been used to exclude large groups of shiftless
+Negroes. In still other cases a "grandfather clause" in the state
+constitution exempts from the educational test all who are descendants
+of persons voting before the Civil War. This allows white illiterates
+to vote, but excludes illiterate Negroes.
+
+On the other hand, the cause of woman suffrage was greatly stimulated
+by the decline of the doctrine of natural rights and the rise of the
+theory that civic capacity should determine the suffrage. Particularly
+after 1900 did the agitation take on national importance. A national
+Woman Suffrage Association was organized, and powerful pressure was
+brought to bear upon persons of political influence. Between 1910 and
+1912 Washington, California, Oregon, Kansas, and Arizona were won to
+the cause of woman suffrage. Finally in August, 1920, the amendment
+which Miss Anthony had drafted in 1875 was ratified and declared in
+force. Women are now allowed the vote on the same terms as men.
+
+415. PRESENT RESTRICTIONS ON THE RIGHT TO VOTE.--The suffrage in the
+several states at the present time may be summarized as follows:
+
+In every state voters must be at least 21 years of age. In a few
+states the vote is extended to aliens who have declared their
+intention of becoming citizens. In every state a period of residence
+is required of voters, the usual period being between six months and a
+year. Educational qualifications are imposed in about a third of the
+states. A number of southern and a few northern states require voters
+to be assessed for a poll tax. In practically every state such
+abnormal persons as the feeble-minded, the insane, paupers in
+institutions, and certain types of criminals are excluded from the
+suffrage. Untaxed Indians, and foreign-born Chinese and Japanese do
+not enjoy the suffrage.
+
+416. PRESENT STATUS OF THE SUFFRAGE MOVEMENT.--The suffrage movement
+has steadily increased the number of potential voters until at the
+present time there are more than 30,000,000 persons in the United
+States who are entitled to the vote. The important groups of the adult
+population have been enfranchised, but the suffrage movement still
+involves important problems. In view of our changing attitude toward
+the suffrage we face four unanswered questions:
+
+First, should the present restrictions on the suffrage be lowered?
+Second, should they be made more severe? Third, in view of the fact
+that naturalization automatically makes voters of many individuals, to
+what extent ought the grant of citizenship to be determined by the
+individual's promise as a voter? Fourth, what should be our attitude
+toward Negro suffrage?
+
+Let us summarize the fundamental considerations which must be borne in
+mind in discussing the four problems suggested above. This done, we
+may briefly consider the most pressing of these questions, _i.e._ that
+involving Negro suffrage.
+
+417. THE SUFFRAGE IS A PRIVILEGE AND NOT RIGHT.--The significance of
+the difference between citizenship and the suffrage should be clearly
+understood. Citizenship is a fundamental matter. In return for
+allegiance to his government, the citizen may be considered as being
+entitled to that measure of protection which is deemed necessary to
+his safety and well-being. But though we speak loosely of the "right"
+of suffrage, the suffrage is a privilege, not a right. The individual
+cannot claim it as a corollary of citizenship. Nor does mere residence
+in a democratic country entitle the individual to the ballot. The
+safety and well-being of the citizen are not necessarily dependent
+upon his exercise of the vote. Indeed, incapable persons may be better
+off if they are excluded from the suffrage, provided, of course, that
+the voting class holds itself responsible for the government of the
+excluded groups. Fitness alone justifies the suffrage.
+
+418. WHAT CONSTITUTES FITNESS?--The ballot cannot be exercised by the
+unfit without endangering the whole fabric of government. But what is
+the standard of fitness? The history of the suffrage in the United
+States throws some light upon this question. In colonial times the
+plea of the propertied classes was that fitness was primarily a matter
+of racial origin, the ownership of property, or church affiliation.
+According to the theory of natural rights, fitness was vaguely
+associated with manhood and citizenship. More recently we have come to
+believe that while many factors influence the capacity of the voter,
+such factors as religion, racial origin, and ownership of substantial
+amounts of property, are not vital. A definite standard of fitness has
+never been established, but at least we can say that fitness means
+both the desire and the capacity to serve the state by an honest and
+intelligent use of the ballot.
+
+419. THE QUESTION OF NEGRO SUFFRAGE.--We are beginning to suspect that
+the attention attracted by Negro suffrage is due, not so much to the
+injustice of disfranchising the Negro as to the spectacular
+circumstances surrounding the American Negro. It is unjust, of course,
+to exclude the Negro from the vote merely because of his race. But
+exclusion of Negroes not qualified to make an intelligent use of the
+ballot is no more unfair than are the educational tests imposed by
+many northern states. To exclude illiterate Negroes from the vote, and
+at the same time to allow illiterate whites the ballot, is, on the
+other hand, manifestly unfair. But far more productive of good than
+debating this unfairness is the attempt to fit the Negro for the vote
+as a prerequisite to his exercise of it. During this preparation the
+Negro should have before him the incentive of securing the ballot when
+he has made sufficient progress in education and civic responsibility.
+
+420. PROBLEM OF AN INTELLIGENT ELECTORATE.--The problem of building up
+an intelligent electorate gives rise to two additional questions:
+First, how may the enfranchised classes be trained to a full
+realization of their civic responsibilities? Second, to what extent is
+intelligent voting dependent upon actual exercise of the suffrage? The
+first question has been treated elsewhere, and we may close this
+chapter with a brief consideration of the second question.
+
+It is maintained by some that no one should be admitted to the
+suffrage who has not first demonstrated his capacity to use the vote
+intelligently. Others reply that this capacity comes only through
+actual exercise of the vote. The solution of this problem probably
+lies in a judicious combination of theory and practice. A boy cannot
+learn to swim by standing on the bank and forever listening to
+theoretical instruction; on the other hand, it may prove fatal to push
+him into deep water without preparation for that step. Instruction and
+practice must go hand in hand, wisely interwoven and harmonized.
+
+Similarly, it would seem, one way to secure an intelligent electorate
+is to admit individuals to the suffrage only when they demonstrate a
+minimum capacity for civic service, but at the same time to recognize
+that _full_ moral development can come only through actual exercise of
+the vote.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Distinguish between citizenship and the suffrage.
+
+2. Why is the suffrage important in a representative democracy?
+
+3. Discuss the suffrage in colonial times.
+
+4. What was the probable extent of the suffrage in 1789?
+
+5. What is the doctrine of natural rights?
+
+6. How was this doctrine applied to the question of the suffrage?
+
+7. Why was the suffrage in the eastern states widened in the
+nineteenth century?
+
+8. Discuss the suffrage in the new West.
+
+9. Describe the enfranchisement of the Negro.
+
+10. Outline the early development of the woman suffrage movement.
+
+11. Discuss the decline of the natural rights theory.
+
+12. Outline some recent shifts in the suffrage movement.
+
+13. Enumerate the present restrictions on the right to vote.
+
+14. What is the present status of the suffrage movement?
+
+15. What is meant by saying that the suffrage is a privilege and not a
+right?
+
+16. What is meant by saying that "fitness" is the basis of the
+suffrage?
+
+17. What can be said as to the question of Negro suffrage?
+
+18. To what extent does intelligent voting depend upon actual exercise
+of the ballot?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy,_ chapter xxxiii.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Beard, _American Citizenship,_ chapter vi.
+
+3. Cleveland, _Organized Democracy,_ chapters x and xii.
+
+4. Porter, _A History of Suffrage in the United States,_ chapter i.
+
+5. Seymour, _How the World Votes,_ vol. i, chapters i and ii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. What is the relation of political to civil liberty? (Beard, pages
+64-65.)
+
+2. Name some groups of people who were excluded from the suffrage in
+colonial times. (Porter, page 5.)
+
+3. What were some of the early arguments for giving propertyless men
+the vote? (Beard, pages 66-67.)
+
+4. What was Dorr's Rebellion? (Beard, page 69.)
+
+5. What is the significance of the "foreign vote"? (Beard, pages 73-
+74.)
+
+6. What are the four theories of suffrage? (Seymour, pages 1-2.)
+
+7. In what form did the suffrage enter the American colonies?
+(Seymour, page 9.)
+
+8. What theory of suffrage supplanted the theory of natural rights?
+(Seymour, pages 13-14.)
+
+9. What effect has the suffrage upon the individual? (Seymour, pages
+15-16.)
+
+10. Discuss the educational test. (Cleveland, pages 172-174.)
+
+11. To what extent is bearing arms against the country a
+disqualification for voting? (Cleveland, page 176.)
+
+12. What is the purpose of compulsory voting? (Cleveland, pages 176-
+178.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Civil rights guaranteed by the constitution of your state.
+
+2. History of woman suffrage in your state.
+
+3. Citizenship as a prerequisite for voting in your state.
+
+4. Present restrictions on the right to vote in your state.
+
+5. List the groups or classes of people in your community who are not
+allowed to vote. What is the proportion of these classes to the total
+population of the community? What per cent of these excluded classes
+are aliens? What is the basis for exclusion in each case? Would you
+favor the extension of the vote to any of these groups? Explain.
+
+
+II
+
+6. Colonial suffrage. (McKinley, _The Suffrage Franchise in the
+Thirteen English Colonies in America_; Cleveland, _Organized
+Democracy_, chapter x.)
+
+7. Dorr's Rebellion. (Consult any standard text on American history or
+an encyclopedia.)
+
+8. Suffrage and the frontier. (Seymour, _How the World Votes_, vol. i,
+chapter xi.)
+
+9. Property and tax-paying qualifications in the nineteenth century.
+(Porter, _A History of Suffrage in the United States_, chapters ii-
+iv.)
+
+10. Woman suffrage in the nineteenth century. (Consult Porter,
+Seymour, or the _Cyclopedia of American Government_. [Footnote:
+Throughout the remainder of this text the student will find it to his
+advantage to make frequent use of the _Cyclopedia of American
+Government_, edited, in three volumes, by A. C. McLaughlin and A. B.
+Hart. N.Y. 1914. Appleton and Company. This cyclopedia will furnish
+considerable material for students seeking either general information
+on political subjects, or special information for topic work. ])
+
+11. History of the Nineteenth Amendment. (Consult American Yearbooks,
+and also newspaper files for August, 1920.)
+
+12. Effect of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments upon the
+suffrage. (Kaye, _Readings in Civil Government_, pages 113-116.)
+
+13. Negro suffrage. (Consult an encyclopedia, or any standard work on
+American government.)
+
+14. Types of individuals who are excluded from the suffrage.
+(Cleveland, _Organized Democracy_, chapter xii.)
+
+15. Duties of the American voter. (Forman, _The American Democracy_,
+pages 14-15.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+16. To what extent is the doctrine of natural rights still influential
+in American political discussions?
+
+17. Do you favor an amendment to the Federal Constitution, providing
+that no state may extend the suffrage to persons who are not citizens
+of the United States?
+
+18. How long should a potential voter be required to live in a state
+before being allowed to exercise the ballot?
+
+19. To what extent does the educational test show the fitness of the
+individual to make the right use of his vote?
+
+20. Should all convicted criminals be denied the vote during the
+remainder of their lives?
+
+21. Just what constitutes fitness for the suffrage?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIV
+
+THE POLITICAL PARTY
+
+
+421. NATURE OF THE POLITICAL PARTY.--A political party may be defined
+as a voluntary association of voters, entered into for the purpose of
+influencing elections to public office. The individuals comprising a
+party have certain broad political principles in common, and these
+they seek, by organized effort, to have applied to actual government.
+Just as individuals differ on matters of business or religion, so it
+is human nature for the voters of a community to form varying opinions
+as to the nature, functions, and methods of government. And just as
+men tend to draw away from those with whose opinions they do not
+agree, so they tend to draw toward those with whom they are in
+agreement, and with whose coöperation they may advance principles of
+mutual interest. It is this natural tendency of men, first, to differ
+with one another, and second, to form associations for the advancement
+of mutual aims, that has led to the formation of political parties.
+
+422. DEVELOPMENT OF PARTIES IN THE UNITED STATES.--The American
+political party is older than the nation. Differences of political
+opinion divided the American colonists into Whigs and Tories. Later,
+party spirit was manifested in the formation of the Revolutionary
+committees of correspondence. The struggle over the Constitution of
+1787 divided men into Federalists and Anti-Federalists. The question
+of a broad or a strict construction of the constitution, the tariff,
+and the problem of slavery in the territories,--these are a few of the
+great national issues that have influenced party lines. Before the
+Civil War party spirit had extended to all parts of the country,
+evidencing itself in a number of party organizations. Many of these
+organizations proved temporary, but since the Civil War party lines
+have been relatively fixed. For more than a half century there have
+been two great parties, the Democratic and the Republican. Third
+parties have been either temporary or relatively unimportant.
+
+423. PARTY ORGANIZATION.--There is no constitutional basis or
+provision for American political parties, nevertheless each of the
+great parties has built up a powerful organization which coördinates
+party members in every part of the country. In practically every
+township, village, election district, and city ward there are party
+agents and local committees whose work it is to promote the interests
+of the party both at election time and between elections. The local
+party workers constitute a link between individual voters and the
+county or State committees, while these latter groups in turn connect
+with the national committee of the party.
+
+It is the work of all those officially connected with this centralized
+organization to win adherents to the party standard, to place issues
+before the voters, to stimulate interest in candidates, to organize
+meetings and clubs, to collect funds for party support, to secure the
+registration of voters, and to see that they get to the polls. Party
+opinion is formed by means of personal contacts, campaign literature,
+speeches, parades, and every manner of propaganda. Party opinion is
+formally expressed through the caucus, the primary, the convention,
+and the regular election. (See Sections 435-438.)
+
+424. SERVICES PERFORMED BY THE POLITICAL PARTY.--The political party
+performs three great services. [Footnote: The following arrangement of
+the services of the political party was suggested to me by Professor
+W. B. Munro, of Harvard University. For a fuller discussion see
+Chapter XXII of his _The Government of the United States_, The
+Macmillan Company, New York, 1919.]
+
+The first of these is that the party provides machinery which bridges
+over the gaps between local, state, and National government.
+Similarly, it often serves to bring the executive, legislative, and
+judicial branches of government into harmony with one another. The
+check and balance system so divides authority in American government
+that in many ways the different branches and divisions of government
+are uncoördinated. The party facilitates the working of American
+government because party members affiliated with one division of
+government will tend to coöperate with members of the same party who
+may be in control of other divisions of government. For example, a
+Democratic governor tends to coöperate with the Democratic members of
+the state legislature. Similarly, a Republican President will tend to
+work in harmony with those members of his party who are in control of
+purely state government.
+
+The second great service performed by the party is that it formulates
+public issues and presents them in concrete shape to the voters. Just
+as in industry it is the function of the entrepreneur to coördinate
+the other factors of production, so in government it is the function
+of the politician to act as a coördinator. Indeed, President Lowell
+calls the politician a broker, without whose services popular
+government would be impossible. If voters went to the polls with no
+previous agreement as to candidates or issues, but each determined to
+vote for whomever he liked, thousands of names might be found on the
+ballot. If a majority were required to elect, no individual would be
+chosen. The party thus performs a valuable service by formulating
+those principles which will attract the greatest number of voters, and
+by definitely associating those principles with particular candidates.
+These issues and these candidates the party places squarely before the
+electorate, to the exclusion of minor issues and unimportant
+candidates. The party is thus a means whereby democracy makes up its
+mind, and expresses that mind with a minimum of confusion and
+disorder.
+
+The third great service of the political party is that it provides a
+means of collective and continuing responsibility in politics. If a
+candidate were not affiliated with any political party, misbehavior in
+office might result in his removal or in his failure to secure
+reëlection. But here responsibility would end. When, on the other
+hand, the party selects, supports, and vouches for a candidate, the
+party constitutes a definite and permanent pledge to the voters. Thus
+the party is stimulated to select its candidates carefully, lest their
+incompetence or dishonesty fatally injure the reputation of the party.
+The past exploits of the party are appropriated for future campaigns;
+conversely, the failure or misbehavior of an officeholder will be
+pointed out by his political enemies as typical of the party to which
+the unfortunate man belongs.
+
+425. THE ABUSE OF PARTY POWER.--Though party government confers
+substantial benefits, it is likewise true that the power of the
+political party has been frequently abused. American party
+organizations sprang up silently, and developed largely without legal
+control. Increased power has been accompanied by diffused
+responsibility; increased power and diffused responsibility have led
+to the abuse of power. The evils of the party are numerous, and only
+those of fundamental importance can be discussed in this text. Some of
+these evils will appear in successive chapters; a few may be treated
+here. In every case, it should be borne in mind, the basic defect of
+party government is that the party has tended to use its power
+primarily for private rather than public ends.
+
+426. CAMPAIGN CONTRIBUTIONS.--Throughout much of our national history
+one of the great evils of the political party has had to do with
+contributions to the campaign fund. A few decades ago it was the
+custom of parties, not only to accept large sums of money from special
+interests, but actually to demand substantial contributions from
+railroad and other corporations on pain of unfriendly legislation when
+the party got into power. In our cities gambling houses and other
+vicious interests habitually contributed to the campaign fund of the
+party, with the understanding that the party so supported would, if
+successful at the polls, protect these unlawful businesses. Large
+amounts were also secured from officeholders who feared to incur the
+ill will of the party by refusing to contribute to the campaign fund.
+The enormous sums got together from these various sources were used to
+finance election contests, the peak being reached when in the
+presidential election of 1896 the Republican party is said to have
+spent more than $7,000,000. The source of most of this sum was unknown
+to the general public.
+
+Fortunately, recent legislation has remedied a considerable measure of
+the evils attending unrestricted contributions to the campaign fund.
+Laws now prohibit party agents from seeking contributions from the
+holders of Federal civil service offices. In 1910 and 1911 Congress
+passed Acts providing that a candidate for Representative to Congress
+may not expend more than $5000 toward his election, while a United
+States Senator may not spend more than $10,000 for a similar purpose.
+Other laws specify the purposes for which campaign money may be spent.
+In presidential and congressional elections the treasurer of the
+national committee of each party must now report the entire campaign
+fund contributed and expended, giving the name of every individual
+contributing over $1000, and also furnishing an itemized statement of
+all expenditures over $10. This report is filed with the clerk of the
+House of Representatives, and is open to the public.
+
+There can be no doubt but that these and similar laws have operated to
+deprive the campaign fund of many of its illegitimate features. Most
+of the money now expended by parties is secured from a large number of
+small contributions. This not only lessens the control of party
+policies by special interests, but it also serves to make the party
+more responsible to the rank and file of the organization.
+
+427. PARTY DOMINATION OF NOMINATIONS AND ELECTIONS.--A great problem
+of party government is to prevent parties from unduly influencing the
+choice of public officials. Leaving until later the general question
+of nominations and elections, it may be pointed out here that very
+often the whole weight of party power is directed toward securing the
+election to office of candidates deemed desirable by the party
+machine. The political "boss" has consistently used his power to
+manipulate the caucus or the primary so as to advance his own
+interests at public expense. Caucuses have been held without proper
+notice being given, and party henchmen have been employed to work for
+an inside clique or ring. Formerly the rolls of party members were
+padded with the names of men dead or absent. Too often elections were
+characterized by the stuffing of ballot boxes, the intimidation or
+bribery of voters, and the practice of voting more than once. The
+effect of these and similar practices has been to thwart the will of
+the majority of party members, and to elevate self-interest above the
+general welfare.
+
+The last few decades of American political history have been
+characterized by a number of laws designed to safeguard the process of
+nomination and election. In practically every state in the Union there
+are corrupt practices acts which aim not only to prevent the misuse of
+the campaign fund, but to control the party in other respects also. In
+all but two states registration is a prerequisite to voting. The
+introduction into this country of the Australian ballot, and its rapid
+spread among the states after 1890, has made the ballot secret. By
+preventing the intimidation of the voter, and by otherwise
+safeguarding his rights at the polls, ballot reform has remedied many
+abuses which formerly resulted in illegal and unrepresentative
+elections. Bribery and illegal voting are no longer glaring evils. It
+is now the general practice for state laws to provide definite polling
+places, and to guard the receiving and counting of the ballots.
+
+428. THE SPOILS SYSTEM.--During the first forty years of our national
+life it was taken for granted that subordinate executive officials
+should continue in office during good behavior, regardless of a change
+of administration. After President Jackson's first term, however, it
+became the general practice for the incoming party to use offices to
+reward party supporters. Senator Marcy's original declaration that "to
+the victor belongs the spoils," was accepted by both Democratic and
+Republican parties. Each party, upon coming into power, habitually
+turned out appointive officials placed in office by the opposition
+party. The positions thus made vacant were filled by individuals from
+the ranks of the victorious party.
+
+The spoils system is a serious evil for which party spirit must be
+held accountable. By virtue of their patronage, party leaders have
+exercised an undue influence over the rank and file of the party.
+Frequently a candidate has been named for office, not because he
+possessed marked capacity for public service, but because he showed
+promise of being a good vote-getter at election time. Very frequently,
+therefore, officeholders have secured their positions as the reward of
+party support, rather than because of merit. The spoils system has
+encouraged the holders of executive offices to pay more attention to
+the political fortunes of their party than to their public duties.
+Knowing that with a change of administration they would probably be
+ousted to make room for the supporters of the rival party, officials
+have been tempted to use public office for personal ends.
+
+The spoils system still constitutes a defect in American government.
+Nevertheless something has been done toward eliminating its worst
+features. The Civil Service Act of 1883 provided that more than 12,000
+Federal executive offices should be filled by competitive examinations
+rather than by political appointment. The Federal Civil Service System
+has been subsequently extended until at the present time about two
+thirds of the administrative offices in the Federal government are
+filled on the merit plan. In many sections of the country the merit
+plan has also been used to fill state and municipal offices. Though as
+yet limited in scope, it would appear that the future will see a
+steady expansion of the merit plan in local and state as well as in
+the National government.
+
+The essential feature of this system, whether in local, state or
+National government, is that officeholders secure their positions on
+the basis of individual merit. In theory at least, they are little
+affected by changes of administration. Both retention of office and
+promotion are on the basis of merit, though the standards by which
+appointees are judged have not yet been perfected.
+
+429. EXTENSION OF FAVORS TO SPECIAL INTERESTS.--The tendency of the
+political party to extend special favors to private corporations has
+constituted a serious evil in American politics. In some instances
+powerful corporations have corrupted party politics; in other cases
+party organizations have blackmailed corporations under the threat of
+unfriendly legislation; in many other cases both party and
+corporations have been to blame. In every case, however, the essential
+fact is that often the party has been used for the advancement of
+special interests rather than to promote the general welfare.
+Unfavorable legislation has been bought off and favorable laws secured
+by trusts, public service corporations, and other large industrial
+interests. Exemption from prosecution has been purchased by gambling
+houses and other illegal businesses. Public service corporations have
+secured valuable franchises for inadequate consideration. Contracts
+for paving and other public works have many times been awarded, not to
+firms offering the best work at the lowest price, but to incompetent
+or dishonest corporations. Such contracts have been secured by these
+corporations because of favoritism shown them by political henchmen
+holding office under the spoils system.
+
+Notable headway has been made in checking these evils. The regulation
+of the railroads by the Interstate Commerce Commission renders it
+difficult for railroad corporations unduly to influence party
+policies. Anti-trust legislation has similarly checked the political
+activities of other great industrial combinations. There is a growing
+tendency for states to pass laws forbidding or restricting the
+maintenance of lobbies in legislative halls. Many recent state
+constitutions narrowly restrict the franchise-granting power. Corrupt
+practices acts forbid party contributions from corporations. The Civil
+Service System renders less easy the unfair award of government
+contracts to private corporations.
+
+430. DECLINE OF PARTY ABUSES.--It is clear that the development of
+party government in this country has been attended by important
+benefits and serious evils. But the best authorities agree that the
+merits of the party system outweigh its defects. Hence our problem is
+not how to destroy the system, but how to regulate it so that we may
+secure the benefit of its services and avoid the evil results of its
+defects. The experience of the last half century is heartening, and it
+must be admitted, not only that party abuses have declined, but that
+there is good reason to believe that they will continue to decline. In
+our attitude toward the political party we must distinguish, as Burke
+distinguished, between the legitimate form of the party and its
+perverted form. The perverted forms of party organization call for
+censure and attack; the legitimate features of the party deserve our
+appreciation and support.
+
+431. DUTY OF PARTY SUPPORT.--Parties seem to be inevitable, for no one
+has yet shown how representative government can be carried on without
+them. Since the average voter cannot make his influence felt except
+through organization and mass action, it is, as a rule, as futile for
+the individual to cast his vote regardless of party affiliations as it
+is for a soldier to fight without regard for army discipline and
+organization. Parties are the result of compromises, and the
+individual must be willing to shelve minor issues for the sake of
+uniting with his fellows upon vital issues. Ordinarily, the individual
+will best perform his civic duties by affiliating himself with some
+political party.
+
+But we are coming to believe that the necessity of party support in
+National and state elections does not imply that party support is
+necessary in local elections. In National politics each party
+generally has a definite policy with regard to taxation, the tariff,
+armaments, and other debatable issues. Support of the party for the
+realization of its program on these matters may be justifiable; on the
+other hand, loyalty to party in local politics may be an evil. There
+is no Democratic way of cleaning a street, and no Republican method of
+fighting a fire. Thus the same citizen who may be under a moral
+obligation to support some party in National and state politics, may
+be under a similar obligation to make his choice of local candidates
+independent of party. A desirable development, in this regard, is the
+recent tendency for some municipal elections to be decided regardless
+of the party affiliations of the candidates.
+
+432. INTEGRITY IS ABOVE PARTY.--Young people are commonly advised to
+affiliate themselves with that political party which seems most
+adequately to express their political ideals. But though this is a
+method of conserving political energy, no citizen ought to support a
+party which has ceased to represent him on matters which he considers
+of vital importance. When the party machine sets itself up as an end
+rather than a means, and when it emphasizes gain to a few rather than
+benefits to the party as a whole, then it is time for honest men to
+abandon their party. Integrity is above party. The slogan, "My party
+right or wrong" is not only stupid but treasonable. Let the citizen be
+eager to coöperate with his fellows for the advancement of common
+political views, but let the corrupt party be abandoned.
+
+433. RESPONSIBILITY OF THE INDIVIDUAL FOR PARTY ABUSES.--Nothing
+could be more mistaken than the belief that defective government is
+due primarily to the existence of an entity known as the political
+party. The party is merely an association of individuals, and if it is
+corrupt it is so because of the corruption of the individuals
+comprising it. It is time that political pessimists stopped blaming
+the party for the defects of party government, and time they began to
+see that the indifference and shortsightedness of the individual voter
+is at the bottom of the trouble. One of the greatest sources of
+corruption in American life is the knowledge of political bosses that
+many of their adherents will follow the party standard regardless of
+its platform and no matter what the character of its candidates. The
+party boss is given an opening when individuals neglect to perform
+their civic duties. The failure to vote, or to serve in office when
+the opportunity offers, the failure either to protest against
+candidates chosen unfairly, or to demand an accounting of
+officeholders, spell corruption and inefficiency in government.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Define a political party. Why have parties arisen?
+
+2. Trace briefly the development of parties in the United States.
+
+3. Outline the organization of a political party.
+
+4. Explain clearly the three great benefits of party organization.
+
+5. What is the basic defect of party government?
+
+6. What can be said as to contributions to the campaign fund of
+political parties?
+
+7. Name some methods whereby the party boss may dominate nominations
+and elections. Outline some laws designed to safeguard nominations and
+elections.
+
+8. What is the spoils system and when did it arise?
+
+9. What effect has the merit plan had upon the spoils system?
+
+10. Are party abuses declining or increasing?
+
+11. Distinguish between the duty of party support in National and
+perhaps State elections, and the duty of such support in local
+elections.
+
+12. Under what circumstances should an individual abandon his party?
+
+13. To what extent is the individual responsible for party abuses?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xxxiv.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Bryce, _Modern Democracies_, vol. i, chapter ii; vol. ii, chapter
+xl.
+
+3. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States_, chapter
+xxxvi.
+
+4. Munro, _The Government of the United States_, chapters xxii and
+xxiii.
+
+5. Woodburn, _Political Parties and Party Problems_, chapter xv.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. What was Washington's opinion of the political party? (Munro, page
+313.)
+
+2. Who were the Federalists? (Guitteau, pages 455-456.)
+
+3. Discuss the principles of the Democratic-Republican party.
+(Guitteau, pages 456-457.)
+
+4. What was the origin of the National-Republican party? (Guitteau,
+pages 457-458.)
+
+5. What was the origin of the Democratic party? (Guitteau, page 457.)
+
+6. What part have third parties played in our history? (Guitteau,
+pages 459-460.)
+
+7. What three sets of men exist in every party? (Bryce, vol. i, pages
+126-127.)
+
+8. What are the three contributions of the United States to political
+science? (Bryce, vol. ii, page 27.)
+
+9. What are the two aims of party organization? (Bryce, vol. ii, page
+32.)
+
+10. What is the relation of the party to national unity? (Bryce, vol.
+ii, pages 43-44-)
+
+11. In what way does the party stabilize popular government? (Bryce,
+vol. ii, pages 44-45.)
+
+12. What is the relation of constancy and faithfulness to the safety
+of the Republic? (Woodburn, page 338.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Which party occupies the dominant position in the political life of
+your community? Find out why it holds this position.
+
+2. The history of third parties in your section, _i.e._, parties other
+than the Democratic and Republican parties.
+
+3. The organization of any political party having official
+representatives in your community.
+
+4. The work of local political committees in your community
+immediately preceding election.
+
+5. Corrupt practices acts in your state.
+
+6. The Civil Service System in your state.
+
+7. Make a study of the different political parties with a view to
+determining which you would prefer to join.
+
+
+II
+
+8. Origin and growth of parties in the United States. (Beard,
+_American Government and Politics_, pages 103-108; Guitteau,
+_Government and Politics in the United States_, chapter xxxvi; Bryce,
+_The American Commonwealth_, vol. ii, chapters liii and liv; Ford,
+_The Rise and Growth of American Politics_, chapter vii.)
+
+9. Characteristics of the political party. (Ray, _Introduction to
+Political Parties and Practical Politics_, chapter i.)
+
+10. Distrust of parties in our early history. (Jones, _Readings on
+Parties and Elections in the United States_, pages 28 36.)
+
+11. The spoils system. (Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_, vol. ii,
+chapters lxv and lxvii; Ray, _Introduction to Political Parties and
+Practical Politics_, chapter xiv.)
+
+12. "Why the best men do not go into politics." (Bryce, _The American
+Commonwealth_, vol. ii, chapter lviii.)
+
+13. Campaign contributions. (Brooks, _Corruption in American Politics
+and Life_.)
+
+14. The party ring. (Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_, vol. ii,
+chapters lxiii and lxiv.)
+
+15. The state boss. (Reinsch, _Readings on American State Government_,
+pages 432-434; Ray, _Introduction to Political Parties and Practical
+Politics_, chapter xvi.)
+
+16. How the party machine works. (Ford, _The Rise and Growth of
+American Politics_, pages 294-333; Kaye, _Readings in Civil
+Governments_, pages 373-377; Jones, _Readings on Parties and
+Elections in the United States_, pages 175-178; Lowell, _Public
+Opinion and Popular Government,_ chapter vi.)
+
+17. Party government in England and in the United States. (Jones,
+_Readings on Parties and Elections in the United States_, pages I-II.)
+
+18. Necessity of strong parties in the United States. (Jones,
+_Readings on Parties and Elections in the United States_, pages 20-
+27.)
+
+19. The struggle for good government. (Hammond and Jenks, _Great
+American Issues_, chapter v.)
+
+20. The citizen and the party. (Bryce, _Hindrances to Good
+Citizenship_, all; _Hughes, _Conditions of Progress in Democratic
+Government_, lectures in and iv; Root, _Addressee on Government and
+Citizenship_, pages 1-77.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+21. Do third parties serve a useful purpose?
+
+22. Should we pass laws limiting the total amount which any political
+candidate may spend in the campaign for nomination and election?
+
+23. What are the advantages and disadvantages of placing party emblems
+at the head of ballots?
+
+24. To what extent will civic education remedy the evils of the spoils
+system?
+
+25. How will you determine which party you prefer to affiliate with,
+when you become of age?
+
+26. How would you determine whether or not an individual ought to
+abandon his party? Suppose that an individual has severed connections
+with a party which he had reason to suppose was corrupt. Under what
+circumstances should he return to the ranks of that party?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXV
+
+CHOOSING THE AGENTS OF GOVERNMENT
+
+
+434. THE PROBLEM.--In an important sense, good government is a matter
+of getting the right men into office, hence one of the most vital
+problems in American democracy has to do with the choice of public
+officials. In any representative democracy nominations and elections
+must be a difficult and complex matter; in the United States the
+problem is rendered doubly difficult by the great size of the country,
+and by the rapidity with which its population is increasing. In this
+country hundreds of thousands of public officials are placed in office
+annually, all of them either elected at the polls, or chosen by agents
+who are themselves elected.
+
+The problem before us involves four questions: First, how can we
+perfect the mechanism by means of which the officers of government are
+selected? Second, how can we elect officials who represent a
+_majority_, rather than a _plurality_ [Footnote: See Section 444.], of
+those actually voting? Third, how can voters be helped to make
+intelligent choices at the polls? Fourth, how can we encourage
+qualified voters to make an habitual use of the ballot?
+
+435. NOMINATION BY CAUCUS.--One of the earliest methods of choosing
+party candidates in this country was by means of the caucus. The
+caucus was an informal meeting in which the local members of a
+political party nominated candidates for town and county offices.
+Candidates for state offices were named by a legislative caucus, in
+which legislators belonging to the same party came together and
+determined their respective nominations. The legislative caucus spread
+to all of the states, and in 1800 was transferred to Congress as a
+mode of nominating the President and Vice-President.
+
+After 1825 the caucus declined in importance. In the lawmaking
+bodies of both nation and states there continues to be a legislative
+caucus, but its influence upon the choice of public officials has
+greatly diminished. Outside of the state and National legislatures the
+caucus is now found only in towns, wards, and other small areas. In
+these areas it is used for the purpose of nominating candidates for
+local offices, and for the purpose of electing delegates to nominating
+conventions. Except in some parts of New England, it should be noted,
+this local caucus is now generally known as the primary.
+
+436. RISE OF THE NOMINATING CONVENTION.--After 1825 the caucus was
+largely superseded by the convention. The convention is a relatively
+large meeting of party delegates chosen for the express purpose of
+deciding upon party policies and candidates. The convention device was
+developed, partly because party bosses had come to dominate the
+caucus, and partly because the increasing population of the country
+necessitated larger congregations of party members. The convention was
+made possible by improved means of transportation, which allowed
+relatively large groups of individuals to come together for
+deliberative purposes. By 1850 all of the political parties had
+adopted the convention plan for the nomination of candidates for most
+local, state, and National offices.
+
+437. DECLINE OF THE CONVENTION.--The convention was an improvement
+upon the caucus in that it allowed a greater number of party members
+to participate in nominations. Unfortunately, delegates to the
+convention continued to be chosen in local caucuses, where the party
+"ring" or machine usually determined the choice of delegates. Bosses
+prepared "slates," bribed delegates, and otherwise manipulated what
+was supposed to be an expression of the party will in convention. In
+many cases the convention became-merely a cut-and-dried affair in
+which party members ratified nominations previously agreed upon by
+party leaders.
+
+In the latter part of the nineteenth century, and especially after
+1900, these defects stimulated the development of measures designed to
+reduce or eliminate the abuses of the convention system. The most
+important of these reform measures is the Direct Primary.
+
+438. NATURE OF THE DIRECT PRIMARY.--The terms caucus, primary, and
+direct primary are easily confused. We have seen that the local caucus
+is now generally known as the primary. The essential difference
+between this caucus or primary and the Direct Primary is this: in the
+Direct Primary, party members vote directly for the party's candidates
+at the forthcoming election; in the caucus or primary, on the other
+hand, party members do not vote directly for the more important of
+these candidates, but instead vote for delegates to a convention.
+Later these delegates meet in convention and there vote directly for
+party candidates. Thus the Direct Primary is really an election within
+the party, held for the purpose of allowing party members to choose
+the candidates who will represent the party at the approaching regular
+election. When adopted, the Direct Primary abolishes the convention by
+allowing party members to cast their ballots directly for their
+party's candidates. Those individuals are nominated who receive a
+plurality of all votes cast.
+
+In most states the Direct Primary has recently been placed under
+detailed legal control. Such laws generally prescribe the time and
+place of holding the Direct Primary, the qualifications of those who
+may participate, and the organization and general management of this
+party election. There is provision for polling places, official
+ballots, and election of officials, just as there is provision for
+similar machinery in the regular election which follows the Direct
+Primary.
+
+439. EXTENT OF THE DIRECT PRIMARY.--Heralded as a cure for the defects
+of the convention, the Direct Primary spread rapidly after 1900. By
+1919 every state in the Union had adopted it in some form, and about
+forty states were applying the state-wide primary. At first the Direct
+Primary was used only to nominate candidates for local offices, but at
+the present time state officers, and even Federal Senators and
+Representatives, are often nominated by this method. In more than a
+third of the states the voters at the Direct Primary are allowed to
+express their preference directly for one of the candidates for the
+presidential nomination. Altogether, the Direct Primary has largely
+supplanted the convention in about three fourths of the states.
+
+440. ADVANTAGES CLAIMED FOR THE DIRECT PRIMARY.--A number of important
+advantages are claimed for the Direct Primary. It is said that the
+device reduces the power of the party boss, and insures democratic
+control within the party. Party members are more interested in the
+Direct Primary than in the local caucus or primary because in the
+Direct Primary they actually aid in the direct selection of party
+candidates. The local caucus or primary, on the other hand, does not
+directly select the more important party candidates, but can only
+choose delegates to a nominating convention. Because the Direct
+Primary increases the control of the individual over party policies,
+it encourages active political work on the part of the rank and file.
+It is maintained that the Direct Primary brings out a larger vote than
+would otherwise be possible. Better candidates are secured by means of
+the Direct Primary, it is claimed, because the nomination of
+individuals depends upon the presentation of their claims to the
+voters, rather than upon winning the favor of party bosses.
+
+441. OBJECTIONS URGED AGAINST THE DIRECT PRIMARY.--The opponents of
+the plan claim that the Direct Primary has serious faults. It is said
+that in supplanting the convention the Direct Primary has made more
+difficult the exchange of views and opinions among party members. It
+is declared that the Direct Primary has disorganized the party and has
+therefore broken down party responsibility. It is claimed that the
+Direct Primary has not eliminated the boss, for rather than voting
+directly for candidates of their own choice, electors must make a
+selection from a list of candidates previously arranged by party
+leaders. All of these candidates may be objectionable to the voter. It
+is also pointed out that many worthy candidates have not the money to
+defray the expense of competing in the Direct Primaries. Frequently
+the "ring" brings out a number of candidates to divide the voters,
+while the henchmen of the ring concentrate their votes upon one
+man. Lastly, it is pointed out, the excessive number of candidates to
+be selected renders it impossible for the average individual to make
+an intelligent selection. In such a case, the average individual
+attends the Direct Primary only to confirm the choice of party
+leaders.
+
+442. OUTLOOK FOR THE DIRECT PRIMARY.--Although there is much to be
+said for and against the Direct Primary, the belief is gaining ground
+that this device does not offer the final solution of the difficulty
+which led to its establishment. After an exhaustive study of the
+subject, Professor Munro concludes as follows: "In a word, the primary
+seems to afford protection against the worst fault of the convention,
+which was the frequent selection of incapable and corrupt candidates
+at the behest of a few political leaders. But it has not, in twenty
+years or more of experience, demonstrated that it can achieve positive
+results of a measurably satisfactory character. It has not rid the
+state of boss domination; it has increased the expense which every
+candidate must incur, and it gives a marked advantage to the man whose
+name is well known to the voters, whether he be a professional
+politician or not. To say that the primary secures on the average
+somewhat better results than the old convention may be stating the
+truth, but it is not high praise."
+
+443. NOMINATION BY PETITION.--The system of nomination by petition
+came into use between 1880 and 1890. It provides that candidates may
+be placed in nomination by filing with some specified officer
+nomination papers, or petitions, signed by a specified number of
+qualified voters. The filing of these papers entitles the candidates
+named thereon to have their names printed upon the official ballot.
+The merit of this device is that it prevents the party machine from
+dictating the choice of candidates, and that it enables independent
+candidates to be brought forward. On the other hand, it has encouraged
+the circulation of petitions for hire.
+
+On the whole this method of nomination is proving more and more
+popular in local elections. It seems well adapted to the needs of
+municipalities, for it reduces partisanship to a minimum. It is said
+that in some cases it practically eliminates national politics from
+local elections. The supporters of nomination by petition are
+increasing, and it is now proposed to apply it to all local and state
+nominations. In such an event the Direct Primary would be radically
+modified, or even abolished.
+
+ 444. MAJORITY REPRESENTATION.--How can we make certain that an
+individual nominated or elected represents a majority of those voting?
+When there are only two candidates, the one receiving the largest
+number of votes receives both a plurality and a majority. But when
+there are several candidates, it often happens that the individual
+receiving the largest number of votes does not receive a majority.
+Suppose, for example, that 100,000 votes are cast, and that A receives
+20,000, B 25,000 C 30,000 and D 25,000. Ordinarily C will be declared
+successful because he has received a _plurality_ of the votes cast.
+But he has not received a _majority_ of the votes cast. This custom of
+declaring successful the candidate receiving a plurality constitutes a
+defect in our representative system, since a plurality candidate may
+represent only a small minority of those actually voting.
+
+Several attempts have been made to remedy this defect. In some
+southern states it is the practice to require an absolute majority for
+election. If no aspirant receives a majority, a second ballot is taken
+on the two candidates standing highest on the list. In a number of
+northern cities, the evil of plurality voting has been attacked
+through the _preferential voting_ device. This system of voting allows
+the voter to designate not only his first, but his second and third
+choices as well. If any candidate receives a clear majority of first
+choice votes, he is declared elected. But if no one receives such a
+majority, the second choices are added to the first choices. If this
+further calculation does not give any candidate a majority, third
+choices are resorted to. In cities where the plan has been tried,
+preferential voting is said to have proved markedly successful.
+
+445. MINORITY REPRESENTATION.--Related to the question of making sure
+that successful candidates represent a majority of those voting is the
+problem of the adequate representation of the minority. The most
+notorious phase of this problem has grown out of our custom of
+electing one national Representative from each of the congressional
+districts into which every state is divided. Often gerrymandering
+[Footnote: The origin and nature of "gerrymandering" are discussed in
+Chapter XLII, Sections 542 and 543.] is resorted to, that is to say,
+congressional districts are so arranged as to give the minority party
+overwhelming majorities in a few districts, while the dominant party
+is allowed to carry the remaining districts by very small majorities.
+The result is gross misrepresentation in Congress, because the party
+having a bare majority often secures a large percentage of the
+representatives, while the minority is very inadequately represented.
+
+Such misrepresentation also appears in connection with the choice of
+representatives to the state legislatures.
+
+In the attempt to remedy this type of misrepresentation various plans
+of _proportional representation_ have been put forth. In Illinois
+members of the lower house of the state legislature have long been
+chosen as follows: Each state senatorial district is given the right
+to elect three assemblymen. Every elector in the district has the
+right to cast three votes, one each for three different persons, or
+two votes for one candidate and one for another, or all for one
+candidate. By concentrating its votes upon one candidate, an average
+minority can be sure of at least one representative in each district.
+A plan employed in several other states likewise aims to give each
+political party representation proportional to the number of votes
+cast by the party, regardless of whether the number is a minority or a
+majority. The principle of proportional representation, if fully
+worked out, and if made simple enough to be comprehended by the
+average voter, would insure majority rule and at the same time allow
+the adequate representation of minorities.
+
+446. OBSTACLES TO INTELLIGENTY VOTING.--Several obstacles to
+intelligent voting in this country are intimately connected with the
+long ballot. [Footnote: The term "long ballot" refers to the fact that
+so many officials are elective that the ballot on which their names
+appear is often of great length. The term "short ballot" refers to a
+reduction of the length of this ballot by making fewer officers
+elective.] The wave of democracy which swept the country in the last
+century had the double effect of increasing the number of elective
+offices, and of shortening the terms during which officials were
+allowed to hold office. A greatly lengthened ballot, together with the
+great frequency of elections, has made it impossible for the average
+voter to exercise proper judgment at the polls. The difficulty of
+investigating the merits of the numerous candidates, or even of
+becoming familiar with their names, has discouraged many from voting.
+Of those who still pretend to reach independent decisions regarding
+candidates and issues, a considerable number really rely upon the
+direction and advice of professional politicians. The long ballot is
+the enemy of democracy, since it allows politicians, rather than the
+masses, to control actual government.
+
+447. SHORTENING THE BALLOT.--The chief remedy for these evils is the
+short ballot. The essential features of the short ballot plan are as
+follows: Popular elections should be resorted to only for the purpose
+of choosing those officials who have to do with public policies. For
+example, state voters ought to select only the governor, lieutenant
+governor, and members of the legislature; city voters ought to choose
+only the mayor and council; [Footnote: Where this form of municipal
+government is still employed.] while county voters ought to confine
+their attention to a small group of county commissioners or
+supervisors. All other officials ought to be appointed, either
+directly by chief executive officers, or by means of the merit plan.
+Along with the shortening of the ballot, we should be increasingly
+willing to allow officials to hold office for longer terms. A
+supplementary feature of great value would be the establishment of
+such means of popular control as would protect the public against
+abuse of power by officials to whom these longer terms had been
+extended.
+
+448. MERITS OF THE SHORT BALLOT.--There can be little doubt that a
+drastic shortening of the ballot would work a great improvement in our
+electoral system. If the vast majority of officials were made
+appointive, the voter could give more time and thought to the
+consideration of a few important elective officials. A short ballot
+would lessen the possibilities of manipulation by rings and bosses.
+Unquestionably the interest of the voter would be quickened, since his
+influence upon the political life of his community would be more
+apparent. And not only would the short ballot make government more
+representative, but it would help to make it more responsible.
+
+If the majority of the administrative officials who are now elected
+were made appointive, responsibility for their conduct in office could
+be concentrated upon the chief executive officer appointing them.
+
+449. THE NEGLECT TO VOTE.--The last of the vital questions arising in
+connection with the choice of public officials is the matter of
+encouraging the enfranchised classes to use the ballot. The long
+ballot and the domination of party politics by rings and bosses
+discourage many from voting, nevertheless it is probably true that the
+slackness of the individual is the chief reason why voters neglect to
+use the ballot. This slackness may take the form of personal
+indolence, or of indifference to civic duty, or of preoccupation with
+the press of personal business. When individuals are busy with their
+private affairs the time needed for intelligent political action is
+often begrudged. Again, the duty to vote is not always a compelling
+one. When a duty is shared with innumerable other people, it appears
+less of a personal duty; when the individual notes that his fellow-
+citizens neglect that duty, his own tendency toward slackness is
+encouraged. In a democracy, as Lord Bryce points out, "everybody's
+business becomes nobody's business."
+
+450. IMPORTANCE OF CIVIC EDUCATION.--The perfecting of our nominating
+and elective machinery, together with the shortening of the ballot, is
+doing a good deal to awaken interest in the proper use of the vote.
+But the problems of democracy cannot be solved by purely mechanical
+means. If our voters are to regard the use of the ballot as a civic
+duty, we must rely largely upon civic education. Young people, soon to
+be voters, must be impressed with the responsibilities of democracy.
+They must be taught the vital importance of using the vote. In Belgium
+and Spain it is customary to penalize individuals for neglecting to
+vote, but the idea of compulsory voting is repugnant to the American
+spirit. Moreover, law alone can neither build up nor sustain
+individual morality. The remedy for indifference to the ballot would
+seem to be not law, but the education of voters to their moral
+obligation toward the government under which they live.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What four questions arise in connection with the choice of public
+officials?
+
+2. Describe nomination by caucus. To what extent is this method still
+used?
+
+3. Why did the nominating convention arise?
+
+4. What forces were responsible for the decline of the convention?
+
+5. What is the nature and purpose of the Direct Primary?
+
+6. To what extent is the Direct Primary used in this country?
+
+7. What are the chief advantages of this device?
+
+8. What defects are urged against the Direct Primary?
+
+9. What does Professor Munro conclude as to the value of the Direct
+Primary?
+
+10. What is nomination by petition?
+
+11. What is the problem of majority representation?
+
+12. Discuss the nature and purpose of the preferential voting device.
+
+13. What is the purpose of gerrymandering?
+
+14. What is the nature and purpose of proportional representation?
+
+15. What is the relation of civic education to the proper use of the
+ballot?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy,_ chapter xxxv.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_ vol. ii, chapter lxvi.
+
+3. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States,_ chapter
+xxxvii.
+
+4. Ray, _Introduction to Political Parties and Practical Politics,_
+chapter iv.
+
+5. Reed, _Form and Functions of American Government,_ chapter vii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Is the number of elective officers in the United States greater or
+less than in Europe? (Bryce, page 146.)
+
+2. How is the caucus used at the present time? (Ray, page 75.)
+
+3. What is a "self-announced" candidate? (Ray, page 75.)
+
+4. Describe the workings of the "nomination by petition" device. (Ray,
+page 76.)
+
+5. What evils attend the unregulated caucus or primary? (Ray, pages
+80-83.)
+
+6. Describe the work of the state nominating convention. (Guitteau,
+pages 467-468.)
+
+7. Outline the procedure in the national convention. (Guitteau, pages
+471-472.)
+
+8. What are the two chief types of Australian ballot? (Reed, pages 82-
+84.)
+
+9. What is the chief weakness of the Direct Primary? (Reed, page 87.)
+
+10. Name some states in which the presidential preference primary is
+used. (Reed, page 87.)
+
+11. How is a typical presidential preference primary conducted? (Reed,
+page 87.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Use of the caucus or primary in your community.
+
+2. The nominating convention in your state.
+
+3. The Direct Primary in your state or community.
+
+4. Legal control of the Direct Primary in your state.
+
+5. The extent to which nomination by petition is employed in your
+state.
+
+6. The representation of minorities in your state legislature.
+
+7. Recent ballot reform in your state.
+
+
+II
+
+8. The framework of the convention. (Ford, _Rise and Growth of
+American Politics_, chapter xvi; Ray, _Introduction to Political
+Parties and Practical Politics_, chapter v; Woodburn, _Political
+Parties and Party Problems in the United States_, chapters xi-xiii.)
+
+9. The nominating convention at work. (Bryce, _The American
+Commonwealth_, vol. ii, chapter lxx; Ray, _Introduction to Political
+Parties and Practical Politics_, chapter viii.)
+
+10. Structure of the Direct Primary. (Ray, _Introduction to Political
+Parties and Practical Politics_, chapter vi.)
+
+11. How the Direct Primary works. (Cleveland, _Organised
+Democracy,_ chapter xvii; Woodburn, _Political Parties and Party
+Problems in the United States,_ chapter xxi.)
+
+12. Effect of the Direct Primary upon party organization. (Holcombe,
+_State Government in the United States,_ pages 193-204.)
+
+13. Direct nominations. (Reinsch, _Readings on American State
+Governments,_ pages 383-394)
+
+14. Tyranny of the majority. (Bryce, _The American Commonwealth,_ vol.
+ii, chapter lxxxiv.)
+
+15. Safeguarding the rights of the minority. (Gettell, _Readings in
+Political Science,_ pages 322-325.)
+
+16. The nature of proportional representation. (Jones, _Readings on
+Parties and Elections in the United States,_ pages 164-168; Commons,
+_Proportional Representation._)
+
+17. Objections to the principle of proportional representation.
+(Gettell, _Readings in Political Science,_ pages 324-325.)
+
+18. Preferential voting. (_Massachusetts Constitutional Convention
+Bulletins,_ 1917.)
+
+19. The gerrymander. (Woodburn, _Political Parties and Party Problems
+in the United States,_ chapter xx.)
+
+20. The short ballot. (Childs, _Short Ballot Principles;_
+Massachusetts Constitutional Convention Bulletins, 1917.)
+
+21. What proportion of qualified voters actually use the ballot?
+(Hart, _Practical Essays on American Government,_ No. 2.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+22. The desirability of extending the Direct Primary in your state.
+
+23. The closed versus the open primary.
+
+24. Advantages and disadvantages of nomination by petition.
+
+25. Advantages and disadvantages of holding local, state and National
+elections at different times.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXVI
+
+HONESTY AND EFFICIENCY IN OFFICE
+
+
+451. MAGNITUDE OF THE PROBLEM.--How can we insure the honest and
+efficient administration of American government? Civic education and
+the perfection of nomination and election devices will do much toward
+securing this end, but there remains a troublesome question. This has
+to do with reorganizing our legislative and administrative machinery,
+so that public officials may be allowed or encouraged to perform their
+duties in a responsible and effective manner.
+
+The problem is a vast one, the adequate treatment of which would
+require volumes. In this chapter, therefore, it will be necessary to
+confine the discussion to a few of the more pressing aspects of the
+problem. Of these the following are perhaps the more important: First,
+the defects in legislative procedure; second, the reorganization of
+state administration; third, budget reform; and fourth, the reform of
+municipal government.
+
+
+A. DEFECTS IN LEGISLATIVE PROCEDURE
+
+452. AMERICAN LEGISLATURES ARE OVERWORKED.--It has frequently been
+pointed out that in the United States both state and National
+legislatures are overwhelmed with work. One reason for this is that
+the extension of government control over industrial corporations has
+rendered legislation more complex and greater in volume. The
+development of public interest in health, education, and related
+fields has 'of recent years markedly increased the amount of
+legislation. The custom which many legislators have of attempting to
+get as much special legislation for their respective districts as
+possible has likewise increased the number of laws upon the statute
+books. Lastly, it should be borne in mind that throughout our history
+we have tended to believe legislation a cure-all for the defects of
+American life. This attitude has led to an excessive number of laws on
+subjects which in European countries are ordinarily left to the
+discretion of administrative officials.
+
+The combined effect of these developments has been to confront our
+legislatures with so much business that honest and efficient
+legislation has been rendered exceedingly difficult.
+
+453 THE COMMITTEE SYSTEM.--The chief defects of American legislation
+appear in connection with the committee system which exists in both
+National and state legislatures. The committee system is the practice
+of dividing the legislative body into a large number of small groups
+or committees whose duty it is to consider various types of
+legislative business. The great merit of this device is that it
+expedites business. Indeed, the membership of our legislatures has
+become so large, and the amount of legislative business has increased
+so rapidly, that it is difficult to see how the committee system could
+be dispensed with. Without some such division of labor, chaos and
+endless delay would result. [Footnote: For the part played by the
+committee system in the actual making of a law, see Chapter XLIIL]
+
+At the same time, the committee system has numerous faults. As Lord
+Bryce has pointed out, it destroys the unity of the legislature by
+breaking it up into a number of small groups among which there is no
+appreciable degree of coördination. The committee system limits
+debate. Since most committee business is transacted in secret session,
+the public is deprived of light upon public affairs. So minutely does
+the committee system divide legislative labor that even the most
+important piece of legislation cannot secure the attention of the best
+men. There is a diffusion of responsibility when various committees
+work upon related problems without regard for the work being done by
+one another. Finally, the committee system throws power, unaccompanied
+by adequate responsibility, into the hands of the committee chairman.
+
+454 LOG-ROLLING. Log-rolling is the trading of votes among individual
+legislators. Many of the faults of our state and National legislatures
+are connected with this practice. Some legislators are so intent upon
+securing the passage of bills in which they are personally interested
+that they are willing to vote for a fellow-legislator's pet bills,
+regardless of merit, provided that legislator will return the favor.
+In this way special legislation often displaces bills which are drawn
+in a wider interest,--taxation, education, and other vital matters
+being neglected so that members may pursue personal ends.
+
+There is as yet no limit to the number of bills which may be
+introduced by state or National legislators. As a result there is a
+large number of unnecessary and hastily framed bills for which no one
+is definitely responsible. It is supposed to be the duty of all
+legislators to weed out bills which are poorly framed, or which are
+designed to promote special interests. But in this case everybody's
+business becomes nobody's business. Such machine-like formalities as
+repeated readings of a bill, and a series of committee reports upon
+it, are generally substituted for individual scrutiny of a measure.
+
+455. LEGISLATIVE REFORM.--The reform of legislative procedure is
+attracting an increasing amount of attention among students of
+American politics. Many recent state constitutions define in detail
+the powers and procedure of the state legislature. A considerable
+number of states now have legislative reference bureaus, which enable
+legislators to keep track of legislation in other states, as well as
+to have ready access to important data bearing upon their own
+problems. There is a growing tendency for state legislatures to employ
+expert bill drafters to draw up laws on technical and highly-complex
+subjects. The expert bill drafter and the legislative bureau help
+materially to reduce the amount of defective and unwise legislation on
+the statute books.
+
+Much remains to be done, however. Important public bills ought
+invariably to be given first consideration by legislators, instead of,
+as is still many times the case, being put off until the end of the
+session in order to allow time for log-rolling. Filibustering and
+other time-wasting tactics should be curbed, because they tend to
+obstruct legislation. Many students of government advocate the
+extension of a plan already adopted in Massachusetts and a few other
+states, whereby all bills are given a public hearing. It is also clear
+that some method ought to be devised whereby the work of the various
+committees dealing with related subjects could be correlated and
+harmonized. Lastly, any measures which will reduce the amount of
+unnecessary and ill-advised legislation must prove of great value.
+
+
+B. THE REORGANIZATION OF STATE ADMINISTRATION
+
+456. DEFECTS IN STATE ADMINISTRATION.--Originally the state
+administration consisted of the Governor and a few elective officers,
+notably a Secretary of State, a Treasurer, and an Attorney-General.
+With the rapid development of the country, education, health,
+dependency, corporations, and similar matters have required more and
+more attention from state governments. To perform a host of new
+functions the state administration has expanded to include numerous
+commissioners, boards, and departments, some of them elected by the
+people, and some of them appointed by the Governor.
+
+This development has been haphazard, rather than orderly and planned.
+As a result, the administrative department is in most states a
+confused and tangled mass of boards and commissions, departments and
+single offices, often duplicating the work of one another, and largely
+working without any appreciable degree of coördination. In most states
+numerous administrative officers are elective, rather than appointive.
+This situation has two drawbacks: In the first place elective
+officials are responsible to no one but the people at large, and
+therefore these officials cannot be _efficiently directed or
+supervised_ by the Governor. In the second place, no definite person
+or persons can be held _responsible_ for the conduct of this numerous
+body of elective administrative officials.
+
+457. THE REFORM OF STATE ADMINISTRATION.--The reorganization and
+consolidation of state administrative offices is attracting an
+increasing amount of attention. In New Jersey, Massachusetts,
+Illinois, and several other states, administration has been notably
+simplified and systematized. The Illinois Administrative Code of 1917,
+for example, consolidated the work of more than a hundred
+administrative offices into nine main departments. Each department is
+in charge of a director, appointed by the Governor, and each
+department is responsible to the Governor. Coördination of this type
+economizes time and energy, and saves the state's money by reducing
+the number of salaried officials. The centralization of the entire
+administration under the Governor not only allows efficient
+supervision, but permits the people to hold this official strictly
+accountable for the administration.
+
+The need of reform in state administration is recognized throughout
+the Union, but in most states the reorganization of administrative
+offices is retarded in two ways: First, the movement is opposed by
+officeholders who fear that their positions will be abolished by a
+consolidation of departments; second, in many states the consolidation
+of administrative offices is impossible without substantial amendments
+to the state constitution.
+
+
+C. BUDGET REFORM
+
+458. THE QUESTION OF A BUDGET.--In contrast to the leading countries
+of Europe, our National government until very recently had no budget
+system. Some of the estimates were prepared by the administrative
+departments, under the direction of the President, while other
+estimates were prepared by various committees in the House of
+Representatives. In Congress there was little or no coördination
+between the various committees considering different appropriations.
+Nor were these committees properly coördinated with the administrative
+departments which were responsible for the original estimates.
+
+After appropriations had been granted, Congress had no scrutiny over
+the actual expenditure of the money. Thus the administrative
+departments might waste their appropriations, and then secure the
+passage of deficiency bills to make up the shortage. At no time did
+the various departments and committees considering appropriations take
+into careful account the amount of government revenue. For this reason
+it was purely an accident if appropriations kept within the limits set
+by available revenue.
+
+A similar situation formerly prevailed in many of the states. The
+various administrative departments transmitted to the legislature an
+estimate of what each required for the coming year. These estimates,
+together with an unlimited number of appropriation bills introduced by
+individual members, were referred to various committees. Whether
+particular appropriations were granted depended, not upon the amount
+of state revenue, but upon the political pressure brought to bear in
+favor of those measures. As in Congress, neither the executive nor
+legislative branch of government, neither particular committees nor
+individual legislators, could be held wholly responsible for any
+appropriation measure. Excessive waste of public funds was the result.
+
+459. BUDGET REFORM.--The last two decades have witnessed a growing
+demand for a national budget. Under the direction of President Taft a
+commission investigated the general question of responsibility in the
+handling of Federal finances. The report of the committee favored a
+national budget, but the unfriendly attitude of Congress checked the
+movement. Interest in a national budget increased during the two terms
+of President Wilson, stimulated, especially, by the wave of postwar
+economy which swept the country after the signing of the armistice in
+November, 1918. In the spring of 1921, a bill establishing a budget
+system for the National government passed both houses of Congress, and
+on June 10, 1921, the bill became law by the signature of President
+Harding. This system is expected markedly to improve Federal finances.
+
+Practically unknown a few years ago, the budget movement among the
+states has spread so rapidly that at the present time almost all of
+the commonwealths have some sort of budget system. Three methods of
+preparing the budget are found among the several states. In some
+states, as in New York, budget-making is in the hands of the
+legislature; in other states, as in Wisconsin, both legislature and
+executive participate in budget-making; in still other states, as
+in Illinois, the executive alone is responsible for the preparation of
+the budget. Many authorities claim that the last-named type of budget
+preparation is preferable but, in many states it is objected to as
+giving too much power to the executive.
+
+
+D. THE REFORM OF MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT
+
+460. MUNICIPAL REFORM: CHANGES IN THE MAYOR-COUNCIL PLAN.--Until the
+opening of the twentieth century practically every American city was
+governed under what is known as the mayor-council plan. This plan
+provides for a council to make the laws, and a mayor to act as
+executive. Formerly the council of the larger cities was very often
+composed of two chambers, a board of aldermen and a common council,
+but of late years the single-chambered council has become more and
+more common.
+
+The mayor-council plan still prevails in most American cities,
+particularly in the larger municipalities. But everywhere the growing
+demand for honesty and efficiency in government is leading to the
+reform of this system. In order to reduce the length of the ballot,
+the appointive power of the mayor is being increased. In the interests
+of economy and responsibility the administrative offices are in many
+cities being consolidated, coördinated and centralized under the
+mayor. To guard against the abuse of financial power there is in many
+commonwealths a tendency for state constitutions and statutes to limit
+the debt-incurring and franchise-granting powers of city councils.
+
+461. MUNICIPAL REFORM: THE COMMISSION PLAN.--In September, 1900, a
+tidal wave seriously demoralized the mayor-council form of government
+in Galveston, Texas. To meet the emergency, the state legislature
+authorized the establishment of a new type of government, known as the
+commission plan. Instead of selecting a mayor and councilmen, the
+voters of Galveston now choose a commission of five officials. All of
+these commissioners are equal in power, except that one presides as
+mayor-president. The commission form of government spread rapidly,
+chiefly among the smaller cities, until in 1921 there were more than
+300 municipalities governed under this plan. In every case the
+commission has both legislative and executive powers. Collectively the
+commissioners act as a legislative body for the city, individually
+they head the various administrative departments.
+
+A number of important advantages are claimed for the commission form
+of city government. Responsibility is no longer divided among mayor
+and councilmen, but can be definitely placed upon the small group of
+commissioners. It is believed by many that commission government
+allows a greater harmony of action than is possible under the mayor-
+council plan. Finally, it is declared, a group of five or seven
+commissioners can administer city government with more efficiency than
+can a mayor and a numerous council.
+
+The opponents of commission government maintain, on the other hand,
+that the plan is undemocratic and oligarchical because it centralizes
+great power in the hands of a small group. The plan is said to
+increase the danger of corruption, since appropriating and spending
+powers are placed in the same hands. The opponents of this form of
+government also maintain that it renders easier the corruption of the
+city administration, since party bosses may easily gain control of a
+few commissioners. A final, and perhaps the most serious, objection is
+that commission government does not go to the logical conclusion in
+concentrating responsibility. There is no head to the administration,
+and no way of preventing the diffusion of responsibility among the
+commissioners. Jealousy among the commissioners has often led to
+friction and to working at cross-purposes. [Footnote: Of recent years
+a number of cities have abandoned commission government for either the
+mayor-council or the city manager plan.]
+
+462. MUNICIPAL REFORM: THE CITY MANAGER PLAN.--A recent modification
+of commission government is the city manager plan. This provides for a
+small elective commission, which does not itself administer the
+government of the city, but which chooses, instead, an experienced
+executive or city manager. The city manager is supposed to be a non-
+partisan expert whose duty it is to administer the city in accordance
+with business principles. As the agent of the commission choosing him,
+the city manager enforces all ordinances, prepares annual estimates,
+and appoints all other city officials and employees. He also accepts
+full responsibility for the administration of the city's affairs.
+
+The first city to apply the city manager plan was Dayton, Ohio, which
+began the experiment on January 1, 1914. Since that date the plan, or
+some variation of it, has been established in about a hundred cities.
+The city manager plan is an improvement over the commission plan, in
+that it allows a greater concentration of responsibility. Another
+advantage over commission government is that the city manager plan
+insures a high grade of professional skill at the apex of the city's
+administration. The plan appears to work well in the smaller cities,
+provided a high grade manager can be found, and provided, also, that
+his position can be safeguarded against corrupting political
+influences.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What four questions are discussed in this chapter?
+
+2. Why are American legislatures overwhelmed with work?
+
+3. What are the merits and defects of the committee system?
+
+4. What is log-rolling, and why is it objectionable?
+
+5. What is the purpose of the legislative bureau?
+
+6. What is the function of the expert bill drafter?
+
+7. What are the chief defects of state administration?
+
+8. What has been done to correct these defects?
+
+9. Discuss the movement toward a national budget.
+
+10. What are the three forms of budget making in state government?
+
+11. What is the mayor-council plan, and what changes are being brought
+about in it?
+
+12. What is the commission plan of city government? How did it arise?
+What can be said for and against it?
+
+13. Compare the commission plan with the city manager plan.
+
+14. What is the chief merit of the city manager plan?
+
+
+Required Readings
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xxxvi.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_, vol. i, chapter xlv.
+
+3. Munro, _The Government of the United States_, chapter xxxi.
+
+4. Reed, _Form and Functions of American Government_, chapter xli.
+
+5. Illinois Efficiency and Economy Committee, Report, 1915, pages 18-
+24 and 74-77.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. What are the chief defects of state government in general? (Bryce,
+page 556.)
+
+2. What is a book of estimates? (Reed, page 483.)
+
+3. Describe the procedure in Congress with regard to appropriation
+bills. (Reed, page 484.)
+
+4. How are provisions against special legislation evaded in some
+states? (Bryce, page 559.)
+
+5. Enumerate and briefly characterize the chief administrative offices
+in the various states. (Munro, pages 447-457.)
+
+6. What are the two distinctive features of state administration?
+(Munro, pages 457-458.)
+
+7. What are the chief defects of state administration? (Illinois
+Report, pages 18-24.)
+
+8. Summarize the advantages of a reorganized and consolidated state
+administration. (Illinois Report, pages 74-77.)
+
+9. What is the purpose of a "state auditing" system? (Reed, page 489.)
+
+10. Explain the need for uniform accounts for cities and counties?
+(Reed, pages 491-492.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Interview any citizen of your community who has served in the state
+legislature. Ask for his personal opinion concerning the amount of
+legislative business to be transacted, the workings of the committee
+system, and the practice of log-rolling.
+
+2. Status of the expert bill-drafter and the legislative reference
+bureau in your state. If these devices have not been adopted,
+interview or write to a member of the state legislature concerning his
+opinion of these legislative aids.
+
+3. The enactment of appropriation bills in your state legislature.
+
+4. The development of the administrative department in your state.
+
+5. Make a diagram showing the relations of the various boards and
+commissions embraced in the administrative department of your state.
+Point out instances of duplication and lack of coördination. Draw up a
+plan for consolidating these boards and commissions.
+
+6. The budget in your state.
+
+7. Form of government in your municipality.
+
+
+II
+
+8. The business of Congress. (McCall, _The Business of Congress_.)
+
+9. The faults of state legislatures. (Kaye, _Readings in Civil
+Government_, pages 282-295.)
+
+10. The legislative reference bureau. (Reinsch, _Readings on American
+State Government_, pages 63-74.)
+
+11. History of state administration. (Illinois Constitutional
+Convention Bulletins, 1920, pages 623-709.)
+
+12. The reorganization of state government. (Munro, _The Government of
+the United States_, chapter xxxvi.)
+
+13. A National budget. (Cleveland and Buck, _The Budget and
+Responsible Government_, chapters xviii-xx.)
+
+14. State budgets. (Cleveland and Buck, _The Budget and Responsible
+Government_, part iii; Munro, _The Government of the United States_,
+pages 466-469.)
+
+15. Revenues and expenditures of cities. (Beard, _American City
+Government_, chapter v.)
+
+16. Home rule for cities. (Beard, _American City Government_, chapter
+ii.)
+
+17. The mayor-council plan. (Munro, _The Government of American
+Cities_, chapters viii and ix.)
+
+18. The commission plan of city government. (Munro, _The Government of
+American Cities_, chapter xii; Massachusetts Constitutional Convention
+Bulletins.)
+
+19. The city manager plan. (Munro, _The Government of American
+Cities_, chapter xv; Massachusetts Constitutional Convention
+Bulletins.)
+
+20. The civil service as a career. (Foltz, _The Federal Civil Service
+as a Career_.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+21. Would shortening the length of the legislative session improve the
+quality of legislation? (See Bryce, _The American Common-wealth_, vol.
+i, chapter xlv.)
+
+22. Should there be a limit to the number of bills which a legislator
+may introduce?
+
+23. Methods of coördinating committees in your state legislature.
+
+24. Advantages and disadvantages of the commission form of government.
+(See the Debaters' Handbook Series.)
+
+25. Advantages and disadvantages of the city manager plan. (See the
+Debaters' Handbook Series.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXVII
+
+THE EXTENSION OF POPULAR CONTROL
+
+
+463. BASIS OF POPULAR CONTROL.--The fact that our government is a
+representative democracy entitles the voters to choose, direct, and
+control the public officials who act for the people at large. We have
+discussed a few of the methods whereby the nomination and election
+machinery might be improved; we must now go a step further and examine
+the means by which officeholders may be controlled.
+
+Supposedly, officials are chosen because the people believe them able
+and willing to discharge public duties with honesty and efficiency.
+But after officials have taken office it may develop that they have
+secured their positions by unfair means, or that they are dishonest,
+or that they are inefficient or otherwise unsatisfactory. Wherever it
+develops that officeholders no longer meet with the approval of the
+people, truly representative government is impossible unless some
+method of effective popular control is found.
+
+
+A. INDIRECT METHODS OF CONTROL
+
+464. REFUSAL TO REËLECT.--If the voters are dissatisfied with the
+conduct of their representatives, they may express their disapproval
+by refusing to reëlect those representatives. This effects a measure
+of control, even though it is negative and not immediate.
+
+465. REMOVAL BY THE APPOINTIVE AUTHORITY.--If satisfaction is not
+rendered by subordinate administrative officials who have secured
+office through appointment, such officials may be removed from office
+by the authority appointing them. The power of the President,
+Governor, or mayor to appoint generally carries with it the power
+to remove from office. Such removal may be on the initiative of the
+appointing authority, or it may be in response to a popular demand.
+From the standpoint of the voters at large, however, this method of
+removal is indirect and often ineffective.
+
+466. IMPEACHMENT.--Unsatisfactory officials are sometimes removed by
+the impeachment process. In the various states either a part or the
+whole of the legislature may sit as a court of impeachment for the
+trial of certain important officials accused of serious crime. In the
+National government the House of Representatives may initiate
+impeachment proceedings against the President, Vice-President, and all
+other civil officers of the United States. In such cases the Senate
+acts as a court of trial.
+
+Yet as a method of popular control impeachment is unsatisfactory. It
+is indirect, since a part or the whole of the legislature acts for the
+people. It is slow and cumbersome. It does not extend over the entire
+list of public officials, nor over the entire range of offenses.
+
+467. CONTROL THROUGH THE AMENDING PROCESS.--The powers and duties of
+public officials may be partially controlled through the formal
+amending process. In all states except New Hampshire the constitution
+may be amended through legislative action, subsequently ratified by
+popular vote. About two thirds of the states also provide for
+amendment by a constitutional convention composed of delegates elected
+by the voters. In a number of states, as we shall see a little later,
+constitutional amendment may also be secured by means of the
+Initiative and Referendum.
+
+The Federal Constitution may be formally amended in four different
+ways. The two most important methods are, first, by a two-thirds vote
+in each house of Congress, and second, by a convention called by
+Congress upon application of the legislatures of two thirds of the
+states. In either case the amendment must be ratified by the
+legislatures of three fourths of the states.
+
+The formal amending process is an important part of our governmental
+machinery, but as a method of popular control it is open to a number
+of criticisms. It is slow. It is indirect, for the people must rely
+chiefly upon their legislatures. Constitutional amendment cannot
+remedy all of the abuses of office. Furthermore, it is too drastic and
+far-reaching a remedy for many of the minor abuses of office.
+
+
+B. DIRECT METHODS or CONTROL
+
+468. THE INITIATIVE.--In more than a third of the states popular
+discontent with the state legislature, together with the growing self-
+confidence of the voters, has led to the adoption of the Initiative.
+The Initiative is a device whereby any person or group of persons may
+draft a statute, and, on securing the signatures of a certain
+percentage of the voters, compel the state officials to submit the
+measure to popular vote. If at this voting the measure secures the
+required popular approval, it becomes law.
+
+When the measure is submitted to the voters directly after the
+fulfilment of the petition requirements, the device is known as the
+Direct Initiative. When, after passing the petition stage, the measure
+goes to the legislature and does not come before the people at the
+polls unless the legislature fails to accept it, the device is known
+as the Indirect Initiative. In a dozen states, chiefly in the West,
+the Initiative is also used to propose amendments to the state
+constitution.
+
+469. THE REFERENDUM.--Early in our national history, it became an
+established principle that proposed constitutions or constitutional
+amendments should be referred to the voters for ratification. Of
+recent years about a third of the states, chiefly in the West, have
+extended the referendum device to cover ordinary legislation. This
+type of referendum may be defined as a plan whereby a small percentage
+of the voters may demand that practically any statute passed by the
+legislature must be submitted to the voters and approved by a
+specified majority before going into effect. [Footnote: A few types of
+laws are not subject to the Referendum.]
+
+The Referendum is variously applied. In the Compulsory Referendum,
+which is the most common form, a measure must be submitted to the
+people whenever a designated number of voters petition that this step
+be taken. The Optional Referendum allows the state legislature to
+decide whether or not an enacted measure should be submitted to the
+people. The Statutory Referendum applies only to proposed statutes,
+while the Constitutional Referendum is limited to proposed amendments
+to the state constitution.
+
+470. DIRECT LEGISLATION.--The Initiative and the Referendum are found
+together in more than a dozen states. The two devices are
+supplementary: the Initiative is a positive instrument which may be
+used to set the wheels of direct legislation in motion; the Referendum
+is a negative measure which gives the people a potential veto on laws
+passed by the legislature. The Initiative and the Referendum are known
+collectively as Direct Legislation, that is, legislation directly by
+the people, as opposed to legislation enacted entirely through the
+legislature.
+
+471. ADVANTAGES CLAIMED FOR DIRECT LEGISLATION.--Important advantages
+are claimed for Direct Legislation. It is declared that the Initiative
+and Referendum keep lawmaking from being dominated by special
+interests. Because it constitutes a check upon constitutional
+conventions and state legislatures, Direct Legislation is said to make
+government more truly responsive to public opinion. It is claimed that
+Direct Legislation does not supplant, but rather supplements,
+improves, and renders more democratic, the formal legislative
+machinery. In several states, and especially in Oregon, it is claimed
+that the device stimulates political interest on the part of the
+voters. In Oregon the authorities print a pamphlet containing a
+statement of proposed laws, and summarizing the arguments of both
+advocates and opponents of each measure. Some weeks before the measure
+is to be decided at the polls this pamphlet is sent at public expense
+to every registered voter in the state.
+
+472. OBJECTIVES URGED AGAINST DIRECT LEGISLATION.--Critics of the
+Initiative and the Referendum maintain that Direct Legislation has
+many serious defects. It is declared that by breaking down and
+weakening the state legislature, this type of legislation threatens
+the integrity of the framework of government established by the state
+constitution. It is pointed out that Direct Legislation shifts
+lawmaking from a definite group (the state legislature), to a large
+and indefinite group of persons (the voters as a class), upon whom
+responsibility cannot be fixed. By robbing the legislature of power
+and responsibility, the Initiative and Referendum are said to degrade
+rather than to improve that body: the best class of men is not
+attracted to a legislature which has been shorn of dignity and
+influence, and if the people rely upon the Initiative and Referendum,
+the voters deem it less necessary to choose honest, capable
+legislators.
+
+It is also maintained that the Initiative and Referendum do not
+promote independence of political thought, since only a mechanical
+"Yes" or "No" is demanded of the voters. In all states where Direct
+Legislation is applied, it is said, so few persons actually vote that
+legislation is really determined by a small minority of the voters.
+Again, the ease with which the Initiative and Referendum may be set in
+motion allows so many measures to be brought before the people that
+they cannot vote upon them intelligently. It is also said that Direct
+Legislation is primarily the instrument of the propagandist, because
+in many cases cranks and professional agitators monopolize the
+privilege of circulating petitions.
+
+A serious defect of Direct Legislation is that the drafting of many
+laws requires detailed and technical information which the average
+voter is in no position to secure. In several states, notably in
+Maine, the recognition of this difficulty has led to the adoption of a
+modified Initiative. According to this plan, the state legislature may
+examine any measure proposed by the voters, enact an alternative
+measure of its own, and submit both to popular approval. The voters
+decide between the two. The difficulty with this plan is that it is
+not only expensive, but that by doubling the number of measures to be
+weighed and studied it imposes an added burden upon the voter at the
+polls.
+
+473. THE RECALL.--The Recall is a device whereby certain elective
+officials who have not given satisfaction in office may be required to
+stand for reëelection before the end of their terms. The Recall is set
+in motion when a petition has been duly signed by a specified
+percentage of the voters, usually at least twenty-five per cent. The
+Recall cannot be employed until the official in question has been in
+office a specified period, so that he shall have had an opportunity to
+give satisfaction before being subject to recall. Accused officials
+may forestall the Recall by resigning when a petition is launched
+against them, otherwise they must stand for reëlection. The ballot
+which goes to the people contains, in brief, the objections to the
+official, and, in some states, also the reply of the accused
+officeholder. If defeated at the polls the accused official must
+retire from office; if vindicated, he continues in office during the
+remainder of his term.
+
+The principle of the Recall was recognized in American state
+government before the end of the eighteenth century, but in its
+present application it is much younger. In its modern form the Recall
+was first used in 1903, when the city of Los Angeles applied it to
+elective municipal officials. Five years later Oregon adopted it for
+all state officers, and since 1908 it has spread to a number of other
+states, most of them in the western part of the country. The Recall
+has been used chiefly against city officials, though in several states
+it may be applied to a majority of both local and state officials. In
+Oregon, California, Arizona, Colorado, and Nevada, the Recall may also
+be used against judges.
+
+474. ARGUMENTS FOR THE RECALL.--Those favoring the Recall maintain
+that it is the natural and legitimate expression of the right to
+remove unsatisfactory officials. It is pointed out that the Recall
+permits longer terms for elective officials, for if the voters know
+that they can use the Recall to remove officials who prove
+unsatisfactory, they will feel safe in electing those officials for
+relatively long terms. By reducing the number of elections, the device
+lightens the burdens of the voter. The Recall is said to be a
+wholesome reminder of preëlection promises. It is also maintained that
+since the Recall is a threat, it encourages officeholders to be honest
+and efficient.
+
+475. OBJECTIONS URGED AGAINST THE RECALL.--In answer to the above
+arguments, the opponents of the Recall claim that the device
+encourages officials to curry popular favor, regardless of public
+duty. It may also place officials at the mercy of popular passion and
+caprice. When it is applied to judges, the Recall threatens the
+integrity and independence of a branch of government which ought to be
+removed from popular clamor and prejudice. This last is a serious
+objection, for it may happen that judges subject to the Recall will
+hesitate to hand down decisions that may prove unpopular, however just
+those decisions may be. For this reason the extension of the Recall to
+judges is being strongly resisted. Even the most ardent advocates of
+the device are beginning to admit that the Recall is more applicable
+to administrative officials than to judges.
+
+476. STATUS OF THE RECALL.--A satisfactory decision upon the merits of
+the Recall is difficult because it is so recent a development and
+still so little used that few data are available. The state-wide
+Recall has been in existence for a number of years, yet few state
+officials have been removed by it. Los Angeles used the Recall to
+unseat the mayor in 1904 and in 1909, and in 1911 the device was used
+against the mayor of Seattle. But the Recall is primarily a threat,
+and is rarely used. In view of this fact, the arguments for and
+against the device rest upon theory rather than upon actual
+experience. The Recall has great possibilities for good if wisely
+administered, but it may become an evil influence if carelessly or
+revengefully used.
+
+477. SIGNIFICANCE OF POPULAR CONTROL.--The development of the
+Initiative, the Referendum, and the Recall indicates a growing
+impatience with the abuses of party power, the evils of the long
+ballot, and the corruption and inefficiency of many legislative
+bodies. It is significant that direct popular control has accompanied
+the widespread movement to reform municipal government, and that it is
+playing an increasingly important part in the movement to reform state
+administration.
+
+Up to the present time, the Initiative, the Referendum, and the Recall
+have been confined chiefly to the West, where political problems are
+less acute than in the East, and where, too, the tendency toward
+direct participation in government has always been marked.
+Nevertheless, there is some indication that the future will see an
+extension of direct popular control, not only in the West, but also in
+other parts of the country. Whether or not this extension is desirable
+we cannot now say. But certainly it is an interesting and important
+development, and one demanding careful study and mature deliberation
+on the part of those who seek to make American government highly
+effective.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What is the basis of popular control?
+
+2. Name several methods of indirect control, and point out the
+objections to each.
+
+3. What is the Initiative?
+
+4. Distinguish between the Direct and the Indirect Initiative.
+
+5. What is the Referendum?
+
+6. What is the extent of the Referendum in this country?
+
+7. What is Direct Legislation?
+
+8. Summarize the arguments in favor of Direct Legislation.
+
+9. What objections are urged against Direct Legislation?
+
+10. What is the Recall?
+
+11. To what extent has the Recall been adopted in this country?
+
+12. What arguments are used to justify the use of the Recall?
+
+13. What are the chief objections to the Recall?
+
+14. What is the present status of the Recall?
+
+15. What is the significance of direct popular control?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xxxvii.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Beard, _American Government and Politics_, chapter xxiii.
+
+3. Massachusetts Constitutional Convention Bulletins (1917), No. 6.
+
+4. Munro, _The Government of the United States_, chapter xxv.
+
+5. Lowell, _Public Opinion and Popular Government_, chapters xiii,
+xiv, and xv.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Summarize the principles underlying the Initiative and Referendum.
+(Beard, pages 469-471.)
+
+2. Name some states in which the Initiative and the Referendum have
+been established. (Beard, page 463.)
+
+3. Describe the workings of the Initiative. (Munro, page 506.)
+
+4. Describe the workings of the Referendum. (Munro, pages 507-508.)
+
+5. To what extent has there been an attempt to apply the Initiative
+and Referendum to national legislation? (Beard, pages 465-466.)
+
+6. In what ways does Direct Legislation establish a system of minority
+rule? (Munro, page 515.)
+
+7. To what extent does Direct Legislation delay law-making? (Lowell,
+pages 226-228.)
+
+8. What is the nature of the laws enacted by the Initiative? (Lowell,
+pages 205-206.)
+
+9. What has been the attitude of the courts toward the Initiative and
+Referendum? (Massachusetts Bulletin, pages 41-43.)
+
+10. Enumerate the forms of the Recall. (Beard, pages 472-473.)
+
+11. What part did the Recall play in early American history? (Munro,
+page 516.)
+
+12. Describe the Recall election. (Munro, page 520.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. The proportion of the public officials of your municipality who may
+be removed by an appointing authority.
+
+2. Impeachment in your state. (Consult the state constitution.)
+
+3. Extent to which the constitution of your state has been amended.
+
+4. The Initiative in your state.
+
+5. The Referendum in your state.
+
+6. Extent to which the Initiative and the Referendum are found
+together in your state.
+
+7. The Recall in your state. If this device has not been adopted in
+your state, find out whether or not its adoption is being agitated.
+
+
+II
+
+8. Development of Direct Legislation in the United States. (Munro,
+_The Initiative, Referendum and Recall_, chapter iv.)
+
+9. Representative versus Direct Legislation. (Munro, _The Initiative,
+Referendum and Recall_, chapters vii and viii.)
+
+10. The Initiative and Referendum in Oregon. (Kaye, _Readings in Civil
+Government_, pages 295-303; Munro, _The Initiative, Referendum and
+Recall_, chapters ix and x.)
+
+11. The Initiative in Switzerland. (_Annals_, vol. xliii, pages 110-
+145.)
+
+12. The Referendum in Switzerland. (_Annals_, vol. xliii, pages 110-
+145; Lowell, _Public Opinion and Popular Government_, chapter xii.)
+
+13. Development of the Recall. (Munro, _The Initiative, Referendum and
+Recall_, chapter xii.)
+
+14. The Recall in Los Angeles. (Munro, _The Initiative, Referendum and
+Recall_, chapter xiv.)
+
+15. The Recall in Oregon. (Munro, _The Initiative, Referendum and
+Recall_, chapter xi.)
+
+16. The Recall in Seattle. (Munro, _The Initiative, Referendum and
+Recall_, chapter xv.)
+
+17. The Recall in Switzerland. (_Annals_, vol. xliii, pages 110-145.)
+
+18. The Judicial Recall. (_Annals_, vol. xliii, part iii.)
+
+19. Judicial decisions relating to the Initiative, Referendum and
+Recall. (Beard and Schultz, _Documents on the State-wide Initiative,
+Referendum and Recall_, chapters xxxi-xxxvi.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+20. Should the Initiative and Referendum be applied to National
+legislation?
+
+21. Do the Initiative and Referendum increase the burden upon the
+voter?
+
+22. The effect of the Initiative and Referendum upon the character of
+the state legislature.
+
+23. Should the Recall be applied to judges?
+
+24. Merits and defects of such forms of direct popular control as
+exist in your state.
+
+25. Future development of direct popular control in the United States.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXVIII
+
+PUBLIC OPINION
+
+
+478. THE NATURE OF PUBLIC OPINION.--One of the most powerful
+influences in any community is that intangible something which we call
+Public Opinion. Though everyone is familiar with it, the term Public
+Opinion is difficult to define. Public Opinion is intimately connected
+with the opinion of the individual, and yet is something more than a
+mere total of individual opinions.
+
+Every man has a set of opinions or beliefs which are characteristic of
+his native instincts, his home training, and other influences which
+have helped mould his personality. Wherever individuals associate, the
+opinions of each person affect and are affected by the opinions of his
+fellows. As the result of this interaction we think of public opinion
+as being made up of a number of different currents, each embodying a
+view, a belief, or a doctrine. Where many individuals support a given
+view with moderate intensity, or where a small group feels very
+intensely upon a given topic, we say that Public Opinion has formed.
+
+Public Opinion may be defined as a definite focus of individual
+opinions which are either numerous or intense enough to constitute a
+recognizable force, and to exert a noticeable influence upon the life
+of the community.
+
+479. PUBLIC OPINION AND LAW.--It is characteristic of the human mind
+that we perceive concrete and tangible things more easily than we
+understand abstract and intangible forces. Law is a definite,
+concrete, almost tangible thing; we perceive its outlines, recognize
+its various forms, and understand its nature and significance. But it
+is less easy to understand that law may be only a symptom of Public
+Opinion, only the concrete expression of intangible community
+sentiment. There is an interaction between law and Public Opinion, but
+the latter is the more fundamental and the more powerful. Public
+Opinion which is vigorous and well-organized may force the enactment
+of law; on the other hand, a law which runs counter to the prevailing
+state of Public Opinion may cease to be effective, because individuals
+will not coöperate in enforcing it. Law half leads, half follows
+Public Opinion, and when legislators are skilled in discerning and
+influencing the mental attitudes of the people, law and Public Opinion
+pretty well keep pace with one another.
+
+480. PUBLIC OPINION IN A DEMOCRACY.--The beliefs and opinions of the
+masses have been an important force even in the most absolute of
+monarchies; in representative democracies Public Opinion is even more
+important. Under a democratic form of government the attitude of the
+masses tends to be one of inquiry, self-confidence, and self-
+expression upon public questions. Lord Bryce has pointed out that
+because democracy permits and encourages freedom of discussion, Public
+Opinion in a country like the United States becomes much more powerful
+than in less democratic countries.
+
+And not only is Public Opinion more powerful in a democracy, but
+democracy is impossible without the regular exercise of a well-
+informed and sensible opinion by the majority of its citizens.
+Democracy emphasizes government _by_ the people rather than government
+_of_ the people. Thus if genuine democracy is to be developed and
+sustained, the people must cultivate an attitude of constant vigilance
+against civic indifference. Nominations and elections are focal
+periods in government, but government is a continuous obligation which
+requires constant rather than intermittent attention. Where civic
+interest is neither strong nor consistent, the virtues of democracy
+may be diffused in blind and leaderless wanderings.
+
+481. DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC OPINION.--Even though never definitely
+focused or expressed, the vague beliefs, fancies, and prejudices of
+individuals may influence public affairs by causing community leaders
+to feel that "the people" will or will not tolerate a contemplated
+line of action.
+
+But the influence exerted will be much greater if the opinions of the
+individual are definite, and if there is some method of clarifying,
+coördinating and expressing the opinions of groups of individuals upon
+a given subject. If the opinions of the individual are to be definite
+and concrete, he must habitually come in contact with forceful persons
+and institutions; if the opinions of various individuals are to be
+coördinated and expressed there must be either physical contiguity
+among people, or else adequate means of transportation and
+communication.
+
+We may now consider a few of the forces which serve to make definite
+and to organize the opinions of individuals.
+
+482. THE HOME.--Certainly no institution exerts a more powerful
+influence upon the beliefs and opinions of the individual than the
+home. Our basic ideals and traditions pass from generation to
+generation through the continuity of the family life. During the
+plastic and impressionable period of infancy the child is constantly
+under the influence of the parents. At first fashioned largely by the
+parents, the beliefs and sentiments of the growing child are later
+modified by contact with other family members. When children go out to
+the school, the church or the workshop, beliefs and attitudes
+encountered outside the home are weighed in the light of family
+teachings. When young men and young women make homes of their own,
+they in turn imprint upon their children a complex of tradition and
+opinion which is the compromise result of their own family training,
+modified by influences later encountered outside the family circle.
+
+483. THE SCHOOL.--Supplementing, and in some respects supplanting, the
+influence of the home is the influence of the school. While still in
+the plastic stage the child is given over to the moulding influences
+of teacher and fellow-students. New contacts are made, new opinions
+are encountered, new avenues of thought and action are opened to the
+young and growing mind. Of recent years the tendency of the school to
+identify itself more closely with the practical life of the community
+is increasing the power and influence of that institution. The school
+is proving a genuine means of transition between the relatively
+localized influence of the home and the more widely diffused
+influences of the community.
+
+484. THE CHURCH.--Closely related to the school as a determinant of
+opinion is the church. In the early stages of social development the
+home was equally the center of intellectual and religious life, but in
+recent times the church and the school have become separate, though
+related, institutions. The child spends more time in school than in
+the company of religious instructors other than his parents, but
+affiliation with the church often continues throughout the life of the
+individual, while the average child leaves school at a relatively
+early age. From the standpoint of Public Opinion, the primary
+importance of the church is that it exerts a powerful influence upon
+the ideals and conduct of both young and old. And as in the case of
+the school, this influence is being deepened by the increasingly close
+connection between the church and the practical life of the community.
+
+485. THE THEATER.--The theatre has always been a vital influence in
+man's aesthetic and emotional life. Drama, opera, comedy, and
+burlesque are variant forms, but they are alike in that they influence
+the audience. In the last decade the moving picture has greatly
+increased the power and influence of the theatre. The low price of the
+moving picture brings the theatre to millions who formerly were
+excluded from any appreciable degree of theatrical entertainment. The
+daily moving picture attendance of ten million people, the stimulating
+effect of music, the strong emotional appeal, the tender age of many
+of the audience, and the growing use of the moving picture as
+propaganda, all combine to make the film a powerful factor in the
+formation of Public Opinion.
+
+486. THE PRESS.--The press is the nervous system of the nation.
+Supplemented by other means of communication, and aided by agencies of
+transportation, the press coördinates individuals not physically
+contiguous, and thus enables them to act in concert. It lets everybody
+know what everybody else is thinking, or at least what they are
+supposed to be thinking. The forms of the printed page are infinitely
+various: daily papers, weeklies, monthlies, pamphlets, and books,--all
+of these are increasingly numerous. Statesmen, teachers, reformers,
+propagandists, and professional writers combine to turn out tons of
+printed matter a day. Pictures, jokes, contests, and stories are
+resorted to for the purpose of attracting attention. Editorials,
+advertisements, and news articles are among the vehicles of expression
+used. Printed matter does not wait for the individual to seek it out,
+but instead it goes to him. In various forms it encounters him in the
+street, stares at him from shop windows and billboards, forces itself
+upon his attention in the street cars, and knocks at the door of his
+private dwelling. In all its forms, it should be remembered, the
+dominant aim of the printed page is to influence the individual, to
+cause him to do something or to refrain from doing something.
+
+487. GROWING IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC OPINION.--Despite the volume of
+European immigration to this country, American ideals and institutions
+are rendering our population more and more homogeneous, and thus more
+open to unifying influences. The increasing ease of transportation and
+communication is everywhere making isolation more difficult. Not only
+are the school, the church, the press, and the theatre widening in
+scope and increasing in influence, but new forms of expression are
+developing. There is a growing number of private organizations
+advocating social, economic, or political reforms. The popularization
+of psychology has encouraged the rise of innumerable forms of
+propaganda designed to influence the opinions of the community and
+nation. Occupational and social groups are everywhere organizing,
+clarifying their opinions, and expressing common principles in the
+effort to influence the public mind. All of these factors combine to
+increase the importance of Public Opinion in present-day American
+life.
+
+488. DANGERS OF UNREGULATED PUBLIC OPINION.--The growing power of
+Public Opinion brings with it increased possibilities for good, but
+also increased possibilities for evil. In an important sense, this is
+the age of the propagandist, the crank reformer, and the subsidized
+newspaper, the age of the agitator who spreads lies through anonymous
+letters, unsigned posters, and irresponsible whisperings. The
+individual must be constantly on his guard against this flood; he must
+recognize that Public Opinion is often capricious, and that a sudden
+hysteria may inflict untold injury. The morality of a mob is inferior
+to the morality of the individuals composing the mob, because in a mob
+the sense of power is dominant and the sense of responsibility is
+suppressed. Properly speaking a mob depends upon physical contiguity,
+but the coördinating influence of rapid transportation and
+communication may create a mob spirit between individuals not
+physically in contact. When propaganda lashes into a passion groups of
+people in widely separated areas, democracy becomes the most dangerous
+of all forms of government: there is no sure hand upon the helm, the
+people control _en masse_, in a burst of passion they may lay waste
+the social heritage of centuries.
+
+489. FREEDOM A PARTIAL SAFEGUARD AGAINST UNSOUND PUBLIC OPINION.--
+While democracy facilitates the creation of the mob spirit, it
+likewise carries within itself at least a partial remedy for unsound
+Public Opinion. Men's opinions are infinitely various: the same
+community that produces the fanatic or the impractical idealist
+generally produces sensible and practical men as well. In politics men
+everywhere tend to divide into a radical group and a conservative
+group, between which control of the government oscillates.
+
+Where freedom of expression is permitted, the existence of these two
+antagonistic camps is automatically a safeguard of the public welfare.
+Any one of a number of groups of people might ruin the country if left
+to themselves. But they are _not_ left to themselves. Their opponents
+are constantly criticizing and checking them. When cranks launch
+propaganda, conservative critics launch counter-propaganda; when
+special interests attempt to influence the public mind, public-
+spirited individuals or organizations force both sides of the question
+before the public. When public officials neglect their duties, a
+thousand discerning men are ready to shout the fact from the
+housetops. Though the majority party secures control of government,
+the minority is never idle. Rather, it is constantly watching,
+waiting, marshaling opinion against the majority, calling public
+attention to the mistakes of their opponents, and agitating for a
+change of administration.
+
+490. THE GUIDANCE OF PUBLIC OPINION.--Let us briefly consider the
+question of guiding or directing the formulation of sound Public
+Opinion. In a free country, such guidance may sometimes prove
+dangerous, and yet careful direction of the formulation of Public
+Opinion is justified by two facts: First, the formulation of sound
+opinion is retarded by the great difficulty of securing adequate
+information on the great problems of modern civilization. Here the
+individual needs some help. Second, everyone who can distinguish
+between license and liberty must agree that we should limit the
+influence of individuals and institutions which suppress minority
+opinion, and distort facts in the effort to pervert Public Opinion.
+
+These considerations suggest two distinct lines of action.
+
+First, we can aid in the formulation of sound opinion by making it
+easier for the individual to secure data and information on current
+topics. The extension and perfection of the postal service, the
+improvement of our system of transportation, the spread of the school
+and library, and possibly the free distribution of literature dealing
+with the nature and functions of government, these and similar
+measures would prove helpful.
+
+Second, law and moral education ought to coöperate in suppressing
+influences which seek deliberately to poison or pervert the public
+mind. Free speech is a priceless element in democracy, but just as we
+must harmonize individual liberty with the interests of the group, so
+we must prevent the use of free speech for criminal purposes.
+Especially ought the press and the school to be encouraged to give
+both sides of debatable questions. Every agency dealing with the
+issues of American life, indeed, ought to be careful not to distort
+those issues by suppressing or misusing facts. Above all, we must be
+careful not to pander to low ideals by emphasizing the negative and
+destructive side of our problems.
+
+491. RESPONSIBILITY OF THE INDIVIDUAL.--A progressive civilization
+confers more and more benefits upon the individual, but his duties and
+responsibilities increase with equal speed. As Theodore Roosevelt once
+said, "It is not difficult to be virtuous in a cloistered and negative
+way," but honestly and effectively to fulfill the obligations of
+citizenship in a complex society is less easy. And yet the need of
+individual responsibility is infinitely greater in a modern community
+than among the members of an isolated and self-sufficient group. When
+small isolated villages were the dominant form of American settlement,
+the laxness of one group did not vitally affect the welfare of other
+groups. But so entwined are the present-day citizens of the United
+States that the acts of one individual may vitally affect the national
+well-being. The carelessness of a food canner on the Pacific coast may
+cost the life of a family on the Atlantic seaboard; a swindle
+originating in the East may demoralize individuals throughout the
+country. The obligations of citizenship have become national as well
+as local; in thought and in action the individual must function, not
+only in terms of his locality, but in terms of the nation as well.
+
+492. THE POWER OF THE INDIVIDUAL.--Measuring himself against more than
+a hundred million of his fellows, the average American citizen is
+likely to be overpowered by the apparent futility and powerlessness of
+his personal opinions. And yet the power of the nation is only the
+result of the combined influences of its individual citizens. All
+power is with the individual. However much the absolute monarchy may
+have suppressed the individual, in a democracy he can become a vital
+force in government. We are too fond of taking censuses on the one
+hand, and of deferring to governmental mechanisms on the other. The
+individual _is_ master of his fate, and he _is_ the ultimate
+determinant of government. If government is sound, the misbehavior of
+the individual can ruin it; if government is defective, the assumption
+of responsibility by the individual must ultimately reform it. We do
+not need a fool-proof government half as much as we need active,
+responsible individuals to run the government we already have. "How
+long will American democracy last?" a European statesman once asked.
+"Just so long," the answer might have been, "as Americans honestly and
+intelligently grapple with the problems confronting them, holding
+themselves individually responsible for the conduct of government, and
+seeking consistently to exert an influence upon their community life
+which shall be constructive and inspirational."
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Define Public Opinion.
+
+2. What is the relation of Public Opinion to law?
+
+3. What is the importance of Public Opinion in a democracy?
+
+4. Why should the opinions of individuals be clarified and organized?
+
+5. Describe the importance of home life in this regard.
+
+6. How does the school affect the opinions of individuals?
+
+7. What is the significance of the church with regard to Public
+Opinion?
+
+8. What is the effect of the theatre upon Public Opinion?
+
+9. Explain clearly the relation of the press to Public Opinion.
+
+10. What are the dangers of unregulated Public Opinion?
+
+11. In what way is freedom a safeguard against unsound Public Opinion?
+
+12. What two facts justify the guidance of Public Opinion?
+
+13. Discuss the relation of Public Opinion to the individual.
+
+14. What can be said as to the power of the individual?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Williamson, _Readings in American Democracy_, chapter xxxviii.
+
+Or all of the following:
+
+2. Brewer, _American Citizenship_, chapter v.
+
+3. Bryce, _Modern Democracies_, vol. i, chapter xv; vol. ii, chapter
+xliv.
+
+4. Lowell, _Popular Government and Public Opinion_, chapter iii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. What is the relation of homogeneity of population to Public
+Opinion? (Lowell, pages 34-35.)
+
+2. Why must the minority be free to express its dissent? (Lowell,
+pages 36-37.)
+
+3. How is the drift of Public Opinion to be determined? (Bryce, vol.
+i, pages 155-156.)
+
+4. What is the relation of Public Opinion to voting? (Bryce, vol. i,
+pages 159-161.)
+
+5. Compare Public Opinion in the United States with Public Opinion in
+other countries. (Bryce, vol. ii, pages 112-113.)
+
+6. Compare the press of the United States with that of Europe. (Bryce,
+vol. ii, page 118.)
+
+7. What is the relation of Public Opinion to local self-government?
+(Bryce, vol. ii, pages 115-116.)
+
+8. What is the relation of Public Opinion to social legislation?
+(Bryce. vol. ii, page 126.)
+
+9. What is the great defect of Public Opinion? (Bryce, vol. i, page
+162.)
+
+10. What is the one great clear purpose in civic life? (Brewer, pages
+120-121.)
+
+11. What qualities must we possess in order to carry out this purpose?
+(Brewer, pages 120-121.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Make a list of some of your beliefs and opinions concerning the
+recent World War, and try in each case to trace the origin of each
+belief or opinion.
+
+2. Toward which political party are you inclined? To what extent is
+this inclination due to
+
+(a) the influence of your parents;
+
+(b) what you have read in the newspapers;
+
+(c) what you have personally observed?
+
+3. Make a list of the opinions which you originally acquired in your
+home, and which have since been modified by what you have studied in
+school.
+
+4. To what extent are your personal standards of conduct traceable to
+what you have seen at the theatre?
+
+5. List the private organizations in your community which exist for
+the purpose of advocating reforms of various kinds.
+
+6. Make a study of the forms of propaganda utilized in a single copy
+of any metropolitan newspaper.
+
+7. To what extent does your local press give both sides of debatable
+questions?
+
+
+II
+
+8. The nature of Public Opinion. (Lowell, _Public Opinion and Popular
+Government_, chapters i and ii.)
+
+9. Relation of Public Opinion to law. (Forman, _The American
+Democracy_, pages 235-238.)
+
+10. Government by Public Opinion. (Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_,
+vol. ii, chapter lxxvii.)
+
+11. The type of questions to which Public Opinion can apply. (Lowell,
+_Public Opinion and Popular Government_, chapter iv.)
+
+12. The relation of tradition to Public Opinion. (Bryce, _Modern
+Democracies_, vol. i, chapter xiii.)
+
+13. Private associations for the advancement of group interests.
+(Young, _The New American Government and its Work_, chapter xxvii.)
+
+14. Tyranny of the majority. (Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_, vol.
+ii, chapters lxxxiv and lxxxv.)
+
+15. Attitude of the individual in a democracy. (Speare and Norris,
+_World War Issues and Ideals_, pages 170-182.)
+
+16. The obligations of citizenship. (Cleveland, _Organized Democracy_,
+chapter viii; Brewer, _American Citizenship_, chapters i-iv.)
+
+17. The hindrances to good citizenship. (Bryce, _The Hindrances to
+Good Citizenship_.)
+
+18. Leadership in a democracy. (Bryce, _Modern Democracies_, vol. ii,
+chapter lxxvi.)
+
+19. Relation between freedom and responsibility. (Hadley, _The
+Relation between Freedom and Responsibility in the Evolution of
+Democratic Government_.)
+
+20. The influence of ideals upon civic conduct. (Adams, _The Power of
+Ideals in American History_.)
+
+21. Wherein Public Opinion fails. (Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_,
+vol. ii, chapter lxxxvi.)
+
+22. Wherein Public Opinion succeeds. (Bryce, _The American
+Commonwealth_, vol. ii, chapter lxxxvii.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+23. Suppose the public highways in your locality were in bad
+condition. How would you go about it to remedy the situation?
+
+24. Which has more influence upon the opinions of people, the school
+or the press?
+
+25. Are the Initiative and the Referendum adequate methods of
+ascertaining the prevailing state of Public Opinion?
+
+26. Is freedom of speech an adequate safeguard of the rights of
+minorities?
+
+27. To what extent, if to any, should Federal and state authorities
+distribute free literature concerning the nature and functions of
+American government?
+
+28. How might coöperation in the study of civic problems be promoted
+in your community?
+
+
+
+
+PART V--THE MECHANISM OF GOVERNMENT
+
+
+A. THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
+
+CHAPTER XXXIX
+
+THE FEDERAL SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT
+
+
+A. BACKGROUND OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION [Footnote: For a fuller
+discussion of the background of the Federal Constitution, see Chapters
+II and III.]
+
+493. COLONIAL GOVERNMENTS.--It is possible to classify the American
+colonies as charter, royal, and proprietary, and to point out
+important differences between these three types.
+
+But these differences fade in importance before the broad and
+fundamental similarities existing among the colonies. Just as there
+was among the colonies a substantial unity of race, language, and
+religion, so there was a basic similarity in political institutions.
+All of the colonies were under relatively the same degree of control
+by England, and consequently all of them had much the same degree of
+freedom in managing their own affairs. In each colony a governor acted
+as chief executive. In each colony, likewise, there was a legislature.
+In most of the colonies this legislature consisted of two houses, the
+lower of which was elected by the people. Colonial jurisprudence
+everywhere grounded upon the common law of England. In each colony
+there was a system of courts, largely following English judicial
+procedure. In local government there was a good deal of variation
+among the colonies, but everywhere the English model was followed, and
+everywhere the principle of local autonomy was asserted and
+championed.
+
+494. EARLY ATTEMPTS AT UNION.--These fundamental similarities,
+together with the rise of common problems and the pressure of outside
+enemies, encouraged federation among the colonies. A notable attempt
+at union was made in 1643, when Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth,
+Connecticut, and New Haven united in a league of friendship, primarily
+for mutual defense against the Indians. This league rendered effective
+service during the forty years of its life. In 1754 delegates from
+seven colonies met at Albany and adopted a plan of union proposed by
+Benjamin Franklin. The project was never carried through, but it is
+significant as indicating the trend toward union. Still later (1765)
+the Stamp Act Congress showed that the delegates of at least nine
+colonies could join in a protest against England's taxation policy.
+The two Continental Congresses may also be considered as steps toward
+union. The first of these (1774) concerned itself chiefly with a
+declaration of rights and grievances, but the second (1775-1781) went
+so far as to assume and exercise revolutionary powers.
+
+495. THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION.--Impelled by the necessity of a
+united front against England, the Second Continental Congress sought
+to give force to the Declaration of Independence by drawing up a
+comprehensive plan of union. This plan, embodied in the Articles of
+Confederation, was put into operation on March 1, 1781. The new
+government was a confederation or league of states, rather than a
+federal government such as we have to-day. The states gave up such
+important powers as the right to declare war, and the right to borrow
+and coin money, but the Articles specifically declared that "each
+state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every
+power, jurisdiction, and right which is not by this federation
+delegated to the United States in Congress assembled."
+
+The Confederation government was seriously defective. There was no
+national executive and no judiciary. All authority was concentrated in
+a one-chambered congress, the delegates to which were entirely under
+the control of the state legislatures which chose them. The central
+government had no real authority or power. Its congress could reach
+the individual only through the action of the state governments, and
+these it could not coerce. The Confederation government managed to
+carry the states through the last two years of the war, and then
+declined rapidly in power and influence. The Congress could not force
+the states to coöperate with one another in matters of national
+interest. The inability of the central government, either to pay the
+interest on the national debt or to force the states to observe
+treaties which we made with foreign powers, cost us the respect of
+Europe. "We were bullied by England," writes John Fiske of this
+period, "insulted by France, and looked askance at in Holland."
+
+The defects of the Articles could not be remedied, for amendment was
+by unanimous consent only, and on every occasion that an amendment was
+proposed, one or more states refused their assent. By 1786 it was the
+conviction of most American statesmen that if the country were to be
+saved from anarchy and ruin the central government would have to be
+reorganized.
+
+496. THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION OF 1787.--In May, 1787, delegates
+from every state except Rhode Island came together in Philadelphia to
+consider "means necessary to render the Constitution of the Federal
+government adequate to the exigencies of the Union."
+
+Early in the session Edmund Randolph introduced what has been called
+the Virginia plan. This called for an abandonment of the Articles of
+Confederation and demanded the establishment of a strong national
+government. The Virginia plan favored the larger and more populous
+states by providing a national Congress of two houses, in both of
+which representation was to be on the basis of population.
+
+Of the several other plans put before the Convention the most notable
+was that proposed by William Paterson of New Jersey. The adherents of
+this plan wished to retain the Articles of Confederation. The Articles
+were to be revised so as to give greater powers to the central
+government, but in most practical concerns the states were to continue
+sovereign. The New Jersey plan opposed the idea of a two-chambered
+legislature in which the states were to be represented on the basis of
+population. If representation in both houses of Congress were on the
+basis of population, it was declared, the larger and more populous
+states would be able to dominate the National government and the
+rights of the smaller states would be inadequately safeguarded.
+
+After a long debate a compromise plan was adopted. It was agreed that
+there should be established a strong national government, but one
+sufficiently checked by constitutional provisions to safeguard the
+rights of the states. The national legislature was to consist of two
+houses. In the upper house the states were to be represented equally,
+while in the lower chamber representation was to be on the basis of
+population.
+
+497. THE NEW GOVERNMENT.--The Convention completed the Constitution on
+September 17, 1787, and the document was immediately placed before the
+states. By the summer of 1788 the necessary number of states had
+ratified the Constitution, and on April 30, 1789, the new government
+was put to work under George Washington as first President.
+
+The English statesman Gladstone has implied that our Constitution was
+an original creation, "struck off at a given time by the brain and
+purpose of man." But as a matter of fact the Constitution was not so
+much the result of political originality as it was a careful selection
+from British and colonial experience. The trial of the Confederation
+government had proved especially valuable, and in drawing up the
+Federal Constitution, the members of the Constitutional Convention
+were careful to avoid the defects of the Articles of Confederation.
+The most fundamental difference between the Confederation government
+and the new Federal government was that the Federal Constitution
+provided for an adequate executive and judiciary to enforce the
+Federal laws directly upon the individual. The Confederation
+government, it will be remembered, had been obliged to rely upon the
+states for the enforcement of all laws.
+
+
+B. FRAMEWORK OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
+
+498. THE THEORY OF LIMITED GOVERNMENT.--The new Constitution created a
+system of Federal government which retains the advantages of local
+self-government for the states, but at the same time secures the
+strength which results from union. The government of the United States
+is a compromise between centralization and decentralization, the
+balance between these two extremes being maintained by a rather
+elaborate system of checks, balances, and limitations.
+
+These checks, balances, and limitations we may consider under five
+heads: first, private rights under the Federal Constitution; second,
+the threefold division of powers in the Federal government; third, the
+division of powers between Federal and state governments; fourth,
+interstate relations; and fifth, the supremacy of Federal law.
+
+499. PRIVATE RIGHTS UNDER THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. [Footnote: For the
+prohibitions upon the states in favor of private rights, see Chapter
+XLV.]--The constitutional limitations upon the Federal government in
+behalf of private rights fall into two groups: those designed to
+protect personal liberty, [Footnote: Some of the limitations in favor
+of personal liberty enumerated in this section are contained in the
+first ten amendments to the Constitution, adopted in a body in 1791.]
+and those designed to protect property rights.
+
+In many important particulars the Federal Constitution protects
+personal liberty against arbitrary interference on the part of the
+National government. Congress may pass no law establishing or
+prohibiting any religion, or abridging either freedom of speech or
+freedom of the press. The right of the people peaceably to assemble
+and petition the government for a redress of grievances shall not be
+denied. The privilege of the writ of _habeas corpus_ shall not be
+suspended. Congress may not define treason. Neither bills of
+attainder, nor _ex-post facto_ legislation may be passed by Congress.
+Jury trial, fair bail, and freedom from both excessive fines and cruel
+and unusual punishments are guaranteed by the Constitution. Neither
+life, liberty nor property may be taken without due process of law.
+
+The Federal Constitution likewise protects the property rights of the
+individual against Federal aggression. The state governments alone may
+define property. Congress may not tax articles which are exported from
+any state. All direct taxes must be apportioned according to
+population. [Footnote: The Sixteenth Amendment exempts the income tax
+from this rule.] All duties, imposts, and excises must be uniform,
+that is, they must fall upon the same article with the same weight
+wherever found. Under the right of eminent domain, the Federal
+government may take private property for public use, but in such a
+case the owner must be fairly compensated.
+
+500. THREEFOLD DIVISION OF POWERS IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT.--A
+second distinctive feature of our system of government is that Federal
+authority is distributed among three distinct branches: the executive,
+the legislative, and the judicial. This is part of the general system
+of "checks and balances" by means of which the framers of the
+Constitution sought to prevent any branch or division of government
+from securing undue control of the governmental machinery.
+
+The basic merit of this threefold division of powers is that it
+safeguards each branch of government against aggression from the other
+two branches. And yet this division of powers is by no means so
+complete that the three branches do not work together. For example,
+both the appointive and the treaty-making powers of the President are
+shared by the Senate. The President shares in legislation through his
+veto power, as well as through his right to send messages to Congress.
+The Senate has the right to impeach all civil officers of the United
+States, and may even exert some control over the Supreme Court through
+its right to prescribe the number of its judges and the amount of
+their salaries. The judiciary, on the other hand, enjoys the unique
+power of passing upon the constitutionality of the acts of the other
+two branches of government.
+
+501. DIVISION OF POWERS BETWEEN FEDERAL AND STATE GOVERNMENTS.--
+Another feature of the check and balance system is that authority is
+divided between Federal and state governments. The Tenth Amendment
+declares that "the powers not delegated to the United States by the
+Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the
+states." Thus we speak of the National government as enjoying
+delegated or enumerated powers, while the state governments have
+residual or unenumerated powers. The Federal government must show some
+specific or implied grant of power for everything that it does, but
+state governments need only show that the Federal Constitution does
+not prohibit them from doing whatever they see fit.
+
+This division of powers between Federal and state governments has
+several distinct advantages. For example, it allows Federal and state
+governments to act as a check upon one another. Furthermore, the
+device admirably divides governmental labor: the Federal government is
+given control of matters essentially national, while the states are
+left in charge of affairs distinctly state or local in character.
+
+502. INTERSTATE RELATIONS.--Further to guarantee the integrity of the
+Federal system, the Constitution specifies the fundamental nature of
+interstate relations. The states are independent of one another, and
+are equal in Federal law. The laws of a state have no force, and their
+public officials have no authority, beyond the state limits.
+
+The Constitution specifically provides that "full faith and credit
+shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial
+proceedings of every other state." This does not mean that the laws of
+a particular state are binding upon persons in other states. It does
+mean, however, that the courts of each state shall endeavor to give
+the same force to the laws of a neighboring state as those laws would
+have in the courts of the legislating state.
+
+To prevent discriminations against citizens of other states, the
+Federal Constitution provides that the citizens of each state are
+"entitled to all the privileges and immunities of citizens in the
+several states." This means that a citizen of one state may remove to
+a neighboring state, and there enjoy the same civil rights that the
+citizens of the latter state enjoy.
+
+In order that fugitive criminals may be tried and punished, the
+Constitution further provides that "a person charged in any state with
+treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be
+found in another state, shall, on the demand of the executive
+authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up to be
+removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime."
+
+503. SUPREMACY OF FEDERAL LAW.--A last distinctive feature of our
+system of government is that Federal law is supreme. The Constitution
+states: "This Constitution and the laws of the United States which
+shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made or which
+shall be made under the authority of the United States shall be the
+supreme law of the land." The states are supreme in their sphere of
+action; nevertheless, when it is claimed that there is a conflict
+between state and Federal law, the latter prevails. Federal law is the
+supreme law of the land, and, in the last instance, it is the Supreme
+Court of the United States which is the interpreter of that law. The
+decisions of the Supreme Court are binding upon the Federal
+government, upon the several states, and upon private individuals.
+
+
+C. DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION
+
+504. THE FORMAL AMENDING PROCESS.--The Constitution of the United
+States may be formally amended in any one of four ways. First, an
+amendment may be proposed by a two-thirds vote of each House of
+Congress, and ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the
+states. Second, an amendment may be proposed by a two-thirds vote of
+each House of Congress and ratified by conventions in three fourths of
+the States. Third, an amendment may be proposed by a national
+convention, called by Congress upon the request of the legislatures of
+two thirds of the states, and ratified by the legislatures of three
+fourths of the states. The fourth method resembles the third, except
+that ratification is by conventions in three fourths of the states.
+
+505. AMENDMENTS I-XIX.--There have been nineteen Amendments to the
+Federal Constitution. [Footnote: For the full text of these Amendments
+see the Appendix.]
+
+Of these the first ten were adopted as a body in 1791, to satisfy
+those who feared that the new Constitution did not adequately protect
+individual or states' rights against Federal aggression. Amendments I-
+VIII are designed to protect the fundamental rights of the individual.
+The Ninth and Tenth express the principle that the Federal government
+is one of enumerated powers, while those powers not specifically
+conferred upon the Federal government by the Constitution are reserved
+to the states or to the people.
+
+The Eleventh Amendment, adopted in 1798, provided that the Federal
+judicial power should not be construed to extend to any suit against a
+state by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any
+foreign state.
+
+The Twelfth Amendment, adopted in 1804, provided that presidential
+electors should cast separate ballots for President and Vice
+President.
+
+The Thirteenth Amendment (1865) abolished slavery, the Fourteenth
+(1868) defined citizenship and sought to prevent the states from
+discriminating against certain classes of citizens, while the
+Fifteenth Amendment (1870) declared that the right of citizens of the
+United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged on account of
+race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
+
+In 1913 the Sixteenth Amendment authorized Congress to tax incomes
+without apportionment among the several states, and without regard to
+any census or enumeration.
+
+In the same year the Seventeenth Amendment provided for the direct
+election of United States Senators.
+
+In 1919 an Eighteenth Amendment prohibited the manufacture, sale, or
+transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof
+into, or the exportation thereof from, the United States.
+
+A Nineteenth Amendment was adopted in 1920. This declared that the
+right to vote shall not be denied to any citizen of the United States
+on account of sex.
+
+506. CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGES THROUGH JUDICIAL INTERPRETATION.--The
+Federal Constitution has also been modified and developed by judicial
+interpretation. The United States Supreme Court has maintained that
+the Federal government possesses not only those powers expressly
+granted by the Constitution, but also those powers which are included
+with, or implied from, powers expressly granted. This liberal
+construction is authorized by the Constitution itself, for the last
+clause in Section VIII of Article One of that document declares that
+Congress shall have power to "make all laws which shall be necessary
+and proper for carrying into execution" its enumerated powers. Under
+this doctrine of implied powers, the influence of the National
+government has been markedly extended, chiefly with regard to the war
+power, the power to regulate interstate commerce, and the power to
+levy taxes and borrow money.
+
+507. CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGES THROUGH USAGE.--The Federal Constitution
+has also been modified by the force of custom and political practices.
+Examples of the power of usage to modify the Constitution are
+numerous, but a few will suffice to illustrate the principle. Custom
+has limited the President of the United States to two terms. In
+conformity with a long-established custom, Presidential electors do
+not exercise independent judgment, but merely register the vote of
+their respective constituents. Though the Constitution provides that
+the appointive power of the President shall be exercised with the
+advice and consent of the Senate, custom virtually prohibits the
+Senate from challenging the President's Cabinet appointments. On the
+other hand, many executive appointments of minor importance are
+determined solely by members of Congress. Usage decrees that the
+President alone may remove officers which he has appointed with the
+advice and consent of the Senate. Lastly, the legislative committee
+system, as well as the entire machinery of the political party, is the
+outcome of custom. Concerning these important instruments of practical
+politics, the Constitution is silent.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Point out some similarities among the American colonial
+governments.
+
+2. Describe some of the earlier attempts at union.
+
+3. What was the nature of the Confederation government?
+
+4. For what specific purpose was the Constitutional Convention
+convened?
+
+5. What was the Virginia plan? The New Jersey plan?
+
+6. What was the fundamental difference between the Confederation
+government and the new Federal government?
+
+7. What is the theory of limited government?
+
+8. What two classes of private rights are safeguarded by the Federal
+Constitution?
+
+9. What is the nature and purpose of the threefold division of powers?
+
+10. To what extent does the Constitution divide powers between Federal
+and state governments?
+
+11. Outline the nature of interstate relations, as provided for in the
+Federal Constitution.
+
+12. What is meant by saying that Federal law is supreme?
+
+13. By what four methods may the Federal Constitution be amended?
+
+14. Enumerate and briefly characterize the nineteen amendments to the
+Federal Constitution.
+
+15. To what extent has the Federal Constitution been modified by
+judicial interpretation?
+
+16. How may the Constitution be modified by usage? Give some examples.
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Beard, _American Government and Politics_, chapter iii.
+
+2. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States_, chapter
+xviii.
+
+3. Munro, _The Government of the United States_, chapter v.
+
+4. Review chapters ii, iii and iv of the text.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. What were the chief powers of the New England Confederation?
+(Guitteau, page 208.)
+
+2. What was the nature of the Stamp Act Congress? (Guitteau, pages
+208-209.)
+
+3. What was the most fatal weakness of the Confederation government?
+(Guitteau, page 212.)
+
+4. Outline the movement for constitutional revision. (Beard, pages 42-
+44.)
+
+5. Discuss the membership of the Constitutional Convention. (Beard,
+pages 44-45.)
+
+6. Outline the defects of the Articles of Confederation which were
+avoided in framing the Federal Constitution. (Beard, pages 53-56.)
+
+7. What were some of the objections to the ratification of the Federal
+Constitution? (Beard, pages 56-58.)
+
+8. Compare the English and American Constitutions with respect to
+flexibility. (Munro, pages 57-58.)
+
+9. What effect has constitutional development had upon the division of
+powers? (Munro, pages 69-70.)
+
+10. Has the development of the Federal Constitution made government
+more or less democratic? (Munro, page 70.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. The protection of your personal liberty under the Federal
+Constitution.
+
+2. The protection of your property rights under the Federal
+Constitution.
+
+3. Compare the first eight amendments to the Federal Constitution with
+the bill of rights in your state constitution.
+
+4. Compare the Federal Constitution with the constitution of your
+state with respect to length, number of subjects treated, and
+complexity of language.
+
+5. The process of extradition between your state and neighboring
+commonwealths.
+
+
+II
+
+6. Evolution of the state. (Gettell, _Problems in Political
+Evolution_, chapter i.)
+
+7. Nature of Federal government. (Gettell, _Readings in Political
+Science_, pages 268-270.)
+
+8. Advantages and disadvantages of Federal government. (Gettell,
+_Readings in Political Science_, pages 276-280.)
+
+9. Colonial origins of the Federal Constitution. (Beard, _American
+Government and Politics_, chapter i; Munro, _The Government of the
+United States_, chapter i; Reed, _Form and Functions of American
+Government_, chapter i.)
+
+10. Preliminaries of national government. (Beard, _American Government
+and Politics_, chapter ii; Munro, _The Government of the United
+States_, chapter ii.)
+
+11. The meaning of "We, the People of the United States," in the
+Preamble to the Constitution. (Taft, _Popular Government_, chapter i.)
+
+12. Sovereignty. (Gettell, _Introduction to Political Science_,
+chapter viii; Leacock, _Elements of Political Science_, chapter iv.)
+
+13. Relation of state and Federal governments. (Guitteau, _Government
+and Politics in the United States_, chapter xxi.)
+
+14. The supremacy of Federal law. (Munro, _The Government of the
+United States_, chapter iv.)
+
+15. The check and balance system. (Gettell, _Readings in Political
+Science_, pages 332-336; Forman, _The American Republic_, chapter iv.)
+
+16. The separation of powers. (Beard, _American Government and
+Politics_, pages 152-155; Gettell, _Introduction to Political
+Science_, chapter xvii; Leacock, _Elements of Political Science_, part
+ii, chapter i.)
+
+17. Interstate relations. (Leacock, _Elements of Political Science_,
+chapter vi.)
+
+18. Personal liberty and government. (Cleveland, _Organized
+Democracy_, chapter vii; Gettell, _Introduction to Political Science_,
+chapter ix.)
+
+19. The doctrine of implied powers. (Guitteau, _Government and
+Politics in the United States_, chapter xx.)
+
+20. Evolution of the Federal Constitution. (Kimball, _The National
+Government of the United States_, chapter ii.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+21. Is the Federal Constitution too difficult of amendment? Is it too
+easily amended?
+
+22. Does the Constitution adequately protect state governments against
+Federal aggression?
+
+23. Has judicial interpretation of the Constitution proved helpful or
+harmful?
+
+24. Has constitutional modification through usage proved helpful or
+harmful?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XL
+
+THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+A. CHOOSING THE PRESIDENT
+
+508. ORIGINAL METHOD OF CHOOSING THE PRESIDENT.--The Federal
+Constitution sought to protect the office of chief magistrate against
+popular passion by providing for the indirect election of the
+President. According to the Constitution, each state was to appoint,
+"in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct," a number of
+electors equal to the state's combined quota of senators and
+representatives in Congress. These electors were to meet, each group
+in its own state, and were to vote by ballot for two persons. These
+ballots were then to be transmitted sealed to Congress, where the
+President of the Senate was to open and count them in the presence of
+both houses. The person receiving the highest number of votes was to
+be declared President, while the individual obtaining the next highest
+number was to fill the office of Vice President.
+
+509. CHANGES IN THE ORIGINAL METHOD OF CHOOSING THE PRESIDENT.--Three
+important changes have been brought about in the original method of
+choosing the President.
+
+At the beginning of our national history, the state legislatures
+themselves chose the Presidential electors, but with the spread of
+democracy the legislatures gradually transferred the choice of these
+electors to the people. To-day Presidential electors are in every
+state chosen by popular vote, on a general state-wide ticket.
+
+After the election of 1800 it became apparent that in order to prevent
+the candidate for Vice President from defeating the candidate for
+President, there would have to be a separate ballot for each of these
+officers. In 1804 there was accordingly passed the Twelfth Amendment
+to the Constitution, providing that Presidential electors should
+thenceforth cast separate ballots for President and Vice President.
+
+Party politics have effected a third change in the original method of
+choosing the President. The Constitution evidently intended that the
+Presidential electors should be men of high repute, and that they
+should select the nation's chief executive as the result of mature
+deliberation and independent judgment. But as early as the third
+Presidential election (1796) it became clearly understood that the
+electors would merely register the opinions of their constituents.
+Technically the electors still choose the President; as a matter of
+fact they exercise no discretion, but merely express decisions
+previously reached by their respective constituents.
+
+510. PRESENT METHOD OF CHOOSING THE PRESIDENT.--To-day the President
+of the United States is elected as follows:
+
+Each political party nominates a candidate for the presidency at a
+national convention held in June or July of the presidential year. At
+about the same time the various parties in each state nominate the
+quota of presidential electors to which the state is entitled. The
+people vote on these electors on the Tuesday following the first
+Monday in November of each leap year. In each state the electors
+receiving a plurality assemble at the state capitol on the second
+Monday in January following their election, and vote directly for
+President and Vice President. These votes are then certified and sent
+to the President of the Senate. On the second Wednesday in February,
+this officer opens them, and in the presence of the two houses of
+Congress, counts them, and declares elected the candidate who has
+received the majority of the electoral votes. If no candidate has a
+majority, the House of Representatives elects one of the three leading
+candidates, the Representatives from each state casting one vote. In
+1800 and again in 1824, the presidential election was thus decided by
+the House.
+
+511. QUALIFICATIONS.--All persons who are entitled to vote for the
+most numerous branch of the state legislature are entitled, likewise,
+to vote in presidential elections. [Footnote: For limitations upon the
+suffrage in the various states, see Chapter XXXIII, Section 415.]
+
+No presidential elector may hold any office of trust or profit under
+the United States. By custom electors are also residents of the
+district from which they are chosen.
+
+The President of the United States must be a natural-born citizen of
+the United States and must be at least thirty-five years of age. He
+must also have been a resident of the United States for fourteen
+years.
+
+512. COMPENSATION.--The President's salary is determined by Congress,
+but the amount may be neither increased nor decreased for the existing
+presidential term. Between 1789 and 1873 the presidential salary was
+$25,000, and in 1873 it was increased to $50,000 a year. Since 1909
+the President has received an annual salary of $75,000, plus an
+allowance for travelling expenses and the upkeep of the White House or
+Executive Mansion.
+
+513. TERM AND SUCCESSION.--The President-elect is inaugurated on the
+4th of March following his election, and serves until the 4th of March
+four years later. By custom, though not by law, he is limited to two
+terms.
+
+The Constitution provides that in case the President is removed by
+impeachment, death, resignation, or inability, his duties shall
+devolve upon the Vice President. In 1886 the Presidential Succession
+Act provided that in case of the inability of both President and Vice
+President the Cabinet officers shall succeed in the following order:
+Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War,
+Attorney-General, Postmaster-General, Secretary of the Navy, and
+Secretary of the Interior. No Cabinet officer has ever succeeded to
+the Presidency, but Presidents Tyler, Fillmore, Johnson, Arthur, and
+Roosevelt were formerly Vice Presidents who ascended to the Presidency
+because of the death of the chief executive.
+
+514. THE VICE PRESIDENT.--The Vice President of the United States is
+elected in the same manner and by the same electors as the President,
+with this exception: The failure of any Vice-Presidential candidate to
+receive a majority of the electoral votes permits the Vice President
+to be chosen by the Senate from the two candidates receiving the
+highest number of electoral votes. The qualifications for the Vice
+President are the same as for the President. The Vice Presidents
+salary is $12,000 a year.
+
+Aside from the fact that he may succeed the President there is little
+to be said about the Vice President. He presides over the Senate, but
+he is not a member of that body. He can neither appoint committees,
+nor even vote, except in case of a tie. Vice Presidents have generally
+exerted little influence upon national affairs. During President
+Wilson's second term, neither the President's extended absence in
+Europe, nor his serious illness at home, operated to increase the
+influence of the Vice President. Under President Harding's
+administration, however, Vice President Coolidge was accorded
+considerable recognition, including the privilege of sitting in the
+President's Cabinet meetings.
+
+
+B. DUTIES AND POWERS OP THE PRESIDENT
+
+515. GENERAL STATUS OF THE PRESIDENT--The President of the United
+States acts as the head of the executive branch of government. Since
+the executive is independent of the other two branches, the President
+is subject to the control of neither legislature nor judiciary. The
+President cannot be arrested for any cause whatsoever. No ordinary
+court has jurisdiction over the Chief Magistrate, though misconduct
+may result in his being impeached by the Senate of the United States.
+
+The President enjoys extensive powers, some of which are enumerated in
+the Constitution, [Footnote: Article II] and others of which he has
+acquired by the force of custom. These powers are divisible into four
+groups, which may be discussed in the following order: War powers,
+powers with reference to foreign affairs, administrative powers, and
+legislative powers.
+
+516. WAR POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT.--Section II of Article II of the
+Constitution provides that the President shall be "commander-in-chief
+of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the
+several states when called into actual service of the United States."
+In pursuance of this power the President controls and directs the
+nation's military and naval forces, and appoints all army and naval
+officers. [Footnote: In time of war, the President may dismiss these
+officers at will; in time of peace, however, they are removed by
+court-martial.] The execution of the military law under which the army
+and navy are governed is also directed by the President. The President
+may call out the state militia, when in his judgment such action is
+necessary in order to suppress insurrection, repel invasion, or
+enforce the laws. In case of war with foreign countries, the President
+as commander-in-chief assumes full direction of hostilities.
+
+So long as he acts within the bounds of international law, the
+President may do anything which he deems necessary to weaken the power
+of the enemy. In the exercise of this right President Lincoln
+blockaded the southern ports during the Civil War, suspended the writ
+of _habeas corpus_, declared martial law in many districts, and freed
+the slaves by proclamation. During the World War (1917-1921), the
+powers of President Wilson were greatly expanded. For the purpose of
+bringing the struggle with Germany to a successful termination,
+Congress conferred upon the President large powers of control over
+food, fuel, shipbuilding, and the export trade. The railway,
+telegraph, and wireless systems were taken over by the government
+under the President's war powers.
+
+An important phase of the President's war powers is the constitutional
+charge to take care that the laws be faithfully executed. Usually the
+administration of law is a peaceful process, but when the civil
+authorities are rendered powerless by persons defying Federal law, the
+President may use his military power to restore order. On three
+notable occasions the President has enforced the laws by the use or
+display of military force. In 1794 President Washington called out the
+militia of four states to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion. During the
+Civil War, President Lincoln resorted to military force to execute the
+laws. Again, in 1894, President Cleveland used regular troops to
+prevent railway strikers in Chicago from interfering with the Federal
+mails.
+
+517. CONTROL OVER FOREIGN AFFAIRS.--The Constitution vests in the
+President the power to negotiate treaties and conventions with foreign
+nations. In practice the President usually acts through the Secretary
+of State. During the process of negotiation it is customary for the
+President to consult with the Senate committee on foreign relations,
+as well as with the leaders of the senatorial majority. Such
+consultation is a wise step, because no treaty may become law unless
+ratified by the Senate.
+
+The President receives diplomatic representatives from foreign
+countries. This is largely a ceremonial duty, but it may involve
+serious consequences. When the independence of a foreign country is in
+doubt, or when the representative of any nation is personally
+objectionable to our government, the President may refuse to receive
+the foreign representative. In case relations between this and a
+foreign country become strained, or in case the representative of a
+foreign power is guilty of misconduct, the President may request the
+withdrawal of, or may even dismiss, the foreign representative. This
+severance of diplomatic relations may lead to war.
+
+The President has the further power to appoint diplomatic
+representatives to foreign countries. We send ambassadors to the more
+important countries, ministers-resident to most countries, envoys
+extraordinary or ministers-plenipotentiary to several countries, and
+commissioners for special purposes. In the absence of the permanent
+diplomatic representative some minor officer takes temporary charge,
+and is known as the _chargé d'affaires ad interim_. All of the
+President's diplomatic appointments must be confirmed by the Senate,
+but the President acting alone may remove any diplomatic officer. Such
+removal is at the pleasure of the President. The term of office
+enjoyed by diplomatic representatives is not fixed by law, but due to
+the influence of the spoils system, it often terminates when a new
+President assumes office.
+
+Besides diplomatic officers, who are charged with political duties,
+our foreign service comprises various grades of consuls, or commercial
+representatives. The President and the Senate likewise choose consular
+officers, but from lists of persons who have qualified under the merit
+system. Promotion and removal are determined by Civil Service rules.
+
+518. ADMINISTRATIVE POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT.--The chief
+administrative function of the President is to carry into effect the
+laws of the United States. In the discharge of this duty the President
+is aided by a large number of subordinate officials, who, directly or
+indirectly, are responsible to him as head of the administration.
+Altogether there are more than half a million officials in the
+executive civil service of the United States.
+
+Over the appointment of these numerous officers the President has a
+varying measure of control.
+
+He alone appoints a few executive officials, such as his private
+secretary and the members of his Cabinet. The latter are nominally
+chosen by the President and the Senate, but in practice the Senate
+universally approves Cabinet appointments sent in by the President.
+Officers in this first group may be removed only by the President.
+
+The President and the Senate together select about 12,000 of the more
+important executive officers. These include diplomatic agents, Federal
+judges, most military and naval officers, collectors of customs and
+internal revenues, and many others. In the case of minor positions to
+be filled within a congressional district, the President usually
+confers with the Representative from that district, if that
+Representative is of the President's party. If such Representative is
+not of the President's party, the candidate for the position is really
+selected by the Senators from the proper state. [Footnote: Provided,
+of course, that these Senators belong to the same political party as
+the President. ] The more important positions in this group are filled
+by the Senators from the state in which the vacancy exists, the
+President ratifying such selections as a matter of course. Officers in
+this second group are removable only by the President.
+
+More than 300,000 of the minor executive positions are now filled by
+the Civil Service Commission. Persons entering office through the
+merit system, may be removed only for a cause which will promote the
+efficiency of the service.
+
+In addition to his administrative duties, the President has the power
+to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States,
+except in the case of impeachment. A pardon fully exempts the
+individual from the punishment imposed upon him by law; a reprieve, on
+the other hand, is simply a temporary suspension of the execution of a
+sentence.
+
+519. LEGISLATIVE POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT.--Though primarily an
+executive officer, the President enjoys important powers over
+legislation.
+
+The President may convene either or both houses of Congress on
+extraordinary occasions. For example, he may call an extra session of
+Congress to consider such questions as the tariff, currency reform, or
+a treaty.
+
+The President has the right to send messages to Congress from time to
+time during his term. The recommendations contained in these messages
+exert some direct influence upon legislation, and are important in
+formulating public opinion outside of Congress.
+
+Indirectly the President exerts a considerable influence upon
+legislation by bringing political pressure to bear upon the
+Congressional leaders of his party. He also exerts some influence upon
+legislation by the use of the patronage which accompanies his
+appointing power. This influence is important as breaking down the
+barriers between the executive and legislative branches of government.
+
+The President may issue ordinances which have the force of law. As
+commander-in-chief of the army and navy, he may issue ordinances for
+their regulation. In pursuance of the duty to enforce the laws, the
+President may issue ordinances prescribing uniform means for the
+enforcement of the statutes. He may issue ordinances for specific
+purposes, as, for example, Congress in 1912 authorized the President
+to issue legislative ordinances for the government of the Canal Zone.
+
+Very important is the President's veto power. The President may veto
+any bill or joint resolution passed by Congress, with the exception of
+joint resolutions proposing Constitutional amendments. But the
+President must veto the bill as a whole, and not particular items.
+Even though vetoed by the President, a bill may still become law by
+being passed by a two-thirds vote in each house of Congress. In spite
+of these restrictions, the President exerts a considerable influence
+upon legislation by the use of the veto, or by the threat that he will
+employ it. Most authorities regard the veto power as a wholesome check
+upon harmful and unwise legislation.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Describe the original method of choosing the President.
+
+2. Outline the three important changes which have taken place in the
+original method of choosing the President.
+
+3. Describe the present method of choosing the President.
+
+4. What are the qualifications for Presidential electors? For
+President?
+
+5. What is the compensation of the President?
+
+6. What is the nature of the Presidential Succession Act?
+
+7. Discuss the Vice Presidency.
+
+8. Into what four groups may the powers of the President be divided?
+
+9. Enumerate the chief war powers of the President.
+
+10. What is the extent of the President's treaty-making power?
+
+11. Outline the President's duties with respect to appointing and
+receiving foreign representatives.
+
+12. What is the chief administrative function of the President?
+
+13. Discuss the President's power to grant pardons and reprieves.
+
+14. Explain the ordinance-issuing power of the President.
+
+15. What is the extent of the President's veto power?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Beard, _American Government and Politics_, chapter x.
+
+2. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States_, chapter
+xxv.
+
+3. Munro, _The Government of the United States_, chapter viii.
+
+4. Reed, _Form and Functions of American Government_, chapter xix.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Outline the work of the national convention. (Reed, pages 228-229.)
+
+2. Describe the presidential campaign. (Reed, pages 233-234.)
+
+3. Why was the presidential election of 1876 disputed? (Guitteau,
+pages 288-289.)
+
+4. Describe the inaugural ceremony. (Guitteau, page 292.)
+
+5. What is the origin of the President's right to remove officers
+appointed by him? (Beard, page 193.)
+
+6. How did President Roosevelt once succeed in carrying out the terms
+of an international agreement without the consent of the Senate?
+(Beard, pages 197-198.)
+
+7. Why was the veto power originally bestowed upon the President?
+(Beard, page 202.)
+
+8. What is the rule of senatorial courtesy? (Munro, page 107.)
+
+9. What is the pocket veto? (Munro, page 118.)
+
+10. What is the President's relation to the courts? (Munro, pages 124-
+125.)
+
+11. What is the method of impeaching a President? (Reed, pages 237-
+238.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. The part played by your state in the last Presidential election.
+
+2. Extent to which the President of the United States has made use of
+the militia of your state.
+
+3. Compare the powers of the President of the United States with the
+powers of the Governor of your state.
+
+4. Cabinet officers, past or present, who were natives of your state.
+
+5. List some of the offices within the bounds of your state which are
+filled, directly or indirectly, by the President of the United States.
+
+
+II
+
+6. The biography of some one President. (Consult an encyclopedia,
+standard works on American history, and special biographies.)
+
+7. The history of some one important Presidential election. (Consult a
+standard history of the United States.)
+
+8. The inauguration of a President. (Reinsch, _Readings on American
+Federal Government_, pages 1-5.)
+
+9. The war powers of the President. (Reinsch, _Readings on American
+Federal Government_, pages 22-32.)
+
+10. Federal intervention in the Chicago strike of 1894. (Reinsch,
+_Readings on American Federal Government_, pages 32-46.)
+
+11. The treaty-making power. (Reinsch, _Readings on American Federal
+Government_, pages 79-127.)
+
+12. The presidential power of appointment. (Taft, _Our Chief
+Magistrate and His Powers_, chapter iii.)
+
+13. The pardoning power of the President. (Taft, _Our Chief Magistrate
+and His Powers_, chapter v.)
+
+14. The presidential veto. (Taft, _Our Chief Magistrate and His
+Powers_, chapter i.)
+
+15. The President at work. (Reinsch, _Readings on American Federal
+Government_, pages 5-10.)
+
+16. The President as party leader. (Jones, _Readings on Parties and
+Elections in the United States_, pages 205-211.)
+
+17. Relations of the executive and legislative branches of the
+National government. (Beard, _American Government and Politics_, pages
+205-214.)
+
+18. The impeachment of President Johnson. (Consult any general work on
+American history, or an encyclopedia.)
+
+19. "Why great men are not chosen Presidents." (Bryce, _The American
+Commonwealth_, vol. i, chapter viii.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+20. Would a single presidential term of six years be preferable to the
+present custom of electing a President for not more than two four-year
+terms?
+
+21. Should the President be chosen directly by the people, without
+resort to the electoral college?
+
+22. Does Congress exercise too little control over the choice of the
+President's Cabinet?
+
+23. Advantages and disadvantages of the veto power. (See Munro, _The
+Government of the United States_, page 119.)
+
+24. Should the President be permitted to veto separate items in a
+bill?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLI
+
+THE NATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
+
+
+520. DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEDERAL EXECUTIVE.--The President is the head
+of the Federal executive, but in the performance of his numerous
+administrative duties he is aided by a number of subordinate officers.
+
+No executive departments were directly established by the
+Constitution, but that document evidently assumes their existence, for
+it clearly states that the President "may require the opinion, in
+writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive
+departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their
+respective offices." [Footnote: Article II, Section II, of the
+Constitution.]
+
+President Washington was authorized by Congress to appoint three
+assistants: a Secretary of State, a Secretary of the Treasury, and a
+Secretary of War. With the development of governmental functions,
+additional departments have been created. Congress established the
+Post Office Department in 1794, the Navy Department in 1798, the
+Department of the Interior in 1849, the Department of Justice in 1870,
+the Department of Agriculture in 1889, the Department of Commerce in
+1903, and the Department of Labor in 1913. At present, then, there are
+ten Federal executive departments, all of them under the direct
+control of the President.
+
+521. THE CABINET.--The heads of these ten departments are appointed by
+the President, nominally with the consent of the Senate. They may be
+removed only by the President, and by him at will. Neither in the
+Constitution nor in the statutes of Congress is there provision for a
+Cabinet, but as the result of custom which has been formulating since
+Washington's second term the heads of the Federal executive
+departments have come to constitute, in their collective capacity, the
+President's Cabinet. Cabinet meetings are generally held twice a week,
+or oftener, as the President desires.
+
+The American Cabinet should not be confused with the Cabinet in Great
+Britain and other European countries. In Europe the Cabinet is
+generally a parliamentary ministry, that is to say, a group of men
+chosen from the majority party in the legislature. These Cabinet
+members, or ministers, sit in the legislature, propose laws, and
+defend their measures on the floor. They are held responsible for the
+national administration. This means that when the majority of the
+legislature fails to support them they are expected to resign, in
+order that the opposition party may form a new Cabinet.
+
+Quite different is the American Cabinet. This body is advisory only,
+and the President may disregard the advice of any or all of its
+members. The Cabinet in this country is accountable only to the
+President. The attitude of Congress toward Cabinet officers has
+nothing to do with the tenure of office of these executive heads.
+Cabinet members do not sit in Congress; they do not, in the capacity
+of Cabinet officers, introduce or defend legislation; and they are not
+held responsible for the administration.
+
+522. HEADS OF DEPARTMENTS AS ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS.--Collectively
+the heads of the ten executive departments act as the President's
+Cabinet; individually they administer their respective departments.
+Though responsible to the President and at all times working under his
+direction, the heads of departments are allowed a wide range of
+independence. Department heads may appoint and remove at will a large
+number of minor officers in their respective departments, though of
+late years this power has been considerably restricted by Civil
+Service rules. The exact scope of the work of the various departments
+is largely denned by law. Within the limits thus set, the head of the
+department is free to make regulations affecting the conduct of
+departmental business. To expedite business, the work of each
+department is divided and subdivided among numerous bureaus, boards,
+and commissions, functioning under the general direction of the head
+of the department.
+
+523. THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE.--Without doubt the most important of the
+subordinate executive officers is the Secretary of State. His most
+pressing duty is to conduct foreign affairs in accordance with the
+wishes of the President. In pursuance of this duty, the Secretary of
+State issues instructions to diplomatic and consular officers, issues
+passports to American citizens going abroad, and otherwise exercises
+control of matters touching foreign relations.
+
+Important domestic duties devolve upon the Secretary of State. When
+the President desires to communicate with the Governors of the several
+states, he acts through the Secretary of State. The Secretary is the
+custodian of the Great Seal of the United States. It is he who
+oversees the publication of the Federal statutes. The Secretary of
+State likewise has charge of the archives containing the originals of
+all laws, treaties, and foreign correspondence.
+
+Much of the work of the Department of State is performed through
+bureaus, the titles of which indicate their respective functions. Of
+these bureaus the following are the more important: the diplomatic
+bureau, the consular bureau, the bureau of accounts, the bureau of
+indexes and archives, the bureau of rolls and library, the bureau of
+appointments, and the bureau of citizenship. Each of these bureaus is
+headed by a chief who is directly responsible to the Secretary of
+State. In addition to these chiefs of bureaus, the Secretary is aided
+by three assistant secretaries of state.
+
+524. DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY.--Supervision of the national finances
+is the chief business of the Secretary of the Treasury. The Secretary
+annually submits to Congress estimates of probable receipts and
+expenditures, and supervises the collection of customs and internal
+revenues. He also issues warrants for all moneys paid out of the
+treasury.
+
+The scope of the department's work may be indicated by an enumeration
+of its chief officers. These include the Secretary himself, three
+assistant secretaries, six auditors, the treasurer, the comptroller
+of the treasury, the director of the mint, the register, the
+comptroller of the currency, the commissioner of internal revenue, the
+director of the bureau of engraving and printing, the chief of the
+secret-service department, the captain commandant of the coast guard,
+the superintendent of the life-saving service, the surgeon-general of
+the public health service, the supervising architect, and the farm
+loan commissioner.
+
+525. THE DEPARTMENT OF WAR.--National defense is the chief concern of
+the Secretary of War. Coast fortifications, the supervision of
+navigation, and river and harbor improvements fall within the scope of
+the department. Our insular possessions are administered by the
+Secretary of War. It is also the duty of this officer to prepare
+estimates of the expenses of his department, to supervise all
+expenditures for the support and transportation of the army, and to
+take charge of the issuance of orders for the movement of troops. In
+addition, he has charge of the Military Academy at West Point, and
+recommends all appointments and promotions in the army service.
+
+Under the Secretary of War are grouped a number of administrative
+bureaus, each headed by an army officer detailed for a period of four
+years. Of these officers the following are the more important: the
+inspector-general, the quartermaster-general, the adjutant general,
+the surgeon-general, the chief of engineers, the chief of ordnance,
+the chief signal officer, the chief of the coast artillery, the judge
+advocate general, the provost-marshal general, and the chief of the
+bureau of insular affairs.
+
+526. THE DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY.--The Department of the Navy is
+likewise concerned with national defense. While less important than
+the Department of War, the Department of the Navy is steadily gaining
+in prestige. The Department is in charge of a Secretary, aided by an
+assistant secretary. It is the duty of the Department of the Navy to
+superintend the construction and armament of war vessels, and in
+addition exercise a supervisory control over the naval service. The
+Naval Academy at Annapolis and the Naval War College at Newport are in
+charge of the Department of the Navy.
+
+The administrative work of the Department is carried on by seven
+bureaus, most of them in charge of line officers of the Navy, working
+directly under the Secretary. These bureaus are as follows: the bureau
+of navigation, the bureau of ordnance, the bureau of yards and docks,
+the bureau of supplies and accounts, the bureau of steam engineering,
+the bureau of medicine and surgery, and the bureau of construction and
+repairs.
+
+527. THE DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE.--This Department is headed by the
+Attorney-General, who acts as the chief legal adviser of the National
+government. It is his duty to represent the government in all cases to
+which the United States is a party. It is he who conducts proceedings
+against corporations or individuals who violate the Federal laws.
+General supervision over all Federal district attorneys and marshals
+is exercised by the Attorney-General. This officer likewise examines
+the titles of lands which the government intends to purchase. The
+Attorney-General has a supervisory charge of the penal and reformatory
+institutions which are Federal in character. Applications for pardons
+by the President are investigated by the Attorney-General. Still
+another of his duties is to superintend the codification of the
+Federal criminal laws.
+
+In these various duties the Attorney-General is assisted by an under-
+officer known as the solicitor-general.
+
+528. THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT.--This Department, headed by the
+Postmaster-General, has general charge of the postal service. The
+Postmaster-General awards contracts for the transportation of the
+mails, and directs the management of the domestic and foreign mail
+service. The handling of money orders, the parcels post system, and
+the postal savings banks come under the control of the Postmaster-
+General. Of great importance is the power of this officer to bar from
+the mails publications which are fraudulent or otherwise obnoxious.
+
+Working under the Postmaster-General are four assistant postmasters-
+general, each in general charge of a group of services within the
+department.
+
+529. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR.--Aided by two assistant secretaries,
+the Secretary of the Interior performs a number of important
+functions. He has charge of all public lands, including national
+parks. The handling of Indian affairs constitutes one of his duties.
+The territories of Alaska and Hawaii come under the direct supervision
+of this department.
+
+Many miscellaneous functions are performed by the various bureaus
+within the department. Patents, pensions, and the geological survey
+come within the purview of the department. The Secretary of the
+Interior has charge of the distribution of government appropriations
+to various educational institutions. A general supervision over a
+number of charitable institutions within the District of Columbia is
+also exercised by this officer.
+
+530. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.--All matters pertaining to agriculture
+in the widest sense are the concern of the Department of Agriculture.
+Under the direction of the Secretary the Department issues a large
+number of scientific and technical publications, including the
+Agricultural Yearbook, the series of Farmers' Bulletins, the Monthly
+Weather Review, and the Crop Reporter. Quarantine stations for
+imported cattle, and the inspection of domestic meats and imported
+food products are concerns of the various bureaus within the
+Department. Of great importance is the work of the weather bureau in
+sending out storm, flood, frost, and drought warnings.
+
+An increasingly important phase of the Department's work is the Forest
+Service, the work of which has been described in Chapter XXX. An
+important bureau is the bureau of animal industry, which combats
+animal diseases and gives advice concerning the best breeds of poultry
+and cattle. The bureau of plant industry ransacks the world for new
+crops suitable for our soils, and gives fruit-growers and farmers
+advice concerning plant parasites. Insect pests are the concern of the
+entomology division. Additional functions of the Department of
+Agriculture may be indicated by an enumeration of some of the more
+important of its remaining bureaus and divisions. These include the
+bureau of chemistry, the bureau of soils, the bureau of statistics,
+the bureau of crop estimates, the office of public roads and rural
+engineering, the Federal horticultural board, and the bureau of
+markets.
+
+531. THE DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE.--In 1913 what for ten years had been
+known as the Department of Commerce and Labor was divided into two
+separate departments, a Department of Commerce and a Department of
+Labor.
+
+The chief duty of the Department of Commerce is to foster the foreign
+and domestic commerce of the United States. To promote our mining,
+manufacturing and fishing industries, and to develop our
+transportation facilities are, therefore, among the aims of this
+department. The census, the coast survey and lighthouses, and
+steamboat inspection are concerns of the Department of Commerce. The
+scope of the Department, which is increasing rapidly, may be indicated
+by an enumeration of the more important bureaus grouped within it.
+These include the bureau of foreign and domestic commerce, the bureau
+of census, the bureau of lighthouses, the bureau of coast and geodetic
+survey, the steamboat inspection service, the bureau of navigation,
+the bureau of standards, and the bureau of fisheries.
+
+532. THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.--Though at present the functions of the
+Department of Labor are fewer than those of the other Departments,
+they are being rapidly expanded by the extension of government
+interest in industry. The Department is concerned with practically all
+matters which affect labor conditions in the United States.
+
+The Department of Labor collects and publishes information upon all
+subjects connected with labor and capital, the hours and wages of
+labor, and methods of improving the condition of the working classes.
+It seeks to encourage industrial good will, and to adjust labor
+disputes peaceably. An important bureau within the Department is the
+bureau of immigration, which, under the direction of the commissioner-
+general of immigration, is concerned with the administration of our
+immigration laws. The bureau of naturalization keeps a record of
+immigrants, and supervises their naturalization. Of growing importance
+is the children's bureau, which investigates matters having to do with
+child labor, infant mortality, orphanage, and the work of the juvenile
+courts.
+
+533. MISCELLANEOUS BOARDS AND COMMISSIONS.--In addition to the
+executive departments which have been briefly discussed, the Federal
+administration includes many independent boards, bureaus, and
+commissions which perform duties not assigned to any of the ten
+departments. These agencies have been established from time to time
+under the authority of Congressional statutes. The chiefs of the
+bureaus and the members of the boards and commissions are appointed by
+the President and the Senate, most of them for a term ranging between
+six and twelve years. These officials are largely experts, who happily
+are sufficiently exempt from the spoils system to stand a fair chance
+of surviving a change of administration.
+
+Among the more important of these boards and commissions are the
+following: The Federal Reserve Board, the Federal Farm Loan Board, the
+Federal Board for Vocational Education, the Federal Trade Commission,
+the Interstate Commerce Commission, the United States Tariff
+Commission, and the Civil Service Commission. The nature and functions
+of most of these administrative agencies have been discussed elsewhere
+in the text, and need not be gone into here.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Trace briefly the development of the Federal executive departments.
+
+2. What is the nature of the President's Cabinet?
+
+3. Contrast the American with the European cabinet.
+
+4. What function do the heads of departments perform individually?
+
+5. What are the chief functions of the Secretary of State?
+
+6. Enumerate the more important officers working under the direction
+of the Secretary of the Treasury.
+
+7. Describe the work of the Department of War.
+
+8. What are the chief functions of the Secretary of the Navy?
+
+9. What are the chief duties of the Attorney-General?
+
+10. Describe the work of the Post Office Department.
+
+11. What types of work are the concern of the Department of the
+Interior?
+
+12. Discuss briefly the work of the Department of Agriculture.
+
+13. What is the function of the Department of Commerce? Of the
+Department of Labor?
+
+14. Name some of the more important boards and commissions which are
+independent of the ten executive departments.
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Beard, _American Government and Politics_, chapter ii.
+
+2. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States_, chapter
+xxvii.
+
+3. Munro, _The Government of the United States_, chapter ix.
+
+4. Reed, _Form and Functions of American Government_, chapter xxiv.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Outline the duties which are common to the heads of all of the
+executive departments. (Beard, pages 216-218.)
+
+2. Contrast the National administration with the state administration.
+(Reed, pages 286-287.)
+
+3. What is the purpose of the Library of Congress? (Reed, pages 298-
+299.)
+
+4. Describe the work of the General Land Office under the Department
+of the Interior. (Guitteau, pages 318-319.)
+
+5. What is the function of the Commissioner of Patents? (Guitteau,
+page 319.)
+
+6. What are the duties of the Commissioner of Education, under the
+Secretary of the Interior? (Guitteau, page 320.)
+
+7. Name some of the more important boards and commissions created
+during the World War. (Guitteau, pages 325-326.)
+
+8. Compare our Department of the Interior with the Department of the
+Interior in France. (Munro, pages 136-137.)
+
+9. What is meant by the statement that the National administration is
+decentralized? (Munro, page 142.)
+
+10. Describe briefly the work of the Civil Service Commission. (Beard,
+pages 222-224.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+1. Membership of the President's Cabinet at the present time.
+
+2. The biography of some one member of the President's Cabinet.
+
+3. The work of some bureau or department in the National
+administration. (Reports on the work of the various departments may be
+secured by writing to the respective departments at Washington, D.
+C. See also Fairlie, _The National Administration of the United States
+of America_.)
+
+4. Compare the National administration with the administrative
+department in your state, with respect to
+
+(a) Scope of work
+
+(b) Centralization
+
+(c) Efficiency
+
+(d) Control by the people.
+
+
+II
+
+5. Evolution of the executive. (Gettell, _Introduction to Political
+Science_, chapter xix.)
+
+6. Functions of the Federal executive. (Kimball, _The National
+Government of the United States_, chapter x.)
+
+7. A history of the President's Cabinet. (Consult an encyclopedia.)
+
+8. Membership of the Cabinet. (Fairlie, _The National Administration
+of the United States_, chapter iv.)
+
+9. An Englishman's view of the American Cabinet. (Bryce, _The American
+Commonwealth_, vol. i, chapter ix.)
+
+10. The Department of State. (Fairlie, _The National Administration of
+the United States_, chapter vi.)
+
+11. The Department of the Treasury. (Fairlie, _The National
+Administration of the United States_, chapters vii and viii.)
+
+12. The Department of War. (Fairlie, _The National Administration of
+the United States_, chapter ix.)
+
+13. The Department of the Navy. (Fairlie, _The National Administration
+of the United States_, chapter x.)
+
+14. The Department of Justice. (Fairlie, _The National Administration
+of the United States_, chapter xi.)
+
+15. The Post Office Department. (Fairlie, _The National Administration
+of the United States_, chapter xii.)
+
+16. The Department of the Interior. (Fairlie, _The National
+Administration of the United States_, chapters xiii and xiv.)
+
+17. The Department of Agriculture. (Fairlie, _The National
+Administration of the United States_, chapter xv.)
+
+18. The Department of Commerce. (Fairlie, _The National Administration
+of the United States_, chapter xvi.)
+
+19. The Department of Labor. (Fairlie, _The National Administration of
+the United States_, chapter xvi.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+20. The American Cabinet compared with the English Cabinet, (See
+Munro, _The Government of the United States_, pages 143-145.)
+
+21. Should the President be obliged to act in accordance with the
+wishes of a majority of his Cabinet?
+
+22. To what extent should promotion in the civil service be on the
+basis of length of service? To what extent should promotion be
+determined by periodic examinations?
+
+23. Do you favor the creation of a new executive department, to be
+called the Department of Public Welfare?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLII
+
+NATURE AND POWERS OF CONGRESS
+
+
+534. CONGRESS CONSISTS OF TWO HOUSES.--The National legislature, or
+Congress, consists of a Senate or upper chamber, and a House of
+Representatives or lower chamber.
+
+Several factors are responsible for this division of Congress into two
+houses. Undoubtedly the framers of the Constitution were influenced by
+the fact that the British Parliament and nearly all of the colonial
+legislatures consisted of two houses. A second factor is that in the
+opinion of the Fathers, a two-chambered legislature would allow each
+house to act as a check upon the other. Finally, the creation of a
+two-chambered legislature was necessary in order to reconcile the
+conflicting desires of the large and the small states. During the
+Constitutional Convention two opposing factions were brought together
+by the creation of a two-chambered legislature, in the upper house of
+which the states were to be represented equally, and in the lower
+house of which representation was to be on the basis of population.
+
+
+A. THE SENATE
+
+535. TERM AND QUALIFICATIONS OF SENATORS.--Two Senators are chosen
+from each state, regardless of population. The senatorial term is six
+years. In order to make the Senate a permanent body, membership is so
+arranged that one third of the Senators retire every two years. The
+Federal Constitution provides that Senators must be at least thirty
+years of age. In addition, a Senator must have been nine years a
+citizen of the United States, and he must be an inhabitant of the
+state from which he is chosen. The Senate alone is judge of the
+qualifications of its members.
+
+With respect to the Senate, two disqualifications are imposed by the
+Federal Constitution. No one holding a Federal office may stand for
+election as Senator. Nor may any person become a Senator who has taken
+part in a rebellion against the United States after having taken an
+oath as a government officer to support the Constitution.
+
+536. THE ELECTION OF SENATORS.--Previous to 1913 Senators were chosen
+by the various state legislatures, according to the provisions of the
+Federal Constitution. [Footnote: Article I, Section III.] This method
+proved unsatisfactory. Demoralizing political battles often took place
+in the state legislatures in the effort to select the states' Senators
+to Congress. Sometimes, even after a long struggle, no candidate was
+able to secure a majority, and a deadlock occurred. Thus, on the one
+hand, a state might be deprived of representation in the Senate for
+weeks or months, while, on the other hand, the attention of the
+legislature was so distracted by the senatorial struggle that purely
+state interests suffered. As the result of a long agitation growing
+out of these evils, the Federal Constitution was amended (1913) to
+permit the direct election of Senators.
+
+Since 1913, then, any person may vote directly for Senator who, under
+the laws of his state, is qualified to vote for members of the more
+numerous branch of the state legislature. When, for any reason, a
+vacancy occurs in the representation of any state in the Senate, the
+Governor of the state issues a writ of election to fill such vacancy.
+Provided the state legislature grants the authority, the Governor also
+may appoint some person to serve as Senator until the vacancy is
+filled by popular election. Senators are generally reflected, and at
+the present time the average term of service is not six, but about
+twelve years.
+
+537. PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES OF SENATORS.--By the terms of the
+Constitution, Senators are paid out of the national treasury an amount
+to be determined by statute. At present both Senators and members of
+the House of Representatives receive $7500 a year, plus an allowance
+for travelling expenses, clerk hire, and stationery. Except in case of
+treason or breach of the peace, Senators and Representatives are
+immune to arrest during attendance at the sessions of their respective
+houses, and in going to and returning from the same. Both Senators and
+Representatives likewise enjoy freedom of speech and debate in their
+respective houses. In either chamber only the house itself may call
+members to account for their statements during the legislative
+session. No member of Congress may be prosecuted in the courts for
+libel or slander on account of statements made in Congress, or for the
+official publication of what he has said during the legislative
+session.
+
+
+B. THE HOUSE or REPRESENTATIVES
+
+538. MEMBERSHIP OF THE HOUSE.--Since the Senate is composed of two
+Senators from each state, its membership has been relatively stable.
+For a number of years there have been 96 Senators, two for each of the
+forty-eight states of the Union.
+
+The membership of the House of Representatives, on the other hand, is
+steadily increasing, because based upon population. The number of
+Representatives to which any state is entitled depends upon its
+population as ascertained every ten years by a Federal census. After
+each census Congress determines the number of Representatives of which
+the House shall consist. The population of the United States is then
+divided by this number, and the quotient is taken as the ratio of
+representation. The population of each state is then divided by this
+ratio to discover the number of Representatives to which it is
+entitled. As a single exception to this rule, the Constitution
+provides that each state shall have at least one Representative
+regardless of population. Thus Nevada, Arizona, Wyoming, and Delaware
+are entitled to one Representative, whereas according to the above
+rule they would now be denied representation.
+
+The present membership of the House of Representatives is 435.
+
+539. WHO MAY VOTE FOR REPRESENTATIVES.--The Federal Constitution
+provides that members of the House of Representatives shall be chosen
+by persons who, in their respective states, are qualified to vote for
+members of the more numerous branch of the state legislature. Most
+male and female citizens over twenty-one years of age may vote for
+members of this more numerous branch, and hence for Representatives to
+Congress. In a number of states, however, educational, property and
+other qualifications are imposed. Certain types of criminals, the
+insane, and the otherwise defective are regularly excluded. [Footnote:
+For a fuller discussion of the suffrage, see Chapter XXXIII.]
+
+540. QUALIFICATIONS OF REPRESENTATIVES.--The Federal Constitution
+declares that a Representative must be at least twenty-five years of
+age. He must have been a citizen for at least seven years, and at the
+time of his candidacy must also be an inhabitant of the state from
+which he is chosen. The House itself determines whether or not these
+qualifications have been met. No state may add to the constitutional
+qualifications, but through the force of custom a Representative is
+almost always a resident of the district which he is chosen to
+represent.
+
+541. ELECTION OF REPRESENTATIVES.--The Federal Constitution permits
+the legislatures of the several states to regulate the time, manner
+and place of elections for its Representatives to Congress.
+
+However, the Constitution reserves to Congress the right to alter
+these regulations at its discretion. This right has been exercised
+several times. Congressional statute has provided that Representatives
+shall be elected on the Tuesday following the first Monday in November
+of even-numbered years, and that the election shall be by written or
+printed ballot. It is also in accordance with Congressional statute
+that Representatives are selected on the district plan, one
+Representative being chosen from each Congressional district in the
+state. Congress has furthermore provided that these districts shall be
+of as nearly equal population as possible, and that they shall be
+composed of "compact and contiguous territory."
+
+542. THE CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT.--Subject to the above limitations the
+legislature of each state may determine the boundaries of its
+Congressional districts. The state legislature finds it necessary to
+redistrict the state if the decennial census shows that the population
+of the state has increased unequally in various sections, or in case
+the apportionment act of Congress changes the state's representation.
+
+In many cases states have redistricted their territory for
+illegitimate reasons. The Federal provision with reference to
+contiguous territory has been loosely interpreted: in many cases
+territory is held to be contiguous if it touches the district at any
+point. The requirement that districts shall be of nearly equal
+population has often been disregarded altogether. Since the state
+legislature is controlled by the political party having a majority,
+the dominant party can arrange the district lines so as to secure a
+party majority in the greatest possible number of districts. This is
+done by concentrating the opposition votes in a few districts which
+would be hostile under any circumstances, and so grouping the
+remaining votes as to insure for the dominant party a majority in
+numerous districts.
+
+543. GERRYMANDERING.--The result of this illegitimate redistricting
+has been to create districts of great irregularity. In 1812, when
+Elbridge Gerry was Governor of Massachusetts, the Republican party was
+in control of the state legislature. In districting the state so as to
+win for themselves as many districts as possible, the Republicans gave
+one of the Congressional districts a dragon-like appearance. To the
+suggestion of a famous painter that this looked like a salamander, a
+local wit replied that it was more nearly a Gerrymander. The term
+"gerrymander" has since continued to be used to designate this type of
+illegitimate redistricting. [Footnote: For the relation of
+gerrymandering to the problem of minority representation, see Chapter
+XXXV.]
+
+544. TERM OF REPRESENTATIVES.--Representatives are elected for two
+years, the legal term commencing on the 4th of March following the
+election. Except in the case of a special session, the actual service
+of Representatives does not commence until the first Monday in
+December, thirteen months after election. Members are frequently
+reëlected, the average term being about four years. When for any
+reason a vacancy occurs in the representation from any state, the
+Governor may, on the authority of the Federal Constitution, issue a
+writ of election to fill the vacancy. A special election is then held
+in the district in which the vacancy has occurred, and the
+Representative so chosen serves for the remainder of the
+term. [Footnote: The privileges and immunities of Representatives are
+similar to those of Senators. See Section 537 of this chapter.]
+
+
+C. THE POWERS OF CONGRESS
+
+545. SPECIAL POWERS OF THE SENATE.--Of the three powers exercised
+exclusively by the Senate, the power to approve treaties is one of the
+most important. All treaties negotiated by the President must be
+approved by a two-thirds vote of the Senate before becoming law. The
+treaty may be approved or rejected as a whole, or it may be rejected
+in part, and additional articles recommended as amendments. If changed
+in form or content by the Senate the treaty does not become law until
+both the President and the foreign power have assented to the
+amendment or change.
+
+In order to become valid, a large number of Presidential appointments
+must receive the approval of the Senate. [Footnote: See Chapter XL,
+Section 518.]
+
+The Senate exercises a special judicial function in that it may sit as
+a court of impeachment for the trial of persons whom the House of
+Representatives has formally charged with treason, bribery, or other
+high crimes and misdemeanors. Excluding military and naval officers,
+who are tried by court-martial, and excluding also members of
+Congress, who are subject only to the rules of their respective
+houses, all Federal officers are subject to impeachment. Impeachment
+requires a two-thirds vote of the Senators present. Removal from
+office and disqualification to hold any office under the United States
+is the heaviest penalty which can be imposed upon an impeached
+official.
+
+546. SPECIAL POWERS OF THE HOUSE.--The House likewise enjoys three
+special powers.
+
+One of these is the right to elect a President of the United States in
+case no candidate has a majority of the electoral votes. This has
+happened only twice, in 1800, and again in 1824.
+
+The Federal Constitution provides that all revenue bills must
+originate in the lower house. However, the Senate has come to share
+this power through its power to amend such bills.
+
+The House of Representatives has the sole power to prefer charges of
+impeachment, that is to say, to present what may be called the
+indictment against the accused official. The case is then tried before
+the Senate, the House appointing a committee of its own members to act
+as the prosecuting agency.
+
+547. GENERAL SURVEY OF THE POWERS OF CONGRESS.--The powers of
+Congress, _i.e._ the two houses acting together, are of two kinds:
+First, express powers, by which is meant those specifically enumerated
+in the Federal Constitution; and second, implied powers, by which is
+meant those which are incident to express powers and necessary to
+their execution. The foundation of the doctrine of implied powers is
+the constitutional clause [Footnote: Article I, Section VIII, of the
+Constitution.] which authorizes Congress to make all laws "necessary
+and proper" for carrying out the powers granted it by the Federal
+Constitution.
+
+Grouping express and implied powers together, the more important
+powers of Congress may be summarized as follows:
+
+_Revenue and expenditures_. Congress has the power to lay and collect
+taxes, duties, imports, and excises, and to appropriate money in order
+"to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general
+welfare of the United States." But indirect taxes must be uniform
+throughout the United States, and all direct taxes, except income
+taxes, must be apportioned among the states according to population. A
+further limitation is that Congress may not tax exports from any
+state, nor levy upon the "necessary instrumentalities" of any state
+government.
+
+_National defense_. Here the powers of Congress are practically
+unlimited, except by the constitutional provisions that the President
+shall be commander-in-chief, and that military appropriations shall
+not be made for more than two years. Congress can raise and support
+armies, create and maintain a navy, and provide for the organization
+and use of the state militia. Congress may also declare war, and make
+rules concerning captures on land and sea.
+
+_Foreign relations_. Congress as a body has little direct control over
+foreign relations, though the Senate shares the treaty-making power
+with the President. But Congress has the power to create diplomatic
+and consular posts, as well as "to define and punish piracies and
+felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of
+nations." Congress also exercises control over immigration and
+naturalization.
+
+_Economic interests_. Congress may regulate commerce with foreign
+countries, among the several states, and with the Indian tribes. The
+exclusive power to coin money, and otherwise control the monetary
+system, is vested in Congress. Congress may make uniform laws on
+bankruptcy throughout the United States, and fix the standards of
+weights and measures. The establishment of post offices and post
+roads, and the protection of authors and inventors through legislation
+on patents and copyrights, are also functions of Congress.
+
+_Territories_. Congress has the power to dispose of, and make all
+needful rules and regulations respecting, the territory or other
+property belonging to the United States. Congress likewise exercises
+exclusive control over the District of Columbia, and over all places
+purchased by the Federal government for the erection of forts,
+arsenals, and similar buildings. Congress also has the right to
+determine the admission to the Union of new states, and "to dispose of
+and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or
+other property belonging to the United States."
+
+_Crime_. In criminal matters the power of Congress is slight. For
+example, it cannot say what constitutes treason, since that crime is
+defined by the Constitution. However, Congress may provide for the
+punishment of counterfeiters and persons committing crimes on the high
+seas or offences against international law. It may also define certain
+crimes against Federal law, and prescribe penalties therefor.
+
+_Control over the judiciary_. The judiciary is an independent branch
+of government, but Congress may determine the number of Supreme Court
+judges, fix their salaries within certain limits, and define their
+appellate jurisdiction. Congress may also determine the jurisdiction,
+and define the procedure, of the inferior Federal courts.
+
+_Implied powers_. Last among the powers of Congress is the authority
+granted to it by the Constitution to make all laws which shall be
+deemed necessary and proper for carrying into execution the powers
+expressly granted to Congress by the Constitution. It is under the
+authority of this clause, that the implied powers of Congress have
+been so greatly expanded.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What influences are responsible for the fact that Congress is a
+two-chambered body?
+
+2. Discuss the term and qualifications of Senators.
+
+3. How were Senators elected prior to 1913? How are they elected at
+the present time?
+
+4. What are the chief privileges and immunities of Senators?
+
+5. Discuss the membership of the House of Representatives.
+
+6. What is the nature of the Congressional district?
+
+7. What are the qualifications for Representatives?
+
+8. Who may vote for Representatives?
+
+9. What is gerrymandering?
+
+10. What three powers are exercised exclusively by the Senate?
+
+11. What are the special powers of the House?
+
+12. Under what two heads may the general powers of Congress be
+classified?
+
+13. Outline briefly the chief powers of Congress.
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Beard, _American Government and Politics_, chapter xiii.
+
+2. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States_, chapters
+xxii and xxiii.
+
+3. Munro, _The Government of the United States_, chapter xiv.
+
+4. Reed, _Form and Functions of American Government_, chapter xxi.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. What was the Connecticut compromise? (Guitteau, pages 248-249.)
+
+2. Why does the Constitution provide that one third of the Senate
+shall retire every second year? (Reed, page 255.)
+
+3. What criticism has been brought against the principle of the equal
+representation of states in the Senate? (Guitteau, page 249.)
+
+4. Compare the growth of the Senate with the growth of the House of
+Representatives. (Reed, page 258.)
+
+5. What is the relative position of the two houses of Congress? (Reed,
+pages 257-258.)
+
+6. What is the right to "frank"? (Reed, page 258.)
+
+7. What are the "supplementary" powers of Congress? (Munro, page 217.)
+
+8. What are the powers of Congress with respect to weights and
+measures? (Beard, page 259.)
+
+9. What was Jefferson's attitude toward the powers of Congress?
+(Munro, page 209.)
+
+10. What is the scope of the implied powers of Congress? (Munro, page
+214.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Congressional districts in your state.
+
+2. The biography of one of the Senators representing your state in
+Congress.
+
+3. Make a study of your Representatives in Congress, with respect to
+their age, length of service, political principles, and attitude
+toward such national questions as the tariff, military defense and
+taxation.
+
+4. A brief comparison of Congress with your state legislature.
+
+
+II
+
+5. Place of the Senate in our National government. (Reinsch, _Readings
+on American Federal Government_, pages 127-134.)
+
+6. The House of Representatives in the United States compared with the
+British House of Commons. (Kaye, _Readings in Civil Government_, pages
+149-155.)
+
+7. Gerrymandering. (Beard, _Readings in American Government and
+Politics_, pages 219-220; see any other standard text on American
+Government.)
+
+8. The immunities of Congressmen. (Cleveland, _Organized Democracy_,
+chapter xxvii.)
+
+9. Relation of the two houses of Congress. (Bryce, _The American
+Commonwealth_, vol. i, chapter xviii.)
+
+10. The Senate as a judicial body. (Bryce, _The American
+Commonwealth_, vol. i, chapter x.)
+
+11. Constitutional limitations on the powers of Congress. (Munro, _The
+Government of the United States_, chapter xx.)
+
+12. Relation of Congress to the President. (Bryce, _The American
+Commonwealth_, vol. i, chapter xx.)
+
+13. The war powers of Congress. (Any standard text on American
+government.)
+
+14. The taxing power of Congress. (Any standard text on American
+government.)
+
+15. Other financial powers of Congress. (Any standard text on American
+government.)
+
+16. The power to regulate commerce. (Any standard text on American
+government. An excellent reference is Munro, _The Government of the
+United States_, chapter xvii.)
+
+17. The postal powers of Congress. (Young, _The New American
+Government and its Work_, chapter xiii.)
+
+18. The control of Congress over territories. (Kimball, _The National
+Government of the United States_, chapter xxii. See also any other
+standard work on American government.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+19. Direct versus indirect election of Senators.
+
+20. To what extent, if to any, should Congressmen consider the needs
+of their local district as of more importance than the needs of the
+nation as a whole?
+
+21. Should the interval between the election of Representatives and
+the meeting of Congress be shortened?
+
+22. Should we retain equal representation of states in the Senate, or
+should this principle be discarded as "undemocratic"?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLIII
+
+CONGRESS IN ACTION
+
+
+A. ORGANIZATION OF CONGRESS
+
+548. CONGRESSIONAL SESSIONS.--The Federal Constitution requires
+Congress to assemble at least once a year, and Congress has provided
+that the date of meeting shall be the first Monday in December. In
+addition to such special sessions as may be called either by the
+President or by Congress itself, there are two regular sessions. One
+of these is the long session, from December of each odd year until
+Congress adjourns, generally sometime during the following summer. The
+other is the short session, beginning when Congress assembles in
+December of each even year, and ending at noon on the 4th of March
+following.
+
+The two houses of Congress jointly fix the time for adjournment, but
+in case they cannot agree upon this point, the President has the right
+to adjourn them to such time as he thinks fit. During the
+congressional session, neither house may, without the consent of the
+other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than
+that in which the two houses are sitting. Since 1800 congressional
+sessions have regularly been held at Washington, D. C., the National
+capital.
+
+549. INTERNAL ORGANIZATION.--Each house of Congress has the right to
+determine its own rule of practice, punish members for disorderly
+conduct, and, by a two-thirds vote, expel a member. Members guilty of
+acts of violence or abusive language may be punished by a vote of
+censure, or may be obliged to apologize to the house. For the
+commission of a grave offense, a Congressman may be expelled from the
+house to which he was elected.
+
+The Constitution requires that "each house shall keep a journal of
+its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting
+such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and
+nays of the members of either house shall, at the desire of one fifth
+of those present, be entered upon the journal." The object of this is
+to secure a permanent record of legislative action, as well as
+publicity of proceedings. The vote by yeas and nays fixes
+responsibility for his vote upon each member by making it a matter of
+public record. The _Congressional Record_, an official account of
+Congressional debates and proceedings, appears daily during
+Congressional sessions. This is supposedly a verbatim report of what
+is said in each house, but as a matter of fact members are allowed to
+edit and revise their remarks before these are printed. In the case of
+the House, many of the published speeches have never been delivered at
+all.
+
+550. THE OFFICERS OF CONGRESS.--In the House of Representatives the
+chief officer is the Speaker, or presiding officer. The Speaker is
+chosen from the membership of the House by that body itself. As will
+be pointed out shortly, this officer is an important personage.
+
+In the Senate the Vice President of the United States acts as the
+presiding officer. In the absence of the Vice President, or in case
+that officer succeeds to the Presidency, the Senate itself chooses a
+president _pro tempore_ to occupy the chair. The presiding officer of
+the Senate is much less powerful than the Speaker of the House, indeed
+he is little more than a chairman or moderator.
+
+There are a number of additional officers of Congress, who are chosen
+by the respective houses from outside their own membership. These
+officers include a clerk, who in the Senate is called the secretary;
+the door-keeper; the sergeant-at-arms; the postmaster; and the
+chaplain. Nominally these officers are chosen by each house, but as a
+matter of practice the choice is made by the caucus of the majority
+party, which is held a few days before the organization of each house.
+
+551. THE SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.--A few days before
+the organization of the House, the caucus of the majority party
+settles upon its choice for Speaker. The candidate chosen invariably
+receives the solid vote of his party in the House, since it is a rule
+of the caucus that party members who take part in its discussions must
+abide by its decisions.
+
+As chairman of the House, the Speaker performs the customary duties of
+a presiding officer. He opens and closes the sittings of the House,
+maintains order, and decides questions of parliamentary law. The
+Speaker acts as the official representative of the House in its
+collective capacity, and authenticates all official proceedings by his
+signature. It is he who announces the order of business, states the
+question, and announces the vote. He also has the right to appoint the
+chairman of the committee of the whole. The Speaker takes part in
+debate and may also vote.
+
+552. POWER OF THE SPEAKER OVER LEGISLATION.--In addition to performing
+the customary duties of a presiding officer, the Speaker possesses
+important powers over legislation. The imperfect organization of the
+House, and its lack of effective leadership, as well as the vast
+amount of business coming before it, have tended to centralize much of
+the legislative power of the House in the hands of this officer.
+
+The Speaker of the House has the power to determine to which committee
+a bill shall be referred. Thus he may determine the fate of a measure
+by sending it to a committee which he knows to be hostile to the bill,
+or to a friendly committee, just as he likes.
+
+It is the Speaker who decides when a member is entitled to the floor,
+and no motion or speech can be made except by a member who has been
+duly recognized by the chair. There are a number of unwritten rules in
+this regard, but in the last analysis the Speaker may recognize only
+persons whom he desires to have speak. Thus Congressmen who are not of
+the Speaker's party may be kept from making themselves heard upon
+important measures. When a bill is before the House, the chairman of
+the committee in charge of the measure usually hands the Speaker a
+list of Congressmen who are to be heard upon the floor. By recognizing
+only those whose names appear on this list, the Speaker may confine
+the discussion to members who are favored by himself and his party.
+
+The Speaker has the power to decide points of order, and otherwise to
+deal with such obstructions to legislative business as the
+filibustering tactics of the minority party. Often this power is
+exercised in connection with the quorum. The quorum or number of
+members who must be present in order that business may be transacted,
+is fixed by the Constitution as a majority of each house. Formerly it
+was the habit of minority members to remain silent at roll-call, so
+that if several members of the majority party were absent, it might be
+that no quorum would appear. In such a case legislative business would
+be blocked. But in 1890 Speaker Reed adopted the practice, since
+become invariable, of counting as present members actually in the
+House, whether or not they respond to their names at roll-call. The
+Speaker also checks filibustering by disregarding all motions and
+appeals which he thinks are made simply for the purpose of obstructing
+legislative business.
+
+553. THE COMMITTEE ON RULES.--Of great importance in the House is the
+committee on rules. This committee has the power to decide upon the
+order for considering bills, and to determine the length of debates.
+It also determines the time when the vote shall be taken. This it does
+by "reporting a rule," that is to say, by presenting a report as to
+the time and conditions under which the House shall consider a
+measure. This report takes precedence over all other business. Thus
+the fate of a bill may be determined by the committee on rules.
+
+Previous to 1910 this committee consisted of the Speaker, and two
+majority and two minority members named by the Speaker. But in the
+61st Congress, there occurred what has been called the "revolution of
+1910." This "revolution" opposed Speaker Cannon's policy of using for
+personal and partisan purposes his power to appoint the other members
+of the committee on rules. As the result of a violent agitation the
+House finally placed marked restrictions upon the Speaker's control
+over the committee. The membership of the committee on rules was
+increased, first to ten, and then to twelve. Of these twelve members
+eight belong to the majority party and four are minority members. The
+committee is no longer chosen by the Speaker, but is selected by the
+House itself. The Speaker is even excluded from membership in the
+committee.
+
+554. THE CONGRESSIONAL COMMITTEE SYSTEM. [Footnote: For a discussion
+of the advantages and disadvantages of the committee system see
+Chapter XXXVI.]--In both houses of Congress the assembly is divided
+into a number of committees, each of which is charged with the
+consideration of legislation dealing with particular subjects.
+Previous to 1911 the Speaker appointed all House committees, but since
+that date all committees have been chosen by the House as a body,
+though in practice the decisions are made by the caucuses of the
+majority and minority parties, held just before the organization of
+the House. Similarly, the Senate chooses its own committees from lists
+drawn up by the caucuses of the two political parties. In either
+house, the minority party has such representation upon committees as
+the majority party chooses to allow. There are in the House more than
+fifty of these committees, while in the Senate the number is even
+larger. In the House of Representatives the more important committees
+are those on rules, ways and means, appropriations, judiciary, banking
+and currency, interstate and foreign commerce, and rivers and harbors.
+
+
+B. THE MAKING OF A FEDERAL LAW [Footnote: A more detailed account of
+the law-making process may be found in Reed, _Form and Functions of
+American Government_, Chapter XXII.]
+
+555. HOW LEGISLATION IS INITIATED.--The course of congressional
+legislation may be illustrated by following a bill through the House
+of Representatives.
+
+Any member of the House may introduce a bill by filing it with the
+clerk. The title of the bill is printed in the _Journal and Record_,
+this constituting a first "reading." The bill is then delivered to the
+Speaker, who refers it to the proper committee. Once a bill has
+been passed to the committee its fate rests largely with that body.
+The committee may confer with certain administrative officers, listen
+to individuals interested in the subject, summon and examine other
+persons, and then reach a decision upon the bill. The committee may
+amend the bill as it pleases. If unfavorable to the measure, the
+committee may report it adversely, or too late for legislative action.
+Indeed, it may even fail to report it at all. Theoretically the House
+may overrule the committee's decision on a bill, but so generally are
+the committee's recommendations followed by the House that the adverse
+action of the committee virtually kills a bill.
+
+556. THE BILL IS REPORTED TO THE HOUSE.--Let us suppose that the
+committee reports the bill back to the House. The measure is then
+placed upon a calendar and here awaits its turn, unless the committee
+on rules sees fit to direct the immediate attention of the House to
+it. The second reading is an actual and full reading of the bill for
+the purpose of allowing amendments to be offered. After the second
+reading, which may result in the adoption of amendments, the Speaker
+puts the motion, "Shall the bill be engrossed and read a third time?"
+Debate is then in order. If the vote which follows is in the
+affirmative, the bill is read a third time, but only by title. The
+question of passage is put by the Speaker immediately after the third
+reading.
+
+557. DEBATE UPON THE BILL.--Debate in the House of Representatives has
+little influence upon most bills, the fate of a measure being
+practically determined by the committee considering it. Most speeches
+are frankly intended for political purposes, and for circulation in
+the Congressional Record, rather than as actual and positive
+influences upon the bill which is being discussed.
+
+Debate in the House is limited in several ways. No member may spend
+more than an hour in debate upon any question, except the member in
+charge of the bill. This member may have an additional hour at the
+close. In the committee of the whole, speeches are limited to five
+minutes. No member may speak more than once on the same subject
+without special permission from the chair. The single exception to
+this rule is the member who has introduced the bill. Before debate
+begins, the chairman of the committee in charge of the bill arranges,
+in consultation with the Speaker, a list of members who are to be
+heard upon the bill. No other members are ordinarily recognized by the
+Speaker in the ensuing debate.
+
+After a certain amount of discussion the member in charge of the bill
+will generally move the previous question in order to cut short the
+debate and bring the House to a direct vote upon the question.
+
+558. THE VOTE.--In the House voting may be by any one of three
+methods. Voting may be by "sound of voices." In this case the Speaker
+calls in turn for the "ayes" and "noes," and decides by the volume of
+the sound whether the motion has been carried or lost. This is usually
+the method first employed, but either of the other two methods may be
+demanded before or after voting by sound of voices has been employed.
+
+Voting may be by tellers. When this is decided upon the members pass
+between tellers appointed by the Speaker--those in the affirmative
+first--and are counted. This method requires the demand of one fifth
+of a quorum.
+
+Voting may be by yeas and nays. In this event, the clerk calls the
+roll and each member, as his name is reached, answers "aye" or "no,"
+the vote then being recorded. The Constitution provides that one fifth
+of the members present may demand the yeas and nays. Since it takes a
+long time to call the roll of the House, demands for roll-calls are
+frequently employed by minorities with the intent of obstructing
+legislative business.
+
+559. THE BILL GOES TO THE SENATE.--A bill defeated in the House never
+reaches the Senate, of course.
+
+But if it receives a majority vote in the House, it is engrossed and
+sent to the Senate. Here the bill goes through practically the same
+stages as in the House. [Footnote: In the Senate, however, debate is
+unlimited.]If the Senate rejects the bill, the measure is dead. If the
+Senate passes the bill without amendment, it is returned to the House,
+and enrolled on parchment for signature by the President. If the
+Senate amends the bill, the bill and the attached amendments are
+returned to the House. If the House disagrees with the proposed
+changes, it may either ask for an inter-house conference, or it may
+simply send a notice of its disagreement to the Senate. In the latter
+case, the Senate either reconsiders its amendments, or asks for a
+conference. In case of a conference, each house appoints an equal
+number of "managers," who arrive at some sort of compromise, and
+embody this in a report. This report is acted upon by each house in
+separate session.
+
+560. THE BILL GOES TO THE PRESIDENT.--Bills killed in Congress never
+reach the President, but a measure duly approved by both houses is
+then sent to the chief executive for his approval. If he signs it, the
+bill becomes law. If he does not approve it, he may return it with his
+objections to the house in which it originated. If this house votes
+for the passage of the measure by a two-thirds majority, and if this
+action is concurred in by the other house, the measure becomes law
+over the veto of the President. If the President neither signs nor
+returns the measure within ten days, it automatically becomes law.
+However, measures reaching the President during the last ten days of
+the congressional session become law only if signed by him. His
+failure to sign a bill reaching him under these circumstances
+constitutes a "pocket veto."
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Distinguish between the two regular sessions of Congress.
+
+2. Describe the internal organization of the houses of Congress.
+
+3. Name and briefly characterize the chief officers of Congress.
+
+4. What are the customary duties of the Speaker of the House?
+
+5. By what means does the Speaker influence legislation?
+
+6. What is the nature and function of the committee on rules? What
+changes in the character of this committee occurred in 1910?
+
+7. Outline the organization of the Congressional committee system.
+
+8. How may a bill be introduced into the House of Representatives?
+
+9. Outline the steps in enacting a Federal law.
+
+10. Discuss the nature and limits of the Presidential veto.
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Beard, _American Government and Politics_, chapter xiv.
+
+2. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States_, chapter
+xxiv.
+
+3. Munro, _The Government of the United States_, chapter xxi.
+
+4. Reed, _Form and Functions of American Government_, chapter xii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. What is the relation of party organization to leadership in
+Congress? (Beard, pages 267-269.)
+
+2. Discuss the constitutional rights of the minority in the House
+of Representatives. (Beard, pages 288-289.)
+
+3. What is the influence of the Senate upon our national financial
+policy? (Munro, pages 307-308.)
+
+4. What are the chief advantages of the committee system? (Guitteau,
+pages 275-276.)
+
+5. What are the chief defects of this system? (Guitteau, pages 275-
+276.)
+
+6. What effect has the practice of unlimited debate in the Senate
+had upon legislative business? (Beard, pages 275-276.)
+
+7. What is one of the most important defects of Congressional
+legislation? (Munro, pages 310-311.)
+
+8. What is the "morning hour"? (Reed, page 273.)
+
+9. What is done with a bill which the President has signed? (Reed,
+page 277.)
+
+10. To what extent is Congress responsive to Public Opinion? (Munro,
+page 299.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Compare the internal organization of Congress with the organization
+of your state legislature.
+
+2. Compare the officers of Congress with the officers of your state
+legislature.
+
+3. Compare the committee system of Congress with the committee system
+in your state legislature.
+
+4. Compare the practice of debate in the National House of
+Representatives with the use of debate in the lower house of your
+state legislature.
+
+5. Compare Congress with your state legislature with respect to volume
+of legislation.
+
+6. The business of Congress. (McCall, _The Business of Congress_.)
+
+7. Rules of the Senate. (_Manual of the Senate_.)
+
+8. The Senate at work. (Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_, vol. i,
+chapter xii.)
+
+9. Rules of the House of Representatives. (_Manual of the House of
+Representatives_.)
+
+10. The Speaker of the House. (Follett, _The Speaker of the House of
+Representatives_.)
+
+11. Leadership in the House. (Beard, _American Government and
+Politics_, pages 280-286.)
+
+12. The career of Speaker Clay, Blaine, Reed, or Cannon. (Consult an
+encyclopedia, or special biographies of these Speakers.)
+
+13. The House of Representatives at work. (Bryce, _The American
+Commonwealth_, vol. i, chapter xiv.)
+
+14. Congressional finance. (Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_, vol.
+i, chapter xvii.)
+
+15. The committee system in Congress. (Bryce, _The American
+Commonwealth_, vol. i, chapter xv; McCall, _The Business of Congress_,
+chapters in and v.)
+
+16. An Englishman's view of legislation in the Congress of the United
+States. (Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_, vol. i, chapter xvi.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+17. Should the Speaker of the House be deprived of the power to refer
+bills to whatever committee he chooses?
+
+18. Should the powers of the presiding officer of the Senate be
+increased?
+
+19. Is debate in the House of Representatives too greatly restricted?
+
+20. Should the privilege of "franking" be restricted?
+
+21. Should the President's power to veto bills be extended? Should it
+be restricted?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLIV
+
+THE FEDERAL COURTS
+
+
+A. FRAMEWORK OF THE FEDERAL COURTS
+
+561. CONSTITUTIONAL BASIS OF THE FEDERAL JUDICIARY.--The Federal
+Constitution makes only slight reference to the structure of the
+Federal courts. It merely provides that the judicial power of the
+United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such
+inferior courts as Congress may from time to time ordain and
+establish.
+
+In accordance with this provision, Congress in 1789 passed the
+Judiciary Act, which still forms the basis of our Federal judicial
+system. The Judiciary Act provided for the organization of the Supreme
+Court, and also created a system of circuit and district courts. It
+likewise distributed Federal jurisdiction among the three grades of
+courts, established the office of Attorney General, and provided for a
+Federal marshal in each judicial district. In order to relieve the
+Supreme Court of part of its appellate jurisdiction, Congress in 1891
+created nine circuit courts of appeals. In 1912, Congress abolished
+the circuit courts which had been established by the Act of 1789.
+
+At the present time, thus, there are three grades of Federal courts:
+the Supreme Court, nine circuit courts of appeals, and eighty-one
+district courts. In addition there are several special Federal courts.
+
+562. FEDERAL JUDICIAL AGENTS.--All Federal judges are appointed by the
+President, subject to confirmation by the Senate. They hold office for
+life, or during good behavior. Since Federal judges can be removed
+from office only by impeachment, they are relatively independent, both
+of the appointing power and of the popular will.
+
+Judges receive salaries which may be increased, but which cannot be
+diminished, during their term of office. Each of the eight associate
+justices of the Supreme Court receives an annual salary of $14,500,
+while the Chief Justice receives $14,900 a year. Circuit judges
+receive a salary of $7000 a year. Each district court judge receives
+$6000 a year. Upon reaching the age of seventy years, any Federal
+judge who has held his commission for at least ten years, may resign
+and continue to draw full salary during the remainder of his life.
+
+Some additional judicial agents may be mentioned. In each Federal
+judicial district there is an United States marshal, who is charged
+with the duty of enforcing the orders of the court. There is also in
+each district a Federal prosecutor, who has the title of United States
+district attorney. It is this officer who institutes proceedings
+against persons violating Federal law. Both marshals and district
+attorneys work under the direction of the Attorney-General of the
+United States.
+
+563. THE SUPREME COURT.--At the head of the Federal judicial system
+stands the Supreme Court. This tribunal holds its annual sessions at
+Washington, D. C., usually from October until May. By far the most
+important business coming before this court involves questions of
+constitutional law. [Footnote: Jurisdiction over questions of
+constitutionality is a form of appellate jurisdiction. In addition,
+the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in (1) cases affecting
+diplomatic and consular officers, and (2) cases to which a State is a
+party. In practice, however, the original jurisdiction of the Supreme
+Court has been relatively unimportant. ] Cases involving questions of
+constitutionality are always brought up to the Supreme Court, from
+either the lower Federal courts, or from the state courts. Cases of
+this kind are brought before the Supreme Court either on appeal or by
+writ of error.
+
+When a case is submitted to the Supreme Court, each justice makes an
+independent study of it, and a conference is then held, in which the
+various sides of the question are discussed and a decision reached.
+The Chief Justice then requests one of his colleagues to prepare the
+"opinion of the court," containing the conclusions reached by the
+majority. In important cases, the disagreeing minority prepares a
+"dissenting opinion," setting forth their reasons for believing that
+the case should have been decided otherwise. This dissenting opinion
+does not, however, affect the validity of the decision reached by the
+majority of the justices.
+
+564. THE CIRCUIT COURT OF APPEALS.--The United States is divided into
+nine circuits, in each one of which a Circuit Court of Appeals
+exercises jurisdiction. The Circuit Court consists of three judges. As
+a general proposition this court has appellate jurisdiction to review
+the decisions of the district courts, but in some instances cases may
+be taken from the district courts directly to the Supreme Court of the
+United States. In cases in which jurisdiction results from the fact
+that the suit is one between an American citizen and an alien, or
+between citizens of different states in the Union, the decision of the
+Circuit Court of Appeals is generally final. The jurisdiction of this
+court is also final in all cases arising under the revenue, patent,
+and copyright laws of the United States.
+
+565. THE DISTRICT COURT.--The lowest of the regular Federal courts is
+the District Court. One of these courts exists in each of the eighty-
+one districts into which the country is divided. For each district
+court there is generally a separate district judge, who holds court at
+one or more places within the district.
+
+The matters which may be brought before a Federal District Court are
+various. Among other things, the jurisdiction of the court extends to
+all crimes and offenses cognizable under the authority of the United
+States, cases arising under the internal revenue, postal and copyright
+laws, proceedings in bankruptcy, all suits and proceedings arising
+under any law regulating immigration, and also all suits and
+proceedings arising under any law to protect trade and commerce
+against monopoly.
+
+566. SPECIAL FEDERAL COURTS.--Besides the three sets of Federal
+courts described above, Congress has from time to time created a
+number of special courts.
+
+The Court of Claims was created in 1855. It consists of five justices,
+sitting at Washington, and exercising jurisdiction over cases
+involving claims against the United States.
+
+In 1911 Congress created the Court of Customs Appeals, consisting of
+five judges who may review the decisions of the Board of General
+Appraisers with respect to the classification and taxation of imports.
+
+Congress has also provided a system of territorial courts to handle
+cases arising in the territories and in the District of Columbia.
+
+Courts-martial for the trial of military and naval offenses have also
+been provided for by congressional statute.
+
+
+B. THE FEDERAL COURTS IN ACTION
+
+567. JURISDICTION OF THE FEDERAL COURTS.--The Federal courts exercise
+limited, rather than general, jurisdiction. That is to say, they have
+authority to try only such cases as are specifically placed within
+their jurisdiction by the Constitution, or by congressional statute.
+Cases falling within the jurisdiction of the Federal courts may be
+grouped under two heads: First, cases affecting certain parties or
+persons, and second, cases relative to certain matters.
+
+Under the first head may be grouped cases affecting ambassadors, other
+diplomatic representatives, and consuls. In the same group are
+controversies to which the United States is a party, controversies
+between two or more states, controversies between a state and the
+citizens of another state, controversies between citizens of different
+states, and controversies between a state, or the citizens thereof,
+and foreign states, citizens or subjects thereof.
+
+Under the second head fall three types of cases: First, controversies
+between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of
+different states. Second, cases of admiralty and maritime
+jurisdiction, and third, cases in law or equity arising under the
+Constitution or laws of the United States, or treaties made under
+their authority.
+
+568. THE WRIT OF HABEAS CORPUS. [Footnote: For the general arrangement
+of the material in Sections 568-570, I am indebted to Professor
+Beard's _American Government and Politics_, to which text
+acknowledgment is here made.]--In the exercise of their judicial
+functions the Federal courts have the power of issuing three great
+writs affecting the rights of citizens.
+
+Of these the most famous is the writ of _habeas corpus_. This writ is
+designed to secure to any imprisoned person the right to have an
+immediate preliminary hearing for the purpose of discovering the
+reason for his detention. Where the writ is properly issued, the
+prisoner is brought into court for a summary examination. If it is
+found that he has been detained in violation of law, he is released;
+if not, he is remanded for trial.
+
+Federal judges may not issue writs of _habeas corpus_
+indiscriminately. A writ can be issued only in the following cases:
+First, when a prisoner is in jail under Federal custody or authority;
+second, when an individual is in jail for some act done or omitted in
+pursuance of a law of the United States or the order, process, or
+decree of some Federal court or judge; third, when an individual has
+been detained because of violation of the Constitution or some law or
+treaty of the United States; and fourth, when a citizen of a foreign
+country claims to be imprisoned for some act committed with the
+sanction of his government.
+
+569. THE WRIT OF MANDAMUS.--The writ of mandamus may be used against
+public officials, private persons, and corporations, for the purpose
+of forcing them to perform some duty required of them by law. Properly
+used, the writ of mandamus is called into action to compel executive
+officers to perform some administrative duty. The court will not
+intervene, however, where the duty is purely discretionary and its
+performance dependent either upon the pleasure of the official, or
+upon his interpretation of the law. Usually the applicant for a writ
+of mandamus must show that he has no other adequate legal remedy, and
+that he has a clear legal right to have the action in question
+performed by the officer.
+
+570. THE WRIT OR BILL OF INJUNCTION.--This writ may be of several
+distinct types. It may take the form of a mandatory writ, ordering
+some person or corporation to maintain a _status quo_ by performing
+certain acts. For example, striking railway employees may be ordered
+to continue to perform their regular and customary duties while
+remaining in the service of their employer.
+
+The injunction may take the form of a temporary restraining order
+forbidding a party to alter the existing condition of things in
+question until the merits of the case have been decided. This is often
+used in labor disputes.
+
+Sometimes the writ is in the form of a permanent injunction ordering a
+party not to perform some act, the results of which cannot be remedied
+by any proceeding in law. This, too, has often been used in labor
+disputes.
+
+571. JUDICIAL INTERPRETATION OF THE STATUTES.--The crowning feature of
+the American judiciary is its power to pass upon the constitutionality
+of state and Federal laws. The Constitution does not give to the
+courts the power to declare state or Federal statutes invalid on the
+ground that they conflict with the Federal Constitution, but in the
+famous case of Marbury _v._ Madison in 1803, Chief Justice Marshall
+demonstrated that under the Constitution the Supreme Court must
+possess the power of declaring statutes null and void when they
+conflict with the fundamental law of the land. In deciding against the
+validity of a law, the court does not officially annul it, but merely
+refuses to enforce the statute in the particular case before the
+court. Thereupon, the executive officials who might be charged with
+the administration of that particular law, neglect to enforce it.
+
+572. GENERAL POLICY OF THE FEDERAL COURTS.--The Federal courts have
+consistently refused to decide abstract questions not presented in the
+form of a concrete case between parties to an actual suit. The Supreme
+Court, for example, will take no notice of a statute until the
+question of its constitutionality arises in the form of a concrete
+case.
+
+The Federal courts have consistently refused to interfere in purely
+political questions, the decision of which rests with executive or
+legislative authorities. For example, the court will not touch
+questions of the existence of war or peace, or the admission of a new
+state into the Union.
+
+In reaching a decision, two forces are brought to bear upon the
+courts. First, the character of previous decisions in similar or
+analogous cases influences a decision. Second, important consideration
+is given the demands of justice or equity in the particular case in
+hand, regardless of precedent. Generally speaking judicial decisions
+strike a course midway between these two extremes.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What does the Federal Constitution say concerning the structure of
+the Federal courts?
+
+2. What act forms the basis of our Federal judicial system?
+
+3. How are Federal judges chosen, and what are their salaries?
+
+4. Name some judicial agents other than judges.
+
+5. What is the nature and function of the Supreme Court?
+
+6. What is the nature and function of the Circuit Court of Appeals?
+Over what cases has it jurisdiction?
+
+7. What matters may be brought before the District Court?
+
+8. What is the purpose of the Court of Claims?
+
+9. Name some other special Federal courts.
+
+10. What two classes of cases fall within the jurisdiction of the
+Federal courts?
+
+11. What is the nature and purpose of the writ of _habeas corpus_?
+
+12. What is the purpose of the writ of mandamus?
+
+13. What three forms may the writ or bill of injunction take?
+
+14. What is the crowning feature of the American judicial system?
+
+15. Outline the general policy of the Federal courts.
+
+16. What two forces help determine a decision?
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Beard, _American Government and Politics_, chapter xv.
+
+2. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States_, chapter
+xxviii.
+
+3. Munro, _The Government of the United States_, chapter xxiv.
+
+4. Reed, _Form and Functions of American Government_, chapter xxiii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Into what two branches may law be divided? (Munro, page 355.)
+
+2. What is equity? (Munro, page 351.)
+
+3. What are the judicial functions of the Attorney-General of the
+United States? (Beard, page 300.)
+
+4. What different grades of law are administered in the Federal
+courts? (Guitteau, page 338.)
+
+5. Discuss the part played by partisan politics in judicial decisions.
+(Beard, pages 310-312.)
+
+6. What classes of people are exempted from jury service? (Munro, page
+354.)
+
+7. Distinguish between the original and the appellate jurisdiction of
+the Supreme Court. (Guitteau, pages 334-335.)
+
+8. How are cases presented to the Supreme Court? (Beard, page 296.)
+
+9. What is the significance of the Marbury v. Madison case? (Reed,
+page 284.)
+
+10. Name some other historical decisions which have been handed down
+by the Supreme Court. (Guitteau, pages 339-340.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Make a study of the Federal judicial district in which you live,
+with respect to territory embraced in the district, names and powers
+of Federal judicial agents, etc.
+
+2. If possible, visit a near-by Federal court and observe the conduct
+of a trial.
+
+
+II
+
+3. The American doctrine of judicial supremacy. (Haines, _The American
+Doctrine of Judicial Supremacy_.)
+
+4. The American system of courts compared with the European system of
+courts. (Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_, vol. i, chapter xxv.)
+
+5. Restraints on judicial officers in the United States. (Cleveland,
+_Organized Democracy_, chapter xxxiii.)
+
+6. Procedure in the United States Supreme Court. (Reinsch, _Readings
+on American Federal Government_, pages 716-717.)
+
+7. The courts and the Constitution. (Beard, _The Supreme Court and the
+Constitution_; Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_, vol. i, chapter
+xxiii.)
+
+8. The constitutionality of government regulation of commerce,
+(Goodnow, _Social Reform and the Constitution_, chapter vi.)
+
+9. Attitude of the courts toward social legislation. (Goodnow, _Social
+Reform and the Constitution_, chapter viii.)
+
+10. The Marbury v. Madison case. (Consult an encyclopedia.)
+
+11. The Dartmouth College case. (Consult an encyclopedia.)
+
+12. The life of John Marshall. (Consult an encyclopedia.)
+
+13. Characteristics of a good judge. (Kaye, _Readings in Civil
+Government_, pages 247-250.)
+
+14. Evolution of the judiciary. (Gettell, _Introduction to Political
+Science_, chapter xx.)
+
+15. Relation of the judiciary to the executive branch of government.
+(Gettell, _Introduction to Political Science_, chapter xx.)
+
+16. Relation of the judiciary to the legislative branch of government.
+(Gettell, _Introduction to Political Science_, chapter xx.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+17. Should Federal judges enjoy life terms, or should their terms of
+service be limited to a specific number of years?
+
+18. Did the framers of the Constitution intend that the Supreme Court
+should pass upon the constitutionality of Acts of Congress? (See
+Beard, _The Supreme Court and the Constitution_.)
+
+19. Do you believe that there should be any restriction upon the
+present power of the Supreme Court to pass upon the constitutionality
+of Acts of Congress?
+
+20. In the leading European countries what corresponds to our Supreme
+Court is divided into a number of sections. Do you believe that our
+Supreme Court ought to be reorganized on a similar plan? (See Munro,
+_The Government of the United States_, page 369.)
+
+
+
+
+B. STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT
+
+CHAPTER XLV
+
+CONSTITUTIONAL BASIS OF STATE GOVERNMENT [Footnote: For a fuller
+discussion of the constitutional basis of state government, see
+Chapter XXII of Beard's _American Government and Politics_. ]
+
+
+573. CONSTITUTIONAL LIMITATIONS ON STATE GOVERNMENTS.--Under the
+Articles of Confederation the states exercised practically sovereign
+powers; in the interests of a strong National government the
+Constitution adopted in 1789 distinctly limited the scope of state
+government. The Federal Constitution transferred many important powers
+from the states to the Federal government, and imposed certain
+specific limitations upon state governments. The more important of
+these limitations are as follows:
+
+No state may, without the consent of Congress, lay or collect imposts
+and duties upon exports and imports. The single exception to this
+constitutional prohibition is that a state may lay such imports or
+duties as are absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws.
+No state may lay a tonnage duty without the consent of Congress.
+
+No state may levy a tax on the property, lawful agencies, or
+instrumentalities of the Federal government. This is not a
+constitutional limitation, but was deduced by Chief Justice Marshall
+from the nature of the Federal system. In recent years, however, this
+doctrine has been modified to mean that no state may tax a federal
+instrumentality if such a tax would _impair its efficiency in
+performing the function which it was designed to serve._
+
+States may legislate concerning local commercial matters, but no state
+may interfere with interstate commerce. No state may pass any law
+impairing the obligation of contracts. The states have practically no
+control over the monetary system. They may not coin money, emit bills
+of credit, or make anything but gold and silver coin legal tender.
+States may charter and regulate state banks, however, and may also
+authorize a state bank to issue notes for circulation.
+
+No state may make or enforce any law which abridges the privileges or
+immunities of citizens of the United States. No state shall pass any
+bill of attainder, by which is meant a legislative act which inflicts
+punishment upon some person without ordinary judicial trial. Nor may
+any state pass an _ex post facto_ law, that is to say, a law which
+imposes punishment for an act which was not legally punishable at the
+time when it was committed. Lastly, no state may deprive any citizen
+of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor deny to
+any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the law.
+
+574. POWERS OF STATE GOVERNMENTS.--Federal law is the highest law of
+the land, and no state constitution, state statute, or local law or
+ordinance, may contravene it. But beyond this restriction, the
+authority of the state is supreme. Just as state government must defer
+to Federal authority, so local government is subservient to state
+authority. Just as the Federal Supreme Court may declare
+unconstitutional any executive or legislative act, either of the
+National, state, or local authorities, so the Supreme Court of any
+state may declare null and void the acts of state or local authorities
+which conflict with its constitution. Though they are limited by the
+Federal Constitution in matters which are preeminently national, the
+states reserve to themselves a vast body of authority. Almost all of
+the ordinary activities of life are controlled by state or local
+governments, rather than by the Federal government.
+
+575. CLASSIFICATION OF STATE CONSTITUTIONS: ACCORDING TO AGE.--Each
+of the forty-eight states in the Union has a written constitution. To
+bring out the fundamental similarities and differences among the
+various state constitutions, these documents may be classified in
+two ways, first as to age, and second, in the light of democratic
+development.
+
+If state constitutions are classified on the basis of age, it will be
+noted that the constitutions of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode
+Island, and other New England states show signs of having been
+strongly influenced by colonial precedents. Next come constitutions
+which in form and general content stand midway between the earlier New
+England constitutions and those of more recent years. The
+constitutions of New York (1894), Pennsylvania (1873), Indiana (1851),
+Wisconsin (1848), Kentucky (1891), Minnesota (1857), and Iowa (1857),
+are examples. Next come those constitutions of the southern states
+which have been revised within the last quarter of a century. Finally,
+we may note that California, Oregon, Oklahoma and a few other western
+states have recently drafted new constitutions in which there has been
+a more or less radical departure from the precedents set in the older
+commonwealths.
+
+576. CLASSIFICATION OF STATE CONSTITUTIONS: IN THE LIGHT OF DEMOCRATIC
+DEVELOPMENT.--Between 1776 and 1800 American state constitutions were
+generally brief and conservative. Between 1800 and 1860 the growing
+tendency toward democratic control resulted in the formation of state
+constitutions which were more and more liberal. During this period
+fear of the masses was superseded by distrust of the executive and an
+unbounded faith in the people acting in their collective capacity. The
+suffrage was extended, the governor and often state judges came to be
+elected by direct vote, and the power of the state legislature was
+enlarged.
+
+After 1860 there was a reverse movement. This was due partly to a
+growing faith in the executive, and partly to a reaction against the
+abuse of power by state legislatures. Particularly the more recent
+state constitutions have limited the power of the state legislature,
+increased the power of the executive, provided for the centralization
+of the state administration, and shortened the ballot. The present
+tendency among state constitutions is to continue in the direction of
+the above-mentioned reforms.
+
+
+A. THE PARTS OF A STATE CONSTITUTION
+
+577. THE BILL OF RIGHTS.--A vital part of a state constitution is the
+bill of rights, roughly corresponding to the first ten amendments to
+the Federal Constitution. Generally the bill of rights affirms the
+principle of republican government, maintains that all powers are
+inherent in the people, and declares that all free government is
+formed by the authority of the people. A typical bill of rights also
+provides that the laws of the state shall not be suspended except by
+the legislative assembly, and includes the traditional limitations on
+behalf of private rights. These include the right of free speech; the
+right to jury trial; the free exercise of religious worship; the right
+peaceably to assemble and petition the government for redress of
+grievances; the privilege of the writ of _habeas corpus_ except in
+case of rebellion, invasion, or public danger; the prohibition of
+excessive bail, and cruel and unusual punishments; and compensation
+for private property when taken for public use.
+
+578. THE FRAMEWORK OF GOVERNMENT.--A second part of a typical state
+constitution deals with the distribution of powers, the limitations
+upon state officials and other elements in the framework of
+government. Especially in the more recent constitutions is the form of
+state government outlined in considerable detail. In addition to
+providing a system of checks and balances by separating the executive,
+legislative, and judicial powers of state government, this part of the
+constitution defines and limits the suffrage, provides for the
+organization of the state legislature, and prescribes the limitations
+under which the legislature must operate. The election of the Governor
+and other important state officials is provided for, as is the
+relation of rural and municipal government to the state government.
+This part of the constitution likewise creates the state judicial
+system, though the regulation of details with regard to jurisdiction,
+procedure, and appeals is generally left to the discretion of the
+state legislature.
+
+579. STATE FINANCES.--A third division of a typical state constitution
+places a number of limitations upon the financial powers of the state
+legislature. These provisions are often detailed and complicated and
+hence are difficult to summarize. Their general purpose, however, is
+to fix a debt limit beyond which the legislature cannot go, and to
+compel that body to make adequate provision for the payment of
+interest and principal in the case of debts which shall be incurred.
+
+580. CONTROL OF ECONOMIC INTERESTS.--The more recent state
+constitutions provide in considerable detail for the regulation of
+economic interests within the state. The activities of industrial
+organizations are often narrowly restricted. In many states the
+constitution provides for a corporation commission with large powers
+in the regulation of rates and charges, as well as general supervision
+of corporate business. Many recent constitutions specify the
+conditions under which women and children may be employed in
+industrial establishments.
+
+581. PROVISION FOR THE GENERAL WELFARE.--An increasingly important
+part of the state constitution deals with the general welfare. Such
+vital concerns as the public school system are dealt with. In a
+typical western state, for example, the constitution requires the
+legislature to provide free instruction in the common schools of the
+state for all persons between the ages of five and twenty-five. The
+same document sets aside certain revenues for educational purposes.
+The safeguarding of the public health, and detailed provision for the
+creation and maintenance of public institutions for the dependent,
+defective, and delinquent classes, are other concerns of this part of
+the state constitution.
+
+582. PROVISION FOR AMENDMENT.--In about two thirds of the states the
+constitution provides for its own amendment by a constitutional
+convention composed of delegates elected by the voters of the state.
+The convention method is universally employed when a new constitution
+is desired. Sometimes the state constitution provides for the holding
+of such conventions at regular intervals, but generally the initiative
+is left to the legislature. When, by vote or by resolution, this body
+declares in favor of a convention, the proposition is placed before
+the voters. If a majority of these favor the project, the legislature
+arranges for the election of delegates, and fixes the time and place
+of the convention sessions. After the convention has completed its
+work, it is customary for the new constitution to be submitted to the
+people for approval.
+
+Another common way of amending the state constitution, found in every
+state except New Hampshire, is through legislative action subsequently
+ratified by popular vote. By this method separate constitutional
+amendments may be adopted, without necessitating a wholesale revision
+of the constitution. Such individual amendments are usually proposed
+by the legislature and are later submitted to popular vote. In some
+states only a majority vote of the legislature is required for the
+proposal of amendments, but ordinarily a special majority of two
+thirds or three fourths of the members of each house is required. In a
+few states, amendments cannot be considered until they have been
+proposed by two successive legislatures. After the amendment has been
+proposed for the second time, it must be ratified at the polls.
+
+Within the last decade several states, particularly in the West, have
+adopted a more direct method of amending the constitution. This is
+through the Initiative and Referendum. [Footnote: The general question
+of the Initiative and Referendum is treated in Chapter XXXVII.] In
+Oregon, for example, 8 per cent of the legal voters may petition for a
+proposed amendment to the constitution. The proposal is then submitted
+to the voters, and if it receives a majority of all votes cast, it
+becomes part of the state constitution. Arizona, Arkansas, California,
+Colorado, Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, North Dakota, and
+other states allow this type of constitutional amendment.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What are the chief limitations imposed upon state governments by
+the Federal Constitution?
+
+2. Discuss the range of authority enjoyed by state governments.
+
+3. Classify state constitutions on the basis of age.
+
+4. Discuss the classification of state constitutions in the light of
+democratic development.
+
+5. What is the nature of a "bill of rights"?
+
+6. Discuss the framework of government as provided for in the state
+constitution.
+
+7. What provision for state finances does a typical state constitution
+contain?
+
+8. What are some of the provisions in state constitutions concerning
+economic interests?
+
+9. How may a state constitution provide for the general welfare?
+
+10. Describe the three ways in which state constitutions may be
+amended.
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Beard, _American Government and Politics_, chapter xxii.
+
+2. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States_, chapter
+viii.
+
+3. Munro, _The Government of the United States_, chapter xxviii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. What is the significance of the "Revolutionary constitutions"?
+(Guitteau, page 86.) 2. What is the relation of present-day state
+constitutions to the original colonial charters? (Munro, page 404.) 3.
+Distinguish between the "constituent" and the "law-making" power.
+(Munro, page 405.) 4. Into what two parts may the early state
+constitutions be divided? (Guitteau, page 86.) 5. Discuss the check
+and balance system as provided for in the constitutions of the various
+states. (Guitteau, page 89.) 6. What authority controls the admission
+of new states into the Union? (Beard, pages 443-445.) 7. What does the
+constitution of Oklahoma say concerning the writ of _habeas corpus_?
+(Beard, page 449.) 8. Describe the procedure in a constitutional
+convention. (Munro, pages 410-411.) 9. What is the relation of the
+state constitution to the state courts? (Beard, pages 452-453.) 10.
+Enumerate the principles which commonly govern the attitude of the
+state courts toward the acts of the state legislature. (Beard, pages
+452-453.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. The history of your present state constitution.
+
+2. The bill of rights in your state constitution.
+
+3. The framework of government as provided for in the constitution of
+your state.
+
+4. Methods by means of which your state constitution may he amended.
+
+5. Classify and briefly characterize the amendments which have been
+appended to the constitution of your state.
+
+
+II
+
+6. Meaning of the term "constitution." (Gettell, _Readings in
+Political Science_, pages 282-283.)
+
+7. Types of constitutions. (Gettell, _Readings in Political Science_,
+pages 284-285; Kimball, _State and Municipal Government in the United
+States_, chapter ii.)
+
+8. Methods of amending constitutions. (Gettell, _Readings in Political
+Science_, pages 299-300.)
+
+9. Difficulties of constitutional amendment in the United States.
+(Gettell, _Readings in Political Science_, page 301.)
+
+10. Procedure in the state constitutional convention. (Massachusetts
+Constitutional Convention Bulletins, No. i. Hoar, _Constitutional
+Conventions._)
+
+11. Recent changes in constitutions. (Dealey, _Growth of American
+State Constitutions from 1776 to the end of the Year 1914._)
+
+12. Present tendencies in state constitutions. (Reinsch, _Readings on
+American State Government_, pages 443-449.)
+
+13. The constitution of Oklahoma. (Reinsch, _Readings on American
+State Government_, pages 450-464.)
+
+14. A comparison of constitutional amendment in Europe and
+constitutional amendment in the United States. (Borgeaud, _Adoption
+and Amendment of Constitutions in Europe and America_.)
+
+15. British constitutions. (Gettell, _Readings in Political Science,_
+pages 286-287; 292-293.)
+
+16. French constitutions. (Gettell, _Readings in Political Science,_
+pages 297-298.)
+
+17. German constitutions. (Gettell, _Readings in Political Science,_
+pages 298-299.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+18. Does the Federal Constitution too narrowly restrict the activities
+of the state governments?
+
+19. Does the bill of rights in your state constitution adequately
+protect your rights?
+
+20. Does the constitution of your state too narrowly restrict the
+financial powers of the state legislature?
+
+21. Is your state constitution too easy of amendment? Is it too
+difficult of amendment?
+
+22. Recent state constitutions tend to be very long and detailed. What
+are the advantages and disadvantages of this development?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLVI
+
+THE STATE EXECUTIVE
+
+
+A. THE GOVERNOR
+
+583. THE ELECTION OF THE GOVERNOR.--In every state in the Union the
+Governor is elected by popular vote. In most of the states this
+election takes place, together with that of other state officials, on
+the Tuesday following the first Monday in November. Usually a
+gubernatorial candidate is required to be at least thirty years of
+age. He must be a United States citizen, and also a resident of his
+state of at least five years' standing.
+
+The Governor's term varies from two years in Massachusetts to four
+years in more than twenty states. In general, the term of office is
+increasing. The average salary received by a state Governor is $5000 a
+year.
+
+584. LIMITATIONS UPON THE GOVERNOR.--A number of factors operate to
+limit the power of the state Governor.
+
+The Federal Constitution limits his authority by declaring that
+persons charged with crime in, and escaped from, a neighboring state,
+must be delivered up to the executive authorities of the state in
+which the crime is charged to have been committed.
+
+The executive power of state government is not concentrated under the
+Governor, but is shared by the Governor with a host of administrative
+officials. Many of these officials are elected directly by the people,
+and cannot, therefore, be held accountable by the Governor.
+Furthermore, the actual execution of the state laws rests primarily
+with municipal and other local officials, and over these officers the
+Governor has little or no control. The express powers of the President
+of the United States have been rather liberally interpreted by the
+courts, but the powers of the state Governor have generally been
+construed in a narrow and literal sense. In many states the power of
+the Governor rarely or never extends beyond the express limits imposed
+by the state constitution.
+
+585. EXECUTIVE POWERS OF THE GOVERNOR.--The Governor is charged by the
+state constitution to see that the laws are faithfully executed. This
+is similar to the chief duty of the President of the United States,
+but whereas the President is aided by subordinate administrative
+officials over whom he has complete control, the Governor must act
+through a large number of state and local officials over whom he has
+little effective control.
+
+Of some value, however, is the power of the Governor to exercise
+general supervision over the various executive officers of the state.
+He enjoys, in addition, the power to appoint many of the subordinate
+administrative officials. Usually these appointments must be confirmed
+by the upper house of the state legislature. In most cases the
+Governor cannot remove officials so appointed without the consent of
+the senate or council.
+
+The Governor is commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the state,
+and when the regular officers of the law are unable to cope with
+domestic violence, he is empowered to call out the militia. In this
+connection, the Governor has the power of suspending the writ of
+_habeas corpus_, though most states declare that this writ may not be
+suspended except in times of rebellion and invasion. Two or three
+states have recently provided that the writ of _habeas corpus_ may not
+be suspended in any case whatsoever.
+
+586. LEGISLATIVE POWERS OF THE GOVERNOR.--In general the Governor
+occupies the same relation to the state legislature, as does the
+President toward Congress. Thus the Governor may send periodic
+messages to the legislature, and may recommend such legislative
+measures as he believes desirable. The Governor often communicates
+with the legislature concerning the financial condition and needs of
+the state. The Governor may also call special sessions of the state
+legislature, for the consideration of urgent matters. In case the two
+houses of the legislature are unable to agree upon a time for
+adjournment, the Governor may adjourn the state legislature.
+
+In one respect the Governor's power of veto exceeds that of the
+President, for in about two thirds of the states the Governor may veto
+individual items in appropriation bills. This privilege is denied the
+President, who must accept or reject a measure as a whole. Like the
+President, the Governor influences legislation through his relations
+with the leaders of his party in the legislature, as well as through
+his power of the patronage.
+
+587. JUDICIAL POWERS OF THE GOVERNOR.--In almost every state the
+Governor has considerable control over the issuance of pardons and
+reprieves, in the case of all offenses committed against the state. In
+some states the power to issue pardons and reprieves is exercised with
+the consent of the state legislature, in other states the Governor
+shares this power with a board of pardons; in a few states the
+Governor may act alone.
+
+588. TENDENCY OF THE GOVERNOR'S POWER TO INCREASE.--The earlier state
+constitutions tended to restrict the powers of the Governor, and to
+extend liberal grants of power to the state legislature. Of recent
+years the abuse of legislative power has tended to encourage suspicion
+of the legislature and a growing confidence in the Governor. As a
+consequence, the Governor's term is in many states increasing. In the
+effort to shorten the ballot and concentrate responsibility for the
+state administration upon some one official, various states are
+increasing the appointive power of the Governor. In a few states the
+Governor now has authority to make special inquiries into the workings
+of the various executive departments, with a view to checking
+inefficient and irresponsible methods of work. In some states the
+Governor's share in budget-making is increasing. In the majority of
+states the general tendency toward a shorter ballot, the
+reorganization of the state administration, and other methods of
+reforming state government, will probably continue to enlarge the
+power and influence of the Governor.
+
+
+B. THE STATE ADMINISTRATION
+
+589. THE OLDER GROUP OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS.--Aside from the
+Governor, the administrative officers of the state fall into two
+groups: First, the older officers, who are relatively few, and who are
+almost always elective; and second, the newer officers, boards, and
+commissions, who are relatively numerous, and who may be either
+elective or appointive.
+
+The first group comprises such officers as the Lieutenant Governor,
+the Secretary of State, the State Treasurer, the Auditor or
+Comptroller, and the Attorney-General. These older officers are
+usually elected at the general state election for a term varying from
+state to state. These officers are not under the control of the
+Governor, but fulfill duties prescribed by the constitution, and are
+responsible only to the people and to the courts. They may be, and
+often are, of a different political party than the Governor, and since
+they are not under the control of that official, they often work at
+cross-purposes with him. This lack of coördination is in striking
+contrast to the harmony of action existing between the President of
+the United States and the heads of the Federal Executive Departments.
+
+590. THE NEWER GROUP OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS.--As state government
+has increased in complexity, the older group of administrative
+officers has been supplemented by the addition of a large number of
+new officers.
+
+These newer administrative officials are quite numerous, but their
+general character may be indicated by dividing them into two classes:
+
+The first class includes individual officers, such as, for example, a
+superintendent of prisons, a state architect, a state historian, a
+commissioner of health, a food inspector, a geologist, a commissioner
+of corporations, a commissioner of banking, a superintendent of public
+works, and a state surveyor.
+
+Besides individual officers, the newer group of administrative
+officials includes a large number of boards and commissions which have
+been created by the state legislature and endowed with large powers
+for the study and control of specific matters. The following boards
+and commissions are examples of this second class: A state civil
+service commission, a tax commission, a board of charities and
+correction, a water supply commission, a tax equalization board, a
+quarantine commission, a voting machine commission, a board of
+pharmacy, a highway commission, and a public service commission.
+
+591. DEFECTS OF STATE ADMINISTRATION. [Footnote: For a fuller
+discussion of this problem, see Chapter XXXVI.]--The enlargement of
+the state administration by this creation of numerous individual
+offices, boards, and commissions indicates an attempt on the part of
+state governments to grapple with the problems of democracy.
+Nevertheless, this rapid growth of the state administration has had
+serious consequences. Once created, many of the newer officers have
+attempted to perpetuate themselves. State legislatures have been
+harassed by boards and commissions seeking unnecessary appropriations.
+Politicians without expert training or ability are often placed on
+boards and commissions dealing with technical matters.
+
+Responsible and efficient state government is rendered difficult by
+the inability of the Governor effectively to control the few elective
+officials who constitute the older group of administrative officers;
+an even greater difficulty arises from the creation and expansion of
+the newer group of officers. The excessive number of individual
+officers, boards, and commissions makes for inefficient and
+irresponsible government. Some of these officials are elected by the
+people, others are appointed by the Governor. Their terms vary so
+widely that, as Professor Beard has pointed out, the appointing power
+never has an opportunity to make a clean sweep and introduce more
+efficient administrative methods. There is little or no coördination
+between the various administrative offices, and very little
+centralization of responsibility.
+
+592. THE STATE OF CIVIL SERVICE.--The spoils system has long
+constituted a defect, not only in the Federal government but in
+American state government as well. [Footnote: This problem is further
+discussed in Chapter XXXIV.] And as in the case of the National
+government, this evil has been attacked primarily through the merit
+system. New York state led the way in 1883 by passing a comprehensive
+Civil Service Act. This law provided for a commission authorized to
+coöperate with the Governor in preparing rules, classifying the state
+civil service, and conducting the examinations for the positions to be
+filled. Since then, Massachusetts, Wisconsin, Colorado, New Jersey,
+California, Ohio, Illinois, and other states have adopted some type of
+civil service system.
+
+State civil service laws are largely modelled after the national Civil
+Service Act of 1883. In most of the legislating states laws of this
+type provide for competitive examinations of a practical nature; they
+prohibit political and religious interrogatives; and they forbid the
+assessment of holders of civil service positions for political
+purposes. Appointment and promotion are upon the basis of merit,
+although as in the case of the Federal civil service, the standards
+for judging the character and capacity of individual officeholders
+have not yet been perfected.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What are the qualifications of the state Governor?
+
+2. What limitations restrict the power of the Governor?
+
+3. Outline the executive powers of the Governor.
+
+4. What are the chief legislative powers of the Governor?
+
+5. Describe the judicial powers of the Governor.
+
+6. Is the power of the Governor increasing or decreasing?
+
+7. Into what two groups may state administrative officers be divided?
+
+8. Name some of the officials in the older group.
+
+9. Discuss the character of the newer group of officials,
+
+10. Name the chief defects of state administration.
+
+11. Discuss the state civil service.
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Beard, _American Government and Politics_, chapter xxiv.
+
+2. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States_, chapter x.
+
+3. Munro, _The Government of the United States_, chapters xxx and xxxi.
+
+4. Reed, _Form and Functions of American Government_, chapter x.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. How many states elect the Governor for two years? (Beard, page
+490.)
+
+2. How is the Governor of Mississippi elected? (Beard, page 489.)
+
+3. What is the function of the lieutenant governor? (Beard, pages 499-
+500.)
+
+4. What are the functions of the state treasurer? (Beard, page 500.)
+
+5. What are the chief duties of the attorney-general of the state?
+(Beard, page 500.)
+
+6. Discuss the impeachment process in state government. (Beard, pages
+508-509.)
+
+7. Name some miscellaneous duties of the Governor. (Reed, page 116.)
+
+8. What is the nature of the Governor's messages? (Reed, page 118.)
+
+9. How is a vacancy in the Governorship filled? (Munro, page 433.)
+
+10, Name some states in which the movement for the consolidation of
+state administrative offices is active. (Guitteau, page 112.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Term, qualifications, and salary of the Governor of your state.
+
+2. A short biography of the present Governor of your state.
+
+3. Platform on which the present Governor of your state was elected
+
+4. A comparison of the influence exerted by the President of the
+United States upon the National legislature, and the influence exerted
+upon the state legislature by the Governor of your commonwealth.
+
+5. A classification of the administrative officers of your state.
+
+6. History of the merit system in your state.
+
+
+II
+
+7. A comparative study of state governors in the United States.
+(Beard, _American Government and Politics_, page 491.)
+
+8. The legislative power of the Governor. (Mathews, _Principles of
+American State Administration_, chapter iii.)
+
+9. The veto power of the Governor. (Munro, _The Government of the
+United States_, pages 435-438.)
+
+10. Some special functions of the Governor. (Mathews, _Principles of
+American State Administration_, chapter v.)
+
+11. The administrative power of the Governor. (Mathews, _Principles of
+American State Administration_, chapter iv.)
+
+12. Relation of the Governor to law enforcement. (Reinsch, _Readings
+on American State Government_, pages 26-40.)
+
+13. The organization of the state administration. (Mathews,
+_Principles of American State Administration_, chapter vii.)
+
+14. The work of the state administration. (Munro, _The Government of
+the United States,_ chapter xxxi; Kimball, _State and Municipal
+Government in the United States,_ chapter ix.)
+
+15. The selection of state officials. (Mathews, _Principles of
+American State Administration,_ chapter viii.)
+
+16. The removal of state officials. (Mathews, _Principles of American
+State Administration, Principles of American State Administration,_
+chapter ix.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+18. Should the veto power of your state Governor be still further
+restricted? Should it be enlarged?
+
+19. Should the administrative offices in your state be reorganized and
+consolidated?
+
+20. Ought the merit system in your state to be extended?
+
+21. Advantages and disadvantages of choosing administrative officials
+by direct vote.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLVII
+
+THE STATE LEGISLATURE
+
+
+593. STRUCTURE OF THE STATE LEGISLATURE.--The representative branch of
+state government is known under different names in various states, but
+the term "state legislature" is in more or less general use.
+
+The state legislature is invariably a two-chambered body; the upper
+house is the smaller and is called the senate, while the lower and
+more numerous branch is variously known as the house of
+representatives, house of delegates, or assembly.
+
+Usually the state senate differs from the lower house in certain
+important particulars. The senatorial districts from which members of
+the upper house are elected are always larger than are the districts
+from which members to the lower house are chosen. Senators are usually
+chosen for longer terms than are representatives. As in the case of
+the National Senate, the senate (in most states) is made a continuous
+body by the provision that its members shall begin their terms at
+certain periodic intervals. In the lower house of the state
+legislature, on the other hand, all of the members take their seats at
+the same time.
+
+594. BASIS OF REPRESENTATION.--For the purpose of electing members of
+the state legislature, practically all of the states are divided into
+numerous senatorial and representative election districts. Some states
+apply the rule that representatives in the state legislature shall be
+apportioned among districts containing practically an equal number of
+inhabitants.
+
+Other states, however, provide exceptions to this rule. For example,
+Alabama, Florida, New York and other states provide that each county
+shall have at least one member in the house. Often the result of this
+arrangement is that the smaller or more sparsely populated counties
+are over-represented in the state legislature, while the more populous
+counties are under-represented.
+
+Several states, notably Connecticut and Vermont, arrange
+representation in the state legislature so that with respect to
+population, cities are under-represented and rural districts are over-
+represented. [Footnote: For a discussion of the problem of minority
+representation in state legislatures, see Chapter XXXV.]
+
+595. MEMBERSHIP.--The state constitution determines the qualifications
+of those who are entitled to vote for state legislators. [Footnote:
+For an enumeration of these qualifications, see Chapter XXXIII,
+Section 415.] Generally, anyone qualified to vote for a state
+legislator is also eligible to membership. However, holders of both
+Federal and state offices are excluded from sitting in the state
+legislature.
+
+In some states the term of a senator is the same as that of a
+representative, but generally senators are elected for a longer term
+than are members to the lower house. Representatives are generally
+chosen for two years, senators for four.
+
+In all states, members of the legislature are paid, either a fixed
+annual salary or a _per diem_ allowance based upon the length of the
+legislative session. In most states senators and representatives
+receive equal compensation.
+
+All state legislators are privileged from arrest or civil process
+during the session. In addition they enjoy the usual privilege of free
+speech in their official capacities.
+
+596. ORGANIZATION.--Formerly state legislatures met annually, but at
+present the great majority convene only once in two years. In the
+effort to cut down the amount of superfluous legislation, a number of
+state constitutions now restrict the legislative session to from forty
+to ninety days. The legislature may adjourn itself to meet later in
+special session, or the Governor may call special sessions. The
+Governor may adjourn the legislature, if the two houses fail to agree
+upon a time for adjournment.
+
+In internal organization, the state legislature resembles Congress.
+Except that the lieutenant governor is often the presiding officer of
+the senate, each house chooses all of its own officers. Each house
+determines its own rules of procedure and keeps a journal of its
+proceedings. In addition, each house exercises the right of deciding
+upon the qualifications of its members, and disciplines and punishes
+its members for misconduct. As in the national legislature, work is
+expedited by the committee system. The party is a dominant force in
+the state as well as in the national legislature.
+
+597. POWERS OF THE STATE LEGISLATURE--The law-making powers of the
+state legislature extend to practically all subjects. The presumption
+is that this body has a right to legislate upon any subject, unless
+specific prohibitions have been imposed upon it by either the Federal
+or the state constitution.
+
+The Federal Constitution forbids any state legislature to emit bills
+of credit, coin money, or pass laws impairing the obligation of
+contracts. Neither bills of attainder nor _ex post facto_ legislation
+may be enacted by a state legislature. The Federal Constitution
+likewise declares that state legislatures may neither abridge the
+privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States, nor
+deprive persons of life, liberty, or property without due process of
+law. No state may deny to any person within the state jurisdiction the
+equal protection of the laws.
+
+Restrictions imposed by the state constitution fall into several
+groups. These include restrictions in favor of trial by jury,
+religious freedom, and other privileges usually embodied in a bill of
+rights; provisions controlling the grant of special favors to
+corporations; restrictions upon the financial powers of the state
+legislature; provisions defining the framework of state government;
+and prohibitions upon the power of the legislature to pass special and
+local laws. [Footnote: A special or local law is one which applies to
+some particular individual or corporation, or to some particular city,
+county, or other locality. Prohibitions upon special and local laws
+are necessary in order to prevent the legislature from extending
+special favors to particular individuals or localities. ]
+
+598. HOW A STATE LAW IS MADE.--Bills may originate in either house of
+the state legislature, except that in most states money bills must
+originate in the lower chamber.
+
+To illustrate law-making in the state legislature, let us assume that
+a bill is introduced in the lower house. This may be done by any one
+of several methods. Any member of the house may deposit a bill in a
+box near the speaker's desk. Sometimes a bill is introduced by the
+report of a committee, or even by a messenger from the senate. When
+the bill has been introduced, it is given a first reading. With the
+consent of the house, the speaker then refers the measure to the
+appropriate committee. The adverse report of the committee generally
+kills the bill; but if the bill is favorably reported, and this report
+is approved by the house, the bill is placed on the order of second
+reading and is debated section by section, unless by unanimous vote it
+is advanced to the third reading. If the bill passes the second
+reading, it is generally referred to the committee on revision. It is
+then engrossed, reported back to the house for the third reading and
+the final vote. Sometimes the yeas and nays of this final vote are
+entered upon the journal, so that responsibility may be fixed upon
+each member.
+
+The bill then goes to the senate, where the procedure is very much
+like that of the house, except that the committee of the whole
+sometimes takes the place of the order of the second reading as
+conducted in the house.
+
+599. THE BILL GOES TO THE GOVERNOR.--In every state except North
+Carolina, a bill which has passed both branches of the legislature
+must then go to the Governor for approval. If this officer signs it,
+it becomes law. If he disapproves of it, he returns it with his
+objections to the house in which it originated. In spite of this
+objection by the Governor the legislature may enact the measure into
+law, if a sufficiently large majority in each house votes in favor of
+the bill. This majority is usually two thirds of the members in each
+house.
+
+Generally the Governor has a ten-day period in which to consider
+bills. If a bill is not returned to the legislature with his
+objections within this period, it automatically becomes law without
+his signature, unless the adjournment of the legislature prevents its
+return to that body. In most states the Governor has the important
+privilege of vetoing particular items in appropriation bills, while
+sanctioning the rest of the measure.
+
+600. DEFECTS IN STATE LEGISLATION. [Footnote: For a fuller discussion
+see Chapter XXXVI.]--There is, among students of American government,
+a general agreement that the legislative procedure of the various
+states evidences a number of serious defects.
+
+One of these defects is the absence of responsibility. Any member of
+the state legislature may introduce as many bills as he likes, but he
+need not assume responsibility for any of them.
+
+Another serious evil is the lack of experience and technical skill on
+the part of legislators. Legislators are frequently ignorant of the
+subject matter with which they are called upon to deal. There is a
+tendency for legislators to ignore the effect of a new statute upon
+the existing body of law. Nor is the constitutionality of the measure
+contemplated always taken into account. Ill-advised and pernicious
+legislation is the result.
+
+Log-rolling and lobbying constitute another defect of state
+legislation. Log-rolling leads to the passage of numerous bills
+without their adequate scrutiny by individual members, and without
+either individual members or legislative committees assuming
+responsibility for those measures. The pressure exerted upon state
+legislatures for legislation favoring special interests is still
+great.
+
+601. THE REFORM OF LEGISLATIVE PROCEDURE.--A few states have attempted
+to overcome the lack of technical information on the part of
+legislators by providing for expert bill drafters. In New York, for
+example, the state legislature has been provided with a number of
+competent bill drafters whose duty it shall be, during the session of
+the legislature, to draw bills, examine and revise proposed bills, and
+advise as to the legal effect of any legislation. These bill drafters
+may be set to work on the request of either house, or of a committee,
+member, or officer thereof.
+
+A large number of states now have a legislative reference bureau which
+keeps a careful record of the laws passed in the various states of the
+Union. This bureau maintains a library, and issues bulletins for the
+guidance of legislators.
+
+In 1909 Wisconsin created the office of reviser. This officer keeps a
+loose-leaf system of laws, and collects court decisions affecting
+statutes. At the beginning of each session this officer also presents
+to the committees on revision of each house of the legislature, bills
+providing for such consolidation and revisions as may be completed
+from time to time. The reviser supervises the preparation, printing,
+and binding of such compilations of particular portions of the
+statutes as may be ordered by the head of any state department.
+
+There is an increasing tendency to curb lobbying in state
+legislatures. The laws of New York and Wisconsin may be taken as
+typical. That of New York provides that every person retained or
+employed for compensation as a counsel or agent by any person, firm,
+corporation, or association, to promote or oppose, directly or
+indirectly, the passage of any bill or resolution, must be registered
+every year in the office of the secretary of state, and must give the
+name of the person by whom he is retained. The Wisconsin law provides
+that legislative agents or counsels may not attempt to influence
+members privately, but must confine themselves to arguing before
+committees and filing printed briefs with the members of the
+legislature.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Discuss the structure of the state legislature.
+
+2. In what ways does the senate usually differ from the lower house?
+
+3. What is the basis of representation in the state legislature?
+
+4. How are the qualifications of state representatives determined?
+
+5. Compare the term of senator with that of state representative.
+
+6. Outline the organization of the legislature.
+
+7. Compare the organization of the state legislature with that of the
+national legislature.
+
+8. What is the scope of power enjoyed by the state legislature?
+
+9. What limitations are placed upon state legislatures?
+
+10. Describe the making of a state law.
+
+11. Discuss the veto power of the Governor.
+
+12. What are some defects of state legislation?
+
+13. Outline some attempts to eliminate these defects.
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Beard, _American Government and Politics_, chapter xxv.
+
+2. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States_, chapter
+ix.
+
+3. Munro, _The Government of the United States_, chapter xxix.
+
+4. Reed, _Form and Functions of the United States Government_, chapter
+xi.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Under what four heads may the limitations on state legislatures be
+grouped? (Guitteau, page 101.)
+
+2. What limitations are imposed upon state legislatures by the
+republican nature of state government? (Guitteau, page 102.)
+
+3. In what states are annual legislative sessions held? (Guitteau,
+page 96.)
+
+4. Why has the legislative session been shortened in some states?
+(Reed, pages 123-124.)
+
+5. Under what three heads may state legislative power be classified?
+(Guitteau, page 100.)
+
+6. What is the most important of the powers of the state legislature?
+(Reed, page 128.)
+
+7. What are the non-legislative duties of the state legislature?
+(Guitteau, pages 100-101.)
+
+8. What can be said as to the personnel of the state legislature?
+(Reed, page 126.)
+
+9. What is a "rotten borough"? (Beard, page 521.)
+
+10. Why are state laws frequently of inferior quality? (Munro, page
+428.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. A comparison of the upper with the lower house of your state
+legislature.
+
+2. Gerrymandering in your state.
+
+3. Occupations and professions represented in the membership of your
+state legislature.
+
+4. The character of legislation recently enacted by your state
+legislature.
+
+
+II
+
+5. Development of the law-making department. (Gettell, _Readings in
+Political Science_, pages 341-342.)
+
+6. General principles of legislative organization. (Gettell, _Readings
+in Political Science_, page 343.)
+
+7. Advantages of the bicameral system. (Gettell, _Readings in
+Political Science_, page 344.)
+
+8. The function of the legislature. (Gettell, _Readings in Political
+Science_, page 357.)
+
+9. The lobby. (Reinsch, _Readings on American State Government_, pages
+79-84.)
+
+10. Financial procedure in state legislatures. (Reinsch, _Readings on
+American State Government_, pages 56-61.)
+
+11. The actual work of making a law. (Reed, _Form and Functions of
+American Government_, chapter xii.)
+
+12. Legislative apportionments. (Reinsch, _American Legislatures and
+Legislative Methods_, chapter vii.)
+
+13. Obstacles to intelligent law-making. (Gettell, _Readings in
+Political Science_, pages 358-359.)
+
+14. Danger of over-legislation in the United States. (Gettell,
+_Readings in Political Science_, page 361.)
+
+15. The legislative reference bureau. (Reinsch, _Readings on American
+State Government_, pages 63-73.)
+
+16. The relation of the state legislature to local government
+(Gettell, _Introduction to Political Science_, chapter xxii.)
+
+17. Public forces influencing legislation. (Reinsch, _American
+Legislatures and Legislative Methods_, pages 275-298.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+18. Would shortening the length of the legislative session improve the
+character of legislation in your state?
+
+19. Should members of the state legislature be residents of the
+districts from which they are chosen, or should they be chosen on a
+state-wide ticket?
+
+20. Should our state legislatures be made unicameral? (See Munro, _The
+Government of the United States_, pages 416-418.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLVIII
+
+THE STATE COURTS
+
+
+A. SOURCES OF LAW
+
+602. ENGLISH COMMON LAW.--One important source of our system of
+jurisprudence is the English common law. This law is not found in the
+enactment of statutes, but consists of court decisions spread over
+several centuries. The common law has been defined as "that rule of
+civil conduct which originated in the common wisdom and experience of
+society," and which "in time became an established custom, and has
+finally received judicial sanction and affirmance in the decisions of
+the courts of last resort." [Footnote: W. C. Robinson, quoted in
+_Government and Politics in The United States_, by W. B. Guitteau,
+Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1920.] The common law began its
+development in early England, and with the settlement of America was
+transplanted to this country. Though radically modified by American
+constitutional and statutory enactments it still remains the basis of
+our legal system.
+
+603. EQUITY.--Common law tended to become so stereotyped and so
+inflexible that in some cases an application of the law worked an
+injustice. Very early in English history this situation gave rise to a
+new form of jurisprudence called equity. Equity is that legal system
+which supplements common and statute law by aiming to secure justice
+where a strict application of law would work an injustice. Equity
+developed in England after the Norman Conquest, and, like the common
+law, was transferred to this country in colonial times. A distinct set
+of chancery or equity courts was created to administer equity in early
+America, but at present equity is administered by the same judges that
+preside over the regular state law courts. Both equitable and legal
+relief may be secured in one suit.
+
+604. STATUTES.--Another important source of law is the statutes
+enacted by the state legislature. Most state laws relate to the
+structure and functions of government, but statutory enactment is also
+employed to regulate a few branches of private law, including
+principally matters which affect the public at large as well as
+private individuals. Examples are laws relating to wills and
+succession to property, marriage and divorce, partnerships, and
+corporations.
+
+The scope of the statutes is widening, and during the last half
+century several fields of the common law have been covered by statute.
+Criminal law, criminal procedure, and civil procedure have been
+codified in various states. Some states have attempted to codify the
+entire civil law, but experience has proved that this may easily
+render the law too rigid.
+
+605. OTHER SOURCES OF LAW.--The state constitution, the Federal
+Constitution, and Federal laws and treaties with foreign countries are
+other sources of state law.
+
+In summary, the various kinds of law which are enforceable in the
+state courts may be considered as forming a pyramid, built upward by
+the following steps: English common law, equity, state statutes, the
+state constitution, Federal statutes, treaties with foreign nations,
+and the Federal Constitution.
+
+
+B. STRUCTURE OF THE COURTS
+
+606. THE JUSTICE OF THE PEACE.--State courts are arranged in a
+progressive series. At the bottom of this series is the justice of the
+peace, who exercises jurisdiction over petty offenses and over civil
+cases involving very small amounts. Generally there is a justice of
+the peace in each township or other local district. In large cities
+the civil and criminal jurisdiction of the justice of the peace is
+usually divided between two sets of courts: first, the municipal or
+city courts, with a minor civil jurisdiction; and second, the police
+or magistrates' courts with jurisdiction over petty criminal offenses.
+The police or magistrates' courts have the power to make preliminary
+investigations in case of felonies or serious misdemeanors.
+
+607. THE COUNTY COURTS.--Above the justices of the peace there are, in
+most states, a number of county courts, exercising limited
+jurisdiction. These courts, sometimes called courts of common pleas or
+district courts, have jurisdiction over civil cases involving
+considerable sums, as well as jurisdiction over most criminal
+offenses. In addition these courts usually consider appeals from the
+judgments of justices of the peace.
+
+608. SUPERIOR OR CIRCUIT COURTS.--In many states there is a superior,
+circuit, or district court immediately above the county courts, though
+in some states this tribunal takes the place of the county courts. The
+superior court has jurisdiction over civil cases involving unlimited
+sums, as well as unlimited original jurisdiction over criminal
+matters. It may also try all cases over which the lower courts have no
+jurisdiction.
+
+609. THE SUPREME COURT.--At the head of the state judicial system
+there is a court of last resort, known in various states by different
+names. It may be called the court of appeals, the court of errors and
+appeals, or simply the supreme court. Practically all of the cases
+coming before this court are appealed from the lower courts.
+Ordinarily it deals with points of law rather than of fact.
+
+610. SPECIAL COURTS.--In addition to the regular state courts there
+are sometimes special tribunals for special purposes. Examples of such
+courts are the probate or surrogates' courts for the settlement of the
+estates of deceased persons; children's courts for the treatment of
+cases involving children; courts of domestic relations; and courts of
+claims for hearing claims against the state.
+
+611. STATE JUDGES.--In almost all of the states judges are chosen by
+popular vote, though in half a dozen states the choice of these
+officials still lies with the legislature or with the Governor, or
+with both acting jointly. Judges of the higher state courts are
+generally chosen for a long period of time, even for life, while the
+judges of the lower courts are chosen for relatively short periods.
+Salaries vary from practically nothing but fee money for some justices
+of the peace to an average of $7000 a year for justices of the supreme
+court. The qualifications imposed upon judges include a minimum age of
+25 to 35 years, and citizenship for a varying period of years. Another
+common requirement is residence within the state, or even residence
+within the judicial district. For judges of the higher courts it is
+the custom to demand membership in the legal profession. Judges may be
+removed by impeachment, and, in a few states, by use of the Recall.
+
+612. OTHER COURT OFFICIALS.--The district or prosecuting attorney is
+an important official. Generally he is chosen by the voters of the
+county, though in some instances he is elected from larger areas. The
+district attorney represents the state in all criminal cases, and
+conducts the prosecution. This officer conducts a preliminary
+investigation into crimes and determines whether or not a prosecution
+should be instituted. If the decision is in the affirmative, he
+presents the case to the grand jury. If the grand jury returns an
+indictment, that is, if it demands that the accused be held for trial,
+the prosecuting attorney conducts the prosecution at the ensuing
+trial.
+
+The clerk, or recording officer, is generally appointed by the court,
+though he may be elected by popular vote. The constable or sheriff is
+elected by popular vote. The clerk and the constable are charged with
+the execution of all orders, judgments, and decrees of the court.
+
+
+C. POWERS AND PROCEDURE
+
+613. RELATION OF STATE TO FEDERAL COURTS.--The framework of American
+government includes a dual system of courts, the Federal courts and
+the state courts. The jurisdiction of the Federal courts is
+specifically defined by the Federal Constitution, while the state
+courts have a jurisdiction which is limited only by the prohibitions
+of the state and Federal Constitutions. The two systems of courts are
+independent in the exercise of their respective powers, and have
+separate jurisdictions. In some cases, however, the state courts
+have a concurrent jurisdiction with the Federal courts, and a litigant
+has a choice of tribunals before which to bring suit. In most suits
+the decision of the state supreme court is final, but cases involving
+Federal law may be appealed for final decision to the Supreme Court of
+the United States.
+
+614. POWER TO DECLARE STATE STATUTES UNCONSTITUTIONAL.--Just as the
+Federal courts are the final interpreters of all domestic law, so the
+state courts have the power to pass upon the constitutionality of
+statutes enacted either by the state legislature or by local law-
+making bodies. The state constitution is the fundamental law of the
+state, and it is the duty of the state courts to see that all state
+and local legislative acts conform to this fundamental law.
+
+615. POWER OVER EXECUTIVE OFFICIALS.--Through their power to pass upon
+the legality of executive acts, the state courts exercise some degree
+of control over executive officials. If a state governor were
+illegally to remove an official from office, for example, the courts
+could reinstate the latter.
+
+The state courts also have the power to issue writs of mandamus and
+injunction. The former may be used, under certain circumstances, to
+compel an executive officer to perform his duty; the latter writ may
+be used to prevent either state officials or private individuals from
+committing illegal acts.
+
+616. CIVIL JURISDICTION.--The jurisdiction of the state courts is
+either civil or criminal.
+
+The purpose of civil law is to protect the rights of the individual
+and to redress his wrongs. The individual rights which are the concern
+of civil law fall under three heads: First, the right of personal
+security, including the right of protection against violence; second,
+the right of personal liberty, including the rights set forth in the
+bill of rights of the state constitution; third, the rights of
+property, including the right to acquire and hold property, and the
+right to demand fulfilment of contracts made under state law.
+
+617. CIVIL PROCEDURE.--If an individual believes that his rights have
+been violated, he, as plaintiff, is entitled to file a complaint with
+the proper court. The sheriff or constable then summons the defendant
+to appear in court, and the clerk of the court issues a summons or
+subpoena to all witnesses which either party to the suit desires to
+have testify. Generally either party may demand a trial by jury. Both
+plaintiff and defendant are ordinarily represented by counsel which
+present the different sides of the case to the judge and jury. The
+judge decides what evidence may be properly presented to the jury.
+After the closing argument of the plaintiff's counsel, the judge
+instructs the jury on the legal points involved in the case. The jury
+then retire and attempt to reach an unanimous decision. If able so to
+agree, they return a verdict for either plaintiff or defendant, and
+after the verdict has been accepted by the court, judgment is
+rendered. If the jurors have been unable to come to an unanimous
+decision, the case is ordinarily tried with another jury, though in a
+few states an unanimous verdict in civil cases is not required.
+
+If the decision of the court is accepted as final, the judgment is
+enforced. On the other hand, the dissatisfied party may appeal the
+case to the next higher court on the ground that the verdict was
+contrary to the weight of evidence, or because of errors of law
+committed by the judge. Under certain circumstances the judge who
+tries the case may be induced to grant a new trial.
+
+618. CRIMINAL JURISDICTION.--The purpose of criminal law is to punish
+those who have committed public wrongs, _i.e._ wrongs against the
+state or community. Crimes are of two types: first, felonies,
+including such grave offences as murder, arson, burglary, and larceny;
+and second, misdemeanors, including such lesser offenses as bribery,
+knowingly receiving stolen goods, libel, assault and battery, and
+disturbance of the peace. Usually felonies are punished either by
+death, or by a long prison sentence. Misdemeanors are ordinarily
+punished by fines or by imprisonment for a short term.
+
+619. CRIMINAL PROCEDURE.--A criminal proceeding usually begins with
+the arrest of the accused person. Generally, though not always, arrest
+is in pursuance of a warrant. As soon after arrest as possible, the
+accused is brought before a magistrate for a preliminary examination.
+If the examining magistrate finds that there is probable cause for
+holding him for trial, the accused is committed to jail to await
+trial. Unless the charge is murder, however, the defendant may be
+released on bail.
+
+If the charge is a serious one, indictment by the grand jury is the
+next step. If this jury decides that the evidence is insufficient, the
+charge is dismissed and the prisoner released. The grand jury meets in
+secret, and hears only the charges against the accused. These are
+generally presented by the prosecuting attorney. After the defendant
+is indicted, the prisoner is brought into court and allowed to plead.
+If he pleads guilty, the judge may forthwith impose sentence and there
+is no trial. If the plea is "not guilty," a trial is arranged, a jury
+of twelve men impanelled, and the trial begins.
+
+The case is opened by the prosecuting attorney, since it is the duty
+of the state to assume the defendant innocent until he is proved
+guilty. The prosecuting attorney presents his witnesses, each of which
+the defendant's attorney may cross-examine, and in turn allows the
+defendant's attorney to present the defense. The prisoner is not
+questioned at any stage in the trial, unless he is willing to take the
+stand as a witness in his own behalf.
+
+After the prosecuting attorney and the defendant's counsel have
+completed their case, the judge sums up the evidence brought out by
+each side, and instructs the jury as to the law involved. The jury
+then retire and attempt to reach a verdict. Generally such a verdict
+must be unanimous, and if this cannot be secured, the jury is
+dismissed and the case is held for re-trial. If the verdict is "not
+guilty," the prisoner is discharged; if he is found guilty, sentence
+is imposed by the court, either immediately or at some future
+date. [Footnote: For a discussion of the legal aspects of the problem
+of crime, see Chapter XXI.]
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What is meant by the term "common law"?
+
+2. Define equity. How did it arise?
+
+3. What is the importance of the statutes as a source of state law?
+
+4. What are some other sources of law?
+
+5. Describe the work of the justice of the peace.
+
+6. What is the jurisdiction of the county courts?
+
+7. What is the chief function of the state supreme court?
+
+8. Name some special state courts.
+
+9. What is the function of the district attorney?
+
+10. What is the relation of state to Federal courts?
+
+11. Discuss the chief powers of state courts.
+
+12. What is the scope of the civil jurisdiction of the state courts?
+
+13. Describe a civil trial.
+
+14. What are the two types of crimes?
+
+15. Outline the steps in a criminal trial.
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Beard, _American Government and Politics_, chapter xxvi.
+
+2. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States_, chapter
+xi.
+
+3. Munro, _The Government of the United States_, chapter xxxiv.
+
+4. Reed, _Form and Function of American Government_, chapter xiii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Define common law. (Guitteau, page 115.)
+
+2. What is the relation of the old Privy Council to the origin of
+English common law? (Guitteau, page 116.)
+
+3. What is a tort? (Beard, pages 558-559.)
+
+4. What is the relation of the state judiciary to the other
+departments of state government? (Reed, page 160.)
+
+5. To what extent do the Federal courts interfere with the decisions
+of the state courts? (Munro, page 492.)
+
+6. By what three methods may judges be chosen? (Beard, page 550.)
+
+7. Name some states in which judges are not chosen by the people. How
+are judges chosen in these states? (Beard, page 550.)
+
+8. Compare the salaries of American judges with the salaries of
+European judges. (Beard, page 552.)
+
+9. By what three methods may judges be removed? (Munro, pages 496-497)
+
+10. In what state has the codification of the civil code been most
+successful? (Reed, page 168.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Provisions in your state constitution with respect to the state
+judiciary.
+
+2. The choice of judges in your state.
+
+3. Characteristics of a good judge.
+
+4. The actual conduct of a civil or criminal trial in a near-by court.
+
+5. Delay in legal procedure in your state. (Consult a friendly
+attorney.)
+
+6. Methods of removing judges in your state.
+
+
+II
+
+7. The evolution of state justice. (Gettell, _Readings in Political
+Science_, page 384.)
+
+8. Function of the state court. (Gettell, _Readings in Political
+Science_, page 387.)
+
+9. Methods of choosing judges in the various states. (Gettell,
+_Readings in Political Science_, page 388.)
+
+10. Procedure in the state courts. (Kimball, _State and Municipal
+Government in the United States_, chapter xv.)
+
+11. The system of appeals in state courts. (Reinsch, _Readings on
+American State Government_, pages 150-158.)
+
+12. Politics and the state courts. (Reinsch, _Readings on American
+State Government_, pages 158-168.)
+
+13. Defects in the enforcement of law. (Reinsch, _Readings on American
+State Government_, pages 173-180.)
+
+14. Relation of judicial inefficiency to crime. (Reinsch, _Readings on
+American State Government_, pages 181-198.)
+
+15. Legal claims against the state. (Reinch, _Readings on American
+State Government_, pages 168-172.)
+
+16. Necessity of judicial independence. (Gettell, _Readings in
+Political Science_, page 391.)
+
+17. The significance of lawyers in the United States. (Gettell,
+_Readings in Political Science_, page 390.)
+
+18. A summary of the defects of the State judiciary. (Bryce, _The
+American Commonwealth_, vol. i, chapter xlii.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+19. Should a jury sitting in a criminal trial be required to render an
+unanimous verdict or simply a majority decision?
+
+20. Should state judges be chosen directly by the people, or selected
+by the state legislature, or appointed by the Governor?
+
+21. Should judges be subject to the Recall?
+
+22. Should the entire civil law of your state be codified?
+
+23. Advantages and disadvantages of separate administrative courts.
+(See Gettell, _Readings in Political Science_, pages 392-393.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLIX
+
+MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT
+
+
+A. DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN MUNICIPALITY [Footnote: For an extended
+account of American municipal development, see Fairlie's _Municipal
+Administration_. An excellent summary of Fairlie is found in
+Guitteau's _Government and Politics in the United States_, Houghton
+Mifflin Co., Boston, 1920.]
+
+620. RAPID GROWTH OF AMERICAN CITIES.--A striking feature of American
+life is the rapidity with which our cities have grown. At the time of
+Washington's first inauguration, the United States were so
+predominantly rural that only about one thirtieth of our population
+was found in the cities. With the progress of the Industrial
+Revolution came an unprecedented development of transportation and the
+factory system. More and more people made their homes in the cities,
+until in 1890 approximately a third of the people of the United States
+were living in cities. According to the census of 1920 more than half
+of our population is concentrated in towns and cities.
+
+621. THE AMERICAN CITY BEFORE THE REVOLUTION.--New York, now the
+largest American city, is also the oldest, having received its charter
+in 1686. Between that date and the outbreak of the Revolution,
+nineteen other municipalities received charters. The colonial cities
+modelled their organization after the English borough. Practically all
+authority was vested in a council, consisting of a mayor, recorder,
+aldermen, and councilmen, acting as a single body. The mayor was
+either appointed by the Governor, or elected by the council. The chief
+duty of the mayor was to preside over the council and execute its
+ordinances.
+
+622. THE AMERICAN CITY, 1775-1825.--Several important changes in the
+character of the American city took place in the half century which
+followed the Declaration of Independence.
+
+The power to grant charters to cities was transferred from the
+Governor to the state legislature. This was the natural outcome of an
+increasing suspicion of the executive authority, and a corresponding
+increase of faith in the state legislature. Before the end of this
+period the city came definitely under the control of the state
+legislature. In the absence of constitutional restrictions, the
+legislature has continued to exercise an almost dictatorial control
+over the cities within its borders.
+
+Also typical of this period was the subordination of city affairs to
+state and national politics.
+
+623. THE AMERICAN CITY, 1825-1850.--During this period a number of new
+cities sprang into prominence. Immigration was increasing, and the
+industrialization of the country was crowding the population into
+larger and larger units.
+
+New York, Boston, St. Louis, and other cities adopted the two-
+chambered-council plan.
+
+The passion for democratic control swept away the property
+qualifications prescribed by some of the early city charters, and
+practically attained universal manhood suffrage. The demand for
+popular control likewise led to the present practice of choosing the
+mayor by popular vote, the older methods of State appointment or
+council election being discarded.
+
+624. THE AMERICAN CITY, 1850-1875.--Many pressing municipal problems
+appeared in this period. The functions of the American city became
+more numerous and more complex. Police and fire systems were
+installed; waterworks, sewer systems, and city parks were provided;
+education and charitable relief were developed.
+
+Under the stress of administering these additional functions, cities
+applied more and more frequently to the state legislature for special
+legislation granting them additional powers. State legislatures tended
+to pass such special acts freely, with the result that corrupt and
+pernicious legislation became common in many states. Special interests
+engaged in lobbying, bribery, and log-rolling to secure special favors
+from legislatures. Public service corporations often secured valuable
+franchises on terms that did not adequately protect the public
+interest.
+
+625. MUNICIPAL REFORM.--The period since 1875 and especially since
+1900 has been marked by a strong tendency to reform municipal
+government.
+
+The abuse of power by the city council in many instances forfeited the
+respect with which the public had formerly regarded that body. The
+power to appoint various city officials was transferred from the
+council to the voters, and many of the functions formerly exercised by
+the council were entrusted to newly created municipal boards.
+
+In about half the states constitutional provisions now forbid the
+legislature to pass special acts concerning municipalities. In other
+states the constitution enumerates a large number of subjects with
+regard to which the legislature cannot enact special legislation. In
+some states the cities of the state are classified into two or more
+groups, according to population; the legislature is compelled to
+designate the group or groups to which statutes are to apply. In about
+a dozen states certain types of cities are allowed to frame and amend
+their own charters, provided that such acts are not inconsistent with
+the constitution and statutes of the state.
+
+Municipal civil service reform is of increasing importance, more than
+200 American cities having sanctioned it in some form. As applied to
+municipal affairs the merit system includes a municipal commission,
+appointed by the mayor; a system of competitive examinations designed
+to test character and capacity; a plan for requiring the appointing
+officer in each department of city government to select his
+subordinates from an eligible list; a method of removing officials;
+and sometimes a system of pensioning employees who have grown old in
+the service.
+
+The movement for popular control has been closely associated with
+municipal development. The tendency to shorten the ballot, the holding
+of municipal elections at a different time than state and national
+elections, and the concentration of administrative officers under a
+responsible appointing head, are steps in this direction. In many
+states the Direct Primary has been intimately associated with
+municipal development. The Initiative, Referendum, and Recall have
+been adopted in a large number of cities, especially where the mayor-
+council plan has been abandoned for the commission form of government.
+
+
+B. MUNICIPAL ORGANIZATION
+
+626. THE THREE TYPES OF CITY GOVERNMENT.--The three types of city
+government in the United States are the mayor-council plan, the
+commission plan, and the city manager plan. [Footnote: For a
+description of the commission and city manager plans of city
+government, see Chapter XXXVI.] The commission plan is a new form of
+city government which has been designed to overcome the defects of the
+old mayor-council plan, while the city manager plan is a modification
+of the commission plan. Of recent years both the commission plan and
+the city manager plan have spread rapidly, but it is still true that
+few American cities of any appreciable size have adopted either of
+these two plans. The old mayor-council plan prevails in most American
+cities, and for this reason the remainder of this chapter will be
+devoted to a description of this form of government.
+
+627. THE CITY COUNCIL: ORGANIZATION.--Usually the city council is a
+single-chambered body, though some of the larger cities have from time
+to time experimented with a double-chambered council. In some cities
+councilmen are chosen on a general ticket, but in most cases the
+council consists of one member from each ward or district into which
+the city is divided. Councilmen must be voters in the city in which
+they serve, and by custom they are generally required to be residents
+of the ward from which they are chosen. The terms of councilmen vary
+from one to four years, two years being the average term. In the
+smaller cities councilmen are usually unpaid, but in the larger
+municipalities they receive a stated salary.
+
+628. THE CITY COUNCIL: POWERS.--The typical American city is
+subservient to the state legislature, the powers of city government
+being enumerated in a charter received from the legislature. These
+enumerated powers have been rather narrowly interpreted by the courts.
+
+The council enjoys a measure of police power, which it may invoke to
+protect the health and to further the well-being of the city's
+inhabitants. The exercise of this police power, however, must not
+conflict with state law.
+
+The council has the power to levy taxes to defray expenses incurred in
+performing municipal functions. State constitutions and legislatures
+limit this power rather narrowly, however. Subject to a similar
+limitation is the council's power to raise money through the issue of
+bonds.
+
+City councils may act as the agents of the state government in matters
+affecting education and charitable relief.
+
+629. THE CITY COUNCIL: PROCEDURE.--The city council meets
+periodically, generally weekly or bi-weekly. It determines its own
+rules of procedure and keeps a journal. The committee system is used
+for the dispatch of business. Ordinances may be proposed by any member
+of the council. After being introduced, ordinances are read by title
+and are referred to the proper committee. A second and third reading
+at subsequent meetings are required. If the ordinance is approved by a
+majority of the council, it is signed by the presiding officer, and
+sent to the mayor. In many cities the mayor may veto any ordinance
+passed by the council. In case of a veto the measure becomes law only
+if passed by a two thirds--in some cities three fourths or four
+fifths--vote of the council. In those cities where the mayor has no
+veto power, the ordinance goes into effect immediately upon being
+passed by the council.
+
+630. THE MAYOR.--In all cities where the mayor-council plan of
+government prevails, the chief executive officer is the mayor or chief
+magistrate. This officer is usually elected by popular vote, for a
+term varying from one to four years. Usually the term is two years,
+though in New England a one-year term is more common. The mayor is
+paid a salary which ranges from a few hundred dollars in the smaller
+cities to several thousands of dollars in a number of the larger
+municipalities.
+
+631. THE MAYOR AND THE COUNCIL.--It is the duty of the mayor to
+communicate at least once a year to the city council a general
+statement of the administration and financial condition of the
+city. The mayor may also recommend to the city council, in his annual
+message or otherwise, the passage of ordinances which he considers
+needful. In smaller cities, and in a few of the larger municipalities,
+the mayor presides over the council and has a casting vote in case of
+a tie, but in most of the larger cities he is not a member of the
+council. In most cities he has the veto power. In many of the more
+recent city charters, the mayor is given the power to veto separate
+items in an appropriation bill, while approving the remainder of the
+measure, just as some Governors may veto separate items in
+appropriations bills enacted by the state legislature.
+
+632. ADMINISTRATIVE DUTIES OF THE MAYOR.--The mayor stands at the head
+of the city administration, but the extent of his control varies from
+city to city. In the last half century the decline in popular favor of
+the city council has been accompanied by a growing tendency to enlarge
+the administrative powers of the mayor. In many of the smaller cities
+the mayor is still little more than a presiding officer of the
+council. In such cities subordinate executive officials are usually
+chosen by popular vote or are appointed by the council. In other
+cities the mayor may appoint the chief administrative officials,
+subject to the consent of the council. In still other cities,
+including many of the larger municipalities, the mayor may both
+appoint and remove the heads of the executive departments, without
+interference on the part of the council.
+
+633. OTHER ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICIALS.--Such highly complex and
+important matters as health, education, parks, charities, police, fire
+protection, and public works are the concern of the numerous
+administrative officials of the city. Administrative work is carried
+on by two methods, first, the board system, in which such concerns as
+schools, public health, and police are managed by boards composed of
+members of the city council; and second, single commissioners, who are
+more or less under the control of the mayor. The board system has
+proved less efficient than the single commissioner plan, and
+accordingly there is a tendency to abandon the former for the latter
+plan.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. Describe the rapid growth of the American city.
+
+2. What were the characteristics of the city in colonial times?
+
+3. What were the distinguishing features of the American city between
+1775 and 1825?
+
+4. What distinguishes municipal development between 1825 and 1850?
+
+5. What problems became prominent in municipal development between
+1850 and 1875?
+
+6. Outline the movement for municipal reform.
+
+7. What are the three types of municipal government?
+
+8. Describe the organization of the city council.
+
+9. What are the chief powers of the city council?
+
+10. Outline the making of an ordinance.
+
+11. Discuss the term and salary of the mayor.
+
+12. What is the relation of the mayor to the council?
+
+13. What are the chief administrative duties of the mayor?
+
+14. Name some other administrative officers.
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Beard, _American Government and Politics_, chapter xxvii.
+
+2. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United Stairs_, chapter
+iv.
+
+3. Munro, _The Government of the United States_, chapter xlii.
+
+4. Reed, _Form and Functions of American Government_, chapter xvi
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Define a city. (Guitteau, page 38.)
+
+2. What is the English prototype of the American city? (Guitteau, page
+39.)
+
+3. Under what three heads may the powers of the mayor be grouped?
+(Beard, page 591.)
+
+4. To what extent has the city council been shorn of its power?
+(Beard, pages 588-590.)
+
+5. What is the meaning of the phrase "municipal home rule"?
+(Guitteau, page 45.)
+
+6. What is meant by municipal democracy? (Beard, pages 597-598.)
+
+7. What is the Des Moines plan of city government? (Guitteau, page
+46.)
+
+8. Describe briefly the organization of the government of New York.
+(Reed, pages 197-198.)
+
+9. Summarize the functions of the American municipality. (Munro, pages
+602-615.)
+
+10. What is the extent of municipal ownership in the United States?
+(Munro, page 616.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. History of your municipality.
+
+2. Present organization of your municipal government
+
+3. The chief functions of your municipality.
+
+4. Relation of your municipality to the state legislature.
+
+5. Legislative power in your municipality.
+
+6. The franchise-granting power in your municipality.
+
+
+II
+
+7. The English borough. (Fairlie, _Municipal Administration_, chapter
+iv.)
+
+8. Historical development of the American city. (Munro, _The
+Government of the United States_, chapter xl; Kimball, _State and
+Municipal Government in the United States_, chapter xx.)
+
+9. Political consequences of city growth. (Gettell, _Readings in
+Political Science_, page 433.)
+
+10. Relation of city life to democracy. (Gettell, _Readings in
+Political Science_, page 436.)
+
+11. Evolution of municipal organization. (Munro, _The Government of
+American Cities_, chapter i.)
+
+12. Relation of the municipality to the state. (Munro, _The Government
+of American Cities_, chapter ii.)
+
+13. The voters of the city. (Munro, _The Government of American
+Cities_, chapter iii.)
+
+14. The mayor. (Munro, _The Government of American Cities_, chapter
+ix; Fairlie, _Municipal Administration_, chapter xix.)
+
+15. The city council. (Munro, _The Government of American Cities_,
+chapter viii; Fairlie, _Municipal Administration_, chapter xvii.)
+
+16. Municipal administrative offices. (Munro, _The Government of
+American Cities_, chapter x; Fairlie, _Municipal Administration_,
+chapter xviii.)
+
+17. The needs of city government. (Gettell, _Readings in Political
+Science_, pages 441-442.)
+
+18. The municipal government in action. (Bryce, _The American
+Commonwealth_, vol. i, chapter li.)
+
+19. Municipal functions. (Munro, _The Government of the United
+States_, chapter xlii; James, _Local Government in the United States_,
+chapter vii.)
+
+20. Municipal finances. (Beard, _American City Government_, chapter
+v.)
+
+21. The franchise problem. (Beard, _American City Government_, chapter
+vii.)
+
+22. Municipal ownership as a political problem. (Beard, _American City
+Government_, chapter viii.)
+
+23. The commission plan of municipal government. (Munro, _The
+Government of the United States_, chapter xliii; see also any other
+standard text on American government.)
+
+24. The city manager plan of municipal government. (Munro, _The
+Government of the United States_, chapter xliii; see also any other
+standard text on American government.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+25. Municipal ownership of public utilities in your community.
+
+26. Are the municipalities of your state too narrowly restricted by
+the state constitution and the state legislature?
+
+27. The solution of the franchise problem.
+
+28. Respective merits of the mayor-council plan, the commission plan,
+and the city manager plan, with particular reference to your
+municipality.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER L
+
+RURAL LOCAL GOVERNMENT
+
+
+634. TYPES OF RURAL LOCAL GOVERNMENT.--Rural local governments in the
+United States vary widely as between different sections of the
+country, but in general they are divisible into three types. These
+are:
+
+(a) the town type, so common in New England;
+
+(b) the county type, found chiefly in the South, the Southwest, and
+the Far West; and
+
+(c) the mixed type of the Middle, Central, and Northwestern states.
+These three general types will be discussed in the order named.
+
+
+A. THE TOWN TYPE
+
+635. NATURE OF THE TOWN.--The basis of rural local government in New
+England is the town. [Footnote: The county exists in New England as an
+aggregation of towns. The county has acquired other functions, but it
+is still primarily a judicial district.] In general the New England
+town is an irregularly shaped area, varying in size from twenty to
+forty-five square miles. The area comprising the typical town is
+primarily rural, and generally contains one or more villages. Although
+the town is primarily a rural unit, the villages within its bounds may
+be so populous as to be classed as cities. Yet these populous
+communities may, as in the case of Brookline, Massachusetts, retain
+the town government. Other New England cities, such as New Haven and
+Hartford, Connecticut, have continued the town organization separate
+from the city government.
+
+636. ORIGIN OF THE TOWN.--Some authorities believe that the town type
+of rural local government can be traced back through English history
+to the early Teutonic tribes. Whether or not this is true, it is
+certain that the principle is an ancient one, and that when New
+England was first settled, the colonists grouped together in small
+compact communities, or towns, instead of scattering over larger
+areas.
+
+637. WHY TOWN GOVERNMENT DEVELOPED IN NEW ENGLAND.--Several factors
+are responsible for the tendency of the settlers of early New England
+to draw together in towns. From the economic point of view, the barren
+nature of the soil rendered extensive farms impracticable, while, on
+the other hand, the opportunities for fishing and commerce encouraged
+small, compact settlements along the coast. The hostility of many of
+the New England Indians also discouraged sparse settlements and
+obliged the people to settle in close formation. Lastly, many of the
+New England colonists came to the New World as groups or communities
+which in their European homes had pivoted about a common church; in
+New England these people naturally preferred to live very near one
+another.
+
+638. TOWN GOVERNMENT.--The government of the New England town is
+vested in a town meeting, which consists of an annual session of the
+voters of the town. At this meeting the voters enact laws governing
+such local matters as town finance, schools, police, and highways. A
+second important function of the town meeting is to choose the town
+officers, including the selectmen, [Footnote: In Rhode Island the
+selectmen are known as the council.] the town clerk, treasurer,
+constable, and others. The chief executive officers are the selectmen,
+varying in number from three to nine, and generally chosen for the
+term of one year. The selectmen have general charge of town affairs,
+and act under authority conferred by statute or by the town meeting.
+The town clerk keeps the records, the treasurer has charge of the
+funds of the town and sometimes audits accounts, while the constable
+keeps the peace of the town, serves writs, and collects local taxes.
+In addition there are a number of minor officials, such as tax
+assessors, pound-keepers, guardians of the poor, highway officials,
+and library trustees.
+
+
+B. THE COUNTY TYPE
+
+639. WHY COUNTY GOVERNMENT DEVELOPED IN THE SOUTH.--The system of
+county government became as firmly intrenched in the Southern colonies
+as did the concept of the town in early New England. Four factors
+operated to discourage town government, and to encourage county
+government, in the South. First, the Southern colonists did not come
+in small family groups, as did the New Englanders, but rather as
+individuals and from different classes of society. Second, the Indians
+of the South were either weak or peaceful, so that fear of Indian
+attack did not oblige the colonists to congregate in small, compact
+communities. Third, the climate and soil of the South encouraged a
+plantation system which resulted in a sparse rather than in a compact
+population. Fourth, the aristocratic type of society developing from
+the plantation and slave system prevented the rise of the democratic
+town meeting.
+
+640. GOVERNMENT OF THE SOUTHERN COUNTY.--Though county government is
+also found in the Southwest and Far West, it is seen in its purest
+form in the South. Here the county was originally a judicial district,
+or sometimes also a financial district to facilitate the collection of
+taxes. The functions of the county have gradually increased until such
+local affairs as schools, jails, poorhouses, and the maintenance of
+roads and bridges are concerns of the Southern county. The chief
+administrative authority in the county is either the county court, or
+a small board of commissioners. In either case the administrative
+authority is chosen by popular vote. In addition there are a number of
+minor officers such as the treasurer, tax assessor, and recorder, all
+of them chosen by popular vote for terms varying from one to four
+years.
+
+641. GOVERNMENT OF THE FAR WESTERN COUNTY.--In the Far West, likewise,
+the most important unit of rural local government is the county. The
+county is governed by a board, usually consisting of three
+commissioners. In general the officers of the Far Western county
+resemble those in the central states. (See Section 644.)
+
+
+C. THE MIXED TYPE [Footnote: Sometimes called the township-county
+system.]
+
+642. ORIGIN OF THE MIXED TYPE.--The mixed type of rural local
+government is a hybrid, the result of the incomplete fusion of the
+town type with the county type. The northern parts of the Central
+states were settled largely by immigrants from New England, while the
+southern portions of the Middle West were settled by pioneers from
+Pennsylvania and the states south of the Ohio River. The New England
+immigrants were used to town government, and endeavored to perpetuate
+it in their new home; the settlers from the South preferred the county
+form of government, and sought its adoption in their new homes. The
+result was a compromise, some functions of rural local government
+being assigned to the county and some to the township.
+
+643. THE TWO SUB-TYPES.--In the fusion of the town and county types of
+government the county system tended to predominate over the town or
+township form of government when settlers from the South were in the
+majority. In the northern section of the country, on the other hand,
+the compromise form tended to include a majority of the features of
+the town type. The result was the formulation of two sub-types.
+
+The first of these may be called the Pennsylvania sub-type, so named
+because it originated in Pennsylvania, and then spread, with
+modifications, to Ohio, Indiana, Kansas, Missouri, and other states.
+In these states the town or township authority is subordinated to the
+county government. There is no town meeting.
+
+The New York sub-type exists in typical form in New York, but is also
+found in New Jersey, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the
+Dakotas, and other states. The town meeting is found in these states,
+and in five of them the townships are represented on the county board.
+
+644. THE NEW YORK SUB-TYPE.--In states possessing the New York sub-
+type of rural local government, the town meeting is still important.
+This meeting is similar to the New England town meeting, though it
+exercises less authority. All the legal voters of the township are
+qualified to take part in this meeting, which is held annually and on
+special occasions. At this meeting are chosen township officers for
+the following year. The most important of these are the supervisor,
+clerk, treasurer, assessor, and a varying number of constables and
+justices of the peace. In addition to electing these and other
+officers, the town meeting enacts legislation with regard to such
+local matters as bridges, roads, and schools.
+
+In some of the Central states general executive authority over
+township affairs is vested in a township board, while in other states
+administrative authority is divided between a township board of from
+three to eleven members, and a supervisor or trustee. Besides these
+officials, there are a number of minor officers, including a clerk, a
+treasurer, an assessor, overseers of the poor, constables, and
+justices of the peace.
+
+The county board continues to exist under the New York plan, but it is
+far less important than under the Pennsylvania sub-type. The functions
+of the county board are similar in these two sub-types.
+
+645. THE PENNSYLVANIA SUB-TYPE.--In those states in which the
+Pennsylvania sub-type of rural local government prevails, general
+control of government is vested in a county board. This board is
+composed of three commissioners, who are elected by the voters of the
+county. In all of the Central states the county board possesses
+numerous powers, but the powers of the board are greater under the
+Pennsylvania than under the New York sub-type. Under the former plan
+the county board exercised four groups of powers: First, the levying
+of taxes and the appropriation of local funds; second, the maintenance
+of roads; third, poor-relief; and fourth, the supervision of local
+elections.
+
+Besides the members of the county board there are a number of other
+county officials. The chief executive officer of the county court is
+the sheriff. The prosecuting attorney is an elective official, whose
+duty it is to conduct criminal prosecutions, and to act as the legal
+agent of the county. The treasurer has charge of county funds, and
+sometimes supervises the collection of taxes. He is elected by the
+people, generally for a two-year term. The clerk or auditor is an
+important county officer, as is the surveyor, the county
+superintendent of schools, and the recorder or register of deeds.
+
+646. HOME RULE FOR COUNTIES.--Generally, county authorities are
+narrowly limited by the state constitution and state statutes. This
+has always resulted in numerous appeals to the legislature for special
+legislation, and has lately given rise to a demand for home rule for
+counties. In the effort to reduce the pressure for special laws in the
+legislature, the Michigan constitution of 1908 provided for a measure
+of home rule for counties. The legislature is authorized to confer
+legislative powers on the county boards, which may pass laws and
+ordinances relative to purely local affairs, provided such enactments
+do not conflict with state law, and provided, further, that such
+enactments do not interfere with the local affairs of any township,
+incorporated city, or village within the limits of the county. Such
+laws may be vetoed by the Governor, but may be passed over his veto by
+a two-thirds vote of the county board. Another step toward home rule
+was taken when in 1911 California by constitutional amendment
+empowered counties to frame their own charters, and, on securing
+popular approval, to put the same into effect. However, the charter
+thus framed and approved must first be sanctioned by the state
+legislature.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
+
+1. What are the three types of rural local government?
+
+2. Discuss the nature of the town.
+
+3. What is the origin of the town?
+
+4. How is the town governed?
+
+5. Why did county government develop in the rural South?
+
+6. Outline the government of the southern county.
+
+7. How did the mixed type of rural local government originate?
+
+8. What two sub-types are included under the mixed type of rural local
+government?
+
+9. Compare briefly these two sub-types.
+
+10. Discuss the nature of the movement to permit home rule to
+counties.
+
+
+REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Beard, _American Government and Politics_, chapter xxix.
+
+2. Guitteau, _Government and Politics in the United States_, chapter
+ii.
+
+3. Munro, _The Government of the United States_, chapter xxxvii.
+
+4. Reed, _Form and Functions of American Government_, chapter xviii.
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE REQUIRED READINGS
+
+1. Summarize the relation of local institutions to state government.
+(Guitteau, page 15.)
+
+2. What factors are responsible for the decline of the town meeting in
+the Middle West? (Beard, page 651.)
+
+3. Describe the early English county. (Guitteau, page 18.)
+
+4. What are the chief divisions of the county in the southern and
+western parts of the United States? (Reed, pages 222-223.)
+
+5. What are the sources of county government? (Reed, page 210.)
+
+6. What is a "town chairman"? (Reed, page 222.)
+
+7. What are the two types of county boards? (Beard, pages 640-641.)
+
+8. What is a parish? (Guitteau, page 21.)
+
+9. Why is there a growing demand that local institutions be placed
+under the supervision of the state government? (Beard, pages 654-655.)
+
+10. What are the merits and defects of autonomy for rural local
+governments? (Munro, pages 544-545.)
+
+
+TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND REPORT
+
+I
+
+1. Origin of local government in your section.
+
+2. Development of rural local government in your community, or in some
+adjacent community.
+
+3. The work of the tax assessor in rural local government.
+
+4. Investigate the powers and duties of any other county, town, or
+township officer.
+
+
+II
+
+5. Origin and development of rural local government in the United
+States. (James, _Local Government in the United States_, chapter ii;
+Kimball, _State and Municipal Government in the United States_,
+chapter xvi.)
+
+6. The New England town. (Fairlie, _Local Government in Counties,
+Towns and Villages_, pages 141-146.)
+
+7. Township government. (Fairlie, _Local Government in Counties, Towns
+and Villages_, pages 164-185.)
+
+8. General nature of county government. (Munro, _The Government of the
+United States_, chapter xxxviii.)
+
+9. The organization of county government. (James, _Local Government in
+the United States_, chapter iii; Maxey, _County Administration_.)
+
+10. Functions of county government. (James, _Local Government in the
+United States_, chapter iv; Maxey, _County Administration_.)
+
+11. Financial administration in counties. (Maxey, _County
+Administration_.)
+
+12. The administration of highways in counties. (Maxey, _County
+Administration_.)
+
+13. Charitable and correctional institutions in the county. (Maxey,
+_County Administration_.)
+
+14. Politics in rural local government. (Beard, _American Government
+and Politics_, chapter XXX.)
+
+15. County home rule. (Gilbertson, _The County_, chapter xv.)
+
+16. City and county consolidation. (Maxey, _County Administration_.)
+
+17. New developments in county government. (James,_Local Government in
+the United States_, chapter viii.)
+
+18. Rural local government in England. (Reed, _Form and Functions of
+American Government_, chapter xvii.)
+
+19. Rural local government in France. (James, _Local Government in the
+United States_, chapter i.)
+
+
+FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
+
+20. The relative merits of the town, county, and mixed type of rural
+local government.
+
+21. The problem of efficiency in rural local government in your state.
+
+22. The problem of responsibility in rural local government in your
+state.
+
+23. Should rural local governments in your state be allowed a greater
+measure of home rule?
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+The following list contains all of the references that are mentioned
+in the text, either as required reading, or as the basis for suggested
+topic work. Special mention may be made here of Williamson's _Readings
+in American Democracy_, prepared as a companion volume to the text,
+and published in 1922 by D. C. Heath & Co.
+
+In harmony with the general arrangement of the text material, the
+references in this list have been grouped under the folio wing heads:
+Historical, Economic, Social, and Political.
+
+An asterisk has been placed before references that should prove of
+value to those who desire to build up a small working library on
+problems in American democracy. Works of special importance are
+preceded by a double asterisk.
+
+
+HISTORICAL
+
+Adams, Ephraim D. _The Power of Ideals in American History_. Yale
+University Press, New Haven. 1913.
+
+** _Annals_ of the American Academy of Political and Social
+Science. Philadelphia.
+
+Becker, Carl Lotus. _Beginnings of the American People_. Houghton
+Mifflin Co., Boston. 1915.
+
+* Cheyney, Edward P. _An Introduction to the Industrial and Social
+History of England_. Macmillan, New York. 1901.
+
+Crawford, Mary Caroline. _Social Life in Old New England_. Little,
+Brown Co., Boston. 1914.
+
+* Fiske, John. _The Critical Period of American History_. Houghton
+Mifflin Co., Boston. 1888.
+
+Hart, Albert Bushnell. _Social and Economic Forces in American
+History_.
+
+Huntington, Ellsworth. _Civilization and Climate_. Yale University
+Press, New Haven. 1915.
+
+Huntington, Ellsworth, and S. W. Gushing. _Principles of Human
+Geography_. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 1921.
+
+** _International Encyclopedia_. Second edition. Dodd Mead & Co.,
+New York. 1916.
+
+** _Lessons in Community and National Life_, Department of the
+Interior, Bureau of Education. Series A, B, and C, Government Printing
+Office, Washington, D. C. 1918.
+
+McLaughlin, Andrew C. _Steps in the Development of American
+Democracy_. The Abingdon Press, New York. 1920.
+
+------. _The Confederation and the Constitution_. Harper and Bros, New
+York. 1905.
+
+Osgood, Herbert L. _The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century_,
+3 vols. Macmillan, New York. 1904.
+
+Semple, Ellen C. _American History and its Geographic Conditions_.
+Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1903.
+
+Speare, Morris E., and W. B. Norris. _World War Issues and Ideals_.
+Ginn and Co., Boston. 1918.
+
+** Turner, Frederick J. _The Frontier in American History_. Henry Holt
+and Co., New York. 1920.
+
+West, Willis M. _The War and the New Age_. Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
+1919.
+
+White, Albert Beebe. _The Making of the English Constitution_. Putnam,
+New York. 1908.
+
+
+ECONOMIC
+
+Adams, Henry C. _Description of Industry_. Henry Holt & Co., New York.
+1918.
+
+Ashley, Percy. _Modern Tariff History_. Button and Co., New York.
+1911.
+
+*Bishop, Avard L., and A. G. Keller. _Industry and Trade_. Ginn and
+Co., Boston. 1918.
+
+Bloomfield, Daniel. _Selected Articles on Modern Industrial Movements_
+H. W. Wilson Co., New York. 1919.
+
+------. _Selected Articles on Problems of Labor_. H. W. Wilson Co.,
+New York. 1920.
+
+** Bogart, Ernest Ludlow. _The Economic History of the United States_.
+Longmans, Green and Co., New York. 1912.
+
+Bogart, Ernest Ludlow, and C. M. Thompson. _Readings in the Economic
+History of the United States_. Longmans, Green and Co., New York.
+1917.
+
+Brasol, Boris L. _Socialism Versus Civilization_. Chas. Scribner's
+Sons, New York. 1920.
+
+Brooks, John Graham. _American Syndicalism: the I. W. W._ Macmillan,
+New York. 1913.
+
+Bruce, Philip A. _Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth
+Century_. 2 Vols. Macmillan, New York. 1907.
+
+Bullock, Charles J. _Selected Readings in Economics_. Ginn and Co.,
+Boston. 1907.
+
+------. _Selected Readings in Public Finance_. 2d edition. Ginn and
+Co, Boston. 1920.
+
+------. _The Elements of Economics_. Silver, Burdett and Co., Boston.
+1919.
+
+Burritt, Arthur W., assisted by Dennison, Gay and others. _Profit
+Sharing, its Principles and Practice_. Harper and Bros., New York.
+1918.
+
+Callender, Guy S. _Selections from the Economic History of the United
+States_. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1909.
+
+* Carlton, Frank T. _History and Problems of Organized Labor_. D. C.
+Heath and Co., Boston. 1911.
+
+------. _Organized Labor in American History_. Appleton, New York.
+1920.
+
+** Carver, Thomas Nixon. _Elementary Economics_. Ginn and Co., Boston.
+1920.
+
+------. _Essays in Social Justice_. Harvard University Press,
+Cambridge, Mass. 1915.
+
+------. _Principles of Rural Economics_. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1911.
+
+Clark, John Bates. _Social Justice Without Socialism_. Houghton
+Mifflin Co., Boston. 1914.
+
+** Coman, Katharine. _The Industrial History of the United States_.
+Macmillan, New York. 1917. Commons, John R. _Trade Unionism and Labor
+Problems_. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1905.
+
+Coulter, John L. _Coöperation Among Farmers_. Sturgis and Walton, New
+York. 1919.
+
+_Current History Magazine_, September, 1920. New York _Times_, New
+York.
+
+Dewey, Davis R. _Financial History of the United States_. Longmans,
+Green and Co., New York. 1915.
+
+Dixon, Frank H., and J. H. Parmelee. _War Administration of the
+Railways in the United States and Great Britain_. Oxford University
+Press. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
+
+**Dryer, Charles R. _Elementary Economic Geography_. American Book
+Co., New York. 1916.
+
+Dunbar, Charles F. _The Theory and History of Banking_. 3d edition.
+Putnam, New York. 1917.
+
+Durand, Edward D. _The Trust Problem_. Harvard University Press,
+Cambridge. 1915.
+
+Edie, Lionel D. _Current Social and Industrial Forces_. Boni and
+Liveright, New York. 1920.
+
+** Ely, Richard T. _Outlines of Economics_. Macmillan, New York. 1918.
+
+------. _Socialism, an Examination of its Nature, its Strength and its
+Weakness_. Crowell, Boston. 1895.
+
+Fanning, C. E. _Selected Articles on the Conservation of Natural
+Resources_. Debaters' Handbook Series. H. W. Wilson Co., Minneapolis.
+1913.
+
+Fay, C. R. _Coöperation at Home and Abroad_. Macmillan, New York.
+1910.
+
+** Fetter, Frank A. _Modern Economic Problems_. Century Co., New York.
+1917.
+
+Fiske, Amos K. _The Modern Bank_. Appleton, New York. 1914. Ford,
+James. _Coöperation in New England_. New York. 1913. * George, Henry.
+_Progress and Poverty_. Doubleday, Page and Co, New York. 1916.
+
+Groat, George G. _An Introduction the Study of Organized Labor in
+America_. Macmillan, New York. 1919.
+
+Hamilton, Walton H. _Current Economic Problems_. University of Chicago
+Press, Chicago. 1915.
+
+Hammond, John Hays, and J. W. Jenks. _Great American Issues_, Chas.
+Scribner's Sons, New York. 1921.
+
+Harris, Emerson P. _Coöperation, the Hope of the Consumer_. Macmillan,
+New York. 1918.
+
+Hayward, William R. _Money, What it is, and How to Use It_. Houghton
+Mifflin Co., Boston. 1917.
+
+_Hearings before a sub-committee of the Committee on the Judiciary_.
+U.S. Senate. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
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+Hinds, William A. _American Communities_. 2d revision. Kerr and Co.,
+Chicago. 1908.
+
+Hobson, John A. _The Evolution of Modern Capitalism_. New and revised
+edition. London. 1912.
+
+Hoxie, Robert F. _Scientific Management and Labor_. Appleton, New
+York. 1915.
+
+------. _Trade Unionism in the United States_. Appleton, New York.
+1920.
+
+* _I. W. W. Constitution_. Chicago. 1905.
+
+* Johnson, Emory R. _American Railway Transportation_. Appleton, New
+York. 1912.
+
+Kemmerer, Edwin W. _The A B C of the Federal Reserve System_.
+Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J. 1920.
+
+King, Clyde L. _Lower Living Costs in Cities_. Appleton, New York.
+1915.
+
+* ------. _The Regulation of Municipal Utilities_. Appleton, New York.
+1914.
+
+* King, Willford Isbell. _The Wealth and Income of the People of the
+United States_. Macmillan, New York. 1919.
+
+** LeRossignol, James Edward. _Orthodox Socialism_. Crowell, New York.
+1907.
+
+* Malthus, Thomas Robert. _Essay on Population_.
+
+* Marshall, Leon C., and L. S. Lyon. _Our Economic Organization_.
+Macmillan, New York. 1921.
+
+* Marx, Karl, and Frederick Engels. _The Communist Manifesto_.
+
+_Memorandum on Certain Aspects of the Bolshevist Movement in Russia_.
+Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1919.
+
+Myers, William Starr. _Socialism and American Ideals_. Princeton
+University Press, Princeton, 1919.
+
+* Plehn, Carl C. _Introduction to Public Finance_. 4th edition.
+Macmillan, New York. 1920.
+
+Porter, Robert P. _The Dangers of Municipal Ownership_. Century Co.,
+New York. 1907.
+
+Powell, George H. _Coöperation in Agriculture_. Macmillan, New York.
+1913.
+
+* Price, Overton W. _The Land We Live In_. Small, Maynard Co., Boston.
+1919.
+
+Ripley, William Z. _Trusts, Pools and Corporations_. Revised Edition.
+Ginn and Co., Boston. 1916.
+
+** Seager, Henry Rogers. _Principles of Economics_. Henry Holt and
+Co., New York. 1917.
+
+Seligman, Edwin R. _Essays in Taxation_. 8th edition. Macmillan, New
+York. 1917.
+
+------. _Principles of Economics_. 6th edition. Longmans, Green and
+Co., New York. 1914.
+
+* Skelton, O. D. _Socialism, a Critical Analysis_. Houghton Mifflin
+Company, Boston. 1911.
+
+* Smith, Adam. _An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of
+Nations_.
+
+** Smith, J. Russell. _Commerce and Industry_. Henry Holt and Co., New
+York. 1916.
+
+------. _The Story of Iron and Steel_. Appleton, New York. 1908.
+
+Sonnichsen, Albert. _Consumers' Coöperation_. Macmillan, New York.
+1919.
+
+Tarbell, Ida M. _The Tariff in Our Times_. Macmillan, New York. 1911.
+
+** Taussig, Frank W. _Principles of Economics_. 2 vols. Macmillan, New
+York. 1919.
+
+------. _The Tariff History of the United States_. Putnam, New York.
+1916.
+
+Thompson, Charles M. _Elementary Economics_. B. H. Sanborn and Co.,
+New York. 1920.
+
+Thompson, Carl D. _Municipal Ownership_. B. W. Huebsch, New York 1917.
+
+Van Hise, Charles R. _Concentration and Control: a Solution of the
+Trust Problem in the United States_. Macmillan, New York. 1912.
+
+** ------. _The Conservation of Natural Resources in the United
+States_. Macmillan, New York. 1918.
+
+Weld, Louis D. H. _The Marketing of Farm Products_. Macmillan, New
+York. 1916.
+
+White, Horace. _Money and Banking_. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1911.
+
+Wood, Thomas B. _The Story of a Loaf of Bread_. Putnam, New York.
+1913.
+
+Young, Arthur N. _The Single Tax Movement in the United States_.
+Princeton University Press, Princeton. 1916.
+
+
+SOCIAL
+
+Abbott, Edith. _Women in Industry_. Appleton, New York. 1910. Abbott,
+Grace. _The Immigrant and the Community_. Century Co., New York. 1917.
+
+Addams, Jane. _The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets_. Macmillan,
+New York. 1909.
+
+Anderson, Wilbert Lee. _The Country Town_. Baker and Taylor Co., New
+York. 1906.
+
+Antin, Mary. _The Promised Land_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1912.
+------. _They Who Knock at Our Gates_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston
+1914.
+
+* _Atlanta University Publications_. Atlanta University Press,
+Atlanta, Georgia.
+
+Bailey, Liberty Hyde. _The Training of Farmers_. Century Co., New
+York. 1909.
+
+Baldwin, Simeon E. _The Relation of Education to Citizenship_. Yale
+University Press, New Haven. 1912.
+
+Bloomfield, Meyer. _The Vocational Guidance of Youth_. Houghton
+Mifflin Co., Boston. 1911.
+
+Bogardus, Emory S. _Essentials of Americanization_. University of
+Southern California, Press, Los Angeles. 1919.
+
+Booth, Maud Ballington. _After Prison--What?_ F. H. Revell Co., New
+York 1903.
+
+* Bryce, James. _The Hindrances to Good Citizenship_. Yale University
+Press, New Haven. 1919.
+
+** Burch, Henry Reed, and S. W. Patterson. _American Social Problems_.
+Macmillan, New York. 1919.
+
+Butler, Elizabeth B. _Women and the Trades_. New York, 1909.
+
+Butler, Nicholas Murray. _The Meaning of Education, and Other Essays_.
+Macmillan, New York. 1905.
+
+Butterfield, Kenyon L. _The Country Church and the Rural Problem_.
+Chicago University Press, Chicago. 1911.
+
+* ------. _The Farmer and the New Day_. Macmillan, New York. 1919.
+
+Cabot, Richard C. _Social Work: Essays on the Meeting Ground of Doctor
+and Social Worker_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1919.
+
+Carney, Mabel. _Country Life and the Country School_. Row, Peterson
+and Co., Chicago. 1912.
+
+** Carver, Thomas Nixon. _Sociology and Social Progress_. Ginn and
+Co., Boston. 1905.
+
+Cleveland, Frederick A., and Joseph Schafer. _Democracy in
+Reconstruction._ Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. 1919.
+
+Colcord, Joanna C. _Broken Homes: a Study of Family Desertion and its
+Social Treatment_. Russell Sage Foundation, New York. 1919.
+
+* Commons, John R. _Races and Immigrants in America_. Macmillan, New
+York. 1911.
+
+Conyngton, Mary. _How to Help._ The Ronald Press, New York. 1906.
+
+Coolidge, Mary. _Chinese Immigration_. Henry Holt and Co., New York.
+1909.
+
+Cubberley, Ellwood P. _Changing Conceptions in Education_. Houghton
+Mifflin Co., Boston. 1909.
+
+* ------. _Public Education in the United States_. Houghton Mifflin
+Co., Boston. 1919.
+
+Curtis, Henry S. _Education Through Play_. Macmillan, New York. 1915.
+
+Davenport, Eugene. _Education for Efficiency_. D. C. Heath Co.,
+Boston. 1909.
+
+Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. _Bulletin 1919_, No.
+77. _State Americanization_. Washington, D. C. 1920.
+
+* Devine, Edward T. _Misery and its Causes_. Macmillan, New York.
+1909.
+
+* ------. _The Practice of Charity_. Dodd Mead and Co., New York.
+1904.
+
+* ------. _The Principles of Relief_. Macmillan, New York. 1904.
+
+* ------. _The Spirit of Social Work_. Charities Publication
+Committee, New York. 1912.
+
+Dewey, John. _Schools of To-morrow_. Dutton, New York. 1915.
+
+Dugdale, Richard L. _The Jukes, a Study in Crime, Pauperism, Disease
+and Heredity_. Putnam, New York. 1891.
+
+Eliot, Charles W. _Education for Efficiency_. Houghton Mifflin Co.,
+Boston. 1909.
+
+** Ellwood, Charles A. _Sociology and Modern Social Problems_.
+American Book Co., New York. 1919.
+
+Fisher, Irving. _Bulletin of the Committee of One Hundred on National
+Health, being a Report on National Vitality, its Wastes and
+Conservation._ Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1909.
+
+Galpin, Charles J. _Rural Life. Century Co., New York. 1918.
+
+* George, William R. _The Junior Republic, its History and Ideals_.
+Appleton, New York. 1910.
+
+Gill, Charles O., and Gifford Pinchot. _The Country Church_.
+Macmillan, New York. 1913.
+
+** Gillette, John Morris. _Constructive Rural Sociology_. Sturgis and
+Walton, New York. 1913.
+
+Goddard, Henry H. _The Kallikak Family_. Macmillan, New York. 1912.
+
+* Goodsell, Willystine. _The Family as a Social and Educational
+Institution_. Macmillan, New York. 1915.
+
+Gulick, Charlotte E. _Emergencies_. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1909.
+
+Gulick, Sidney L. _American Democracy and Asiatic Citizenship_. Chas.
+Scribner's Sons, New York. 1919.
+
+Hadley, Arthur T. _The Education of the American Citizen._ Chas.
+Scribner's Sons, New York. 1902.
+
+* ------. _The Relation between Freedom and Responsibility in the
+Evolution of Democratic Government_. Chas. Scribner's Sons, New York.
+1903.
+
+Hall, Herbert J., and M. M. C. Buck. _Handicrafts for the
+Handicapped_. Moffat, Yard and Co., New York. 1916.
+
+** Hall, Prescott F. _Immigration, and its Effects on the United States._
+Henry Holt and Co., New York. 1906.
+
+Henderson, Charles Hanford. _What is it to be Educated_? Houghton
+Mifflin Co., Boston. 1914.
+
+* Henderson, Charles Richmond. _An Introduction to the Study of the
+Dependent, Defective and Delinquent Classes_. D. C. Heath and Co.,
+Boston. 1908.
+
+------. _Modern Methods of Charity_. Macmillan, New York. 1904.
+
+* ------. _Modern Prison Systems_. Government Printing Office,
+Washington, D.C. 1903.
+
+Hutchinson, Woods. _Preventable Diseases._ Houghton Mifflin Co.,
+Boston, 1909.
+
+* Jenks, Jeremiah, and W. Jett Lauck. _The Immigration Problem_. 4th
+edition. Funk and Wagnalls, New York. 1917.
+
+* Keller, Helen. _The Story of My Life._ Doubleday, Page and Co., New
+York. 1903.
+
+Kelley, Florence. _Some Ethical Gains through Legislation_. New York.
+1905.
+
+King, Irving. _Education for Social Efficiency_. Appleton, New York.
+1913. Leake, Albert H. _Industrial Education, Its Problems, Methods
+and Danger_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1913.
+
+* Lee, Frederick S. _The Human Machine and Industrial Efficiency_.
+Longmans, Green and Co., New York. 1918.
+
+** Lewis, Burdette G. _The Offender and His Relations to Law and
+Society._ Harper and Bros., New York. 1917.
+
+Lichtenberger, James P. _Divorce, a Study in Social Causation._ New
+York. 1909.
+
+MacLean, Annie M. _Women Workers and Society_. McClurg, Chicago, 1916.
+
+* McMurry, Frank M. _How to Study and Teaching How to Study_. Houghton
+Mifflin Co., Boston. 1909.
+
+** Mangold, George B. _Problems of Child Welfare_. Macmillan, New
+York. 1914.
+
+Ogden, Henry Neely. _Rural Hygiene_. Macmillan, New York. 1911.
+
+Oliver, Thomas. _Diseases of Occupation, from the Legislative, Social
+and Medical Points of View_. London. 1908.
+
+Osborne, Thomas Mott. _Society and Prisons._ Yale University Press,
+New Haven. 1916.
+
+* Parsons, Frank. _Choosing a Vocation_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston,
+1909.
+
+** Perry, Clarence A. _Wider Use of the School Plant_. Charities
+Publication Committee, New York. 1910.
+
+Queen, Stuart. _The Passing of the County Jail_. George Banta
+Publishing Co., Menasha, Wis. 1920.
+
+* Riis, Jacob A. _The Battle with the Slum_. Macmillan, New York.
+1902.
+
+Riis, Jacob A. _The Peril and the Preservation of the Home_. G. W.
+Jacobs Co., Philadelphia. 1903.
+
+* Roberts, Peter. _The Problem of Americanization_. Macmillan, New
+York. 1920.
+
+* Rubinow, Isaac M. _Standards of Health Insurance_. Henry Holt & Co.,
+New York. 1916.
+
+Sargent, Dudley A. _Physical Education_. Ginn and Co., Boston, 1906.
+
+** Smith, Reginald Heber. _Justice and the Poor_. Carnegie Foundation
+for the advancement of teaching, Bulletin No. 13, New York. 1919.
+
+* Smith, Richard Mayo. _Emigration and Immigration_. Chas. Scribner's
+Sons, New York. 1904.
+
+* Steiner, Edward A. _From Alien to Citizen_. F. H. Revell Co., New
+York. 1914.
+
+* ------. _On the Trail of the Immigrant_. F. H. Revell Co., New York.
+1906.
+
+Steiner, Jessie F. _The Japanese Invasion_. Chicago, 1917.
+
+Storey, Moorfield. _Problems of To-day_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston.
+1920.
+
+Taylor, Joseph S. _A Handbook of Vocational Education_. Macmillan, New
+York. 1914.
+
+Tillinghast, Joseph A. _The Negro in Africa and America_. American
+Economic Association, New York. 1902.
+
+Tolman, Wm. H. _Hygiene for the Worker_. American Book Co., New York.
+1912.
+
+Tufts, James H. _The Real Business of Living_. Henry Holt and Co., New
+York. 1918.
+
+** Vogt, Paul L. _Introduction to Rural Sociology_. Appleton, New
+York. 1917.
+
+** Warner, Amos G. _American Charities_. 3d edition. Crowell, New
+York. 1919.
+
+Washington, Booker T. _The Future of the American Negro_. Small,
+Maynard Co., Boston. 1902.
+
+------. _The Story of the Negro_. Doubleday, Page and Co., New York.
+1909.
+
+** ------. _Tuskegee and its People, their Ideals and Achievements_.
+Doubleday, Page and Co., New York. 1905.
+
+** ------. _Up from Slavery_. Doubleday, Page and Co., New York. 1901.
+
+Waugh, Frank A. _Rural Improvement_, etc. Orange Judd Co., New York.
+1914.
+
+Willcox, Walter F. _The Divorce Problem: a Study in Statistics_. New
+York. 1897.
+
+* Williamson, Thames Ross. i>Sociology of the American Negro_.
+
+** Wines, Frederick H. _Punishment and Reformation_. Latest edition.
+
+* Wolfe, Albert. _Readings in Social Problems_. Ginn and Co., Boston.
+1916.
+
+Wood, Edith. _The Housing of the Unskilled Wage Earner_. Macmillan,
+New York. 1919.
+
+Woods, Arthur. _Crime Prevention_. Princeton University Press,
+Princeton. 1918.
+
+* Woods, Robert A. _Americans in Process_. Houghton Mifflin Co.,
+Boston. 1902.
+
+
+POLITICAL
+
+Beard, Charles A. _American Citizenship_. Macmillan, New York. 1917
+
+------. _American City Government_. Century Co., New York. 1912.
+
+** ------. _American Government and Politics_. Macmillan, New York.
+1920.
+
+------. _An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United
+States_. Macmillan, New York. 1913.
+
+------. _Readings in American Government and Politics_. Macmillan, New
+York. 1912.
+
+------. _The Supreme Court and the Constitution_. Macmillan, New York.
+1912.
+
+Beard, Charles A., and Birl Schultz. _Documents on the State-wide
+Initiative, Referendum and Recall_. Macmillan, New York. 1912.
+
+Borgeaud, Charles. _Adoption and Amendment of Constitutions in Europe
+and America_. Macmillan, New York. 1895.
+
+* Brewer, David J. _American Citizenship_. Chas. Scribner's Sons, New
+York. 1907.
+
+Brooks, Robert C. _Corruption in American Politics and Life_. Dodd,
+Mead and Co., New York. 1910.
+
+** Bryce, James. _Modern Democracies_. 2 vols. Macmillan, New York.
+1921.
+
+** ------. _The American Commonwealth_. 2 vols. Macmillan, New York.
+1914.
+
+Childs, Richard S. _Short Ballot Principles_. Houghton Mifflin Co.,
+Boston. 1911.
+
+** Cleveland, Frederick H., _Organized Democracy_. Longmans, Green and
+Co., New York. 1913.
+
+* Cleveland, Frederick H., and A. E. Buck. _The Budget and Responsible
+Government_. Macmillan, New York. 1920.
+
+Commons, John R. _Proportional Representation_. Macmillan, New York.
+1907.
+
+Croly, Herbert. _The Promise of American Life_. Macmillan, New York.
+1912.
+
+** _Cyclopedia of American Government_. Edited by A. C. McLaughlin and
+A. B. Hart. 3 Vols. Appleton, New York. 1914.
+
+Dealey, James Q. _Growth of American State Constitutions from 1776 to
+the End of the Year 1914_. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1915 ** Dunn, Arthur
+William. _The Community and the Citizen_. D. C. Heath and Co., Boston.
+1919.
+
+Fairlie, John A. _Local Government in Counties, Towns and Villages_.
+Century Co., New York. 1906.
+
+------. _Municipal Administration_. Macmillan, New York. 1906.
+
+** ------. _The National Administration of the United States of
+America_. Macmillan, New York. 1905.
+
+Follett, Mary Parker. _The Speaker of the House of Representatives_.
+Longmans, Green and Co., New York. 1904.
+
+Foltz, E. B. K. _The Federal Civil Service as a Career_. Putnam, New
+York. 1909.
+
+Ford, Henry Jones. _The Cost of Our National Government_. Columbia
+University Press. New York. 1910.
+
+** ------. _The Rise and Growth of American Politics_. Macmillan, New
+York. 1900.
+
+Forman, S. E. _The American Democracy_. Century Co., New York. 1920.
+
+Gettell, Raymond G. _Introduction to Political Science_. Ginn and Co.,
+Boston.
+
+------. _Problems in Political Evolution_. Ginn and Co., Boston.
+
+* ------. _Readings in Political Science_. Ginn and Co., Boston. 1911.
+
+Gilbertson, H. S. _The County_. National Short Ballot Organization.
+New York. 1917.
+
+Goodnow, Frank J. _Social Reform and the Constitution_. Macmillan, New
+York. 1911.
+
+** Guitteau, William Backus. _Government and Politics in the United
+States_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1920.
+
+Haines, Charles G. _The American Doctrine of Judicial Supremacy_.
+Macmillan, New York. 1914.
+
+Hart, Albert Bushnell. _Practical Essays in American Government_.
+Longmans, Green & Co., New York.
+
+Hinsdale, Mary L. _A History of the President's Cabinet_. Ann Arbor.
+1911.
+
+Hoar, Roger S. _Constitutional Conventions_. Little, Brown & Co.,
+Boston. 1917.
+
+** Holcombe, Arthur N. _State Government in the United States_.
+Macmillan, New York. 1916.
+
+Hughes, Charles Evans. _Conditions of Progress in Democratic
+Government_. Yale University Press, New Haven. 1910.
+
+* _Illinois Constitutional Convention Bulletins_. Springfield,
+Illinois. 1920.
+
+** _Illinois Efficiency and Economy Report_. Springfield, Illinois.
+1915
+
+** James, Herman G. _Local Government in the Unites States_. Appleton,
+New York. 1921.
+
+* Jones, Chester L. _Readings on Parties and Elections in the United
+States_. Macmillan, New York. 1912.
+
+Kaye, Percy Lewis. _Readings in Civil Government_. Century Co., New
+York. 1910.
+
+* Kimball, Everett. _State and Municipal Government in the United
+States_ Ginn and Co., Boston. 1921.
+
+* ------. _The National Government of the United States._ Ginn and
+Co., Boston. 1919.
+
+Leacock, Stephen A. _Elements of Political Science_. Houghton Mifflin
+Co., Boston. 1913.
+
+** Lowell, A. Lawrence. _Public Opinion and Popular Government_.
+Longmans, Green & Co., New York. 1913.
+
+McCall, Samuel Walker. _The Business of Congress_, Columbia University
+Press, New York. 1911.
+
+McKinley, Albert E. _The Suffrage Franchise in the Thirteen English
+Colonies in America_. Philadelphia. 1905.
+
+** _Massachusetts Constitutional Convention Bulletins_. Boston, 1917.
+
+** Mathews, John M. _Principles of State Administration_. Appleton,
+New York. 1917.
+
+Maxey, C. C. _County Administration_. Macmillan, New York. 1919.
+
+Merriam, Charles Edward. _American Political Ideas_. Macmillan, New
+York. 1920.
+
+** Munro, William Bennett. _The Government of American Cities_.
+Macmillan, New York. 1920.
+
+------. _The Government of European Cities_. Macmillan, New York. 1909
+
+** ------. _The Government of the United States_. Macmillan, New York
+1919.
+
+* ------. _The Initiative, Referendum and Recall_. Appleton, New York
+1913.
+
+Porter, Kirk. _A History of Suffrage in the United States_. University
+of Chicago Press, Chicago. 1918.
+
+** Ray, P. Orman. _An Introduction to Political Parties and Practical
+Politics_ Chas. Scribner's Sons, New York. 1913.
+
+** Reed, Thomas Harrison. _Form and Functions of American Government_
+World Book Co., New York. 1917.
+
+* Reinsch, Paul S. _American Legislatures and Legislative Methods_.
+Century Co., New York. 1913.
+
+------. _Readings on American Federal Government_. Ginn and Co.,
+Boston, 1909.
+
+------. _Readings on American State Government_. Ginn and Co., Boston,
+1911.
+
+Root, Elihu. _Addresses on Government and Citizenship_. Harvard
+University Press, Cambridge. 1916.
+
+* Seymour, Charles. _How the World Votes_. 2 Vols. C. A. Nichols Co.,
+Springfield. 1918.
+
+Taft, William Howard. _Our Chief Magistrate and His Powers_. Columbia
+University Press New York. 1916.
+
+Taft, William Howard. _Popular Government_. Yale University Press, New
+Haven. 1914.
+
+* Woodburn, James Albert. _Political Parties and Party Problems in the
+United States_. Putnam, New York. 1914.
+
+Woodburn, James Albert, and T. F. Moran. _The Citizen and the
+Republic_. Longmans, Green and Co., New York. 1920.
+
+Young, James T. _The New American Government and its Work_. Macmillan,
+New York. 1915.
+
+
+
+
+CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
+
+
+We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect
+union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for
+the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the
+blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and
+establish this CONSTITUTION for the United States of America,
+
+
+ARTICLE I
+
+SECTION I. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a
+Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and a
+House of Representatives.
+
+SECT. II. 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members
+chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the
+electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for
+electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature.
+
+2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to
+the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the
+United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of
+that State in which he shall be chosen.
+
+3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the
+several States which may be included within this Union, according to
+their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the
+whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a
+term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all
+other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years
+after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and
+within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they
+shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed
+one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one
+representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of
+New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight,
+Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New
+York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland
+six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and
+Georgia three.
+
+4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the
+Executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such
+vacancies.
+
+5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other
+officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment.
+
+SECT. III. 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two
+Senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six
+years; and each Senator shall have one vote.
+
+2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the
+first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three
+classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated
+at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the
+expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the
+expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every
+second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise,
+during the recess of the legislature of any State, the Executive
+thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the
+legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies.
+
+3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age
+of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States,
+and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for
+which he shall be chosen.
+
+4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the
+Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided.
+
+5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President
+_pro tempore_, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall
+exercise the office of President of the United States.
+
+6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When
+sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When
+the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall
+preside: and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of
+two thirds of the members present.
+
+7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to
+removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office
+of honor, trust or profit under the United States: but the party
+convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment,
+trial, judgment and punishment, according to law.
+
+SECT. IV. 1. The times, places and manner of holding elections for
+Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the
+legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or
+alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators.
+
+2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such
+meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by
+law appoint a different day.
+
+SECT. V. 1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns
+and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall
+constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn
+from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of
+absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as each
+house may provide.
+
+2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its
+members for disorderly behavior, and with the concurrence of two
+thirds, expel a member.
+
+3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time
+to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their
+judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of
+either house on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of
+those present, be entered on the journal.
+
+4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the
+consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any
+other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting.
+
+SECT. VI. 1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a
+compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law and paid out
+of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases except
+treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest
+during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and
+in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate
+in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place.
+
+2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he
+was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the, authority of
+the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments
+whereof shall have been increased, during such time; and no person
+holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either
+house during his continuance in office.
+
+SECT. VII. 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the
+House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with
+amendments as on other bills.
+
+2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and
+the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the
+President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if
+not he shall return it with his objections to that house in which it
+shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on
+their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such
+reconsideration two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill,
+it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by
+which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and, if approved by two
+thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the
+votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the
+names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered
+on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be
+returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it
+shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like
+manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their
+adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law.
+
+3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the
+Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a
+question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the
+United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be
+approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two
+thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the
+rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill.
+
+SECT. VIII. The Congress shall have power
+
+1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the
+debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the
+United States, but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform
+throughout the United States;
+
+2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States;
+
+3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several
+States, and with the Indian tribes;
+
+4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on
+the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States;
+
+5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and
+fix the standard of weights and measures;
+
+6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and
+current coin of the United States;
+
+7. To establish post offices and post roads;
+
+8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for
+limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their
+respective writings and discoveries;
+
+9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;
+
+10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high
+seas and offences against the law of nations;
+
+11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make
+rules concerning captures on land and water;
+
+12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that
+use shall be for a longer term than two years;
+
+13. To provide and maintain a navy;
+
+14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and
+naval forces;
+
+15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of
+the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions;
+
+16. To provide for organizing, arming and disciplining the militia,
+and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service
+of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the
+appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia
+according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;
+
+17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over
+such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of
+particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of
+government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over
+all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the State,
+in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines,
+arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings;--and
+
+18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying
+into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by
+this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any
+department or office thereof.
+
+SECT. IX. 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of
+the States now existing shall think proper to admit shall not be
+prohibited by the Congress prior to the year 1808; but a tax or duty
+may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding $10 for each person.
+
+2. The privilege of the writ of _habeas corpus_ shall not be
+suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public
+safety may require it.
+
+3. No bill of attainder or _ex post facto_ law shall be passed.
+
+4. No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in
+proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be
+taken.
+
+5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State.
+
+6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or
+revenue to the ports of one State over those of another: nor shall
+vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or
+pay duties in another.
+
+7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of
+appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the
+receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from
+time to time.
+
+8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and no
+person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall,
+without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument,
+office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or
+foreign state.
+
+SECT. X. 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or
+confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit
+bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in
+payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, _ex post facto_ law, or
+law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of
+nobility.
+
+2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any
+imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely
+necessary for executing its inspection laws: and the net produce of
+all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall
+be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws
+shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress.
+
+3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of
+tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any
+agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or
+engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as
+will not admit of delay.
+
+
+ARTICLE II
+
+SECTION I. 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of
+the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term
+of four years, and together with the Vice-President, chosen for the
+same term, be elected as follows:
+
+2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof
+may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of
+Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the
+Congress; but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an
+office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed
+an elector.
+
+[The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by
+ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an
+inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a
+list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for
+each; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to
+the seat of government of the United States, directed to the President
+of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of
+the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates,
+and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest
+number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority
+of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than
+one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then
+the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of
+them for President; and if no person has a majority, then from the
+five highest on the list the said house shall in like manner choose
+the President. But in choosing the President the votes shall be taken
+by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a
+quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two
+thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be
+necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the
+President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the
+electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two
+or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by
+ballot the Vice-President.]
+
+3. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and
+the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the
+same throughout the United States.
+
+4. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United
+States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be
+eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be
+eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of
+thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the
+United States.
+
+5. In case of the removal of the President from office or of his
+death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of
+the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the
+Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death,
+resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President,
+declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer
+shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a president
+shall be elected.
+
+6. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a
+compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during
+the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not
+receive within that period any other emolument from the United States,
+or any of them.
+
+7. Before he enters the execution of his office, he shall take the
+following oath or affirmation:--"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that
+I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United
+States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and
+defend the Constitution of the United States."
+
+SECT. II. 1. The President shall be commander in chief of the army and
+navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States,
+when called into the actual service of the United States; he may
+require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of
+the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of
+their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves
+and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of
+impeachment.
+
+2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the
+Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present
+concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent
+of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and
+consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the
+United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided
+for, and which shall be established by law: but the Congress may by
+law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think
+proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads
+of departments.
+
+3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may
+happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which
+shall expire at the end of their next session.
+
+SECT. III. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information
+of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such
+measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on
+extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and
+in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of
+adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think
+proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he
+shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall
+commission all the officers of the United States.
+
+SECT. IV. The President, Vice-President and all civil officers of the
+United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and on
+conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and
+misdemeanors.
+
+
+ARTICLE III
+
+SECTION I. 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested
+in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as Congress may from
+time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and
+inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and
+shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation,
+which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.
+
+SECT. II. I. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and
+equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United
+States, and treaties made or which shall be made, under their
+authority;--to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers
+and consuls;--to all cases of admiralty jurisdiction;--to
+controversies to which the United States shall be a party;--to
+controversies between two or more States;--between a State and
+citizens of another State;--between citizens of different States;--
+between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of
+different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and
+foreign states, citizens or subjects.
+
+2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and
+consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme
+Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before
+mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both
+as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations
+as the Congress shall make.
+
+3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be
+by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said
+crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any
+State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may
+by law have directed.
+
+SECT. III. 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in
+levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them
+aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the
+testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in
+open court.
+
+2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason,
+but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or
+forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted.
+
+
+ARTICLE IV
+
+SECTION I. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the
+public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State.
+And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which
+such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect
+thereof.
+
+SECT. II. 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all
+privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States.
+
+2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime,
+who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall on
+demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be
+delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the
+crime.
+
+3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws
+thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or
+regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but
+shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or
+labor may be due.
+
+SECT. III. I. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this
+Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the
+jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the
+junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the
+consent of the legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the
+Congress.
+
+2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful
+rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property
+belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall
+be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of
+any particular State.
+
+SECT. IV. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this
+Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them
+against invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the
+executive (when the legislature cannot be convened) against domestic
+violence.
+
+
+ARTICLE V
+
+The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it
+necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the
+application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several States,
+shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either
+case shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this
+Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of
+the several States, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the
+one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress;
+provided that no amendments which may be made prior to the year one
+thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first
+and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that
+no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage
+in the Senate.
+
+
+ARTICLE VI
+
+1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the
+adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United
+States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.
+
+2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be
+made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be
+made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme
+law of the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby,
+anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary
+notwithstanding.
+
+3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members
+of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial
+officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall
+be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no
+religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office
+or public trust under the United States.
+
+
+ARTICLE VII
+
+The ratification of the conventions of nine States, shall be
+sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the
+States so ratifying the same.
+
+Done in Convention by the unanimous consent of the States present, the
+seventeenth day of September in the year of our Lord one thousand
+seven hundred and eighty-seven and of the Independence of the United
+States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto
+subscribed our names.
+
+[Signed by]                                Gº WASHINGTON
+
+                                 Presidt and Deputy from Virginia
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN ADDITION TO AND AMENDMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE
+UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, PROPOSED BY CONGRESS, AND RATIFIED BY THE
+LEGISLATURES OF THE SEVERAL STATES, PURSUANT TO THE FIFTH ARTICLE OF
+THE ORIGINAL CONSTITUTION [Footnote: The first ten Amendments were
+adopted in 1791.]
+
+ARTICLE I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of
+religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the
+freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people
+peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of
+grievances.
+
+ARTICLE II. A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security
+of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall
+not be infringed.
+
+ARTICLE III. No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any
+house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a
+manner to be prescribed by law.
+
+ARTICLE IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons,
+houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and
+seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon
+probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly
+describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be
+seized.
+
+ARTICLE V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or
+otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a
+grand jury except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in
+the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger;
+nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put
+in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal
+case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life,
+liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private
+property be taken for public use without just compensation.
+
+ARTICLE VI. In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the
+right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State
+and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which
+district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be
+informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted
+with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for
+obtaining witnesses in his favour, and to have the assistance of
+counsel for his defence.
+
+ARTICLE VII. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy
+shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be
+preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined
+in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the
+common law.
+
+ARTICLE VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive
+fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
+
+ARTICLE IX. The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights,
+shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the
+people.
+
+ARTICLE X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the
+Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the
+States respectively, or to the people.
+
+ARTICLE XI. The judicial power of the United States shall not be
+construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or
+prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another
+State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. [Adopted in
+1798.]
+
+ARTICLE XII. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and
+vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at
+least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves;
+they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President,
+and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and
+they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President,
+and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of
+votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit
+sealed to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the
+President of the Senate;--the President of the Senate shall, in the
+presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the
+certificates and the votes shall then be counted;--the person having
+the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if
+such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed;
+and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the
+highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as
+President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by
+ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall
+be taken by States, the representation from each State having one
+vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members
+from two thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall
+be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall
+not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon
+them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-
+President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other
+constitutional disability of the President.--The person having the
+greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-
+President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of
+electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the
+two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-
+President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the
+whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be
+necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to
+the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of
+the United States. [Adopted in 1894.]
+
+ARTICLE XIII. Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude,
+except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been
+duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place
+subject to their jurisdiction.
+
+Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by
+appropriate legislation. [Adopted in 1865.]
+
+ARTICLE XIV. Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United
+States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the
+United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall
+make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or
+immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State
+deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process
+of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal
+protection of the laws.
+
+Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several
+States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole
+number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when
+the right to vote at any election for the choice of Electors for
+President and Vice-President of the United States, Representatives in
+Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the
+members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male
+inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age and citizens
+of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation
+in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein
+shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male
+citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one
+years of age in such State.
+
+Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress,
+or Elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil
+or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having
+previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of
+the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an
+executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the
+Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection
+or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies
+thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two thirds of each house,
+remove such disability.
+
+Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States,
+authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions
+and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion,
+shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State
+shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of
+insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for
+the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts,
+obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void.
+
+Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate
+legislation the provisions of this article. [Adopted in 1867.]
+
+ARTICLE XV. Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to
+vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State
+on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
+
+Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by
+appropriate legislation. [Adopted in 1870.]
+
+ARTICLE XVI. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on
+incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the
+several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.
+[Adopted in 1913.]
+
+ARTICLE XVII, Section 1. The Senate of the United States shall be
+composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people
+thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The
+electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for
+electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislatures.
+
+Section 2. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in
+the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of
+election to fill such vacancies: Provided that the Legislature of any
+State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments
+until the people fill the vacancies by election as the Legislature may
+direct.
+
+Section 3. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the
+election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part
+of the Constitution. [Adopted in 1913.]
+
+ARTICLE XVIII. Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this
+article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating
+liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation
+thereof from, the United States and all territory subject to the
+jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.
+
+Section 2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent
+power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
+
+Section 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been
+ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of
+the several States, as provided by the Constitution, within seven
+years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the
+Congress. [Adopted in 1919.]
+
+ARTICLE XIX. Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to
+vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any
+State on account of sex.
+
+Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by
+appropriate legislation.
+
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, PROBLEMS IN AMERICAN DEMOCRACY ***
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