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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/6409-h.zip b/6409-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f20067e --- /dev/null +++ b/6409-h.zip diff --git a/6409-h/6409-h.htm b/6409-h/6409-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..68c8df1 --- /dev/null +++ b/6409-h/6409-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6096 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"> +<html> +<head> +<meta content="HTML Tidy for Windows (vers 1st November 2002), see www.w3.org" name="generator"> +<title>How to Speak and Write Correctly</title> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> +</head> +<body> +<pre> +Project Gutenberg's How to Speak and Write Correctly, by Joseph Devlin + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: How to Speak and Write Correctly + +Author: Joseph Devlin + +Release Date: September, 2004 [EBook #6409] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on December 8, 2002] +[Date last updated: September 8, 2006] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO SPEAK AND WRITE *** + + + + +Produced by Tom Allen, Charles Franks +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + +</pre> +<center> +<h1>HOW TO<br> +SPEAK AND WRITE<br> +CORRECTLY</h1> +<p>By<br> +JOSEPH DEVLIN, M.A.<br></p> +<p>Edited by<br> +THEODORE WATERS<br></p><br></center> +<center> +<p>THE CHRISTIAN HERALD<br> +BIBLE HOUSE<br> +NEW YORK</p><br> +</center> +<center> +<p>Copyright, 1910, by<br> +THE CHRISTIAN HERALD<br> +NEW YORK</p><br> +</center> + +<center> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2></center> +<p><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a><br> +REQUIREMENTS OF SPEECH<br> +Vocabulary. Parts of speech. Requisites</p> +<p><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a><br> +ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR<br> +Divisions of grammar. Definitions. Etymology.</p> +<p><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a><br> +THE SENTENCE<br> +Different kinds. Arrangement of words. Paragraph.</p> +<p><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a><br> +FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE<br> +Figures of speech. Definitions and examples. Use of figures.</p> +<p><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a><br> +PUNCTUATION<br> +Principal points. Illustrations. Capital letters.</p> +<p><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a><br> +LETTER WRITING<br> +Principles of letter writing. Forms. Notes.</p> +<p><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a><br> +ERRORS<br> +Mistakes. Slips of authors. Examples and corrections.<br> +Errors of redundancy.</p> +<p><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a><br> +PITFALLS TO AVOID<br> +Common stumbling blocks. Peculiar constructions. Misused forms.</p> +<p><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a><br> +STYLE<br> +Diction. Purity. Propriety. Precision.</p> +<p><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a><br> +SUGGESTIONS<br> +How to write. What to write. Correct speaking and speakers.</p> +<p><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a><br> +SLANG<br> +Origin. American slang. Foreign slang.</p> +<p><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a><br> +WRITING FOR NEWSPAPERS<br> +Qualification. Appropriate subjects. Directions.</p> +<p><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a><br> +CHOICE OF WORDS<br> +Small words. Their importance. The Anglo-Saxon element.</p> +<p><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a><br> +ENGLISH LANGUAGE<br> +Beginning. Different Sources. The present.</p> +<p><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a><br> +MASTERS AND MASTERPIECES OF LITERATURE<br> +Great authors. Classification. The world's best books.</p> +<center> +<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2></center> +<p>In the preparation of this little work the writer has kept one +end in view, viz.: To make it serviceable for those for whom it is +intended, that is, for those who have neither the time nor the +opportunity, the learning nor the inclination, to peruse elaborate +and abstruse treatises on Rhetoric, Grammar, and Composition. To +them such works are as gold enclosed in chests of steel and locked +beyond power of opening. This book has no pretension about it +whatever,—it is neither a Manual of Rhetoric, expatiating on +the dogmas of style, nor a Grammar full of arbitrary rules and +exceptions. It is merely an effort to help ordinary, everyday +people to express themselves in ordinary, everyday language, in a +proper manner. Some broad rules are laid down, the observance of +which will enable the reader to keep within the pale of propriety +in oral and written language. Many idiomatic words and expressions, +peculiar to the language, have been given, besides which a number +of the common mistakes and pitfalls have been placed before the +reader so that he may know and avoid them.</p> +<p>The writer has to acknowledge his indebtedness to no one in +<i>particular</i>, but to all in <i>general</i> who have ever +written on the subject.</p> +<p>The little book goes forth—a finger-post on the road of +language pointing in the right direction. It is hoped that they who +go according to its index will arrive at the goal of correct +speaking and writing.</p> +<center> +<h2 id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</h2> +<h3>REQUIREMENTS OF SPEECH</h3> +<h4>Vocabulary—Parts of Speech—Requisites</h4></center> +<p>It is very easy to learn how to speak and write correctly, as +for all purposes of ordinary conversation and communication, only +about 2,000 different words are required. The mastery of just +twenty hundred words, the knowing where to place them, will make us +not masters of the English language, but masters of correct +speaking and writing. Small number, you will say, compared with +what is in the dictionary! But nobody ever uses all the words in +the dictionary or could use them did he live to be the age of +Methuselah, and there is no necessity for using them.</p> +<p>There are upwards of 200,000 words in the recent editions of the +large dictionaries, but the one-hundredth part of this number will +suffice for all your wants. Of course you may think not, and you +may not be content to call things by their common names; you may be +ambitious to show superiority over others and display your learning +or, rather, your pedantry and lack of learning. For instance, you +may not want to call a spade a spade. You may prefer to call it a +spatulous device for abrading the surface of the soil. Better, +however, to stick to the old familiar, simple name that your +grandfather called it. It has stood the test of time, and old +friends are always good friends.</p> +<p>To use a big word or a foreign word when a small one and a +familiar one will answer the same purpose, is a sign of ignorance. +Great scholars and writers and polite speakers use simple +words.</p> +<p>To go back to the number necessary for all purposes of +conversation correspondence and writing, 2,000, we find that a +great many people who pass in society as being polished, refined +and educated use less, for they know less. The greatest scholar +alive hasn't more than four thousand different words at his +command, and he never has occasion to use half the number.</p> +<p>In the works of Shakespeare, the most wonderful genius the world +has ever known, there is the enormous number of 15,000 different +words, but almost 10,000 of them are obsolete or meaningless +today.</p> +<p>Every person of intelligence should be able to use his mother +tongue correctly. It only requires a little pains, a little care, a +little study to enable one to do so, and the recompense is +great.</p> +<p>Consider the contrast between the well-bred, polite man who +knows how to choose and use his words correctly and the underbred, +vulgar boor, whose language grates upon the ear and jars the +sensitiveness of the finer feelings. The blunders of the latter, +his infringement of all the canons of grammar, his absurdities and +monstrosities of language, make his very presence a pain, and one +is glad to escape from his company.</p> +<p>The proper grammatical formation of the English language, so +that one may acquit himself as a correct conversationalist in the +best society or be able to write and express his thoughts and ideas +upon paper in the right manner, may be acquired in a few +lessons.</p> +<p>It is the purpose of this book, as briefly and concisely as +possible, to direct the reader along a straight course, pointing +out the mistakes he must avoid and giving him such assistance as +will enable him to reach the goal of a correct knowledge of the +English language. It is not a Grammar in any sense, but a guide, a +silent signal-post pointing the way in the right direction.</p> +<h3>THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN A NUTSHELL</h3> +<p>All the words in the English language are divided into nine +great classes. These classes are called the Parts of Speech. They +are Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, +Conjunction and Interjection. Of these, the Noun is the most +important, as all the others are more or less dependent upon it. A +Noun signifies the name of any person, place or thing, in fact, +anything of which we can have either thought or idea. There are two +kinds of Nouns, Proper and Common. Common Nouns are names which +belong in common to a race or class, as <i>man</i>, <i>city</i>. +Proper Nouns distinguish individual members of a race or class as +<i>John</i>, <i>Philadelphia</i>. In the former case <i>man</i> is +a name which belongs in common to the whole race of mankind, and +<i>city</i> is also a name which is common to all large centres of +population, but <i>John</i> signifies a particular individual of +the race, while <i>Philadelphia</i> denotes a particular one from +among the cities of the world.</p> +<p>Nouns are varied by Person, Number, Gender, and Case. Person is +that relation existing between the speaker, those addressed and the +subject under consideration, whether by discourse or +correspondence. The Persons are <i>First</i>, <i>Second</i> and +<i>Third</i> and they represent respectively the speaker, the +person addressed and the person or thing mentioned or under +consideration.</p> +<p><i>Number</i> is the distinction of one from more than one. +There are two numbers, singular and plural; the singular denotes +one, the plural two or more. The plural is generally formed from +the singular by the addition of <i>s</i> or <i>es</i>.</p> +<p><i>Gender</i> has the same relation to nouns that sex has to +individuals, but while there are only two sexes, there are four +genders, viz., masculine, feminine, neuter and common. The +masculine gender denotes all those of the male kind, the feminine +gender all those of the female kind, the neuter gender denotes +inanimate things or whatever is without life, and common gender is +applied to animate beings, the sex of which for the time being is +indeterminable, such as fish, mouse, bird, etc. Sometimes things +which are without life as we conceive it and which, properly +speaking, belong to the neuter gender, are, by a figure of speech +called Personification, changed into either the masculine or +feminine gender, as, for instance, we say of the sun, <i>He</i> is +rising; of the moon, <i>She</i> is setting.</p> +<p><i>Case</i> is the relation one noun bears to another or to a +verb or to a preposition. There are three cases, the +<i>Nominative</i>, the <i>Possessive</i> and the <i>Objective</i>. +The nominative is the subject of which we are speaking or the agent +which directs the action of the verb; the possessive case denotes +possession, while the objective indicates the person or thing which +is affected by the action of the verb.</p> +<p>An <i>Article</i> is a word placed before a noun to show whether +the latter is used in a particular or general sense. There are but +two articles, <i>a</i> or <i>an</i> and <i>the</i>.</p> +<p>An <i>Adjective</i> is a word which qualifies a noun, that is, +which shows some distinguishing mark or characteristic belonging to +the noun.</p> +<h3>DEFINITIONS</h3> +<p>A <i>Pronoun</i> is a word used for or instead of a noun to keep +us from repeating the same noun too often. Pronouns, like nouns, +have case, number, gender and person. There are three kinds of +pronouns, <i>personal</i>, <i>relative</i> and +<i>adjective</i>.</p> +<p>A <i>verb</i> is a word which signifies action or the doing of +something. A verb is inflected by tense and mood and by number and +person, though the latter two belong strictly to the subject of the +verb.</p> +<p>An <i>adverb</i> is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective +and sometimes another adverb.</p> +<p>A <i>preposition</i> serves to connect words and to show the +relation between the objects which the words express.</p> +<p>A <i>conjunction</i> is a word which joins words, phrases, +clauses and sentences together.</p> +<p>An <i>interjection</i> is a word which expresses surprise or +some sudden emotion of the mind.</p> +<h3>THREE ESSENTIALS</h3> +<p>The three essentials of the English language are: <i>Purity</i>, +<i>Perspicuity</i> and <i>Precision</i>.</p> +<p>By <i>Purity</i> is signified the use of good English. It +precludes the use of all slang words, vulgar phrases, obsolete +terms, foreign idioms, ambiguous expressions or any ungrammatical +language whatsoever. Neither does it sanction the use of any newly +coined word until such word is adopted by the best writers and +speakers.</p> +<p><i>Perspicuity</i> demands the clearest expression of thought +conveyed in unequivocal language, so that there may be no +misunderstanding whatever of the thought or idea the speaker or +writer wishes to convey. All ambiguous words, words of double +meaning and words that might possibly be construed in a sense +different from that intended, are strictly forbidden. Perspicuity +requires a style at once clear and comprehensive and entirely free +from pomp and pedantry and affectation or any straining after +effect.</p> +<p><i>Precision</i> requires concise and exact expression, free +from redundancy and tautology, a style terse and clear and simple +enough to enable the hearer or reader to comprehend immediately the +meaning of the speaker or writer. It forbids, on the one hand, all +long and involved sentences, and, on the other, those that are too +short and abrupt. Its object is to strike the golden mean in such a +way as to rivet the attention of the hearer or reader on the words +uttered or written.</p> +<center> +<h2 id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</h2> +<h3>ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR</h3> +<h4>Divisions of +Grammar—Definitions—Etymology.</h4></center> +<p>In order to speak and write the English language correctly, it +is imperative that the fundamental principles of the Grammar be +mastered, for no matter how much we may read of the best authors, +no matter how much we may associate with and imitate the best +speakers, if we do not know the underlying principles of the +correct formation of sentences and the relation of words to one +another, we will be to a great extent like the parrot, that merely +repeats what it hears without understanding the import of what is +said. Of course the parrot, being a creature without reason, cannot +comprehend; it can simply repeat what is said to it, and as it +utters phrases and sentences of profanity with as much facility as +those of virtue, so by like analogy, when we do not understand the +grammar of the language, we may be making egregious blunders while +thinking we are speaking with the utmost accuracy.</p> +<h3>DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR</h3> +<p>There are four great divisions of Grammar, viz.:</p> +<p><i>Orthography</i>, <i>Etymology</i>, <i>Syntax</i>, and +<i>Prosody</i>.</p> +<p><i>Orthography</i> treats of letters and the mode of combining +them into words.</p> +<p><i>Etymology</i> treats of the various classes of words and the +changes they undergo.</p> +<p><i>Syntax</i> treats of the connection and arrangement of words +in sentences.</p> +<p><i>Prosody</i> treats of the manner of speaking and reading and +the different kinds of verse.</p> +<p>The three first mentioned concern us most.</p> +<h3>LETTERS</h3> +<p>A <i>letter</i> is a mark or character used to represent an +articulate sound. Letters are divided into <i>vowels</i> and +<i>consonants</i>. A vowel is a letter which makes a distinct sound +by itself. Consonants cannot be sounded without the aid of vowels. +The vowels are <i>a</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>u</i>, +and sometimes <i>w</i> and <i>y</i> when they do not begin a word +or syllable.</p> +<h3>SYLLABLES AND WORDS</h3> +<p>A syllable is a distinct sound produced by a single effort of +[Transcriber's note: 1-2 words illegible] shall, pig, dog. In every +syllable there must be at least one vowel.</p> +<p>A word consists of one syllable or a combination of +syllables.</p> +<p>Many rules are given for the dividing of words into syllables, +but the best is to follow as closely as possible the divisions made +by the organs of speech in properly pronouncing them.</p> +<h3>THE PARTS OF SPEECH</h3> +<h3>ARTICLE</h3> +<p>An <i>Article</i> is a word placed before a noun to show whether +the noun is used in a particular or general sense.</p> +<p>There are two articles, <i>a</i> or <i>an</i> and <i>the</i>. +<i>A</i> or <i>an</i> is called the indefinite article because it +does not point put any particular person or thing but indicates the +noun in its widest sense; thus, <i>a</i> man means any man +whatsoever of the species or race.</p> +<p><i>The</i> is called the definite article because it points out +some particular person or thing; thus, <i>the</i> man means some +particular individual.</p> +<h3>NOUN</h3> +<p>A <i>noun</i> is the name of any person, place or thing as +<i>John</i>, <i>London</i>, <i>book</i>. Nouns are proper and +common.</p> +<p><i>Proper</i> nouns are names applied to <i>particular</i> +persons or places.</p> +<p><i>Common</i> nouns are names applied to a whole kind or +species.</p> +<p>Nouns are inflected by <i>number</i>, <i>gender</i> and +<i>case</i>.</p> +<p><i>Number</i> is that inflection of the noun by which we +indicate whether it represents one or more than one.</p> +<p><i>Gender</i> is that inflection by which we signify whether the +noun is the name of a male, a female, of an inanimate object or +something which has no distinction of sex.</p> +<p><i>Case</i> is that inflection of the noun which denotes the +state of the person, place or thing represented, as the subject of +an affirmation or question, the owner or possessor of something +mentioned, or the object of an action or of a relation.</p> +<p>Thus in the example, "John tore the leaves of Sarah's book," the +distinction between <i>book</i> which represents only one object +and <i>leaves</i> which represent two or more objects of the same +kind is called <i>Number</i>; the distinction of sex between +<i>John</i>, a male, and <i>Sarah</i>, a female, and <i>book</i> +and <i>leaves</i>, things which are inanimate and neither male nor +female, is called <i>Gender</i>; and the distinction of state +between <i>John</i>, the person who tore the book, and the subject +of the affirmation, <i>Mary</i>, the owner of the book, +<i>leaves</i> the objects torn, and <i>book</i> the object related +to leaves, as the whole of which they were a part, is called +<i>Case</i>.</p> +<h3>ADJECTIVE</h3> +<p>An <i>adjective</i> is a word which qualifies a noun, that is, +shows or points out some distinguishing mark or feature of the +noun; as, A <i>black</i> dog.</p> +<p>Adjectives have three forms called degrees of comparison, the +<i>positive</i>, the <i>comparative</i> and the +<i>superlative</i>.</p> +<p>The <i>positive</i> is the simple form of the adjective without +expressing increase or diminution of the original quality: +<i>nice</i>.</p> +<p>The <i>comparative</i> is that form of the adjective which +expresses increase or diminution of the quality: <i>nicer</i>.</p> +<p>The <i>superlative</i> is that form which expresses the greatest +increase or diminution of the quality: <i>nicest</i>.</p> +<center> +<p><i>or</i></p></center> +<p>An adjective is in the positive form when it does not express +comparison; as, "A <i>rich</i> man."</p> +<p>An adjective is in the comparative form when it expresses +comparison between two or between one and a number taken +collectively, as, "John is <i>richer</i> than James"; "he is +<i>richer</i> than all the men in Boston."</p> +<p>An adjective is in the superlative form when it expresses a +comparison between one and a number of individuals taken +separately; as, "John is the <i>richest</i> man in Boston."</p> +<p>Adjectives expressive of properties or circumstances which +cannot be increased have only the positive form; as, A +<i>circular</i> road; the <i>chief</i> end; an <i>extreme</i> +measure.</p> +<p>Adjectives are compared in two ways, either by adding <i>er</i> +to the positive to form the comparative and <i>est</i> to the +positive to form the superlative, or by prefixing <i>more</i> to +the positive for the comparative and <i>most</i> to the positive +for the superlative; as, <i>handsome</i>, <i>handsomer</i>, +<i>handsomest</i> or <i>handsome</i>, <i>more handsome</i>, <i>most +handsome</i>.</p> +<p>Adjectives of two or more syllables are generally compared by +prefixing more and most.</p> +<p>Many adjectives are irregular in comparison; as, Bad, worse, +worst; Good, better, best.</p> +<h3>PRONOUN</h3> +<p>A <i>pronoun</i> is a word used in place of a noun; as, "John +gave his pen to James and <i>he</i> lent it to Jane to write +<i>her</i> copy with <i>it</i>." Without the pronouns we would have +to write this sentence,—"John gave John's pen to James and +James lent the pen to Jane to write Jane's copy with the pen."</p> +<p>There are three kinds of pronouns—Personal, Relative and +Adjective Pronouns.</p> +<p><i>Personal</i> Pronouns are so called because they are used +instead of the names of persons, places and things. The Personal +Pronouns are <i>I</i>, <i>Thou</i>, <i>He</i>, <i>She</i>, and +<i>It</i>, with their plurals, <i>We</i>, <i>Ye</i> or <i>You</i> +and <i>They</i>.</p> +<p><i>I</i> is the pronoun of the first person because it +represents the person speaking.</p> +<p><i>Thou</i> is the pronoun of the second person because it +represents the person spoken to.</p> +<p><i>He</i>, <i>She</i>, <i>It</i> are the pronouns of the third +person because they represent the persons or things of whom we are +speaking.</p> +<p>Like nouns, the Personal Pronouns have number, gender and case. +The gender of the first and second person is obvious, as they +represent the person or persons speaking and those who are +addressed. The personal pronouns are thus declined:</p> +<center> +<p>First Person.<br> +<i>M. or F.</i></p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<td></td> +<th><em>Sing.</em></th> +<th><em>Plural.</em></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>N.</td> +<td>I</td> +<td>We</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>P.</td> +<td>Mine</td> +<td>Ours</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>O.</td> +<td>Me</td> +<td>Us</td></tr></table></center> +<center> +<p>Second Person.<br> +<i>M. or F.</i></p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<td></td> +<th><em>Sing.</em></th> +<th><em>Plural.</em></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>N.</td> +<td>Thou</td> +<td>You</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>P.</td> +<td>Thine</td> +<td>Yours</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>O.</td> +<td>Thee</td> +<td>You</td></tr></table></center> +<center> +<p>Third Person.<br> +<i>M</i>.</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<td></td> +<th><em>Sing.</em></th> +<th><em>Plural.</em></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>N.</td> +<td>He</td> +<td>They</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>P.</td> +<td>His</td> +<td>Theirs</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>O.</td> +<td>Him</td> +<td>Them</td></tr></table></center> +<center> +<p>Third Person.<br> +<i>F</i>.</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<td></td> +<th><em>Sing.</em></th> +<th><em>Plural.</em></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>N.</td> +<td>She</td> +<td>They</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>P.</td> +<td>Hers</td> +<td>Theirs</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>O.</td> +<td>Her</td> +<td>Them</td></tr></table></center> +<center> +<p>Third Person.<br> +<i>Neuter</i>.</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<td></td> +<th><em>Sing.</em></th> +<th><em>Plural.</em></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>N.</td> +<td>It</td> +<td>They</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>P.</td> +<td>Its</td> +<td>Theirs</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>O.</td> +<td>It</td> +<td>Them</td></tr></table></center> +<p>N. B.—In colloquial language and ordinary writing Thou, +Thine and Thee are seldom used, except by the Society of Friends. +The Plural form You is used for both the nominative and objective +singular in the second person and Yours is generally used in the +possessive in place of Thine.</p> +<p>The <i>Relative</i> Pronouns are so called because they relate +to some word or phrase going before; as, "The boy <i>who</i> told +the truth;" "He has done well, <i>which</i> gives me great +pleasure."</p> +<p>Here <i>who</i> and <i>which</i> are not only used in place of +other words, but <i>who</i> refers immediately to boy, and +<i>which</i> to the circumstance of his having done well.</p> +<p>The word or clause to which a relative pronoun refers is called +the <i>Antecedent</i>.</p> +<p>The Relative Pronouns are <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>that</i> +and <i>what</i>.</p> +<p><i>Who</i> is applied to persons only; as, "The man <i>who</i> +was here."</p> +<p><i>Which</i> is applied to the lower animals and things without +life; as, "The horse <i>which</i> I sold." "The hat <i>which</i> I +bought."</p> +<p><i>That</i> is applied to both persons and things; as, "The +friend <i>that</i> helps." "The bird <i>that</i> sings." "The knife +<i>that</i> cuts."</p> +<p><i>What</i> is a compound relative, including both the +antecedent and the relative and is equivalent to <i>that which</i>; +as, "I did what he desired," i. e. "I did <i>that which</i> he +desired."</p> +<p>Relative pronouns have the singular and plural alike.</p> +<p><i>Who</i> is either masculine or feminine; <i>which</i> and +<i>that</i> are masculine, feminine or neuter; <i>what</i> as a +relative pronoun is always neuter.</p> +<p><i>That</i> and <i>what</i> are not inflected.</p> +<p><i>Who</i> and <i>which</i> are thus declined:</p> +<center> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th colspan="2"><em>Sing. and Plural</em></th> +<th></th> +<th colspan="2"><em>Sing. and Plural</em></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>N.</td> +<td>Who</td> +<td></td> +<td>N.</td> +<td>Which</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>P.</td> +<td>Whose</td> +<td></td> +<td>P.</td> +<td>Whose</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>O.</td> +<td>Whom</td> +<td></td> +<td>O.</td> +<td>Which</td></tr></table></center> +<p><i>Who</i>, <i>which</i> and <i>what</i> when used to ask +questions are called <i>Interrogative Pronouns</i>.</p> +<p><i>Adjective</i> Pronouns partake of the nature of adjectives +and pronouns and are subdivided as follows:</p> +<p><i>Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns</i> which directly point out +the person or object. They are <i>this</i>, <i>that</i> with their +plurals <i>these</i>, <i>those</i>, and <i>yon</i>, <i>same</i> and +<i>selfsame</i>.</p> +<p><i>Distributive Adjective Pronouns</i> used distributively. They +are <i>each</i>, <i>every</i>, <i>either</i>, <i>neither</i>.</p> +<p><i>Indefinite Adjective Pronouns</i> used more or less +indefinitely. They are <i>any</i>, <i>all</i>, <i>few</i>, +<i>some</i>, <i>several</i>, <i>one</i>, <i>other</i>, +<i>another</i>, <i>none</i>.</p> +<p><i>Possessive Adjective Pronouns</i> denoting possession. They +are <i>my</i>, <i>thy</i>, <i>his</i>, <i>her</i>, <i>its</i>, +<i>our</i>, <i>your</i>, <i>their</i>.</p> +<p>N. B.—(The possessive adjective pronouns differ from the +possessive case of the personal pronouns in that the latter can +stand <i>alone</i> while the former <i>cannot</i>. "Who owns that +book?" "It is <i>mine</i>." You cannot say "it is +<i>my</i>,"—the word book must be repeated.)</p> +<h3>THE VERB</h3> +<p>A <i>verb</i> is a word which implies action or the doing of +something, or it may be defined as a word which affirms, commands +or asks a question.</p> +<p>Thus, the words <i>John the table</i>, contain no assertion, but +when the word <i>strikes</i> is introduced, something is affirmed, +hence the word <i>strikes</i> is a verb and gives completeness and +meaning to the group.</p> +<p>The simple form of the verb without inflection is called the +<i>root</i> of the verb; <i>e. g. love</i> is the root of the +verb,—"To Love."</p> +<p>Verbs are <i>regular</i> or <i>irregular</i>, <i>transitive</i> +or <i>intransitive</i>.</p> +<p>A verb is said to be <i>regular</i> when it forms the past tense +by adding <i>ed</i> to the present or <i>d</i> if the verb ends in +<i>e</i>. When its past tense does not end in <i>ed</i> it is said +to be <i>irregular</i>.</p> +<p>A <i>transitive</i> verb is one the action of which passes over +to or affects some object; as "I struck the table." Here the action +of striking affected the object table, hence struck is a transitive +verb.</p> +<p>An <i>intransitive</i> verb is one in which the action remains +with the subject; as <i>"I walk,"</i> <i>"I sit,"</i> <i>"I +run."</i></p> +<p>Many intransitive verbs, however, can be used transitively; +thus, "I <i>walk</i> the horse;" <i>walk</i> is here +transitive.</p> +<p>Verbs are inflected by <i>number</i>, <i>person</i>, +<i>tense</i> and <i>mood</i>.</p> +<p><i>Number</i> and <i>person</i> as applied to the verb really +belong to the subject; they are used with the verb to denote +whether the assertion is made regarding one or more than one and +whether it is made in reference to the person speaking, the person +spoken to or the person or thing spoken about.</p> +<h3>TENSE</h3> +<p>In their tenses verbs follow the divisions of time. They have +<i>present tense</i>, <i>past tense</i> and <i>future tense</i> +with their variations to express the exact time of action as to an +event happening, having happened or yet to happen.</p> +<h3>MOOD</h3> +<p>There are four simple moods,—the <i>Infinitive</i>, the +<i>Indicative</i>, the <i>Imperative</i> and the +<i>Subjunctive</i>.</p> +<p>The Mood of a verb denotes the mode or manner in which it is +used. Thus if it is used in its widest sense without reference to +person or number, time or place, it is in the <i>Infinitive</i> +Mood; as "To run." Here we are not told who does the running, when +it is done, where it is done or anything about it.</p> +<p>When a verb is used to indicate or declare or ask a simple +question or make any direct statement, it is in the +<i>Indicative</i> Mood. "The boy loves his book." Here a direct +statement is made concerning the boy. "Have you a pin?" Here a +simple question is asked which calls for an answer.</p> +<p>When the verb is used to express a command or entreaty it is in +the <i>Imperative</i> Mood as, "Go away." "Give me a penny."</p> +<p>When the verb is used to express doubt, supposition or +uncertainty or when some future action depends upon a contingency, +it is in the subjunctive mood; as, "If I come, he shall +remain."</p> +<p>Many grammarians include a fifth mood called the +<i>potential</i> to express <i>power</i>, <i>possibility</i>, +<i>liberty</i>, <i>necessity</i>, <i>will</i> or <i>duty</i>. It is +formed by means of the auxiliaries <i>may</i>, <i>can</i>, +<i>ought</i> and <i>must</i>, but in all cases it can be resolved +into the indicative or subjunctive. Thus, in "I may write if I +choose," "may write" is by some classified as in the potential +mood, but in reality the phrase <i>I may write</i> is an indicative +one while the second clause, <i>if I choose,</i> is the expression +of a condition upon which, not my liberty to write, depends, but my +actual writing.</p> +<p>Verbs have two participles, the present or imperfect, sometimes +called the <i>active</i> ending in <i>ing</i> and the past or +perfect, often called the <i>passive,</i> ending in <i>ed</i> or +<i>d</i>.</p> +<p>The <i>infinitive</i> expresses the sense of the verb in a +substantive form, the participles in an adjective form; as "To rise +early is healthful." "An early rising man." "The newly risen +sun."</p> +<p>The participle in <i>ing</i> is frequently used as a substantive +and consequently is equivalent to an infinitive; thus, "To rise +early is healthful" and "Rising early is healthful" are the +same.</p> +<p>The principal parts of a verb are the Present Indicative, Past +Indicative and Past Participle; as:</p> +<center> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<td>Love</td> +<td>Loved</td> +<td>Loved</td></tr></table></center> +<p>Sometimes one or more of these parts are wanting, and then the +verb is said to be defective.</p> +<center> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th>Present</th> +<th>Past</th> +<th>Passive Participle</th></tr> +<tr> +<td>Can</td> +<td>Could</td> +<td>(Wanting)</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>May</td> +<td>Might</td> +<td>"</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>Shall</td> +<td>Should</td> +<td>"</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>Will</td> +<td>Would</td> +<td>"</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>Ought</td> +<td>Ought</td> +<td>"</td></tr></table></center> +<p>Verbs may also be divided into <i>principal</i> and +<i>auxiliary</i>. A <i>principal</i> verb is that without which a +sentence or clause can contain no assertion or affirmation. An +<i>auxiliary</i> is a verb joined to the root or participles of a +principal verb to express time and manner with greater precision +than can be done by the tenses and moods in their simple form. +Thus, the sentence, "I am writing an exercise; when I shall have +finished it I shall read it to the class." has no meaning without +the principal verbs <i>writing</i>, <i>finished read</i>; but the +meaning is rendered more definite, especially with regard to time, +by the auxiliary verbs <i>am</i>, <i>have</i>, <i>shall</i>.</p> +<p>There are nine auxiliary or helping verbs, viz., <i>Be</i>, +<i>have</i>, <i>do</i>, <i>shall</i>, <i>will</i>, <i>may</i>, +<i>can</i>, <i>ought</i>, and <i>must</i>. They are called helping +verbs, because it is by their aid the compound tenses are +formed.</p> +<h3>TO BE</h3> +<p>The verb <i>To Be</i> is the most important of the auxiliary +verbs. It has eleven parts, viz., <i>am, art, is, are, was, wast, +were, wert; be, being</i> and <i>been</i>.</p> +<h3>VOICE</h3> +<p>The <i>active voice</i> is that form of the verb which shows the +Subject not being acted upon but acting; as, "The cat +<i>catches</i> mice." "Charity <i>covers</i> a multitude of +sins."</p> +<p>The <i>passive voice</i>: When the action signified by a +transitive verb is thrown back upon the agent, that is to say, when +the subject of the verb denotes the recipient of the action, the +verb is said to be in the passive voice. "John was loved by his +neighbors." Here John the subject is also the object affected by +the loving, the action of the verb is thrown back on him, hence the +compound verb <i>was loved</i> is said to be in the <i>passive +voice</i>. The passive voice is formed by putting the perfect +participle of any <i>transitive</i> verb with any of the eleven +parts of the verb <i>To Be</i>.</p> +<h3>CONJUGATION</h3> +<p>The <i>conjugation</i> of a verb is its orderly arrangement in +voices, moods, tenses, persons and numbers.</p> +<p>Here is the complete conjugation of the verb +"Love"—<i>Active Voice</i>.</p> +<center> +<h4>PRINCIPAL PARTS</h4> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th><i>Present</i></th> +<th><i>Past</i></th> +<th><i>Past Participle</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<th>Love</th> +<th>Loved</th> +<th>Loved</th></tr></table> +<h4><i>Infinitive Mood</i></h4> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<td>To Love</td></tr></table> +<h4><i>Indicative Mood</i></h4> +<p>PRESENT TENSE</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>1st person</td> +<td>I love</td> +<td>We love</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>You love</td> +<td>You love</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>3rd person</td> +<td>He loves</td> +<td>They love</td></tr></table> +<p>PAST TENSE</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>1st person</td> +<td>I loved</td> +<td>We loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>You loved</td> +<td>You loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>3rd person</td> +<td>He loved</td> +<td>They loved</td></tr></table> +<p>FUTURE TENSE</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>1st person</td> +<td>I shall love</td> +<td>They will love</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>You will love</td> +<td>You will love</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>3rd person</td> +<td>He will love</td> +<td>We shall love</td></tr></table> + + +<p>[Transcriber's note: 1st person plural and 3rd person plural reversed +in original]</p> + +<p>PRESENT PERFECT TENSE</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>1st person</td> +<td>I have loved</td> +<td>We have loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>You have loved</td> +<td>You have loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>3rd person</td> +<td>He has loved</td> +<td>They have loved</td></tr></table> +<p>PAST PERFECT TENSE</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>1st person</td> +<td>I had loved</td> +<td>We had loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>You had loved</td> +<td>You had loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>3rd person</td> +<td>He had loved</td> +<td>They had loved</td></tr></table> +<p>FUTURE PERFECT TENSE</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>1st person</td> +<td>I shall have loved</td> +<td>We shall have loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>You will have loved</td> +<td>You will have loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>3rd person</td> +<td>He will have loved</td> +<td>They will have loved</td></tr></table> +<h4><i>Imperative Mood</i></h4> +<p>(PRESENT TENSE ONLY)</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>Love (you)</td> +<td>Love (you)</td></tr></table> +<h4><i>Subjunctive Mood</i></h4> +<p>PRESENT TENSE</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>1st person</td> +<td>If I love</td> +<td>If we love</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>If you love</td> +<td>If you love</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>3rd person</td> +<td>If he love</td> +<td>If they love</td></tr></table> +<p>PAST TENSE</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>1st person</td> +<td>If I loved</td> +<td>If we loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>If you loved</td> +<td>If you loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>3rd person</td> +<td>If he loved</td> +<td>If they loved</td></tr></table> +<p>PRESENT PERFECT TENSE</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>1st person</td> +<td>If I have loved</td> +<td>If we have loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>If you have loved</td> +<td>If you have loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>3rd person</td> +<td>If he has loved</td> +<td>If they have loved</td></tr></table> +<p>PAST PERFECT TENSE</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>1st person</td> +<td>If I had loved</td> +<td>If we had loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>If you had loved</td> +<td>If you had loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>3rd person</td> +<td>If he had loved</td> +<td>If they had loved</td></tr></table> +<p>INFINITIVES</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th><i>Present</i></th> +<th><i>Perfect</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>To love</td> +<td>To have loved</td></tr></table> +<p>PARTICIPLES</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th><i>Present</i></th> +<th><i>Past</i></th> +<th><i>Perfect</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>Loving</td> +<td>Loved</td> +<td>Having loved</td></tr></table> +<h3>CONJUGATION OF "To Love"</h3> +<h4><i>Passive Voice</i><br> +<i>Indicative Mood</i></h4> +<p>PRESENT TENSE</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>1st person</td> +<td>I am loved</td> +<td>We are loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>You are loved</td> +<td>You are loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>3rd person</td> +<td>He is loved</td> +<td>They are loved</td></tr></table> +<p>PAST TENSE</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>1st person</td> +<td>I was loved</td> +<td>We were loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>You were loved</td> +<td>You were loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>3rd person</td> +<td>He was loved</td> +<td>They were loved</td></tr></table> +<p>FUTURE TENSE</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>1st person</td> +<td>I shall be loved</td> +<td>We shall be loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>You will be loved</td> +<td>You will be loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>3rd person</td> +<td>He will be loved</td> +<td>They will be loved</td></tr></table> +<p>PRESENT PERFECT TENSE</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>1st person</td> +<td>I have been loved</td> +<td>We have been loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>You have been loved</td> +<td>You have been loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>3rd person</td> +<td>He has been loved</td> +<td>They have been loved</td></tr></table> +<p>PAST PERFECT TENSE</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>1st person</td> +<td>I had been loved</td> +<td>We had been loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>You had been loved</td> +<td>You had been loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>3rd person</td> +<td>He had been loved</td> +<td>They had been loved</td></tr></table> +<p>FUTURE PERFECT TENSE</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>1st person</td> +<td>I shall have been loved</td> +<td>We shall have been loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>You will have been loved</td> +<td>You will have been loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>3rd person</td> +<td>He will have been loved</td> +<td>They will have been loved</td></tr></table> +<h4><i>Imperative Mood</i></h4> +<p>(PRESENT TENSE ONLY)</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>Be (you) loved</td> +<td>Be (you) loved</td></tr></table> +<h4><i>Subjunctive Mood</i></h4> +<p>PRESENT TENSE</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>1st person</td> +<td>If I be loved</td> +<td>If we be loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>If you be loved</td> +<td>If you be loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>3rd person</td> +<td>If he be loved</td> +<td>If they be loved</td></tr></table> +<p>PAST TENSE</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>1st person</td> +<td>If I were loved</td> +<td>If they were loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>If you were loved</td> +<td>If you were loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>3rd person</td> +<td>If he were loved</td> +<td>If we were loved</td></tr></table> +<p>PRESENT PERFECT TENSE</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>1st person</td> +<td>If I have been loved</td> +<td>If we have been loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>If you have been loved</td> +<td>If you have been loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>3rd person</td> +<td>If he has been loved</td> +<td>If they have been loved</td></tr></table> +<p>PAST PERFECT TENSE</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th></th> +<th><i>Sing.</i></th> +<th><i>Plural</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>1st person</td> +<td>If I had been loved</td> +<td>If we had been loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>2nd person</td> +<td>If you had been loved</td> +<td>If you had been loved</td></tr> +<tr> +<td>3rd person</td> +<td>If he had been loved</td> +<td>If they had been loved</td></tr></table> +<p>INFINITIVES</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th><i>Present</i></th> +<th></th> +<th><i>Perfect</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>To be loved</td> +<td></td> +<td>To have been loved</td></tr></table> +<p>PARTICIPLES</p> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th><i>Present</i></th> +<th><i>Past</i></th> +<th><i>Perfect</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>Being loved</td> +<td>Been loved</td> +<td>Having been loved</td></tr></table></center> +<p>(N. B.—Note that the plural form of the personal pronoun, +<i>you</i>, is used in the second person singular throughout. The +old form <i>thou</i>, except in the conjugation of the verb "To +Be," may be said to be obsolete. In the third person singular he is +representative of the three personal pronouns of the third person, +<i>He</i>, <i>She</i> and <i>It</i>.)</p> +<h3>ADVERB</h3> +<p>An <i>adverb</i> is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective +or another adverb. Thus, in the example—"He writes +<i>well</i>," the adverb shows the manner in which the writing is +performed; in the examples—"He is remarkably diligent" and +"He works very faithfully," the adverbs modify the adjective +<i>diligent</i> and the other adverb <i>faithfully</i> by +expressing the degree of diligence and faithfulness.</p> +<p>Adverbs are chiefly used to express in one word what would +otherwise require two or more words; thus, <i>There</i> signifies +in that place; <i>whence</i>, from what place; <i>usefully</i>, in +a useful manner.</p> +<p>Adverbs, like adjectives, are sometimes varied in their +terminations to express comparison and different degrees of +quality.</p> +<p>Some adverbs form the comparative and superlative by adding +<i>er</i> and <i>est</i>; as, <i>soon</i>, <i>sooner</i>, +<i>soonest</i>.</p> +<p>Adverbs which end in <i>ly</i> are compared by prefixing +<i>more</i> and <i>most</i>; as, <i>nobly</i>, <i>more nobly</i>, +<i>most nobly</i>.</p> +<p>A few adverbs are irregular in the formation of the comparative +and superlative; as, <i>well</i>, <i>better</i>, <i>best</i>.</p> +<h3>PREPOSITION</h3> +<p>A <i>preposition</i> connects words, clauses, and sentences +together and shows the relation between them. "My hand is on the +table" shows relation between hand and table.</p> +<p>Prepositions are so called because they are generally placed +<i>before</i> the words whose connection or relation with other +words they point out.</p> +<h3>CONJUNCTION</h3> +<p>A <i>conjunction</i> joins words, clauses and sentences; as +"John <i>and</i> James." "My father and mother have come, +<i>but</i> I have not seen them."</p> +<p>The conjunctions in most general use are <i>and, also; either, +or; neither, nor; though, yet; but, however; for, that; because, +since; therefore, wherefore, then; if, unless, lest</i>.</p> +<h3>INTERJECTION</h3> +<p>An <i>interjection</i> is a word used to express some sudden +emotion of the mind. Thus in the examples,—"Ah! there he +comes; alas! what shall I do?" <i>ah,</i> expresses surprise, and +<i>alas,</i> distress.</p> +<p>Nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs become interjections when +they are uttered as exclamations, as, <i>nonsense! strange! hail! +away!</i> etc.</p> +<p>We have now enumerated the parts of speech and as briefly as +possible stated the functions of each. As they all belong to the +same family they are related to one another but some are in closer +affinity than others. To point out the exact relationship and the +dependency of one word on another is called <i>parsing</i> and in +order that every etymological connection may be distinctly +understood a brief resume of the foregoing essentials is here +given:</p> +<p>The signification of the noun is <i>limited</i> to <i>one</i>, +but to any <i>one</i> of the kind, by the <i>indefinite</i> +article, and to some <i>particular</i> one, or some particular +<i>number</i>, by the <i>definite</i> article.</p> +<p><i>Nouns</i>, in one form, represent <i>one</i> of a kind, and +in another, <i>any number</i> more than one; they are the <i>names +of males</i>, or <i>females</i>, or of objects which are neither +male nor female; and they represent the <i>subject</i> of an +affirmation, a command or a question,—the <i>owner</i> or +<i>possessor</i> of a thing,—or the <i>object</i> of an +action, or of a relation expressed by a preposition.</p> +<p><i>Adjectives</i> express the <i>qualities</i> which distinguish +one person or thing from another; in one form they express quality +<i>without comparison</i>; in another, they express comparison +<i>between two</i>, or between <i>one</i> and a number taken +collectively,—and in a third they express comparison between +<i>one</i> and a <i>number</i> of others taken separately.</p> +<p><i>Pronouns</i> are used in place of nouns; one class of them is +used merely as the <i>substitutes</i> of <i>names</i>; the pronouns +of another class have a peculiar <i>reference</i> to some +<i>preceding words</i> in the <i>sentence</i>, of which they are +the substitutes,—and those of a third class refer adjectively +to the persons or things they represent. Some pronouns are used for +both the <i>name</i> and the <i>substitute</i>; and several are +frequently employed in <i>asking questions</i>.</p> +<p><i>Affirmations</i> and <i>commands</i> are expressed by the +verb; and different inflections of the verb express <i>number</i>, +<i>person</i>, <i>time</i> and <i>manner</i>. With regard to +<i>time</i>, an affirmation may be <i>present</i> or <i>past</i> or +<i>future</i>; with regard to manner, an affirmation may be +<i>positive</i> or <i>conditional</i>, it being doubtful whether +the condition is fulfilled or not, or it being implied that it is +not fulfilled;—the verb may express <i>command</i> or +<i>entreaty</i>; or the sense of the verb may be expressed +<i>without affirming</i> or <i>commanding</i>. The verb also +expresses that an action or state <i>is</i> or <i>was</i> going on, +by a form which is also used sometimes as a noun, and sometimes to +qualify nouns.</p> +<p><i>Affirmations</i> are <i>modified</i> by <i>adverbs</i>, some +of which can be inflected to express different degrees of +modification.</p> +<p>Words are joined together by <i>conjunctions</i>; and the +various <i>relations</i> which one thing bears to another are +expressed by <i>'prepositions. Sudden emotions</i> of the mind, and +<i>exclamations</i> are expressed by <i>interjections</i>.</p> +<p>Some words according to meaning belong sometimes to one part of +speech, sometimes to another. Thus, in "After a storm comes a +<i>calm</i>," <i>calm</i> is a noun; in "It is a <i>calm</i> +evening," <i>calm</i> is an adjective; and in "<i>Calm</i> your +fears," <i>calm</i> is a verb.</p> +<p>The following sentence containing all the parts of speech is +parsed etymologically:</p> +<p><i>"I now see the old man coming, but, alas, he has walked with +much difficulty."</i></p> +<p><i>I</i>, a personal pronoun, first person singular, masculine +or feminine gender, nominative case, subject of the verb +<i>see</i>.</p> +<p><i>now</i>, an adverb of time modifying the verb <i>see</i>.</p> +<p><i>see</i>, an irregular, transitive verb, indicative mood, +present tense, first person singular to agree with its nominative +or subject I.</p> +<p><i>the</i>, the definite article particularizing the noun +man.</p> +<p><i>old</i>, an adjective, positive degree, qualifying the noun +man.</p> +<p><i>man</i>, a common noun, 3rd person singular, masculine +gender, objective case governed by the transitive verb +<i>see</i>.</p> +<p><i>coming</i>, the present or imperfect participle of the verb +"to come" referring to the noun man.</p> +<p><i>but</i>, a conjunction.</p> +<p><i>alas</i>, an interjection, expressing pity or sorrow.</p> +<p><i>he</i>, a personal pronoun, 3rd person singular, masculine +gender, nominative case, subject of verb has walked.</p> +<p><i>has walked</i>, a regular, intransitive verb, indicative +mood, perfect tense, 3rd person singular to agree with its +nominative or subject <i>he</i>.</p> +<p><i>with</i>, a preposition, governing the noun difficulty.</p> +<p><i>much</i>, an adjective, positive degree, qualifying the noun +difficulty.</p> +<p><i>difficulty</i>, a common noun, 3rd person singular, neuter +gender, objective case governed by the preposition <i>with</i>.</p> +<p>N.B.—<i>Much</i> is generally an adverb. As an adjective +it is thus compared:</p> +<center> +<table border="1" width="75%" summary=""> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<colgroup align="center"></colgroup> +<tr> +<th><i>Positive</i></th> +<th><i>Comparative</i></th> +<th><i>Superlative</i></th></tr> +<tr> +<td>much</td> +<td>more</td> +<td>most</td></tr></table></center> +<center> +<h2 id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</h2> +<h3>THE SENTENCE</h3> +<h4>Different Kinds—Arrangement of +Words—Paragraph</h4></center> +<p>A sentence is an assemblage of words so arranged as to convey a +determinate sense or meaning, in other words, to express a complete +thought or idea. No matter how short, it must contain one finite +verb and a subject or agent to direct the action of the verb.</p> +<p>"Birds fly;" "Fish swim;" "Men walk;"—are sentences.</p> +<p>A sentence always contains two parts, something spoken about and +something said about it. The word or words indicating what is +spoken about form what is called the <i>subject</i> and the word or +words indicating what is said about it form what is called the +<i>predicate</i>.</p> +<p>In the sentences given, <i>birds</i>, <i>fish</i> and <i>men</i> +are the subjects, while <i>fly</i>, <i>swim</i> and <i>walk</i> are +the predicates.</p> +<p>There are three kinds of sentences, <i>simple</i>, +<i>compound</i> and <i>complex</i>.</p> +<p>The <i>simple sentence</i> expresses a single thought and +consists of one subject and one predicate, as, "Man is mortal."</p> +<p>A <i>compound sentence</i> consists of two or more simple +sentences of equal importance the parts of which are either +expressed or understood, as, "The men work in the fields and the +women work in the household," or "The men work in the fields and +the women in the household" or "The men and women work in the +fields and in the household."</p> +<p>A <i>complex sentence</i> consists of two or more simple +sentences so combined that one depends on the other to complete its +meaning; as; "When he returns, I shall go on my vacation." Here the +words, "when he returns" are dependent on the rest of the sentence +for their meaning.</p> +<p>A <i>clause</i> is a separate part of a complex sentence, as +"when he returns" in the last example.</p> +<p>A <i>phrase</i> consists of two or more words without a finite +verb.</p> +<p>Without a finite verb we cannot affirm anything or convey an +idea, therefore we can have no sentence.</p> +<p>Infinitives and participles which are the infinite parts of the +verb cannot be predicates. "I looking up the street" is not a +sentence, for it is not a complete action expressed. When we hear +such an expression as "A dog running along the street," we wait for +something more to be added, something more affirmed about the dog, +whether he bit or barked or fell dead or was run over.</p> +<p>Thus in every sentence there must be a finite verb to limit the +subject.</p> +<p>When the verb is transitive, that is, when the action cannot +happen without affecting something, the thing affected is called +the <i>object</i>.</p> +<p>Thus in "Cain killed Abel" the action of the killing affected +Abel. In "The cat has caught a mouse," mouse is the object of the +catching.</p> +<h3>ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE</h3> +<p>Of course in simple sentences the natural order of arrangement +is subject—verb—object. In many cases no other form is +possible. Thus in the sentence "The cat has caught a mouse," we +cannot reverse it and say "The mouse has caught a cat" without +destroying the meaning, and in any other form of arrangement, such +as "A mouse, the cat has caught," we feel that while it is +intelligible, it is a poor way of expressing the fact and one which +jars upon us more or less.</p> +<p>In longer sentences, however, when there are more words than +what are barely necessary for subject, verb and object, we have +greater freedom of arrangement and can so place the words as to +give the best effect. The proper placing of words depends upon +perspicuity and precision. These two combined give <i>style</i> to +the structure.</p> +<p>Most people are familiar with Gray's line in the immortal +<i>Elegy</i>—"The ploughman homeward plods his weary way." +This line can be paraphrased to read 18 different ways. Here are a +few variations:</p> +<pre> + Homeward the ploughman plods his weary way. + The ploughman plods his weary way homeward. + Plods homeward the ploughman his weary way. + His weary way the ploughman homeward plods. + Homeward his weary way plods the ploughman. + Plods the ploughman his weary way homeward. + His weary way the ploughman plods homeward. + His weary way homeward the ploughman plods. + The ploughman plods homeward his weary way. + The ploughman his weary way plods homeward. +</pre> + +<p>and so on. It is doubtful if any of the other forms are superior +to the one used by the poet. Of course his arrangement was made to +comply with the rhythm and rhyme of the verse. Most of the +variations depend upon the emphasis we wish to place upon the +different words.</p> +<p>In arranging the words in an ordinary sentence we should not +lose sight of the fact that the beginning and end are the important +places for catching the attention of the reader. Words in these +places have greater emphasis than elsewhere.</p> +<p>In Gray's line the general meaning conveyed is that a weary +ploughman is plodding his way homeward, but according to the +arrangement a very slight difference is effected in the idea. Some +of the variations make us think more of the ploughman, others more +of the plodding, and still others more of the weariness.</p> +<p>As the beginning and end of a sentence are the most important +places, it naturally follows that small or insignificant words +should be kept from these positions. Of the two places the end one +is the more important, therefore, it really calls for the most +important word in the sentence. Never commence a sentence with +<i>And</i>, <i>But</i>, <i>Since</i>, <i>Because,</i> and other +similar weak words and never end it with prepositions, small, weak +adverbs or pronouns.</p> +<p>The parts of a sentence which are most closely connected with +one another in meaning should be closely connected in order also. +By ignoring this principle many sentences are made, if not +nonsensical, really ridiculous and ludicrous. For instance: "Ten +dollars reward is offered for information of any person injuring +this property by order of the owner." "This monument was erected to +the memory of John Jones, who was shot by his affectionate +brother."</p> +<p>In the construction of all sentences the grammatical rules must +be inviolably observed. The laws of concord, that is, the agreement +of certain words, must be obeyed.</p> +<ol> +<li> +<p>The verb agrees with its subject in person and number. "I have," +"Thou hast," (the pronoun <i>thou</i> is here used to illustrate +the verb form, though it is almost obsolete), "He has," show the +variation of the verb to agree with the subject. A singular subject +calls for a singular verb, a plural subject demands a verb in the +plural; as, "The boy writes," "The boys write."</p> +<p>The agreement of a verb and its subject is often destroyed by +confusing (1) collective and common nouns; (2) foreign and English +nouns; (3) compound and simple subjects; (4) real and apparent +subjects.</p> +<p><small>(1) A collective noun is a number of individuals or +things regarded as a whole; as, <i>class regiment</i>. When the +individuals or things are prominently brought forward, use a plural +verb; as The class <i>were</i> distinguished for ability. When the +idea of the whole as a unit is under consideration employ a +singular verb; as The regiment <i>was</i> in camp. (2) It is +sometimes hard for the ordinary individual to distinguish the +plural from the singular in foreign nouns, therefore, he should be +careful in the selection of the verb. He should look up the word +and be guided accordingly. "He was an <i>alumnus</i> of Harvard." +"They were <i>alumni</i> of Harvard." (3) When a sentence with one +verb has two or more subjects denoting different things, connected +by <i>and</i>, the verb should be plural; as, "Snow and rain +<i>are</i> disagreeable." When the subjects denote the same thing +and are connected by <i>or</i> the verb should be singular; as, +"The man or the woman is to blame." (4) When the same verb has more +than one subject of different persons or numbers, it agrees with +the most prominent in thought; as, "He, and not you, <i>is</i> +wrong." "Whether he or I <i>am</i> to be blamed."</small></p></li> +<li> +<p>Never use the past participle for the past tense nor <i>vice +versa</i>. This mistake is a very common one. At every turn we hear +"He done it" for "He did it." "The jar was broke" instead of +broken. "He would have went" for "He would have gone," +etc.</p></li> +<li> +<p>The use of the verbs <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i> is a rock upon +which even the best speakers come to wreck. They are interchanged +recklessly. Their significance changes according as they are used +with the first, second or third person. With the first person +<i>shall</i> is used in direct statement to express a simple future +action; as, "I shall go to the city to-morrow." With the second and +third persons <i>shall</i> is used to express a determination; as, +"You <i>shall</i> go to the city to-morrow," "He <i>shall</i> go to +the city to-morrow."</p> +<p>With the first person <i>will</i> is used in direct statement to +express determination, as, "I will go to the city to-morrow." With +the second and third persons <i>will</i> is used to express simple +future action; as, "You <i>will</i> go to the city to-morrow," "He +<i>will</i> go to the city to-morrow."</p> +<p>A very old rule regarding the uses of <i>shall</i> and +<i>will</i> is thus expressed in rhyme:</p> +<pre> + In the first person simply <i>shall</i> foretells, + In <i>will</i> a threat or else a promise dwells. +<i>Shall</i> in the second and third does threat, +<i>Will</i> simply then foretells the future feat. + +</pre> +</li> +<li> +<p>Take special care to distinguish between the nominative and +objective case. The pronouns are the only words which retain the +ancient distinctive case ending for the objective. Remember that +the objective case follows transitive verbs and prepositions. Don't +say "The boy who I sent to see you," but "The boy whom I sent to +see you." <i>Whom</i> is here the object of the transitive verb +sent. Don't say "She bowed to him and I" but "She bowed to him and +me" since me is the objective case following the preposition +<i>to</i> understood. "Between you and I" is a very common +expression. It should be "Between you and me" since <i>between</i> +is a preposition calling for the objective case.</p></li> +<li> +<p>Be careful in the use of the relative pronouns <i>who</i>, +<i>which</i> and <i>that</i>. Who refers only to persons; which +only to things; as, "The boy who was drowned," "The umbrella which +I lost." The relative <i>that</i> may refer to both persons and +things; as, "The man <i>that</i> I saw." "The hat <i>that</i> I +bought."</p></li> +<li> +<p>Don't use the superlative degree of the adjective for the +comparative; as "He is the richest of the two" for "He is the +richer of the two." Other mistakes often made in this connection +are (1) Using the double comparative and superlative; as, "These +apples are much <i>more</i> preferable." "The most universal motive +to business is gain." (2) Comparing objects which belong to +dissimilar classes; as "There is no nicer <i>life</i> than a +<i>teacher</i>." (3) Including objects in class to which they do +not belong; as, "The fairest of her daughters, Eve." (4) Excluding +an object from a class to which it does belong; as, "Caesar was +braver than any ancient warrior."</p></li> +<li> +<p>Don't use an adjective for an adverb or an adverb for an +adjective. Don't say, "He acted nice towards me" but "He acted +nicely toward me," and instead of saying "She looked +<i>beautifully</i>" say "She looked <i>beautiful</i>."</p></li> +<li> +<p>Place the adverb as near as possible to the word it modifies. +Instead of saying, "He walked to the door quickly," say "He walked +quickly to the door."</p></li> +<li> +<p>Not alone be careful to distinguish between the nominative and +objective cases of the pronouns, but try to avoid ambiguity in +their use.</p> +<p>The amusing effect of disregarding the reference of pronouns is +well illustrated by Burton in the following story of Billy +Williams, a comic actor who thus narrates his experience in riding +a horse owned by Hamblin, the manager:</p> +<p>"So down I goes to the stable with Tom Flynn, and told the man +to put the saddle on him."</p> +<p>"On Tom Flynn?"</p> +<p>"No, on the horse. So after talking with Tom Flynn awhile I +mounted him."</p> +<p>"What! mounted Tom Flynn?"</p> +<p>"No, the horse; and then I shook hands with him and rode +off."</p> +<p>"Shook hands with the horse, Billy?"</p> +<p>"No, with Tom Flynn; and then I rode off up the Bowery, and who +should I meet but Tom Hamblin; so I got off and told the boy to +hold him by the head."</p> +<p>"What! hold Hamblin by the head?"</p> +<p>"No, the horse; and then we went and had a drink together."</p> +<p>"What! you and the horse?"</p> +<p>"No, <i>me</i> and Hamblin; and after that I mounted him again +and went out of town."</p> +<p>"What! mounted Hamblin again?"</p> +<p>"No, the horse; and when I got to Burnham, who should be there +but Tom Flynn,—he'd taken another horse and rode out ahead of +me; so I told the hostler to tie him up."</p> +<p>"Tie Tom Flynn up?"</p> +<p>"No, the horse; and we had a drink there."</p> +<p>"What! you and the horse?"</p> +<p>"No, me and Tom Flynn."</p> +<p>Finding his auditors by this time in a <i>horse</i> laugh, Billy +wound up with: "Now, look here, —every time I say horse, you +say Hamblin, and every time I say Hamblin you say horse: I'll be +hanged if I tell you any more about it."</p></li></ol> +<h3>SENTENCE CLASSIFICATION</h3> +<p>There are two great classes of sentences according to the +general principles upon which they are founded. These are termed +the <i>loose</i> and the <i>periodic</i>.</p> +<p>In the <i>loose</i> sentence the main idea is put first, and +then follow several facts in connection with it. Defoe is an author +particularly noted for this kind of sentence. He starts out with a +leading declaration to which he adds several attendant connections. +For instance in the opening of the story of <i>Robinson Crusoe</i> +we read: "I was born in the year 1632 in the city of York, of a +good family, though not of that country, my father being a +foreigner of Bremen, who settled first at Hull; he got a good +estate by merchandise, and leaving off his trade lived afterward at +York, from whence he had married my mother, whose relations were +named Robinson, a very good family in the country and from I was +called Robinson Kreutznaer; but by the usual corruption of words in +England, we are now called, nay, we call ourselves, and write our +name Crusoe, and so my companions always called me."</p> +<p>In the periodic sentence the main idea comes last and is +preceded by a series of relative introductions. This kind of +sentence is often introduced by such words as <i>that</i>, +<i>if</i>, <i>since</i>, <i>because</i>. The following is an +example:</p> +<p>"That through his own folly and lack of circumspection he should +have been reduced to such circumstances as to be forced to become a +beggar on the streets, soliciting alms from those who had formerly +been the recipients of his bounty, was a sore humiliation."</p> +<p>On account of its name many are liable to think the <i>loose</i> +sentence an undesirable form in good composition, but this should +not be taken for granted. In many cases it is preferable to the +periodic form.</p> +<p>As a general rule in speaking, as opposed to writing, the +<i>loose</i> form is to be preferred, inasmuch as when the periodic +is employed in discourse the listeners are apt to forget the +introductory clauses before the final issue is reached.</p> +<p>Both kinds are freely used in composition, but in speaking, the +<i>loose</i>, which makes the direct statement at the beginning, +should predominate.</p> +<p>As to the length of sentences much depends on the nature of the +composition. However the general rule may be laid down that short +sentences are preferable to long ones. The tendency of the best +writers of the present day is towards short, snappy, pithy +sentences which rivet the attention of the reader. They adopt as +their motto <i>multum in parvo</i> (much in little) and endeavor to +pack a great deal in small space. Of course the extreme of brevity +is to be avoided. Sentences can be too short, too jerky, too +brittle to withstand the test of criticism. The long sentence has +its place and a very important one. It is indispensable in argument +and often is very necessary to description and also in introducing +general principles which require elaboration. In employing the long +sentence the inexperienced writer should not strain after the +heavy, ponderous type. Johnson and Carlyle used such a type, but +remember, an ordinary mortal cannot wield the sledge hammer of a +giant. Johnson and Carlyle were intellectual giants and few can +hope to stand on the same literary pedestal. The tyro in +composition should never seek after the heavy style. The best of +all authors in the English language for style is Addison. Macaulay +says: "If you wish a style learned, but not pedantic, elegant but +not ostentatious, simple yet refined, you must give your days and +nights to the volumes of Joseph Addison." The simplicity, apart +from the beauty of Addison's writings causes us to reiterate the +literary command—"Never use a big word when a little one will +convey the same or a similar meaning."</p> +<p>Macaulay himself is an elegant stylist to imitate. He is like a +clear brook kissed by the noon-day sun in the shining bed of which +you can see and count the beautiful white pebbles. Goldsmith is +another writer whose simplicity of style charms.</p> +<p>The beginner should study these writers, make their works his +<i>vade mecum</i>, they have stood the test of time and there has +been no improvement upon them yet, nor is there likely to be, for +their writing is as perfect as it is possible to be in the English +language.</p> +<p>Apart from their grammatical construction there can be no fixed +rules for the formation of sentences. The best plan is to follow +the best authors and these masters of language will guide you +safely along the way.</p> +<h3>THE PARAGRAPH</h3> +<p>The paragraph may be defined as a group of sentences that are +closely related in thought and which serve one common purpose. Not +only do they preserve the sequence of the different parts into +which a composition is divided, but they give a certain spice to +the matter like raisins in a plum pudding. A solid page of printed +matter is distasteful to the reader; it taxes the eye and tends +towards the weariness of monotony, but when it is broken up into +sections it loses much of its heaviness and the consequent +lightness gives it charm, as it were, to capture the reader.</p> +<p>Paragraphs are like stepping-stones on the bed of a shallow +river, which enable the foot passenger to skip with ease from one +to the other until he gets across; but if the stones are placed too +far apart in attempting to span the distance one is liable to miss +the mark and fall in the water and flounder about until he is again +able to get a foothold. 'Tis the same with written language, the +reader by means of paragraphs can easily pass from one portion of +connected thought to another and keep up his interest in the +subject until he gets to the end.</p> +<p>Throughout the paragraph there must be some connection in regard +to the matter under consideration,—a sentence dependency. For +instance, in the same paragraph we must not speak of a house on +fire and a runaway horse unless there is some connection between +the two. We must not write consecutively:</p> +<p>"The fire raged with fierce intensity, consuming the greater +part of the large building in a short time." "The horse took fright +and wildly dashed down the street scattering pedestrians in all +directions." These two sentences have no connection and therefore +should occupy separate and distinct places. But when we +say—"The fire raged with fierce intensity consuming the +greater part of the large building in a short time and the horse +taking fright at the flames dashed wildly down the street +scattering pedestrians in all directions,"—there is a natural +sequence, viz., the horse taking fright as a consequence of the +flames and hence the two expressions are combined in one +paragraph.</p> +<p>As in the case of words in sentences, the most important places +in a paragraph are the beginning and the end. Accordingly the first +sentence and the last should by virtue of their structure and +nervous force, compel the reader's attention. It is usually +advisable to make the first sentence short; the last sentence may +be long or short, but in either case should be forcible. The object +of the first sentence is to state a point <i>clearly</i>; the last +sentence should <i>enforce</i> it.</p> +<p>It is a custom of good writers to make the conclusion of the +paragraph a restatement or counterpart or application of the +opening.</p> +<p>In most cases a paragraph may be regarded as the elaboration of +the principal sentence. The leading thought or idea can be taken as +a nucleus and around it constructed the different parts of the +paragraph. Anyone can make a context for every simple sentence by +asking himself questions in reference to the sentence. +Thus—"The foreman gave the order"— suggests at once +several questions; "What was the order?" "to whom did he give it?" +"why did he give it?" "what was the result?" etc. These questions +when answered will depend upon the leading one and be an +elaboration of it into a complete paragraph.</p> +<p>If we examine any good paragraph we shall find it made up of a +number of items, each of which helps to illustrate, confirm or +enforce the general thought or purpose of the paragraph. Also the +transition from each item to the next is easy, natural and obvious; +the items seem to come of themselves. If, on the other hand, we +detect in a paragraph one or more items which have no direct +bearing, or if we are unable to proceed readily from item to item, +especially if we are obliged to rearrange the items before we can +perceive their full significance, then we are justified in +pronouncing the paragraph construction faulty.</p> +<p>No specific rules can be given as to the construction of +paragraphs. The best advice is,—Study closely the paragraph +structure of the best writers, for it is only through imitation, +conscious or unconscious of the best models, that one can master +the art.</p> +<p>The best paragraphist in the English language for the essay is +Macaulay, the best model to follow for the oratorical style is +Edmund Burke and for description and narration probably the +greatest master of paragraph is the American Goldsmith, Washington +Irving.</p> +<p>A paragraph is indicated in print by what is known as the +indentation of the line, that is, by commencing it a space from the +left margin.</p> +<center> +<h2 id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</h2> +<h3>FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE</h3> +<h4>Figures of Speech—Definitions and Examples —Use of +Figures</h4></center> +<p>In <i>Figurative Language</i> we employ words in such a way that +they differ somewhat from their ordinary signification in +commonplace speech and convey our meaning in a more vivid and +impressive manner than when we use them in their every-day sense. +Figures make speech more effective, they beautify and emphasize it +and give to it a relish and piquancy as salt does to food; besides +they add energy and force to expression so that it irresistibly +compels attention and interest. There are four kinds of figures, +viz.: (1) Figures of Orthography which change the spelling of a +word; (2) Figures of Etymology which change the form of words; (3) +Figures of Syntax which change the construction of sentences; (4) +Figures of Rhetoric or the art of speaking and writing effectively +which change the mode of thought.</p> +<p>We shall only consider the last mentioned here as they are the +most important, really giving to language the construction and +style which make it a fitting medium for the intercommunication of +ideas.</p> +<p>Figures of Rhetoric have been variously classified, some +authorities extending the list to a useless length. The fact is +that any form of expression which conveys thought may be classified +as a Figure.</p> +<p>The principal figures as well as the most important and those +oftenest used are, <i>Simile, Metaphor, Personification, Allegory, +Synechdoche, Metonymy, Exclamation, Hyperbole, Apostrophe, Vision, +Antithesis, Climax, Epigram, Interrogation</i> and +<i>Irony</i>.</p> +<p>The first four are founded on <i>resemblance</i>, the second six +on <i>contiguity</i> and the third five, on <i>contrast</i>.</p> +<p>A <i>Simile</i> (from the Latin <i>similis</i>, like), is the +likening of one thing to another, a statement of the resemblance of +objects, acts, or relations; as "In his awful anger he was +<i>like</i> the storm-driven waves dashing against the rock." A +simile makes the principal object plainer and impresses it more +forcibly on the mind. "His memory is like wax to receive +impressions and like marble to retain them." This brings out the +leading idea as to the man's memory in a very forceful manner. +Contrast it with the simple statement—"His memory is good." +Sometimes <i>Simile</i> is prostituted to a low and degrading use; +as "His face was like a danger signal in a fog storm." "Her hair +was like a furze-bush in bloom." "He was to his lady love as a +poodle to its mistress." Such burlesque is never permissible. Mere +<i>likeness</i>, it should be remembered, does not constitute a +simile. For instance there is no simile when one city is compared +to another. In order that there may be a rhetorical simile, the +objects compared must be of different classes. Avoid the old +<i>trite</i> similes such as comparing a hero to a lion. Such were +played out long ago. And don't hunt for farfetched similes. Don't +say—"Her head was glowing as the glorious god of day when he +sets in a flambeau of splendor behind the purple-tinted hills of +the West." It is much better to do without such a simile and simply +say—"She had fiery red hair."</p> +<p>A <i>Metaphor</i> (from the Greek <i>metapherein</i>, to carry +over or transfer), is a word used to <i>imply</i> a resemblance but +instead of likening one object to another as in the <i>simile</i> +we directly substitute the action or operation of one for another. +If, of a religious man we say,—"He is as a great pillar +upholding the church," the expression is a <i>simile</i>, but if we +say—"He is a great pillar upholding the church" it is a +metaphor. The metaphor is a bolder and more lively figure than the +simile. It is more like a picture and hence, the graphic use of +metaphor is called "word-painting." It enables us to give to the +most abstract ideas form, color and life. Our language is full of +metaphors, and we very often use them quite unconsciously. For +instance, when we speak of the <i>bed</i> of a river, the +<i>shoulder</i> of a hill, the <i>foot</i> of a mountain, the +<i>hands</i> of a clock, the <i>key</i> of a situation, we are +using metaphors.</p> +<p>Don't use mixed metaphors, that is, different metaphors in +relation to the same subject: "Since it was launched our project +has met with much opposition, but while its flight has not reached +the heights ambitioned, we are yet sanguine we shall drive it to +success." Here our project begins as a <i>ship</i>, then becomes a +<i>bird</i> and finally winds up as a <i>horse</i>.</p> +<p><i>Personification</i> (from the Latin <i>persona</i>, person, +and <i>facere</i>, to make) is the treating of an inanimate object +as if it were animate and is probably the most beautiful and +effective of all the figures.</p> +<p>"The mountains <i>sing</i> together, the hills <i>rejoice</i> +and <i>clap</i> their hands."</p> +<p>"Earth <i>felt</i> the wound; and Nature from her seat,<br> +<i>Sighing</i>, through all her works, gave signs of woe."</p> +<p>Personification depends much on a vivid imagination and is +adapted especially to poetical composition. It has two +distinguishable forms: (1) when personality is ascribed to the +inanimate as in the foregoing examples, and (2) when some quality +of life is attributed to the inanimate; as, a <i>raging</i> storm; +an <i>angry</i> sea; a <i>whistling</i> wind, etc.</p> +<p>An <i>Allegory</i> (from the Greek <i>allos,</i> other, and +<i>agoreuein,</i> to speak), is a form of expression in which the +words are symbolical of something. It is very closely allied to the +metaphor, in fact is a continued metaphor.</p> +<p><i>Allegory</i>, <i>metaphor</i> and <i>simile</i> have three +points in common,—they are all founded on resemblance. +"Ireland is like a thorn in the side of England;" this is simile. +"Ireland <i>is</i> a thorn in the side of England;" this is +metaphor. "Once a great giant sprang up out of the sea and lived on +an island all by himself. On looking around he discovered a little +girl on another small island near by. He thought the little girl +could be useful to him in many ways so he determined to make her +subservient to his will. He commanded her, but she refused to obey, +then he resorted to very harsh measures with the little girl, but +she still remained obstinate and obdurate. He continued to oppress +her until finally she rebelled and became as a thorn in his side to +prick him for his evil attitude towards her;" this is an allegory +in which the giant plainly represents England and the little girl, +Ireland; the implication is manifest though no mention is made of +either country. Strange to say the most perfect allegory in the +English language was written by an almost illiterate and ignorant +man, and written too, in a dungeon cell. In the "Pilgrim's +Progress," Bunyan, the itinerant tinker, has given us by far the +best allegory ever penned. Another good one is "The Faerie Queen" +by Edmund Spenser.</p> +<p><i>Synecdoche</i> (from the Greek, <i>sun</i> with, and +<i>ekdexesthai</i>, to receive), is a figure of speech which +expresses either more or less than it literally denotes. By it we +give to an object a name which literally expresses something more +or something less than we intend. Thus: we speak of the world when +we mean only a very limited number of the people who compose the +world: as, "The world treated him badly." Here we use the whole for +a part. But the most common form of this figure is that in which a +part is used for the whole; as, "I have twenty head of cattle," +"One of his <i>hands</i> was assassinated," meaning one of his men. +"Twenty <i>sail</i> came into the harbor," meaning twenty ships. +"This is a fine marble," meaning a marble statue.</p> +<p><i>Metonymy</i> (from the Greek <i>meta</i>, change, and +<i>onyma</i>, a name) is the designation of an object by one of its +accompaniments, in other words, it is a figure by which the name of +one object is put for another when the two are so related that the +mention of one readily suggests the other. Thus when we say of a +drunkard—"He loves the bottle" we do not mean that he loves +the glass receptacle, but the liquor that it is supposed to +contain. Metonymy, generally speaking, has, three subdivisions: (1) +when an effect is put for cause or <i>vice versa</i>: as "<i>Gray +hairs</i> should be respected," meaning old age. "He writes a fine +hand," that is, handwriting. (2) when the <i>sign</i> is put for +the <i>thing signified</i>; as, "The pen is mightier than the +sword," meaning literary power is superior to military force. (3) +When the <i>container</i> is put for the thing contained; as "The +<i>House</i> was called to order," meaning the members in the +House.</p> +<p><i>Exclamation</i> (from the Latin <i>ex</i>, out, and +<i>clamare</i>, to cry), is a figure by which the speaker instead +of stating a fact, simply utters an expression of surprise or +emotion. For instance when he hears some harrowing tale of woe or +misfortune instead of saying,—"It is a sad story" he exclaims +"What a sad story!"</p> +<p>Exclamation may be defined as the vocal expression of feeling, +though it is also applied to written forms which are intended to +express emotion. Thus in describing a towering mountain we can +write "Heavens, what a piece of Nature's handiwork! how majestic! +how sublime! how awe-inspiring in its colossal impressiveness!" +This figure rather belongs to poetry and animated oratory than to +the cold prose of every-day conversation and writing.</p> +<p><i>Hyperbole</i> (from the Greek <i>hyper</i>, beyond, and +<i>ballein</i>, to throw), is an exaggerated form of statement and +simply consists in representing things to be either greater or +less, better or worse than they really are. Its object is to make +the thought more effective by overstating it. Here are some +examples:—"He was so tall his head touched the clouds." "He +was as thin as a poker." "He was so light that a breath might have +blown him away." Most people are liable to overwork this figure. We +are all more or less given to exaggeration and some of us do not +stop there, but proceed onward to falsehood and downright lying. +There should be a limit to hyperbole, and in ordinary speech and +writing it should be well qualified and kept within reasonable +bounds.</p> +<p>An <i>Apostrophe</i> (from the Greek <i>apo</i>, from, and +<i>strephein</i>, to turn), is a direct address to the absent as +present, to the inanimate as living, or to the abstract as +personal. Thus: "O, illustrious Washington! Father of our Country! +Could you visit us now!"</p> +<pre> + "My Country tis of thee— + Sweet land of liberty, + Of thee I sing." +</pre> + +<p>"O! Grave, where is thy Victory, O! Death where is thy sting!" +This figure is very closely allied to Personification.</p> +<p><i>Vision</i> (from the Latin <i>videre</i>, to see) consists in +treating the past, the future, or the remote as if present in time +or place. It is appropriate to animated description, as it produces +the effect of an ideal presence. "The old warrior looks down from +the canvas and tells us to be men worthy of our sires."</p> +<p>This figure is much exemplified in the Bible. The book of +Revelation is a vision of the future. The author who uses the +figure most is Carlyle.</p> +<p>An <i>Antithesis</i> (from the Greek <i>anti</i>, against, and +<i>tithenai</i>, to set) is founded on contrast; it consists in +putting two unlike things in such a position that each will appear +more striking by the contrast.</p> +<pre> + "Ring out the old, ring in the new, + Ring out the false, ring in the true." +</pre> + +<p>"Let us be <i>friends</i> in peace, but <i>enemies</i> in +war."</p> +<p>Here is a fine antithesis in the description of a steam +engine—"It can engrave a seal and crush masses of obdurate +metal before it; draw out, without breaking, a thread as fine as a +gossamer; and lift up a ship of war like a bauble in the air; it +can embroider muslin and forge anchors; cut steel into ribands, and +impel loaded vessels against the fury of winds and waves."</p> +<p><i>Climax</i> (from the Greek, <i>klimax,</i> a ladder), is an +arrangement of thoughts and ideas in a series, each part of which +gets stronger and more impressive until the last one, which +emphasizes the force of all the preceding ones. "He risked truth, +he risked honor, he risked fame, he risked all that men hold +dear,—yea, he risked life itself, and for what?—for a +creature who was not worthy to tie his shoe-latchets when he was +his better self."</p> +<p><i>Epigram</i> (from the Greek <i>epi</i>, upon, and +<i>graphein</i>, to write), originally meant an inscription on a +monument, hence it came to signify any pointed expression. It now +means a statement or any brief saying in prose or poetry in which +there is an apparent contradiction; as, "Conspicuous for his +absence." "Beauty when unadorned is most adorned." "He was too +foolish to commit folly." "He was so wealthy that he could not +spare the money."</p> +<p><i>Interrogation</i> (from the Latin <i>interrogatio</i>, a +question), is a figure of speech in which an assertion is made by +asking a question; as, "Does God not show justice to all?" "Is he +not doing right in his course?" "What can a man do under the +circumstances?"</p> +<p><i>Irony</i> (from the Greek <i>eironcia</i>, dissimulation) is +a form of expression in which the opposite is substituted for what +is intended, with the end in view, that the falsity or absurdity +may be apparent; as, "Benedict Arnold was an <i>honorable</i> man." +"A Judas Iscariot never <i>betrays</i> a friend." "You can always +<i>depend</i> upon the word of a liar."</p> +<p>Irony is cousin germain to <i>ridicule</i>, <i>derision</i>, +<i>mockery</i>, <i>satire</i> and <i>sarcasm</i>. <i>Ridicule</i> +implies laughter mingled with contempt; <i>derision</i> is ridicule +from a personal feeling of hostility; <i>mockery</i> is insulting +derision; <i>satire</i> is witty mockery; <i>sarcasm</i> is bitter +satire and <i>irony</i> is disguised satire.</p> +<p>There are many other figures of speech which give piquancy to +language and play upon words in such a way as to convey a meaning +different from their ordinary signification in common every-day +speech and writing. The golden rule for all is to <i>keep them in +harmony with the character and purpose of speech and +composition</i>.</p> +<center> +<h2 id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</h2> +<h3>PUNCTUATION</h3> +<h4>Principal Points—Illustrations—Capital +Letters.</h4></center> +<p>Lindley Murray and Goold Brown laid down cast-iron rules for +punctuation, but most of them have been broken long since and +thrown into the junk-heap of disuse. They were too rigid, too +strict, went so much into <i>minutiae</i>, that they were more or +less impractical to apply to ordinary composition. The manner of +language, of style and of expression has considerably changed since +then, the old abstruse complex sentence with its hidden meanings +has been relegated to the shade, there is little of prolixity or +long-drawn-out phrases, ambiguity of expression is avoided and the +aim is toward terseness, brevity and clearness. Therefore, +punctuation has been greatly simplified, to such an extent indeed, +that it is now as much a matter of good taste and judgment as +adherence to any fixed set of rules. Nevertheless there are laws +governing it which cannot be abrogated, their principles must be +rigidly and inviolably observed.</p> +<p>The chief end of punctuation is to mark the grammatical +connection and the dependence of the parts of a composition, but +not the actual pauses made in speaking. Very often the points used +to denote the delivery of a passage differ from those used when the +passage is written. Nevertheless, several of the punctuation marks +serve to bring out the rhetorical force of expression.</p> +<p>The principal marks of punctuation are:</p> +<ol> +<li> +<p>The Comma [<samp>,</samp>]</p></li> +<li> +<p>The Semicolon [<samp>;</samp>]</p></li> +<li> +<p>The Colon [<samp>:</samp>]</p></li> +<li> +<p>The Period [<samp>.</samp>]</p></li> +<li> +<p>The Interrogation [<samp>?</samp>]</p></li> +<li> +<p>The Exclamation [<samp>!</samp>]</p></li> +<li> +<p>The Dash [<samp>—</samp>]</p></li> +<li> +<p>The Parenthesis [<samp>()</samp>]</p></li> +<li> +<p>The Quotation [<samp>" "</samp>]</p></li></ol> +<p>There are several other points or marks to indicate various +relations, but properly speaking such come under the heading of +Printer's Marks, some of which are treated elsewhere.</p> +<p>Of the above, the first four may be styled the grammatical +points, and the remaining five, the rhetorical points.</p> +<p>The <i>Comma</i>: The office of the Comma is to show the +slightest separation which calls for punctuation at all. It should +be omitted whenever possible. It is used to mark the least +divisions of a sentence.</p> +<ol> +<li> +<p>A series of words or phrases has its parts separated by +commas:—"Lying, trickery, chicanery, perjury, were natural to +him." "The brave, daring, faithful soldier died facing the foe." If +the series is in pairs, commas separate the pairs: "Rich and poor, +learned and unlearned, black and white, Christian and Jew, +Mohammedan and Buddhist must pass through the same gate."</p></li> +<li> +<p>A comma is used before a short quotation: "It was Patrick Henry +who said, 'Give me liberty or give me death.'"</p></li> +<li> +<p>When the subject of the sentence is a clause or a long phrase, a +comma is used after such subject: "That he has no reverence for the +God I love, proves his insincerity." "Simulated piety, with a black +coat and a sanctimonious look, does not proclaim a +Christian."</p></li> +<li> +<p>An expression used parenthetically should be inclosed by commas: +"The old man, as a general rule, takes a morning walk."</p></li> +<li> +<p>Words in apposition are set off by commas: "McKinley, the +President, was assassinated."</p></li> +<li> +<p>Relative clauses, if not restrictive, require commas: "The book, +which is the simplest, is often the most profound."</p></li> +<li> +<p>In continued sentences each should be followed by a comma: +"Electricity lights our dwellings and streets, pulls cars, trains, +drives the engines of our mills and factories."</p></li> +<li> +<p>When a verb is omitted a comma takes its place: "Lincoln was a +great statesman; Grant, a great soldier."</p></li> +<li> +<p>The subject of address is followed by a comma: "John, you are a +good man."</p></li> +<li> +<p>In numeration, commas are used to express periods of three +figures: "Mountains 25,000 feet high; 1,000,000 +dollars."</p></li></ol> +<p>The <i>Semicolon</i> marks a slighter connection than the comma. +It is generally confined to separating the parts of compound +sentences. It is much used in contrasts:</p> +<ol> +<li> +<p>"Gladstone was great as a statesman; he was sublime as a +man."</p></li> +<li> +<p>The Semicolon is used between the parts of all compound +sentences in which the grammatical subject of the second part is +different from that of the first: "The power of England relies upon +the wisdom of her statesmen; the power of America upon the strength +of her army and navy."</p></li> +<li> +<p>The Semicolon is used before words and abbreviations which +introduce particulars or specifications following after, such as, +<i>namely, as, e.g., vid., i.e., etc.</i>: "He had three defects; +namely, carelessness, lack of concentration and obstinacy in his +ideas." "An island is a portion of land entirely surrounded by +water; as Cuba." "The names of cities should always commence with a +capital letter; <i>e.g.</i>, New York, Paris." "The boy was +proficient in one branch; viz., Mathematics." "No man is perfect; +i.e., free from all blemish."</p></li></ol> +<p>The <i>Colon</i> except in conventional uses is practically +obsolete.</p> +<ol> +<li> +<p>It is generally put at the end of a sentence introducing a long +quotation: "The cheers having subsided, Mr. Bryan spoke as +follows:"</p></li> +<li> +<p>It is placed before an explanation or illustration of the +subject under consideration: "This is the meaning of the +term:"</p></li> +<li> +<p>A direct quotation formally introduced is generally preceded by +a colon: "The great orator made this funny remark:"</p></li> +<li> +<p>The colon is often used in the title of books when the secondary +or subtitle is in apposition to the leading one and when the +conjunction <i>or</i> is omitted: "Acoustics: the Science of +Sound."</p></li> +<li> +<p>It is used after the salutation in the beginning of letters: +"Sir: My dear Sir: Gentlemen: Dear Mr. Jones:" etc. In this +connection a dash very often follows the colon.</p></li> +<li> +<p>It is sometimes used to introduce details of a group of things +already referred to in the mass: "The boy's excuses for being late +were: firstly, he did not know the time, secondly, he was sent on +an errand, thirdly, he tripped on a rock and fell by the +wayside."</p></li></ol> +<p>The <i>Period</i> is the simplest punctuation mark. It is simply +used to mark the end of a complete sentence that is neither +interrogative nor exclamatory.</p> +<ol> +<li> +<p>After every sentence conveying a complete meaning: "Birds fly." +"Plants grow." "Man is mortal."</p></li> +<li> +<p>In abbreviations: after every abbreviated word: Rt. Rev. T. C. +Alexander, D.D., L.L.D.</p></li> +<li> +<p>A period is used on the title pages of books after the name of +the book, after the author's name, after the publisher's imprint: +<i>American Trails</i>. By Theodore Roosevelt. New York. Scribner +Company.</p></li></ol> +<p>The <i>Mark of Interrogation</i> is used to ask or suggest a +question.</p> +<ol> +<li> +<p>Every question admitting of an answer, even when it is not +expected, should be followed by the mark of interrogation: "Who has +not heard of Napoleon?"</p></li> +<li> +<p>When several questions have a common dependence they should be +followed by one mark of interrogation at the end of the series: +"Where now are the playthings and friends of my boyhood; the +laughing boys; the winsome girls; the fond neighbors whom I +loved?"</p></li> +<li> +<p>The mark is often used parenthetically to suggest doubt: "In +1893 (?) Gladstone became converted to Home Rule for +Ireland."</p></li></ol> +<p>The <i>Exclamation</i> point should be sparingly used, +particularly in prose. Its chief use is to denote emotion of some +kind.</p> +<ol> +<li> +<p>It is generally employed with interjections or clauses used as +interjections: "Alas! I am forsaken." "What a lovely +landscape!"</p></li> +<li> +<p>Expressions of strong emotion call for the exclamation: "Charge, +Chester, charge! On, Stanley, on!"</p></li> +<li> +<p>When the emotion is very strong double exclamation points may be +used: "Assist him!! I would rather assist Satan!!"</p></li></ol> +<p>The <i>Dash</i> is generally confined to cases where there is a +sudden break from the general run of the passage. Of all the +punctuation marks it is the most misused.</p> +<ol> +<li> +<p>It is employed to denote sudden change in the construction or +sentiment: "The Heroes of the Civil War,—how we cherish +them." "He was a fine fellow—in his own opinion."</p></li> +<li> +<p>When a word or expression is repeated for oratorical effect, a +dash is used to introduce the repetition: "Shakespeare was the +greatest of all poets—Shakespeare, the intellectual ocean +whose waves washed the continents of all thought."</p></li> +<li> +<p>The Dash is used to indicate a conclusion without expressing it: +"He is an excellent man but—"</p></li> +<li> +<p>It is used to indicate what is not expected or what is not the +natural outcome of what has gone before: "He delved deep into the +bowels of the earth and found instead of the hidden +treasure—a button."</p></li> +<li> +<p>It is used to denote the omission of letters or figures: +"J—n J—s for John Jones; 1908-9 for 1908 and 1909; +Matthew VII:5-8 for Matthew VII:5, 6, 7, and 8.</p></li> +<li> +<p>When an ellipsis of the words, <i>namely, that is, to wit,</i> +etc., takes place, the dash is used to supply them: "He excelled in +three branches—arithmetic, algebra, and geometry."</p></li> +<li> +<p>A dash is used to denote the omission of part of a word when it +is undesirable to write the full word: He is somewhat of a +r——l (rascal). This is especially the case in profane +words.</p></li> +<li> +<p>Between a citation and the authority for it there is generally a +dash: "All the world's a stage."—<i>Shakespeare</i>.</p></li> +<li> +<p>When questions and answers are put in the same paragraph they +should be separated by dashes: "Are you a good boy? Yes, +Sir.—Do you love study? I do."</p></li></ol> +<p><i>Marks of Parenthesis</i> are used to separate expressions +inserted in the body of a sentence, which are illustrative of the +meaning, but have no essential connection with the sentence, and +could be done without. They should be used as little as possible +for they show that something is being brought into a sentence that +does not belong to it.</p> +<ol> +<li> +<p>When the unity of a sentence is broken the words causing the +break should be enclosed in parenthesis: "We cannot believe a liar +(and Jones is one), even when he speaks the truth."</p></li> +<li> +<p>In reports of speeches marks of parenthesis are used to denote +interpolations of approval or disapproval by the audience: "The +masses must not submit to the tyranny of the classes (hear, hear), +we must show the trust magnates (groans), that they cannot ride +rough-shod over our dearest rights (cheers);" "If the gentleman +from Ohio (Mr. Brown), will not be our spokesman, we must select +another. (A voice,—Get Robinson)."</p></li></ol> +<p>When a parenthesis is inserted in the sentence where no comma is +required, no point should be used before either parenthesis. When +inserted at a place requiring a comma, if the parenthetical matter +relates to the whole sentence, a comma should be used before each +parenthesis; if it relates to a single word, or short clause, no +stop should come before it, but a comma should be put after the +closing parenthesis.</p> +<p>The <i>Quotation marks</i> are used to show that the words +enclosed by them are borrowed.</p> +<ol> +<li> +<p>A direct quotation should be enclosed within the quotation +marks: Abraham Lincoln said,—"I shall make this land too hot +for the feet of slaves."</p></li> +<li> +<p>When a quotation is embraced within another, the contained +quotation has only single marks: Franklin said, "Most men come to +believe 'honesty is the best policy.'"</p></li> +<li> +<p>When a quotation consists of several paragraphs the quotation +marks should precede each paragraph.</p></li> +<li> +<p>Titles of books, pictures and newspapers when formally given are +quoted.</p></li> +<li> +<p>Often the names of ships are quoted though there is no occasion +for it.</p></li></ol> +<p>The <i>Apostrophe</i> should come under the comma rather than +under the quotation marks or double comma. The word is Greek and +signifies a turning away from. The letter elided or turned away is +generally an <i>e</i>. In poetry and familiar dialogue the +apostrophe marks the elision of a syllable, as "I've for I have"; +"Thou'rt for thou art"; "you'll for you will," etc. Sometimes it is +necessary to abbreviate a word by leaving out several letters. In +such case the apostrophe takes the place of the omitted letters as +"cont'd for continued." The apostrophe is used to denote the +elision of the century in dates, where the century is understood or +to save the repetition of a series of figures, as "The Spirit of +'76"; "I served in the army during the years 1895, '96, '97, '98 +and '99." The principal use of the apostrophe is to denote the +possessive case. All nouns in the singular number whether proper +names or not, and all nouns in the plural ending with any other +letter than <i>s</i>, form the possessive by the addition of the +apostrophe and the letter <i>s</i>. The only exceptions to this +rule are, that, by poetical license the additional <i>s</i> may be +elided in poetry for sake of the metre, and in the scriptural +phrases "For goodness' sake." "For conscience' sake," "For Jesus' +sake," etc. Custom has done away with the <i>s</i> and these +phrases are now idioms of the language. All plural nouns ending in +<i>s</i> form the possessive by the addition of the apostrophe only +as boys', horses'. The possessive case of the personal pronouns +never take the apostrophe, as ours, yours, hers, theirs.</p> +<h3>CAPITAL LETTERS</h3> +<p><i>Capital letters</i> are used to give emphasis to or call +attention to certain words to distinguish them from the context. In +manuscripts they may be written small or large and are indicated by +lines drawn underneath, two lines for SMALL CAPITALS and three +lines for CAPITALS.</p> +<p>Some authors, notably Carlyle, make such use of Capitals that it +degenerates into an abuse. They should only be used in their proper +places as given in the table below.</p> +<ol> +<li> +<p>The first word of every sentence, in fact the first word in +writing of any kind should begin with a capital; as, "Time flies." +"My dear friend."</p></li> +<li> +<p>Every direct quotation should begin with a capital; "Dewey +said,—'Fire, when you're ready, Gridley!'"</p></li> +<li> +<p>Every direct question commences with a capital; "Let me ask you; +'How old are you?'"</p></li> +<li> +<p>Every line of poetry begins with a capital; "Breathes there a +man with soul so dead?"</p></li> +<li> +<p>Every numbered clause calls for a capital: "The witness asserts: +(1) That he saw the man attacked; (2) That he saw him fall; (3) +That he saw his assailant flee."</p></li> +<li> +<p>The headings of essays and chapters should be wholly in +capitals; as, CHAPTER VIII—RULES FOR USE OF +CAPITALS.</p></li> +<li> +<p>In the titles of books, nouns, pronouns, adjectives and adverbs +should begin with a capital; as, "Johnson's Lives of the +Poets."</p></li> +<li> +<p>In the Roman notation numbers are denoted by capitals; as, I II +III V X L C D M—1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, 1000.</p></li> +<li> +<p>Proper names begin with a capital; as, "Jones, Johnson, Caesar, +Mark Antony, England, Pacific, Christmas."</p> +<p>Such words as river, sea, mountain, etc., when used generally +are common, not proper nouns, and require no capital. But when such +are used with an adjective or adjunct to specify a particular +object they become proper names, and therefore require a capital; +as, "Mississippi River, North Sea, Alleghany Mountains," etc. In +like manner the cardinal points north, south, east and west, when +they are used to distinguish regions of a country are capitals; as, +"The North fought against the South."</p> +<p>When a proper name is compounded with another word, the part +which is not a proper name begins with a capital if it precedes, +but with a small letter if it follows, the hyphen; as +"Post-homeric," "Sunday-school."</p></li> +<li> +<p>Words derived from proper names require a Capital; as, +"American, Irish, Christian, Americanize, Christianize."</p> +<p>In this connection the names of political parties, religious +sects and schools of thought begin with capitals; as, "Republican, +Democrat, Whig, Catholic, Presbyterian, Rationalists, Free +Thinkers."</p></li> +<li> +<p>The titles of honorable, state and political offices begin with +a capital; as, "President, Chairman, Governor, Alderman."</p></li> +<li> +<p>The abbreviations of learned titles and college degrees call for +capitals; as, "LL.D., M.A., B.S.," etc. Also the seats of learning +conferring such degrees as, "Harvard University, Manhattan +College," etc.</p></li> +<li> +<p>When such relative words as father, mother, brother, sister, +uncle, aunt, etc., precede a proper name, they are written and +printed with capitals; as, Father Abraham, Mother Eddy, Brother +John, Sister Jane, Uncle Jacob, Aunt Eliza. Father, when used to +denote the early Christian writer, is begun with a capital; +"Augustine was one of the learned Fathers of the Church."</p></li> +<li> +<p>The names applied to the Supreme Being begin with capitals: +"God, Lord, Creator, Providence, Almighty, The Deity, Heavenly +Father, Holy One." In this respect the names applied to the Saviour +also require capitals: "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Man of Galilee, +The Crucified, The Anointed One." Also the designations of Biblical +characters as "Lily of Israel, Rose of Sharon, Comfortress of the +Afflicted, Help of Christians, Prince of the Apostles, Star of the +Sea," etc. Pronouns referring to God and Christ take capitals; as, +"His work, The work of Him, etc."</p></li> +<li> +<p>Expressions used to designate the Bible or any particular +division of it begin with a capital; as, "Holy Writ, The Sacred +Book, Holy Book, God's Word, Old Testament, New Testament, Gospel +of St. Matthew, Seven Penitential Psalms."</p></li> +<li> +<p>Expressions based upon the Bible or in reference to Biblical +characters begin with a capital: "Water of Life, Hope of Men, Help +of Christians, Scourge of Nations."</p></li> +<li> +<p>The names applied to the Evil One require capitals: "Beelzebub, +Prince of Darkness, Satan, King of Hell, Devil, Incarnate Fiend, +Tempter of Men, Father of Lies, Hater of Good."</p></li> +<li> +<p>Words of very special importance, especially those which stand +out as the names of leading events in history, have capitals; as, +"The Revolution, The Civil War, The Middle Ages, The Age of Iron," +etc.</p></li> +<li> +<p>Terms which refer to great events in the history of the race +require capitals; "The Flood, Magna Charta, Declaration of +Independence."</p></li> +<li> +<p>The names of the days of the week and the months of the year and +the seasons are commenced with capitals: "Monday, March, +Autumn."</p></li> +<li> +<p>The Pronoun <i>I</i> and the interjection <i>O</i> always +require the use of capitals. In fact all the interjections when +uttered as exclamations commence with capitals: "Alas! he is gone." +"Ah! I pitied him."</p></li> +<li> +<p>All <i>noms-de-guerre</i>, assumed names, as well as names given +for distinction, call for capitals, as, "The Wizard of the North," +"Paul Pry," "The Northern Gael," "Sandy Sanderson," "Poor Robin," +etc.</p></li> +<li> +<p>In personification, that is, when inanimate things are +represented as endowed with life and action, the noun or object +personified begins with a capital; as, "The starry Night shook the +dews from her wings." "Mild-eyed Day appeared," "The Oak said to +the Beech—'I am stronger than you.'"</p></li></ol> +<center> +<h2 id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</h2> +<h3>LETTER WRITING</h3> +<h4>Principles of +Letter-Writing—Forms—Notes</h4></center> +<p>Many people seem to regard letter-writing as a very simple and +easily acquired branch, but on the contrary it is one of the most +difficult forms of composition and requires much patience and labor +to master its details. In fact there are very few perfect +letter-writers in the language. It constitutes the direct form of +speech and may be called conversation at a distance. Its forms are +so varied by every conceivable topic written at all times by all +kinds of persons in all kinds of moods and tempers and addressed to +all kinds of persons of varying degrees in society and of different +pursuits in life, that no fixed rules can be laid down to regulate +its length, style or subject matter. Only general suggestions can +be made in regard to scope and purpose, and the forms of indicting +set forth which custom and precedent have sanctioned.</p> +<p>The principles of letter-writing should be understood by +everybody who has any knowledge of written language, for almost +everybody at some time or other has necessity to address some +friend or acquaintance at a distance, whereas comparatively few are +called upon to direct their efforts towards any other kind of +composition.</p> +<p>Formerly the illiterate countryman, when he had occasion to +communicate with friends or relations, called in the peripatetic +schoolmaster as his amanuensis, but this had one +draw-back,—secrets had to be poured into an ear other than +that for which they were intended, and often the confidence was +betrayed.</p> +<p>Now, that education is abroad in the land, there is seldom any +occasion for any person to call upon the service of another to +compose and write a personal letter. Very few now-a-days are so +grossly illiterate as not to be able to read and write. No matter +how crude his effort may be it is better for any one to write his +own letters than trust to another. Even if he should +commence,—"deer fren, i lift up my pen to let ye no that i +hove been sik for the past 3 weeks, hopping this will findye the +same," his spelling and construction can be excused in view of the +fact that his intention is good, and that he is doing his best to +serve his own turn without depending upon others.</p> +<p>The nature, substance and tone of any letter depend upon the +occasion that calls it forth, upon the person writing it and upon +the person for whom it is intended. Whether it should be easy or +formal in style, plain or ornate, light or serious, gay or grave, +sentimental or matter-of-fact depend upon these three +circumstances.</p> +<p>In letter writing the first and most important requisites are to +be natural and simple; there should be no straining after effect, +but simply a spontaneous out-pouring of thoughts and ideas as they +naturally occur to the writer. We are repelled by a person who is +stiff and labored in his conversation and in the same way the stiff +and labored letter bores the reader. Whereas if it is light and in +a conversational vein it immediately engages his attention.</p> +<p>The letter which is written with the greatest facility is the +best kind of letter because it naturally expresses what is in the +writer, he has not to search for his words, they flow in a perfect +unison with the ideas he desires to communicate. When you write to +your friend John Browne to tell him how you spent Sunday you have +not to look around for the words, or study set phrases with a view +to please or impress Browne, you just tell him the same as if he +were present before you, how you spent the day, where you were, +with whom you associated and the chief incidents that occurred +during the time. Thus, you write natural and it is such writing +that is adapted to epistolary correspondence.</p> +<p>There are different kinds of letters, each calling for a +different style of address and composition, nevertheless the +natural key should be maintained in all, that is to say, the writer +should never attempt to convey an impression that he is other than +what he is. It would be silly as well as vain for the common street +laborer of a limited education to try to put on literary airs and +emulate a college professor; he may have as good a brain, but it is +not as well developed by education, and he lacks the polish which +society confers. When writing a letter the street laborer should +bear in mind that only the letter of a street-laborer is expected +from him, no matter to whom his communication may be addressed and +that neither the grammar nor the diction of a Chesterfield or +Gladstone is looked for in his language. Still the writer should +keep in mind the person to whom he is writing. If it is to an +Archbishop or some other great dignitary of Church or state it +certainly should be couched in terms different from those he uses +to John Browne, his intimate friend. Just as he cannot say "Dear +John" to an Archbishop, no more can he address him in the familiar +words he uses to his friend of everyday acquaintance and +companionship. Yet there is no great learning required to write to +an Archbishop, no more than to an ordinary individual. All the +laborer needs to know is the form of address and how to properly +utilize his limited vocabulary to the best advantage. Here is the +form for such a letter:</p> +<pre> + 17 Second Avenue, + New York City. + January 1st, 1910. + + Most Rev. P. A. Jordan, + Archbishop of New York. + + Most Rev. and dear Sir:— + While sweeping the crossing at Fifth + Avenue and 50th street on last Wednesday + morning, I found the enclosed Fifty Dollar + Bill, which I am sending to you in the hope + that it may be restored to the rightful + owner. + I beg you will acknowledge receipt and + should the owner be found I trust you will + notify me, so that I may claim some reward + for my honesty. + I am, Most Rev. and dear Sir, + + Very respectfully yours, + Thomas Jones. +</pre> + +<p>Observe the brevity of the letter. Jones makes no suggestions to +the Archbishop how to find the owner, for he knows the course the +Archbishop will adopt, of having the finding of the bill announced +from the Church pulpits. Could Jones himself find the owner there +would be no occasion to apply to the Archbishop.</p> +<p>This letter, it is true, is different from that which he would +send to Browne. Nevertheless it is simple without being familiar, +is just a plain statement, and is as much to the point for its +purpose as if it were garnished with rhetoric and "words of learned +length and thundering sound."</p> +<p>Letters may be divided into those of friendship, +acquaintanceship, those of business relations, those written in an +official capacity by public servants, those designed to teach, and +those which give accounts of the daily happenings on the stage of +life, in other words, news letters.</p> +<p><i>Letters of friendship</i> are the most common and their style +and form depend upon the degree of relationship and intimacy +existing between the writers and those addressed. Between relatives +and intimate friends the beginning and end may be in the most +familiar form of conversation, either affectionate or playful. They +should, however, never overstep the boundaries of decency and +propriety, for it is well to remember that, unlike conversation, +which only is heard by the ears for which it is intended, written +words may come under eyes other than those for whom they were +designed. Therefore, it is well never to write anything which the +world may not read without detriment to your character or your +instincts. You can be joyful, playful, jocose, give vent to your +feelings, but never stoop to low language and, above all, to +language savoring in the slightest degree of moral impropriety.</p> +<p><i>Business letters</i> are of the utmost importance on account +of the interests involved. The business character of a man or of a +firm is often judged by the correspondence. On many occasions +letters instead of developing trade and business interests and +gaining clientele, predispose people unfavorably towards those whom +they are designed to benefit. Ambiguous, slip-shod language is a +detriment to success. Business letters should be clear, concise, to +the point and, above all, honest, giving no wrong impressions or +holding out any inducements that cannot be fulfilled. In business +letters, just as in business conduct, honesty is always the best +policy.</p> +<p><i>Official letters</i> are mostly always formal. They should +possess clearness, brevity and dignity of tone to impress the +receivers with the proper respect for the national laws and +institutions.</p> +<p>Letters designed to teach or <i>didactic letters</i> are in a +class all by themselves. They are simply literature in the form of +letters and are employed by some of the best writers to give their +thoughts and ideas a greater emphasis. The most conspicuous example +of this kind of composition is the book on Etiquette by Lord +Chesterfield, which took the form of a series of letters to his +son.</p> +<p><i>News letters</i> are accounts of world happenings and +descriptions of ceremonies and events sent into the newspapers. +Some of the best authors of our time are newspaper men who write in +an easy flowing style which is most readable, full of humor and +fancy and which carries one along with breathless interest from +beginning to end.</p> +<p>The principal parts of a letter are (1) the <i>heading</i> or +introduction; (2) the <i>body</i> or substance of the letter; (3) +the <i>subscription</i> or closing expression and signature; (4) +the <i>address</i> or direction on the envelope. For the +<i>body</i> of a letter no forms or rules can be laid down as it +altogether depends on the nature of the letter and the relationship +between the writer and the person addressed.</p> +<p>There are certain rules which govern the other three features +and which custom has sanctioned. Every one should be acquainted +with these rules.</p> +<h3>THE HEADING</h3> +<p>The <i>Heading</i> has three parts, viz., the name of the place, +the date of writing and the designation of the person or persons +addressed; thus:</p> +<pre> + 73 New Street, + Newark, N. J., + February 1st, 1910. + Messr. Ginn and Co., + New York + Gentlemen: +</pre> + +<p>The name of the place should never be omitted; in cities, street +and number should always be given, and except when the city is +large and very conspicuous, so that there can be no question as to +its identity with another of the same or similar name, the +abbreviation of the State should be appended, as in the above, +Newark, N. J. There is another Newark in the State of Ohio. Owing +to failure to comply with this rule many letters go astray. The +<i>date</i> should be on every letter, especially business letters. +The date should never be put at the bottom in a business letter, +but in friendly letters this may be done. The <i>designation</i> of +the person or persons addressed differs according to the relations +of the correspondents. Letters of friendship may begin in many ways +according to the degrees of friendship or intimacy. Thus:</p> +<pre> + My dear Wife: + My dear Husband: + My dear Friend: + My darling Mother: + My dearest Love: + Dear Aunt: + Dear Uncle: + Dear George: etc. +</pre> + +<p>To mark a lesser degree of intimacy such formal designations as +the following may be employed:</p> +<pre> + Dear Sir: + My dear Sir: + Dear Mr. Smith: + Dear Madam: etc. +</pre> + +<p>For clergymen who have the degree of Doctor of Divinity, the +designation is as follows:</p> +<pre> + Rev. Alban Johnson, D. D. + My dear Sir: or Rev. and dear Sir: or more familiarly + Dear Dr. Johnson: +</pre> + +<p>Bishops of the Roman and Anglican Communions are addressed as +<i>Right Reverend</i>.</p> +<pre> + The Rt. Rev., the Bishop of Long Island. or + The Rt. Rev. Frederick Burgess, Bishop of Long Island. + Rt. Rev. and dear Sir: +</pre> + +<p>Archbishops of the Roman Church are addressed as <i>Most +Reverend</i> and Cardinals as <i>Eminence</i>. Thus:</p> +<pre> + The Most Rev. Archbishop Katzer. + Most Rev. and dear Sir: + + His Eminence, James Cardinal Gibbons, Archbishop of Baltimore. + May it please your Eminence: +</pre> + +<p>The title of the Governor of a State or territory and of the +President of the United States is <i>Excellency</i>. However, +<i>Honorable</i> is more commonly applied to Governors:—</p> +<pre> + His Excellency, William Howard Taft, + President of the United States. + + Sir:— + + His Excellency, Charles Evans Hughes, + Governor of the State of New York. + + Sir:— + + Honorable Franklin Fort, + Governor of New Jersey. + + Sir:— +</pre> + +<p>The general salutation for Officers of the Army and Navy is +<i>Sir</i>. The rank and station should be indicated in full at the +head of the letter, thus:</p> +<pre> + General Joseph Thompson, + Commanding the Seventh Infantry. + + Sir: + + Rear Admiral Robert Atkinson, + Commanding the Atlantic Squadron. + + Sir: +</pre> + +<p>The title of officers of the Civil Government is Honorable and +they are addressed as <i>Sir</i>.</p> +<pre> + Hon. Nelson Duncan, + Senator from Ohio. + + Sir: + + Hon. Norman Wingfield, + Secretary of the Treasury. + + Sir: + + Hon. Rupert Gresham, + Mayor of New York. + + Sir: +</pre> + +<p>Presidents and Professors of Colleges and Universities are +generally addressed as <i>Sir</i> or <i>Dear Sir</i>.</p> +<pre> + Professor Ferguson Jenks, + President of .......... University. + + Sir: or Dear Sir: +</pre> + +<p>Presidents of Societies and Associations are treated as business +men and addressed as <i>Sir</i> or <i>Dear Sir</i>.</p> +<pre> + Mr. Joseph Banks, + President of the Night Owls. + + Dear Sir: or Sir: +</pre> + +<p>Doctors of Medicine are addressed as <i>Sir: My dear Sir: Dear +Sir:</i> and more familiarly My dear Dr: or Dear Dr: as</p> +<pre> + Ryerson Pitkin, M. D. + Sir: + Dear Sir: + My dear Dr: +</pre> + +<p>Ordinary people with no degrees or titles are addressed as Mr. +and Mrs. and are designed Dear Sir: Dear Madam: and an unmarried +woman of any age is addressed on the envelope as Miss So-and-so, +but always designed in the letter as</p> +<pre> + Dear Madam: +</pre> + +<p>The plural of Mr. as in addressing a firm is <i>Messrs</i>, and +the corresponding salutation is <i>Dear Sirs: or Gentlemen:</i></p> +<p>In England <i>Esq.</i> is used for <i>Mr.</i> as a mark of +slight superiority and in this country it is sometimes used, but it +is practically obsolete. Custom is against it and American +sentiment as well. If it is used it should be only applied to +lawyers and justices of the peace.</p> +<h3>SUBSCRIPTION</h3> +<p>The <i>Subscription</i> or ending of a letter consists of the +term of respect or affection and the signature. The term depends +upon the relation of the person addressed. Letters of friendship +can close with such expressions as:</p> +<pre> + Yours lovingly, + Yours affectionately, + Devotedly yours, + Ever yours, etc. +</pre> + +<p>as between husbands and wives or between lovers. Such gushing +terminations as Your Own Darling, Your own Dovey and other pet and +silly endings should be avoided, as they denote shallowness. Love +can be strongly expressed without dipping into the nonsensical and +the farcical.</p> +<p>Formal expressions of Subscription are:</p> +<pre> + Yours Sincerely, + Yours truly, + Respectfully yours, +</pre> + +<p>and the like, and these may be varied to denote the exact +bearing or attitude the writer wishes to assume to the person +addressed: as,</p> +<pre> + Very sincerely yours, + Very respectfully yours, + With deep respect yours, + Yours very truly, etc. +</pre> + +<p>Such elaborate endings as</p> +<pre> + "In the meantime with the highest respect, I am yours to command," + "I have the honor to be, Sir, Your humble Servant," + "With great expression of esteem, I am Sincerely yours," + "Believe me, my dear Sir, Ever faithfully yours," +</pre> + +<p>are condemned as savoring too much of affectation.</p> +<p>It is better to finish formal letters without any such +qualifying remarks. If you are writing to Mr. Ryan to tell him that +you have a house for sale, after describing the house and stating +the terms simply sign yourself</p> +<pre> + Your obedient Servant + Yours very truly, + Yours with respect, + James Wilson. +</pre> + +<p>Don't say you have the honor to be anything or ask him to +believe anything, all you want to tell him is that you have a house +for sale and that you are sincere, or hold him in respect as a +prospective customer.</p> +<p>Don't abbreviate the signature as: <i>Y'rs Resp'fly</i> and +always make your sex obvious. Write plainly</p> + <samp>Yours truly,<br> + <i>John Field</i></samp> +<p>and not <i>J. Field</i>, so that the person to whom you send it +may not take you for <i>Jane Field</i>.</p> +<p>It is always best to write the first name in full. Married women +should prefix <i>Mrs.</i> to their names, as</p> + <samp>Very sincerely yours,<br> + <i>Mrs.</i> Theodore Watson.</samp> +<p>If you are sending a letter acknowledging a compliment or some +kindness done you may say, <i>Yours gratefully,</i> or <i>Yours +very gratefully,</i> in proportion to the act of kindness +received.</p> +<p>It is not customary to sign letters of degrees or titles after +your name, except you are a lord, earl or duke and only known by +the title, but as we have no such titles in America it is +unnecessary to bring this matter into consideration. Don't sign +yourself,</p> +<pre> + Sincerely yours, + Obadiah Jackson, M.A. or L.L. D. +</pre> + +<p>If you're an M. A. or an L.L. D. people generally know it +without your sounding your own trumpet. Many people, and especially +clergymen, are fond of flaunting after their names degrees they +have received <i>honoris causa</i>, that is, degrees as a mark of +honor, without examination. Such degrees should be kept in the +background. Many a deadhead has these degrees which he could never +have earned by brain work.</p> +<p>Married women whose husbands are alive may sign the husband's +name with the prefix <i>Mrs:</i> thus,</p> + <samp>Yours sincerely,<br> + <i>Mrs.</i> William Southey.</samp> +<p>but when the husband is dead the signature should be—</p> + <samp>Yours sincerely,<br> + <i>Mrs.</i> Sarah Southey.</samp> +<p>So when we receive a letter from a woman we are enabled to tell +whether she has a husband living or is a widow. A woman separated +from her husband but not a <i>divorcee</i> should <i>not</i> sign +his name.</p> +<h3>ADDRESS</h3> +<p>The <i>address</i> of a letter consists of the name, the title +and the residence.</p> +<pre> + Mr. Hugh Black, + 112 Southgate Street, + Altoona, + Pa. +</pre> + +<p>Intimate friends have often familiar names for each other, such +as pet names, nicknames, etc., which they use in the freedom of +conversation, but such names should never, under any circumstances, +appear on the envelope. The subscription on the envelope should be +always written with propriety and correctness and as if penned by +an entire stranger. The only difficulty in the envelope inscription +is the title. Every man is entitled to <i>Mr.</i> and every lady to +<i>Mrs.</i> and every unmarried lady to <i>Miss</i>. Even a boy is +entitled to <i>Master</i>. When more than one is addressed the +title is <i>Messrs.</i> <i>Mesdames</i> is sometimes written of +women. If the person addressed has a title it is courteous to use +it, but titles never must be duplicated. Thus, we can write</p> +<pre> + Robert Stitt, M. D., but never + Dr. Robert Stitt, M. D, or + Mr. Robert Stitt, M. D. +</pre> + +<p>In writing to a medical doctor it is well to indicate his +profession by the letters M. D. so as to differentiate him from a +D. D. It is better to write Robert Stitt, M. D., than Dr. Robert +Stitt.</p> +<p>In the case of clergymen the prefix Rev. is retained even when +they have other titles; as</p> +<pre> +Rev. Tracy Tooke, LL. D. +</pre> + +<p>When a person has more titles than one it is customary to only +give him the leading one. Thus instead of writing Rev. Samuel +MacComb, B. A., M. A., B. Sc., Ph. D., LL. D., D. D. the form +employed is Rev. Samuel MacComb, LL. D. LL. D. is appended in +preference to D. D. because in most cases the "Rev." implies a "D. +D." while comparatively few with the prefix "Rev." are entitled to +"LL. D."</p> +<p>In the case of <i>Honorables</i> such as Governors, Judges, +Members of Congress, and others of the Civil Government the prefix +"Hon." does away with <i>Mr.</i> and <i>Esq.</i> Thus we write Hon. +Josiah Snifkins, not Hon. Mr. Josiah Snifkins or Hon. Josiah +Snifkins, Esq. Though this prefix <i>Hon.</i> is also often applied +to Governors they should be addressed as Excellency. For +instance:</p> +<pre> + His Excellency, + Charles E. Hughes, + Albany, + N. Y. +</pre> + +<p>In writing to the President the superscription on the envelope +should be</p> +<pre> + To the President, + Executive Mansion, + Washington, D. C. +</pre> + +<p>Professional men such as doctors and lawyers as well as those +having legitimately earned College Degrees may be addressed on the +envelopes by their titles, as</p> +<pre> + Jonathan Janeway, M. D. + Hubert Houston, B. L. + Matthew Marks, M. A., etc. +</pre> + +<p>The residence of the person addressed should be plainly written +out in full. The street and numbers should be given and the city or +town written very legibly. If the abbreviation of the State is +liable to be confounded or confused with that of another then the +full name of the State should be written. In writing the residence +on the envelope, instead of putting it all in one line as is done +at the head of a letter, each item of the residence forms a +separate line. Thus,</p> +<pre> + Liberty, + Sullivan County, + New York. + + 215 Minna St., + San Francisco, + California. +</pre> + +<p>There should be left a space for the postage stamp in the upper +right hand corner. The name and title should occupy a line that is +about central between the top of the envelope and the bottom. The +name should neither be too much to right or left but located in the +centre, the beginning and end at equal distances from either +end.</p> +<p>In writing to large business concerns which are well known or to +public or city officials it is sometimes customary to leave out +number and street. Thus,</p> +<pre> + Messrs. Seigel, Cooper Co., + New York City, + + Hon. William J. Gaynor, + New York City. +</pre> + +<h3>NOTES</h3> +<p><i>Notes</i> may be regarded as letters in miniature confined +chiefly to invitations, acceptances, regrets and introductions, and +modern etiquette tends towards informality in their composition. +Card etiquette, in fact, has taken the place of ceremonious +correspondence and informal notes are now the rule. Invitations to +dinner and receptions are now mostly written on cards. "Regrets" +are sent back on visiting cards with just the one word +<i>"Regrets"</i> plainly written thereon. Often on cards and notes +of invitation we find the letters R. S. V. P. at the bottom. These +letters stand for the French <i>repondez s'il vous plait</i>, which +means "Reply, if you please," but there is no necessity to put this +on an invitation card as every well-bred person knows that a reply +is expected. In writing notes to young ladies of the same family it +should be noted that the eldest daughter of the house is entitled +to the designation <i>Miss</i> without any Christian name, only the +surname appended. Thus if there are three daughters in the Thompson +family Martha, the eldest, Susan and Jemina, Martha is addressed as +<i>Miss</i> Thompson and the other two as <i>Miss</i> Susan +Thompson and <i>Miss</i> Jemina Thompson respectively.</p> +<p>Don't write the word <i>addressed</i> on the envelope of a +note.</p> +<p>Don't <i>seal</i> a note delivered by a friend.</p> +<p>Don't write a note on a postal card.</p> +<p>Here are a few common forms:—</p> +<h3>FORMAL INVITATIONS</h3> +<pre> + Mr. and Mrs. Henry Wagstaff request the + honor of Mr. McAdoo's presence on Friday + evening, June 15th, at 8 o'clock to meet the + Governor of the Fort. + 19 Woodbine Terrace + June 8th, 1910. +</pre> + +<p>This is an invitation to a formal reception calling for evening +dress. Here is Mr. McAdoo's reply in the third person:—</p> +<pre> + Mr. McAdoo presents his compliments to + Mr. and Mrs. Henry Wagstaff and accepts with + great pleasure their invitation to meet the + Governor of the Fort on the evening of June + fifteenth. + 215 Beacon Street, + June 10th, 1910. +</pre> + +<p>Here is how Mr. McAdoo might decline the invitation:—</p> +<pre> + Mr. McAdoo regrets that owing to a prior + engagement he must forego the honor of paying + his respects to Mr. and Mrs. Wagstaff and the + Governor of the Fort on the evening of June + fifteenth. + 215 Beacon St., + June 10th, 1910. +</pre> + +<p>Here is a note addressed, say to Mr. Jeremiah Reynolds.</p> +<pre> + Mr. and Mrs. Oldham at home on Wednesday + evening October ninth from seven to eleven. + 21 Ashland Avenue, + October 5th. +</pre> + +<p>Mr. Reynolds makes reply:—</p> +<pre> + Mr. Reynolds accepts with high appreciation + the honor of Mr. and Mrs. Oldham's invitation + for Wednesday evening October ninth. + Windsor Hotel + October 7th +</pre> + +<center>or</center> +<pre> + Mr. Reynolds regrets that his duties render + it impossible for him to accept Mr. and Mrs. + Oldham's kind invitation for the evening of + October ninth. + Windsor Hotel, + October 7th, +</pre> + +<p>Sometimes less informal invitations are sent on small specially +designed note paper in which the first person takes the place of +the third. Thus</p> +<pre> + 360 Pine St., + Dec. 11th, 1910. + Dear Mr. Saintsbury: + Mr. Johnson and I should be much pleased to + have you dine with us and a few friends next + Thursday, the fifteenth, at half past seven. + Yours sincerely, + Emma Burnside. +</pre> + +<p>Mr. Saintsbury's reply:</p> +<pre> + 57 Carlyle Strand + Dec. 13th, 1910. + Dear Mrs. Burnside: + Let me accept very appreciatively your + invitation to dine with Mr. Burnside and you + on next Thursday, the fifteenth, at half past + seven. + Yours sincerely, + Henry Saintsbury. + Mrs. Alexander Burnside. +</pre> + +<h3>NOTES OF INTRODUCTION</h3> +<p>Notes of introduction should be very circumspect as the writers +are in reality vouching for those whom they introduce. Here is a +specimen of such a note.</p> +<pre> + 603 Lexington Ave., + New York City, + June 15th, 1910. + + Rev. Cyrus C. Wiley, D. D., + Newark, N. J. + My dear Dr. Wiley: + I take the liberty of + presenting to you my friend, Stacy Redfern, + M. D., a young practitioner, who is anxious + to locate in Newark. I have known him many + years and can vouch for his integrity and + professional standing. Any courtesy and + kindness which you may show him will be very + much appreciated by me. + Very sincerely yours, + Franklin Jewett. +</pre> + +<center> +<h2 id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</h2> +<h3>ERRORS</h3> +<h4>Mistakes—Slips of Authors—Examples and +Corrections—Errors of Redundancy.</h4></center> +<p>In the following examples the word or words in parentheses are +uncalled for and should be omitted:</p> +<ol> +<li> +<p>Fill the glass (full).</p></li> +<li> +<p>They appeared to be talking (together) on private +affairs.</p></li> +<li> +<p>I saw the boy and his sister (both) in the garden.</p></li> +<li> +<p>He went into the country last week and returned (back) +yesterday.</p></li> +<li> +<p>The subject (matter) of his discourse was excellent.</p></li> +<li> +<p>You need not wonder that the (subject) matter of his discourse +was excellent; it was taken from the Bible.</p></li> +<li> +<p>They followed (after) him, but could not overtake him.</p></li> +<li> +<p>The same sentiments may be found throughout (the whole of) the +book.</p></li> +<li> +<p>I was very ill every day (of my life) last week.</p></li> +<li> +<p>That was the (sum and) substance of his discourse.</p></li> +<li> +<p>He took wine and water and mixed them (both) together.</p></li> +<li> +<p>He descended (down) the steps to the cellar.</p></li> +<li> +<p>He fell (down) from the top of the house.</p></li> +<li> +<p>I hope you will return (again) soon.</p></li> +<li> +<p>The things he took away he restored (again).</p></li> +<li> +<p>The thief who stole my watch was compelled to restore it (back +again).</p></li> +<li> +<p>It is equally (the same) to me whether I have it today or +tomorrow.</p></li> +<li> +<p>She said, (says she) the report is false; and he replied, (says +he) if it be not correct I have been misinformed.</p></li> +<li> +<p>I took my place in the cars (for) to go to New York.</p></li> +<li> +<p>They need not (to) call upon him.</p></li> +<li> +<p>Nothing (else) but that would satisfy him.</p></li> +<li> +<p>Whenever I ride in the cars I (always) find it prejudicial to my +health.</p></li> +<li> +<p>He was the first (of all) at the meeting.</p></li> +<li> +<p>He was the tallest of (all) the brothers.</p></li> +<li> +<p>You are the tallest of (all) your family.</p></li> +<li> +<p>Whenever I pass the house he is (always) at the door.</p></li> +<li> +<p>The rain has penetrated (through) the roof.</p></li> +<li> +<p>Besides my uncle and aunt there was (also) my grandfather at the +church.</p></li> +<li> +<p>It should (ever) be your constant endeavor to please your +family.</p></li> +<li> +<p>If it is true as you have heard (then) his situation is indeed +pitiful.</p></li> +<li> +<p>Either this (here) man or that (there) woman has (got) +it.</p></li> +<li> +<p>Where is the fire (at)?</p></li> +<li> +<p>Did you sleep in church? Not that I know (of).</p></li> +<li> +<p>I never before (in my life) met (with) such a stupid +man.</p></li> +<li> +<p>(For) why did he postpone it?</p></li> +<li> +<p>Because (why) he could not attend.</p></li> +<li> +<p>What age is he? (Why) I don't know.</p></li> +<li> +<p>He called on me (for) to ask my opinion.</p></li> +<li> +<p>I don't know where I am (at).</p></li> +<li> +<p>I looked in (at) the window.</p></li> +<li> +<p>I passed (by) the house.</p></li> +<li> +<p>He (always) came every Sunday.</p></li> +<li> +<p>Moreover, (also) we wish to say he was in error.</p></li> +<li> +<p>It is not long (ago) since he was here.</p></li> +<li> +<p>Two men went into the wood (in order) to cut (down) +trees.</p></li></ol> +<p>Further examples of redundancy might be multiplied. It is very +common in newspaper writing where not alone single words but entire +phrases are sometimes brought in, which are unnecessary to the +sense or explanation of what is written.</p> +<h3>GRAMMATICAL ERRORS OF STANDARD AUTHORS</h3> +<p>Even the best speakers and writers are sometimes caught napping. +Many of our standard authors to whom we have been accustomed to +look up as infallible have sinned more or less against the +fundamental principles of grammar by breaking the rules regarding +one or more of the nine parts of speech. In fact some of them have +recklessly trespassed against all nine, and still they sit on their +pedestals of fame for the admiration of the crowd. Macaulay +mistreated the article. He wrote,—"That <i>a</i> historian +should not record trifles is perfectly true." He should have used +<i>an</i>.</p> +<p>Dickens also used the article incorrectly. He refers to +"Robinson Crusoe" as "<i>an</i> universally popular book," instead +of <i>a</i> universally popular book.</p> +<p>The relation between nouns and pronouns has always been a +stumbling block to speakers and writers. Hallam in his +<i>Literature of Europe</i> writes, "No one as yet had exhibited +the structure of the human kidneys, Vesalius having only examined +them in dogs." This means that Vesalius examined human kidneys in +dogs. The sentence should have been, "No one had as yet exhibited +the kidneys in human beings, Vesalius having examined such organs +in dogs only."</p> +<p>Sir Arthur Helps in writing of Dickens, states—"I knew a +brother author of his who received such criticisms from him +(Dickens) very lately and profited by <i>it</i>." Instead of +<i>it</i> the word should be <i>them</i> to agree with +criticisms.</p> +<p>Here are a few other pronominal errors from leading authors:</p> +<p>"Sir Thomas Moore in general so writes it, although not many +others so late as <i>him</i>." Should be <i>he</i>.—Trench's +<i>English Past and Present</i>.</p> +<p>"What should we gain by it but that we should speedily become as +poor as <i>them</i>." Should be <i>they</i>.—Alison's +<i>Essay on Macaulay</i>.</p> +<p>"If the king gives us leave you or I may as lawfully preach, as +<i>them</i> that do." Should be <i>they</i> or <i>those</i>, the +latter having persons understood.—Hobbes's <i>History of +Civil Wars</i>.</p> +<p>"The drift of all his sermons was, to prepare the Jews for the +reception of a prophet, mightier than <i>him</i>, and whose shoes +he was not worthy to bear." Should be than +<i>he</i>.—Atterbury's <i>Sermons</i>.</p> +<p>"Phalaris, who was so much older than <i>her</i>." Should be +<i>she</i>.—Bentley's <i>Dissertation on Phalaris</i>.</p> +<p>"King Charles, and more than <i>him</i>, the duke and the Popish +faction were at liberty to form new schemes." Should be than +<i>he</i>.—Bolingbroke's <i>Dissertations on Parties</i>.</p> +<p>"We contributed a third more than the Dutch, who were obliged to +the same proportion more than <i>us</i>." Should be than +<i>we</i>.—Swift's <i>Conduct of the Allies</i>.</p> +<p>In all the above examples the objective cases of the pronouns +have been used while the construction calls for nominative +cases.</p> +<p>"Let <i>thou</i> and <i>I</i> the battle +try"—<i>Anon</i>.</p> +<p>Here <i>let</i> is the governing verb and requires an objective +case after it; therefore instead of <i>thou</i> and <i>I</i>, the +words should be <i>you</i> (<i>sing</i>.) and <i>me</i>.</p> +<p>"Forever in this humble cell, Let thee and I, my fair one, +dwell"—<i>Prior</i>.</p> +<p>Here <i>thee</i> and <i>I</i> should be the objectives +<i>you</i> and <i>me</i>.</p> +<p>The use of the relative pronoun trips the greatest number of +authors.</p> +<p>Even in the Bible we find the relative wrongly translated:</p> +<p>Whom do men say that I am?—<i>St. Matthew</i>.</p> +<p>Whom think ye that I am?—<i>Acts of the Apostles</i>.</p> +<p><i>Who</i> should be written in both cases because the word is +not in the objective governed by say or think, but in the +nominative dependent on the verb <i>am</i>.</p> +<p>"<i>Who</i> should I meet at the coffee house t'other night, but +my old friend?"—<i>Steele</i>.</p> +<p>"It is another pattern of this answerer's fair dealing, to give +us hints that the author is dead, and yet lay the suspicion upon +somebody, I know not <i>who</i>, in the country."—Swift's +<i>Tale of a Tub</i>.</p> +<p>"My son is going to be married to I don't know <i>who</i>." +—Goldsmith's <i>Good-natured Man</i>.</p> +<p>The nominative <i>who</i> in the above examples should be the +objective <i>whom</i>.</p> +<p>The plural nominative <i>ye</i> of the pronoun <i>thou</i> is +very often used for the objective <i>you</i>, as in the +following:</p> +<p>"His wrath which will one day destroy <i>ye both</i>." +—<i>Milton</i>.</p> +<p>"The more shame for <i>ye</i>; holy men I thought +<i>ye</i>."—<i>Shakespeare</i>.</p> +<p>"I feel the gales that from <i>ye</i> +blow."—<i>Gray</i>.</p> +<p>"Tyrants dread <i>ye</i>, lest your just decree Transfer the +power and set the people free."—<i>Prior</i>.</p> +<p>Many of the great writers have played havoc with the adjective +in the indiscriminate use of the degrees of comparison.</p> +<p>"Of two forms of the same word, use the +fittest."—<i>Morell</i>.</p> +<p>The author here in <i>trying</i> to give good advice sets a bad +example. He should have used the comparative degree, "Fitter."</p> +<p>Adjectives which have a comparative or superlative signification +do not admit the addition of the words <i>more</i>, <i>most</i>, or +the terminations, <i>er</i>, <i>est</i>, hence the following +examples break this rule:</p> +<p>"Money is the <i>most universal</i> incitement of human +misery."—Gibbon's <i>Decline and Fall</i>.</p> +<p>"The <i>chiefest</i> of which was known by the name of Archon +among the Grecians."—Dryden's <i>Life of Plutarch</i>.</p> +<p>"The <i>chiefest</i> and largest are removed to certain +magazines they call libraries."—Swift's <i>Battle of the +Books</i>.</p> +<p>The two <i>chiefest</i> properties of air, its gravity and +elastic force, have been discovered by mechanical +experiments.—<i>Arbuthno</i></p> +<p>"From these various causes, which in greater or <i>lesser</i> +degree, affected every individual in the colony, the indignation of +the people became general."—Robertson's <i>History of +America</i>.</p> +<p>"The <i>extremest</i> parts of the earth were meditating a +submission."—Atterbury's <i>Sermons</i>.</p> +<p>"The last are indeed <i>more preferable</i> because they are +founded on some new knowledge or improvement in the mind of +man."—Addison, <i>Spectator</i>.</p> +<p>"This was in reality the <i>easiest</i> manner of the +two."—Shaftesbury's <i>Advice to an Author</i>.</p> +<p>"In every well formed mind this second desire seems to be the +<i>strongest</i> of the two."—Smith's <i>Theory of Moral +Sentiments</i>.</p> +<p>In these examples the superlative is wrongly used for the +comparative. When only two objects are compared the comparative +form must be used.</p> +<p>Of impossibility there are no degrees of comparison, yet we find +the following:</p> +<p>"As it was impossible they should know the words, thoughts and +secret actions of all men, so it was <i>more impossible</i> they +should pass judgment on them according to these +things."—Whitby's <i>Necessity of the Christian +Religion</i>.</p> +<p>A great number of authors employ adjectives for adverbs. Thus we +find:</p> +<p>"I shall endeavor to live hereafter <i>suitable</i> to a man in +my station."—<i>Addison</i>.</p> +<p>"I can never think so very <i>mean</i> of him."—Bentley's +<i>Dissertation on Phalaris</i>.</p> +<p>"His expectations run high and the fund to supply them is +<i>extreme</i> scanty,—<i>Lancaster's Essay on +Delicacy</i>.</p> +<p>The commonest error in the use of the verb is the disregard of +the concord between the verb and its subject. This occurs most +frequently when the subject and the verb are widely separated, +especially if some other noun of a different number immediately +precedes the verb. False concords occur very often after +<i>either</i>, <i>or</i>, <i>neither</i>, <i>nor</i>, and +<i>much</i>, <i>more</i>, <i>many</i>, <i>everyone</i>, +<i>each</i>.</p> +<p>Here are a few authors' slips:—</p> +<p>"The terms in which the sale of a patent <i>were</i> +communicated to the public."—Junius's <i>Letters</i>.</p> +<p>"The richness of her arms and apparel <i>were</i> +conspicuous."—Gibbon's <i>Decline and Fall</i>.</p> +<p>"Everyone of this grotesque family <i>were</i> the creatures of +national genius."—D'Israeli.</p> +<p>"He knows not what spleen, languor or listlessness +<i>are</i>."—Blair's <i>Sermons</i>.</p> +<p>"Each of these words <i>imply</i>, some pursuit or object +relinquished."—<i>Ibid</i>.</p> +<p>"Magnus, with four thousand of his supposed accomplices +<i>were</i> put to death."—<i>Gibbon</i>.</p> +<p>"No nation gives greater encouragements to learning than we do; +yet at the same time <i>none are</i> so injudicious in the +application."—<i>Goldsmith</i>.</p> +<p>"<i>There's two</i> or <i>three</i> of us have seen strange +sights."—<i>Shakespeare</i>.</p> +<p>The past participle should not be used for the past tense, yet +the learned Byron overlooked this fact. He thus writes in the +<i>Lament of Tasso</i>:—</p> +<p>"And with my years my soul <i>begun to pant</i> With feelings of +strange tumult and soft pain."</p> +<p>Here is another example from Savage's <i>Wanderer</i> in which +there is double sinning:</p> +<p>"From liberty each nobler science <i>sprung</i>, A Bacon +brighten'd and a Spenser <i>sung</i>."</p> +<p>Other breaches in regard to the participles occur in the +following:—</p> +<p>"Every book ought to be read with the same spirit and in the +same manner as it is <i>writ</i>"—Fielding's <i>Tom +Jones</i>.</p> +<p>"The Court of Augustus had not <i>wore</i> off the manners of +the republic "—Hume's <i>Essays</i>.</p> +<p>"Moses tells us that the fountains of the earth were <i>broke</i> +open or clove asunder."—Burnet.</p> +<p>"A free constitution when it has been <i>shook</i> by the +iniquity of former administrations."—<i>Bolingbroke</i>.</p> +<p>"In this respect the seeds of future divisions were <i>sowed</i> +abundantly."—<i>Ibid</i>.</p> +<p>In the following example the present participle is used for the +infinitive mood:</p> +<p>"It is easy <i>distinguishing</i> the rude fragment of a rock +from the splinter of a statue."—Gilfillan's <i>Literary +Portraits</i>.</p> +<p><i>Distinguishing</i> here should be replaced by <i>to +distinguish</i>.</p> +<p>The rules regarding <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i> are violated in +the following:</p> +<p>"If we look within the rough and awkward outside, we <i>will</i> +be richly rewarded by its perusal."—Gilfillan's <i>Literary +Portraits</i>.</p> +<p>"If I <i>should</i> declare them and speak of them, they should +be more than I am able to express."—<i>Prayer Book Revision +of Psalms XI</i>.</p> +<p>"If I <i>would</i> declare them and speak of them, they are more +than can be numbered."—<i>Ibid</i>.</p> +<p>"Without having attended to this, we <i>will</i> be at a loss, +in understanding several passages in the classics."—Blair's +<i>Lectures</i>.</p> +<p>"We know to what cause our past reverses have been owing and +<i>we</i> will have ourselves to blame, if they are again +incurred."—Alison's <i>History of Europe</i>.</p> +<p>Adverbial mistakes often occur in the best writers. The adverb +<i>rather</i> is a word very frequently misplaced. Archbishop +Trench in his "English Past and Present" writes, "It <i>rather</i> +modified the structure of our sentences than the elements of our +vocabulary." This should have been written,—"It modified the +structure of our sentences <i>rather than</i> the elements of our +vocabulary."</p> +<p>"So far as his mode of teaching goes he is <i>rather</i> a +disciple of Socrates than of St. Paul or Wesley." Thus writes +Leslie Stephens of Dr. Johnson. He should have written,—" So +far as his mode of teaching goes he is a disciple of Socrates +<i>rather</i> than of St. Paul or Wesley."</p> +<p>The preposition is a part of speech which is often wrongly used +by some of the best writers. Certain nouns, adjectives and verbs +require particular prepositions after them, for instance, the word +<i>different</i> always takes the preposition <i>from</i> after it; +<i>prevail</i> takes <i>upon</i>; <i>averse</i> takes <i>to</i>; +<i>accord</i> takes <i>with</i>, and so on.</p> +<p>In the following examples the prepositions in parentheses are +the ones that should have been used:</p> +<p>"He found the greatest difficulty <i>of</i> (in) +writing."—Hume's <i>History of England</i>.</p> +<p>"If policy can prevail <i>upon</i> (over) +force."—<i>Addison</i>.</p> +<p>"He made the discovery and communicated <i>to</i> (with) his +friends."—Swift's <i>Tale of a Tub</i>.</p> +<p>"Every office of command should be intrusted to persons +<i>on</i> (in) whom the parliament shall +confide."—<i>Macaulay</i>.</p> +<p>Several of the most celebrated writers infringe the canons of +style by placing prepositions at the end of sentences. For instance +Carlyle, in referring to the Study of Burns, writes:—"Our own +contributions to it, we are aware, can be but scanty and feeble; +but we offer them with good will, and trust they may meet with +acceptance from those they are intended <i>for</i>."</p> +<p>—"for whom they are intended," he should have written.</p> +<p>"Most writers have some one vein which they peculiarly and +obviously excel <i>in</i>."—<i>William Minto</i>.</p> +<p>This sentence should read,—Most writers have some one vein +in which they peculiarly and obviously excel.</p> +<p>Many authors use redundant words which repeat the same thought +and idea. This is called tautology.</p> +<p>"Notwithstanding which (however) poor Polly embraced them all +around."—<i>Dickens</i>.</p> +<p>"I judged that they would (mutually) find each +other."—<i>Crockett</i>.</p> +<p>"....as having created a (joint) partnership between the two +Powers in the Morocco question."—<i>The Times</i>.</p> +<p>"The only sensible position (there seems to be) is to frankly +acknowledge our ignorance of what lies beyond."—<i>Daily +Telegraph</i>.</p> +<p>"Lord Rosebery has not budged from his position—splendid, +no doubt,—of (lonely) isolation."—<i>The Times</i>.</p> +<p>"Miss Fox was (often) in the habit of assuring Mrs. +Chick."—<i>Dickens</i>.</p> +<p>"The deck (it) was their field of +fame."—<i>Campbell</i>.</p> +<p>"He had come up one morning, as was now (frequently) his +wont,"—<i>Trollope</i>.</p> +<p>The counsellors of the Sultan (continue to) remain +sceptical—<i>The Times</i>.</p> +<p>Seriously, (and apart from jesting), this is no light +matter.—<i>Bagehot</i>.</p> +<p>To go back to your own country with (the consciousness that you +go back with) the sense of duty well done.—<i>Lord +Halsbury</i>.</p> +<p>The <i>Peresviet</i> lost both her fighting-tops and (in +appearance) looked the most damaged of all the ships—<i>The +Times</i>.</p> +<p>Counsel admitted that, that was a fair suggestion to make, but +he submitted that it was borne out by the (surrounding) +circumstances.—<i>Ibid</i>.</p> +<p>Another unnecessary use of words and phrases is that which is +termed circumlocution, a going around the bush when there is no +occasion for it,—save to fill space.</p> +<p>It may be likened to a person walking the distance of two sides +of a triangle to reach the objective point. For instance in the +quotation: "Pope professed to have learned his poetry from Dryden, +whom, whenever an opportunity was presented, he praised through the +whole period of his existence with unvaried liberality; and perhaps +his character may receive some illustration, of a comparison he +instituted between him and the man whose pupil he was" much of the +verbiage may be eliminated and the sentence thus condensed:</p> +<p>"Pope professed himself the pupil of Dryden, whom he lost no +opportunity of praising; and his character may be illustrated by a +comparison with his master."</p> +<p>"His life was brought to a close in 1910 at an age not far from +the one fixed by the sacred writer as the term of human +existence."</p> +<p>This in brevity can be put, "His life was brought to a close at +the age of seventy;" or, better yet, "He died at the age of +seventy."</p> +<p>"The day was intensely cold, so cold in fact that the +thermometer crept down to the zero mark," can be expressed: "The +day was so cold the thermometer registered zero."</p> +<p>Many authors resort to circumlocution for the purpose of +"padding," that is, filling space, or when they strike a snag in +writing upon subjects of which they know little or nothing. The +young writer should steer clear of it and learn to express his +thoughts and ideas as briefly as possible commensurate with +lucidity of expression.</p> +<p>Volumes of errors in fact, in grammar, diction and general +style, could be selected from the works of the great writers, a +fact which eloquently testifies that no one is infallible and that +the very best is liable to err at times. However, most of the +erring in the case of these writers arises from carelessness or +hurry, not from a lack of knowledge.</p> +<p>As a general rule it is in writing that the scholar is liable to +slip; in oral speech he seldom makes a blunder. In fact, there are +many people who are perfect masters of speech,—who never make +a blunder in conversation, yet who are ignorant of the very +principles of grammar and would not know how to write a sentence +correctly on paper. Such persons have been accustomed from infancy +to hear the language spoken correctly and so the use of the proper +words and forms becomes a second nature to them. A child can learn +what is right as easy as what is wrong and whatever impressions are +made on the mind when it is plastic will remain there. Even a +parrot can be taught the proper use of language. Repeat to a +parrot.—"Two and two <i>make</i> four" and it never will say +"two and two <i>makes</i> four."</p> +<p>In writing, however, it is different. Without a knowledge of the +fundamentals of grammar we may be able to speak correctly from +association with good speakers, but without such a knowledge we +cannot hope to write the language correctly. To write even a common +letter we must know the principles of construction, the +relationship of one word to another. Therefore, it is necessary for +everybody to understand at least the essentials of the grammar of +his own language.</p> +<center> +<h2 id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</h2> +<h3>PITFALLS TO AVOID</h3> +<h4>Common Stumbling Blocks—Peculiar +Constructions—Misused Forms.</h4></center> +<h3>ATTRACTION</h3> +<p>Very often the verb is separated from its real nominative or +subject by several intervening words and in such cases one is +liable to make the verb agree with the subject nearest to it. Here +are a few examples showing that the leading writers now and then +take a tumble into this pitfall:</p> +<ol> +<li> +<p>"The partition which the two ministers made of the powers of +government <i>were</i> singularly +happy."—<i>Macaulay</i>.</p> +<p>(Should be <i>was</i> to agree with its subject, +<i>partition</i>.)</p></li> +<li> +<p>"One at least of the qualities which fit it for training +ordinary men <i>unfit</i> it for <i>training</i> an extraordinary +man."—<i>Bagehot</i>.</p> +<p>(Should be <i>unfits</i> to agree with subject +<i>one</i>.)</p></li> +<li> +<p>"The Tibetans have engaged to exclude from their country those +dangerous influences whose appearance <i>were</i> the chief cause +of our action."—<i>The Times</i>.</p> +<p>(Should be <i>was</i> to agree with <i>appearance</i>.)</p></li> +<li> +<p>"An immense amount of confusion and indifference <i>prevail</i> +in these days."—<i>Telegraph</i>.</p> +<p>(Should be <i>prevails</i> to agree with amount.)</p></li></ol> +<h3>ELLIPSIS</h3> +<p>Errors in ellipsis occur chiefly with prepositions.</p> +<p>His objection and condoning of the boy's course, seemed to say +the least, paradoxical.</p> +<p>(The preposition <i>to</i> should come after objection.)</p> +<p>Many men of brilliant parts are crushed by force of +circumstances and their genius forever lost to the world.</p> +<p>(Some maintain that the missing verb after genius is <i>are</i>, +but such is ungrammatical. In such cases the right verb should be +always expressed: as—their genius <i>is</i> forever lost to +the world.</p> +<h3>THE SPLIT INFINITIVE</h3> +<p>Even the best speakers and writers are in the habit of placing a +modifying word or words between the <i>to</i> and the remaining +part of the infinitive. It is possible that such will come to be +looked upon in time as the proper form but at present the splitting +of the infinitive is decidedly wrong. "He was scarcely able +<i>to</i> even <i>talk</i>" "She commenced <i>to</i> rapidly +<i>walk</i> around the room." "<i>To have</i> really <i>loved</i> +is better than not <i>to have</i> at all <i>loved</i>." In these +constructions it is much better not to split the infinitive. In +every-day speech the best speakers sin against this observance.</p> +<p>In New York City there is a certain magistrate, a member of "the +400," who prides himself on his diction in language. He tells this +story: A prisoner, a faded, battered specimen of mankind, on whose +haggard face, deeply lined with the marks of dissipation, there +still lingered faint reminders of better days long past, stood +dejected before the judge. "Where are you from?" asked the +magistrate. "From Boston," answered the accused. "Indeed," said the +judge, "indeed, yours is a sad case, and yet you don't seem +<i>to</i> thoroughly <i>realise</i> how low you have sunk." The man +stared as if struck. "Your honor does me an injustice," he said +bitterly. "The disgrace of arrest for drunkenness, the +mortification of being thrust into a noisome dungeon, the publicity +and humiliation of trial in a crowded and dingy courtroom I can +bear, but to be sentenced by a Police Magistrate who <i>splits his +infinitives</i>—that is indeed the last blow."</p> +<h3>ONE</h3> +<p>The indefinite adjective pronoun <i>one</i> when put in place of +a personal substantive is liable to raise confusion. When a +sentence or expression is begun with the impersonal <i>one</i> the +word must be used throughout in all references to the subject. +Thus, "One must mind one's own business if one wishes to succeed" +may seem prolix and awkward, nevertheless it is the proper form. +You must not say—"One must mind his business if he wishes to +succeed," for the subject is impersonal and therefore cannot +exclusively take the masculine pronoun. With <i>any one</i> it is +different. You may say—"If any one sins he should acknowledge +it; let him not try to hide it by another sin."</p> +<h3>ONLY</h3> +<p>This is a word that is a pitfall to the most of us whether +learned or unlearned. Probably it is the most indiscriminately used +word in the language. From the different positions it is made to +occupy in a sentence it can relatively change the meaning. For +instance in the sentence—"I <i>only</i> struck him that +time," the meaning to be inferred is, that the only thing I did to +him was to <i>strike</i> him, not kick or otherwise abuse him. But +if the <i>only</i> is shifted, so as to make the sentence read-"I +struck him <i>only</i> that time" the meaning conveyed is, that +only on that occasion and at no other time did I strike him. If +another shift is made to-"I struck <i>only</i> him that time," the +meaning is again altered so that it signifies he was the only +person I struck.</p> +<p>In speaking we can by emphasis impress our meaning on our +hearers, but in writing we have nothing to depend upon but the +position of the word in the sentence. The best rule in regard to +<i>only</i> is to place it <i>immediately before</i> the word or +phrase it modifies or limits.</p> +<h3>ALONE</h3> +<p>is another word which creates ambiguity and alters meaning. If +we substitute it for only in the preceding example the meaning of +the sentence will depend upon the arrangement. Thus "I <i>alone</i> +struck him at that time" signifies that I and no other struck him. +When the sentence reads "I struck him <i>alone</i> at that time" it +must be interpreted that he was the only person that received a +blow. Again if it is made to read "I struck him at that time +<i>alone</i>" the sense conveyed is that that was the only occasion +on which I struck him. The rule which governs the correct use of +<i>only</i> is also applicable to <i>alone</i>.</p> +<h3>OTHER AND ANOTHER</h3> +<p>These are words which often give to expressions a meaning far +from that intended. Thus, "I have <i>nothing</i> to do with that +<i>other</i> rascal across the street," certainly means that I am a +rascal myself. "I sent the despatch to my friend, but another +villain intercepted it," clearly signifies that my friend is a +villain.</p> +<p>A good plan is to omit these words when they can be readily done +without, as in the above examples, but when it is necessary to use +them make your meaning clear. You can do this by making each +sentence or phrase in which they occur independent of contextual +aid.</p> +<h3>AND WITH THE RELATIVE</h3> +<p>Never use <i>and</i> with the <i>relative</i> in this manner: +"That is the dog I meant <i>and which</i> I know is of pure breed." +This is an error quite common. The use of <i>and</i> is permissible +when there is a parallel relative in the preceding sentence or +clause. Thus: "There is the dog which I meant and.which I know is +of pure breed" is quite correct.</p> +<h3>LOOSE PARTICIPLES</h3> +<p>A participle or participial phrase is naturally referred to the +nearest nominative. If only one nominative is expressed it claims +all the participles that are not by the construction of the +sentence otherwise fixed. "John, working in the field all day and +getting thirsty, drank from the running stream." Here the +participles <i>working</i> and <i>getting</i> clearly refer to +John. But in the sentence,—"Swept along by the mob I could +not save him," the participle as it were is lying around loose and +may be taken to refer to either the person speaking or to the +person spoken about. It may mean that I was swept along by the mob +or the individual whom I tried to save was swept along.</p> +<p>"Going into the store the roof fell" can be taken that it was +the roof which was going into the store when it fell. Of course the +meaning intended is that some person or persons were going into the +store just as the roof fell.</p> +<p>In all sentence construction with participles there should be +such clearness as to preclude all possibility of ambiguity. The +participle should be so placed that there can be no doubt as to the +noun to which it refers. Often it is advisable to supply such words +as will make the meaning obvious.</p> +<h3>BROKEN CONSTRUCTION</h3> +<p>Sometimes the beginning of a sentence presents quite a different +grammatical construction from its end. This arises from the fact +probably, that the beginning is lost sight of before the end is +reached. This occurs frequently in long sentences. Thus: "Honesty, +integrity and square-dealing will bring anybody much better through +life than the absence of either." Here the construction is broken +at <i>than</i>. The use of <i>either</i>, only used in referring to +one of two, shows that the fact is forgotten that three qualities +and not two are under consideration. Any one of the three meanings +might be intended in the sentence, viz., absence of any one +quality, absence of any two of the qualities or absence of the +whole three qualities. Either denotes one or the other of two and +should never be applied to any one of more than two. When we fall +into the error of constructing such sentences as above, we should +take them apart and reconstruct them in a different grammatical +form. Thus,—"Honesty, integrity and square-dealing will bring +a man much better through life than a lack of these qualities which +are almost essential to success."</p> +<h3>DOUBLE NEGATIVE</h3> +<p>It must be remembered that two negatives in the English language +destroy each other and are equivalent to an affirmative. Thus "I +<i>don't</i> know <i>nothing</i> about it" is intended to convey, +that I am ignorant of the matter under consideration, but it +defeats its own purpose, inasmuch as the use of nothing implies +that I know something about it. The sentence should read—"I +don't know anything about it."</p> +<p>Often we hear such expressions as "He was <i>not</i> asked to +give <i>no</i> opinion," expressing the very opposite of what is +intended. This sentence implies that he was asked to give his +opinion. The double negative, therefore, should be carefully +avoided, for it is insidious and is liable to slip in and the +writer remain unconscious of its presence until the eye of the +critic detects it.</p> +<h3>FIRST PERSONAL PRONOUN</h3> +<p>The use of the first personal pronoun should be avoided as much +as possible in composition. Don't introduce it by way of apology +and never use such expressions as "In my opinion," "As far as I can +see," "It appears to me," "I believe," etc. In what you write, the +whole composition is expressive of your views, since you are the +author, therefore, there is no necessity for you to accentuate or +emphasize yourself at certain portions of it.</p> +<p>Moreover, the big <i>I's</i> savor of egotism! Steer clear of +them as far as you can. The only place where the first person is +permissible is in passages where you are stating a view that is not +generally held and which is likely to meet with opposition.</p> +<h3>SEQUENCE OF TENSES</h3> +<p>When two verbs depend on each other their tenses must have a +definite relation to each other. "I shall have much pleasure in +accepting your kind invitation" is wrong, unless you really mean +that just now you decline though by-and-by you intend to accept; or +unless you mean that you do accept now, though you have no pleasure +in doing so, but look forward to be more pleased by-and-by. In fact +the sequence of the compound tenses puzzle experienced writers. The +best plan is to go back in thought to the time in question and use +the tense you would <i>then</i> naturally use. Now in the sentence +"I should have liked to have gone to see the circus" the way to +find out the proper sequence is to ask yourself the +question—what is it I "should have liked" to do? and the +plain answer is "to go to see the circus." I cannot +answer—"To have gone to see the circus" for that would imply +that at a certain moment I would have liked to be in the position +of having gone to the circus. But I do not mean this; I mean that +at the moment at which I am speaking I wish I had gone to see the +circus. The verbal phrase <i>I should have liked</i> carries me +back to the time when there was a chance of seeing the circus and +once back at the time, the going to the circus is a thing of the +present. This whole explanation resolves itself into the simple +question,—what should I have liked <i>at that time</i>, and +the answer is "to go to see the circus," therefore this is the +proper sequence, and the expression should be "I should have liked +to go to see the circus."</p> +<p>If we wish to speak of something relating to a time <i>prior</i> +to that indicated in the past tense we must use the perfect tense +of the infinitive; as, "He appeared to have seen better days." We +should say "I expected to <i>meet him</i>," not "I expected <i>to +have met him</i>." "We intended <i>to visit you</i>," not "<i>to +have visited</i> you." "I hoped they <i>would</i> arrive," not "I +hoped they <i>would have</i> arrived." "I thought I should +<i>catch</i> the bird," not "I thought I should <i>have caught</i> +the bird." "I had intended <i>to go</i> to the meeting," not "I had +intended to <i>have gone</i> to the meeting."</p> +<h3>BETWEEN—AMONG</h3> +<p>These prepositions are often carelessly interchanged. +<i>Between</i> has reference to two objects only, <i>among</i> to +more than two. "The money was equally divided between them" is +right when there are only two, but if there are more than two it +should be "the money was equally divided among them."</p> +<h3>LESS—FEWER</h3> +<p><i>Less</i> refers is quantity, <i>fewer</i> to number. "No man +has <i>less</i> virtues" should be "No man has <i>fewer</i> +virtues." "The farmer had some oats and a <i>fewer</i> quantity of +wheat" should be "the farmer had some oats and a <i>less</i> +quantity of wheat."</p> +<h3>FURTHER—FARTHER</h3> +<p><i>Further</i> is commonly used to denote quantity, +<i>farther</i> to denote distance. "I have walked <i>farther</i> +than you," "I need no <i>further</i> supply" are correct.</p> +<h3>EACH OTHER—ONE ANOTHER</h3> +<p><i>Each other</i> refers to two, <i>one another</i> to more than +two. "Jones and Smith quarreled; they struck each other" is +correct. "Jones, Smith and Brown quarreled; they struck one +another" is also correct. Don't say, "The two boys teach one +another" nor "The three girls love each other."</p> +<h3>EACH, EVERY, EITHER, NEITHER</h3> +<p>These words are continually misapplied. <i>Each</i> can be +applied to two or any higher number of objects to signify <i>every +one</i> of the number <i>independently</i>. Every requires <i>more +than two</i> to be spoken of and denotes all the <i>persons</i> or +<i>things</i> taken <i>separately</i>. <i>Either</i> denotes <i>one +or the other of two</i>, and should not be used to include both. +<i>Neither</i> is the negative of either, denoting not the other, +and not the one, and relating to <i>two persons</i> or +<i>things</i> considered separately.</p> +<p>The following examples illustrate the correct usage of these +words:</p> +<p><i>Each</i> man of the crew received a reward.</p> +<p><i>Every</i> man in the regiment displayed bravery.</p> +<p>We can walk on <i>either</i> side of the street.</p> +<p><i>Neither</i> of the two is to blame.</p> +<h3>NEITHER-NOR</h3> +<p>When two singular subjects are connected by <i>neither</i>, +<i>nor</i> use a singular verb; as, <i>Neither</i> John <i>nor</i> +James <i>was there</i>," not <i>were</i> there.</p> +<h3>NONE</h3> +<p>Custom Has sanctioned the use of this word both with a singular +and plural; as—"None <i>is</i> so blind as he who will not +see" and "None <i>are</i> so blind as they who will not see." +However, as it is a contraction of <i>no one</i> it is better to +use the singular verb.</p> +<h3>RISE-RAISE</h3> +<p>These verbs are very often confounded. <i>Rise</i> is to move or +pass upward in any manner; as to "rise from bed;" to increase in +value, to improve in position or rank, as "stocks rise;" +"politicians rise;" "they have risen to honor."</p> +<p><i>Raise</i> is to lift up, to exalt, to enhance, as "I raise +the table;" "He raised his servant;" "The baker raised the price of +<i>bread</i>."</p> +<h3>LAY-LIE</h3> +<p>The transitive verb <i>lay</i>, and <i>lay</i>, the past tense +of the neuter verb <i>lie</i>, are often confounded, though quite +different in meaning. The neuter verb <i>to lie</i>, meaning to lie +down or rest, cannot take the objective after it except with a +preposition. We can say "He <i>lies</i> on the ground," but we +cannot say "He <i>lies</i> the ground," since the verb is neuter +and intransitive and, as such, cannot have a direct object. With +<i>lay</i> it is different. <i>Lay</i> is a transitive verb, +therefore it takes a direct object after it; as "I <i>lay</i> a +wager," "I <i>laid</i> the carpet," etc.</p> +<p>Of a carpet or any inanimate subject we should say, "It lies on +the floor," "A knife <i>lies</i> on the table," not <i>lays</i>. +But of a person we say—"He <i>lays</i> the knife on the +table," not "He <i>lies</i>——." <i>Lay</i> being the +past tense of the neuter to lie (down) we should say, "He +<i>lay</i> on the bed," and <i>lain</i> being its past participle +we must also say "He has <i>lain</i> on the bed."</p> +<p>We can say "I lay myself down." "He laid himself down" and such +expressions.</p> +<p>It is imperative to remember in using these verbs that to +<i>lay</i> means <i>to do</i> something, and to lie means <i>to be +in a state of rest</i>.</p> +<h3>SAYS I—I SAID</h3> +<p><i>"Says I"</i> is a vulgarism; don't use it. "I said" is +correct form.</p> +<h3>IN—INTO</h3> +<p>Be careful to distinguish the meaning of these two little +prepositions and don't interchange them. Don't say "He went +<i>in</i> the room" nor "My brother is <i>into</i> the navy." +<i>In</i> denotes the place where a person or thing, whether at +rest or in motion, is present; and <i>into</i> denotes +<i>entrance</i>. "He went <i>into</i> the room;" "My brother is +<i>in</i> the navy" are correct.</p> +<h3>EAT—ATE</h3> +<p>Don't confound the two. <i>Eat</i> is present, <i>ate</i> is +past. "I <i>eat</i> the bread" means that I am continuing the +eating; "I <i>ate</i> the bread" means that the act of eating is +past. <i>Eaten</i> is the perfect participle, but often <i>eat</i> +is used instead, and as it has the same pronunciation (et) of +<i>ate</i>, care should be taken to distinguish the past tense, I +<i>ate</i> from the perfect <i>I have eaten</i> (<i>eat</i>).</p> +<h3>SEQUENCE OF PERSON</h3> +<p>Remember that the <i>first</i> person takes precedence of the +<i>second</i> and the <i>second</i> takes precedence of the +<i>third</i>. When Cardinal Wolsey said <i>Ego et Rex</i> (I and +the King), he showed he was a good grammarian, but a bad +courtier.</p> +<h3>AM COME—HAVE COME</h3> +<p>"<i>I am come</i>" points to my being here, while "I have come" +intimates that I have just arrived. When the subject is not a +person, the verb <i>to be</i> should be used in preference to the +verb <i>to have</i>; as, "The box is come" instead of "The box has +come."</p> +<h3>PAST TENSE—PAST PARTICIPLE</h3> +<p>The interchange of these two parts of the irregular or so-called +<i>strong</i> verbs is, perhaps, the breach oftenest committed by +careless speakers and writers. To avoid mistakes it is requisite to +know the principal parts of these verbs, and this knowledge is very +easy of acquirement, as there are not more than a couple of hundred +of such verbs, and of this number but a small part is in daily use. +Here are some of the most common blunders: "I seen" for "I saw;" "I +done it" for "I did it;" "I drunk" for "I drank;" "I begun" for "I +began;" "I rung" for "I rang;" "I run" for "I ran;" "I sung" for "I +sang;" "I have chose" for "I have chosen;" "I have drove" for "I +have driven;" "I have wore" for "I have worn;" "I have trod" for "I +have trodden;" "I have shook" for "I have shaken;" "I have fell" +for "I have fallen;" "I have drank" for "I have drunk;" "I have +began" for "I have begun;" "I have rang" for "I have rung;" "I have +rose" for "I have risen;" "I have spoke" for "I have spoken;" "I +have broke" for "I have broken." "It has froze" for "It has +frozen." "It has blowed" for "It has blown." "It has flowed" (of a +bird) for "It has flown."</p> +<p>N. B.—The past tense and past participle of <i>To Hang</i> +is <i>hanged</i> or <i>hung</i>. When you are talking about a man +meeting death on the gallows, say "He was hanged"; when you are +talking about the carcass of an animal say, "It was hung," as "The +beef was hung dry." Also say your coat "<i>was</i> hung on a +hook."</p> +<h3>PREPOSITIONS AND THE OBJECTIVE CASE</h3> +<p>Don't forget that prepositions always take the objective case. +Don't say "Between you and <i>I</i>"; say "Between you and +<i>me</i>"</p> +<p><i>Two</i> prepositions should not govern <i>one objective</i> +unless there is an immediate connection between them. "He was +refused admission to and forcibly ejected from the school" should +be "He was refused admission to the school and forcibly ejected +from it."</p> +<h3>SUMMON—SUMMONS</h3> +<p>Don't say "I shall summons him," but "I shall summon him." +<i>Summon</i> is a verb, <i>summons</i>, a noun.</p> +<p>It is correct to say "I shall get a <i>summons</i> for him," not +a <i>summon</i>.</p> +<h3>UNDENIABLE—UNEXCEPTIONABLE</h3> +<p>"My brother has an undeniable character" is wrong if I wish to +convey the idea that he has a good character. The expression should +be in that case "My brother has an unexceptionable character." An +<i>undeniable</i> character is a character that cannot be denied, +whether bad or good. An unexceptionable character is one to which +no one can take exception.</p> +<h3>THE PRONOUNS</h3> +<p>Very many mistakes occur in the use of the pronouns. "Let you +and I go" should be "Let you and <i>me</i> go." "Let them and we +go" should be "Let them and us go." The verb let is transitive and +therefore takes the objective case.</p> +<p>"Give me <i>them</i> flowers" should be "Give me <i>those</i> +flowers"; "I mean <i>them</i> three" should be "I mean those +three." Them is the objective case of the personal pronoun and +cannot be used adjectively like the demonstrative adjective +pronoun. "I am as strong as <i>him</i>" should be "I am as strong +as <i>he</i>"; "I am younger than <i>her</i>" should be "I am +younger than <i>she</i>;" "He can write better than <i>me</i>" +should be "He can write better than I," for in these examples the +objective cases <i>him</i>, <i>her</i> and <i>me</i> are used +wrongfully for the nominatives. After each of the misapplied +pronouns a verb is understood of which each pronoun is the subject. +Thus, "I am as strong as he (is)." "I am younger than she (is)." "He +can write better than I (can)."</p> +<p>Don't say "<i>It is me</i>;" say "<i>It is I</i>" The verb <i>To +Be</i> of which is is a part takes the same case after it that it +has before it. This holds good in all situations as well as with +pronouns.</p> +<p>The verb <i>To Be</i> also requires the pronouns joined to it to +be in the same case as a pronoun asking a question; The nominative +<i>I</i> requires the nominative <i>who</i> and the objectives +<i>me</i>, <i>him</i>, <i>her</i>, <i>its</i>, <i>you</i>, +<i>them</i>, require the objective <i>whom</i>.</p> +<p>"<i>Whom</i> do you think I am?" should be "<i>Who</i> do you +think I am?" and "<i>Who</i> do they suppose me to be?" should be +"<i>Whom</i> do they suppose me to be?" The objective form of the +Relative should be always used, in connection with a preposition. +"Who do you take me for?" should be "<i>Whom</i> do, etc." "Who did +you give the apple to?" should be "Whom did you give the apple to," +but as pointed out elsewhere the preposition should never end a +sentence, therefore, it is better to say, "To whom did you give the +apple?"</p> +<p>After transitive verbs always use the objective cases of the +pronouns. For "<i>He</i> and <i>they</i> we have seen," say +"<i>Him</i> and <i>them</i> we have seen."</p> +<h3>THAT FOR SO</h3> +<p>"The hurt it was that painful it made him cry," say "so +painful."</p> +<h3>THESE—THOSE</h3> +<p>Don't say, <i>These kind; those sort</i>. <i>Kind</i> and +<i>sort</i> are each singular and require the singular pronouns +<i>this</i> and <i>that</i>. In connection with these demonstrative +adjective pronouns remember that <i>this</i> and <i>these</i> refer +to what is near at hand, <i>that</i> and <i>those</i> to what is +more distant; as, <i>this book</i> (near me), <i>that book</i> +(over there), <i>these</i> boys (near), <i>those</i> boys (at a +distance).</p> +<h3>THIS MUCH—THUS MUCH</h3> +<p>"<i>This</i> much is certain" should be "<i>Thus</i> much or +<i>so</i> much is certain."</p> +<h3>FLEE—FLY</h3> +<p>These are two separate verbs and must not be interchanged. The +principal parts of <i>flee</i> are <i>flee</i>, <i>fled</i>, +<i>fled</i>; those of <i>fly</i> are <i>fly</i>, <i>flew</i>, +<i>flown</i>. <i>To flee</i> is generally used in the meaning of +getting out of danger. <i>To fly</i> means to soar as a bird. To +say of a man "He <i>has flown</i> from the place" is wrong; it +should be "He <i>has fled</i> from the place." We can say with +propriety that "A bird has <i>flown</i> from the place."</p> +<h3>THROUGH—THROUGHOUT</h3> +<p>Don't say "He is well known through the land," but "He is well +known throughout the land."</p> +<h3>VOCATION AND AVOCATION</h3> +<p>Don't mistake these two words so nearly alike. Vocation is the +employment, business or profession one follows for a living; +avocation is some pursuit or occupation which diverts the person +from such employment, business or profession. Thus</p> +<p>"His vocation was the law, his avocation, farming."</p> +<h3>WAS—WERE</h3> +<p>In the subjunctive mood the plural form <i>were</i> should be +used with a singular subject; as, "If I <i>were,</i>" not +<i>was</i>. Remember the plural form of the personal pronoun +<i>you</i> always takes <i>were</i>, though it may denote but one. +Thus, "<i>You were,</i>" never "<i>you was.</i>" "<i>If I was +him</i>" is a very common expression. Note the two mistakes in +it,—that of the verb implying a condition, and that of the +objective case of the pronoun. It should read <i>If I were he</i>. +This is another illustration of the rule regarding the verb <i>To +Be</i>, taking the same case after it as before it; <i>were</i> is +part of the verb <i>To Be</i>, therefore as the nominative (I) goes +before it, the nominative (he) should come after it.</p> +<h3>A OR AN</h3> +<p><i>A</i> becomes an before a vowel or before <i>h</i> mute for +the sake of euphony or agreeable sound to the ear. <i>An apple</i>, +<i>an orange</i>, <i>an heir</i>, <i>an honor</i>, etc.</p> +<center> +<h2 id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</h2> +<h3>STYLE</h3> +<h4> +Diction—Purity—Propriety—Precision.</h4></center> +<p>It is the object of every writer to put his thoughts into as +effective form as possible so as to make a good impression on the +reader. A person may have noble thoughts and ideas but be unable to +express them in such a way as to appeal to others, consequently he +cannot exert the full force of his intellectuality nor leave the +imprint of his character upon his time, whereas many a man but +indifferently gifted may wield such a facile pen as to attract +attention and win for himself an envious place among his +contemporaries.</p> +<p>In everyday life one sees illustrations of men of excellent +mentality being cast aside and ones of mediocre or in some cases, +little, if any, ability chosen to fill important places. The former +are unable to impress their personality; they have great thoughts, +great ideas, but these thoughts and ideas are locked up in their +brains and are like prisoners behind the bars struggling to get +free. The key of language which would open the door is wanting, +hence they have to remain locked up.</p> +<p>Many a man has to pass through the world unheard of and of +little benefit to it or himself, simply because he cannot bring out +what is in him and make it subservient to his will. It is the duty +of every one to develop his best, not only for the benefit of +himself but for the good of his fellow men. It is not at all +necessary to have great learning or acquirements, the laborer is as +useful in his own place as the philosopher in his; nor is it +necessary to have many talents. One talent rightly used is much +better than ten wrongly used. Often a man can do more with one than +his contemporary can do with ten, often a man can make one dollar +go farther than twenty in the hands of his neighbor, often the poor +man lives more comfortably than the millionaire. All depends upon +the individual himself. If he make right use of what the Creator +has given him and live according to the laws of God and nature he +is fulfilling his allotted place in the universal scheme of +creation, in other words, when he does his best, he is living up to +the standard of a useful manhood.</p> +<p>Now in order to do his best a man of ordinary intelligence and +education should be able to express himself correctly both in +speaking and writing, that is, he should be able to convey his +thoughts in an intelligent manner which the simplest can +understand. The manner in which a speaker or writer conveys his +thoughts is known as his Style. In other words <i>Style</i> may be +defined as the peculiar manner in which a man expresses his +conceptions through the medium of language. It depends upon the +choice of words and their arrangement to convey a meaning. Scarcely +any two writers have exactly the same style, that is to say, +express their ideas after the same peculiar form, just as no two +mortals are fashioned by nature in the same mould, so that one is +an exact counterpart of the other.</p> +<p>Just as men differ in the accent and tones of their voices, so +do they differ in the construction of their language.</p> +<p>Two reporters sent out on the same mission, say to report a +fire, will verbally differ in their accounts though materially both +descriptions will be the same as far as the leading facts are +concerned. One will express himself in a style <i>different</i> +from the other.</p> +<p>If you are asked to describe the dancing of a red-haired lady at +the last charity ball you can either say—"The ruby Circe, +with the Titian locks glowing like the oriflamme which surrounds +the golden god of day as he sinks to rest amid the crimson glory of +the burnished West, gave a divine exhibition of the Terpsichorean +art which thrilled the souls of the multitude" or, you can simply +say—"The red-haired lady danced very well and pleased the +audience."</p> +<p>The former is a specimen of the ultra florid or bombastic style +which may be said to depend upon the pomposity of verbosity for its +effect, the latter is a specimen of simple <i>natural</i> Style. +Needless to say it is to be preferred. The other should be avoided. +It stamps the writer as a person of shallowness, ignorance and +inexperience. It has been eliminated from the newspapers. Even the +most flatulent of yellow sheets no longer tolerate it in their +columns. Affectation and pedantry in style are now universally +condemned.</p> +<p>It is the duty of every speaker and writer to labor after a +pleasing style. It gains him an entrance where he would otherwise +be debarred. Often the interest of a subject depends as much on the +way it is presented as on the subject itself. One writer will make +it attractive, another repulsive. For instance take a passage in +history. Treated by one historian it is like a desiccated mummy, +dry, dull, disgusting, while under the spell of another it is, as +it were, galvanized into a virile living thing which not only +pleases but captivates the reader.</p> +<h3>DICTION</h3> +<p>The first requisite of style is <i>choice</i> of <i>words</i>, +and this comes under the head of <i>Diction</i>, the property of +style which has reference to the words and phrases used in speaking +and writing. The secret of literary skill from any standpoint +consists in putting the right word in the right place. In order to +do this it is imperative to know the meaning of the words we use, +their exact literal meaning. Many synonymous words are seemingly +interchangeable and appear as if the same meaning were applicable +to three or four of them at the same time, but when all such words +are reduced to a final analysis it is clearly seen that there is a +marked difference in their meaning. For instance <i>grief</i> and +<i>sorrow</i> seem to be identical, but they are not. <i>Grief</i> +is active, <i>sorrow</i> is more or less passive; <i>grief</i> is +caused by troubles and misfortunes which come to us from the +outside, while <i>sorrow</i> is often the consequence of our own +acts. <i>Grief</i> is frequently loud and violent, <i>sorrow</i> is +always quiet and retiring. <i>Grief</i> shouts, <i>Sorrow</i> +remains calm.</p> +<p>If you are not sure of the exact meaning of a word look it up +immediately in the dictionary. Sometimes some of our great scholars +are puzzled over simple words in regard to meaning, spelling or +pronunciation. Whenever you meet a strange word note it down until +you discover its meaning and use. Read the best books you can get, +books written by men and women who are acknowledged masters of +language, and study how they use their words, where they place them +in the sentences, and the meanings they convey to the readers.</p> +<p>Mix in good society. Listen attentively to good talkers and try +to imitate their manner of expression. If a word is used you do not +understand, don't be ashamed to ask its meaning.</p> +<p>True, a small vocabulary will carry you through, but it is an +advantage to have a large one. When you live alone a little pot +serves just as well as a large one to cook your victuals and it is +handy and convenient, but when your friends or neighbors come to +dine with you, you will need a much larger pot and it is better to +have it in store, so that you will not be put to shame for your +scantiness of furnishings.</p> +<p>Get as many words as you possibly can—if you don't need +them now, pack them away in the garrets of your brain so that you +can call upon them if you require them.</p> +<p>Keep a note book, jot down the words you don't understand or +clearly understand and consult the dictionary when you get +time.</p> +<h3>PURITY</h3> +<p><i>Purity</i> of style consists in using words which are +reputable, national and present, which means that the words are in +current use by the best authorities, that they are used throughout +the nation and not confined to one particular part, and that they +are words in constant use at the present time.</p> +<p>There are two guiding principles in the choice of +words,—<i>good use</i> and <i>good taste</i>. <i>Good use</i> +tells us whether a word is right or wrong; <i>good taste,</i> +whether it is adapted to our purpose or not.</p> +<p>A word that is obsolete or too new to have gained a place in the +language, or that is a provincialism, should not be used.</p> +<p>Here are the Ten Commandments of English style:</p> +<ol> +<li> +<p>Do not use foreign words.</p></li> +<li> +<p>Do not use a long word when a short one will serve your purpose. +<i>Fire</i> is much better than <i>conflagration</i>.</p></li> +<li> +<p>Do not use technical words, or those understood only by +specialists in their respective lines, except when you are writing +especially for such people.</p></li> +<li> +<p>Do not use slang.</p></li> +<li> +<p>Do not use provincialisms, as "I guess" for "I think"; "I +reckon" for "I know," etc.</p></li> +<li> +<p>Do not in writing prose, use poetical or antiquated words: as +"lore, e'er, morn, yea, nay, verily, peradventure."</p></li> +<li> +<p>Do not use trite and hackneyed words and expressions; as, "on +the job," "up and in"; "down and out."</p></li> +<li> +<p>Do not use newspaper words which have not established a place in +the language as "to bugle"; "to suicide," etc.</p></li> +<li> +<p>Do not use ungrammatical words and forms; as, "I ain't;" "he +don't."</p></li> +<li> +<p>Do not use ambiguous words or phrases; as—"He showed me +all about the house."</p></li></ol> +<p>Trite words, similes and metaphors which have become hackneyed +and worn out should be allowed to rest in the oblivion of past +usage. Such expressions and phrases as "Sweet sixteen" "the +Almighty dollar," "Uncle Sam," "On the fence," "The Glorious +Fourth," "Young America," "The lords of creation," "The rising +generation," "The weaker sex," "The weaker vessel," "Sweetness long +drawn out" and "chief cook and bottle washer," should be put on the +shelf as they are utterly worn out from too much usage.</p> +<p>Some of the old similes which have outlived their usefulness and +should be pensioned off, are "Sweet as sugar," "Bold as a lion," +"Strong as an ox," "Quick as a flash," "Cold as ice," "Stiff as a +poker," "White as snow," "Busy as a bee," "Pale as a ghost," "Rich +as Croesus," "Cross as a bear" and a great many more far too +numerous to mention.</p> +<p>Be as original as possible in the use of expression. Don't +follow in the old rut but try and strike out for yourself. This +does not mean that you should try to set the style, or do anything +outlandish or out of the way, or be an innovator on the prevailing +custom. In order to be original there is no necessity for you to +introduce something novel or establish a precedent. The probability +is you are not fit to do either, by education or talent. While +following the style of those who are acknowledged leaders you can +be original in your language. Try and clothe an idea different from +what it has been clothed and better. If you are speaking or writing +of dancing don't talk or write about "tripping the light fantastic +toe." It is over two hundred years since Milton expressed it that +way in "<i>L'Allegro</i>." You're not a Milton and besides over a +million have stolen it from Milton until it is now no longer worth +stealing.</p> +<p>Don't resurrect obsolete words such as <i>whilom</i>, +<i>yclept</i>, <i>wis</i>, etc., and be careful in regard to +obsolescent words, that is, words that are at the present time +gradually passing from use such as <i>quoth, trow, betwixt, +amongst, froward</i>, etc.</p> +<p>And beware of new words. Be original in the construction and +arrangement of your language, but don't try to originate words. +Leave that to the Masters of language, and don't be the first to +try such words, wait until the chemists of speech have tested them +and passed upon their merits.</p> +<p>Quintilian said—"Prefer the oldest of the new and the +newest of the old." Pope put this in rhyme and it still holds +good:</p> +<p>In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold, Alike fantastic, +if too new or old: Be not the first by whom the new are tried, Nor +yet the last to lay the old aside.</p> +<h3>PROPRIETY</h3> +<p><i>Propriety</i> of style consists in using words in their +proper sense and as in the case of purity, good usage is the +principal test. Many words have acquired in actual use a meaning +very different from what they once possessed. "Prevent" formerly +meant to go before, and that meaning is implied in its Latin +derivation. Now it means to put a stop to, to hinder. To attain +propriety of style it is necessary to avoid confounding words +derived from the same root; as <i>respectfully</i> and +<i>respectively</i>; it is necessary to use words in their accepted +sense or the sense which everyday use sanctions.</p> +<h3>SIMPLICITY</h3> +<p><i>Simplicity</i> of style has reference to the choice of simple +words and their unaffected presentation. Simple words should always +be used in preference to compound, and complicated ones when they +express the same or almost the same meaning. The Anglo-Saxon +element in our language comprises the simple words which express +the relations of everyday life, strong, terse, vigorous, the +language of the fireside, street, market and farm. It is this style +which characterizes the Bible and many of the great English +classics such as the "Pilgrim's Progress," "Robinson Crusoe," and +"Gulliver's Travels."</p> +<h3>CLEARNESS</h3> +<p><i>Clearness</i> of style should be one of the leading +considerations with the beginner in composition. He must avoid all +obscurity and ambiguous phrases. If he write a sentence or phrase +and see that a meaning might be inferred from it otherwise than +intended, he should re-write it in such a way that there can be no +possible doubt. Words, phrases or clauses that are closely related +should be placed as near to each other as possible that their +mutual relation may clearly appear, and no word should be omitted +that is necessary to the complete expression of thought.</p> +<h3>UNITY</h3> +<p><i>Unity</i> is that property of style which keeps all parts of +a sentence in connection with the principal thought and logically +subordinate to it. A sentence may be constructed as to suggest the +idea of oneness to the mind, or it may be so loosely put together +as to produce a confused and indefinite impression. Ideas that have +but little connection should be expressed in separate sentences, +and not crowded into one.</p> +<p>Keep long parentheses out of the middle of your sentences and +when you have apparently brought your sentences to a close don't +try to continue the thought or idea by adding supplementary +clauses.</p> +<h3>STRENGTH</h3> +<p><i>Strength</i> is that property of style which gives animation, +energy and vivacity to language and sustains the interest of the +reader. It is as necessary to language as good food is to the body. +Without it the words are weak and feeble and create little or no +impression on the mind. In order to have strength the language must +be concise, that is, much expressed in little compass, you must hit +the nail fairly on the head and drive it in straight. Go critically +over what you write and strike out every word, phrase and clause +the omission of which impairs neither the clearness nor force of +the sentence and so avoid redundancy, tautology and circumlocution. +Give the most important words the most prominent places, which, as +has been pointed out elsewhere, are the beginning and end of the +sentence.</p> +<h3>HARMONY</h3> +<p><i>Harmony</i> is that property of style which gives a +smoothness to the sentence, so that when the words are sounded +their connection becomes pleasing to the ear. It adapts sound to +sense. Most people construct their sentences without giving thought +to the way they will sound and as a consequence we have many +jarring and discordant combinations such as "Thou strengthenedst +thy position and actedst arbitrarily and derogatorily to my +interests."</p> +<p>Harsh, disagreeable verbs are liable to occur with the Quaker +form <i>Thou</i> of the personal pronoun. This form is now nearly +obsolete, the plural <i>you</i> being almost universally used. To +obtain harmony in the sentence long words that are hard to +pronounce and combinations of letters of one kind should be +avoided.</p> +<h3>EXPRESSIVE OF WRITER</h3> +<p>Style is expressive of the writer, as to who he is and what he +is. As a matter of structure in composition it is the indication of +what a man can do; as a matter of quality it is an indication of +what he is.</p> +<h3>KINDS OF STYLE</h3> +<p>Style has been classified in different ways, but it admits of so +many designations that it is very hard to enumerate a table. In +fact there are as many styles as there are writers, for no two +authors write <i>exactly</i> after the same form. However, we may +classify the styles of the various authors in broad divisions as +(1) dry, (2) plain, (3) neat, (4) elegant, (5) florid, (6) +bombastic.</p> +<p>The <i>dry</i> style excludes all ornament and makes no effort +to appeal to any sense of beauty. Its object is simply to express +the thoughts in a correct manner. This style is exemplified by +Berkeley.</p> +<p>The <i>plain</i> style does not seek ornamentation either, but +aims to make clear and concise statements without any elaboration +or embellishment. Locke and Whately illustrate the plain style.</p> +<p>The <i>neat</i> style only aspires after ornament sparingly. Its +object is to have correct figures, pure diction and clear and +harmonious sentences. Goldsmith and Gray are the acknowledged +leaders in this kind of style.</p> +<p>The <i>elegant</i> style uses every ornament that can beautify +and avoids every excess which would degrade. Macaulay and Addison +have been enthroned as the kings of this style. To them all writers +bend the knee in homage.</p> +<p>The <i>florid</i> style goes to excess in superfluous and +superficial ornamentation and strains after a highly colored +imagery. The poems of Ossian typify this style.</p> +<p>The <i>bombastic</i> is characterized by such an excess of +words, figures and ornaments as to be ridiculous and disgusting. It +is like a circus clown dressed up in gold tinsel Dickens gives a +fine example of it in Sergeant Buzfuz' speech in the "Pickwick +Papers." Among other varieties of style may be mentioned the +colloquial, the laconic, the concise, the diffuse, the abrupt the +flowing, the quaint, the epigrammatic, the flowery, the feeble, the +nervous, the vehement, and the affected. The manner of these is +sufficiently indicated by the adjective used to describe them.</p> +<p>In fact style is as various as character and expresses the +individuality of the writer, or in other words, as the French +writer Buffon very aptly remarks, "the style is the man +himself."</p> +<center> +<h2 id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</h2> +<h3>SUGGESTIONS</h3> +<h4>How to Write—What to Write—Correct Speaking and +Speakers</h4></center> +<p>Rules of grammar and rhetoric are good in their own place; their +laws must be observed in order to express thoughts and ideas in the +right way so that they shall convey a determinate sense and meaning +in a pleasing and acceptable manner. Hard and fast rules, however, +can never make a writer or author. That is the business of old +Mother Nature and nothing can take her place. If nature has not +endowed a man with faculties to put his ideas into proper +composition he cannot do so. He may have no ideas worthy the +recording. If a person has not a thought to express, it cannot be +expressed. Something cannot be manufactured out of nothing. The +author must have thoughts and ideas before he can express them on +paper. These come to him by nature and environment and are +developed and strengthened by study. There is an old Latin +quotation in regard to the poet which says "Poeta nascitur non fit" +the translation of which is—the poet is born, not made. To a +great degree the same applies to the author. Some men are great +scholars as far as book learning is concerned, yet they cannot +express themselves in passable composition. Their knowledge is like +gold locked up in a chest where it is of no value to themselves or +the rest of the world.</p> +<p>The best way to learn to write is to sit down and write, just as +the best way how to learn to ride a bicycle is to mount the wheel +and pedal away. Write first about common things, subjects that are +familiar to you. Try for instance an essay on a cat. Say something +original about her. Don't say "she is very playful when young but +becomes grave as she grows old." That has been said more than fifty +thousand times before. Tell what you have seen the family cat +doing, how she caught a mouse in the garret and what she did after +catching it. Familiar themes are always the best for the beginner. +Don't attempt to describe a scene in Australia if you have never +been there and know nothing of the country. Never hunt for +subjects, there are thousands around you. Describe what you saw +yesterday—a fire, a runaway horse, a dog-fight on the street +and be original in your description. Imitate the best writers in +their <i>style</i>, but not in their exact words. Get out of the +beaten path, make a pathway of your own.</p> +<p>Know what you write about, write about what you know; this is a +golden rule to which you must adhere. To know you must study. The +world is an open book in which all who run may read. Nature is one +great volume the pages of which are open to the peasant as well as +to the peer. Study Nature's moods and tenses, for they are vastly +more important than those of the grammar. Book learning is most +desirable, but, after all, it is only theory and not practice. The +grandest allegory in the English, in fact, in any language, was +written by an ignorant, so-called ignorant, tinker named John +Bunyan. Shakespeare was not a scholar in the sense we regard the +term to-day, yet no man ever lived or probably ever will live that +equalled or will equal him in the expression of thought. He simply +read the book of nature and interpreted it from the standpoint of +his own magnificent genius.</p> +<p>Don't imagine that a college education is necessary to success +as a writer. Far from it. Some of our college men are dead-heads, +drones, parasites on the body social, not alone useless to the +world but to themselves. A person may be so ornamental that he is +valueless from any other standpoint. As a general rule ornamental +things serve but little purpose. A man may know so much of +everything that he knows little of anything. This may sound +paradoxical, but, nevertheless, experience proves its truth.</p> +<p>If you are poor that is not a detriment but an advantage. +Poverty is an incentive to endeavor, not a drawback. Better to be +born with a good, working brain in your head than with a gold spoon +in your mouth. If the world had been depending on the so-called +pets of fortune it would have deteriorated long ago.</p> +<p>From the pits of poverty, from the arenas of suffering, from the +hovels of neglect, from the backwood cabins of obscurity, from the +lanes and by-ways of oppression, from the dingy garrets and +basements of unending toil and drudgery have come men and women who +have made history, made the world brighter, better, higher, holier +for their existence in it, made of it a place good to live in and +worthy to die in,—men and women who have hallowed it by their +footsteps and sanctified it with their presence and in many cases +consecrated it with their blood. Poverty is a blessing, not an +evil, a benison from the Father's hand if accepted in the right +spirit. Instead of retarding, it has elevated literature in all +ages. Homer was a blind beggarman singing his snatches of song for +the dole of charity; grand old Socrates, oracle of wisdom, many a +day went without his dinner because he had not the wherewithal to +get it, while teaching the youth of Athens. The divine Dante was +nothing better than a beggar, houseless, homeless, friendless, +wandering through Italy while he composed his immortal cantos. +Milton, who in his blindness "looked where angels fear to tread," +was steeped in poverty while writing his sublime conception, +"Paradise Lost." Shakespeare was glad to hold and water the horses +of patrons outside the White Horse Theatre for a few pennies in +order to buy bread. Burns burst forth in never-dying song while +guiding the ploughshare. Poor Heinrich Heine, neglected and in +poverty, from his "mattress grave" of suffering in Paris added +literary laurels to the wreath of his German Fatherland. In America +Elihu Burritt, while attending the anvil, made himself a master of +a score of languages and became the literary lion of his age and +country.</p> +<p>In other fields of endeavor poverty has been the spur to action. +Napoleon was born in obscurity, the son of a hand-to-mouth +scrivener in the backward island of Corsica. Abraham Lincoln, the +boast and pride of America, the man who made this land too hot for +the feet of slaves, came from a log cabin in the Ohio backwoods. So +did James A. Garfield. Ulysses Grant came from a tanyard to become +the world's greatest general. Thomas A. Edison commenced as a +newsboy on a railway train.</p> +<p>The examples of these men are incentives to action. Poverty +thrust them forward instead of keeping them back. Therefore, if you +are poor make your circumstances a means to an end. Have ambition, +keep a goal in sight and bend every energy to reach that goal. A +story is told of Thomas Carlyle the day he attained the highest +honor the literary world could confer upon him when he was elected +Lord Rector of Edinburgh University. After his installation speech, +in going through the halls, he met a student seemingly deep in +study. In his own peculiar, abrupt, crusty way the Sage of Chelsea +interrogated the young man: "For what profession are you studying?" +"I don't know," returned the youth. "You don't know," thundered +Carlyle, "young man, you are a fool." Then he went on to qualify +his vehement remark, "My boy when I was your age, I was stooped in +grinding, gripping poverty in the little village of Ecclefechan, in +the wilds of [Transcriber's note: First part of word +illegible]-frieshire, where in all the place only the minister and +myself could read the Bible, yet poor and obscure as I was, in my +mind's eye I saw a chair awaiting for me in the Temple of Fame and +day and night and night and day I studied until I sat in that chair +to-day as Lord Rector of Edinburgh University."</p> +<p>Another Scotchman, Robert Buchanan, the famous novelist, set out +for London from Glasgow with but half-a-crown in his pocket. "Here +goes," said he, "for a grave in Westminster Abbey." He was not much +of a scholar, but his ambition carried him on and he became one of +the great literary lions of the world's metropolis.</p> +<p>Henry M. Stanley was a poorhouse waif whose real name was John +Rowlands. He was brought up in a Welsh workhouse, but he had +ambition, so he rose to be a great explorer, a great writer, became +a member of Parliament and was knighted by the British +Sovereign.</p> +<p>Have ambition to succeed and you will succeed. Cut the word +"failure" out of your lexicon. Don't acknowledge it. Remember</p> +<pre> + "In life's earnest battle they only prevail + Who daily march onward and never say fail." +</pre> + +<p>Let every obstacle you encounter be but a stepping stone in the +path of onward progress to the goal of success.</p> +<p>If untoward circumstances surround you, resolve to overcome +them. Bunyan wrote the "Pilgrim's Progress" in Bedford jail on +scraps of wrapping paper while he was half starved on a diet of +bread and water. That unfortunate American genius, Edgar Allan Poe, +wrote "The Raven," the most wonderful conception as well as the +most highly artistic poem in all English literature, in a little +cottage in the Fordham section of New York while he was in the +direst straits of want. Throughout all his short and wonderfully +brilliant career, poor Poe never had a dollar he could call his +own. Such, however, was both his fault and his misfortune and he is +a bad exemplar.</p> +<p>Don't think that the knowledge of a library of books is +essential to success as a writer. Often a multiplicity of books is +confusing. Master a few good books and master them well and you +will have all that is necessary. A great authority has said: +"Beware of the man of one book," which means that a man of one book +is a master of the craft. It is claimed that a thorough knowledge +of the Bible alone will make any person a master of literature. +Certain it is that the Bible and Shakespeare constitute an epitome +of the essentials of knowledge. Shakespeare gathered the fruitage +of all who went before him, he has sown the seeds for all who shall +ever come after him. He was the great intellectual ocean whose +waves touch the continents of all thought.</p> +<p>Books are cheap now-a-days, the greatest works, thanks to the +printing press, are within the reach of all, and the more you read, +the better, provided they are worth reading. Sometimes a man takes +poison into his system unconscious of the fact that it is poison, +as in the case of certain foods, and it is very hard to throw off +its effects. Therefore, be careful in your choice of reading +matter. If you cannot afford a full library, and as has been said, +such is not necessary, select a few of the great works of the +master minds, assimilate and digest them, so that they will be of +advantage to your literary system. Elsewhere in this volume is +given a list of some of the world's masterpieces from which you can +make a selection.</p> +<p>Your brain is a storehouse, don't put useless furniture into it +to crowd it to the exclusion of what is useful. Lay up only the +valuable and serviceable kind which you can call into requisition +at any moment.</p> +<p>As it is necessary to study the best authors in order to be a +writer, so it is necessary to study the best speakers in order to +talk with correctness and in good style. To talk rightly you must +imitate the masters of oral speech. Listen to the best +conversationalists and how they express themselves. Go to hear the +leading lectures, speeches and sermons. No need to imitate the +gestures of elocution, it is nature, not art, that makes the +elocutionist and the orator. It is not <i>how</i> a speaker +expresses himself but the language which he uses and the manner of +its use which should interest you. Have you heard the present day +masters of speech? There have been past time masters but their +tongues are stilled in the dust of the grave, and you can only read +their eloquence now. You can, however, listen to the charm of the +living. To many of us voices still speak from the grave, voices to +which we have listened when fired with the divine essence of +speech. Perhaps you have hung with rapture on the words of Beecher +and Talmage. Both thrilled the souls of men and won countless +thousands over to a living gospel. Both were masters of words, they +scattered the flowers of rhetoric on the shrine of eloquence and +hurled veritable bouquets at their audiences which were eagerly +seized by the latter and treasured in the storehouse of memory. +Both were scholars and philosophers, yet they were far surpassed by +Spurgeon, a plain man of the people with little or no claim to +education in the modern sense of the word. Spurgeon by his speech +attracted thousands to his Tabernacle. The Protestant and Catholic, +Turk, Jew and Mohammedan rushed to hear him and listened, +entranced, to his language. Such another was Dwight L. Moody, the +greatest Evangelist the world has ever known. Moody was not a man +of learning; he commenced life as a shoe salesman in Chicago, yet +no man ever lived who drew such audiences and so fascinated them +with the spell of his speech. "Oh, that was personal magnetism," +you will say, but it was nothing of the kind. It was the burning +words that fell from the lips of these men, and the way, the +manner, the force with which they used those words that counted and +attracted the crowds to listen unto them. Personal magnetism or +personal appearance entered not as factors into their success. +Indeed as far as physique were concerned, some of them were +handicapped. Spurgeon was a short, podgy, fat little man, Moody was +like a country farmer, Talmage in his big cloak was one of the most +slovenly of men and only Beecher was passable in the way of +refinement and gentlemanly bearing. Physical appearance, as so many +think, is not the sesame to the interest of an audience. Daniel +O'Connell, the Irish tribune, was a homely, ugly, awkward, ungainly +man, yet his words attracted millions to his side and gained for +him the hostile ear of the British Parliament, he was a master of +verbiage and knew just what to say to captivate his audiences.</p> +<p>It is words and their placing that count on almost all +occasions. No matter how refined in other respects the person may +be, if he use words wrongly and express himself in language not in +accordance with a proper construction, he will repel you, whereas +the man who places his words correctly and employs language in +harmony with the laws of good speech, let him be ever so humble, +will attract and have an influence over you.</p> +<p>The good speaker, the correct speaker, is always able to command +attention and doors are thrown open to him which remain closed to +others not equipped with a like facility of expression. The man who +can talk well and to the point need never fear to go idle. He is +required in nearly every walk of life and field of human endeavor, +the world wants him at every turn. Employers are constantly on the +lookout for good talkers, those who are able to attract the public +and convince others by the force of their language. A man may be +able, educated, refined, of unblemished character, nevertheless if +he lack the power to express himself, put forth his views in good +and appropriate speech he has to take a back seat, while some one +with much less ability gets the opportunity to come to the front +because he can clothe his ideas in ready words and talk +effectively.</p> +<p>You may again say that nature, not art, makes a man a fluent +speaker; to a great degree this is true, but it is <i>art</i> that +makes him a <i>correct</i> speaker, and correctness leads to +fluency. It is possible for everyone to become a correct speaker if +he will but persevere and take a little pains and care.</p> +<p>At the risk of repetition good advice may be here emphasized: +Listen to the best speakers and note carefully the words which +impress you most. Keep a notebook and jot down words, phrases, +sentences that are in any way striking or out of the ordinary run. +If you do not understand the exact meaning of a word you have +heard, look it up in the dictionary. There are many words, called +synonyms, which have almost a like signification, nevertheless, +when examined they express different shades of meaning and in some +cases, instead of being close related, are widely divergent. Beware +of such words, find their exact meaning and learn to use them in +their right places.</p> +<p>Be open to criticism, don't resent it but rather invite it and +look upon those as friends who point out your defects in order that +you may remedy them.</p> +<center> +<h2 id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</h2> +<h3>SLANG</h3> +<h4>Origin—American Slang—Foreign Slang</h4></center> +<p>Slang is more or less common in nearly all ranks of society and +in every walk of life at the present day. Slang words and +expressions have crept into our everyday language, and so +insiduously, that they have not been detected by the great majority +of speakers, and so have become part and parcel of their vocabulary +on an equal footing with the legitimate words of speech. They are +called upon to do similar service as the ordinary words used in +everyday conversation—to express thoughts and desires and +convey meaning from one to another. In fact, in some cases, slang +has become so useful that it has far outstripped classic speech and +made for itself such a position in the vernacular that it would be +very hard in some cases to get along without it. Slang words have +usurped the place of regular words of language in very many +instances and reign supreme in their own strength and +influence.</p> +<p>Cant and slang are often confused in the popular mind, yet they +are not synonymous, though very closely allied, and proceeding from +a common Gypsy origin. Cant is the language of a certain +class—the peculiar phraseology or dialect of a certain craft, +trade or profession, and is not readily understood save by the +initiated of such craft, trade or profession. It may be correct, +according to the rules of grammar, but it is not universal; it is +confined to certain parts and localities and is only intelligible +to those for whom it is intended. In short, it is an esoteric +language which only the initiated can understand. The jargon, or +patter, of thieves is cant and it is only understood by thieves who +have been let into its significance; the initiated language of +professional gamblers is cant, and is only intelligible to +gamblers.</p> +<p>On the other hand, slang, as it is nowadays, belongs to no +particular class but is scattered all over and gets <i>entre</i> +into every kind of society and is understood by all where it passes +current in everyday expression. Of course, the nature of the slang, +to a great extent, depends upon the locality, as it chiefly is +concerned with colloquialisms or words and phrases common to a +particular section. For instance, the slang of London is slightly +different from that of New York, and some words in the one city may +be unintelligible in the other, though well understood in that in +which they are current. Nevertheless, slang may be said to be +universally understood. "To kick the bucket," "to cross the +Jordan," "to hop the twig" are just as expressive of the departing +from life in the backwoods of America or the wilds of Australia as +they are in London or Dublin.</p> +<p>Slang simply consists of words and phrases which pass current +but are not refined, nor elegant enough, to be admitted into polite +speech or literature whenever they are recognized as such. But, as +has been said, a great many use slang without their knowing it as +slang and incorporate it into their everyday speech and +conversation.</p> +<p>Some authors purposely use slang to give emphasis and spice in +familiar and humorous writing, but they should not be imitated by +the tyro. A master, such as Dickens, is forgivable, but in the +novice it is unpardonable.</p> +<p>There are several kinds of slang attached to different +professions and classes of society. For instance, there is college +slang, political slang, sporting slang, etc. It is the nature of +slang to circulate freely among all classes, yet there are several +kinds of this current form of language corresponding to the several +classes of society. The two great divisions of slang are the vulgar +of the uneducated and coarse-minded, and the high-toned slang of +the so-called upper classes—the educated and the wealthy. The +hoyden of the gutter does not use the same slang as my lady in her +boudoir, but both use it, and so expressive is it that the one +might readily understand the other if brought in contact. +Therefore, there are what may be styled an ignorant slang and an +educated slang—the one common to the purlieus and the alleys, +the other to the parlor and the drawing-room.</p> +<p>In all cases the object of slang is to express an idea in a more +vigorous, piquant and terse manner than standard usage ordinarily +admits. A school girl, when she wants to praise a baby, exclaims: +"Oh, isn't he awfully cute!" To say that he is very nice would be +too weak a way to express her admiration. When a handsome girl +appears on the street an enthusiastic masculine admirer, to express +his appreciation of her beauty, tells you: "She is a peach, a bird, +a cuckoo," any of which accentuates his estimation of the young +lady and is much more emphatic than saying: "She is a beautiful +girl," "a handsome maiden," or "lovely young woman."</p> +<p>When a politician defeats his rival he will tell you "it was a +cinch," he had a "walk-over," to impress you how easy it was to +gain the victory.</p> +<p>Some slang expressions are of the nature of metaphors and are +highly figurative. Such are "to pass in your checks," "to hold up," +"to pull the wool over your eyes," "to talk through your hat," "to +fire out," "to go back on," "to make yourself solid with," "to have +a jag on," "to be loaded," "to freeze on to," "to bark up the wrong +tree," "don't monkey with the buzz-saw," and "in the soup." Most +slang had a bad origin. The greater part originated in the cant of +thieves' Latin, but it broke away from this cant of malefactors in +time and gradually evolved itself from its unsavory past until it +developed into a current form of expressive speech. Some slang, +however, can trace its origin back to very respectable sources.</p> +<p>"Stolen fruits are sweet" may be traced to the Bible in +sentiment. Proverbs, ix:17 has it: "Stolen waters are sweet." "What +are you giving me," supposed to be a thorough Americanism, is based +upon Genesis, xxxviii:16. The common slang, "a bad man," in +referring to Western desperadoes, in almost the identical sense now +used, is found in Spenser's <i>Faerie Queen,</i> Massinger's play +<i>"A New Way to Pay Old Debts,"</i> and in Shakespeare's <i>"King +Henry VIII."</i> The expression "to blow on," meaning to inform, is +in Shakespeare's <i>"As You Like it."</i> "It's all Greek to me" is +traceable to the play of <i>"Julius Caesar."</i> "All cry and no +wool" is in Butler's <i>"Hudibras."</i> "Pious frauds," meaning +hypocrites, is from the same source. "Too thin," referring to an +excuse, is from Smollett's "<i>Peregrine Pickle</i>." Shakespeare +also used it.</p> +<p>America has had a large share in contributing to modern slang. +"The heathen Chinee," and "Ways that are dark, and tricks that are +vain," are from Bret Harte's <i>Truthful James</i>. "Not for Joe," +arose during the Civil War when one soldier refused to give a drink +to another. "Not if I know myself" had its origin in Chicago. +"What's the matter with——? He's all right," had its +beginning in Chicago also and first was "What's the matter with +Hannah." referring to a lazy domestic servant. "There's millions in +it," and "By a large majority" come from Mark Twain's <i>Gilded +Age</i>. "Pull down your vest," "jim-jams," "got 'em bad," "that's +what's the matter," "go hire a hall," "take in your sign," "dry +up," "hump yourself," "it's the man around the corner," "putting up +a job," "put a head on him," "no back talk," "bottom dollar," "went +off on his ear," "chalk it down," "staving him off," "making it +warm," "dropping him gently," "dead gone," "busted," "counter +jumper," "put up or shut up," "bang up," "smart Aleck," "too much +jaw," "chin-music," "top heavy," "barefooted on the top of the +head," "a little too fresh," "champion liar," "chief cook and +bottle washer," "bag and baggage," "as fine as silk," "name your +poison," "died with his boots on," "old hoss," "hunkey dorey," +"hold your horses," "galoot" and many others in use at present are +all Americanisms in slang.</p> +<p>California especially has been most fecund in this class of +figurative language. To this State we owe "go off and die," "don't +you forget it," "rough deal," "square deal," "flush times," "pool +your issues," "go bury yourself," "go drown yourself," "give your +tongue a vacation," "a bad egg," "go climb a tree," "plug hats," +"Dolly Vardens," "well fixed," "down to bed rock," "hard pan," "pay +dirt," "petered out," "it won't wash," "slug of whiskey," "it pans +out well," and "I should smile." "Small potatoes, and few in the +hill," "soft snap," "all fired," "gol durn it," "an up-hill job," +"slick," "short cut," "guess not," "correct thing" are Bostonisms. +The terms "innocent," "acknowledge the corn," "bark up the wrong +tree," "great snakes," "I reckon," "playing 'possum," "dead shot," +had their origin in the Southern States. "Doggone it," "that beats +the Dutch," "you bet," "you bet your boots," sprang from New York. +"Step down and out" originated in the Beecher trial, just as +"brain-storm" originated in the Thaw trial.</p> +<p>Among the slang phrases that have come directly to us from +England may be mentioned "throw up the sponge," "draw it mild," +"give us a rest," "dead beat," "on the shelf," "up the spout," +"stunning," "gift of the gab," etc.</p> +<p>The newspapers are responsible for a large part of the slang. +Reporters, staff writers, and even editors, put words and phrases +into the mouths of individuals which they never utter. New York is +supposed to be the headquarters of slang, particularly that portion +of it known as the Bowery. All transgressions and corruptions of +language are supposed to originate in that unclassic section, while +the truth is that the laws of polite English are as much violated +on Fifth Avenue. Of course, the foreign element mincing their +"pidgin" English have given the Bowery an unenviable reputation, +but there are just as good speakers of the vernacular on the Bowery +as elsewhere in the greater city. Yet every inexperienced newspaper +reporter thinks that it is incumbent on him to hold the Bowery up +to ridicule and laughter, so he sits down, and out of his +circumscribed brain, mutilates the English tongue (he can rarely +coin a word), and blames the mutilation on the Bowery.</p> +<p>'Tis the same with newspapers and authors, too, detracting the +Irish race. Men and women who have never seen the green hills of +Ireland, paint Irish characters as boors and blunderers and make +them say ludicrous things and use such language as is never heard +within the four walls of Ireland. 'Tis very well known that Ireland +is the most learned country on the face of the earth—is, and +has been. The schoolmaster has been abroad there for hundreds, +almost thousands, of years, and nowhere else in the world to-day is +the king's English spoken so purely as in the cities and towns of +the little Western Isle.</p> +<p>Current events, happenings of everyday life, often give rise to +slang words, and these, after a time, come into such general use +that they take their places in everyday speech like ordinary words +and, as has been said, their users forget that they once were +slang. For instance, the days of the Land League in Ireland +originated the word <i>boycott</i>, which was the name of a very +unpopular landlord, Captain Boycott. The people refused to work for +him, and his crops rotted on the ground. From this time any one who +came into disfavor and whom his neighbors refused to assist in any +way was said to be boycotted. Therefore to boycott means to punish +by abandoning or depriving a person of the assistance of others. At +first it was a notoriously slang word, but now it is standard in +the English dictionaries.</p> +<p>Politics add to our slang words and phrases. From this source we +get "dark horse," "the gray mare is the better horse," "barrel of +money," "buncombe," "gerrymander," "scalawag," "henchman," +"logrolling," "pulling the wires," "taking the stump," "machine," +"slate," etc.</p> +<p>The money market furnishes us with "corner," "bull," "bear," +"lamb," "slump," and several others.</p> +<p>The custom of the times and the requirements of current +expression require the best of us to use slang words and phrases on +occasions. Often we do not know they are slang, just as a child +often uses profane words without consciousness of their being so. +We should avoid the use of slang as much as possible, even when it +serves to convey our ideas in a forceful manner. And when it has +not gained a firm foothold in current speech it should be used not +at all. Remember that most all slang is of vulgar origin and bears +upon its face the bend sinister of vulgarity. Of the slang that is +of good birth, pass it by if you can, for it is like a broken-down +gentleman, of little good to any one. Imitate the great masters as +much as you will in classical literature, but when it comes to +their slang, draw the line. Dean Swift, the great Irish satirist, +coined the word "phiz" for face. Don't imitate him. If you are +speaking or writing of the beauty of a lady's face don't call it +her "phiz." The Dean, as an intellectual giant, had a license to do +so—you haven't. Shakespeare used the word "flush" to indicate +plenty of money. Well, just remember there was only one +Shakespeare, and he was the only one that had a right to use that +word in that sense. You'll never be a Shakespeare, there will never +be such another—Nature exhausted herself in producing him. +Bulwer used the word "stretch" for hang, as to stretch his neck. +Don't follow his example in such use of the word. Above all, avoid +the low, coarse, vulgar slang, which is made to pass for wit among +the riff-raff of the street. If you are speaking or writing of a +person having died last night don't say or write: "He hopped the +twig," or "he kicked the bucket." If you are compelled to listen to +a person discoursing on a subject of which he knows little or +nothing, don't say "He is talking through his hat." If you are +telling of having shaken hands with Mr. Roosevelt don't say "He +tipped me his flipper." If you are speaking of a wealthy man don't +say "He has plenty of spondulix," or "the long green." All such +slang is low, coarse and vulgar and is to be frowned upon on any +and every occasion.</p> +<p>If you use slang use the refined kind and use it like a +gentleman, that it will not hurt or give offense to any one. +Cardinal Newman defined a gentleman as he who never inflicts pain. +Be a gentleman in your slang—never inflict pain.</p> +<center> +<h2 id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</h2> +<h3>WRITING FOR NEWSPAPERS</h3> +<h4>Qualification—Appropriate +Subjects—Directions</h4></center> +<p>The newspaper nowadays goes into every home in the land; what +was formerly regarded as a luxury is now looked upon as a +necessity. No matter how poor the individual, he is not too poor to +afford a penny to learn, not alone what is taking place around him +in his own immediate vicinity, but also what is happening in every +quarter of the globe. The laborer on the street can be as well +posted on the news of the day as the banker in his office. Through +the newspaper he can feel the pulse of the country and find whether +its vitality is increasing or diminishing; he can read the signs of +the times and scan the political horizon for what concerns his own +interests. The doings of foreign countries are spread before him +and he can see at a glance the occurrences in the remotest corners +of earth. If a fire occurred in London last night he can read about +it at his breakfast table in New York this morning, and probably +get a better account than the Londoners themselves. If a duel takes +place in Paris he can read all about it even before the contestants +have left the field.</p> +<p>There are upwards of 3,000 daily newspapers in the United +States, more than 2,000 of which are published in towns containing +less than 100,000 inhabitants. In fact, many places of less than +10,000 population can boast the publishing of a daily newspaper. +There are more than 15,000 weeklies published. Some of the +so-called country papers wield quite an influence in their +localities, and even outside, and are money-making agencies for +their owners and those connected with them, both by way of +circulation and advertisements.</p> +<p>It is surprising the number of people in this country who make a +living in the newspaper field. Apart from the regular toilers there +are thousands of men and women who make newspaper work a side +issue, who add tidy sums of "pin money" to their incomes by +occasional contributions to the daily, weekly and monthly press. +Most of these people are only persons of ordinary, everyday +ability, having just enough education to express themselves +intelligently in writing.</p> +<p>It is a mistake to imagine, as so many do, that an extended +education is necessary for newspaper work. Not at all! On the +contrary, in some cases, a high-class education is a hindrance, not +a help in this direction. The general newspaper does not want +learned disquisitions nor philosophical theses; as its name +implies, it wants news, current news, interesting news, something +to appeal to its readers, to arouse them and rivet their attention. +In this respect very often a boy can write a better article than a +college professor. The professor would be apt to use words beyond +the capacity of most of the readers, while the boy, not knowing +such words, would probably simply tell what he saw, how great the +damage was, who were killed or injured, etc., and use language +which all would understand.</p> +<p>Of course, there are some brilliant scholars, deeply-read men +and women in the newspaper realm, but, on the whole, those who have +made the greatest names commenced ignorant enough and most of them +graduated by way of the country paper. Some of the leading writers +of England and America at the present time started their literary +careers by contributing to the rural press. They perfected and +polished themselves as they went along until they were able to make +names for themselves in universal literature.</p> +<p>If you want to contribute to newspapers or enter the newspaper +field as a means of livelihood, don't let lack of a college or +university education stand in your way. As has been said elsewhere +in this book, some of the greatest masters of English literature +were men who had but little advantage in the way of book learning. +Shakespeare, Bunyan, Burns, and scores of others, who have left +their names indelibly inscribed on the tablets of fame, had little +to boast of in the way of book education, but they had what is +popularly known as "horse" sense and a good working knowledge of +the world; in other words, they understood human nature, and were +natural themselves. Shakespeare understood mankind because he was +himself a man; hence he has portrayed the feelings, the emotions, +the passions with a master's touch, delineating the king in his +palace as true to nature as he has done the peasant in his hut. The +monitor within his own breast gave him warning as to what was right +and what was wrong, just as the daemon ever by the side of old +Socrates whispered in his ear the course to pursue under any and +all circumstances. Burns guiding the plough conceived thoughts and +clothed them in a language which has never, nor probably never will +be, surpassed by all the learning which art can confer. These men +were natural, and it was the perfection of this naturality that +wreathed their brows with the never-fading laurels of undying +fame.</p> +<p>If you would essay to write for the newspaper you must be +natural and express yourself in your accustomed way without putting +on airs or frills; you must not ape ornaments and indulge in +bombast or rhodomontade which stamp a writer as not only +superficial but silly. There is no room for such in the everyday +newspaper. It wants facts stated in plain, unvarnished, unadorned +language. True, you should read the best authors and, as far as +possible, imitate their style, but don't try to literally copy +them. Be yourself on every occasion—no one else.</p> +<pre> + Not like Homer would I write, + Not like Dante if I might, + Not like Shakespeare at his best, + Not like Goethe or the rest, + Like myself, however small, + Like myself, or not at all. +</pre> + +<p>Put yourself in place of the reader and write what will interest +yourself and in such a way that your language will appeal to your +own ideas of the fitness of things. You belong to the <i>great</i> +commonplace majority, therefore don't forget that in writing for +the newspapers you are writing for that majority and not for the +learned and aesthetic minority.</p> +<p>Remember you are writing for the man on the street and in the +street car, you want to interest him, to compel him to read what +you have to say. He does not want a display of learning; he wants +news about something which concerns himself, and you must tell it +to him in a plain, simple manner just as you would do if you were +face to face with him.</p> +<p>What can you write about? Why about anything that will +constitute current news, some leading event of the day, anything +that will appeal to the readers of the paper to which you wish to +submit it. No matter in what locality you may live, however +backward it may be, you can always find something of genuine human +interest to others. If there is no news happening, write of +something that appeals to yourself. We are all constituted alike, +and the chances are that what will interest you will interest +others. Descriptions of adventure are generally acceptable. Tell of +a fox hunt, or a badger hunt, or a bear chase.</p> +<p>If there is any important manufacturing plant in your +neighborhood describe it and, if possible, get photographs, for +photography plays a very important part in the news items of +to-day. If a "great" man lives near you, one whose name is on the +tip of every tongue, go and get an interview with him, obtain his +views on the public questions of the day, describe his home life +and his surroundings and how he spends his time.</p> +<p>Try and strike something germane to the moment, something that +stands out prominently in the limelight of the passing show. If a +noted personage, some famous man or woman, is visiting the country, +it is a good time to write up the place from which he or she comes +and the record he or she has made there. For instance, it was +opportune to write of Sulu and the little Pacific archipelago +during the Sultan's trip through the country. If an attempt is made +to blow up an American battleship, say, in the harbor of Appia, in +Samoa, it affords a chance to write about Samoa and Robert Louis +Stephenson. When Manuel was hurled from the throne of Portugal it +was a ripe time to write of Portugal and Portuguese affairs. If any +great occurrence is taking place in a foreign country such as the +crowning of a king or the dethronement of a monarch, it is a good +time to write up the history of the country and describe the events +leading up to the main issue. When a particularly savage outbreak +occurs amongst wild tribes in the dependencies, such as a rising of +the Manobos in the Philippines, it is opportune to write of such +tribes and their surroundings, and the causes leading up to the +revolt.</p> +<p>Be constantly on the lookout for something that will suit the +passing hour, read the daily papers and probably in some obscure +corner you may find something that will serve you as a foundation +for a good article—something, at least, that will give you a +clue.</p> +<p>Be circumspect in your selection of a paper to which to submit +your copy. Know the tone and general import of the paper, its +social leanings and political affiliations, also its religious +sentiments, and, in fact, all the particulars you can regarding it. +It would be injudicious for you to send an article on a prize fight +to a religious paper or, <i>vice versa</i>, an account of a church +meeting to the editor of a sporting sheet.</p> +<p>If you get your copy back don't be disappointed nor yet +disheartened. Perseverance counts more in the newspaper field than +anywhere else, and only perseverance wins in the long run. You must +become resilient; if you are pressed down, spring up again. No +matter how many rebuffs you may receive, be not discouraged but +call fresh energy to your assistance and make another stand. If the +right stuff is in you it is sure to be discovered; your light will +not remain long hidden under a bushel in the newspaper domain. If +you can deliver the goods editors will soon be begging you instead +of your begging them. Those men are constantly on the lookout for +persons who can make good.</p> +<p>Once you get into print the battle is won, for it will be an +incentive to you to persevere and improve yourself at every turn. +Go over everything you write, cut and slash and prune until you get +it into as perfect form as possible. Eliminate every superfluous +word and be careful to strike out all ambiguous expressions and +references.</p> +<p>If you are writing for a weekly paper remember it differs from a +daily one. Weeklies want what will not alone interest the man on +the street, but the woman at the fireside; they want out-of-the-way +facts, curious scraps of lore, personal notes of famous or +eccentric people, reminiscences of exciting experiences, +interesting gleanings in life's numberless by-ways, in short, +anything that will entertain, amuse, instruct the home circle. +There is always something occurring in your immediate surroundings, +some curious event or thrilling episode that will furnish you with +data for an article. You must know the nature of the weekly to +which you submit your copy the same as you must know the daily. For +instance, the <i>Christian Herald</i>, while avowedly a religious +weekly, treats such secular matter as makes the paper appeal to +all. On its religious side it is <i>non-sectarian</i>, covering the +broad field of Christianity throughout the world; on its secular +side it deals with human events in such an impartial way that every +one, no matter to what class they may belong or to what creed they +may subscribe, can take a living, personal interest.</p> +<p>The monthlies offer another attractive field for the literary +aspirant. Here, again, don't think you must be an university +professor to write for a monthly magazine. Many, indeed most, of +the foremost magazine contributors are men and women who have never +passed through a college except by going in at the front door and +emerging from the back one. However, for the most part, they are +individuals of wide experience who know the practical side of life +as distinguished from the theoretical.</p> +<p>The ordinary monthly magazine treats of the leading questions +and issues which are engaging the attention of the world for the +moment, great inventions, great discoveries, whatever is engrossing +the popular mind for the time being, such as flying machines, +battleships, sky-scrapers, the opening of mines, the development of +new lands, the political issues, views of party leaders, character +sketches of distinguished personages, etc. However, before trying +your skill for a monthly magazine it would be well for you to have +a good apprenticeship in writing for the daily press.</p> +<p>Above all things, remember that perseverance is the key that +opens the door of success. Persevere! If you are turned down don't +get disheartened; on the contrary, let the rebuff act as a +stimulant to further effort. Many of the most successful writers of +our time have been turned down again and again. For days and +months, and even years, some of them have hawked their wares from +one literary door to another until they found a purchaser. You may +be a great writer in embryo, but you will never develop into a +fetus, not to speak of full maturity, unless you bring out what is +in you. Give yourself a chance to grow and seize upon everything +that will enlarge the scope of your horizon. Keep your eyes wide +open and there is not a moment of the day in which you will not see +something to interest you and in which you may be able to interest +others. Learn, too, how to read Nature's book. There's a lesson in +everything—in the stones, the grass, the trees, the babbling +brooks and the singing birds. Interpret the lesson for yourself, +then teach it to others. Always be in earnest in your writing; go +about it in a determined kind of way, don't be faint-hearted or +backward, be brave, be brave, and evermore be brave.</p> +<pre> + On the wide, tented field in the battle of life, + With an army of millions before you; + Like a hero of old gird your soul for the strife + And let not the foeman tramp o'er you; + Act, act like a soldier and proudly rush on + The most valiant in Bravery's van, + With keen, flashing sword cut your way to the front + And show to the world you're a <i>Man</i>. +</pre> + +<p>If you are of the masculine gender be a man in all things in the +highest and best acceptation of the word. That is the noblest title +you can boast, higher far than that of earl or duke, emperor or +king. In the same way womanhood is the grandest crown the feminine +head can wear. When the world frowns on you and everything seems to +go wrong, possess your soul in patience and hope for the dawn of a +brighter day. It will come. The sun is always shining behind the +darkest clouds. When you get your manuscripts back again and again, +don't despair, nor think the editor cruel and unkind. He, too, has +troubles of his own. Keep up your spirits until you have made the +final test and put your talents to a last analysis, then if you +find you cannot get into print be sure that newspaper writing or +literary work is not your <i>forte</i>, and turn to something else. +If nothing better presents itself, try shoemaking or digging +ditches. Remember honest labor, no matter how humble, is ever +dignified. If you are a woman throw aside the pen, sit down and +darn your brother's, your father's, or your husband's socks, or put +on a calico apron, take soap and water and scrub the floor. No +matter who you are do something useful. That old sophistry about +the world owing you a living has been exploded long ago. The world +does not owe you a living, but you owe it servitude, and if you do +not pay the debt you are not serving the purpose of an all-wise +Providence and filling the place for which you were created. It is +for you to serve the world, to make it better, brighter, higher, +holier, grander, nobler, richer, for your having lived in it. This +you can do in no matter what position fortune has cast you, whether +it be that of street laborer or president. Fight the good fight and +gain the victory.</p> +<pre> + "Above all, to thine own self be true, + And 'twill follow as the night the + day, Thou canst not then be false to any man." +</pre> + +<center> +<h2 id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</h2> +<h3>CHOICE OF WORDS</h3> +<h4>Small Words—Their Importance—The Anglo-Saxon +Element</h4></center> +<p>In another place in this book advice has been given to never use +a long word when a short one will serve the same purpose. This +advice is to be emphasized. Words of "learned length and thundering +sound" should be avoided on all possible occasions. They proclaim +shallowness of intellect and vanity of mind. The great purists, the +masters of diction, the exemplars of style, used short, simple +words that all could understand; words about which there could be +no ambiguity as to meaning. It must be remembered that by our words +we teach others; therefore, a very great responsibility rests upon +us in regard to the use of a right language. We must take care that +we think and speak in a way so clear that there may be no +misapprehension or danger of conveying wrong impressions by vague +and misty ideas enunciated in terms which are liable to be +misunderstood by those whom we address. Words give a body or form +to our ideas, without which they are apt to be so foggy that we do +not see where they are weak or false. We must make the endeavor to +employ such words as will put the idea we have in our own mind into +the mind of another. This is the greatest art in the world—to +clothe our ideas in words clear and comprehensive to the +intelligence of others. It is the art which the teacher, the +minister, the lawyer, the orator, the business man, must master if +they would command success in their various fields of endeavor. It +is very hard to convey an idea to, and impress it on, another when +he has but a faint conception of the language in which the idea is +expressed; but it is impossible to convey it at all when the words +in which it is clothed are unintelligible to the listener.</p> +<p>If we address an audience of ordinary men and women in the +English language, but use such words as they cannot comprehend, we +might as well speak to them in Coptic or Chinese, for they will +derive no benefit from our address, inasmuch as the ideas we wish +to convey are expressed in words which communicate no intelligent +meaning to their minds.</p> +<p>Long words, learned words, words directly derived from other +languages are only understood by those who have had the advantages +of an extended education. All have not had such advantages. The +great majority in this grand and glorious country of ours have to +hustle for a living from an early age. Though education is free, +and compulsory also, very many never get further than the "Three +R's." These are the men with whom we have to deal most in the arena +of life, the men with the horny palms and the iron muscles, the men +who build our houses, construct our railroads, drive our street +cars and trains, till our fields, harvest our crops—in a +word, the men who form the foundation of all society, the men on +whom the world depends to make its wheels go round. The language of +the colleges and universities is not for them and they can get +along very well without it; they have no need for it at all in +their respective callings. The plain, simple words of everyday +life, to which the common people have been used around their own +firesides from childhood, are the words we must use in our dealings +with them.</p> +<p>Such words are understood by them and understood by the learned +as well; why then not use them universally and all the time? Why +make a one-sided affair of language by using words which only one +class of the people, the so-called learned class, can understand? +Would it not be better to use, on all occasions, language which the +both classes can understand? If we take the trouble to investigate +we shall find that the men who exerted the greatest sway over the +masses and the multitude as orators, lawyers, preachers and in +other public capacities, were men who used very simple language. +Daniel Webster was among the greatest orators this country has +produced. He touched the hearts of senates and assemblages, of men +and women with the burning eloquence of his words. He never used a +long word when he could convey the same, or nearly the same, +meaning with a short one. When he made a speech he always told +those who put it in form for the press to strike out every long +word. Study his speeches, go over all he ever said or wrote, and +you will find that his language was always made up of short, clear, +strong terms, although at times, for the sake of sound and +oratorical effect, he was compelled to use a rather long word, but +it was always against his inclination to do so, and where was the +man who could paint, with words, as Webster painted! He could +picture things in a way so clear that those who heard him felt that +they had seen that of which he spoke.</p> +<p>Abraham Lincoln was another who stirred the souls of men, yet he +was not an orator, not a scholar; he did not write M.A. or Ph.D. +after his name, or any other college degree, for he had none. He +graduated from the University of Hard Knocks, and he never forgot +this severe <i>Alma Mater</i> when he became President of the +United States. He was just as plain, I just as humble, as in the +days when he split rails or plied a boat on the Sangamon. He did +not use big words, but he used the words of the people, and in such +a way as to make them beautiful. His Gettysburg address is an +English classic, one of the great masterpieces of the language.</p> +<p>From the mere fact that a word is short it does not follow that +it is always clear, but it is true that nearly all clear words are +short, and that most of the long words, especially those which we +get from other languages, are misunderstood to a great extent by +the ordinary rank and file of the people. Indeed, it is to be +doubted if some of the "scholars" using them, fully understand +their import on occasions. A great many such words admit of several +interpretations. A word has to be in use a great deal before people +get thoroughly familiar with its meaning. Long words, not alone +obscure thought and make the ideas hazy, but at times they tend to +mix up things in such a way that positively harmful results follow +from their use.</p> +<p>For instance, crime can be so covered with the folds of long +words as to give it a different appearance. Even the hideousness of +sin can be cloaked with such words until its outlines look like a +thing of beauty. When a bank cashier makes off with a hundred +thousand dollars we politely term his crime <i>defalcation</i> +instead of plain <i>theft</i>, and instead of calling himself a +<i>thief</i> we grandiosely allude to him as a <i>defaulter</i>. +When we see a wealthy man staggering along a fashionable +thoroughfare under the influence of alcohol, waving his arms in the +air and shouting boisterously, we smile and say, poor gentleman, he +is somewhat <i>exhilarated;</i> or at worst we say, he is slightly +<i>inebriated</i>; but when we see a poor man who has fallen from +grace by putting an "enemy into his mouth to steal away his brain" +we express our indignation in the simple language of the words: +"Look at the wretch; he is dead drunk."</p> +<p>When we find a person in downright lying we cover the falsehood +with the finely-spun cloak of the word <i>prevarication</i>. +Shakespeare says, "a rose by any other name would smell as sweet," +and by a similar sequence, a lie, no matter by what name you may +call it, is always a lie and should be condemned; then why not +simply call it a lie? Mean what you say and say what you mean; call +a spade a spade, it is the best term you can apply to the +implement.</p> +<p>When you try to use short words and shun long ones in a little +while you will find that you can do so with ease. A farmer was +showing a horse to a city-bred gentleman. The animal was led into a +paddock in which an old sow-pig was rooting. "What a fine +quadruped!" exclaimed the city man.</p> +<p>"Which of the two do you mean, the pig or the horse?" queried +the farmer, "for, in my opinion, both of them are fine +quadrupeds."</p> +<p>Of course the visitor meant the horse, so it would have been +much better had he called the animal by its simple; ordinary +name—, there would have been no room for ambiguity in his +remark. He profited, however, by the incident, and never called a +horse a quadruped again.</p> +<p>Most of the small words, the simple words, the beautiful words +which express so much within small bounds belong to the pure +Anglo-Saxon element of our language. This element has given names +to the heavenly bodies, the sun, moon and stars; to three out of +the four elements, earth, fire and water; three out of the four +seasons, spring, summer and winter. Its simple words are applied to +all the natural divisions of time, except one, as day, night, +morning, evening, twilight, noon, mid-day, midnight, sunrise and +sunset. The names of light, heat, cold, frost, rain, snow, hail, +sleet, thunder, lightning, as well as almost all those objects +which form the component parts of the beautiful, as expressed in +external scenery, such as sea and land, hill and dale, wood and +stream, etc., are Anglo-Saxon. To this same language we are +indebted for those words which express the earliest and dearest +connections, and the strongest and most powerful feelings of +Nature, and which, as a consequence, are interwoven with the +fondest and most hallowed associations. Of such words are father, +mother, husband, wife, brother, sister, son, daughter, child, home, +kindred, friend, hearth, roof and fireside.</p> +<p>The chief emotions of which we are susceptible are expressed in +the same language—love, hope, fear, sorrow, shame, and also +the outward signs by which these emotions are indicated, as tear, +smile, laugh, blush, weep, sigh, groan. Nearly all our national +proverbs are Anglo-Saxon. Almost all the terms and phrases by which +we most energetically express anger, contempt and indignation are +of the same origin.</p> +<p>What are known as the Smart Set and so-called polite society, +are relegating a great many of our old Anglo-Saxon words into the +shade, faithful friends who served their ancestors well. These +self-appointed arbiters of diction regard some of the Anglo-Saxon +words as too coarse, too plebeian for their aesthetic tastes and +refined ears, so they are eliminating them from their vocabulary +and replacing them with mongrels of foreign birth and hybrids of +unknown origin. For the ordinary people, however, the man in the +street or in the field, the woman in the kitchen or in the factory, +they are still tried and true and, like old friends, should be +cherished and preferred to all strangers, no matter from what +source the latter may spring.</p> +<center> +<h2 id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</h2> +<h3>ENGLISH LANGUAGE</h3> +<h4>Beginning—Different Sources—The +Present</h4></center> +<p>The English language is the tongue now current in England and +her colonies throughout the world and also throughout the greater +part of the United States of America. It sprang from the German +tongue spoken by the Teutons, who came over to Britain after the +conquest of that country by the Romans. These Teutons comprised +Angles, Saxons, Jutes and several other tribes from the northern +part of Germany. They spoke different dialects, but these became +blended in the new country, and the composite tongue came to be +known as the Anglo-Saxon which has been the main basis for the +language as at present constituted and is still the prevailing +element. Therefore those who are trying to do away with some of the +purely Anglo-Saxon words, on the ground that they are not refined +enough to express their aesthetic ideas, are undermining main props +which are necessary for the support of some important parts in the +edifice of the language.</p> +<p>The Anglo-Saxon element supplies the essential parts of speech, +the article, pronoun of all kinds, the preposition, the auxiliary +verbs, the conjunctions, and the little particles which bind words +into sentences and form the joints, sinews and ligaments of the +language. It furnishes the most indispensable words of the +vocabulary. <a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">(See Chap. XIII.)</a> Nowhere +is the beauty of Anglo-Saxon better illustrated than in the Lord's +Prayer. Fifty-four words are pure Saxon and the remaining ones +could easily be replaced by Saxon words. The gospel of St. John is +another illustration of the almost exclusive use of Anglo-Saxon +words. Shakespeare, at his best, is Anglo-Saxon. Here is a +quotation from the <i>Merchant of Venice</i>, and of the fifty-five +words fifty-two are Anglo-Saxon, the remaining three French:</p> +<pre> + All that glitters is not gold— + Often have you heard that told; + Many a man his life hath sold, + But my outside to behold. + Guilded <i>tombs</i> do worms infold. + Had you been as wise as bold, + Young in limbs, in <i>judgment</i> old, + Your answer had not been inscrolled— + Fare you well, your <i>suit</i> is cold. +</pre> + +<p>The lines put into the mouth of Hamlet's father in fierce +intenseness, second only to Dante's inscription on the gate of +hell, have one hundred and eight Anglo-Saxon and but fifteen Latin +words.</p> +<p>The second constituent element of present English is Latin which +comprises those words derived directly from the old Roman and those +which came indirectly through the French. The former were +introduced by the Roman Christians, who came to England at the +close of the sixth century under Augustine, and relate chiefly to +ecclesiastical affairs, such as saint from <i>sanctus</i>, religion +from <i>religio</i>, chalice from <i>calix</i>, mass from +<i>missa</i>, etc. Some of them had origin in Greek, as priest from +<i>presbyter</i>, which in turn was a direct derivative from the +Greek <i>presbuteros</i>, also deacon from the Greek +<i>diakonos</i>.</p> +<p>The largest class of Latin words are those which came through +the Norman-French, or Romance. The Normans had adopted, with the +Christian religion, the language, laws and arts of the Romanized +Gauls and Romanized Franks, and after a residence of more than a +century in France they successfully invaded England in 1066 under +William the Conqueror and a new era began. The French Latinisms can +be distinguished by the spelling. Thus Saviour comes from the Latin +<i>Salvator</i> through the French <i>Sauveur</i>; judgment from +the Latin <i>judiclum</i> through the French <i>jugement</i>; +people, from the Latin <i>populus</i>, through the French +<i>peuple</i>, etc.</p> +<p>For a long time the Saxon and Norman tongues refused to coalesce +and were like two distinct currents flowing in different +directions. Norman was spoken by the lords and barons in their +feudal castles, in parliament and in the courts of justice. Saxon +by the people in their rural homes, fields and workshops. For more +than three hundred years the streams flowed apart, but finally they +blended, taking in the Celtic and Danish elements, and as a result +came the present English language with its simple system of +grammatical inflection and its rich vocabulary.</p> +<p>The father of English prose is generally regarded as Wycliffe, +who translated the Bible in 1380, while the paternal laurels in the +secular poetical field are twined around the brows of Chaucer.</p> +<p>Besides the Germanic and Romanic, which constitute the greater +part of the English language, many other tongues have furnished +their quota. Of these the Celtic is perhaps the oldest. The Britons +at Caesar's invasion, were a part of the Celtic family. The Celtic +idiom is still spoken in two dialects, the Welsh in Wales, and the +Gaelic in Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland. The Celtic words +in English, are comparatively few; cart, dock, wire, rail, rug, +cradle, babe, grown, griddle, lad, lass, are some in most common +use.</p> +<p>The Danish element dates from the piratical invasions of the +ninth and tenth centuries. It includes anger, awe, baffle, bang, +bark, bawl, blunder, boulder, box, club, crash, dairy, dazzle, +fellow, gable, gain, ill, jam, kidnap, kill, kidney, kneel, limber, +litter, log, lull, lump, mast, mistake, nag, nasty, niggard, horse, +plough, rug, rump, sale, scald, shriek, skin, skull, sledge, +sleigh, tackle, tangle, tipple, trust, viking, window, wing, +etc.</p> +<p>From the Hebrew we have a large number of proper names from Adam +and Eve down to John and Mary and such words as Messiah, rabbi, +hallelujah, cherub, seraph, hosanna, manna, satan, Sabbath, +etc.</p> +<p>Many technical terms and names of branches of learning come from +the Greek. In fact, nearly all the terms of learning and art, from +the alphabet to the highest peaks of metaphysics and theology, come +directly from the Greek—philosophy, logic, anthropology, +psychology, aesthetics, grammar, rhetoric, history, philology, +mathematics, arithmetic, astronomy, anatomy, geography, +stenography, physiology, architecture, and hundreds more in similar +domains; the subdivisions and ramifications of theology as +exegesis, hermeneutics, apologetics, polemics, dogmatics, ethics, +homiletics, etc., are all Greek.</p> +<p>The Dutch have given us some modern sea terms, as sloop, +schooner, yacht and also a number of others as boom, bush, boor, +brandy, duck, reef, skate, wagon. The Dutch of Manhattan island +gave us boss, the name for employer or overseer, also cold slaa +(cut cabbage and vinegar), and a number of geographical terms.</p> +<p>Many of our most pleasing euphonic words, especially in the +realm of music, have been given to us directly from the Italian. Of +these are piano, violin, orchestra, canto, allegro, piazza, +gazette, umbrella, gondola, bandit, etc.</p> +<p>Spanish has furnished us with alligator, alpaca, bigot, +cannibal, cargo, filibuster, freebooter, guano, hurricane, +mosquito, negro, stampede, potato, tobacco, tomato, tariff, +etc.</p> +<p>From Arabic we have several mathematical, astronomical, medical +and chemical terms as alcohol, alcove, alembic, algebra, alkali, +almanac, assassin, azure, cipher, elixir, harem, hegira, sofa, +talisman, zenith and zero.</p> +<p>Bazaar, dervish, lilac, pagoda, caravan, scarlet, shawl, tartar, +tiara and peach have come to us from the Persian.</p> +<p>Turban, tulip, divan and firman are Turkish.</p> +<p>Drosky, knout, rouble, steppe, ukase are Russian.</p> +<p>The Indians have helped us considerably and the words they have +given us are extremely euphonic as exemplified in the names of many +of our rivers and States, as Mississippi, Missouri, Minnehaha, +Susquehanna, Monongahela, Niagara, Ohio, Massachusetts, +Connecticut, Iowa, Nebraska, Dakota, etc. In addition to these +proper names we have from the Indians wigwam, squaw, hammock, +tomahawk, canoe, mocassin, hominy, etc.</p> +<p>There are many hybrid words in English, that is, words, +springing from two or more different languages. In fact, English +has drawn from all sources, and it is daily adding to its already +large family, and not alone is it adding to itself, but it is +spreading all over the world and promises to take in the entire +human family beneath its folds ere long. It is the opinion of many +that English, in a short time, will become the universal language. +It is now being taught as a branch of the higher education in the +best colleges and universities of Europe and in all commercial +cities in every land throughout the world. In Asia it follows the +British sway and the highways of commerce through the vast empire +of East India with its two hundred and fifty millions of heathen +and Mohammedan inhabitants. It is largely used in the seaports of +Japan and China, and the number of natives of these countries who +are learning it is increasing every day. It is firmly established +in South Africa, Liberia, Sierra Leone, and in many of the islands +of the Indian and South Seas. It is the language of Australia, New +Zealand, Tasmania, and Christian missionaries are introducing it +into all the islands of Polynesia. It may be said to be the living +commercial language of the North American continent, from Baffin's +Bay to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific, +and it is spoken largely in many of the republics of South America. +It is not limited by parallels of latitude, or meridians of +longitude. The two great English-speaking countries, England and +the United States, are disseminating it north, south, east and west +over the entire world.</p> +<center> +<h2 id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</h2> +<h3>MASTERS AND MASTERPIECES OF LITERATURE</h3> +<h4>Great Authors—Classification—The World's Best +Books.</h4></center> +<p>The Bible is the world's greatest book. Apart from its character +as a work of divine revelation, it is the most perfect literature +extant.</p> +<p>Leaving out the Bible the three greatest works are those of +Homer, Dante and Shakespeare. These are closely followed by the +works of Virgil and Milton.</p> +<h3>INDISPENSABLE BOOKS</h3> +<p>Homer, Dante, Cervantes, Shakespeare and Goethe.</p> +<p>(The best translation of <i>Homer</i> for the ordinary reader is +by Chapman. Norton's translation of <i>Dante</i> and Taylor's +translation of Goethe's <i>Faust</i> are recommended.)</p> +<h3>A GOOD LIBRARY</h3> +<p>Besides the works mentioned everyone should endeavor to have the +following:</p> +<p><i>Plutarch's Lives</i>, <i>Meditations of Marcus Aurelius</i>, +<i>Chaucer</i>, <i>Imitation of Christ</i> (Thomas a Kempis), +<i>Holy Living and Holy Dying</i> (Jeremy Taylor), <i>Pilgrim's +Progress, Macaulay's Essays, Bacon's Essays, Addison's Essays, +Essays of Elia</i> (Charles Lamb), <i>Les Miserables</i> (Hugo), +<i>Heroes and Hero Worship</i> (Carlyle), <i>Palgrave's Golden +Treasury</i>, <i>Wordsworth</i>, <i>Vicar of Wakefield</i>, +<i>Adam Bede</i> (George Eliot), <i>Vanity Fair</i> (Thackeray), +<i>Ivanhoe</i> (Scott), <i>On the Heights</i> (Auerbach), +<i>Eugenie Grandet</i> (Balzac), <i>Scarlet Letter</i> (Hawthorne), +<i>Emerson's Essays</i>, <i>Boswell's Life of Johnson</i>, +<i>History of the English People</i> (Green), <i>Outlines of +Universal History, Origin of Species, Montaigne's Essays, +Longfellow, Tennyson, Browning, Whittier, Ruskin, Herbert +Spencer</i>.</p> +<p>A good encyclopoedia is very desirable and a reliable dictionary +indispensable.</p> +<h3>MASTERPIECES OF AMERICAN LITERATURE</h3> +<p><i>Scarlet Letter, Parkman's Histories, Motley's Dutch Republic, +Grant's Memoirs, Franklin's Autobiography, Webster's Speeches, +Lowell's Bigelow Papers</i>, also his <i>Critical Essays</i>, +<i>Thoreau's Walden</i>, <i>Leaves of Grass</i> (Whitman), +<i>Leather-stocking Tales</i> (Cooper), <i>Autocrat of the +Breakfast Table</i>, <i>Ben Hur</i> and <i>Uncle Tom's +Cabin</i>.</p> +<h3>TEN GREATEST AMERICAN POETS</h3> +<p>Bryant, Poe, Whittier, Longfellow, Lowell, Emerson, Whitman, +Lanier, Aldrich and Stoddard.</p> +<h3>TEN GREATEST ENGLISH POETS</h3> +<p>Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare, Milton, Burns, Wordsworth, Keats, +Shelley, Tennyson, Browning.</p> +<h3>TEN GREATEST ENGLISH ESSAYISTS</h3> +<p>Bacon, Addison, Steele, Macaulay, Lamb, Jeffrey, De Quincey, +Carlyle, Thackeray and Matthew Arnold.</p> +<h3>BEST PLAYS OF SHAKESPEARE</h3> +<p>In order of merit are: <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>King Lear</i>, +<i>Othello</i>, <i>Antony and Cleopatra</i>, <i>Macbeth</i>, +<i>Merchant of Venice</i>, <i>Henry IV</i>, <i>As You Like It</i>, +<i>Winter's Tale</i>, <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, <i>Midsummer Night's +Dream</i>, <i>Twelfth Night</i>, <i>Tempest</i>.</p> +<h3>ONLY THE GOOD</h3> +<p>If you are not able to procure a library of the great +masterpieces, get at least a few. Read them carefully, +intelligently and with a view to enlarging your own literary +horizon. Remember a good book cannot be read too often, one of a +deteriorating influence should not be read at all. In literature, +as in all things else, the good alone should prevail.</p> + +<pre> + +Poster's Note: the words "encyclopoedia", "insiduously", and "Synechdoche" +are thus in the original printing as are the spaces between "B. A." etc. +"Insiduously" and "Synechdoche" are valid variant spellings. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's How to Speak and Write Correctly, by Joseph Devlin + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO SPEAK AND WRITE *** + +This file should be named 6409-h.txt or 6409-h.zip + +Produced by Tom Allen, Charles Franks +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: How to Speak and Write Correctly + +Author: Joseph Devlin + +Release Date: September, 2004 [EBook #6409] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on December 8, 2002] +[Date last updated: September 8, 2006] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO SPEAK AND WRITE *** + + + + +Produced by Tom Allen, Charles Franks +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + +HOW TO +SPEAK AND WRITE +CORRECTLY + +By +JOSEPH DEVLIN, M.A. + +Edited by +THEODORE WATERS + + + + +THE CHRISTIAN HERALD +BIBLE HOUSE +NEW YORK + +Copyright, 1910, by +THE CHRISTIAN HERALD +NEW YORK + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER I +REQUIREMENTS OF SPEECH +Vocabulary. Parts of speech. Requisites. + +CHAPTER II +ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR +Divisions of grammar. Definitions. Etymology. + +CHAPTER III +THE SENTENCE +Different kinds. Arrangement of words. Paragraph. + +CHAPTER IV +FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE +Figures of speech. Definitions and examples. Use of figures. + +CHAPTER V +PUNCTUATION +Principal points. Illustrations. Capital letters. + +CHAPTER VI +LETTER WRITING +Principles of letter writing. Forms. Notes. + +CHAPTER VII +ERRORS +Mistakes. Slips of authors. Examples and corrections. Errors of redundancy. + +CHAPTER VIII +PITFALLS TO AVOID +Common stumbling blocks. Peculiar constructions. Misused forms. + +CHAPTER IX +STYLE +Diction. Purity. Propriety. Precision. + +CHAPTER X +SUGGESTIONS +How to write. What to write. Correct speaking and speakers. + +CHAPTER XI +SLANG +Origin. American slang. Foreign slang. + +CHAPTER XII +WRITING FOR NEWSPAPERS +Qualification. Appropriate subjects. Directions. + +CHAPTER XIII +CHOICE OF WORDS +Small words. Their importance. The Anglo-Saxon element. + +CHAPTER XIV +ENGLISH LANGUAGE +Beginning. Different Sources. The present. + +CHAPTER XV +MASTERS AND MASTERPIECES OF LITERATURE +Great authors. Classification. The world's best books. + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +In the preparation of this little work the writer has kept one end in +view, viz.: To make it serviceable for those for whom it is intended, +that is, for those who have neither the time nor the opportunity, the +learning nor the inclination, to peruse elaborate and abstruse treatises +on Rhetoric, Grammar, and Composition. To them such works are as gold +enclosed in chests of steel and locked beyond power of opening. This book +has no pretension about it whatever,--it is neither a Manual of Rhetoric, +expatiating on the dogmas of style, nor a Grammar full of arbitrary rules +and exceptions. It is merely an effort to help ordinary, everyday people +to express themselves in ordinary, everyday language, in a proper manner. +Some broad rules are laid down, the observance of which will enable the +reader to keep within the pale of propriety in oral and written language. +Many idiomatic words and expressions, peculiar to the language, have been +given, besides which a number of the common mistakes and pitfalls have +been placed before the reader so that he may know and avoid them. + +The writer has to acknowledge his indebtedness to no one in _particular_, +but to all in _general_ who have ever written on the subject. + +The little book goes forth--a finger-post on the road of language +pointing in the right direction. It is hoped that they who go according +to its index will arrive at the goal of correct speaking and writing. + + + + +CHAPTER I + +REQUIREMENTS OF SPEECH + +Vocabulary--Parts of Speech--Requisites + + +It is very easy to learn how to speak and write correctly, as for all +purposes of ordinary conversation and communication, only about 2,000 +different words are required. The mastery of just twenty hundred words, +the knowing where to place them, will make us not masters of the English +language, but masters of correct speaking and writing. Small number, you +will say, compared with what is in the dictionary! But nobody ever uses +all the words in the dictionary or could use them did he live to be the +age of Methuselah, and there is no necessity for using them. + +There are upwards of 200,000 words in the recent editions of the large +dictionaries, but the one-hundredth part of this number will suffice for +all your wants. Of course you may think not, and you may not be content +to call things by their common names; you may be ambitious to show +superiority over others and display your learning or, rather, your +pedantry and lack of learning. For instance, you may not want to call a +spade a spade. You may prefer to call it a spatulous device for abrading +the surface of the soil. Better, however, to stick to the old familiar, +simple name that your grandfather called it. It has stood the test of +time, and old friends are always good friends. + +To use a big word or a foreign word when a small one and a familiar one +will answer the same purpose, is a sign of ignorance. Great scholars and +writers and polite speakers use simple words. + +To go back to the number necessary for all purposes of conversation +correspondence and writing, 2,000, we find that a great many people who +pass in society as being polished, refined and educated use less, for +they know less. The greatest scholar alive hasn't more than four thousand +different words at his command, and he never has occasion to use half the +number. + +In the works of Shakespeare, the most wonderful genius the world has ever +known, there is the enormous number of 15,000 different words, but almost +10,000 of them are obsolete or meaningless today. + +Every person of intelligence should be able to use his mother tongue +correctly. It only requires a little pains, a little care, a little study +to enable one to do so, and the recompense is great. + +Consider the contrast between the well-bred, polite man who knows how to +choose and use his words correctly and the underbred, vulgar boor, whose +language grates upon the ear and jars the sensitiveness of the finer +feelings. The blunders of the latter, his infringement of all the canons +of grammar, his absurdities and monstrosities of language, make his very +presence a pain, and one is glad to escape from his company. + +The proper grammatical formation of the English language, so that one may +acquit himself as a correct conversationalist in the best society or be +able to write and express his thoughts and ideas upon paper in the right +manner, may be acquired in a few lessons. + +It is the purpose of this book, as briefly and concisely as possible, to +direct the reader along a straight course, pointing out the mistakes he +must avoid and giving him such assistance as will enable him to reach the +goal of a correct knowledge of the English language. It is not a Grammar +in any sense, but a guide, a silent signal-post pointing the way in the +right direction. + + +THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN A NUTSHELL + +All the words in the English language are divided into nine great +classes. These classes are called the Parts of Speech. They are Article, +Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction and +Interjection. Of these, the Noun is the most important, as all the others +are more or less dependent upon it. A Noun signifies the name of any +person, place or thing, in fact, anything of which we can have either +thought or idea. There are two kinds of Nouns, Proper and Common. Common +Nouns are names which belong in common to a race or class, as _man_, +_city_. Proper Nouns distinguish individual members of a race or class as +_John_, _Philadelphia_. In the former case _man_ is a name which belongs +in common to the whole race of mankind, and _city_ is also a name which +is common to all large centres of population, but _John_ signifies a +particular individual of the race, while _Philadelphia_ denotes a +particular one from among the cities of the world. + +Nouns are varied by Person, Number, Gender, and Case. Person is that +relation existing between the speaker, those addressed and the subject +under consideration, whether by discourse or correspondence. The Persons +are _First_, _Second_ and _Third_ and they represent respectively the +speaker, the person addressed and the person or thing mentioned or under +consideration. + +_Number_ is the distinction of one from more than one. There are two +numbers, singular and plural; the singular denotes one, the plural two or +more. The plural is generally formed from the singular by the addition of +_s_ or _es_. + +_Gender_ has the same relation to nouns that sex has to individuals, but +while there are only two sexes, there are four genders, viz., masculine, +feminine, neuter and common. The masculine gender denotes all those of +the male kind, the feminine gender all those of the female kind, the +neuter gender denotes inanimate things or whatever is without life, and +common gender is applied to animate beings, the sex of which for the time +being is indeterminable, such as fish, mouse, bird, etc. Sometimes things +which are without life as we conceive it and which, properly speaking, +belong to the neuter gender, are, by a figure of speech called +Personification, changed into either the masculine or feminine gender, +as, for instance, we say of the sun, _He_ is rising; of the moon, _She_ +is setting. + +_Case_ is the relation one noun bears to another or to a verb or to a +preposition. There are three cases, the _Nominative_, the _Possessive_ +and the _Objective_. The nominative is the subject of which we are +speaking or the agent which directs the action of the verb; the +possessive case denotes possession, while the objective indicates the +person or thing which is affected by the action of the verb. + +An _Article_ is a word placed before a noun to show whether the latter is +used in a particular or general sense. There are but two articles, _a_ or +_an_ and _the_. + +An _Adjective_ is a word which qualifies a noun, that is, which shows +some distinguishing mark or characteristic belonging to the noun. + + +DEFINITIONS + +A _Pronoun_ is a word used for or instead of a noun to keep us from +repeating the same noun too often. Pronouns, like nouns, have case, +number, gender and person. There are three kinds of pronouns, _personal_, +_relative_ and _adjective_. + +A _verb_ is a word which signifies action or the doing of something. A +verb is inflected by tense and mood and by number and person, though the +latter two belong strictly to the subject of the verb. + +An _adverb_ is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective and sometimes +another adverb. + +A _preposition_ serves to connect words and to show the relation between +the objects which the words express. + +A _conjunction_ is a word which joins words, phrases, clauses and +sentences together. + +An _interjection_ is a word which expresses surprise or some sudden +emotion of the mind. + + +THREE ESSENTIALS + +The three essentials of the English language are: _Purity_, _Perspicuity_ +and _Precision_. + +By _Purity_ is signified the use of good English. It precludes the use of +all slang words, vulgar phrases, obsolete terms, foreign idioms, ambiguous +expressions or any ungrammatical language whatsoever. Neither does it +sanction the use of any newly coined word until such word is adopted by +the best writers and speakers. + +_Perspicuity_ demands the clearest expression of thought conveyed in +unequivocal language, so that there may be no misunderstanding whatever +of the thought or idea the speaker or writer wishes to convey. All +ambiguous words, words of double meaning and words that might possibly be +construed in a sense different from that intended, are strictly +forbidden. Perspicuity requires a style at once clear and comprehensive +and entirely free from pomp and pedantry and affectation or any straining +after effect. + +_Precision_ requires concise and exact expression, free from redundancy +and tautology, a style terse and clear and simple enough to enable the +hearer or reader to comprehend immediately the meaning of the speaker or +writer. It forbids, on the one hand, all long and involved sentences, +and, on the other, those that are too short and abrupt. Its object is to +strike the golden mean in such a way as to rivet the attention of the +hearer or reader on the words uttered or written. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR + +Divisions of Grammar--Definitions--Etymology. + + +In order to speak and write the English language correctly, it is +imperative that the fundamental principles of the Grammar be mastered, +for no matter how much we may read of the best authors, no matter how +much we may associate with and imitate the best speakers, if we do not +know the underlying principles of the correct formation of sentences and +the relation of words to one another, we will be to a great extent like +the parrot, that merely repeats what it hears without understanding the +import of what is said. Of course the parrot, being a creature without +reason, cannot comprehend; it can simply repeat what is said to it, and +as it utters phrases and sentences of profanity with as much facility as +those of virtue, so by like analogy, when we do not understand the +grammar of the language, we may be making egregious blunders while +thinking we are speaking with the utmost accuracy. + + +DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR + +There are four great divisions of Grammar, viz.: + +_Orthography_, _Etymology_, _Syntax_, and _Prosody_. + +_Orthography_ treats of letters and the mode of combining them into words. + +_Etymology_ treats of the various classes of words and the changes they +undergo. + +_Syntax_ treats of the connection and arrangement of words in sentences. + +_Prosody_ treats of the manner of speaking and reading and the different +kinds of verse. + +The three first mentioned concern us most. + + +LETTERS + +A _letter_ is a mark or character used to represent an articulate sound. +Letters are divided into _vowels_ and _consonants_. A vowel is a letter +which makes a distinct sound by itself. Consonants cannot be sounded +without the aid of vowels. The vowels are _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_, and +sometimes _w_ and _y_ when they do not begin a word or syllable. + + +SYLLABLES AND WORDS + +A syllable is a distinct sound produced by a single effort of +[Transcriber's note: 1-2 words illegible] shall, pig, dog. In every +syllable there must be at least one vowel. + +A word consists of one syllable or a combination of syllables. + +Many rules are given for the dividing of words into syllables, but the +best is to follow as closely as possible the divisions made by the organs +of speech in properly pronouncing them. + + +THE PARTS OF SPEECH + +ARTICLE + +An _Article_ is a word placed before a noun to show whether the noun is +used in a particular or general sense. + +There are two articles, _a_ or _an_ and _the_. _A_ or _an_ is called the +indefinite article because it does not point put any particular person or +thing but indicates the noun in its widest sense; thus, _a_ man means any +man whatsoever of the species or race. + +_The_ is called the definite article because it points out some particular +person or thing; thus, _the_ man means some particular individual. + + +NOUN + +A _noun_ is the name of any person, place or thing as _John_, _London_, +_book_. Nouns are proper and common. + +_Proper_ nouns are names applied to _particular_ persons or places. + +_Common_ nouns are names applied to a whole kind or species. + +Nouns are inflected by _number_, _gender_ and _case_. + +_Number_ is that inflection of the noun by which we indicate whether it +represents one or more than one. + +_Gender_ is that inflection by which we signify whether the noun is the +name of a male, a female, of an inanimate object or something which has +no distinction of sex. + +_Case_ is that inflection of the noun which denotes the state of the +person, place or thing represented, as the subject of an affirmation or +question, the owner or possessor of something mentioned, or the object of +an action or of a relation. + +Thus in the example, "John tore the leaves of Sarah's book," the +distinction between _book_ which represents only one object and _leaves_ +which represent two or more objects of the same kind is called _Number_; +the distinction of sex between _John_, a male, and _Sarah_, a female, and +_book_ and _leaves_, things which are inanimate and neither male nor +female, is called _Gender_; and the distinction of state between _John_, +the person who tore the book, and the subject of the affirmation, _Mary_, +the owner of the book, _leaves_ the objects torn, and _book_ the object +related to leaves, as the whole of which they were a part, is called +_Case_. + + +ADJECTIVE + +An _adjective_ is a word which qualifies a noun, that is, shows or +points out some distinguishing mark or feature of the noun; as, A +_black_ dog. + +Adjectives have three forms called degrees of comparison, the _positive_, +the _comparative_ and the _superlative_. + +The _positive_ is the simple form of the adjective without expressing +increase or diminution of the original quality: _nice_. + +The _comparative_ is that form of the adjective which expresses increase +or diminution of the quality: _nicer_. + +The _superlative_ is that form which expresses the greatest increase or +diminution of the quality: _nicest_. + +_or_ + +An adjective is in the positive form when it does not express comparison; +as, "A _rich_ man." + +An adjective is in the comparative form when it expresses comparison +between two or between one and a number taken collectively, as, "John is +_richer_ than James"; "he is _richer_ than all the men in Boston." + +An adjective is in the superlative form when it expresses a comparison +between one and a number of individuals taken separately; as, "John is +the _richest_ man in Boston." + +Adjectives expressive of properties or circumstances which cannot be +increased have only the positive form; as, A _circular_ road; the _chief_ +end; an _extreme_ measure. + +Adjectives are compared in two ways, either by adding _er_ to the positive +to form the comparative and _est_ to the positive to form the superlative, +or by prefixing _more_ to the positive for the comparative and _most_ to +the positive for the superlative; as, _handsome_, _handsomer_, _handsomest_ +or _handsome_, _more handsome_, _most handsome_. + +Adjectives of two or more syllables are generally compared by prefixing +more and most. + +Many adjectives are irregular in comparison; as, Bad, worse, worst; Good, +better, best. + + +PRONOUN + +A _pronoun_ is a word used in place of a noun; as, "John gave his pen to +James and _he_ lent it to Jane to write _her_ copy with _it_." Without +the pronouns we would have to write this sentence,--"John gave John's pen +to James and James lent the pen to Jane to write Jane's copy with the +pen." + +There are three kinds of pronouns--Personal, Relative and Adjective +Pronouns. + +_Personal_ Pronouns are so called because they are used instead of the +names of persons, places and things. The Personal Pronouns are _I_, +_Thou_, _He_, _She_, and _It_, with their plurals, _We_, _Ye_ or _You_ +and _They_. + +_I_ is the pronoun of the first person because it represents the person +speaking. + +_Thou_ is the pronoun of the second person because it represents the +person spoken to. + +_He_, _She_, _It_ are the pronouns of the third person because they +represent the persons or things of whom we are speaking. + +Like nouns, the Personal Pronouns have number, gender and case. The +gender of the first and second person is obvious, as they represent the +person or persons speaking and those who are addressed. The personal +pronouns are thus declined: + + + First Person. + M. or F. + + Sing. Plural. + N. I We + P. Mine Ours + O. Me Us + + + Second Person. + M. or F. + + Sing. Plural. + N. Thou You + P. Thine Yours + O. Thee You + + + Third Person. + M. + + Sing. Plural. + N. He They + P. His Theirs + O. Him Them + + + Third Person. + F. + + Sing. Plural. + N. She They + P. Hers Theirs + O. Her Them + + + Third Person. + Neuter. + + Sing. Plural. + N. It They + P. Its Theirs + O. It Them + + +N. B.--In colloquial language and ordinary writing Thou, Thine and Thee +are seldom used, except by the Society of Friends. The Plural form You is +used for both the nominative and objective singular in the second person +and Yours is generally used in the possessive in place of Thine. + +The _Relative_ Pronouns are so called because they relate to some word or +phrase going before; as, "The boy _who_ told the truth;" "He has done +well, _which_ gives me great pleasure." + +Here _who_ and _which_ are not only used in place of other words, but +_who_ refers immediately to boy, and _which_ to the circumstance of his +having done well. + +The word or clause to which a relative pronoun refers is called the +_Antecedent_. + +The Relative Pronouns are _who_, _which_, _that_ and _what_. + +_Who_ is applied to persons only; as, "The man _who_ was here." + +_Which_ is applied to the lower animals and things without life; as, "The +horse _which_ I sold." "The hat _which_ I bought." + +_That_ is applied to both persons and things; as, "The friend _that_ +helps." "The bird _that_ sings." "The knife _that_ cuts." + +_What_ is a compound relative, including both the antecedent and the +relative and is equivalent to _that which_; as, "I did what he desired," +i. e. "I did _that which_ he desired." + +Relative pronouns have the singular and plural alike. + +_Who_ is either masculine or feminine; _which_ and _that_ are masculine, +feminine or neuter; _what_ as a relative pronoun is always neuter. + +_That_ and _what_ are not inflected. + +_Who_ and _which_ are thus declined: + + + Sing. and Plural Sing. and Plural + + N. Who N. Which + P. Whose P. Whose + O. Whom O. Which + + +_Who_, _which_ and _what_ when used to ask questions are called +_Interrogative Pronouns_. + +_Adjective_ Pronouns partake of the nature of adjectives and pronouns and +are subdivided as follows: + +_Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns_ which directly point out the person or +object. They are _this_, _that_ with their plurals _these_, _those_, and +_yon_, _same_ and _selfsame_. + +_Distributive Adjective Pronouns_ used distributively. They are _each_, +_every_, _either_, _neither_. + +_Indefinite Adjective Pronouns_ used more or less indefinitely. They are +_any_, _all_, _few_, _some_, _several_, _one_, _other_, _another_, _none_. + +_Possessive Adjective Pronouns_ denoting possession. They are _my_, _thy_, +_his_, _her_, _its_, _our_, _your_, _their_. + +N. B.--(The possessive adjective pronouns differ from the possessive case +of the personal pronouns in that the latter can stand _alone_ while the +former _cannot_. "Who owns that book?" "It is _mine_." You cannot say "it +is _my_,"--the word book must be repeated.) + + +THE VERB + +A _verb_ is a word which implies action or the doing of something, or it +may be defined as a word which affirms, commands or asks a question. + +Thus, the words _John the table_, contain no assertion, but when the word +_strikes_ is introduced, something is affirmed, hence the word _strikes_ +is a verb and gives completeness and meaning to the group. + +The simple form of the verb without inflection is called the _root_ of +the verb; _e. g. love_ is the root of the verb,--"To Love." + +Verbs are _regular_ or _irregular_, _transitive_ or _intransitive_. + +A verb is said to be _regular_ when it forms the past tense by adding +_ed_ to the present or _d_ if the verb ends in _e_. When its past tense +does not end in _ed_ it is said to be _irregular_. + +A _transitive_ verb is one the action of which passes over to or affects +some object; as "I struck the table." Here the action of striking +affected the object table, hence struck is a transitive verb. + +An _intransitive_ verb is one in which the action remains with the subject; +as _"I walk,"_ _"I sit,"_ _"I run."_ + +Many intransitive verbs, however, can be used transitively; thus, "I _walk_ +the horse;" _walk_ is here transitive. + +Verbs are inflected by _number_, _person_, _tense_ and _mood_. + +_Number_ and _person_ as applied to the verb really belong to the +subject; they are used with the verb to denote whether the assertion is +made regarding one or more than one and whether it is made in reference +to the person speaking, the person spoken to or the person or thing +spoken about. + + +TENSE + +In their tenses verbs follow the divisions of time. They have _present +tense_, _past tense_ and _future tense_ with their variations to express +the exact time of action as to an event happening, having happened or yet +to happen. + + +MOOD + +There are four simple moods,--the _Infinitive_, the _Indicative_, the +_Imperative_ and the _Subjunctive_. + +The Mood of a verb denotes the mode or manner in which it is used. Thus +if it is used in its widest sense without reference to person or number, +time or place, it is in the _Infinitive_ Mood; as "To run." Here we are +not told who does the running, when it is done, where it is done or +anything about it. + +When a verb is used to indicate or declare or ask a simple question or +make any direct statement, it is in the _Indicative_ Mood. "The boy loves +his book." Here a direct statement is made concerning the boy. "Have you +a pin?" Here a simple question is asked which calls for an answer. + +When the verb is used to express a command or entreaty it is in the +_Imperative_ Mood as, "Go away." "Give me a penny." + +When the verb is used to express doubt, supposition or uncertainty or +when some future action depends upon a contingency, it is in the +subjunctive mood; as, "If I come, he shall remain." + +Many grammarians include a fifth mood called the _potential_ to express +_power_, _possibility_, _liberty_, _necessity_, _will_ or _duty_. It is +formed by means of the auxiliaries _may_, _can_, _ought_ and _must_, but +in all cases it can be resolved into the indicative or subjunctive. Thus, +in "I may write if I choose," "may write" is by some classified as in the +potential mood, but in reality the phrase _I may write_ is an indicative +one while the second clause, _if I choose_, is the expression of a +condition upon which, not my liberty to write, depends, but my actual +writing. + +Verbs have two participles, the present or imperfect, sometimes called +the _active_ ending in _ing_ and the past or perfect, often called the +_passive_, ending in _ed_ or _d_. + +The _infinitive_ expresses the sense of the verb in a substantive form, +the participles in an adjective form; as "To rise early is healthful." +"An early rising man." "The newly risen sun." + +The participle in _ing_ is frequently used as a substantive and +consequently is equivalent to an infinitive; thus, "To rise early is +healthful" and "Rising early is healthful" are the same. + +The principal parts of a verb are the Present Indicative, Past Indicative +and Past Participle; as: + + Love Loved Loved + +Sometimes one or more of these parts are wanting, and then the verb is +said to be defective. + + + Present Past Passive Participle + + Can Could (Wanting) + May Might " + Shall Should " + Will Would " + Ought Ought " + + +Verbs may also be divided into _principal_ and _auxiliary_. A _principal_ +verb is that without which a sentence or clause can contain no assertion +or affirmation. An _auxiliary_ is a verb joined to the root or participles +of a principal verb to express time and manner with greater precision +than can be done by the tenses and moods in their simple form. Thus, the +sentence, "I am writing an exercise; when I shall have finished it I +shall read it to the class." has no meaning without the principal verbs +_writing_, _finished read_; but the meaning is rendered more definite, +especially with regard to time, by the auxiliary verbs _am_, _have_, +_shall_. + +There are nine auxiliary or helping verbs, viz., _Be_, _have_, _do_, +_shall_, _will_, _may_, _can_, _ought_, and _must_. They are called +helping verbs, because it is by their aid the compound tenses are formed. + + +TO BE + +The verb _To Be_ is the most important of the auxiliary verbs. It has +eleven parts, viz., _am, art, is, are, was, wast, were, wert; be, being_ +and _been_. + + +VOICE + +The _active voice_ is that form of the verb which shows the Subject not +being acted upon but acting; as, "The cat _catches_ mice." "Charity +_covers_ a multitude of sins." + +The _passive voice_: When the action signified by a transitive verb is +thrown back upon the agent, that is to say, when the subject of the verb +denotes the recipient of the action, the verb is said to be in the +passive voice. "John was loved by his neighbors." Here John the subject +is also the object affected by the loving, the action of the verb is +thrown back on him, hence the compound verb _was loved_ is said to be in +the _passive voice_. The passive voice is formed by putting the perfect +participle of any _transitive_ verb with any of the eleven parts of the +verb _To Be_. + + +CONJUGATION + +The _conjugation_ of a verb is its orderly arrangement in voices, moods, +tenses, persons and numbers. + +Here is the complete conjugation of the verb "Love"--_Active Voice_. + + + PRINCIPAL PARTS + + Present Past Past Participle + Love Loved Loved + + + Infinitive Mood + + To Love + + + Indicative Mood + PRESENT TENSE + + Sing. Plural + 1st person I love We love + 2nd person You love You love + 3rd person He loves They love + + + PAST TENSE + + Sing. Plural + 1st person I loved We loved + 2nd person You loved You loved + 3rd person He loved They loved + + + FUTURE TENSE + + Sing. Plural + 1st person I shall love They will love + 2nd person You will love You will love + 3rd person He will love We shall love + +[Transcriber's note: 1st person plural and 3rd person plural reversed +in original] + + + PRESENT PERFECT TENSE + + Sing. Plural + 1st person I have loved We have loved + 2nd person You have loved You have loved + 3rd person He has loved They have loved + + + PAST PERFECT TENSE + + Sing. Plural + 1st person I had loved We had loved + 2nd person You had loved You had loved + 3rd person He had loved They had loved + + + FUTURE PERFECT TENSE + + Sing. Plural + 1st person I shall have loved We shall have loved + 2nd person You will have loved You will have loved + 3rd person He will have loved They will have loved + + + Imperative Mood + (PRESENT TENSE ONLY) + + Sing. Plural + 2nd person Love (you) Love (you) + + + Subjunctive Mood + PRESENT TENSE + + Sing. Plural + 1st person If I love If we love + 2nd person If you love If you love + 3rd person If he love If they love + + + PAST TENSE + + Sing. Plural + 1st person If I loved If we loved + 2nd person If you loved If you loved + 3rd person If he loved If they loved + + + PRESENT PERFECT TENSE + + Sing. Plural + 1st person If I have loved If we have loved + 2nd person If you have loved If you have loved + 3rd person If he has loved If they have loved + + + PAST PERFECT TENSE + + Sing. Plural + 1st person If I had loved If we had loved + 2nd person If you had loved If you had loved + 3rd person If he had loved If they had loved + + + INFINITIVES + + Present Perfect + To love To have loved + + + PARTICIPLES + + Present Past Perfect + Loving Loved Having loved + + + CONJUGATION OF "To Love" + Passive Voice + Indicative Mood + + PRESENT TENSE + + Sing. Plural + 1st person I am loved We are loved + 2nd person You are loved You are loved + 3rd person He is loved They are loved + + + PAST TENSE + + Sing. Plural + 1st person I was loved We were loved + 2nd person You were loved You were loved + 3rd person He was loved They were loved + + + FUTURE TENSE + + Sing. Plural + 1st person I shall be loved We shall be loved + 2nd person You will be loved You will be loved + 3rd person He will be loved They will be loved + + + PRESENT PERFECT TENSE + + Sing. Plural + 1st person I have been loved We have been loved + 2nd person You have been loved You have been loved + 3rd person He has been loved They have been loved + + + PAST PERFECT TENSE + + Sing. Plural + 1st person I had been loved We had been loved + 2nd person You had been loved You had been loved + 3rd person He had been loved They had been loved + + + FUTURE PERFECT TENSE + + Sing. Plural + 1st person I shall have been loved We shall have been loved + 2nd person You will have been loved You will have been loved + 3rd person He will have been loved They will have been loved + + + Imperative Mood + (PRESENT TENSE ONLY) + + Sing. Plural + 2nd person Be (you) loved Be (you) loved + + + Subjunctive Mood + PRESENT TENSE + + Sing. Plural + 1st person If I be loved If we be loved + 2nd person If you be loved If you be loved + 3rd person If he be loved If they be loved + + + PAST TENSE + + Sing. Plural + 1st person If I were loved If they were loved + 2nd person If you were loved If you were loved + 3rd person If he were loved If we were loved + + + PRESENT PERFECT TENSE + + Sing. Plural + 1st person If I have been loved If we have been loved + 2nd person If you have been loved If you have been loved + 3rd person If he has been loved If they have been loved + + + PAST PERFECT TENSE + + Sing. Plural + 1st person If I had been loved If we had been loved + 2nd person If you had been loved If you had been loved + 3rd person If he had been loved If they had been loved + + + INFINITIVES + + Present Perfect + To be loved To have been loved + + + PARTICIPLES + + Present Past Perfect + Being loved Been loved Having been loved + + +(N. B.--Note that the plural form of the personal pronoun, _you_, is used +in the second person singular throughout. The old form _thou_, except in +the conjugation of the verb "To Be," may be said to be obsolete. In the +third person singular he is representative of the three personal pronouns +of the third person, _He_, _She_ and _It_.) + + +ADVERB + +An _adverb_ is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective or another +adverb. Thus, in the example--"He writes _well_," the adverb shows the +manner in which the writing is performed; in the examples--"He is +remarkably diligent" and "He works very faithfully," the adverbs modify +the adjective _diligent_ and the other adverb _faithfully_ by expressing +the degree of diligence and faithfulness. + +Adverbs are chiefly used to express in one word what would otherwise +require two or more words; thus, _There_ signifies in that place; +_whence_, from what place; _usefully_, in a useful manner. + +Adverbs, like adjectives, are sometimes varied in their terminations to +express comparison and different degrees of quality. + +Some adverbs form the comparative and superlative by adding _er_ and +_est_; as, _soon_, _sooner_, _soonest_. + +Adverbs which end in _ly_ are compared by prefixing _more_ and _most_; +as, _nobly_, _more nobly_, _most nobly_. + +A few adverbs are irregular in the formation of the comparative and +superlative; as, _well_, _better_, _best_. + + +PREPOSITION + +A _preposition_ connects words, clauses, and sentences together and shows +the relation between them. "My hand is on the table" shows relation +between hand and table. + +Prepositions are so called because they are generally placed _before_ the +words whose connection or relation with other words they point out. + + +CONJUNCTION + +A _conjunction_ joins words, clauses and sentences; as "John _and_ +James." "My father and mother have come, _but_ I have not seen them." + +The conjunctions in most general use are _and, also; either, or; neither, +nor; though, yet; but, however; for, that; because, since; therefore, +wherefore, then; if, unless, lest_. + + +INTERJECTION + +An _interjection_ is a word used to express some sudden emotion of the +mind. Thus in the examples,--"Ah! there he comes; alas! what shall I do?" +_ah_, expresses surprise, and _alas_, distress. + +Nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs become interjections when they are +uttered as exclamations, as, _nonsense! strange! hail! away!_ etc. + +We have now enumerated the parts of speech and as briefly as possible +stated the functions of each. As they all belong to the same family they +are related to one another but some are in closer affinity than others. +To point out the exact relationship and the dependency of one word on +another is called _parsing_ and in order that every etymological +connection may be distinctly understood a brief resume of the foregoing +essentials is here given: + +The signification of the noun is _limited_ to _one_, but to any _one_ of +the kind, by the _indefinite_ article, and to some _particular_ one, or +some particular _number_, by the _definite_ article. + +_Nouns_, in one form, represent _one_ of a kind, and in another, _any +number_ more than one; they are the _names of males_, or _females_, or of +objects which are neither male nor female; and they represent the +_subject_ of an affirmation, a command or a question,--the _owner_ or +_possessor_ of a thing,--or the _object_ of an action, or of a relation +expressed by a preposition. + +_Adjectives_ express the _qualities_ which distinguish one person or +thing from another; in one form they express quality _without +comparison_; in another, they express comparison _between two_, or +between _one_ and a number taken collectively,--and in a third they +express comparison between _one_ and a _number_ of others taken +separately. + +_Pronouns_ are used in place of nouns; one class of them is used merely +as the _substitutes_ of _names_; the pronouns of another class have a +peculiar _reference_ to some _preceding words_ in the _sentence_, of +which they are the substitutes,--and those of a third class refer +adjectively to the persons or things they represent. Some pronouns are +used for both the _name_ and the _substitute_; and several are frequently +employed in _asking questions_. + +_Affirmations_ and _commands_ are expressed by the verb; and different +inflections of the verb express _number_, _person_, _time_ and _manner_. +With regard to _time_, an affirmation may be _present_ or _past_ or +_future_; with regard to manner, an affirmation may be _positive_ or +_conditional_, it being doubtful whether the condition is fulfilled or +not, or it being implied that it is not fulfilled;--the verb may express +_command_ or _entreaty_; or the sense of the verb may be expressed +_without affirming_ or _commanding_. The verb also expresses that an +action or state _is_ or _was_ going on, by a form which is also used +sometimes as a noun, and sometimes to qualify nouns. + +_Affirmations_ are _modified_ by _adverbs_, some of which can be +inflected to express different degrees of modification. + +Words are joined together by _conjunctions_; and the various _relations_ +which one thing bears to another are expressed by _'prepositions. Sudden +emotions_ of the mind, and _exclamations_ are expressed by _interjections_. + +Some words according to meaning belong sometimes to one part of speech, +sometimes to another. Thus, in "After a storm comes a _calm_," _calm_ is +a noun; in "It is a _calm_ evening," _calm_ is an adjective; and in +"_Calm_ your fears," _calm_ is a verb. + +The following sentence containing all the parts of speech is parsed +etymologically: + +_"I now see the old man coming, but, alas, he has walked with much +difficulty."_ + +_I_, a personal pronoun, first person singular, masculine or feminine +gender, nominative case, subject of the verb _see_. + +_now_, an adverb of time modifying the verb _see_. + +_see_, an irregular, transitive verb, indicative mood, present tense, +first person singular to agree with its nominative or subject I. + +_the_, the definite article particularizing the noun man. + +_old_, an adjective, positive degree, qualifying the noun man. + +_man_, a common noun, 3rd person singular, masculine gender, objective +case governed by the transitive verb _see_. + +_coming_, the present or imperfect participle of the verb "to come" +referring to the noun man. + +_but_, a conjunction. + +_alas_, an interjection, expressing pity or sorrow. + +_he_, a personal pronoun, 3rd person singular, masculine gender, +nominative case, subject of verb has walked. + +_has walked_, a regular, intransitive verb, indicative mood, perfect tense, +3rd person singular to agree with its nominative or subject _he_. + +_with_, a preposition, governing the noun difficulty. + +_much_, an adjective, positive degree, qualifying the noun difficulty. + +_difficulty_, a common noun, 3rd person singular, neuter gender, +objective case governed by the preposition _with_. + +N.B.--_Much_ is generally an adverb. As an adjective it is thus compared: + + Positive Comparative Superlative + much more most + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE SENTENCE + +Different Kinds--Arrangement of Words--Paragraph + + +A sentence is an assemblage of words so arranged as to convey a determinate +sense or meaning, in other words, to express a complete thought or idea. +No matter how short, it must contain one finite verb and a subject or agent +to direct the action of the verb. + +"Birds fly;" "Fish swim;" "Men walk;"--are sentences. + +A sentence always contains two parts, something spoken about and something +said about it. The word or words indicating what is spoken about form what +is called the _subject_ and the word or words indicating what is said about +it form what is called the _predicate_. + +In the sentences given, _birds_, _fish_ and _men_ are the subjects, while +_fly_, _swim_ and _walk_ are the predicates. + +There are three kinds of sentences, _simple_, _compound_ and _complex_. + +The _simple sentence_ expresses a single thought and consists of one +subject and one predicate, as, "Man is mortal." + +A _compound sentence_ consists of two or more simple sentences of equal +importance the parts of which are either expressed or understood, as, +"The men work in the fields and the women work in the household," or "The +men work in the fields and the women in the household" or "The men and +women work in the fields and in the household." + +A _complex sentence_ consists of two or more simple sentences so combined +that one depends on the other to complete its meaning; as; "When he +returns, I shall go on my vacation." Here the words, "when he returns" +are dependent on the rest of the sentence for their meaning. + +A _clause_ is a separate part of a complex sentence, as "when he returns" +in the last example. + +A _phrase_ consists of two or more words without a finite verb. + +Without a finite verb we cannot affirm anything or convey an idea, +therefore we can have no sentence. + +Infinitives and participles which are the infinite parts of the verb +cannot be predicates. "I looking up the street" is not a sentence, for it +is not a complete action expressed. When we hear such an expression as "A +dog running along the street," we wait for something more to be added, +something more affirmed about the dog, whether he bit or barked or fell +dead or was run over. + +Thus in every sentence there must be a finite verb to limit the subject. + +When the verb is transitive, that is, when the action cannot happen +without affecting something, the thing affected is called the _object_. + +Thus in "Cain killed Abel" the action of the killing affected Abel. In +"The cat has caught a mouse," mouse is the object of the catching. + + +ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE + +Of course in simple sentences the natural order of arrangement is +subject--verb--object. In many cases no other form is possible. Thus in +the sentence "The cat has caught a mouse," we cannot reverse it and say +"The mouse has caught a cat" without destroying the meaning, and in any +other form of arrangement, such as "A mouse, the cat has caught," we feel +that while it is intelligible, it is a poor way of expressing the fact +and one which jars upon us more or less. + +In longer sentences, however, when there are more words than what are +barely necessary for subject, verb and object, we have greater freedom of +arrangement and can so place the words as to give the best effect. The +proper placing of words depends upon perspicuity and precision. These two +combined give _style_ to the structure. + +Most people are familiar with Gray's line in the immortal _Elegy_--"The +ploughman homeward plods his weary way." This line can be paraphrased to +read 18 different ways. Here are a few variations: + + Homeward the ploughman plods his weary way. + The ploughman plods his weary way homeward. + Plods homeward the ploughman his weary way. + His weary way the ploughman homeward plods. + Homeward his weary way plods the ploughman. + Plods the ploughman his weary way homeward. + His weary way the ploughman plods homeward. + His weary way homeward the ploughman plods. + The ploughman plods homeward his weary way. + The ploughman his weary way plods homeward. + +and so on. It is doubtful if any of the other forms are superior to the +one used by the poet. Of course his arrangement was made to comply with +the rhythm and rhyme of the verse. Most of the variations depend upon the +emphasis we wish to place upon the different words. + +In arranging the words in an ordinary sentence we should not lose sight +of the fact that the beginning and end are the important places for +catching the attention of the reader. Words in these places have greater +emphasis than elsewhere. + +In Gray's line the general meaning conveyed is that a weary ploughman is +plodding his way homeward, but according to the arrangement a very slight +difference is effected in the idea. Some of the variations make us think +more of the ploughman, others more of the plodding, and still others more +of the weariness. + +As the beginning and end of a sentence are the most important places, it +naturally follows that small or insignificant words should be kept from +these positions. Of the two places the end one is the more important, +therefore, it really calls for the most important word in the sentence. +Never commence a sentence with _And_, _But_, _Since_, _Because_, and +other similar weak words and never end it with prepositions, small, weak +adverbs or pronouns. + +The parts of a sentence which are most closely connected with one another +in meaning should be closely connected in order also. By ignoring this +principle many sentences are made, if not nonsensical, really ridiculous +and ludicrous. For instance: "Ten dollars reward is offered for +information of any person injuring this property by order of the owner." +"This monument was erected to the memory of John Jones, who was shot by +his affectionate brother." + +In the construction of all sentences the grammatical rules must be +inviolably observed. The laws of concord, that is, the agreement of +certain words, must be obeyed. + +(1) The verb agrees with its subject in person and number. "I have," +"Thou hast," (the pronoun _thou_ is here used to illustrate the verb +form, though it is almost obsolete), "He has," show the variation of the +verb to agree with the subject. A singular subject calls for a singular +verb, a plural subject demands a verb in the plural; as, "The boy +writes," "The boys write." + +The agreement of a verb and its subject is often destroyed by confusing +(1) collective and common nouns; (2) foreign and English nouns; (3) +compound and simple subjects; (4) real and apparent subjects. + + (1) A collective noun is a number of individuals or things + regarded as a whole; as, _class regiment_. When the individuals + or things are prominently brought forward, use a plural verb; + as The class _were_ distinguished for ability. When the idea of + the whole as a unit is under consideration employ a singular + verb; as The regiment _was_ in camp. (2) It is sometimes hard + for the ordinary individual to distinguish the plural from the + singular in foreign nouns, therefore, he should be careful in + the selection of the verb. He should look up the word and be + guided accordingly. "He was an _alumnus_ of Harvard." "They + were _alumni_ of Harvard." (3) When a sentence with one verb + has two or more subjects denoting different things, connected + by _and_, the verb should be plural; as, "Snow and rain _are_ + disagreeable." When the subjects denote the same thing and are + connected by _or_ the verb should be singular; as, "The man or + the woman is to blame." (4) When the same verb has more than + one subject of different persons or numbers, it agrees with the + most prominent in thought; as, "He, and not you, _is_ wrong." + "Whether he or I _am_ to be blamed." + +(2) Never use the past participle for the past tense nor _vice versa_. +This mistake is a very common one. At every turn we hear "He done it" for +"He did it." "The jar was broke" instead of broken. "He would have went" +for "He would have gone," etc. + +(3) The use of the verbs _shall_ and _will_ is a rock upon which even +the best speakers come to wreck. They are interchanged recklessly. +Their significance changes according as they are used with the first, +second or third person. With the first person _shall_ is used in direct +statement to express a simple future action; as, "I shall go to the +city to-morrow." With the second and third persons _shall_ is used to +express a determination; as, "You _shall_ go to the city to-morrow," +"He _shall_ go to the city to-morrow." + +With the first person _will_ is used in direct statement to express +determination, as, "I will go to the city to-morrow." With the second and +third persons _will_ is used to express simple future action; as, "You +_will_ go to the city to-morrow," "He _will_ go to the city to-morrow." + +A very old rule regarding the uses of _shall_ and _will_ is thus +expressed in rhyme: + + In the first person simply _shall_ foretells, + In _will_ a threat or else a promise dwells. + _Shall_ in the second and third does threat, + _Will_ simply then foretells the future feat. + +(4) Take special care to distinguish between the nominative and objective +case. The pronouns are the only words which retain the ancient distinctive +case ending for the objective. Remember that the objective case follows +transitive verbs and prepositions. Don't say "The boy who I sent to see +you," but "The boy whom I sent to see you." _Whom_ is here the object of +the transitive verb sent. Don't say "She bowed to him and I" but "She +bowed to him and me" since me is the objective case following the +preposition _to_ understood. "Between you and I" is a very common +expression. It should be "Between you and me" since _between_ is a +preposition calling for the objective case. + +(5) Be careful in the use of the relative pronouns _who_, _which_ and +_that_. Who refers only to persons; which only to things; as, "The boy +who was drowned," "The umbrella which I lost." The relative _that_ may +refer to both persons and things; as, "The man _that_ I saw." "The hat +_that_ I bought." + +(6) Don't use the superlative degree of the adjective for the comparative; +as "He is the richest of the two" for "He is the richer of the two." +Other mistakes often made in this connection are (1) Using the double +comparative and superlative; as, "These apples are much _more_ preferable." +"The most universal motive to business is gain." (2) Comparing objects +which belong to dissimilar classes; as "There is no nicer _life_ than a +_teacher_." (3) Including objects in class to which they do not belong; +as, "The fairest of her daughters, Eve." (4) Excluding an object from a +class to which it does belong; as, "Caesar was braver than any ancient +warrior." + +(7) Don't use an adjective for an adverb or an adverb for an adjective. +Don't say, "He acted nice towards me" but "He acted nicely toward me," +and instead of saying "She looked _beautifully_" say "She looked +_beautiful_." + +(8) Place the adverb as near as possible to the word it modifies. Instead +of saying, "He walked to the door quickly," say "He walked quickly to the +door." + +(9) Not alone be careful to distinguish between the nominative and +objective cases of the pronouns, but try to avoid ambiguity in their use. + +The amusing effect of disregarding the reference of pronouns is well +illustrated by Burton in the following story of Billy Williams, a comic +actor who thus narrates his experience in riding a horse owned by +Hamblin, the manager: + + +"So down I goes to the stable with Tom Flynn, and told the man to put +the saddle on him." + +"On Tom Flynn?" + +"No, on the horse. So after talking with Tom Flynn awhile I mounted +him." + +"What! mounted Tom Flynn?" + +"No, the horse; and then I shook hands with him and rode off." + +"Shook hands with the horse, Billy?" + +"No, with Tom Flynn; and then I rode off up the Bowery, and who should +I meet but Tom Hamblin; so I got off and told the boy to hold him by +the head." + +"What! hold Hamblin by the head?" + +"No, the horse; and then we went and had a drink together." + +"What! you and the horse?" + +"No, _me_ and Hamblin; and after that I mounted him again and went out +of town." + +"What! mounted Hamblin again?" + +"No, the horse; and when I got to Burnham, who should be there but Tom +Flynn,--he'd taken another horse and rode out ahead of me; so I told +the hostler to tie him up." + +"Tie Tom Flynn up?" + +"No, the horse; and we had a drink there." + +"What! you and the horse?" + +"No, me and Tom Flynn." + +Finding his auditors by this time in a _horse_ laugh, Billy wound up +with: "Now, look here,--every time I say horse, you say Hamblin, and +every time I say Hamblin you say horse: I'll be hanged if I tell you +any more about it." + + + + +SENTENCE CLASSIFICATION + +There are two great classes of sentences according to the general +principles upon which they are founded. These are termed the _loose_ and +the _periodic_. + +In the _loose_ sentence the main idea is put first, and then follow +several facts in connection with it. Defoe is an author particularly +noted for this kind of sentence. He starts out with a leading declaration +to which he adds several attendant connections. For instance in the +opening of the story of _Robinson Crusoe_ we read: "I was born in the +year 1632 in the city of York, of a good family, though not of that +country, my father being a foreigner of Bremen, who settled first at +Hull; he got a good estate by merchandise, and leaving off his trade +lived afterward at York, from whence he had married my mother, whose +relations were named Robinson, a very good family in the country and from +I was called Robinson Kreutznaer; but by the usual corruption of words in +England, we are now called, nay, we call ourselves, and write our name +Crusoe, and so my companions always called me." + +In the periodic sentence the main idea comes last and is preceded by a +series of relative introductions. This kind of sentence is often +introduced by such words as _that_, _if_, _since_, _because_. The +following is an example: + +"That through his own folly and lack of circumspection he should have +been reduced to such circumstances as to be forced to become a beggar on +the streets, soliciting alms from those who had formerly been the +recipients of his bounty, was a sore humiliation." + +On account of its name many are liable to think the _loose_ sentence an +undesirable form in good composition, but this should not be taken for +granted. In many cases it is preferable to the periodic form. + +As a general rule in speaking, as opposed to writing, the _loose_ form is +to be preferred, inasmuch as when the periodic is employed in discourse +the listeners are apt to forget the introductory clauses before the final +issue is reached. + +Both kinds are freely used in composition, but in speaking, the _loose_, +which makes the direct statement at the beginning, should predominate. + +As to the length of sentences much depends on the nature of the +composition. + +However the general rule may be laid down that short sentences are +preferable to long ones. The tendency of the best writers of the present +day is towards short, snappy, pithy sentences which rivet the attention of +the reader. They adopt as their motto _multum in parvo_ (much in little) +and endeavor to pack a great deal in small space. Of course the extreme of +brevity is to be avoided. Sentences can be too short, too jerky, too +brittle to withstand the test of criticism. The long sentence has its place +and a very important one. It is indispensable in argument and often is very +necessary to description and also in introducing general principles which +require elaboration. In employing the long sentence the inexperienced +writer should not strain after the heavy, ponderous type. Johnson and +Carlyle used such a type, but remember, an ordinary mortal cannot wield the +sledge hammer of a giant. Johnson and Carlyle were intellectual giants and +few can hope to stand on the same literary pedestal. The tyro in +composition should never seek after the heavy style. The best of all +authors in the English language for style is Addison. Macaulay says: "If +you wish a style learned, but not pedantic, elegant but not ostentatious, +simple yet refined, you must give your days and nights to the volumes of +Joseph Addison." The simplicity, apart from the beauty of Addison's +writings causes us to reiterate the literary command--"Never use a big word +when a little one will convey the same or a similar meaning." + +Macaulay himself is an elegant stylist to imitate. He is like a clear +brook kissed by the noon-day sun in the shining bed of which you can see +and count the beautiful white pebbles. Goldsmith is another writer whose +simplicity of style charms. + +The beginner should study these writers, make their works his _vade mecum_, +they have stood the test of time and there has been no improvement upon +them yet, nor is there likely to be, for their writing is as perfect as +it is possible to be in the English language. + +Apart from their grammatical construction there can be no fixed rules for +the formation of sentences. The best plan is to follow the best authors +and these masters of language will guide you safely along the way. + + +THE PARAGRAPH + +The paragraph may be defined as a group of sentences that are closely +related in thought and which serve one common purpose. Not only do they +preserve the sequence of the different parts into which a composition is +divided, but they give a certain spice to the matter like raisins in a +plum pudding. A solid page of printed matter is distasteful to the reader; +it taxes the eye and tends towards the weariness of monotony, but when it +is broken up into sections it loses much of its heaviness and the +consequent lightness gives it charm, as it were, to capture the reader. + +Paragraphs are like stepping-stones on the bed of a shallow river, which +enable the foot passenger to skip with ease from one to the other until +he gets across; but if the stones are placed too far apart in attempting +to span the distance one is liable to miss the mark and fall in the water +and flounder about until he is again able to get a foothold. 'Tis the +same with written language, the reader by means of paragraphs can easily +pass from one portion of connected thought to another and keep up his +interest in the subject until he gets to the end. + +Throughout the paragraph there must be some connection in regard to the +matter under consideration,--a sentence dependency. For instance, in the +same paragraph we must not speak of a house on fire and a runaway horse +unless there is some connection between the two. We must not write +consecutively: + +"The fire raged with fierce intensity, consuming the greater part of the +large building in a short time." "The horse took fright and wildly dashed +down the street scattering pedestrians in all directions." These two +sentences have no connection and therefore should occupy separate and +distinct places. But when we say--"The fire raged with fierce intensity +consuming the greater part of the large building in a short time and the +horse taking fright at the flames dashed wildly down the street scattering +pedestrians in all directions,"--there is a natural sequence, viz., the +horse taking fright as a consequence of the flames and hence the two +expressions are combined in one paragraph. + +As in the case of words in sentences, the most important places in a +paragraph are the beginning and the end. Accordingly the first sentence +and the last should by virtue of their structure and nervous force, +compel the reader's attention. It is usually advisable to make the first +sentence short; the last sentence may be long or short, but in either +case should be forcible. The object of the first sentence is to state a +point _clearly_; the last sentence should _enforce_ it. + +It is a custom of good writers to make the conclusion of the paragraph a +restatement or counterpart or application of the opening. + +In most cases a paragraph may be regarded as the elaboration of the +principal sentence. The leading thought or idea can be taken as a nucleus +and around it constructed the different parts of the paragraph. Anyone +can make a context for every simple sentence by asking himself questions +in reference to the sentence. Thus--"The foreman gave the order"-- +suggests at once several questions; "What was the order?" "to whom did he +give it?" "why did he give it?" "what was the result?" etc. These +questions when answered will depend upon the leading one and be an +elaboration of it into a complete paragraph. + +If we examine any good paragraph we shall find it made up of a number of +items, each of which helps to illustrate, confirm or enforce the general +thought or purpose of the paragraph. Also the transition from each item +to the next is easy, natural and obvious; the items seem to come of +themselves. If, on the other hand, we detect in a paragraph one or more +items which have no direct bearing, or if we are unable to proceed +readily from item to item, especially if we are obliged to rearrange the +items before we can perceive their full significance, then we are +justified in pronouncing the paragraph construction faulty. + +No specific rules can be given as to the construction of paragraphs. The +best advice is,--Study closely the paragraph structure of the best +writers, for it is only through imitation, conscious or unconscious of +the best models, that one can master the art. + +The best paragraphist in the English language for the essay is Macaulay, +the best model to follow for the oratorical style is Edmund Burke and for +description and narration probably the greatest master of paragraph is +the American Goldsmith, Washington Irving. + +A paragraph is indicated in print by what is known as the indentation of +the line, that is, by commencing it a space from the left margin. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE + +Figures of Speech--Definitions and Examples--Use of Figures + + +In _Figurative Language_ we employ words in such a way that they differ +somewhat from their ordinary signification in commonplace speech and +convey our meaning in a more vivid and impressive manner than when we use +them in their every-day sense. Figures make speech more effective, they +beautify and emphasize it and give to it a relish and piquancy as salt +does to food; besides they add energy and force to expression so that it +irresistibly compels attention and interest. There are four kinds of +figures, viz.: (1) Figures of Orthography which change the spelling of a +word; (2) Figures of Etymology which change the form of words; (3) Figures +of Syntax which change the construction of sentences; (4) Figures of +Rhetoric or the art of speaking and writing effectively which change the +mode of thought. + +We shall only consider the last mentioned here as they are the most +important, really giving to language the construction and style which +make it a fitting medium for the intercommunication of ideas. + +Figures of Rhetoric have been variously classified, some authorities +extending the list to a useless length. The fact is that any form of +expression which conveys thought may be classified as a Figure. + +The principal figures as well as the most important and those oftenest +used are, _Simile, Metaphor, Personification, Allegory, Synechdoche, +Metonymy, Exclamation, Hyperbole, Apostrophe, Vision, Antithesis, Climax, +Epigram, Interrogation_ and _Irony_. + +The first four are founded on _resemblance_, the second six on _contiguity_ +and the third five, on _contrast_. + +A _Simile_ (from the Latin _similis_, like), is the likening of one thing +to another, a statement of the resemblance of objects, acts, or relations; +as "In his awful anger he was _like_ the storm-driven waves dashing +against the rock." A simile makes the principal object plainer and +impresses it more forcibly on the mind. "His memory is like wax to +receive impressions and like marble to retain them." This brings out the +leading idea as to the man's memory in a very forceful manner. Contrast +it with the simple statement--"His memory is good." Sometimes _Simile_ is +prostituted to a low and degrading use; as "His face was like a danger +signal in a fog storm." "Her hair was like a furze-bush in bloom." "He +was to his lady love as a poodle to its mistress." Such burlesque is +never permissible. Mere _likeness_, it should be remembered, does not +constitute a simile. For instance there is no simile when one city is +compared to another. In order that there may be a rhetorical simile, the +objects compared must be of different classes. Avoid the old _trite_ +similes such as comparing a hero to a lion. Such were played out long +ago. And don't hunt for farfetched similes. Don't say--"Her head was +glowing as the glorious god of day when he sets in a flambeau of splendor +behind the purple-tinted hills of the West." It is much better to do +without such a simile and simply say--"She had fiery red hair." + +A _Metaphor_ (from the Greek _metapherein_, to carry over or transfer), +is a word used to _imply_ a resemblance but instead of likening one +object to another as in the _simile_ we directly substitute the action or +operation of one for another. If, of a religious man we say,--"He is as a +great pillar upholding the church," the expression is a _simile_, but if +we say--"He is a great pillar upholding the church" it is a metaphor. The +metaphor is a bolder and more lively figure than the simile. It is more +like a picture and hence, the graphic use of metaphor is called +"word-painting." It enables us to give to the most abstract ideas form, +color and life. Our language is full of metaphors, and we very often use +them quite unconsciously. For instance, when we speak of the _bed_ of a +river, the _shoulder_ of a hill, the _foot_ of a mountain, the _hands_ of +a clock, the _key_ of a situation, we are using metaphors. + +Don't use mixed metaphors, that is, different metaphors in relation to the +same subject: "Since it was launched our project has met with much +opposition, but while its flight has not reached the heights ambitioned, we +are yet sanguine we shall drive it to success." Here our project begins as +a _ship_, then becomes a _bird_ and finally winds up as a _horse_. + +_Personification_ (from the Latin _persona_, person, and _facere_, to make) +is the treating of an inanimate object as if it were animate and is +probably the most beautiful and effective of all the figures. + +"The mountains _sing_ together, the hills _rejoice_ and _clap_ their +hands." + + "Earth _felt_ the wound; and Nature from her seat, + _Sighing_, through all her works, gave signs of woe." + +Personification depends much on a vivid imagination and is adapted +especially to poetical composition. It has two distinguishable forms: +(1) when personality is ascribed to the inanimate as in the foregoing +examples, and (2) when some quality of life is attributed to the +inanimate; as, a _raging_ storm; an _angry_ sea; a _whistling_ wind, etc. + +An _Allegory_ (from the Greek _allos_, other, and _agoreuein_, to speak), +is a form of expression in which the words are symbolical of something. +It is very closely allied to the metaphor, in fact is a continued metaphor. + +_Allegory_, _metaphor_ and _simile_ have three points in common,--they +are all founded on resemblance. "Ireland is like a thorn in the side of +England;" this is simile. "Ireland _is_ a thorn in the side of England;" +this is metaphor. "Once a great giant sprang up out of the sea and lived +on an island all by himself. On looking around he discovered a little +girl on another small island near by. He thought the little girl could be +useful to him in many ways so he determined to make her subservient to +his will. He commanded her, but she refused to obey, then he resorted to +very harsh measures with the little girl, but she still remained obstinate +and obdurate. He continued to oppress her until finally she rebelled and +became as a thorn in his side to prick him for his evil attitude towards +her;" this is an allegory in which the giant plainly represents England +and the little girl, Ireland; the implication is manifest though no +mention is made of either country. Strange to say the most perfect allegory +in the English language was written by an almost illiterate and ignorant +man, and written too, in a dungeon cell. In the "Pilgrim's Progress," +Bunyan, the itinerant tinker, has given us by far the best allegory ever +penned. Another good one is "The Faerie Queen" by Edmund Spenser. + +_Synecdoche_ (from the Greek, _sun_ with, and _ekdexesthai_, to receive), +is a figure of speech which expresses either more or less than it literally +denotes. By it we give to an object a name which literally expresses +something more or something less than we intend. Thus: we speak of the +world when we mean only a very limited number of the people who compose +the world: as, "The world treated him badly." Here we use the whole for a +part. But the most common form of this figure is that in which a part is +used for the whole; as, "I have twenty head of cattle," "One of his _hands_ +was assassinated," meaning one of his men. "Twenty _sail_ came into the +harbor," meaning twenty ships. "This is a fine marble," meaning a marble +statue. + +_Metonymy_ (from the Greek _meta_, change, and _onyma_, a name) is the +designation of an object by one of its accompaniments, in other words, it +is a figure by which the name of one object is put for another when the +two are so related that the mention of one readily suggests the other. +Thus when we say of a drunkard--"He loves the bottle" we do not mean that +he loves the glass receptacle, but the liquor that it is supposed to +contain. Metonymy, generally speaking, has, three subdivisions: (1) when +an effect is put for cause or _vice versa_: as "_Gray hairs_ should be +respected," meaning old age. "He writes a fine hand," that is, handwriting. +(2) when the _sign_ is put for the _thing signified_; as, "The pen is +mightier than the sword," meaning literary power is superior to military +force. (3) When the _container_ is put for the thing contained; as "The +_House_ was called to order," meaning the members in the House. + +_Exclamation_ (from the Latin _ex_, out, and _clamare_, to cry), is a +figure by which the speaker instead of stating a fact, simply utters an +expression of surprise or emotion. For instance when he hears some +harrowing tale of woe or misfortune instead of saying,--"It is a sad +story" he exclaims "What a sad story!" + +Exclamation may be defined as the vocal expression of feeling, though it +is also applied to written forms which are intended to express emotion. +Thus in describing a towering mountain we can write "Heavens, what a +piece of Nature's handiwork! how majestic! how sublime! how awe-inspiring +in its colossal impressiveness!" This figure rather belongs to poetry and +animated oratory than to the cold prose of every-day conversation and +writing. + +_Hyperbole_ (from the Greek _hyper_, beyond, and _ballein_, to throw), is +an exaggerated form of statement and simply consists in representing +things to be either greater or less, better or worse than they really +are. Its object is to make the thought more effective by overstating it. +Here are some examples:--"He was so tall his head touched the clouds." +"He was as thin as a poker." "He was so light that a breath might have +blown him away." Most people are liable to overwork this figure. We are +all more or less given to exaggeration and some of us do not stop there, +but proceed onward to falsehood and downright lying. There should be a +limit to hyperbole, and in ordinary speech and writing it should be well +qualified and kept within reasonable bounds. + +An _Apostrophe_ (from the Greek _apo_, from, and _strephein_, to turn), +is a direct address to the absent as present, to the inanimate as living, +or to the abstract as personal. Thus: "O, illustrious Washington! Father +of our Country! Could you visit us now!" + + "My Country tis of thee-- + Sweet land of liberty, + Of thee I sing." + +"O! Grave, where is thy Victory, O! Death where is thy sting!" This +figure is very closely allied to Personification. + +_Vision_ (from the Latin _videre_, to see) consists in treating the past, +the future, or the remote as if present in time or place. It is appropriate +to animated description, as it produces the effect of an ideal presence. +"The old warrior looks down from the canvas and tells us to be men worthy +of our sires." + +This figure is much exemplified in the Bible. The book of Revelation is a +vision of the future. The author who uses the figure most is Carlyle. + +An _Antithesis_ (from the Greek _anti_, against, and _tithenai_, to set) +is founded on contrast; it consists in putting two unlike things in such +a position that each will appear more striking by the contrast. + + "Ring out the old, ring in the new, + Ring out the false, ring in the true." + +"Let us be _friends_ in peace, but _enemies_ in war." + +Here is a fine antithesis in the description of a steam engine--"It can +engrave a seal and crush masses of obdurate metal before it; draw out, +without breaking, a thread as fine as a gossamer; and lift up a ship of +war like a bauble in the air; it can embroider muslin and forge anchors; +cut steel into ribands, and impel loaded vessels against the fury of +winds and waves." + +_Climax_ (from the Greek, _klimax_, a ladder), is an arrangement of +thoughts and ideas in a series, each part of which gets stronger and more +impressive until the last one, which emphasizes the force of all the +preceding ones. "He risked truth, he risked honor, he risked fame, he +risked all that men hold dear,--yea, he risked life itself, and for +what?--for a creature who was not worthy to tie his shoe-latchets when he +was his better self." + +_Epigram_ (from the Greek _epi_, upon, and _graphein_, to write), +originally meant an inscription on a monument, hence it came to signify +any pointed expression. It now means a statement or any brief saying in +prose or poetry in which there is an apparent contradiction; as, +"Conspicuous for his absence." "Beauty when unadorned is most adorned." +"He was too foolish to commit folly." "He was so wealthy that he could +not spare the money." + +_Interrogation_ (from the Latin _interrogatio_, a question), is a figure +of speech in which an assertion is made by asking a question; as, "Does +God not show justice to all?" "Is he not doing right in his course?" +"What can a man do under the circumstances?" + +_Irony_ (from the Greek _eironcia_, dissimulation) is a form of expression +in which the opposite is substituted for what is intended, with the end in +view, that the falsity or absurdity may be apparent; as, "Benedict Arnold +was an _honorable_ man." "A Judas Iscariot never _betrays_ a friend." "You +can always _depend_ upon the word of a liar." + +Irony is cousin germain to _ridicule_, _derision_, _mockery_, _satire_ +and _sarcasm_. _Ridicule_ implies laughter mingled with contempt; +_derision_ is ridicule from a personal feeling of hostility; _mockery_ is +insulting derision; _satire_ is witty mockery; _sarcasm_ is bitter satire +and _irony_ is disguised satire. + +There are many other figures of speech which give piquancy to language +and play upon words in such a way as to convey a meaning different from +their ordinary signification in common every-day speech and writing. The +golden rule for all is to _keep them in harmony with the character and +purpose of speech and composition_. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +PUNCTUATION + +Principal Points--Illustrations--Capital Letters. + + +Lindley Murray and Goold Brown laid down cast-iron rules for punctuation, +but most of them have been broken long since and thrown into the junk-heap +of disuse. They were too rigid, too strict, went so much into _minutiae_, +that they were more or less impractical to apply to ordinary composition. +The manner of language, of style and of expression has considerably +changed since then, the old abstruse complex sentence with its hidden +meanings has been relegated to the shade, there is little of prolixity or +long-drawn-out phrases, ambiguity of expression is avoided and the aim is +toward terseness, brevity and clearness. Therefore, punctuation has been +greatly simplified, to such an extent indeed, that it is now as much a +matter of good taste and judgment as adherence to any fixed set of rules. +Nevertheless there are laws governing it which cannot be abrogated, their +principles must be rigidly and inviolably observed. + +The chief end of punctuation is to mark the grammatical connection and +the dependence of the parts of a composition, but not the actual pauses +made in speaking. Very often the points used to denote the delivery of a +passage differ from those used when the passage is written. Nevertheless, +several of the punctuation marks serve to bring out the rhetorical force +of expression. + +The principal marks of punctuation are: + +1. The Comma [,] + +2. The Semicolon [;] + +3. The Colon [:] + +4. The Period [.] + +5. The Interrogation [?] + +6. The Exclamation [!] + +7. The Dash [--] + +8. The Parenthesis [()] + +9. The Quotation [" "] + +There are several other points or marks to indicate various relations, +but properly speaking such come under the heading of Printer's Marks, +some of which are treated elsewhere. + +Of the above, the first four may be styled the grammatical points, and +the remaining five, the rhetorical points. + + +The _Comma_: The office of the Comma is to show the slightest separation +which calls for punctuation at all. It should be omitted whenever +possible. It is used to mark the least divisions of a sentence. + +(1) A series of words or phrases has its parts separated by commas:-- +"Lying, trickery, chicanery, perjury, were natural to him." "The brave, +daring, faithful soldier died facing the foe." If the series is in pairs, +commas separate the pairs: "Rich and poor, learned and unlearned, black +and white, Christian and Jew, Mohammedan and Buddhist must pass through +the same gate." + +(2) A comma is used before a short quotation: "It was Patrick Henry who +said, 'Give me liberty or give me death.'" + +(3) When the subject of the sentence is a clause or a long phrase, a comma +is used after such subject: "That he has no reverence for the God I +love, proves his insincerity." "Simulated piety, with a black coat and a +sanctimonious look, does not proclaim a Christian." + +(4) An expression used parenthetically should be inclosed by commas: "The +old man, as a general rule, takes a morning walk." + +(5) Words in apposition are set off by commas: "McKinley, the President, +was assassinated." + +(6) Relative clauses, if not restrictive, require commas: "The book, +which is the simplest, is often the most profound." + +(7) In continued sentences each should be followed by a comma: +"Electricity lights our dwellings and streets, pulls cars, trains, drives +the engines of our mills and factories." + +(8) When a verb is omitted a comma takes its place: "Lincoln was a great +statesman; Grant, a great soldier." + +(9) The subject of address is followed by a comma: "John, you are a good +man." + +(10) In numeration, commas are used to express periods of three figures: +"Mountains 25,000 feet high; 1,000,000 dollars." + + +The _Semicolon_ marks a slighter connection than the comma. It is +generally confined to separating the parts of compound sentences. It is +much used in contrasts: + +(1) "Gladstone was great as a statesman; he was sublime as a man." + +(2) The Semicolon is used between the parts of all compound sentences in +which the grammatical subject of the second part is different from that +of the first: "The power of England relies upon the wisdom of her +statesmen; the power of America upon the strength of her army and navy." + +(4) The Semicolon is used before words and abbreviations which introduce +particulars or specifications following after, such as, _namely, as, +e.g., vid., i.e., etc._: "He had three defects; namely, carelessness, +lack of concentration and obstinacy in his ideas." "An island is a +portion of land entirely surrounded by water; as Cuba." "The names of +cities should always commence with a capital letter; _e.g._, New York, +Paris." "The boy was proficient in one branch; viz., Mathematics." +"No man is perfect; i.e., free from all blemish." + + +The _Colon_ except in conventional uses is practically obsolete. + +(1) It is generally put at the end of a sentence introducing a long +quotation: "The cheers having subsided, Mr. Bryan spoke as follows:" + +(2) It is placed before an explanation or illustration of the subject +under consideration: "This is the meaning of the term:" + +(3) A direct quotation formally introduced is generally preceded by a +colon: "The great orator made this funny remark:" + +(4) The colon is often used in the title of books when the secondary or +subtitle is in apposition to the leading one and when the conjunction +_or_ is omitted: "Acoustics: the Science of Sound." + +(5) It is used after the salutation in the beginning of letters: "Sir: My +dear Sir: Gentlemen: Dear Mr. Jones:" etc. In this connection a dash very +often follows the colon. + +(6) It is sometimes used to introduce details of a group of things +already referred to in the mass: "The boy's excuses for being late were: +firstly, he did not know the time, secondly, he was sent on an errand, +thirdly, he tripped on a rock and fell by the wayside." + + +The _Period_ is the simplest punctuation mark. It is simply used to mark +the end of a complete sentence that is neither interrogative nor +exclamatory. + +(1) After every sentence conveying a complete meaning: "Birds fly." +"Plants grow." "Man is mortal." + +(2) In abbreviations: after every abbreviated word: Rt. Rev. T. C. +Alexander, D.D., L.L.D. + +(3) A period is used on the title pages of books after the name of the +book, after the author's name, after the publisher's imprint: _American +Trails_. By Theodore Roosevelt. New York. Scribner Company. + + +The _Mark of Interrogation_ is used to ask or suggest a question. + +(1) Every question admitting of an answer, even when it is not expected, +should be followed by the mark of interrogation: "Who has not heard of +Napoleon?" + +(2) When several questions have a common dependence they should be +followed by one mark of interrogation at the end of the series: "Where +now are the playthings and friends of my boyhood; the laughing boys; the +winsome girls; the fond neighbors whom I loved?" + +(3) The mark is often used parenthetically to suggest doubt: "In 1893 (?) +Gladstone became converted to Home Rule for Ireland." + + +The _Exclamation_ point should be sparingly used, particularly in prose. +Its chief use is to denote emotion of some kind. + +(1) It is generally employed with interjections or clauses used as +interjections: "Alas! I am forsaken." "What a lovely landscape!" + +(2) Expressions of strong emotion call for the exclamation: "Charge, +Chester, charge! On, Stanley, on!" + +(3) When the emotion is very strong double exclamation points may be +used: "Assist him!! I would rather assist Satan!!" + + +The _Dash_ is generally confined to cases where there is a sudden break +from the general run of the passage. Of all the punctuation marks it is +the most misused. + +(1) It is employed to denote sudden change in the construction or +sentiment: "The Heroes of the Civil War,--how we cherish them." "He was a +fine fellow--in his own opinion." + +(2) When a word or expression is repeated for oratorical effect, a dash +is used to introduce the repetition: "Shakespeare was the greatest of all +poets--Shakespeare, the intellectual ocean whose waves washed the +continents of all thought." + +(3) The Dash is used to indicate a conclusion without expressing it: "He +is an excellent man but--" + +(4) It is used to indicate what is not expected or what is not the +natural outcome of what has gone before: "He delved deep into the bowels +of the earth and found instead of the hidden treasure--a button." + +(5) It is used to denote the omission of letters or figures: "J--n J--s" +for John Jones; 1908-9 for 1908 and 1909; Matthew VII:5-8 for Matthew +VII:5, 6, 7, and 8. + +(6) When an ellipsis of the words, _namely, that is, to wit_, etc., takes +place, the dash is used to supply them: "He excelled in three branches-- +arithmetic, algebra, and geometry." + +(7) A dash is used to denote the omission of part of a word when it is +undesirable to write the full word: He is somewhat of a r----l (rascal). +This is especially the case in profane words. + +(8) Between a citation and the authority for it there is generally a dash: +"All the world's a stage."--_Shakespeare_. + +(9) When questions and answers are put in the same paragraph they should +be separated by dashes: "Are you a good boy? Yes, Sir.--Do you love study? +I do." + + +_Marks of Parenthesis_ are used to separate expressions inserted in the +body of a sentence, which are illustrative of the meaning, but have no +essential connection with the sentence, and could be done without. They +should be used as little as possible for they show that something is +being brought into a sentence that does not belong to it. + +(1) When the unity of a sentence is broken the words causing the break +should be enclosed in parenthesis: "We cannot believe a liar (and Jones +is one), even when he speaks the truth." + +(2) In reports of speeches marks of parenthesis are used to denote +interpolations of approval or disapproval by the audience: "The masses +must not submit to the tyranny of the classes (hear, hear), we must show +the trust magnates (groans), that they cannot ride rough-shod over our +dearest rights (cheers);" "If the gentleman from Ohio (Mr. Brown), will +not be our spokesman, we must select another. (A voice,--Get Robinson)." + +When a parenthesis is inserted in the sentence where no comma is +required, no point should be used before either parenthesis. When +inserted at a place requiring a comma, if the parenthetical matter +relates to the whole sentence, a comma should be used before each +parenthesis; if it relates to a single word, or short clause, no stop +should come before it, but a comma should be put after the closing +parenthesis. + + +The _Quotation marks_ are used to show that the words enclosed by them +are borrowed. + +(1) A direct quotation should be enclosed within the quotation marks: +Abraham Lincoln said,--"I shall make this land too hot for the feet of +slaves." + +(2) When a quotation is embraced within another, the contained quotation +has only single marks: Franklin said, "Most men come to believe 'honesty +is the best policy.'" + +(3) When a quotation consists of several paragraphs the quotation marks +should precede each paragraph. + +(4) Titles of books, pictures and newspapers when formally given are +quoted. + +(5) Often the names of ships are quoted though there is no occasion for it. + + +The _Apostrophe_ should come under the comma rather than under the +quotation marks or double comma. The word is Greek and signifies a turning +away from. The letter elided or turned away is generally an _e_. In poetry +and familiar dialogue the apostrophe marks the elision of a syllable, as +"I've for I have"; "Thou'rt for thou art"; "you'll for you will," etc. +Sometimes it is necessary to abbreviate a word by leaving out several +letters. In such case the apostrophe takes the place of the omitted letters +as "cont'd for continued." The apostrophe is used to denote the elision of +the century in dates, where the century is understood or to save the +repetition of a series of figures, as "The Spirit of '76"; "I served in the +army during the years 1895, '96, '97, '98 and '99." The principal use of +the apostrophe is to denote the possessive case. All nouns in the singular +number whether proper names or not, and all nouns in the plural ending with +any other letter than _s_, form the possessive by the addition of the +apostrophe and the letter _s_. The only exceptions to this rule are, that, +by poetical license the additional _s_ may be elided in poetry for sake of +the metre, and in the scriptural phrases "For goodness' sake." "For +conscience' sake," "For Jesus' sake," etc. Custom has done away with the +_s_ and these phrases are now idioms of the language. All plural nouns +ending in _s_ form the possessive by the addition of the apostrophe only as +boys', horses'. The possessive case of the personal pronouns never take the +apostrophe, as ours, yours, hers, theirs. + + +CAPITAL LETTERS + +_Capital letters_ are used to give emphasis to or call attention to +certain words to distinguish them from the context. In manuscripts they +may be written small or large and are indicated by lines drawn +underneath, two lines for SMALL CAPITALS and three lines for CAPITALS. + +Some authors, notably Carlyle, make such use of Capitals that it +degenerates into an abuse. They should only be used in their proper +places as given in the table below. + +(1) The first word of every sentence, in fact the first word in writing +of any kind should begin with a capital; as, "Time flies." "My dear +friend." + +(2) Every direct quotation should begin with a capital; "Dewey said,-- +'Fire, when you're ready, Gridley!'" + +(3) Every direct question commences with a capital; "Let me ask you; +'How old are you?'" + +(4) Every line of poetry begins with a capital; "Breathes there a man +with soul so dead?" + +(5) Every numbered clause calls for a capital: "The witness asserts: (1) +That he saw the man attacked; (2) That he saw him fall; (3) That he +saw his assailant flee." + +(6) The headings of essays and chapters should be wholly in capitals; as, +CHAPTER VIII--RULES FOR USE OF CAPITALS. + +(7) In the titles of books, nouns, pronouns, adjectives and adverbs +should begin with a capital; as, "Johnson's Lives of the Poets." + +(8) In the Roman notation numbers are denoted by capitals; as, I II III V +X L C D M--1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, 1000. + +(9) Proper names begin with a capital; as, "Jones, Johnson, Caesar, Mark +Antony, England, Pacific, Christmas." + +Such words as river, sea, mountain, etc., when used generally are common, +not proper nouns, and require no capital. But when such are used with an +adjective or adjunct to specify a particular object they become proper +names, and therefore require a capital; as, "Mississippi River, North +Sea, Alleghany Mountains," etc. In like manner the cardinal points north, +south, east and west, when they are used to distinguish regions of a +country are capitals; as, "The North fought against the South." + +When a proper name is compounded with another word, the part which is not +a proper name begins with a capital if it precedes, but with a small +letter if it follows, the hyphen; as "Post-homeric," "Sunday-school." + +(10) Words derived from proper names require a Capital; as, "American, +Irish, Christian, Americanize, Christianize." + +In this connection the names of political parties, religious sects and +schools of thought begin with capitals; as, "Republican, Democrat, Whig, +Catholic, Presbyterian, Rationalists, Free Thinkers." + +(11) The titles of honorable, state and political offices begin with a +capital; as, "President, Chairman, Governor, Alderman." + +(12) The abbreviations of learned titles and college degrees call for +capitals; as, "LL.D., M.A., B.S.," etc. Also the seats of learning +conferring such degrees as, "Harvard University, Manhattan College," etc. + +(13) When such relative words as father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, +aunt, etc., precede a proper name, they are written and printed with +capitals; as, Father Abraham, Mother Eddy, Brother John, Sister Jane, +Uncle Jacob, Aunt Eliza. Father, when used to denote the early Christian +writer, is begun with a capital; "Augustine was one of the learned +Fathers of the Church." + +(14) The names applied to the Supreme Being begin with capitals: "God, +Lord, Creator, Providence, Almighty, The Deity, Heavenly Father, Holy +One." In this respect the names applied to the Saviour also require +capitals: "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Man of Galilee, The Crucified, The +Anointed One." Also the designations of Biblical characters as "Lily of +Israel, Rose of Sharon, Comfortress of the Afflicted, Help of Christians, +Prince of the Apostles, Star of the Sea," etc. Pronouns referring to God +and Christ take capitals; as, "His work, The work of Him, etc." + +(15) Expressions used to designate the Bible or any particular division +of it begin with a capital; as, "Holy Writ, The Sacred Book, Holy Book, +God's Word, Old Testament, New Testament, Gospel of St. Matthew, Seven +Penitential Psalms." + +(16) Expressions based upon the Bible or in reference to Biblical +characters begin with a capital: "Water of Life, Hope of Men, Help of +Christians, Scourge of Nations." + +(17) The names applied to the Evil One require capitals: "Beelzebub, +Prince of Darkness, Satan, King of Hell, Devil, Incarnate Fiend, Tempter +of Men, Father of Lies, Hater of Good." + +(18) Words of very special importance, especially those which stand out +as the names of leading events in history, have capitals; as, "The +Revolution, The Civil War, The Middle Ages, The Age of Iron," etc. + +(19) Terms which refer to great events in the history of the race require +capitals; "The Flood, Magna Charta, Declaration of Independence." + +(20) The names of the days of the week and the months of the year and the +seasons are commenced with capitals: "Monday, March, Autumn." + +(21) The Pronoun _I_ and the interjection _O_ always require the use of +capitals. In fact all the interjections when uttered as exclamations +commence with capitals: "Alas! he is gone." "Ah! I pitied him." + +(22) All _noms-de-guerre_, assumed names, as well as names given for +distinction, call for capitals, as, "The Wizard of the North," "Paul +Pry," "The Northern Gael," "Sandy Sanderson," "Poor Robin," etc. + +(23) In personification, that is, when inanimate things are represented +as endowed with life and action, the noun or object personified begins +with a capital; as, "The starry Night shook the dews from her wings." +"Mild-eyed Day appeared," "The Oak said to the Beech--'I am stronger +than you.'" + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +LETTER WRITING + +Principles of Letter-Writing--Forms--Notes + + +Many people seem to regard letter-writing as a very simple and easily +acquired branch, but on the contrary it is one of the most difficult +forms of composition and requires much patience and labor to master its +details. In fact there are very few perfect letter-writers in the +language. It constitutes the direct form of speech and may be called +conversation at a distance. Its forms are so varied by every conceivable +topic written at all times by all kinds of persons in all kinds of moods +and tempers and addressed to all kinds of persons of varying degrees in +society and of different pursuits in life, that no fixed rules can be +laid down to regulate its length, style or subject matter. Only general +suggestions can be made in regard to scope and purpose, and the forms of +indicting set forth which custom and precedent have sanctioned. + +The principles of letter-writing should be understood by everybody who +has any knowledge of written language, for almost everybody at some time +or other has necessity to address some friend or acquaintance at a +distance, whereas comparatively few are called upon to direct their +efforts towards any other kind of composition. + +Formerly the illiterate countryman, when he had occasion to communicate +with friends or relations, called in the peripatetic schoolmaster as his +amanuensis, but this had one draw-back,--secrets had to be poured into an +ear other than that for which they were intended, and often the +confidence was betrayed. + +Now, that education is abroad in the land, there is seldom any occasion +for any person to call upon the service of another to compose and write a +personal letter. Very few now-a-days are so grossly illiterate as not to +be able to read and write. No matter how crude his effort may be it is +better for any one to write his own letters than trust to another. Even +if he should commence,--"deer fren, i lift up my pen to let ye no that i +hove been sik for the past 3 weeks, hopping this will findye the same," +his spelling and construction can be excused in view of the fact that his +intention is good, and that he is doing his best to serve his own turn +without depending upon others. + +The nature, substance and tone of any letter depend upon the occasion +that calls it forth, upon the person writing it and upon the person for +whom it is intended. Whether it should be easy or formal in style, plain +or ornate, light or serious, gay or grave, sentimental or matter-of-fact +depend upon these three circumstances. + +In letter writing the first and most important requisites are to be +natural and simple; there should be no straining after effect, but simply +a spontaneous out-pouring of thoughts and ideas as they naturally occur +to the writer. We are repelled by a person who is stiff and labored in +his conversation and in the same way the stiff and labored letter bores +the reader. Whereas if it is light and in a conversational vein it +immediately engages his attention. + +The letter which is written with the greatest facility is the best kind +of letter because it naturally expresses what is in the writer, he has +not to search for his words, they flow in a perfect unison with the ideas +he desires to communicate. When you write to your friend John Browne to +tell him how you spent Sunday you have not to look around for the words, +or study set phrases with a view to please or impress Browne, you just +tell him the same as if he were present before you, how you spent the +day, where you were, with whom you associated and the chief incidents +that occurred during the time. Thus, you write natural and it is such +writing that is adapted to epistolary correspondence. + +There are different kinds of letters, each calling for a different style +of address and composition, nevertheless the natural key should be +maintained in all, that is to say, the writer should never attempt to +convey an impression that he is other than what he is. It would be silly +as well as vain for the common street laborer of a limited education to +try to put on literary airs and emulate a college professor; he may have +as good a brain, but it is not as well developed by education, and he +lacks the polish which society confers. When writing a letter the street +laborer should bear in mind that only the letter of a street-laborer is +expected from him, no matter to whom his communication may be addressed +and that neither the grammar nor the diction of a Chesterfield or +Gladstone is looked for in his language. Still the writer should keep in +mind the person to whom he is writing. If it is to an Archbishop or some +other great dignitary of Church or state it certainly should be couched +in terms different from those he uses to John Browne, his intimate +friend. Just as he cannot say "Dear John" to an Archbishop, no more can +he address him in the familiar words he uses to his friend of everyday +acquaintance and companionship. Yet there is no great learning required +to write to an Archbishop, no more than to an ordinary individual. All +the laborer needs to know is the form of address and how to properly +utilize his limited vocabulary to the best advantage. Here is the form +for such a letter: + + 17 Second Avenue, + New York City. + January 1st, 1910. + + Most Rev. P. A. Jordan, + Archbishop of New York. + + Most Rev. and dear Sir:-- + While sweeping the crossing at Fifth + Avenue and 50th street on last Wednesday + morning, I found the enclosed Fifty Dollar + Bill, which I am sending to you in the hope + that it may be restored to the rightful + owner. + I beg you will acknowledge receipt and + should the owner be found I trust you will + notify me, so that I may claim some reward + for my honesty. + I am, Most Rev. and dear Sir, + + Very respectfully yours, + Thomas Jones. + + +Observe the brevity of the letter. Jones makes no suggestions to the +Archbishop how to find the owner, for he knows the course the Archbishop +will adopt, of having the finding of the bill announced from the Church +pulpits. Could Jones himself find the owner there would be no occasion to +apply to the Archbishop. + +This letter, it is true, is different from that which he would send to +Browne. Nevertheless it is simple without being familiar, is just a plain +statement, and is as much to the point for its purpose as if it were +garnished with rhetoric and "words of learned length and thundering +sound." + +Letters may be divided into those of friendship, acquaintanceship, those +of business relations, those written in an official capacity by public +servants, those designed to teach, and those which give accounts of the +daily happenings on the stage of life, in other words, news letters. + +_Letters of friendship_ are the most common and their style and form +depend upon the degree of relationship and intimacy existing between the +writers and those addressed. Between relatives and intimate friends the +beginning and end may be in the most familiar form of conversation, +either affectionate or playful. They should, however, never overstep the +boundaries of decency and propriety, for it is well to remember that, +unlike conversation, which only is heard by the ears for which it is +intended, written words may come under eyes other than those for whom +they were designed. Therefore, it is well never to write anything which +the world may not read without detriment to your character or your +instincts. You can be joyful, playful, jocose, give vent to your feelings, +but never stoop to low language and, above all, to language savoring in +the slightest degree of moral impropriety. + +_Business letters_ are of the utmost importance on account of the +interests involved. The business character of a man or of a firm is often +judged by the correspondence. On many occasions letters instead of +developing trade and business interests and gaining clientele, predispose +people unfavorably towards those whom they are designed to benefit. +Ambiguous, slip-shod language is a detriment to success. Business letters +should be clear, concise, to the point and, above all, honest, giving no +wrong impressions or holding out any inducements that cannot be fulfilled. +In business letters, just as in business conduct, honesty is always the +best policy. + +_Official letters_ are mostly always formal. They should possess clearness, +brevity and dignity of tone to impress the receivers with the proper +respect for the national laws and institutions. + +Letters designed to teach or _didactic letters_ are in a class all by +themselves. They are simply literature in the form of letters and are +employed by some of the best writers to give their thoughts and ideas a +greater emphasis. The most conspicuous example of this kind of composition +is the book on Etiquette by Lord Chesterfield, which took the form of a +series of letters to his son. + +_News letters_ are accounts of world happenings and descriptions of +ceremonies and events sent into the newspapers. Some of the best authors +of our time are newspaper men who write in an easy flowing style which is +most readable, full of humor and fancy and which carries one along with +breathless interest from beginning to end. + +The principal parts of a letter are (1) the _heading_ or introduction; +(2) the _body_ or substance of the letter; (3) the _subscription_ or +closing expression and signature; (4) the _address_ or direction on the +envelope. For the _body_ of a letter no forms or rules can be laid down +as it altogether depends on the nature of the letter and the relationship +between the writer and the person addressed. + +There are certain rules which govern the other three features and which +custom has sanctioned. Every one should be acquainted with these rules. + + +THE HEADING + +The _Heading_ has three parts, viz., the name of the place, the date of +writing and the designation of the person or persons addressed; thus: + + 73 New Street, + Newark, N. J., + February 1st, 1910. + Messr. Ginn and Co., + New York + Gentlemen: + +The name of the place should never be omitted; in cities, street and +number should always be given, and except when the city is large and very +conspicuous, so that there can be no question as to its identity with +another of the same or similar name, the abbreviation of the State should +be appended, as in the above, Newark, N. J. There is another Newark in +the State of Ohio. Owing to failure to comply with this rule many letters +go astray. The _date_ should be on every letter, especially business +letters. The date should never be put at the bottom in a business letter, +but in friendly letters this may be done. The _designation_ of the +person or persons addressed differs according to the relations of the +correspondents. Letters of friendship may begin in many ways according to +the degrees of friendship or intimacy. Thus: + + My dear Wife: + My dear Husband: + My dear Friend: + My darling Mother: + My dearest Love: + Dear Aunt: + Dear Uncle: + Dear George: etc. + +To mark a lesser degree of intimacy such formal designations as the +following may be employed: + + Dear Sir: + My dear Sir: + Dear Mr. Smith: + Dear Madam: etc. + +For clergymen who have the degree of Doctor of Divinity, the designation +is as follows: + + Rev. Alban Johnson, D. D. + My dear Sir: or Rev. and dear Sir: or more familiarly + Dear Dr. Johnson: + +Bishops of the Roman and Anglican Communions are addressed as +_Right Reverend_. + + The Rt. Rev., the Bishop of Long Island. or + The Rt. Rev. Frederick Burgess, Bishop of Long Island. + Rt. Rev. and dear Sir: + +Archbishops of the Roman Church are addressed as _Most Reverend_ and +Cardinals as _Eminence_. Thus: + + The Most Rev. Archbishop Katzer. + Most Rev. and dear Sir: + + His Eminence, James Cardinal Gibbons, Archbishop of Baltimore. + May it please your Eminence: + +The title of the Governor of a State or territory and of the President of +the United States is _Excellency_. However, _Honorable_ is more commonly +applied to Governors:-- + + His Excellency, William Howard Taft, + President of the United States. + + Sir:-- + + His Excellency, Charles Evans Hughes, + Governor of the State of New York. + + Sir:-- + + Honorable Franklin Fort, + Governor of New Jersey. + + Sir:-- + +The general salutation for Officers of the Army and Navy is _Sir_. The +rank and station should be indicated in full at the head of the letter, +thus: + + General Joseph Thompson, + Commanding the Seventh Infantry. + + Sir: + + Rear Admiral Robert Atkinson, + Commanding the Atlantic Squadron. + + Sir: + +The title of officers of the Civil Government is Honorable and they are +addressed as _Sir_. + + Hon. Nelson Duncan, + Senator from Ohio. + + Sir: + + Hon. Norman Wingfield, + Secretary of the Treasury. + + Sir: + + Hon. Rupert Gresham, + Mayor of New York. + + Sir: + +Presidents and Professors of Colleges and Universities are generally +addressed as _Sir_ or _Dear Sir_. + + Professor Ferguson Jenks, + President of .......... University. + + Sir: or Dear Sir: + +Presidents of Societies and Associations are treated as business men and +addressed as _Sir_ or _Dear Sir_. + + Mr. Joseph Banks, + President of the Night Owls. + + Dear Sir: or Sir: + +Doctors of Medicine are addressed as _Sir: My dear Sir: Dear Sir:_ +and more familiarly My dear Dr: or Dear Dr: as + + Ryerson Pitkin, M. D. + Sir: + Dear Sir: + My dear Dr: + +Ordinary people with no degrees or titles are addressed as Mr. and Mrs. +and are designed Dear Sir: Dear Madam: and an unmarried woman of any age +is addressed on the envelope as Miss So-and-so, but always designed in +the letter as + + Dear Madam: + +The plural of Mr. as in addressing a firm is _Messrs_, and the +corresponding salutation is _Dear Sirs: or Gentlemen:_ + +In England _Esq._ is used for _Mr._ as a mark of slight superiority and +in this country it is sometimes used, but it is practically obsolete. +Custom is against it and American sentiment as well. If it is used it +should be only applied to lawyers and justices of the peace. + + +SUBSCRIPTION + +The _Subscription_ or ending of a letter consists of the term of respect +or affection and the signature. The term depends upon the relation of the +person addressed. Letters of friendship can close with such expressions +as: + + Yours lovingly, + Yours affectionately, + Devotedly yours, + Ever yours, etc. + +as between husbands and wives or between lovers. Such gushing +terminations as Your Own Darling, Your own Dovey and other pet and silly +endings should be avoided, as they denote shallowness. Love can be +strongly expressed without dipping into the nonsensical and the farcical. + +Formal expressions of Subscription are: + + Yours Sincerely, + Yours truly, + Respectfully yours, + +and the like, and these may be varied to denote the exact bearing or +attitude the writer wishes to assume to the person addressed: as, + + Very sincerely yours, + Very respectfully yours, + With deep respect yours, + Yours very truly, etc. + +Such elaborate endings as + + "In the meantime with the highest respect, I am yours to command," + "I have the honor to be, Sir, Your humble Servant," + "With great expression of esteem, I am Sincerely yours," + "Believe me, my dear Sir, Ever faithfully yours," + +are condemned as savoring too much of affectation. + +It is better to finish formal letters without any such qualifying +remarks. If you are writing to Mr. Ryan to tell him that you have a house +for sale, after describing the house and stating the terms simply sign +yourself + + Your obedient Servant + Yours very truly, + Yours with respect, + James Wilson. + +Don't say you have the honor to be anything or ask him to believe +anything, all you want to tell him is that you have a house for sale and +that you are sincere, or hold him in respect as a prospective customer. + +Don't abbreviate the signature as: _Y'rs Resp'fly_ and always make +your sex obvious. Write plainly + + Yours truly, + _John Field_ + +and not _J. Field_, so that the person to whom you send it may not take +you for _Jane Field_. + +It is always best to write the first name in full. Married women should +prefix _Mrs._ to their names, as + + Very sincerely yours, + _Mrs._ Theodore Watson. + +If you are sending a letter acknowledging a compliment or some kindness +done you may say, _Yours gratefully,_ or _Yours very gratefully,_ in +proportion to the act of kindness received. + +It is not customary to sign letters of degrees or titles after your name, +except you are a lord, earl or duke and only known by the title, but as +we have no such titles in America it is unnecessary to bring this matter +into consideration. Don't sign yourself, + + Sincerely yours, + Obadiah Jackson, M.A. or L.L. D. + +If you're an M. A. or an L.L. D. people generally know it without your +sounding your own trumpet. Many people, and especially clergymen, are +fond of flaunting after their names degrees they have received _honoris +causa_, that is, degrees as a mark of honor, without examination. Such +degrees should be kept in the background. Many a deadhead has these +degrees which he could never have earned by brain work. + +Married women whose husbands are alive may sign the husband's name with +the prefix _Mrs:_ thus, + + Yours sincerely, + _Mrs._ William Southey. + +but when the husband is dead the signature should be-- + + Yours sincerely, + _Mrs._ Sarah Southey. + +So when we receive a letter from a woman we are enabled to tell whether +she has a husband living or is a widow. A woman separated from her +husband but not a _divorcee_ should _not_ sign his name. + + +ADDRESS + +The _address_ of a letter consists of the name, the title and the +residence. + + Mr. Hugh Black, + 112 Southgate Street, + Altoona, + Pa. + +Intimate friends have often familiar names for each other, such as pet +names, nicknames, etc., which they use in the freedom of conversation, +but such names should never, under any circumstances, appear on the +envelope. The subscription on the envelope should be always written with +propriety and correctness and as if penned by an entire stranger. The +only difficulty in the envelope inscription is the title. Every man is +entitled to _Mr._ and every lady to _Mrs._ and every unmarried lady to +_Miss_. Even a boy is entitled to _Master_. When more than one is addressed +the title is _Messrs._ _Mesdames_ is sometimes written of women. If the +person addressed has a title it is courteous to use it, but titles never +must be duplicated. Thus, we can write + + Robert Stitt, M. D., but never + Dr. Robert Stitt, M. D, or + Mr. Robert Stitt, M. D. + +In writing to a medical doctor it is well to indicate his profession by +the letters M. D. so as to differentiate him from a D. D. It is better to +write Robert Stitt, M. D., than Dr. Robert Stitt. + +In the case of clergymen the prefix Rev. is retained even when they have +other titles; as + + Rev. Tracy Tooke, LL. D. + +When a person has more titles than one it is customary to only give him +the leading one. Thus instead of writing Rev. Samuel MacComb, B. A., +M. A., B. Sc., Ph. D., LL. D., D. D. the form employed is Rev. Samuel +MacComb, LL. D. LL. D. is appended in preference to D. D. because in most +cases the "Rev." implies a "D. D." while comparatively few with the prefix +"Rev." are entitled to "LL. D." + +In the case of _Honorables_ such as Governors, Judges, Members of Congress, +and others of the Civil Government the prefix "Hon." does away with _Mr._ +and _Esq._ Thus we write Hon. Josiah Snifkins, not Hon. Mr. Josiah Snifkins +or Hon. Josiah Snifkins, Esq. Though this prefix _Hon._ is also often +applied to Governors they should be addressed as Excellency. For instance: + + His Excellency, + Charles E. Hughes, + Albany, + N. Y. + +In writing to the President the superscription on the envelope should be + + To the President, + Executive Mansion, + Washington, D. C. + +Professional men such as doctors and lawyers as well as those having +legitimately earned College Degrees may be addressed on the envelopes by +their titles, as + + Jonathan Janeway, M. D. + Hubert Houston, B. L. + Matthew Marks, M. A., etc. + +The residence of the person addressed should be plainly written out in +full. The street and numbers should be given and the city or town written +very legibly. If the abbreviation of the State is liable to be confounded +or confused with that of another then the full name of the State should +be written. In writing the residence on the envelope, instead of putting +it all in one line as is done at the head of a letter, each item of the +residence forms a separate line. Thus, + + Liberty, + Sullivan County, + New York. + + 215 Minna St., + San Francisco, + California. + +There should be left a space for the postage stamp in the upper right +hand corner. The name and title should occupy a line that is about +central between the top of the envelope and the bottom. The name should +neither be too much to right or left but located in the centre, the +beginning and end at equal distances from either end. + +In writing to large business concerns which are well known or to public +or city officials it is sometimes customary to leave out number and street. +Thus, + + Messrs. Seigel, Cooper Co., + New York City, + + Hon. William J. Gaynor, + New York City. + + +NOTES + +_Notes_ may be regarded as letters in miniature confined chiefly to +invitations, acceptances, regrets and introductions, and modern etiquette +tends towards informality in their composition. Card etiquette, in fact, +has taken the place of ceremonious correspondence and informal notes are +now the rule. Invitations to dinner and receptions are now mostly written +on cards. "Regrets" are sent back on visiting cards with just the one +word _"Regrets"_ plainly written thereon. Often on cards and notes of +invitation we find the letters R. S. V. P. at the bottom. These letters +stand for the French _repondez s'il vous plait_, which means "Reply, if +you please," but there is no necessity to put this on an invitation card +as every well-bred person knows that a reply is expected. In writing +notes to young ladies of the same family it should be noted that the +eldest daughter of the house is entitled to the designation _Miss_ without +any Christian name, only the surname appended. Thus if there are three +daughters in the Thompson family Martha, the eldest, Susan and Jemina, +Martha is addressed as _Miss_ Thompson and the other two as _Miss_ Susan +Thompson and _Miss_ Jemina Thompson respectively. + +Don't write the word _addressed_ on the envelope of a note. + +Don't _seal_ a note delivered by a friend. + +Don't write a note on a postal card. + +Here are a few common forms:-- + + +FORMAL INVITATIONS + + Mr. and Mrs. Henry Wagstaff request the + honor of Mr. McAdoo's presence on Friday + evening, June 15th, at 8 o'clock to meet the + Governor of the Fort. + 19 Woodbine Terrace + June 8th, 1910. + +This is an invitation to a formal reception calling for evening dress. +Here is Mr. McAdoo's reply in the third person:-- + + Mr. McAdoo presents his compliments to + Mr. and Mrs. Henry Wagstaff and accepts with + great pleasure their invitation to meet the + Governor of the Fort on the evening of June + fifteenth. + 215 Beacon Street, + June 10th, 1910. + +Here is how Mr. McAdoo might decline the invitation:-- + + Mr. McAdoo regrets that owing to a prior + engagement he must forego the honor of paying + his respects to Mr. and Mrs. Wagstaff and the + Governor of the Fort on the evening of June + fifteenth. + 215 Beacon St., + June 10th, 1910. + +Here is a note addressed, say to Mr. Jeremiah Reynolds. + + Mr. and Mrs. Oldham at home on Wednesday + evening October ninth from seven to eleven. + 21 Ashland Avenue, + October 5th. + +Mr. Reynolds makes reply:-- + + Mr. Reynolds accepts with high appreciation + the honor of Mr. and Mrs. Oldham's invitation + for Wednesday evening October ninth. + Windsor Hotel + October 7th + +or + + Mr. Reynolds regrets that his duties render + it impossible for him to accept Mr. and Mrs. + Oldham's kind invitation for the evening of + October ninth. + Windsor Hotel, + October 7th, + +Sometimes less informal invitations are sent on small specially designed +note paper in which the first person takes the place of the third. Thus + + 360 Pine St., + Dec. 11th, 1910. + Dear Mr. Saintsbury: + Mr. Johnson and I should be much pleased to + have you dine with us and a few friends next + Thursday, the fifteenth, at half past seven. + Yours sincerely, + Emma Burnside. + +Mr. Saintsbury's reply: + + 57 Carlyle Strand + Dec. 13th, 1910. + Dear Mrs. Burnside: + Let me accept very appreciatively your + invitation to dine with Mr. Burnside and you + on next Thursday, the fifteenth, at half past + seven. + Yours sincerely, + Henry Saintsbury. + Mrs. Alexander Burnside. + + +NOTES OF INTRODUCTION + +Notes of introduction should be very circumspect as the writers are in +reality vouching for those whom they introduce. Here is a specimen of +such a note. + + 603 Lexington Ave., + New York City, + June 15th, 1910. + + Rev. Cyrus C. Wiley, D. D., + Newark, N. J. + My dear Dr. Wiley: + I take the liberty of + presenting to you my friend, Stacy Redfern, + M. D., a young practitioner, who is anxious + to locate in Newark. I have known him many + years and can vouch for his integrity and + professional standing. Any courtesy and + kindness which you may show him will be very + much appreciated by me. + Very sincerely yours, + Franklin Jewett. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +ERRORS + +Mistakes--Slips of Authors--Examples and Corrections--Errors of Redundancy. + + +In the following examples the word or words in parentheses are uncalled +for and should be omitted: + +1. Fill the glass (full). + +2. They appeared to be talking (together) on private affairs. + +3. I saw the boy and his sister (both) in the garden. + +4. He went into the country last week and returned (back) yesterday. + +5. The subject (matter) of his discourse was excellent. + +6. You need not wonder that the (subject) matter of his discourse was +excellent; it was taken from the Bible. + +7. They followed (after) him, but could not overtake him. + +8. The same sentiments may be found throughout (the whole of) the book. + +9. I was very ill every day (of my life) last week. + +10. That was the (sum and) substance of his discourse. + +11. He took wine and water and mixed them (both) together. + +12. He descended (down) the steps to the cellar. + +13. He fell (down) from the top of the house. + +14. I hope you will return (again) soon. + +15. The things he took away he restored (again). + +16. The thief who stole my watch was compelled to restore it (back again). + +17. It is equally (the same) to me whether I have it today or tomorrow. + +18. She said, (says she) the report is false; and he replied, (says he) +if it be not correct I have been misinformed. + +19. I took my place in the cars (for) to go to New York. + +20. They need not (to) call upon him. + +21. Nothing (else) but that would satisfy him. + +22. Whenever I ride in the cars I (always) find it prejudicial to my +health. + +23. He was the first (of all) at the meeting. + +24. He was the tallest of (all) the brothers. + +25. You are the tallest of (all) your family. + +26. Whenever I pass the house he is (always) at the door. + +27. The rain has penetrated (through) the roof. + +28. Besides my uncle and aunt there was (also) my grandfather at the +church. + +29. It should (ever) be your constant endeavor to please your family. + +30. If it is true as you have heard (then) his situation is indeed pitiful. + +31. Either this (here) man or that (there) woman has (got) it. + +32. Where is the fire (at)? + +33. Did you sleep in church? Not that I know (of). + +34. I never before (in my life) met (with) such a stupid man. + +35. (For) why did he postpone it? + +36. Because (why) he could not attend. + +37. What age is he? (Why) I don't know. + +38. He called on me (for) to ask my opinion. + +39. I don't know where I am (at). + +40. I looked in (at) the window. + +41. I passed (by) the house. + +42. He (always) came every Sunday. + +43. Moreover, (also) we wish to say he was in error. + +44. It is not long (ago) since he was here. + +45. Two men went into the wood (in order) to cut (down) trees. + +Further examples of redundancy might be multiplied. It is very common in +newspaper writing where not alone single words but entire phrases are +sometimes brought in, which are unnecessary to the sense or explanation +of what is written. + + +GRAMMATICAL ERRORS OF STANDARD AUTHORS + +Even the best speakers and writers are sometimes caught napping. Many of +our standard authors to whom we have been accustomed to look up as +infallible have sinned more or less against the fundamental principles of +grammar by breaking the rules regarding one or more of the nine parts of +speech. In fact some of them have recklessly trespassed against all nine, +and still they sit on their pedestals of fame for the admiration of the +crowd. Macaulay mistreated the article. He wrote,--"That _a_ historian +should not record trifles is perfectly true." He should have used _an_. + +Dickens also used the article incorrectly. He refers to "Robinson Crusoe" +as "_an_ universally popular book," instead of _a_ universally popular +book. + +The relation between nouns and pronouns has always been a stumbling block +to speakers and writers. Hallam in his _Literature of Europe_ writes, +"No one as yet had exhibited the structure of the human kidneys, Vesalius +having only examined them in dogs." This means that Vesalius examined +human kidneys in dogs. The sentence should have been, "No one had as yet +exhibited the kidneys in human beings, Vesalius having examined such +organs in dogs only." + +Sir Arthur Helps in writing of Dickens, states--"I knew a brother author +of his who received such criticisms from him (Dickens) very lately and +profited by _it_." Instead of _it_ the word should be _them_ to agree +with criticisms. + +Here are a few other pronominal errors from leading authors: + +"Sir Thomas Moore in general so writes it, although not many others so +late as _him_." Should be _he_.--Trench's _English Past and Present_. + +"What should we gain by it but that we should speedily become as poor as +_them_." Should be _they_.--Alison's _Essay on Macaulay_. + +"If the king gives us leave you or I may as lawfully preach, as +_them_ that do." Should be _they_ or _those_, the latter +having persons understood.--Hobbes's _History of Civil Wars_. + +"The drift of all his sermons was, to prepare the Jews for the reception +of a prophet, mightier than _him_, and whose shoes he was not worthy +to bear." Should be than _he_.--Atterbury's _Sermons_. + +"Phalaris, who was so much older than _her_." Should be _she_.--Bentley's +_Dissertation on Phalaris_. + +"King Charles, and more than _him_, the duke and the Popish faction were +at liberty to form new schemes." Should be than _he_.--Bolingbroke's +_Dissertations on Parties_. + +"We contributed a third more than the Dutch, who were obliged to the same +proportion more than _us_." Should be than _we_.--Swift's _Conduct of the +Allies_. + +In all the above examples the objective cases of the pronouns have been +used while the construction calls for nominative cases. + +"Let _thou_ and _I_ the battle try"--_Anon_. + +Here _let_ is the governing verb and requires an objective case after it; +therefore instead of _thou_ and _I_, the words should be _you_ (_sing_.) +and _me_. + +"Forever in this humble cell, Let thee and I, my fair one, dwell" +--_Prior_. + +Here _thee_ and _I_ should be the objectives _you_ and _me_. + +The use of the relative pronoun trips the greatest number of authors. + +Even in the Bible we find the relative wrongly translated: + +Whom do men say that I am?--_St. Matthew_. + +Whom think ye that I am?--_Acts of the Apostles_. + +_Who_ should be written in both cases because the word is not in the +objective governed by say or think, but in the nominative dependent on +the verb _am_. + +"_Who_ should I meet at the coffee house t'other night, but my old +friend?"--_Steele_. + +"It is another pattern of this answerer's fair dealing, to give us hints +that the author is dead, and yet lay the suspicion upon somebody, I know +not _who_, in the country."--Swift's _Tale of a Tub_. + +"My son is going to be married to I don't know _who_."--Goldsmith's +_Good-natured Man_. + +The nominative _who_ in the above examples should be the objective +_whom_. + +The plural nominative _ye_ of the pronoun _thou_ is very often +used for the objective _you_, as in the following: + +"His wrath which will one day destroy _ye both_."--_Milton_. + +"The more shame for _ye_; holy men I thought _ye_."--_Shakespeare_. + +"I feel the gales that from _ye_ blow."--_Gray_. + +"Tyrants dread _ye_, lest your just decree Transfer the power and +set the people free."--_Prior_. + +Many of the great writers have played havoc with the adjective in the +indiscriminate use of the degrees of comparison. + +"Of two forms of the same word, use the fittest."--_Morell_. + +The author here in _trying_ to give good advice sets a bad example. +He should have used the comparative degree, "Fitter." + +Adjectives which have a comparative or superlative signification do not +admit the addition of the words _more_, _most_, or the terminations, +_er_, _est_, hence the following examples break this rule: + +"Money is the _most universal_ incitement of human misery."--Gibbon's +_Decline and Fall_. + +"The _chiefest_ of which was known by the name of Archon among the +Grecians."--Dryden's _Life of Plutarch_. + +"The _chiefest_ and largest are removed to certain magazines they call +libraries."--Swift's _Battle of the Books_. + +The two _chiefest_ properties of air, its gravity and elastic force, +have been discovered by mechanical experiments.--_Arbuthno_. + +"From these various causes, which in greater or _lesser_ degree, +affected every individual in the colony, the indignation of the people +became general."--Robertson's _History of America_. + +"The _extremest_ parts of the earth were meditating a submission." +--Atterbury's _Sermons_. + +"The last are indeed _more preferable_ because they are founded on some new +knowledge or improvement in the mind of man."--Addison, _Spectator_. + +"This was in reality the _easiest_ manner of the two."--Shaftesbury's +_Advice to an Author_. + +"In every well formed mind this second desire seems to be the _strongest_ +of the two."--Smith's _Theory of Moral Sentiments_. + +In these examples the superlative is wrongly used for the comparative. +When only two objects are compared the comparative form must be used. + +Of impossibility there are no degrees of comparison, yet we find the +following: + +"As it was impossible they should know the words, thoughts and secret +actions of all men, so it was _more impossible_ they should pass judgment +on them according to these things."--Whitby's _Necessity of the Christian +Religion_. + +A great number of authors employ adjectives for adverbs. Thus we find: + +"I shall endeavor to live hereafter _suitable_ to a man in my station." +--_Addison_. + +"I can never think so very _mean_ of him."--Bentley's _Dissertation on +Phalaris_. + +"His expectations run high and the fund to supply them is _extreme_ +scanty."--_Lancaster's Essay on Delicacy_. + +The commonest error in the use of the verb is the disregard of the +concord between the verb and its subject. This occurs most frequently +when the subject and the verb are widely separated, especially if some +other noun of a different number immediately precedes the verb. False +concords occur very often after _either_, _or_, _neither_, _nor_, and +_much_, _more_, _many_, _everyone_, _each_. + +Here are a few authors' slips:-- + +"The terms in which the sale of a patent _were_ communicated to the +public."--Junius's _Letters_. + +"The richness of her arms and apparel _were_ conspicuous."--Gibbon's +_Decline and Fall_. + +"Everyone of this grotesque family _were_ the creatures of national +genius."--D'Israeli. + +"He knows not what spleen, languor or listlessness _are_."--Blair's +_Sermons_. + +"Each of these words _imply_, some pursuit or object relinquished." +--_Ibid_. + +"Magnus, with four thousand of his supposed accomplices _were_ put +to death."--_Gibbon_. + +"No nation gives greater encouragements to learning than we do; yet at +the same time _none are_ so injudicious in the application." +--_Goldsmith_. + +"_There's two_ or _three_ of us have seen strange sights."--_Shakespeare_. + +The past participle should not be used for the past tense, yet the +learned Byron overlooked this fact. He thus writes in the _Lament of +Tasso_:-- + +"And with my years my soul _begun to pant_ With feelings of strange +tumult and soft pain." + +Here is another example from Savage's _Wanderer_ in which there is +double sinning: + +"From liberty each nobler science _sprung_, A Bacon brighten'd and a +Spenser _sung_." + +Other breaches in regard to the participles occur in the following:-- + +"Every book ought to be read with the same spirit and in the same manner +as it is _writ_"--Fielding's _Tom Jones_. + +"The Court of Augustus had not _wore_ off the manners of the republic" +--Hume's _Essays_. + +"Moses tells us that the fountains of the earth were _broke_ open or +clove asunder."--Burnet. + +"A free constitution when it has been _shook_ by the iniquity of +former administrations."--_Bolingbroke_. + +"In this respect the seeds of future divisions were _sowed_ abundantly." +--_Ibid_. + +In the following example the present participle is used for the infinitive +mood: + +"It is easy _distinguishing_ the rude fragment of a rock from the splinter +of a statue."--Gilfillan's _Literary Portraits_. + +_Distinguishing_ here should be replaced by _to distinguish_. + +The rules regarding _shall_ and _will_ are violated in the following: + +"If we look within the rough and awkward outside, we _will_ be +richly rewarded by its perusal."--Gilfillan's _Literary Portraits_. + +"If I _should_ declare them and speak of them, they should be more +than I am able to express."--_Prayer Book Revision of Psalms XI_. + +"If I _would_ declare them and speak of them, they are more than can +be numbered."--_Ibid_. + +"Without having attended to this, we _will_ be at a loss, in understanding +several passages in the classics."--Blair's _Lectures_. + +"We know to what cause our past reverses have been owing and _we_ +will have ourselves to blame, if they are again incurred."--Alison's +_History of Europe_. + +Adverbial mistakes often occur in the best writers. The adverb _rather_ is +a word very frequently misplaced. Archbishop Trench in his "English Past +and Present" writes, "It _rather_ modified the structure of our sentences +than the elements of our vocabulary." This should have been written,--"It +modified the structure of our sentences _rather than_ the elements of our +vocabulary." + +"So far as his mode of teaching goes he is _rather_ a disciple of +Socrates than of St. Paul or Wesley." Thus writes Leslie Stephens of Dr. +Johnson. He should have written,--" So far as his mode of teaching goes +he is a disciple of Socrates _rather_ than of St. Paul or Wesley." + +The preposition is a part of speech which is often wrongly used by some +of the best writers. Certain nouns, adjectives and verbs require +particular prepositions after them, for instance, the word _different_ +always takes the preposition _from_ after it; _prevail_ takes _upon_; +_averse_ takes _to_; _accord_ takes _with_, and so on. + +In the following examples the prepositions in parentheses are the ones +that should have been used: + +"He found the greatest difficulty _of_ (in) writing."--Hume's +_History of England_. + +"If policy can prevail _upon_ (over) force."--_Addison_. + +"He made the discovery and communicated _to_ (with) his friends." +--Swift's _Tale of a Tub_. + +"Every office of command should be intrusted to persons _on_ (in) +whom the parliament shall confide."--_Macaulay_. + +Several of the most celebrated writers infringe the canons of style by +placing prepositions at the end of sentences. For instance Carlyle, in +referring to the Study of Burns, writes:--"Our own contributions to it, +we are aware, can be but scanty and feeble; but we offer them with good +will, and trust they may meet with acceptance from those they are +intended _for_." + +--"for whom they are intended," he should have written. + +"Most writers have some one vein which they peculiarly and obviously +excel _in_."--_William Minto_. + +This sentence should read,--Most writers have some one vein in which they +peculiarly and obviously excel. + +Many authors use redundant words which repeat the same thought and idea. +This is called tautology. + +"Notwithstanding which (however) poor Polly embraced them all around." +--_Dickens_. + +"I judged that they would (mutually) find each other."--_Crockett_. + +"....as having created a (joint) partnership between the two Powers in +the Morocco question."--_The Times_. + +"The only sensible position (there seems to be) is to frankly acknowledge +our ignorance of what lies beyond."--_Daily Telegraph_. + +"Lord Rosebery has not budged from his position--splendid, no doubt,--of +(lonely) isolation."--_The Times_. + +"Miss Fox was (often) in the habit of assuring Mrs. Chick."--_Dickens_. + +"The deck (it) was their field of fame."--_Campbell_. + +"He had come up one morning, as was now (frequently) his wont," +--_Trollope_. + +The counsellors of the Sultan (continue to) remain sceptical +--_The Times_. + +Seriously, (and apart from jesting), this is no light matter.--_Bagehot_. + +To go back to your own country with (the consciousness that you go back +with) the sense of duty well done.--_Lord Halsbury_. + +The _Peresviet_ lost both her fighting-tops and (in appearance) +looked the most damaged of all the ships--_The Times_. + +Counsel admitted that, that was a fair suggestion to make, but he +submitted that it was borne out by the (surrounding) circumstances. +--_Ibid_. + +Another unnecessary use of words and phrases is that which is termed +circumlocution, a going around the bush when there is no occasion for +it,--save to fill space. + +It may be likened to a person walking the distance of two sides of a +triangle to reach the objective point. For instance in the quotation: +"Pope professed to have learned his poetry from Dryden, whom, whenever an +opportunity was presented, he praised through the whole period of his +existence with unvaried liberality; and perhaps his character may receive +some illustration, of a comparison he instituted between him and the man +whose pupil he was" much of the verbiage may be eliminated and the +sentence thus condensed: + +"Pope professed himself the pupil of Dryden, whom he lost no opportunity +of praising; and his character may be illustrated by a comparison with +his master." + +"His life was brought to a close in 1910 at an age not far from the one +fixed by the sacred writer as the term of human existence." + +This in brevity can be put, "His life was brought to a close at the age +of seventy;" or, better yet, "He died at the age of seventy." + +"The day was intensely cold, so cold in fact that the thermometer crept +down to the zero mark," can be expressed: "The day was so cold the +thermometer registered zero." + +Many authors resort to circumlocution for the purpose of "padding," that +is, filling space, or when they strike a snag in writing upon subjects of +which they know little or nothing. The young writer should steer clear of +it and learn to express his thoughts and ideas as briefly as possible +commensurate with lucidity of expression. + +Volumes of errors in fact, in grammar, diction and general style, could +be selected from the works of the great writers, a fact which eloquently +testifies that no one is infallible and that the very best is liable to +err at times. However, most of the erring in the case of these writers +arises from carelessness or hurry, not from a lack of knowledge. + +As a general rule it is in writing that the scholar is liable to slip; in +oral speech he seldom makes a blunder. In fact, there are many people who +are perfect masters of speech,--who never make a blunder in conversation, +yet who are ignorant of the very principles of grammar and would not know +how to write a sentence correctly on paper. Such persons have been +accustomed from infancy to hear the language spoken correctly and so the +use of the proper words and forms becomes a second nature to them. A +child can learn what is right as easy as what is wrong and whatever +impressions are made on the mind when it is plastic will remain there. +Even a parrot can be taught the proper use of language. Repeat to a +parrot.--"Two and two _make_ four" and it never will say "two and two +_makes_ four." + +In writing, however, it is different. Without a knowledge of the +fundamentals of grammar we may be able to speak correctly from +association with good speakers, but without such a knowledge we cannot +hope to write the language correctly. To write even a common letter we +must know the principles of construction, the relationship of one word to +another. Therefore, it is necessary for everybody to understand at least +the essentials of the grammar of his own language. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +PITFALLS TO AVOID + +Common Stumbling Blocks--Peculiar Constructions--Misused Forms. + + +ATTRACTION + +Very often the verb is separated from its real nominative or subject by +several intervening words and in such cases one is liable to make the +verb agree with the subject nearest to it. Here are a few examples +showing that the leading writers now and then take a tumble into this +pitfall: + +(1) "The partition which the two ministers made of the powers of +government _were_ singularly happy."--_Macaulay_. + +(Should be _was_ to agree with its subject, _partition_.) + +(2) "One at least of the qualities which fit it for training ordinary men +_unfit_ it for _training_ an extraordinary man."--_Bagehot_. + +(Should be _unfits_ to agree with subject _one_.) + +(3) "The Tibetans have engaged to exclude from their country those +dangerous influences whose appearance _were_ the chief cause of our +action."--_The Times_. + +(Should be _was_ to agree with _appearance_.) + +(4) "An immense amount of confusion and indifference _prevail_ in these +days."--_Telegraph_. + +(Should be _prevails_ to agree with amount.) + + +ELLIPSIS + +Errors in ellipsis occur chiefly with prepositions. + +His objection and condoning of the boy's course, seemed to say the least, +paradoxical. + +(The preposition _to_ should come after objection.) + +Many men of brilliant parts are crushed by force of circumstances and +their genius forever lost to the world. + +(Some maintain that the missing verb after genius is _are_, but such +is ungrammatical. In such cases the right verb should be always +expressed: as--their genius _is_ forever lost to the world.) + + +THE SPLIT INFINITIVE + +Even the best speakers and writers are in the habit of placing a +modifying word or words between the _to_ and the remaining part of the +infinitive. It is possible that such will come to be looked upon in time +as the proper form but at present the splitting of the infinitive is +decidedly wrong. "He was scarcely able _to_ even _talk_" "She commenced +_to_ rapidly _walk_ around the room." "_To have_ really _loved_ is better +than not _to have_ at all _loved_." In these constructions it is much +better not to split the infinitive. In every-day speech the best speakers +sin against this observance. + +In New York City there is a certain magistrate, a member of "the 400," +who prides himself on his diction in language. He tells this story: A +prisoner, a faded, battered specimen of mankind, on whose haggard face, +deeply lined with the marks of dissipation, there still lingered faint +reminders of better days long past, stood dejected before the judge. +"Where are you from?" asked the magistrate. "From Boston," answered the +accused. "Indeed," said the judge, "indeed, yours is a sad case, and yet +you don't seem _to_ thoroughly _realise_ how low you have sunk." The man +stared as if struck. "Your honor does me an injustice," he said bitterly. +"The disgrace of arrest for drunkenness, the mortification of being +thrust into a noisome dungeon, the publicity and humiliation of trial in +a crowded and dingy courtroom I can bear, but to be sentenced by a Police +Magistrate who _splits his infinitives_--that is indeed the last blow." + + +ONE + +The indefinite adjective pronoun _one_ when put in place of a personal +substantive is liable to raise confusion. When a sentence or expression +is begun with the impersonal _one_ the word must be used throughout in +all references to the subject. Thus, "One must mind one's own business if +one wishes to succeed" may seem prolix and awkward, nevertheless it is +the proper form. You must not say--"One must mind his business if he +wishes to succeed," for the subject is impersonal and therefore cannot +exclusively take the masculine pronoun. With _any one_ it is different. +You may say--"If any one sins he should acknowledge it; let him not try +to hide it by another sin." + + +ONLY + +This is a word that is a pitfall to the most of us whether learned or +unlearned. Probably it is the most indiscriminately used word in the +language. From the different positions it is made to occupy in a sentence +it can relatively change the meaning. For instance in the sentence--"I +_only_ struck him that time," the meaning to be inferred is, that the +only thing I did to him was to _strike_ him, not kick or otherwise abuse +him. But if the _only_ is shifted, so as to make the sentence read-"I +struck him _only_ that time" the meaning conveyed is, that only on that +occasion and at no other time did I strike him. If another shift is made +to-"I struck _only_ him that time," the meaning is again altered so that +it signifies he was the only person I struck. + +In speaking we can by emphasis impress our meaning on our hearers, but in +writing we have nothing to depend upon but the position of the word in +the sentence. The best rule in regard to _only_ is to place it +_immediately before_ the word or phrase it modifies or limits. + + +ALONE + +is another word which creates ambiguity and alters meaning. If we +substitute it for only in the preceding example the meaning of the +sentence will depend upon the arrangement. Thus "I _alone_ struck him at +that time" signifies that I and no other struck him. When the sentence +reads "I struck him _alone_ at that time" it must be interpreted that he +was the only person that received a blow. Again if it is made to read "I +struck him at that time _alone_" the sense conveyed is that that was the +only occasion on which I struck him. The rule which governs the correct +use of _only_ is also applicable to _alone_. + + +OTHER AND ANOTHER + +These are words which often give to expressions a meaning far from that +intended. Thus, "I have _nothing_ to do with that _other_ rascal across +the street," certainly means that I am a rascal myself. "I sent the +despatch to my friend, but another villain intercepted it," clearly +signifies that my friend is a villain. + +A good plan is to omit these words when they can be readily done without, +as in the above examples, but when it is necessary to use them make your +meaning clear. You can do this by making each sentence or phrase in which +they occur independent of contextual aid. + + +AND WITH THE RELATIVE + +Never use _and_ with the _relative_ in this manner: "That is the dog I +meant _and which_ I know is of pure breed." This is an error quite +common. The use of _and_ is permissible when there is a parallel relative +in the preceding sentence or clause. Thus: "There is the dog which I +meant and which I know is of pure breed" is quite correct. + + +LOOSE PARTICIPLES + +A participle or participial phrase is naturally referred to the nearest +nominative. If only one nominative is expressed it claims all the +participles that are not by the construction of the sentence otherwise +fixed. "John, working in the field all day and getting thirsty, drank +from the running stream." Here the participles _working_ and _getting_ +clearly refer to John. But in the sentence,--"Swept along by the mob I +could not save him," the participle as it were is lying around loose and +may be taken to refer to either the person speaking or to the person +spoken about. It may mean that I was swept along by the mob or the +individual whom I tried to save was swept along. + +"Going into the store the roof fell" can be taken that it was the roof +which was going into the store when it fell. Of course the meaning +intended is that some person or persons were going into the store just as +the roof fell. + +In all sentence construction with participles there should be such +clearness as to preclude all possibility of ambiguity. The participle +should be so placed that there can be no doubt as to the noun to which it +refers. Often it is advisable to supply such words as will make the +meaning obvious. + + +BROKEN CONSTRUCTION + +Sometimes the beginning of a sentence presents quite a different +grammatical construction from its end. This arises from the fact +probably, that the beginning is lost sight of before the end is reached. +This occurs frequently in long sentences. Thus: "Honesty, integrity and +square-dealing will bring anybody much better through life than the +absence of either." Here the construction is broken at _than_. The use of +_either_, only used in referring to one of two, shows that the fact is +forgotten that three qualities and not two are under consideration. Any +one of the three meanings might be intended in the sentence, viz., +absence of any one quality, absence of any two of the qualities or +absence of the whole three qualities. Either denotes one or the other of +two and should never be applied to any one of more than two. When we fall +into the error of constructing such sentences as above, we should take +them apart and reconstruct them in a different grammatical form. +Thus,--"Honesty, integrity and square-dealing will bring a man much +better through life than a lack of these qualities which are almost +essential to success." + + +DOUBLE NEGATIVE + +It must be remembered that two negatives in the English language destroy +each other and are equivalent to an affirmative. Thus "I _don't_ know +_nothing_ about it" is intended to convey, that I am ignorant of the +matter under consideration, but it defeats its own purpose, inasmuch as +the use of nothing implies that I know something about it. The sentence +should read--"I don't know anything about it." + +Often we hear such expressions as "He was _not_ asked to give _no_ +opinion," expressing the very opposite of what is intended. This sentence +implies that he was asked to give his opinion. The double negative, +therefore, should be carefully avoided, for it is insidious and is liable +to slip in and the writer remain unconscious of its presence until the +eye of the critic detects it. + + +FIRST PERSONAL PRONOUN + +The use of the first personal pronoun should be avoided as much as +possible in composition. Don't introduce it by way of apology and never +use such expressions as "In my opinion," "As far as I can see," "It +appears to me," "I believe," etc. In what you write, the whole +composition is expressive of your views, since you are the author, +therefore, there is no necessity for you to accentuate or emphasize +yourself at certain portions of it. + +Moreover, the big _I's_ savor of egotism! Steer clear of them as far as +you can. The only place where the first person is permissible is in +passages where you are stating a view that is not generally held and +which is likely to meet with opposition. + + +SEQUENCE OF TENSES + +When two verbs depend on each other their tenses must have a definite +relation to each other. "I shall have much pleasure in accepting your +kind invitation" is wrong, unless you really mean that just now you +decline though by-and-by you intend to accept; or unless you mean that +you do accept now, though you have no pleasure in doing so, but look +forward to be more pleased by-and-by. In fact the sequence of the +compound tenses puzzle experienced writers. The best plan is to go back +in thought to the time in question and use the tense you would _then_ +naturally use. Now in the sentence "I should have liked to have gone to +see the circus" the way to find out the proper sequence is to ask +yourself the question--what is it I "should have liked" to do? and the +plain answer is "to go to see the circus." I cannot answer--"To have gone +to see the circus" for that would imply that at a certain moment I would +have liked to be in the position of having gone to the circus. But I do +not mean this; I mean that at the moment at which I am speaking I wish I +had gone to see the circus. The verbal phrase _I should have liked_ +carries me back to the time when there was a chance of seeing the circus +and once back at the time, the going to the circus is a thing of the +present. This whole explanation resolves itself into the simple +question,--what should I have liked _at that time_, and the answer is "to +go to see the circus," therefore this is the proper sequence, and the +expression should be "I should have liked to go to see the circus." + +If we wish to speak of something relating to a time _prior_ to that +indicated in the past tense we must use the perfect tense of the +infinitive; as, "He appeared to have seen better days." We should say "I +expected to _meet him_," not "I expected _to have met him_." "We intended +_to visit you_," not "_to have visited_ you." "I hoped they _would_ +arrive," not "I hoped they _would have_ arrived." "I thought I should +_catch_ the bird," not "I thought I should _have caught_ the bird." "I +had intended _to go_ to the meeting," not "I had intended to _have gone_ +to the meeting." + + +BETWEEN--AMONG + +These prepositions are often carelessly interchanged. _Between_ has +reference to two objects only, _among_ to more than two. "The money was +equally divided between them" is right when there are only two, but if +there are more than two it should be "the money was equally divided among +them." + + +LESS--FEWER + +_Less_ refers is quantity, _fewer_ to number. "No man has _less_ virtues" +should be "No man has _fewer_ virtues." "The farmer had some oats and a +_fewer_ quantity of wheat" should be "the farmer had some oats and a +_less_ quantity of wheat." + + +FURTHER--FARTHER + +_Further_ is commonly used to denote quantity, _farther_ to denote +distance. "I have walked _farther_ than you," "I need no _further_ +supply" are correct. + + +EACH OTHER--ONE ANOTHER + +_Each other_ refers to two, _one another_ to more than two. "Jones and +Smith quarreled; they struck each other" is correct. "Jones, Smith and +Brown quarreled; they struck one another" is also correct. Don't say, +"The two boys teach one another" nor "The three girls love each other." + + +EACH, EVERY, EITHER, NEITHER + +These words are continually misapplied. _Each_ can be applied to two +or any higher number of objects to signify _every one_ of the number +_independently_. Every requires _more than two_ to be spoken of and +denotes all the _persons_ or _things_ taken _separately_. _Either_ +denotes _one or the other of two_, and should not be used to include +both. _Neither_ is the negative of either, denoting not the other, +and not the one, and relating to _two persons_ or _things_ considered +separately. + +The following examples illustrate the correct usage of these words: + +_Each_ man of the crew received a reward. + +_Every_ man in the regiment displayed bravery. + +We can walk on _either_ side of the street. + +_Neither_ of the two is to blame. + + +NEITHER-NOR + +When two singular subjects are connected by _neither_, _nor_ use a +singular verb; as, "_Neither_ John _nor_ James _was there_," not _were_ +there. + + +NONE + +Custom Has sanctioned the use of this word both with a singular and +plural; as--"None _is_ so blind as he who will not see" and "None _are_ +so blind as they who will not see." However, as it is a contraction of +_no one_ it is better to use the singular verb. + + +RISE-RAISE + +These verbs are very often confounded. _Rise_ is to move or pass upward +in any manner; as to "rise from bed;" to increase in value, to improve in +position or rank, as "stocks rise;" "politicians rise;" "they have risen +to honor." + +_Raise_ is to lift up, to exalt, to enhance, as "I raise the table;" +"He raised his servant;" "The baker raised the price of _bread_." + + +LAY-LIE + +The transitive verb _lay_, and _lay_, the past tense of the neuter verb +_lie_, are often confounded, though quite different in meaning. The +neuter verb _to lie_, meaning to lie down or rest, cannot take the +objective after it except with a preposition. We can say "He _lies_ on +the ground," but we cannot say "He _lies_ the ground," since the verb is +neuter and intransitive and, as such, cannot have a direct object. With +_lay_ it is different. _Lay_ is a transitive verb, therefore it takes a +direct object after it; as "I _lay_ a wager," "I _laid_ the carpet," etc. + +Of a carpet or any inanimate subject we should say, "It lies on the +floor," "A knife _lies_ on the table," not _lays_. But of a person we +say--"He _lays_ the knife on the table," not "He _lies_----." _Lay_ being +the past tense of the neuter to lie (down) we should say, "He _lay_ on +the bed," and _lain_ being its past participle we must also say "He has +_lain_ on the bed." + +We can say "I lay myself down." "He laid himself down" and such +expressions. + +It is imperative to remember in using these verbs that to _lay_ means _to +do_ something, and to lie means _to be in a state of rest_. + + +SAYS I--I SAID + +_"Says I"_ is a vulgarism; don't use it. "I said" is correct form. + + +IN--INTO + +Be careful to distinguish the meaning of these two little prepositions +and don't interchange them. Don't say "He went _in_ the room" nor "My +brother is _into_ the navy." _In_ denotes the place where a person or +thing, whether at rest or in motion, is present; and _into_ denotes +_entrance_. "He went _into_ the room;" "My brother is _in_ the navy" are +correct. + + +EAT--ATE + +Don't confound the two. _Eat_ is present, _ate_ is past. "I _eat_ the +bread" means that I am continuing the eating; "I _ate_ the bread" means +that the act of eating is past. _Eaten_ is the perfect participle, but +often _eat_ is used instead, and as it has the same pronunciation (et) of +_ate_, care should be taken to distinguish the past tense, I _ate_ from +the perfect _I have eaten_ (_eat_). + + +SEQUENCE OF PERSON + +Remember that the _first_ person takes precedence of the _second_ and the +_second_ takes precedence of the _third_. When Cardinal Wolsey said _Ego +et Rex_ (I and the King), he showed he was a good grammarian, but a bad +courtier. + + +AM COME--HAVE COME + +"_I am come_" points to my being here, while "I have come" intimates that +I have just arrived. When the subject is not a person, the verb _to be_ +should be used in preference to the verb _to have_; as, "The box is come" +instead of "The box has come." + + +PAST TENSE--PAST PARTICIPLE + +The interchange of these two parts of the irregular or so-called _strong_ +verbs is, perhaps, the breach oftenest committed by careless speakers and +writers. To avoid mistakes it is requisite to know the principal parts of +these verbs, and this knowledge is very easy of acquirement, as there are +not more than a couple of hundred of such verbs, and of this number but a +small part is in daily use. Here are some of the most common blunders: "I +seen" for "I saw;" "I done it" for "I did it;" "I drunk" for "I drank;" +"I begun" for "I began;" "I rung" for "I rang;" "I run" for "I ran;" "I +sung" for "I sang;" "I have chose" for "I have chosen;" "I have drove" +for "I have driven;" "I have wore" for "I have worn;" "I have trod" for +"I have trodden;" "I have shook" for "I have shaken;" "I have fell" for +"I have fallen;" "I have drank" for "I have drunk;" "I have began" for "I +have begun;" "I have rang" for "I have rung;" "I have rose" for "I have +risen;" "I have spoke" for "I have spoken;" "I have broke" for "I have +broken." "It has froze" for "It has frozen." "It has blowed" for "It has +blown." "It has flowed" (of a bird) for "It has flown." + +N. B.--The past tense and past participle of _To Hang_ is _hanged_ or +_hung_. When you are talking about a man meeting death on the gallows, +say "He was hanged"; when you are talking about the carcass of an animal +say, "It was hung," as "The beef was hung dry." Also say your coat "_was_ +hung on a hook." + + +PREPOSITIONS AND THE OBJECTIVE CASE + +Don't forget that prepositions always take the objective case. Don't say +"Between you and _I_"; say "Between you and _me_" + +_Two_ prepositions should not govern _one objective_ unless there is an +immediate connection between them. "He was refused admission to and +forcibly ejected from the school" should be "He was refused admission to +the school and forcibly ejected from it." + + +SUMMON--SUMMONS + +Don't say "I shall summons him," but "I shall summon him." _Summon_ is a +verb, _summons_, a noun. + +It is correct to say "I shall get a _summons_ for him," not a _summon_. + + +UNDENIABLE--UNEXCEPTIONABLE + +"My brother has an undeniable character" is wrong if I wish to convey the +idea that he has a good character. The expression should be in that case +"My brother has an unexceptionable character." An _undeniable_ character +is a character that cannot be denied, whether bad or good. An +unexceptionable character is one to which no one can take exception. + + +THE PRONOUNS + +Very many mistakes occur in the use of the pronouns. "Let you and I go" +should be "Let you and _me_ go." "Let them and we go" should be "Let them +and us go." The verb let is transitive and therefore takes the objective +case. + +"Give me _them_ flowers" should be "Give me _those_ flowers"; "I mean +_them_ three" should be "I mean those three." Them is the objective case +of the personal pronoun and cannot be used adjectively like the +demonstrative adjective pronoun. "I am as strong as _him_" should be "I +am as strong as _he_"; "I am younger than _her_" should be "I am younger +than _she_;" "He can write better than _me_" should be "He can write +better than I," for in these examples the objective cases _him_, _her_ +and _me_ are used wrongfully for the nominatives. After each of the +misapplied pronouns a verb is understood of which each pronoun is the +subject. Thus, "I am as strong as he (is)." "I am younger than she (is)." +"He can write better than I (can)." + +Don't say "_It is me_;" say "_It is I_" The verb _To Be_ of which is is a +part takes the same case after it that it has before it. This holds good +in all situations as well as with pronouns. + +The verb _To Be_ also requires the pronouns joined to it to be in the +same case as a pronoun asking a question; The nominative _I_ requires the +nominative _who_ and the objectives _me_, _him_, _her_, _its_, _you_, +_them_, require the objective _whom_. + +"_Whom_ do you think I am?" should be "_Who_ do you think I am?" and +"_Who_ do they suppose me to be?" should be "_Whom_ do they suppose me to +be?" The objective form of the Relative should be always used, in +connection with a preposition. "Who do you take me for?" should be +"_Whom_ do, etc." "Who did you give the apple to?" should be "Whom did +you give the apple to," but as pointed out elsewhere the preposition +should never end a sentence, therefore, it is better to say, "To whom did +you give the apple?" + +After transitive verbs always use the objective cases of the pronouns. +For "_He_ and _they_ we have seen," say "_Him_ and _them_ we have seen." + + +THAT FOR SO + +"The hurt it was that painful it made him cry," say "so painful." + + +THESE--THOSE + +Don't say, _These kind; those sort_. _Kind_ and _sort_ are each singular +and require the singular pronouns _this_ and _that_. In connection with +these demonstrative adjective pronouns remember that _this_ and _these_ +refer to what is near at hand, _that_ and _those_ to what is more +distant; as, _this book_ (near me), _that book_ (over there), _these_ +boys (near), _those_ boys (at a distance). + + +THIS MUCH--THUS MUCH + +"_This_ much is certain" should be "_Thus_ much or _so_ much is certain." + + +FLEE--FLY + +These are two separate verbs and must not be interchanged. The principal +parts of _flee_ are _flee_, _fled_, _fled_; those of _fly_ are _fly_, +_flew_, _flown_. _To flee_ is generally used in the meaning of getting +out of danger. _To fly_ means to soar as a bird. To say of a man "He _has +flown_ from the place" is wrong; it should be "He _has fled_ from the +place." We can say with propriety that "A bird has _flown_ from the +place." + + +THROUGH--THROUGHOUT + +Don't say "He is well known through the land," but "He is well known +throughout the land." + + +VOCATION AND AVOCATION + +Don't mistake these two words so nearly alike. Vocation is the employment, +business or profession one follows for a living; avocation is some +pursuit or occupation which diverts the person from such employment, +business or profession. Thus + +"His vocation was the law, his avocation, farming." + + +WAS--WERE + +In the subjunctive mood the plural form _were_ should be used with a +singular subject; as, "If I _were_," not _was_. Remember the plural form +of the personal pronoun _you_ always takes _were_, though it may denote +but one. Thus, "_You were_," never "_you was_." "_If I was him_" is a +very common expression. Note the two mistakes in it,--that of the verb +implying a condition, and that of the objective case of the pronoun. It +should read _If I were he_. This is another illustration of the rule +regarding the verb _To Be_, taking the same case after it as before it; +_were_ is part of the verb _To Be_, therefore as the nominative (I) goes +before it, the nominative (he) should come after it. + + +A OR AN + +_A_ becomes an before a vowel or before _h_ mute for the sake of euphony +or agreeable sound to the ear. _An apple_, _an orange_, _an heir_, _an +honor_, etc. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +STYLE + +Diction--Purity--Propriety--Precision. + + +It is the object of every writer to put his thoughts into as effective +form as possible so as to make a good impression on the reader. A person +may have noble thoughts and ideas but be unable to express them in such a +way as to appeal to others, consequently he cannot exert the full force +of his intellectuality nor leave the imprint of his character upon his +time, whereas many a man but indifferently gifted may wield such a facile +pen as to attract attention and win for himself an envious place among +his contemporaries. + +In everyday life one sees illustrations of men of excellent mentality +being cast aside and ones of mediocre or in some cases, little, if any, +ability chosen to fill important places. The former are unable to impress +their personality; they have great thoughts, great ideas, but these +thoughts and ideas are locked up in their brains and are like prisoners +behind the bars struggling to get free. The key of language which would +open the door is wanting, hence they have to remain locked up. + +Many a man has to pass through the world unheard of and of little benefit +to it or himself, simply because he cannot bring out what is in him and +make it subservient to his will. It is the duty of every one to develop his +best, not only for the benefit of himself but for the good of his fellow +men. It is not at all necessary to have great learning or acquirements, the +laborer is as useful in his own place as the philosopher in his; nor is it +necessary to have many talents. One talent rightly used is much better than +ten wrongly used. Often a man can do more with one than his contemporary +can do with ten, often a man can make one dollar go farther than twenty in +the hands of his neighbor, often the poor man lives more comfortably than +the millionaire. All depends upon the individual himself. If he make right +use of what the Creator has given him and live according to the laws of God +and nature he is fulfilling his allotted place in the universal scheme of +creation, in other words, when he does his best, he is living up to the +standard of a useful manhood. + +Now in order to do his best a man of ordinary intelligence and education +should be able to express himself correctly both in speaking and writing, +that is, he should be able to convey his thoughts in an intelligent +manner which the simplest can understand. The manner in which a speaker +or writer conveys his thoughts is known as his Style. In other words +_Style_ may be defined as the peculiar manner in which a man expresses +his conceptions through the medium of language. It depends upon the +choice of words and their arrangement to convey a meaning. Scarcely any +two writers have exactly the same style, that is to say, express their +ideas after the same peculiar form, just as no two mortals are fashioned +by nature in the same mould, so that one is an exact counterpart of the +other. + +Just as men differ in the accent and tones of their voices, so do they +differ in the construction of their language. + +Two reporters sent out on the same mission, say to report a fire, will +verbally differ in their accounts though materially both descriptions +will be the same as far as the leading facts are concerned. One will +express himself in a style _different_ from the other. + +If you are asked to describe the dancing of a red-haired lady at the last +charity ball you can either say--"The ruby Circe, with the Titian locks +glowing like the oriflamme which surrounds the golden god of day as he +sinks to rest amid the crimson glory of the burnished West, gave a divine +exhibition of the Terpsichorean art which thrilled the souls of the +multitude" or, you can simply say--"The red-haired lady danced very well +and pleased the audience." + +The former is a specimen of the ultra florid or bombastic style which may +be said to depend upon the pomposity of verbosity for its effect, the +latter is a specimen of simple _natural_ Style. Needless to say it is to +be preferred. The other should be avoided. It stamps the writer as a +person of shallowness, ignorance and inexperience. It has been eliminated +from the newspapers. Even the most flatulent of yellow sheets no longer +tolerate it in their columns. Affectation and pedantry in style are now +universally condemned. + +It is the duty of every speaker and writer to labor after a pleasing +style. It gains him an entrance where he would otherwise be debarred. +Often the interest of a subject depends as much on the way it is +presented as on the subject itself. One writer will make it attractive, +another repulsive. For instance take a passage in history. Treated by one +historian it is like a desiccated mummy, dry, dull, disgusting, while +under the spell of another it is, as it were, galvanized into a virile +living thing which not only pleases but captivates the reader. + + +DICTION + +The first requisite of style is _choice_ of _words_, and this comes under +the head of _Diction_, the property of style which has reference to the +words and phrases used in speaking and writing. The secret of literary +skill from any standpoint consists in putting the right word in the right +place. In order to do this it is imperative to know the meaning of the +words we use, their exact literal meaning. Many synonymous words are +seemingly interchangeable and appear as if the same meaning were applicable +to three or four of them at the same time, but when all such words are +reduced to a final analysis it is clearly seen that there is a marked +difference in their meaning. For instance _grief_ and _sorrow_ seem to be +identical, but they are not. _Grief_ is active, _sorrow_ is more or less +passive; _grief_ is caused by troubles and misfortunes which come to us +from the outside, while _sorrow_ is often the consequence of our own +acts. _Grief_ is frequently loud and violent, _sorrow_ is always quiet +and retiring. _Grief_ shouts, _Sorrow_ remains calm. + +If you are not sure of the exact meaning of a word look it up immediately +in the dictionary. Sometimes some of our great scholars are puzzled over +simple words in regard to meaning, spelling or pronunciation. Whenever +you meet a strange word note it down until you discover its meaning and +use. Read the best books you can get, books written by men and women who +are acknowledged masters of language, and study how they use their words, +where they place them in the sentences, and the meanings they convey to +the readers. + +Mix in good society. Listen attentively to good talkers and try to +imitate their manner of expression. If a word is used you do not +understand, don't be ashamed to ask its meaning. + +True, a small vocabulary will carry you through, but it is an advantage +to have a large one. When you live alone a little pot serves just as well +as a large one to cook your victuals and it is handy and convenient, but +when your friends or neighbors come to dine with you, you will need a +much larger pot and it is better to have it in store, so that you will +not be put to shame for your scantiness of furnishings. + +Get as many words as you possibly can--if you don't need them now, pack +them away in the garrets of your brain so that you can call upon them if +you require them. + +Keep a note book, jot down the words you don't understand or clearly +understand and consult the dictionary when you get time. + + +PURITY + +_Purity_ of style consists in using words which are reputable, national +and present, which means that the words are in current use by the best +authorities, that they are used throughout the nation and not confined to +one particular part, and that they are words in constant use at the +present time. + +There are two guiding principles in the choice of words,--_good use_ +and _good taste_. _Good use_ tells us whether a word is right or wrong; +_good taste_, whether it is adapted to our purpose or not. + +A word that is obsolete or too new to have gained a place in the +language, or that is a provincialism, should not be used. + +Here are the Ten Commandments of English style: + +(1) Do not use foreign words. + +(2) Do not use a long word when a short one will serve your purpose. +_Fire_ is much better than _conflagration_. + +(3) Do not use technical words, or those understood only by specialists +in their respective lines, except when you are writing especially for +such people. + +(4) Do not use slang. + +(5) Do not use provincialisms, as "I guess" for "I think"; "I reckon" for +"I know," etc. + +(6) Do not in writing prose, use poetical or antiquated words: as "lore, +e'er, morn, yea, nay, verily, peradventure." + +(7) Do not use trite and hackneyed words and expressions; as, "on the +job," "up and in"; "down and out." + +(8) Do not use newspaper words which have not established a place in the +language as "to bugle"; "to suicide," etc. + +(9) Do not use ungrammatical words and forms; as, "I ain't;" "he don't." + +(10) Do not use ambiguous words or phrases; as--"He showed me all about +the house." + +Trite words, similes and metaphors which have become hackneyed and worn +out should be allowed to rest in the oblivion of past usage. Such +expressions and phrases as "Sweet sixteen" "the Almighty dollar," "Uncle +Sam," "On the fence," "The Glorious Fourth," "Young America," "The lords +of creation," "The rising generation," "The weaker sex," "The weaker +vessel," "Sweetness long drawn out" and "chief cook and bottle washer," +should be put on the shelf as they are utterly worn out from too much +usage. + +Some of the old similes which have outlived their usefulness and should +be pensioned off, are "Sweet as sugar," "Bold as a lion," "Strong as an +ox," "Quick as a flash," "Cold as ice," "Stiff as a poker," "White as +snow," "Busy as a bee," "Pale as a ghost," "Rich as Croesus," "Cross as a +bear" and a great many more far too numerous to mention. + +Be as original as possible in the use of expression. Don't follow in the +old rut but try and strike out for yourself. This does not mean that you +should try to set the style, or do anything outlandish or out of the way, +or be an innovator on the prevailing custom. In order to be original +there is no necessity for you to introduce something novel or establish a +precedent. The probability is you are not fit to do either, by education +or talent. While following the style of those who are acknowledged +leaders you can be original in your language. Try and clothe an idea +different from what it has been clothed and better. If you are speaking +or writing of dancing don't talk or write about "tripping the light +fantastic toe." It is over two hundred years since Milton expressed it +that way in "_L'Allegro_." You're not a Milton and besides over a million +have stolen it from Milton until it is now no longer worth stealing. + +Don't resurrect obsolete words such as _whilom_, _yclept_, _wis_, etc., +and be careful in regard to obsolescent words, that is, words that are at +the present time gradually passing from use such as _quoth, trow, +betwixt, amongst, froward_, etc. + +And beware of new words. Be original in the construction and arrangement +of your language, but don't try to originate words. Leave that to the +Masters of language, and don't be the first to try such words, wait until +the chemists of speech have tested them and passed upon their merits. + +Quintilian said--"Prefer the oldest of the new and the newest of the +old." Pope put this in rhyme and it still holds good: + +In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold, Alike fantastic, if too +new or old: Be not the first by whom the new are tried, Nor yet the last +to lay the old aside. + + +PROPRIETY + +_Propriety_ of style consists in using words in their proper sense and as +in the case of purity, good usage is the principal test. Many words have +acquired in actual use a meaning very different from what they once +possessed. "Prevent" formerly meant to go before, and that meaning is +implied in its Latin derivation. Now it means to put a stop to, to +hinder. To attain propriety of style it is necessary to avoid confounding +words derived from the same root; as _respectfully_ and _respectively_; +it is necessary to use words in their accepted sense or the sense which +everyday use sanctions. + + +SIMPLICITY + +_Simplicity_ of style has reference to the choice of simple words and +their unaffected presentation. Simple words should always be used in +preference to compound, and complicated ones when they express the same +or almost the same meaning. The Anglo-Saxon element in our language +comprises the simple words which express the relations of everyday life, +strong, terse, vigorous, the language of the fireside, street, market and +farm. It is this style which characterizes the Bible and many of the +great English classics such as the "Pilgrim's Progress," "Robinson +Crusoe," and "Gulliver's Travels." + + +CLEARNESS + +_Clearness_ of style should be one of the leading considerations with the +beginner in composition. He must avoid all obscurity and ambiguous +phrases. If he write a sentence or phrase and see that a meaning might be +inferred from it otherwise than intended, he should re-write it in such a +way that there can be no possible doubt. Words, phrases or clauses that +are closely related should be placed as near to each other as possible +that their mutual relation may clearly appear, and no word should be +omitted that is necessary to the complete expression of thought. + + +UNITY + +_Unity_ is that property of style which keeps all parts of a sentence in +connection with the principal thought and logically subordinate to it. A +sentence may be constructed as to suggest the idea of oneness to the +mind, or it may be so loosely put together as to produce a confused and +indefinite impression. Ideas that have but little connection should be +expressed in separate sentences, and not crowded into one. + +Keep long parentheses out of the middle of your sentences and when you +have apparently brought your sentences to a close don't try to continue +the thought or idea by adding supplementary clauses. + + +STRENGTH + +_Strength_ is that property of style which gives animation, energy and +vivacity to language and sustains the interest of the reader. It is as +necessary to language as good food is to the body. Without it the words +are weak and feeble and create little or no impression on the mind. In +order to have strength the language must be concise, that is, much +expressed in little compass, you must hit the nail fairly on the head and +drive it in straight. Go critically over what you write and strike out +every word, phrase and clause the omission of which impairs neither the +clearness nor force of the sentence and so avoid redundancy, tautology +and circumlocution. Give the most important words the most prominent +places, which, as has been pointed out elsewhere, are the beginning and +end of the sentence. + + +HARMONY + +_Harmony_ is that property of style which gives a smoothness to the +sentence, so that when the words are sounded their connection becomes +pleasing to the ear. It adapts sound to sense. Most people construct +their sentences without giving thought to the way they will sound and as +a consequence we have many jarring and discordant combinations such as +"Thou strengthenedst thy position and actedst arbitrarily and +derogatorily to my interests." + +Harsh, disagreeable verbs are liable to occur with the Quaker form _Thou_ +of the personal pronoun. This form is now nearly obsolete, the plural +_you_ being almost universally used. To obtain harmony in the sentence +long words that are hard to pronounce and combinations of letters of one +kind should be avoided. + + +EXPRESSIVE OF WRITER + +Style is expressive of the writer, as to who he is and what he is. As a +matter of structure in composition it is the indication of what a man can +do; as a matter of quality it is an indication of what he is. + + +KINDS OF STYLE + +Style has been classified in different ways, but it admits of so many +designations that it is very hard to enumerate a table. In fact there are +as many styles as there are writers, for no two authors write _exactly_ +after the same form. However, we may classify the styles of the various +authors in broad divisions as (1) dry, (2) plain, (3) neat, (4) elegant, +(5) florid, (6) bombastic. + +The _dry_ style excludes all ornament and makes no effort to appeal to +any sense of beauty. Its object is simply to express the thoughts in a +correct manner. This style is exemplified by Berkeley. + +The _plain_ style does not seek ornamentation either, but aims to make +clear and concise statements without any elaboration or embellishment. +Locke and Whately illustrate the plain style. + +The _neat_ style only aspires after ornament sparingly. Its object is to +have correct figures, pure diction and clear and harmonious sentences. +Goldsmith and Gray are the acknowledged leaders in this kind of style. + +The _elegant_ style uses every ornament that can beautify and avoids +every excess which would degrade. Macaulay and Addison have been +enthroned as the kings of this style. To them all writers bend the knee +in homage. + +The _florid_ style goes to excess in superfluous and superficial +ornamentation and strains after a highly colored imagery. The poems of +Ossian typify this style. + +The _bombastic_ is characterized by such an excess of words, figures and +ornaments as to be ridiculous and disgusting. It is like a circus clown +dressed up in gold tinsel Dickens gives a fine example of it in Sergeant +Buzfuz' speech in the "Pickwick Papers." Among other varieties of style +may be mentioned the colloquial, the laconic, the concise, the diffuse, +the abrupt the flowing, the quaint, the epigrammatic, the flowery, the +feeble, the nervous, the vehement, and the affected. The manner of these +is sufficiently indicated by the adjective used to describe them. + +In fact style is as various as character and expresses the individuality +of the writer, or in other words, as the French writer Buffon very aptly +remarks, "the style is the man himself." + + + + +CHAPTER X + +SUGGESTIONS + +How to Write--What to Write--Correct Speaking and Speakers + + +Rules of grammar and rhetoric are good in their own place; their laws +must be observed in order to express thoughts and ideas in the right way +so that they shall convey a determinate sense and meaning in a pleasing +and acceptable manner. Hard and fast rules, however, can never make a +writer or author. That is the business of old Mother Nature and nothing +can take her place. If nature has not endowed a man with faculties to put +his ideas into proper composition he cannot do so. He may have no ideas +worthy the recording. If a person has not a thought to express, it cannot +be expressed. Something cannot be manufactured out of nothing. The author +must have thoughts and ideas before he can express them on paper. These +come to him by nature and environment and are developed and strengthened +by study. There is an old Latin quotation in regard to the poet which +says "Poeta nascitur non fit" the translation of which is--the poet is +born, not made. To a great degree the same applies to the author. Some +men are great scholars as far as book learning is concerned, yet they +cannot express themselves in passable composition. Their knowledge is +like gold locked up in a chest where it is of no value to themselves or +the rest of the world. + +The best way to learn to write is to sit down and write, just as the best +way how to learn to ride a bicycle is to mount the wheel and pedal away. +Write first about common things, subjects that are familiar to you. Try +for instance an essay on a cat. Say something original about her. Don't +say "she is very playful when young but becomes grave as she grows old." +That has been said more than fifty thousand times before. Tell what you +have seen the family cat doing, how she caught a mouse in the garret and +what she did after catching it. Familiar themes are always the best for +the beginner. Don't attempt to describe a scene in Australia if you have +never been there and know nothing of the country. Never hunt for +subjects, there are thousands around you. Describe what you saw yesterday-- +a fire, a runaway horse, a dog-fight on the street and be original in +your description. Imitate the best writers in their _style_, but not in +their exact words. Get out of the beaten path, make a pathway of your +own. + +Know what you write about, write about what you know; this is a golden +rule to which you must adhere. To know you must study. The world is an +open book in which all who run may read. Nature is one great volume the +pages of which are open to the peasant as well as to the peer. Study +Nature's moods and tenses, for they are vastly more important than those +of the grammar. Book learning is most desirable, but, after all, it is +only theory and not practice. The grandest allegory in the English, in +fact, in any language, was written by an ignorant, so-called ignorant, +tinker named John Bunyan. Shakespeare was not a scholar in the sense we +regard the term to-day, yet no man ever lived or probably ever will live +that equalled or will equal him in the expression of thought. He simply +read the book of nature and interpreted it from the standpoint of his own +magnificent genius. + +Don't imagine that a college education is necessary to success as a +writer. Far from it. Some of our college men are dead-heads, drones, +parasites on the body social, not alone useless to the world but to +themselves. A person may be so ornamental that he is valueless from any +other standpoint. As a general rule ornamental things serve but little +purpose. A man may know so much of everything that he knows little of +anything. This may sound paradoxical, but, nevertheless, experience +proves its truth. + +If you are poor that is not a detriment but an advantage. Poverty is an +incentive to endeavor, not a drawback. Better to be born with a good, +working brain in your head than with a gold spoon in your mouth. If the +world had been depending on the so-called pets of fortune it would have +deteriorated long ago. + +From the pits of poverty, from the arenas of suffering, from the hovels +of neglect, from the backwood cabins of obscurity, from the lanes and +by-ways of oppression, from the dingy garrets and basements of unending +toil and drudgery have come men and women who have made history, made the +world brighter, better, higher, holier for their existence in it, made of +it a place good to live in and worthy to die in,--men and women who have +hallowed it by their footsteps and sanctified it with their presence and +in many cases consecrated it with their blood. Poverty is a blessing, not +an evil, a benison from the Father's hand if accepted in the right spirit. +Instead of retarding, it has elevated literature in all ages. Homer was a +blind beggarman singing his snatches of song for the dole of charity; +grand old Socrates, oracle of wisdom, many a day went without his dinner +because he had not the wherewithal to get it, while teaching the youth of +Athens. The divine Dante was nothing better than a beggar, houseless, +homeless, friendless, wandering through Italy while he composed his +immortal cantos. Milton, who in his blindness "looked where angels fear +to tread," was steeped in poverty while writing his sublime conception, +"Paradise Lost." Shakespeare was glad to hold and water the horses of +patrons outside the White Horse Theatre for a few pennies in order to buy +bread. Burns burst forth in never-dying song while guiding the ploughshare. +Poor Heinrich Heine, neglected and in poverty, from his "mattress grave" +of suffering in Paris added literary laurels to the wreath of his German +Fatherland. In America Elihu Burritt, while attending the anvil, made +himself a master of a score of languages and became the literary lion of +his age and country. + +In other fields of endeavor poverty has been the spur to action. Napoleon +was born in obscurity, the son of a hand-to-mouth scrivener in the backward +island of Corsica. Abraham Lincoln, the boast and pride of America, the +man who made this land too hot for the feet of slaves, came from a log +cabin in the Ohio backwoods. So did James A. Garfield. Ulysses Grant came +from a tanyard to become the world's greatest general. Thomas A. Edison +commenced as a newsboy on a railway train. + +The examples of these men are incentives to action. Poverty thrust them +forward instead of keeping them back. Therefore, if you are poor make +your circumstances a means to an end. Have ambition, keep a goal in sight +and bend every energy to reach that goal. A story is told of Thomas +Carlyle the day he attained the highest honor the literary world could +confer upon him when he was elected Lord Rector of Edinburgh University. +After his installation speech, in going through the halls, he met a +student seemingly deep in study. In his own peculiar, abrupt, crusty way +the Sage of Chelsea interrogated the young man: "For what profession are +you studying?" "I don't know," returned the youth. "You don't know," +thundered Carlyle, "young man, you are a fool." Then he went on to +qualify his vehement remark, "My boy when I was your age, I was stooped +in grinding, gripping poverty in the little village of Ecclefechan, in +the wilds of [Transcriber's note: Part of word illegible]-frieshire, +where in all the place only the minister and myself could read the Bible, +yet poor and obscure as I was, in my mind's eye I saw a chair awaiting +for me in the Temple of Fame and day and night and night and day I +studied until I sat in that chair to-day as Lord Rector of Edinburgh +University." + +Another Scotchman, Robert Buchanan, the famous novelist, set out for +London from Glasgow with but half-a-crown in his pocket. "Here goes," +said he, "for a grave in Westminster Abbey." He was not much of a +scholar, but his ambition carried him on and he became one of the great +literary lions of the world's metropolis. + +Henry M. Stanley was a poorhouse waif whose real name was John Rowlands. +He was brought up in a Welsh workhouse, but he had ambition, so he rose +to be a great explorer, a great writer, became a member of Parliament and +was knighted by the British Sovereign. + +Have ambition to succeed and you will succeed. Cut the word "failure" out +of your lexicon. Don't acknowledge it. Remember + + "In life's earnest battle they only prevail + Who daily march onward and never say fail." + +Let every obstacle you encounter be but a stepping stone in the path of +onward progress to the goal of success. + +If untoward circumstances surround you, resolve to overcome them. Bunyan +wrote the "Pilgrim's Progress" in Bedford jail on scraps of wrapping +paper while he was half starved on a diet of bread and water. That +unfortunate American genius, Edgar Allan Poe, wrote "The Raven," the most +wonderful conception as well as the most highly artistic poem in all +English literature, in a little cottage in the Fordham section of New +York while he was in the direst straits of want. Throughout all his short +and wonderfully brilliant career, poor Poe never had a dollar he could +call his own. Such, however, was both his fault and his misfortune and he +is a bad exemplar. + +Don't think that the knowledge of a library of books is essential to +success as a writer. Often a multiplicity of books is confusing. Master a +few good books and master them well and you will have all that is +necessary. A great authority has said: "Beware of the man of one book," +which means that a man of one book is a master of the craft. It is +claimed that a thorough knowledge of the Bible alone will make any person +a master of literature. Certain it is that the Bible and Shakespeare +constitute an epitome of the essentials of knowledge. Shakespeare +gathered the fruitage of all who went before him, he has sown the seeds +for all who shall ever come after him. He was the great intellectual +ocean whose waves touch the continents of all thought. + +Books are cheap now-a-days, the greatest works, thanks to the printing +press, are within the reach of all, and the more you read, the better, +provided they are worth reading. Sometimes a man takes poison into his +system unconscious of the fact that it is poison, as in the case of +certain foods, and it is very hard to throw off its effects. Therefore, +be careful in your choice of reading matter. If you cannot afford a full +library, and as has been said, such is not necessary, select a few of the +great works of the master minds, assimilate and digest them, so that they +will be of advantage to your literary system. Elsewhere in this volume is +given a list of some of the world's masterpieces from which you can make +a selection. + +Your brain is a storehouse, don't put useless furniture into it to crowd +it to the exclusion of what is useful. Lay up only the valuable and +serviceable kind which you can call into requisition at any moment. + +As it is necessary to study the best authors in order to be a writer, so +it is necessary to study the best speakers in order to talk with +correctness and in good style. To talk rightly you must imitate the +masters of oral speech. Listen to the best conversationalists and how +they express themselves. Go to hear the leading lectures, speeches and +sermons. No need to imitate the gestures of elocution, it is nature, not +art, that makes the elocutionist and the orator. It is not _how_ a +speaker expresses himself but the language which he uses and the manner +of its use which should interest you. Have you heard the present day +masters of speech? There have been past time masters but their tongues +are stilled in the dust of the grave, and you can only read their +eloquence now. You can, however, listen to the charm of the living. To +many of us voices still speak from the grave, voices to which we have +listened when fired with the divine essence of speech. Perhaps you have +hung with rapture on the words of Beecher and Talmage. Both thrilled the +souls of men and won countless thousands over to a living gospel. Both +were masters of words, they scattered the flowers of rhetoric on the +shrine of eloquence and hurled veritable bouquets at their audiences +which were eagerly seized by the latter and treasured in the storehouse +of memory. Both were scholars and philosophers, yet they were far surpassed +by Spurgeon, a plain man of the people with little or no claim to +education in the modern sense of the word. Spurgeon by his speech +attracted thousands to his Tabernacle. The Protestant and Catholic, Turk, +Jew and Mohammedan rushed to hear him and listened, entranced, to his +language. Such another was Dwight L. Moody, the greatest Evangelist the +world has ever known. Moody was not a man of learning; he commenced life +as a shoe salesman in Chicago, yet no man ever lived who drew such +audiences and so fascinated them with the spell of his speech. "Oh, that +was personal magnetism," you will say, but it was nothing of the kind. It +was the burning words that fell from the lips of these men, and the way, +the manner, the force with which they used those words that counted and +attracted the crowds to listen unto them. Personal magnetism or personal +appearance entered not as factors into their success. Indeed as far as +physique were concerned, some of them were handicapped. Spurgeon was a +short, podgy, fat little man, Moody was like a country farmer, Talmage in +his big cloak was one of the most slovenly of men and only Beecher was +passable in the way of refinement and gentlemanly bearing. Physical +appearance, as so many think, is not the sesame to the interest of an +audience. Daniel O'Connell, the Irish tribune, was a homely, ugly, +awkward, ungainly man, yet his words attracted millions to his side and +gained for him the hostile ear of the British Parliament, he was a master +of verbiage and knew just what to say to captivate his audiences. + +It is words and their placing that count on almost all occasions. No +matter how refined in other respects the person may be, if he use words +wrongly and express himself in language not in accordance with a proper +construction, he will repel you, whereas the man who places his words +correctly and employs language in harmony with the laws of good speech, +let him be ever so humble, will attract and have an influence over you. + +The good speaker, the correct speaker, is always able to command +attention and doors are thrown open to him which remain closed to others +not equipped with a like facility of expression. The man who can talk +well and to the point need never fear to go idle. He is required in +nearly every walk of life and field of human endeavor, the world wants +him at every turn. Employers are constantly on the lookout for good +talkers, those who are able to attract the public and convince others by +the force of their language. A man may be able, educated, refined, of +unblemished character, nevertheless if he lack the power to express +himself, put forth his views in good and appropriate speech he has to +take a back seat, while some one with much less ability gets the +opportunity to come to the front because he can clothe his ideas in ready +words and talk effectively. + +You may again say that nature, not art, makes a man a fluent speaker; to +a great degree this is true, but it is _art_ that makes him a _correct_ +speaker, and correctness leads to fluency. It is possible for everyone to +become a correct speaker if he will but persevere and take a little pains +and care. + +At the risk of repetition good advice may be here emphasized: Listen to +the best speakers and note carefully the words which impress you most. +Keep a notebook and jot down words, phrases, sentences that are in any +way striking or out of the ordinary run. If you do not understand the +exact meaning of a word you have heard, look it up in the dictionary. +There are many words, called synonyms, which have almost a like +signification, nevertheless, when examined they express different shades +of meaning and in some cases, instead of being close related, are widely +divergent. Beware of such words, find their exact meaning and learn to +use them in their right places. + +Be open to criticism, don't resent it but rather invite it and look upon +those as friends who point out your defects in order that you may remedy +them. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +SLANG + +Origin--American Slang--Foreign Slang + + +Slang is more or less common in nearly all ranks of society and in every +walk of life at the present day. Slang words and expressions have crept +into our everyday language, and so insiduously, that they have not been +detected by the great majority of speakers, and so have become part and +parcel of their vocabulary on an equal footing with the legitimate words +of speech. They are called upon to do similar service as the ordinary +words used in everyday conversation--to express thoughts and desires and +convey meaning from one to another. In fact, in some cases, slang has +become so useful that it has far outstripped classic speech and made for +itself such a position in the vernacular that it would be very hard in +some cases to get along without it. Slang words have usurped the place of +regular words of language in very many instances and reign supreme in +their own strength and influence. + +Cant and slang are often confused in the popular mind, yet they are not +synonymous, though very closely allied, and proceeding from a common +Gypsy origin. Cant is the language of a certain class--the peculiar +phraseology or dialect of a certain craft, trade or profession, and is +not readily understood save by the initiated of such craft, trade or +profession. It may be correct, according to the rules of grammar, but it +is not universal; it is confined to certain parts and localities and is +only intelligible to those for whom it is intended. In short, it is an +esoteric language which only the initiated can understand. The jargon, or +patter, of thieves is cant and it is only understood by thieves who have +been let into its significance; the initiated language of professional +gamblers is cant, and is only intelligible to gamblers. + +On the other hand, slang, as it is nowadays, belongs to no particular class +but is scattered all over and gets _entre_ into every kind of society and +is understood by all where it passes current in everyday expression. Of +course, the nature of the slang, to a great extent, depends upon the +locality, as it chiefly is concerned with colloquialisms or words and +phrases common to a particular section. For instance, the slang of London +is slightly different from that of New York, and some words in the one city +may be unintelligible in the other, though well understood in that in which +they are current. Nevertheless, slang may be said to be universally +understood. "To kick the bucket," "to cross the Jordan," "to hop the twig" +are just as expressive of the departing from life in the backwoods of +America or the wilds of Australia as they are in London or Dublin. + +Slang simply consists of words and phrases which pass current but are not +refined, nor elegant enough, to be admitted into polite speech or +literature whenever they are recognized as such. But, as has been said, a +great many use slang without their knowing it as slang and incorporate it +into their everyday speech and conversation. + +Some authors purposely use slang to give emphasis and spice in familiar and +humorous writing, but they should not be imitated by the tyro. A master, +such as Dickens, is forgivable, but in the novice it is unpardonable. + +There are several kinds of slang attached to different professions and +classes of society. For instance, there is college slang, political +slang, sporting slang, etc. It is the nature of slang to circulate freely +among all classes, yet there are several kinds of this current form of +language corresponding to the several classes of society. The two great +divisions of slang are the vulgar of the uneducated and coarse-minded, +and the high-toned slang of the so-called upper classes--the educated and +the wealthy. The hoyden of the gutter does not use the same slang as my +lady in her boudoir, but both use it, and so expressive is it that the +one might readily understand the other if brought in contact. Therefore, +there are what may be styled an ignorant slang and an educated slang--the +one common to the purlieus and the alleys, the other to the parlor and +the drawing-room. + +In all cases the object of slang is to express an idea in a more vigorous, +piquant and terse manner than standard usage ordinarily admits. A school +girl, when she wants to praise a baby, exclaims: "Oh, isn't he awfully +cute!" To say that he is very nice would be too weak a way to express her +admiration. When a handsome girl appears on the street an enthusiastic +masculine admirer, to express his appreciation of her beauty, tells you: +"She is a peach, a bird, a cuckoo," any of which accentuates his +estimation of the young lady and is much more emphatic than saying: "She +is a beautiful girl," "a handsome maiden," or "lovely young woman." + +When a politician defeats his rival he will tell you "it was a cinch," he +had a "walk-over," to impress you how easy it was to gain the victory. + +Some slang expressions are of the nature of metaphors and are highly +figurative. Such are "to pass in your checks," "to hold up," "to pull the +wool over your eyes," "to talk through your hat," "to fire out," "to go +back on," "to make yourself solid with," "to have a jag on," "to be +loaded," "to freeze on to," "to bark up the wrong tree," "don't monkey +with the buzz-saw," and "in the soup." Most slang had a bad origin. The +greater part originated in the cant of thieves' Latin, but it broke away +from this cant of malefactors in time and gradually evolved itself from +its unsavory past until it developed into a current form of expressive +speech. Some slang, however, can trace its origin back to very +respectable sources. + +"Stolen fruits are sweet" may be traced to the Bible in sentiment. +Proverbs, ix:17 has it: "Stolen waters are sweet." "What are you giving +me," supposed to be a thorough Americanism, is based upon Genesis, +xxxviii:16. The common slang, "a bad man," in referring to Western +desperadoes, in almost the identical sense now used, is found in +Spenser's _Faerie Queen_, Massinger's play _"A New Way to Pay Old +Debts,_" and in Shakespeare's _"King Henry VIII_." The expression "to +blow on," meaning to inform, is in Shakespeare's _"As You Like it_." +"It's all Greek to me" is traceable to the play of _"Julius Caesar_." +"All cry and no wool" is in Butler's _"Hudibras_." "Pious frauds," +meaning hypocrites, is from the same source. "Too thin," referring to an +excuse, is from Smollett's "_Peregrine Pickle_." Shakespeare also used +it. + +America has had a large share in contributing to modern slang. "The +heathen Chinee," and "Ways that are dark, and tricks that are vain," are +from Bret Harte's _Truthful James_. "Not for Joe," arose during the Civil +War when one soldier refused to give a drink to another. "Not if I know +myself" had its origin in Chicago. "What's the matter with----? He's all +right," had its beginning in Chicago also and first was "What's the +matter with Hannah." referring to a lazy domestic servant. "There's +millions in it," and "By a large majority" come from Mark Twain's _Gilded +Age_. "Pull down your vest," "jim-jams," "got 'em bad," "that's what's +the matter," "go hire a hall," "take in your sign," "dry up," "hump +yourself," "it's the man around the corner," "putting up a job," "put a +head on him," "no back talk," "bottom dollar," "went off on his ear," +"chalk it down," "staving him off," "making it warm," "dropping him +gently," "dead gone," "busted," "counter jumper," "put up or shut up," +"bang up," "smart Aleck," "too much jaw," "chin-music," "top heavy," +"barefooted on the top of the head," "a little too fresh," "champion +liar," "chief cook and bottle washer," "bag and baggage," "as fine as +silk," "name your poison," "died with his boots on," "old hoss," "hunkey +dorey," "hold your horses," "galoot" and many others in use at present +are all Americanisms in slang. + +California especially has been most fecund in this class of figurative +language. To this State we owe "go off and die," "don't you forget it," +"rough deal," "square deal," "flush times," "pool your issues," "go bury +yourself," "go drown yourself," "give your tongue a vacation," "a bad +egg," "go climb a tree," "plug hats," "Dolly Vardens," "well fixed," +"down to bed rock," "hard pan," "pay dirt," "petered out," "it won't +wash," "slug of whiskey," "it pans out well," and "I should smile." +"Small potatoes, and few in the hill," "soft snap," "all fired," "gol +durn it," "an up-hill job," "slick," "short cut," "guess not," "correct +thing" are Bostonisms. The terms "innocent," "acknowledge the corn," +"bark up the wrong tree," "great snakes," "I reckon," "playing 'possum," +"dead shot," had their origin in the Southern States. "Doggone it," "that +beats the Dutch," "you bet," "you bet your boots," sprang from New York. +"Step down and out" originated in the Beecher trial, just as +"brain-storm" originated in the Thaw trial. + +Among the slang phrases that have come directly to us from England may be +mentioned "throw up the sponge," "draw it mild," "give us a rest," "dead +beat," "on the shelf," "up the spout," "stunning," "gift of the gab," +etc. + +The newspapers are responsible for a large part of the slang. Reporters, +staff writers, and even editors, put words and phrases into the mouths of +individuals which they never utter. New York is supposed to be the +headquarters of slang, particularly that portion of it known as the +Bowery. All transgressions and corruptions of language are supposed to +originate in that unclassic section, while the truth is that the laws of +polite English are as much violated on Fifth Avenue. Of course, the +foreign element mincing their "pidgin" English have given the Bowery an +unenviable reputation, but there are just as good speakers of the +vernacular on the Bowery as elsewhere in the greater city. Yet every +inexperienced newspaper reporter thinks that it is incumbent on him to +hold the Bowery up to ridicule and laughter, so he sits down, and out of +his circumscribed brain, mutilates the English tongue (he can rarely coin +a word), and blames the mutilation on the Bowery. + +'Tis the same with newspapers and authors, too, detracting the Irish +race. Men and women who have never seen the green hills of Ireland, paint +Irish characters as boors and blunderers and make them say ludicrous +things and use such language as is never heard within the four walls of +Ireland. 'Tis very well known that Ireland is the most learned country on +the face of the earth--is, and has been. The schoolmaster has been abroad +there for hundreds, almost thousands, of years, and nowhere else in the +world to-day is the king's English spoken so purely as in the cities and +towns of the little Western Isle. + +Current events, happenings of everyday life, often give rise to slang +words, and these, after a time, come into such general use that they take +their places in everyday speech like ordinary words and, as has been +said, their users forget that they once were slang. For instance, the +days of the Land League in Ireland originated the word _boycott_, which +was the name of a very unpopular landlord, Captain Boycott. The people +refused to work for him, and his crops rotted on the ground. From this +time any one who came into disfavor and whom his neighbors refused to +assist in any way was said to be boycotted. Therefore to boycott means to +punish by abandoning or depriving a person of the assistance of others. +At first it was a notoriously slang word, but now it is standard in the +English dictionaries. + +Politics add to our slang words and phrases. From this source we get +"dark horse," "the gray mare is the better horse," "barrel of money," +"buncombe," "gerrymander," "scalawag," "henchman," "logrolling," "pulling +the wires," "taking the stump," "machine," "slate," etc. + +The money market furnishes us with "corner," "bull," "bear," "lamb," +"slump," and several others. + +The custom of the times and the requirements of current expression require +the best of us to use slang words and phrases on occasions. Often we do +not know they are slang, just as a child often uses profane words without +consciousness of their being so. We should avoid the use of slang as much +as possible, even when it serves to convey our ideas in a forceful +manner. And when it has not gained a firm foothold in current speech it +should be used not at all. Remember that most all slang is of vulgar +origin and bears upon its face the bend sinister of vulgarity. Of the +slang that is of good birth, pass it by if you can, for it is like a +broken-down gentleman, of little good to any one. Imitate the great +masters as much as you will in classical literature, but when it comes to +their slang, draw the line. Dean Swift, the great Irish satirist, coined +the word "phiz" for face. Don't imitate him. If you are speaking or +writing of the beauty of a lady's face don't call it her "phiz." The +Dean, as an intellectual giant, had a license to do so--you haven't. +Shakespeare used the word "flush" to indicate plenty of money. Well, just +remember there was only one Shakespeare, and he was the only one that had +a right to use that word in that sense. You'll never be a Shakespeare, +there will never be such another--Nature exhausted herself in producing +him. Bulwer used the word "stretch" for hang, as to stretch his neck. +Don't follow his example in such use of the word. Above all, avoid the +low, coarse, vulgar slang, which is made to pass for wit among the +riff-raff of the street. If you are speaking or writing of a person +having died last night don't say or write: "He hopped the twig," or "he +kicked the bucket." If you are compelled to listen to a person discoursing +on a subject of which he knows little or nothing, don't say "He is +talking through his hat." If you are telling of having shaken hands with +Mr. Roosevelt don't say "He tipped me his flipper." If you are speaking +of a wealthy man don't say "He has plenty of spondulix," or "the long +green." All such slang is low, coarse and vulgar and is to be frowned +upon on any and every occasion. + +If you use slang use the refined kind and use it like a gentleman, that +it will not hurt or give offense to any one. Cardinal Newman defined a +gentleman as he who never inflicts pain. Be a gentleman in your slang-- +never inflict pain. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +WRITING FOR NEWSPAPERS + +Qualification--Appropriate Subjects--Directions + + +The newspaper nowadays goes into every home in the land; what was +formerly regarded as a luxury is now looked upon as a necessity. No +matter how poor the individual, he is not too poor to afford a penny to +learn, not alone what is taking place around him in his own immediate +vicinity, but also what is happening in every quarter of the globe. The +laborer on the street can be as well posted on the news of the day as the +banker in his office. Through the newspaper he can feel the pulse of the +country and find whether its vitality is increasing or diminishing; he +can read the signs of the times and scan the political horizon for what +concerns his own interests. The doings of foreign countries are spread +before him and he can see at a glance the occurrences in the remotest +corners of earth. If a fire occurred in London last night he can read +about it at his breakfast table in New York this morning, and probably +get a better account than the Londoners themselves. If a duel takes place +in Paris he can read all about it even before the contestants have left +the field. + +There are upwards of 3,000 daily newspapers in the United States, more +than 2,000 of which are published in towns containing less than 100,000 +inhabitants. In fact, many places of less than 10,000 population can +boast the publishing of a daily newspaper. There are more than 15,000 +weeklies published. Some of the so-called country papers wield quite an +influence in their localities, and even outside, and are money-making +agencies for their owners and those connected with them, both by way of +circulation and advertisements. + +It is surprising the number of people in this country who make a living +in the newspaper field. Apart from the regular toilers there are thousands +of men and women who make newspaper work a side issue, who add tidy sums +of "pin money" to their incomes by occasional contributions to the daily, +weekly and monthly press. Most of these people are only persons of +ordinary, everyday ability, having just enough education to express +themselves intelligently in writing. + +It is a mistake to imagine, as so many do, that an extended education is +necessary for newspaper work. Not at all! On the contrary, in some cases, +a high-class education is a hindrance, not a help in this direction. The +general newspaper does not want learned disquisitions nor philosophical +theses; as its name implies, it wants news, current news, interesting +news, something to appeal to its readers, to arouse them and rivet their +attention. In this respect very often a boy can write a better article +than a college professor. The professor would be apt to use words beyond +the capacity of most of the readers, while the boy, not knowing such +words, would probably simply tell what he saw, how great the damage was, +who were killed or injured, etc., and use language which all would +understand. + +Of course, there are some brilliant scholars, deeply-read men and women +in the newspaper realm, but, on the whole, those who have made the +greatest names commenced ignorant enough and most of them graduated by +way of the country paper. Some of the leading writers of England and +America at the present time started their literary careers by contributing +to the rural press. They perfected and polished themselves as they went +along until they were able to make names for themselves in universal +literature. + +If you want to contribute to newspapers or enter the newspaper field as a +means of livelihood, don't let lack of a college or university education +stand in your way. As has been said elsewhere in this book, some of the +greatest masters of English literature were men who had but little +advantage in the way of book learning. Shakespeare, Bunyan, Burns, and +scores of others, who have left their names indelibly inscribed on the +tablets of fame, had little to boast of in the way of book education, but +they had what is popularly known as "horse" sense and a good working +knowledge of the world; in other words, they understood human nature, and +were natural themselves. Shakespeare understood mankind because he was +himself a man; hence he has portrayed the feelings, the emotions, the +passions with a master's touch, delineating the king in his palace as true +to nature as he has done the peasant in his hut. The monitor within his own +breast gave him warning as to what was right and what was wrong, just as +the daemon ever by the side of old Socrates whispered in his ear the course +to pursue under any and all circumstances. Burns guiding the plough +conceived thoughts and clothed them in a language which has never, nor +probably never will be, surpassed by all the learning which art can confer. +These men were natural, and it was the perfection of this naturality that +wreathed their brows with the never-fading laurels of undying fame. + +If you would essay to write for the newspaper you must be natural and +express yourself in your accustomed way without putting on airs or +frills; you must not ape ornaments and indulge in bombast or rhodomontade +which stamp a writer as not only superficial but silly. There is no room +for such in the everyday newspaper. It wants facts stated in plain, +unvarnished, unadorned language. True, you should read the best authors +and, as far as possible, imitate their style, but don't try to literally +copy them. Be yourself on every occasion--no one else. + + Not like Homer would I write, + Not like Dante if I might, + Not like Shakespeare at his best, + Not like Goethe or the rest, + Like myself, however small, + Like myself, or not at all. + +Put yourself in place of the reader and write what will interest yourself +and in such a way that your language will appeal to your own ideas of the +fitness of things. You belong to the _great_ commonplace majority, +therefore don't forget that in writing for the newspapers you are writing +for that majority and not for the learned and aesthetic minority. + +Remember you are writing for the man on the street and in the street car, +you want to interest him, to compel him to read what you have to say. He +does not want a display of learning; he wants news about something which +concerns himself, and you must tell it to him in a plain, simple manner +just as you would do if you were face to face with him. + +What can you write about? Why about anything that will constitute current +news, some leading event of the day, anything that will appeal to the +readers of the paper to which you wish to submit it. No matter in what +locality you may live, however backward it may be, you can always find +something of genuine human interest to others. If there is no news +happening, write of something that appeals to yourself. We are all +constituted alike, and the chances are that what will interest you will +interest others. Descriptions of adventure are generally acceptable. Tell +of a fox hunt, or a badger hunt, or a bear chase. + +If there is any important manufacturing plant in your neighborhood +describe it and, if possible, get photographs, for photography plays a +very important part in the news items of to-day. If a "great" man lives +near you, one whose name is on the tip of every tongue, go and get an +interview with him, obtain his views on the public questions of the day, +describe his home life and his surroundings and how he spends his time. + +Try and strike something germane to the moment, something that stands out +prominently in the limelight of the passing show. If a noted personage, +some famous man or woman, is visiting the country, it is a good time to +write up the place from which he or she comes and the record he or she has +made there. For instance, it was opportune to write of Sulu and the little +Pacific archipelago during the Sultan's trip through the country. If an +attempt is made to blow up an American battleship, say, in the harbor of +Appia, in Samoa, it affords a chance to write about Samoa and Robert Louis +Stephenson. When Manuel was hurled from the throne of Portugal it was a +ripe time to write of Portugal and Portuguese affairs. If any great +occurrence is taking place in a foreign country such as the crowning of a +king or the dethronement of a monarch, it is a good time to write up the +history of the country and describe the events leading up to the main +issue. When a particularly savage outbreak occurs amongst wild tribes in +the dependencies, such as a rising of the Manobos in the Philippines, it is +opportune to write of such tribes and their surroundings, and the causes +leading up to the revolt. + +Be constantly on the lookout for something that will suit the passing +hour, read the daily papers and probably in some obscure corner you may +find something that will serve you as a foundation for a good article-- +something, at least, that will give you a clue. + +Be circumspect in your selection of a paper to which to submit your copy. +Know the tone and general import of the paper, its social leanings and +political affiliations, also its religious sentiments, and, in fact, all +the particulars you can regarding it. It would be injudicious for you to +send an article on a prize fight to a religious paper or, _vice versa_, +an account of a church meeting to the editor of a sporting sheet. + +If you get your copy back don't be disappointed nor yet disheartened. +Perseverance counts more in the newspaper field than anywhere else, and +only perseverance wins in the long run. You must become resilient; if you +are pressed down, spring up again. No matter how many rebuffs you may +receive, be not discouraged but call fresh energy to your assistance and +make another stand. If the right stuff is in you it is sure to be +discovered; your light will not remain long hidden under a bushel in the +newspaper domain. If you can deliver the goods editors will soon be +begging you instead of your begging them. Those men are constantly on the +lookout for persons who can make good. + +Once you get into print the battle is won, for it will be an incentive to +you to persevere and improve yourself at every turn. Go over everything +you write, cut and slash and prune until you get it into as perfect form +as possible. Eliminate every superfluous word and be careful to strike +out all ambiguous expressions and references. + +If you are writing for a weekly paper remember it differs from a daily +one. Weeklies want what will not alone interest the man on the street, +but the woman at the fireside; they want out-of-the-way facts, curious +scraps of lore, personal notes of famous or eccentric people, reminiscences +of exciting experiences, interesting gleanings in life's numberless +by-ways, in short, anything that will entertain, amuse, instruct the home +circle. There is always something occurring in your immediate surroundings, +some curious event or thrilling episode that will furnish you with data +for an article. You must know the nature of the weekly to which you +submit your copy the same as you must know the daily. For instance, the +_Christian Herald_, while avowedly a religious weekly, treats such secular +matter as makes the paper appeal to all. On its religious side it is +_non-sectarian_, covering the broad field of Christianity throughout the +world; on its secular side it deals with human events in such an impartial +way that every one, no matter to what class they may belong or to what +creed they may subscribe, can take a living, personal interest. + +The monthlies offer another attractive field for the literary aspirant. +Here, again, don't think you must be an university professor to write for a +monthly magazine. Many, indeed most, of the foremost magazine contributors +are men and women who have never passed through a college except by going +in at the front door and emerging from the back one. However, for the most +part, they are individuals of wide experience who know the practical side +of life as distinguished from the theoretical. + +The ordinary monthly magazine treats of the leading questions and issues +which are engaging the attention of the world for the moment, great +inventions, great discoveries, whatever is engrossing the popular mind +for the time being, such as flying machines, battleships, sky-scrapers, +the opening of mines, the development of new lands, the political issues, +views of party leaders, character sketches of distinguished personages, +etc. However, before trying your skill for a monthly magazine it would be +well for you to have a good apprenticeship in writing for the daily +press. + +Above all things, remember that perseverance is the key that opens the +door of success. Persevere! If you are turned down don't get +disheartened; on the contrary, let the rebuff act as a stimulant to +further effort. Many of the most successful writers of our time have been +turned down again and again. For days and months, and even years, some of +them have hawked their wares from one literary door to another until they +found a purchaser. You may be a great writer in embryo, but you will +never develop into a fetus, not to speak of full maturity, unless you +bring out what is in you. Give yourself a chance to grow and seize upon +everything that will enlarge the scope of your horizon. Keep your eyes +wide open and there is not a moment of the day in which you will not see +something to interest you and in which you may be able to interest +others. Learn, too, how to read Nature's book. There's a lesson in +everything--in the stones, the grass, the trees, the babbling brooks and +the singing birds. Interpret the lesson for yourself, then teach it to +others. Always be in earnest in your writing; go about it in a determined +kind of way, don't be faint-hearted or backward, be brave, be brave, and +evermore be brave. + + On the wide, tented field in the battle of life, + With an army of millions before you; + Like a hero of old gird your soul for the strife + And let not the foeman tramp o'er you; + Act, act like a soldier and proudly rush on + The most valiant in Bravery's van, + With keen, flashing sword cut your way to the front + And show to the world you're a _Man_. + +If you are of the masculine gender be a man in all things in the highest +and best acceptation of the word. That is the noblest title you can +boast, higher far than that of earl or duke, emperor or king. In the same +way womanhood is the grandest crown the feminine head can wear. When the +world frowns on you and everything seems to go wrong, possess your soul +in patience and hope for the dawn of a brighter day. It will come. The +sun is always shining behind the darkest clouds. When you get your +manuscripts back again and again, don't despair, nor think the editor +cruel and unkind. He, too, has troubles of his own. Keep up your spirits +until you have made the final test and put your talents to a last analysis, +then if you find you cannot get into print be sure that newspaper writing +or literary work is not your _forte_, and turn to something else. If +nothing better presents itself, try shoemaking or digging ditches. +Remember honest labor, no matter how humble, is ever dignified. If you +are a woman throw aside the pen, sit down and darn your brother's, your +father's, or your husband's socks, or put on a calico apron, take soap +and water and scrub the floor. No matter who you are do something useful. +That old sophistry about the world owing you a living has been exploded +long ago. The world does not owe you a living, but you owe it servitude, +and if you do not pay the debt you are not serving the purpose of an +all-wise Providence and filling the place for which you were created. It +is for you to serve the world, to make it better, brighter, higher, holier, +grander, nobler, richer, for your having lived in it. This you can do in +no matter what position fortune has cast you, whether it be that of +street laborer or president. Fight the good fight and gain the victory. + + "Above all, to thine own self be true, + And 'twill follow as the night the + day, Thou canst not then be false to any man." + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +CHOICE OF WORDS + +Small Words--Their Importance--The Anglo-Saxon Element + + +In another place in this book advice has been given to never use a long +word when a short one will serve the same purpose. This advice is to be +emphasized. Words of "learned length and thundering sound" should be +avoided on all possible occasions. They proclaim shallowness of intellect +and vanity of mind. The great purists, the masters of diction, the +exemplars of style, used short, simple words that all could understand; +words about which there could be no ambiguity as to meaning. It must be +remembered that by our words we teach others; therefore, a very great +responsibility rests upon us in regard to the use of a right language. We +must take care that we think and speak in a way so clear that there may +be no misapprehension or danger of conveying wrong impressions by vague +and misty ideas enunciated in terms which are liable to be misunderstood +by those whom we address. Words give a body or form to our ideas, without +which they are apt to be so foggy that we do not see where they are weak +or false. We must make the endeavor to employ such words as will put the +idea we have in our own mind into the mind of another. This is the +greatest art in the world--to clothe our ideas in words clear and +comprehensive to the intelligence of others. It is the art which the +teacher, the minister, the lawyer, the orator, the business man, must +master if they would command success in their various fields of endeavor. +It is very hard to convey an idea to, and impress it on, another when he +has but a faint conception of the language in which the idea is expressed; +but it is impossible to convey it at all when the words in which it is +clothed are unintelligible to the listener. + +If we address an audience of ordinary men and women in the English +language, but use such words as they cannot comprehend, we might as well +speak to them in Coptic or Chinese, for they will derive no benefit from +our address, inasmuch as the ideas we wish to convey are expressed in +words which communicate no intelligent meaning to their minds. + +Long words, learned words, words directly derived from other languages +are only understood by those who have had the advantages of an extended +education. All have not had such advantages. The great majority in this +grand and glorious country of ours have to hustle for a living from an +early age. Though education is free, and compulsory also, very many never +get further than the "Three R's." These are the men with whom we have to +deal most in the arena of life, the men with the horny palms and the iron +muscles, the men who build our houses, construct our railroads, drive our +street cars and trains, till our fields, harvest our crops--in a word, +the men who form the foundation of all society, the men on whom the world +depends to make its wheels go round. The language of the colleges and +universities is not for them and they can get along very well without it; +they have no need for it at all in their respective callings. The plain, +simple words of everyday life, to which the common people have been used +around their own firesides from childhood, are the words we must use in +our dealings with them. + +Such words are understood by them and understood by the learned as well; +why then not use them universally and all the time? Why make a one-sided +affair of language by using words which only one class of the people, the +so-called learned class, can understand? Would it not be better to use, +on all occasions, language which the both classes can understand? If we +take the trouble to investigate we shall find that the men who exerted +the greatest sway over the masses and the multitude as orators, lawyers, +preachers and in other public capacities, were men who used very simple +language. Daniel Webster was among the greatest orators this country has +produced. He touched the hearts of senates and assemblages, of men and +women with the burning eloquence of his words. He never used a long word +when he could convey the same, or nearly the same, meaning with a short +one. When he made a speech he always told those who put it in form for +the press to strike out every long word. Study his speeches, go over all +he ever said or wrote, and you will find that his language was always +made up of short, clear, strong terms, although at times, for the sake of +sound and oratorical effect, he was compelled to use a rather long word, +but it was always against his inclination to do so, and where was the man +who could paint, with words, as Webster painted! He could picture things +in a way so clear that those who heard him felt that they had seen that +of which he spoke. + +Abraham Lincoln was another who stirred the souls of men, yet he was not +an orator, not a scholar; he did not write M.A. or Ph.D. after his name, +or any other college degree, for he had none. He graduated from the +University of Hard Knocks, and he never forgot this severe _Alma Mater_ +when he became President of the United States. He was just as plain, I +just as humble, as in the days when he split rails or plied a boat on the +Sangamon. He did not use big words, but he used the words of the people, +and in such a way as to make them beautiful. His Gettysburg address is an +English classic, one of the great masterpieces of the language. + +From the mere fact that a word is short it does not follow that it is +always clear, but it is true that nearly all clear words are short, and +that most of the long words, especially those which we get from other +languages, are misunderstood to a great extent by the ordinary rank and +file of the people. Indeed, it is to be doubted if some of the "scholars" +using them, fully understand their import on occasions. A great many such +words admit of several interpretations. A word has to be in use a great +deal before people get thoroughly familiar with its meaning. Long words, +not alone obscure thought and make the ideas hazy, but at times they tend +to mix up things in such a way that positively harmful results follow +from their use. + +For instance, crime can be so covered with the folds of long words as to +give it a different appearance. Even the hideousness of sin can be cloaked +with such words until its outlines look like a thing of beauty. When a bank +cashier makes off with a hundred thousand dollars we politely term his +crime _defalcation_ instead of plain _theft_, and instead of calling +himself a _thief_ we grandiosely allude to him as a _defaulter_. When we +see a wealthy man staggering along a fashionable thoroughfare under the +influence of alcohol, waving his arms in the air and shouting boisterously, +we smile and say, poor gentleman, he is somewhat _exhilarated_; or at worst +we say, he is slightly _inebriated_; but when we see a poor man who has +fallen from grace by putting an "enemy into his mouth to steal away his +brain" we express our indignation in the simple language of the words: +"Look at the wretch; he is dead drunk." + +When we find a person in downright lying we cover the falsehood with the +finely-spun cloak of the word _prevarication_. Shakespeare says, "a rose +by any other name would smell as sweet," and by a similar sequence, a +lie, no matter by what name you may call it, is always a lie and should +be condemned; then why not simply call it a lie? Mean what you say and +say what you mean; call a spade a spade, it is the best term you can +apply to the implement. + +When you try to use short words and shun long ones in a little while you +will find that you can do so with ease. A farmer was showing a horse to a +city-bred gentleman. The animal was led into a paddock in which an old +sow-pig was rooting. "What a fine quadruped!" exclaimed the city man. + +"Which of the two do you mean, the pig or the horse?" queried the farmer, +"for, in my opinion, both of them are fine quadrupeds." + +Of course the visitor meant the horse, so it would have been much better +had he called the animal by its simple; ordinary name--, there would have +been no room for ambiguity in his remark. He profited, however, by the +incident, and never called a horse a quadruped again. + +Most of the small words, the simple words, the beautiful words which +express so much within small bounds belong to the pure Anglo-Saxon element +of our language. This element has given names to the heavenly bodies, the +sun, moon and stars; to three out of the four elements, earth, fire and +water; three out of the four seasons, spring, summer and winter. Its simple +words are applied to all the natural divisions of time, except one, as day, +night, morning, evening, twilight, noon, mid-day, midnight, sunrise and +sunset. The names of light, heat, cold, frost, rain, snow, hail, sleet, +thunder, lightning, as well as almost all those objects which form the +component parts of the beautiful, as expressed in external scenery, such as +sea and land, hill and dale, wood and stream, etc., are Anglo-Saxon. To +this same language we are indebted for those words which express the +earliest and dearest connections, and the strongest and most powerful +feelings of Nature, and which, as a consequence, are interwoven with the +fondest and most hallowed associations. Of such words are father, mother, +husband, wife, brother, sister, son, daughter, child, home, kindred, +friend, hearth, roof and fireside. + +The chief emotions of which we are susceptible are expressed in the same +language--love, hope, fear, sorrow, shame, and also the outward signs by +which these emotions are indicated, as tear, smile, laugh, blush, weep, +sigh, groan. Nearly all our national proverbs are Anglo-Saxon. Almost all +the terms and phrases by which we most energetically express anger, +contempt and indignation are of the same origin. + +What are known as the Smart Set and so-called polite society, are +relegating a great many of our old Anglo-Saxon words into the shade, +faithful friends who served their ancestors well. These self-appointed +arbiters of diction regard some of the Anglo-Saxon words as too coarse, too +plebeian for their aesthetic tastes and refined ears, so they are +eliminating them from their vocabulary and replacing them with mongrels of +foreign birth and hybrids of unknown origin. For the ordinary people, +however, the man in the street or in the field, the woman in the kitchen or +in the factory, they are still tried and true and, like old friends, should +be cherished and preferred to all strangers, no matter from what source the +latter may spring. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +ENGLISH LANGUAGE + +Beginning--Different Sources--The Present + + +The English language is the tongue now current in England and her colonies +throughout the world and also throughout the greater part of the United +States of America. It sprang from the German tongue spoken by the Teutons, +who came over to Britain after the conquest of that country by the Romans. +These Teutons comprised Angles, Saxons, Jutes and several other tribes +from the northern part of Germany. They spoke different dialects, but +these became blended in the new country, and the composite tongue came to +be known as the Anglo-Saxon which has been the main basis for the language +as at present constituted and is still the prevailing element. Therefore +those who are trying to do away with some of the purely Anglo-Saxon +words, on the ground that they are not refined enough to express their +aesthetic ideas, are undermining main props which are necessary for the +support of some important parts in the edifice of the language. + +The Anglo-Saxon element supplies the essential parts of speech, the +article, pronoun of all kinds, the preposition, the auxiliary verbs, the +conjunctions, and the little particles which bind words into sentences and +form the joints, sinews and ligaments of the language. It furnishes the +most indispensable words of the vocabulary. (See Chap. XIII.) Nowhere is +the beauty of Anglo-Saxon better illustrated than in the Lord's Prayer. +Fifty-four words are pure Saxon and the remaining ones could easily be +replaced by Saxon words. The gospel of St. John is another illustration of +the almost exclusive use of Anglo-Saxon words. Shakespeare, at his best, is +Anglo-Saxon. Here is a quotation from the _Merchant of Venice_, and of the +fifty-five words fifty-two are Anglo-Saxon, the remaining three French: + + All that glitters is not gold-- + Often have you heard that told; + Many a man his life hath sold, + But my outside to behold. + Guilded _tombs_ do worms infold. + Had you been as wise as bold, + Young in limbs, in _judgment_ old, + Your answer had not been inscrolled-- + Fare you well, your _suit_ is cold. + +The lines put into the mouth of Hamlet's father in fierce intenseness, +second only to Dante's inscription on the gate of hell, have one hundred +and eight Anglo-Saxon and but fifteen Latin words. + +The second constituent element of present English is Latin which comprises +those words derived directly from the old Roman and those which came +indirectly through the French. The former were introduced by the Roman +Christians, who came to England at the close of the sixth century under +Augustine, and relate chiefly to ecclesiastical affairs, such as saint from +_sanctus_, religion from _religio_, chalice from _calix_, mass from +_missa_, etc. Some of them had origin in Greek, as priest from _presbyter_, +which in turn was a direct derivative from the Greek _presbuteros_, also +deacon from the Greek _diakonos_. + +The largest class of Latin words are those which came through the +Norman-French, or Romance. The Normans had adopted, with the Christian +religion, the language, laws and arts of the Romanized Gauls and Romanized +Franks, and after a residence of more than a century in France they +successfully invaded England in 1066 under William the Conqueror and a new +era began. The French Latinisms can be distinguished by the spelling. Thus +Saviour comes from the Latin _Salvator_ through the French _Sauveur_; +judgment from the Latin _judiclum_ through the French _jugement_; people, +from the Latin _populus_, through the French _peuple_, etc. + +For a long time the Saxon and Norman tongues refused to coalesce and were +like two distinct currents flowing in different directions. Norman was +spoken by the lords and barons in their feudal castles, in parliament and +in the courts of justice. Saxon by the people in their rural homes, fields +and workshops. For more than three hundred years the streams flowed apart, +but finally they blended, taking in the Celtic and Danish elements, and as +a result came the present English language with its simple system of +grammatical inflection and its rich vocabulary. + +The father of English prose is generally regarded as Wycliffe, who +translated the Bible in 1380, while the paternal laurels in the secular +poetical field are twined around the brows of Chaucer. + +Besides the Germanic and Romanic, which constitute the greater part of +the English language, many other tongues have furnished their quota. Of +these the Celtic is perhaps the oldest. The Britons at Caesar's invasion, +were a part of the Celtic family. The Celtic idiom is still spoken in two +dialects, the Welsh in Wales, and the Gaelic in Ireland and the Highlands +of Scotland. The Celtic words in English, are comparatively few; cart, +dock, wire, rail, rug, cradle, babe, grown, griddle, lad, lass, are some +in most common use. + +The Danish element dates from the piratical invasions of the ninth and +tenth centuries. It includes anger, awe, baffle, bang, bark, bawl, +blunder, boulder, box, club, crash, dairy, dazzle, fellow, gable, gain, +ill, jam, kidnap, kill, kidney, kneel, limber, litter, log, lull, lump, +mast, mistake, nag, nasty, niggard, horse, plough, rug, rump, sale, +scald, shriek, skin, skull, sledge, sleigh, tackle, tangle, tipple, +trust, viking, window, wing, etc. + +From the Hebrew we have a large number of proper names from Adam and Eve +down to John and Mary and such words as Messiah, rabbi, hallelujah, +cherub, seraph, hosanna, manna, satan, Sabbath, etc. + +Many technical terms and names of branches of learning come from the Greek. +In fact, nearly all the terms of learning and art, from the alphabet to the +highest peaks of metaphysics and theology, come directly from the Greek-- +philosophy, logic, anthropology, psychology, aesthetics, grammar, +rhetoric, history, philology, mathematics, arithmetic, astronomy, anatomy, +geography, stenography, physiology, architecture, and hundreds more in +similar domains; the subdivisions and ramifications of theology as +exegesis, hermeneutics, apologetics, polemics, dogmatics, ethics, +homiletics, etc., are all Greek. + +The Dutch have given us some modern sea terms, as sloop, schooner, yacht +and also a number of others as boom, bush, boor, brandy, duck, reef, +skate, wagon. The Dutch of Manhattan island gave us boss, the name for +employer or overseer, also cold slaa (cut cabbage and vinegar), and a +number of geographical terms. + +Many of our most pleasing euphonic words, especially in the realm of +music, have been given to us directly from the Italian. Of these are +piano, violin, orchestra, canto, allegro, piazza, gazette, umbrella, +gondola, bandit, etc. + +Spanish has furnished us with alligator, alpaca, bigot, cannibal, cargo, +filibuster, freebooter, guano, hurricane, mosquito, negro, stampede, +potato, tobacco, tomato, tariff, etc. + +From Arabic we have several mathematical, astronomical, medical and +chemical terms as alcohol, alcove, alembic, algebra, alkali, almanac, +assassin, azure, cipher, elixir, harem, hegira, sofa, talisman, zenith +and zero. + +Bazaar, dervish, lilac, pagoda, caravan, scarlet, shawl, tartar, tiara +and peach have come to us from the Persian. + +Turban, tulip, divan and firman are Turkish. + +Drosky, knout, rouble, steppe, ukase are Russian. + +The Indians have helped us considerably and the words they have given us +are extremely euphonic as exemplified in the names of many of our rivers +and States, as Mississippi, Missouri, Minnehaha, Susquehanna, Monongahela, +Niagara, Ohio, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Iowa, Nebraska, Dakota, etc. In +addition to these proper names we have from the Indians wigwam, squaw, +hammock, tomahawk, canoe, mocassin, hominy, etc. + +There are many hybrid words in English, that is, words, springing from two +or more different languages. In fact, English has drawn from all sources, +and it is daily adding to its already large family, and not alone is it +adding to itself, but it is spreading all over the world and promises to +take in the entire human family beneath its folds ere long. It is the +opinion of many that English, in a short time, will become the universal +language. It is now being taught as a branch of the higher education in the +best colleges and universities of Europe and in all commercial cities in +every land throughout the world. In Asia it follows the British sway and +the highways of commerce through the vast empire of East India with its two +hundred and fifty millions of heathen and Mohammedan inhabitants. It is +largely used in the seaports of Japan and China, and the number of natives +of these countries who are learning it is increasing every day. It is +firmly established in South Africa, Liberia, Sierra Leone, and in many of +the islands of the Indian and South Seas. It is the language of Australia, +New Zealand, Tasmania, and Christian missionaries are introducing it into +all the islands of Polynesia. It may be said to be the living commercial +language of the North American continent, from Baffin's Bay to the Gulf of +Mexico, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and it is spoken largely in +many of the republics of South America. It is not limited by parallels of +latitude, or meridians of longitude. The two great English-speaking +countries, England and the United States, are disseminating it north, +south, east and west over the entire world. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +MASTERS AND MASTERPIECES OF LITERATURE + +Great Authors--Classification--The World's Best Books. + + +The Bible is the world's greatest book. Apart from its character as a work +of divine revelation, it is the most perfect literature extant. + +Leaving out the Bible the three greatest works are those of Homer, Dante +and Shakespeare. These are closely followed by the works of Virgil and +Milton. + + +INDISPENSABLE BOOKS + +Homer, Dante, Cervantes, Shakespeare and Goethe. + +(The best translation of _Homer_ for the ordinary reader is by Chapman. +Norton's translation of _Dante_ and Taylor's translation of Goethe's +_Faust_ are recommended.) + + +A GOOD LIBRARY + +Besides the works mentioned everyone should endeavor to have the following: + +_Plutarch's Lives_, _Meditations of Marcus Aurelius_, _Chaucer_, _Imitation +of Christ_ (Thomas a Kempis), _Holy Living and Holy Dying_ (Jeremy Taylor), +_Pilgrim's Progress, Macaulay's Essays, Bacon's Essays, Addison's Essays, +Essays of Elia_ (Charles Lamb), _Les Miserables_ (Hugo), _Heroes and Hero +Worship_ (Carlyle), _Palgrave's Golden Treasury_, _Wordsworth_, _Vicar of +Wakefield_, _Adam Bede_ (George Eliot), _Vanity Fair_ (Thackeray), +_Ivanhoe_ (Scott), _On the Heights_ (Auerbach), _Eugenie Grandet_ (Balzac), +_Scarlet Letter_ (Hawthorne), _Emerson's Essays_, _Boswell's Life of +Johnson_, _History of the English People_ (Green), _Outlines of Universal +History, Origin of Species, Montaigne's Essays, Longfellow, Tennyson, +Browning, Whittier, Ruskin, Herbert Spencer_. + +A good encyclopoedia is very desirable and a reliable dictionary +indispensable. + + +MASTERPIECES OF AMERICAN LITERATURE + +_Scarlet Letter, Parkman's Histories, Motley's Dutch Republic, Grant's +Memoirs, Franklin's Autobiography, Webster's Speeches, Lowell's Bigelow +Papers_, also his _Critical Essays_, _Thoreau's Walden_, _Leaves of Grass_ +(Whitman), _Leather-stocking Tales_ (Cooper), _Autocrat of the Breakfast +Table_, _Ben Hur_ and _Uncle Tom's Cabin_. + + +TEN GREATEST AMERICAN POETS + +Bryant, Poe, Whittier, Longfellow, Lowell, Emerson, Whitman, Lanier, +Aldrich and Stoddard. + + +TEN GREATEST ENGLISH POETS + +Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare, Milton, Burns, Wordsworth, Keats, Shelley, +Tennyson, Browning. + + +TEN GREATEST ENGLISH ESSAYISTS + +Bacon, Addison, Steele, Macaulay, Lamb, Jeffrey, De Quincey, Carlyle, +Thackeray and Matthew Arnold. + + +BEST PLAYS OF SHAKESPEARE + +In order of merit are: _Hamlet_, _King Lear_, _Othello_, _Antony and +Cleopatra_, _Macbeth_, _Merchant of Venice_, _Henry IV_, _As You Like It_, +_Winter's Tale_, _Romeo and Juliet_, _Midsummer Night's Dream_, _Twelfth +Night_, _Tempest_. + + +ONLY THE GOOD + +If you are not able to procure a library of the great masterpieces, get +at least a few. Read them carefully, intelligently and with a view to +enlarging your own literary horizon. Remember a good book cannot be read +too often, one of a deteriorating influence should not be read at all. +In literature, as in all things else, the good alone should prevail. + + + + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's How to Speak and Write Correctly, by Joseph Devlin + +Poster's Note: the words "encyclopoedia", "insiduously", and "Synechdoche" +are thus in the original printing, aa are the spaces between "B. A." &c. +"Insiduously" and "Synechdoche" are valid variant spellings. + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO SPEAK AND WRITE *** + +This file should be named 6409.txt or 6409.zip + +Produced by Tom Allen, Charles Franks +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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