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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d9a3546 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #63830 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/63830) diff --git a/old/63830-0.txt b/old/63830-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index c1c19b5..0000000 --- a/old/63830-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,16141 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Medical Jurisprudence, Volume 2 (of 3), by -John Ayrton Paris and John Samuel Martin Fonblanque - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Medical Jurisprudence, Volume 2 (of 3) - -Author: John Ayrton Paris - John Samuel Martin Fonblanque - -Release Date: November 21, 2020 [EBook #63830] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, VOLUME 2 *** - - - - -Produced by Sonya Schermann and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - Transcriber’s Note - - -When italics were used in the original book, the corresponding text has -been surrounded by _underscores_. - -Some corrections have been made to the printed text. These are listed in -a second transcriber’s note at the end of the text. - - - - - MEDICAL - - JURISPRUDENCE. - - - --------------------- - - - BY - - J. A. PARIS, M.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. - FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS; - - AND - - J. S. M. FONBLANQUE, ESQ. - BARRISTER AT LAW. - - -------------------------------------------------- - -“Hæc est illa amica Imperantiam atque Medentium conspiratio, qua -effectum est, ut aliquo veluti connubio Medicina ac Jurisprudentia inter -se jungerentur.” - - _Hebenstreit Anthropolog: Forens:_ - - -------------------------------------------------- - - IN THREE VOLUMES. - - VOL. II. - - --------------------- - - LONDON: - - PRINTED & PUBLISHED BY W. PHILLIPS, GEORGE YARD, LOMBARD STREET; - SOLD ALSO BY T. & G. UNDERWOOD, AND S. HIGHLEY, FLEET STREET; - AND W. & C. TAIT, EDINBURGH. - - 1823. - - - - - Medical Jurisprudence. - - PART III _continued_. - -3. _Of Homicide generally._—4. _Of Real and Apparent Death._—5. _Of the - Physiological Causes, and Phenomena of Sudden Death._—6. _Of - Syncope._—7. _Of Suffocation, by Drowning, Hanging, and other - causes._—8. _Death by exposure to Cold—Heat—Lightning—Starvation._—9. - _Application of the Physiological Facts established in the preceding - chapters, to the general treatment of Asphyxia._—10. _Of the Coroner’s - Inquest._—11. _Suicide._—12. _Of Murder generally—by Wounding or - Blows—by Poisoning._—13. _Of Poisons, Chemically, Physiologically, and - Pathologically considered._—14. _Of Homicide, by Misadventure or - Accident._—15. _A Synopsis of the Objects of Inquiry in Cases of - sudden and mysterious Sickness and Death,—Commentary thereon, - including practical rules for Dissection._—16. _Abortion and - Infanticide—with Physiological Illustrations._—17. _Of Criminal - Responsibility, and Pleas in bar of Execution._—18. _Of - Punishments._—19. _Postscript._ - - - - - 3. OF HOMICIDE GENERALLY. - - -To aid the administration of justice in cases of homicide is not only -the most useful, but the most frequent, application of medical -jurisprudence; this subject, as well for its complexity as for its -importance, must be subdivided into many heads. It is first necessary -that the medical practitioner should determine by examination, -inspection, or dissection, whether the matter ought to be referred to -the criminal tribunals, or whether the decease of the party is to be -attributed to any of those natural causes, which are generally classed -as “Death by the Visitation of God.” In some instances this examination -will take place in aid of the coroner’s inquest, in others it will be -preparatory to it; in both cases it is equally important that it should -be minutely, faithfully, and ably conducted; for it is on the medical -report that the first impressions will be founded, and the prejudices -created by it in the public mind may not easily be effaced by any -subsequent investigation. If, however, it be determined that the cause -of death has been violent, it is then necessary to enquire to which of -the classes of homicide the act is to be attributed. - -“Homicide, properly so called, is either against a man’s own life, or -that of another.” 1 _Hawk. P. C._ 102. - -The first offence constitutes the crime of suicide or _felo de se_. - -The second has many varieties; it may be justifiable, excusable, or -wilful; and this last again, may be with, or without, malice prepense, -which constitutes the difference between manslaughter and murder; both -are felony, the one with,[1] the other without, the benefit of clergy; -to these and their numerous subdivisions we shall separately direct the -attention of our reader; having first, by a general view of the -physiology of death, and some practical observations on the best modes -of investigation, prepared the way for a minuter examination of many of -those various modes of destruction to which human life is liable. - - - - - OF REAL AND APPARENT DEATH. - - -If life be defined, that power by which organized beings are enabled to -resist the physical and chemical operation of surrounding agents, it -follows that death must be marked by the occurrence of those phenomena -to which the elective attractions, no longer suspended or controlled, -will necessarily give rise; hence putrefaction has been considered by -many authors as the only certain sign of dissolution; unfortunately, -however, this process of decomposition does not immediately display its -agency by visible effects; the countenance has remained unchanged for a -considerable time after death, and cases have occurred in which its -colour and complexion have not only been preserved, but even heightened. -This difference in the celerity with which the body putrefies did not -escape the observation of the ancients, and like every other mysterious -occurrence, was attributed by them to divine interposition; we -accordingly find that their poets mentioned those who preserved the -appearance of freshness after death, as favoured persons, who had fallen -by the gentle darts of Apollo and Diana; thus Hecuba[2] declares that -Hector, although dead for twelve days, still remains fresh, like one who -had died by the hands of Apollo. On the other hand, in certain morbid -states of the living frame, so feebly do the powers of life resist the -operation of physical agents, that if the body cannot be said actually -to enter into a state of putrefaction, it may at least assume -appearances so analogous as to be mistaken for it. The test of death, -therefore, must rather be sought for amongst those signs which indicate -the quiescence, or cessation of the functions of life, than from those -which manifest the decomposition of the organs by which they are -performed; and here again it may be imagined that no difficulty or -fallacy can occur; the total cessation of respiration, pulsation, -sensation, and all motion, it might be supposed, would indicate to the -least experienced the departure of life, while the general aspect of the -body, its pale and livid hue, the coldness of its surface, and the -stiffness of its limbs, we might conclude were signs so palpable and -satisfactory as to defy the possibility of doubt. To the skilful medical -practitioner we apprehend such signs must ever be unequivocal; but we -are not prepared to say that a common observer may not be sometimes -deceived by them; in cases of extreme debility, as in the latter stage -of fever, and where the patient is confined in vitiated air, the -exhaustion may be so considerable as to lend all the appearance of -death; indeed that such cases have occurred we have no less a testimony -than that of the philanthropic _Howard_, who, in his work on Prisons, -says, “I have known instances where persons supposed to be dead of the -gaol fever, and brought out for burial, on being washed with cold water, -have shewn signs of life, and soon afterwards recovered.” _Hippocrates_, -in his Epidemics, also mentions the case of a woman who, being in -appearance dead, from fever, was recovered by throwing thirty amphoræ of -cold water over her body. _Diemerbroeck_[3] relates the case of a rustic -who having appeared to die of the plague, discovered after three days no -signs of respiration, but, on being carried to the grave, recovered and -lived many years afterwards; and _Paul Zacchias_ relates an analagous -case which occurred at the hospital of _Santo Spirito_ at Rome. At a -period when the small-pox raged with such epidemic fury, and physicians -so greatly aggravated its violence by their stimulating plan of cure, -there can be no doubt but that many persons were condemned as dead who -afterwards recovered; amongst the numerous cases that might be cited in -support of this opinion, the following may be considered as well -authenticated: the daughter of _Henry Laurens_, the first President of -the American congress, when an infant, was laid out as dead, in the -small-pox; upon which the window of the apartment, that had been -carefully closed during the progress of the disease, was thrown open to -ventilate the chamber, when the fresh air revived the supposed corpse, -and restored her to her family; this circumstance occasioned in the -father so powerful a dread of living interment, that he directed by will -that his body should be burnt, and enjoined on his children the -performance of this wish as a sacred duty. - -We can also imagine, that women, after the exhaustion consequent on -severe and protracted labours, may lie for some time in a state so like -that of death, as to deceive the by-standers; a very extraordinary case -of this kind is related in the _Journal des Sçavans_, Janvier 1749. - -_Dr. Gordon Smith_, in his work on Forensic Medicine, has observed that -in cases of precipitancy or confusion, as in times of public sickness, -the living have not unfrequently been mingled with the dead, and that in -warm climates, where speedy interment is more necessary than in -temperate and cold countries, persons have even been entombed alive; we -feel no hesitation in believing that such an event may be possible; but -the very case with which the author illustrates his position is -sufficient to convince us that its occurrence would be highly culpable, -and could only arise from the most unpardonable inattention; “I was” -says _Dr. Smith_, “an eye witness of an instance in a celebrated city on -the continent, where a poor woman, yet alive, was solemnly ushered to -the margin of the grave in broad day, and whose interment would have -deliberately taken place, but for the interposition of the by-standers;” -if the casual observer was thus able to detect the signs of animation, -the case is hardly one that should have been adduced to shew the -difficulty of deciding between real and apparent death. Many other -illustrations might be adduced, but it is not our intention to amuse the -reader with a relation of those numerous _nugæ canoræ_ that enliven -several popular productions on the subject of _trances_, premature -interments, and extraordinary resuscitations; the public have always -betrayed a morbid curiosity upon the subject, and the stories of persons -buried alive have ever found a ready access to our credulity, as well as -to our compassion. - -Amongst the different anecdotes which have been brought forward in -support of the popular belief in the frequency of living interment, and -in proof of the fallacy of those signs which are commonly received as -the unerring indications of death, we read of numerous instances where -the knife of the anatomist has proved the means of resuscitating the -supposed corpse; _Philippe Peu_, the celebrated French accoucheur, -relates, himself, the case of a woman, upon whose supposed corpse he -proceeded to perform the cæsarean section, when the first incision -betrayed the awful fallacy under which he operated; the history of the -unfortunate _Vesalius_, physician to Philip II. of Spain, furnishes -another instance, upon which considerable stress has been laid; upon -dissecting a Spanish gentleman, it is said that on opening the thorax -the heart was found palpitating; for which he was brought before the -inquisition, and would probably have suffered its most severe judgment, -had not the king interceded in his behalf, and obtained for him the -privilege of expiating his offence by a pilgrimage to the Holy Land.[4] - -_M. Bruhier_[5] also relates a case on the authority of _M. l’Abbé -Menon_, of a young woman who was restored by the first incision of the -anatomist’s scalpel, and lived many years afterwards. With respect to -the instance of _Vesalius_ we would make this general observation, which -will probably apply to most of the cases on record; that the movements -which have been observed on such occasions are not to be received as -demonstrations of life, they merely arise from a degree of muscular -irritability which often lingers for many hours after dissolution, and -which, on its apparent cessation, may be even re-excited by the -application of galvanic stimuli. - -But there is a propensity in the human mind to believe in these horrors, -because between credulity and fear there is an inherent affinity and -alliance; and it may be very safely asserted, that there is nothing of -which we have a greater instinctive horror,[6] than of any force by -which our voluntary exertions are totally repressed; hence it is, as -_Cuvier_ has remarked, that the poetic fictions best calculated to -insure our sympathy, are those which represent sentient beings inclosed -within immoveable bodies; the sighs of Clorinda issuing, with her blood, -from the trunk of the cypress, as related in the fable of Tasso, would -arrest the fury of the most savage mortal; and the sufferings which -attended the confinement of Ariel, by the witch _Sycorax_, within the -rift of a cloven pine, are described by Prospero as being of so pitiable -a description as to move the sympathy of the very beasts of the forest. - - --------“She did confine thee, - By help of her more potent ministers, - And in her most unmitigable rage, - Into a cloven pine; within which rift - Imprison’d, thou didst painfully remain - A dozen years.” - - --------------“Thou best knows’t - What torment I did find thee in: thy groans - Did make wolves howl, and penetrate the breasts - Of ever-angry bears; it was a torment - To lay upon the damn’d.” - - _Tempest_, _Act_ i, _s._ 2. - -The author of the present chapter had once an opportunity of witnessing -a most striking manifestation of the popular feeling to which he has -just alluded; a sailor, who had died suddenly on board a vessel in -Mount’s Bay, was sent on shore for interment on the same evening: this -indecent haste in consigning the yet warm corpse of a human being to the -grave, excited a very strong and natural feeling in those to whom the -fact was communicated; in a few hours the knowledge of the circumstance -became general in the town of Penzance, and imagination which, in cases -that interest the feelings, is always ready to colour each feature with -the hue most congenial to the fancy, soon represented the case as one of -living interment, and by midnight the impression had produced so strong -an effect upon the credulity of the town, that many hundred persons -assembled at the house of the mayor and insisted upon the disinterment -of the body; the author, in his professional capacity, was called upon -to accompany the magistrates in the investigation, which was -accomplished by torch light, amidst an immense concourse of people; the -body was disinterred, when, it is almost needless to add, that not the -slightest mark was observed that could in the least sanction the popular -belief so readily adopted, and enthusiastically maintained. - -Within the last few years a singular and unphilosophical work[7] has -appeared from the pen of a learned divine, which is well calculated to -cherish the public credulity upon the subject under discussion, and to -excite many groundless alarms, as well as unjust expectations, -respecting the possibility of latent life; the reverend author, it must -be confessed, has furnished a practical proof of his talents in his -favourite art of resuscitation, by recalling into life the numerous idle -tales, and superstitious histories, that we had hoped had long since -been for ever consigned to the “tombs of all the Capulets.” The -histories of persons having been buried alive, or recovered after -apparent death, are not, however, confined to the annals of modern -times; we are informed by _Diogenes Laertius_ that _Empedocles_ acquired -great fame for restoring a woman, supposed to be dead, from a paroxysm -of hysteria; and _Pliny_, in his Natural History, devotes a chapter to -the subject, under the title of “_De his qui elati revixerunt_[8];” in -which an interesting case is related of _Avicola_, whose body was -brought out and placed on the funeral pile, the flames of which are said -to have resuscitated the unhappy victim, but too late to allow it to be -rescued from its powers; but such cases merely go to shew that the -common observer may be deceived. We feel no hesitation in asserting that -it is physiologically impossible for a human being to remain more than a -few minutes in such a state of asphyxia, as not to betray some sign by -which a medical observer can at once recognise the existence of -vitality, for if the respiration be only suspended for a short interval, -we may conclude that life has fled for ever; of all the acts of animal -life this is by far the most essential and indispensable; _breath_ and -_life_ are very properly considered in the scriptures as convertible -terms, and the same synonym, as far as we know, prevails in every -language.[9] However slow and feeble respiration may become by disease, -yet it must always be perceptible, provided the naked breast and belly -be exposed; for when the intercostal muscles act, the ribs are elevated, -and the sternum is pushed forward; when the diaphragm acts, the abdomen -swells; now this can never escape the attentive eye, and by looking at -the chest and belly we shall form a safer conclusion than by the popular -methods which have been usually adopted, such as the placing a vessel of -water on the thorax, in order to judge by the stillness or agitation of -the fluid; or holding the surface of a mirror before the mouth, which, -by condensing the aqueous vapour of the breath, is supposed to denote -the existence of respiration, although too feeble to be recognised in -any other way. - - ----“Lend me a looking-glass; - If that her breath will mist or stain the stone, - Why, then she lives.” - - _Lear_, _Act_ v, _s._ iii. - -For the same purpose, light down, or any flocculent substance, from the -extreme facility with which it is moved, has been supposed capable of -furnishing a similar indication; but the result must not be received as -an unequivocal proof, and accordingly _Shakspeare_, with that knowledge -and judgment which so pre-eminently distinguish him, has represented -_Prince Henry_ as having been thus deluded, when he carried off the -crown from the pillow of _Henry_ the _Fourth_— - - --------------“By his gates of breath - There lies a downy feather, which stirs not. - Did he suspire, that light and weightless down - Perchance must move.” - -With respect to the above tests it may be remarked, that an -imperceptible current of air may agitate the light down, and thus -simulate the effects of respiration, while an exhalation, totally -unconnected with that function, may sully the surface of a mirror held -before the mouth; on the other hand, we have learnt from experience that -mirrors have been applied to persons in a state of mere syncope without -being in the least tarnished. - -Having thus considered the value of the tests of respiration, we shall -proceed to appreciate those which have been considered as furnishing no -less certain indications of death. The absence of the circulation, the -impossibility of feeling the pulsations of the heart and arteries have -been regarded as infallible means of deciding whether the individual be -dead; but it is proved beyond all doubt that a person may live for -several hours without its being possible to perceive the slightest -movement in the parts just mentioned. It has been thought also, says -_Orfila_, that an individual was dead when he was cold, and that he -still lived if the warmth of the body was preserved; there is perhaps no -sign of so little value; the drowned who may be recalled to life, are -usually very cold; whilst in cases of apoplexy, and some other fatal -diseases, a certain degree of warmth is preserved even for a long period -after death. Stiffness of the body is another sign of death upon which -great reliance has been placed; but as it sometimes happens that it -exists during life, it becomes necessary to point out the difference -between the stiffness of death, and that which occurs during life, in -certain diseases. For the following observations upon this subject we -acknowledge ourselves indebted to the judicious treatise of _Orfila_. - -1. Stiffness may be very considerable in a person who has been frozen, - who is not yet dead, and who may even be recalled to life. This - stiffness cannot be confounded with that which is the inevitable - result of death, because it is known that the body has been exposed to - the action of severe cold, and above all because it is very general; - in fact, the skin, breasts, the belly, and all the organs may possess - the same rigidity as the muscles, a circumstance not observable in - _cadaverous_ stiffness, in which the muscles alone present any degree - of resistance; besides, when the skin of a frozen person is depressed, - by pressing forcibly upon it with the finger, a hollow is produced - which is a long time in disappearing. When the position of a frozen - limb is changed, a little noise is heard, caused by the rupture of - particles of ice contained in the displaced part. - -2. The stiffness to which the late _M. Nysten_ has given the name of - _convulsive_, and which sometimes manifests itself in violent nervous - diseases, may be easily distinguished from _cadaverous_ stiffness; - when a limb is stiff in consequence of convulsions, &c. the greatest - difficulty is experienced in changing its direction, and when left, it - immediately resumes its former position; it is not the same in - stiffness from death; the limb, the direction of which has been - changed, does not return to its former position. - -3. The stiffness which occurs in certain forms of _Syncope_, can never - be confounded with _cadaverous_ stiffness; for, in the former case, - the stiffness takes place immediately after the commencement of the - disease, and the trunk preserves a degree of warmth; whereas the - _cadaverous_ stiffness is not observed until some time after death, - and when the heat of the body is no longer evident to the senses. - -If, from a cause which it is not always possible to foresee, the -individual who has been thought dead for a long time be cold and -_flexible_, instead of offering a certain degree of stiffness, and at -the same time if no evidence of putrefaction has as yet displayed -itself, the body ought not to be buried hastily—“_Satius est adhiberi -millies nimiam diligentiam, quam semel omitti necessariam._” - -The cadaverous state of the face, of which _Hippocrates_ has given the -following description, has been regarded as a sign of real death; the -forehead wrinkled and dry, the eye sunken, the nose pointed, and -bordered with a violet or black circle, the temples sunken, hollow, and -retired, the ears sticking up, the lips hanging down, the cheeks sunken, -the chin wrinkled and hard, the colour of the skin leaden or violet, the -hairs of the nose and eye-lashes sprinkled with a kind of yellowish -white dust. It must be admitted that such signs, if taken separately, -are of no value, since they are sometimes observed in patients -twenty-four or forty-eight hours before death; while, on the other hand, -they are often absent in cases of sudden dissolution. The softness, -dimness, and above all, the flaccidity of the globe of the eye have been -considered as very unequivocal in their indication. _Professor -Louis_[10] has offered some remarks upon this subject worthy our notice; -he says that, in the dead, the transparent cornea is commonly covered -with a thin slimy membrane, which breaks in pieces when touched, and is -easily removed by wiping the cornea; but he remarks that some appearance -of it takes place in the eyes of the dying, and also allows that it may -be the result of disease; so much for the value of this sign: the one -which follows appears to us less exceptionable; in a few hours after -death, adds this author, the eyes become soft and flabby, an effect not -to be produced under any circumstances in the living body; we join in -this opinion; but how often does it happen that the globe of the eye -undergoes no alteration in form, until the putrefactive process has been -fully established? - - - - - OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL CAUSES, AND PHŒNOMENA OF SUDDEN DEATH. - - -It has been asserted by _Bichat_[11] that the immediate cause of death, -when it takes place suddenly, must be the cessation of the functions of -the heart, brain, or lungs; although it is sometimes difficult to -determine which of these organs is the first to fail in its action; this -may be well exemplified by the poisonous operation of Arsenic upon the -animal economy, which when introduced into the circulating system will, -according to the valuable experiments of _Mr. Brodie_, occasion stupor -and paralysis, a feeble and intermitting contraction of the heart, and -slow and laborious respiration; but it is found that in some cases, one -order of symptoms will predominate, and be the first to display -themselves, whilst in others, the very contrary will obtain, without -perhaps our being able to assign the immediate cause of such deviations. -There are, moreover, cases of sudden death, in which the principle of -animation would seem to be at once annihilated in every part of the -animal machine, and when every organ appears to be simultaneously -affected, as in that occasioned by the agency of intense cold, and -sometimes, for it is not in every instance, by that of lightning, or -electricity; still, as a general proposition, the aphorism of _Bichat_ -must be admitted; and we shall proceed to investigate the subject of -sudden death, as connected with medico-judicial inquiry, upon principles -deduced from the enlightened views of this distinguished philosopher. To -the able and satisfactory researches of our English physiologist, _Mr. -Brodie_, we are also greatly indebted for a correct notion of the nature -and order of succession, of those events by which life is quickly -extinguished; his attention was many years ago directed to one important -branch of this subject,—to the investigation of that series of changes -produced on living bodies by the operation of poisons, the results of -which were published in the _Philosophical Transactions_,[12] to which -we shall have frequent occasion to refer in the following pages. Since -that period he has diligently pursued the subject in its more extensive -ramifications, and in his lectures, delivered from the anatomical chair -of the College of Surgeons during the last year, he presented a -condensed and philosophical history of the phenomena of death, in -general, in which he elucidated many leading points that were before -obscure, established several propositions that have long been considered -doubtful, and rejected a mass of popular error, which, under the -sanction of authority, has continued to retard our inquiries, and to -embarrass and misguide our practice. The author of the present section -of this work has to acknowledge the kindness and liberality by which he -is enabled to avail himself of these luminous researches, having been -furnished by his friend _Mr. Brodie_ with the manuscript notes from -which the lectures were delivered. - -The organs more immediately necessary to life are, the HEART, which -conveys to every part of the body that fluid, without a constant supply -and change of which, vitality must be speedily exhausted; and the LUNGS, -by whose functions this essential fluid undergoes those unknown changes, -from the action of the atmosphere, which adapt it for the performance of -the important duties to which we have alluded. - -In conformity with these views, the functions of the heart, and their -connection with those of the lungs and brain, very naturally present -themselves as the first objects of physiological inquiry; and there is -certainly no discovery in modern times more interesting in its -relations, and at the same time so useful in practical application, as -that which has determined the nature of the connections between the -functions of respiration and the motions of the heart; and shewn why the -cessation of the former should occasion the destruction of the latter. -The existence of this mysterious connection constituted a subject of -interest and inquiry in the more remote ages, and it will not be -unprofitable to take a review of the different theories which have been -proposed for its explanation. Until the celebrated experiment[13] of -_Hook_, it was supposed that the heart’s motion was maintained by the -alternate contraction and dilatation of the lungs in the act of -breathing; but the extraordinary philosopher above mentioned decided -this point by exposing the thorax of a dog, and separating the pleura -extensively from the external surface of the lungs, and then, by means -of a pair of double bellows, keeping up a constant stream of air through -the air cells; by this contrivance respiration was duly performed, while -the lungs remained motionless, and yet it was found that the vigour of -the heart’s action was not in the least impaired; whereas, if the theory -which _Hook_ undertook to refute, had been founded in truth, the heart, -under such circumstances, must necessarily have become quiescent. _Mr. -Hunter_[14] supposed the existence of a sympathy, or association, -between the motions of the heart and lungs; and the same opinion appears -to have been entertained by _Dr. Currie_[15]; _Dr. Darwin_[16] deduced -the existence of this immediate connection from that general law of the -animal œconomy, by which motions that are frequently repeated in -succession acquire the power of recurring in the same order, -independently of the original exciting cause; “it is thus,” says he, -“that by the stimulus of the blood in the right chamber of the heart the -lungs are induced to expand themselves.” _Dr. Bostock_[17], however, has -very satisfactorily opposed this hypothesis, by observing that in the -fœtus the heart commences its contractions immediately upon its -formation, while the lungs remain perfectly at rest; and that when the -animal leaves the uterus, the motion of the lungs commences, but the -periods of the contraction of the diaphragm bear no determinate ratio to -those of the systole of the heart. - -It was long supposed that the cessation of respiration occasioned that -of the heart’s motion, in consequence of the black blood not having -sufficient power to stimulate its fibres; but does not the right side of -the heart, which, under all circumstances, contains de-oxygenated blood, -contract with a vigour equal to that of the left? It was reserved for -_Bichat_ to offer a true explanation of this phenomenon; he has very -justly stated that, in consequence of the suspension of the respiratory -function, the coronary vessels, by which the muscular structure of the -heart is supplied, are compelled to carry black, instead of scarlet -blood; a fact which in itself is quite adequate to explain the cause of -the heart ceasing to contract; for the irritability of this, like that -of every other muscle, can be alone maintained by duly oxygenized blood. -But it remains to be shewn how the functions of the brain and nervous -system stand related to those of the heart and lungs. Although the -agency of nervous influence is necessarily involved in impenetrable -obscurity, yet we shall not have much difficulty in proving, that _the -brain_[18] _is immediately necessary to life only because the muscles of -respiration owe their action to its influence_. _M. Lallemand_ has -published the history of a fœtus, in which the brain and spinal marrow -were equally deficient, notwithstanding which, it even exceeded the -usual size, the heart was perfect, and it was evident that the -circulation had been properly performed; no sooner, however, was the -monster born than it perished, because the diaphragm and other muscles -of respiration were unable to perform their functions without the aid of -nervous excitement; no air was therefore inhaled into the lungs, and in -a few minutes the heart ceased to contract from the deficient supply of -oxygenized blood. If the phrenic nerves of a quadruped be divided,[19] -the motion of the diaphragm ceases, and the animal breathes by the -motion of the ribs alone, panting and respiring with difficulty and -distress. If the spinal marrow be divided below the origin of the -phrenic nerves in the lower part of the neck, no interruption is given -to the transmission of the nervous influence to the diaphragm, but the -ribs now become motionless, and respiration is performed by the -diaphragm only; if the spinal marrow be divided in the upper part of the -neck, above the origin of the phrenic nerves, the nervous influence is -neither transmitted to the diaphragm, nor to the muscles which produce -the motion of the ribs, and respiration is entirely suspended; under -these circumstances the heart continues to contract for some minutes, -after which it ceases, as there is no supply of blood which has received -the influence of the air, and, consequently, the muscular fibres of the -heart lose their excitability, and the blood is no longer circulated; -if, however, the lungs be artificially inflated, before the action of -the heart has ceased, its motions are continued. The experiment may also -be very satisfactorily varied in the following manner; apply a ligature -to the carotid arteries in the neck, so as to prevent the occurrence of -hemorrhage, and then decapitate the animal; if respiration be now -artificially maintained, the heart will suffer no disturbance in its -motions, but the circulation will be preserved for several hours in the -body of the decapitated animal. In further illustration of this view of -the subject, _Mr. Brodie_ observes, that many reptiles which are capable -of respiring by means of the skin, will survive the loss of the brain -for so long a period, that the wound made by decapitation, becomes -cicatrized, and death only takes place at last in consequence of -inanition.—(_Manuscript Notes._) - -In farther illustration of these views, let us observe the mode in which -death takes place in apoplexy, or in cases of pressure on the brain, -whether occasioned by a depressed portion of bone, or by blood -extravasated within the cranium. At first the patient is insensible to -all external impressions, but the breathing is not affected; after an -interval, however, the respiration becomes difficult and laborious, and -the purple hue of the lips and cheeks, from the sub-cutaneous vessels, -demonstrates that the blood is imperfectly oxygenized. The arterial -action becomes more slow, in proportion only as the respiration is more -difficult; and the pulse may even be distinguished at the wrist, after -the breathing has altogether ceased; under such circumstances it is -obvious that life might be protracted for several hours by artificial -inflation of the lungs, but as no ultimate benefit could be derived from -such an operation, its expediency may be fairly questioned. - -Enough has been said to shew that the brain is not _immediately_ -necessary to the action of the heart; but _Mr. Brodie_ has very justly -observed that the general proposition thus established, must not lead us -to the conclusion that the heart is therefore incapable of being -affected by violent impressions on the nervous system; the fact is quite -otherwise, for although the brain may be removed, and the circulation be -nevertheless maintained by artificial respiration, yet an injury -inflicted on the brain, of another kind, may be followed by those -immediately fatal consequences which decapitation itself would not -produce. _Dr. Wilson Philip_ states that if the brain be violently -crushed, the action of the heart is immediately stopped; and the fact is -too notorious to be questioned, that a blow on the head is frequently -succeeded by Syncope; there are but few circumstances, says _Mr. -Brodie_, in the history of the animal œconomy which appears more -remarkable than this fact, that _an injury of a part which is not -immediately essential to the heart’s action, should nevertheless, under -certain circumstances, have the effect of occasioning its immediate -cessation_. The late researches of _Le Gallois_ may perhaps receive -farther elucidation from the above proposition; this physiologist has -stated that if a wire be introduced into the _Theca vertebralis_, and be -moved upward and downward, so as to destroy the texture of the spinal -marrow, the action of the heart presently ceases; and he from thence -advances to the conclusion, not only that the spinal marrow is necessary -to the heart’s action, but that every part of the animal body derives -its vital properties from it; from what I have observed, says _Mr. -Brodie_ (_Manuscript Notes_) in the repetition of the foregoing -experiment, I should infer that the fact is correctly stated, as far as -it relates to warm-blooded animals, but the conclusions are undoubtedly -premature; and the history of the fœtus, as related by _Lallemand_, in -which, notwithstanding the absence of the brain and spinal marrow, the -child was even larger than usual, the heart perfect, and it was manifest -that the circution had been duly performed, is in direct opposition to -such a theory. We must here agree with _Mr. Brodie_, that such phenomena -are quite incompatible with the doctrine in which the spinal marrow is -supposed to be directly necessary to the existence of vitality in the -system generally, and to the action of the heart in particular; and that -we must therefore look for some other explanation of the effects which -are produced by the destruction of the spinal marrow in warm-blooded -quadrupeds.—May they not be explained by supposing them to be the effect -of the shock which must necessarily attend the removal of the spinal -marrow, which can never be effected with the facility that attends -decapitation? - -We have deemed it necessary to offer these few remarks upon the -relations which subsist between the functions of the heart, lungs, and -brain, in as much as the propositions which have been thus established -respecting them, can alone lead to a correct pathology of those -diseases, by which life is suddenly extinguished, or suggest a rational -and effectual plan of treatment, in cases of suspended animation. - - - - - SYNCOPE: - - In which the pulsations of the heart cease, before the action of the - respiratory organs. - - -The heart may cease to beat either from organic lesions in its own -structure, or in that of its vessels; or from being sympathetically -affected by injuries in other parts[20]; or from the operation of -certain poisons; or from a shock of the general nervous system, as -experienced in paroxysms of certain passions. - -In ordinary fainting it is evident that some slight and feeble motions -of the heart still continue, although insufficient to produce a sensible -pulsation in the more distant arteries; and where this has continued for -an unusual period, and the respiration has been so obscure as to escape -common observation, the phenomenon has been eagerly seized by the -admirers of the marvellous, and credulity has attached to its history, -under the name of _Trance_,[21] circumstances of extravagance and -mystery, to which it can hardly be necessary to allude on the present -occasion. But the motions of the heart may have ceased altogether, and -in such cases it becomes a question, no less interesting to the -practical physician than to the physiologist, whether they can ever be -restored, and if so, we have to inquire under what limitation, as to -time; under what circumstances; and by what means? The views which have -been already offered respecting the pathology of Syncope will afford us -considerable assistance in the solution of a problem, so intimately -connected with inquiries of forensic importance. It would appear that -where the heart has ceased to pulsate, _in consequence of the cessation -of respiration, it can never again be set in motion_; but that where it -has stopped from other causes, as from the operation of certain poisons, -its muscular irritability not having been exhausted, its action may be -occasionally revived. Where Syncope arises from hemorrhage, we shall -find, on dissection, that the heart and its great vessels are either -empty, or contain only a small quantity of blood in their cavities; but -where Syncope arises from other causes, the heart is seen distended to -an unusual magnitude, and the blood in the left auricle and ventricle is -generally of a more or less florid colour, and has not the hue of venous -blood; a circumstance which depends upon the pulsation of the heart -ceasing before the function of respiration, and which is the very -reverse of what happens in death from suffocation, as we shall hereafter -explain. - -Violent passions of the mind very commonly produce syncope, which has in -some instances terminated in death; we are however inclined to believe -that in fatal cases of this nature the persons must have laboured under -some organic affection of the heart, or its vessels; _Philip V._ died -suddenly on being told that the Spaniards had been defeated, and on -opening the body, his heart was found ruptured. - -_Dr. Tissot_ relates also the case of the father of a numerous family, -who having lost his wife whom he tenderly loved, was suddenly seized -with laborious respiration, and died at the end of two days; when the -lungs were found gorged with blood, and the heart ruptured. Now in both -these cases, it is probable that the muscular structure of the heart had -been softened by previous disease.[22] So in the case of _Mr. John -Hunter_, whose life was suddenly extinguished by mental emotion, the -valves of the heart had been long in a state of disease, and so well -aware was he of the danger to which he was constantly exposed, that he -had for some time previous to his death, been in the habit of retiring -from all those situations, in which his passions were likely to be -excited. It is said that the instances of death from sudden joy are more -numerous than those from grief, probably because the effect of this -latter passion is rather to retard than to accelerate the circulation; -_Sophocles_, being desirous of proving that at an advanced age he was in -full possession of his intellectual powers, composed a tragedy, was -crowned, and died through joy; the same fate befel _Philippides_ the -comic writer; thus too the Lacedemonian _Chilon_ expired in the embrace -of his son who had borne away the prize at the Olympic games; and we -read of Roman women who died in the same manner, upon seeing their sons -return from the battles of Thrasymene and Cannæ. On the other hand, we -might adduce much classical authority to shew that death has frequently -been the sudden effect of grief. - -_Montaigne_ relates the case of a German, who after having performed -great feats of valour, was killed at the siege of Osen; one of the -general officers having desired to see the corpse of so gallant a man, -was conducted to the body, when he instantly recognised the features of -his own son, and died on the spot. The record of our own times will -furnish us with an instance in which an actor of celebrity suddenly -expired upon repeating a passage that contained a fancied allusion to -the domestic affliction under which he was suffering. - -_Dr. Ozanam_,[23] in illustration of the influence of pain and terror in -producing sudden extinction of life, relates the case of a middle aged -criminal, who having throughout evinced extreme weakness and depression, -expired in his way to the scaffold, and was stiff before he arrived at -the place of execution, which was about seven miles distant. - -In such cases of sudden death, from the operation of violent mental -emotions, we apprehend that dissection will frequently demonstrate the -existence of previous disease in some of the organs immediately -essential to life; and we shall hereafter have occasion to refer to the -influence of the passions in hastening the fatal termination of a -chronic disease; on the present occasion we introduce the following -extremely interesting case, in confirmation of the position we are -endeavouring to maintain; the case was originally published in the -_Transactions of the Physico-Medical Society of New York, by Dr. -Valentine Mott_; it afterwards appeared in the _Journal Universel des -Sciences Medicales, Avril, 1819_; and lately it has found its way into -the _Medical Repository_ of this country. A robust and plethoric female, -aged 22, long addicted to dissolute and intemperate habits, had -complained for some time of slight and apparently rheumatic pains; but -within a day or two of the fatal event, she had been deserted by a man -to whom she was engaged in marriage; in consequence of which her mind -became very deeply affected; after having supped on the preceding night, -she retired to rest as usual, and in the morning was found dead in bed; -she lay in a bent position on the left side; and was hence supposed at -first to be in a profound sleep; neither the countenance nor the limbs -were in the least distorted. On dissection the pericardium was found to -contain ten ounces of coagulated blood, and two of serum; the heart on -all sides being covered by it, was of ordinary volume, but much loaded -with fat; at the summit of the aortic ventricle was discovered the -breach from which the effused blood had issued; the parietes of the -ventricle around the rupture were much thicker than in the natural -state, and on close examination a very sensible fluctuation was -distinguished, to the extent of an inch on one side of it, from which -flocculi of a cheese-like substance were discharged on pressure; the -pericardium also presented traces of inflammation. - -We have here then a case in which a morbid change in the structure of -the heart had existed for a considerable period, and which was suddenly -brought to a fatal termination by an affection of the mind. - -Before we quit the consideration of _Syncope_, we have to notice a fatal -variety of that disease, which well deserves the attentive consideration -of the forensic Physician, whose highest duty, let it be remembered, is -the investigation of sudden death. It is described by _Mr. -Chevalier_[24] under the term _Asphyxia Idiopathica_, in which the -patient suddenly faints and dies; the essential circumstances of the -disease evidently denote, says _Mr. Chevalier_, a sudden loss of power -in the extreme vessels to propel the blood; in consequence of which the -heart after having contracted, so as to empty itself, and then dilated -again, continues relaxed for want of the return of its accustomed -stimulus, and dies in that dilated state. On dissection all the cavities -of the heart are found completely empty, and the viscus itself in a -state of extreme flaccidity. - - - - - SUFFOCATION. - - -Suffocation may be defined, the destruction of life by the suspension of -the function of respiration, occasioned by external violence. Unless we -add “_by external violence_” we shall perceive that the definition would -be far too comprehensive; and the term _Suffocation_ would be made to -embrace a much wider range of subjects than its popular acceptation -would allow. If the physiological views be correct which we have adopted -and explained in the foregoing section, “On the causes and phenomena of -sudden death,” we should be compelled, without such a protecting -adjunct, to include under the history of Suffocation, not only the -phenomena of Drowning, Strangling, Hanging, Smothering, and noxious -inhalation, but even those of Apoplexy, fatal Intoxication, and various -diseases of the brain and spinal marrow, together with the effects of a -great proportion of Poisons; for by such agents death is undoubtedly -occasioned through the failure of the respiratory functions. - -In Death from Suffocation the heart continues to pulsate for several -minutes after the breathing has entirely ceased, in consequence of which -the blood which passes through the pulmonary vessels no longer receives -the influence of oxygen, and therefore _black_ blood circulates; the -brain, it would appear, soon feels the want of the florid arterial -stream, by which alone its energies can be maintained. _Bichat_ has -shewn that when dark coloured blood is injected into the vessels of the -brain, by means of a syringe connected with the carotid artery, the -functions of the brain become immediately disturbed, and, in a short -time, entirely cease; the effect is precisely similar, whether the dark -coloured blood be transmitted to the brain by the syringe of the -experimentalist, or by the heart itself. It is not until after the full -effects of the suspended respiration are thus produced on the brain, -that the motions of the heart become enfeebled, and that the ventricles -contract less powerfully, and at longer intervals; at length, the action -of the heart is altogether arrested, and if the thorax be examined at -the instant that the circulation has ceased, nothing is observed, except -a slight tremulous motion of the auricles; the cavities of the left side -are much contracted, and contain only a small quantity of blood, while -the right auricle and ventricle, and the large vessels communicating -with them, are distended to an unusual size. This state of the heart, it -will be observed, is very different from that which we have described as -constantly occurring after _Syncope_. In the contemplation of these -phœnomena, a question very naturally suggests itself in regard to the -probable interval which elapses between the cessation of respiration, -and the consequent failure of the heart’s action; in other words, it may -be asked, how long can the heart support its contractions without the -aid of respiration? It would appear that this interval not only varies -in duration in different animals, but even in the same animal under -different circumstances, such as that of age,[25] capacity of the -thorax, quantity of air in the lungs, state of the stomach, and general -vigour of the animal; but in man, under the most favourable -circumstances, it is extremely doubtful whether the heart ever continues -to pulsate for so long a period as five minutes[26] after the lungs have -ceased to perform their office; and it is very questionable whether, in -most instances, the interval is not considerably shorter than this. - - - BY DROWNING. - -It was formerly believed that _Asphyxia_[27] from _drowning_, always -depended upon the lungs and intestinal canal being filled with -water;[28] whereas it is hardly necessary to observe that it alone -depends upon the blood, in consequence of the suspension of breathing, -ceasing to possess the qualities which are essential to the preservation -of life. _M. Gauteron_ immersed a dog for more than a quarter of an -hour, without inflicting the least injury, having previously inserted a -long tube in the trachea, which was kept elevated during the experiment -above the surface of the water. - -If a small animal be immersed in water, contained in a transparent glass -vessel, the phenomena of drowning are readily discernible; there is -first a deep expiration, by which bubbles of air are expelled from the -lungs; there is then an effort to inspire, but the effort is -ineffectual; there being no air which can be received into the lungs, -and a spasm of the muscles of the glottis seems to forbid the admission -of any considerable quantity of water into the trachea. The attempts to -breathe are repeated several times, and at each attempt at expiration a -small proportion of air is expelled from the mouth and nostrils, until -the air-cells of the lungs are almost emptied;[29] then the animal -becomes insensible; and convulsive action of the voluntary muscles mark -the instant when the brain begins to suffer from the influx of the dark -coloured venous blood. After the cessation of these convulsive actions, -the animal becomes motionless, and gives no sign of life; but if the -hand be applied to the thorax, the actions of the heart, gradually -becoming fainter and fainter, indicate that some remains of vitality -still linger in the system. Before the circulation of the blood -altogether ceases, the muscles of respiration once more resume their -actions, and ineffectual efforts are made to breathe. It is a remarkable -circumstance that the diaphragm continues to exert itself nearly as long -as the heart itself, and that the interval between the cessation of the -motions of the diaphragm and that of the motions of the heart, which is -so short in animals that die by strangulation, is still shorter in those -who perish by drowning.[30] These phenomena follow each other in rapid -succession, and the whole scene is closed, and the living animal is -converted into a lifeless corpse, incapable of recovery, in the brief -space of a few moments, (_Brodie’s Manuscript Notes_). If however the -animal be taken out of the water before the total extinction of life, -and the diaphragm contract afterwards, so as to draw air into the lungs -before the action of the heart has ceased, the circulation is -maintained, and the animal continues to respire; he will thus have -escaped immediate death from suffocation; but his life still remains in -jeopardy, for there is a second period of danger, and one at which death -may take place, when we are the least prepared to expect it; for the -dark coloured blood which has been transmitted through the circulatory -system, during the suspension of respiration, would seem to act like a -narcotic poison upon the brain; no sooner therefore does it enter that -organ, but deleterious effects are produced, the animal at first falls -into a state of stupor, the pupils of the eyes become dilated, the -respiration laborious, the muscles of the body convulsed, and the animal -dies, _poisoned by its own blood_. - -The body of a person who has died from drowning exhibits a physiognomy -which it is important to notice. The whole surface is distinguished by a -remarkable coldness and pallor; the eyes are half open, and their pupils -considerably dilated; the tongue is pushed forward to the internal edges -of the lips, and sometimes wounded; and the mouth and nostrils are -covered with foam. At other times, instead of a pallid visage, we have -one that is swelled, and bloated with livid blood. - -Upon dissection we shall perceive the vessels of the brain more or less -gorged with blood;[31] in the trachea a watery and bloody froth will be -found; the lungs will appear expanded, full of frothy mucus, and, -generally, livid; the right cavities of the heart gorged with blood, the -left nearly empty; and it has been sometimes noticed that the blood -remains fluid[32], and follows after every incision by the scalpel. The -stomach will generally be found to contain some water. _Hebenstreit_ -also states, that since in the act of drowning the person dies on an -inspiration, the diaphragm is necessarily found convex, or bent towards -the abdomen; this statement however is erroneous. - -Upon these appearances we have a few observations to offer, especially -as they have given origin to some important questions; and first, with -respect to _the presence of water in the stomach and lungs_, than which -few indications, connected with the subject of drowning, have given -occasion to greater controversy.[33] For since it hath been observed -that water is rarely found in the stomach or lungs of a person who has -been submerged after death, it was inferred that the presence of that -fluid in these organs necessarily proved that the individual must have -been plunged into the water during life. As a general proposition this -may be admitted as correct, although it is liable to certain exceptions -with which the medical jurist ought to be acquainted; we may, for -instance, suppose a case, in which the submerged person may be so -plunged at once under water, as to have been suffocated without his -previously coming to the surface, and when _asphyxia_ has taken place, -the powers of deglutition, on which the presence of water in the stomach -wholly depends, are at an end; or we may suppose that the party in -question faints from terror; a remarkable instance of this kind is -quoted by _Foderè_,[34] from _Plater_, of a young woman, who having been -condemned to be drowned for infanticide, fainted at the moment she was -plunged in the water, and having remained for a quarter of an hour under -its surface, recovered after being drawn out.[35] - -With respect to the presence of water in the bronchiæ and lungs, we may -observe that, in the violent struggles of a drowning man, a certain -portion of water generally passes the epiglottis; and being immediately -mixed with the air and mucus of the trachea, constitutes that frothy -mucus, which we have described as being so highly characteristic of this -species of violent death; although we are not to conclude with _Larrey_, -that it is the immediate cause of dissolution in such cases. The -quantity of water, however, thus forced into the pulmonary structure, is -extremely small, for its entrance is powerfully opposed by a spasm of -the muscles of the glottis;[36] were it to occur in any considerable -quantity, and to appear in its fluid state, instead of that of froth, -the influence would clearly be, that _it had passed in after death_. - -Although the presence of this frothy matter must be considered as a -strong presumptive proof that the person found in the water had perished -by drowning, the converse of this proposition is by no means established -by the absence of such an indication. - -_The buoyancy of the human body_ is another point in the history of -Drowning, which has occasioned much discussion; and in solving the -problem, so highly important in its forensic relations, _whether a body -found in the water, had been drowned, or thrown in after death_, it has -been considered by some physiologists as capable of affording a certain -degree of presumptive evidence, although we are inclined to attach but -little or no importance to such an indication. The specific gravity of -the human body, under ordinary circumstances, is very little greater -than that of fresh water, so small indeed is the difference that, when -the lungs are inflated, a man will float[37] with little or no effort, -if he have sufficient self possession, and does not attempt to raise too -great a portion of his body out of the sustaining fluid;[38] but, when -the air of the lungs is expelled, and probably, at the same time, a -certain quantity of water is taken into the stomach,[39] the body -becomes specifically heavier, and the victim sinks. It may be assumed as -a general rule, that no newly drowned body floats, although many facts -have been adduced in support of a contrary opinion; the naval custom of -loading the dead bodies with weights, before they are consigned to a -watery grave, is not for the purpose of sinking the corpse, but for -preventing its rising after the process of putrefaction has commenced. -The period during which a body will remain at the bottom cannot be very -accurately determined, as the change does not take place until a -sufficient quantity of air be generated to buoy it again to the surface; -in the melancholy instance of the loss of the Royal George, the dead -bodies were observed ascending to the surface of the sea, on or about -the fifth day. The general position of a body which has thus risen, -provided there be no external or adventitious circumstances to change -it, is such, that it floats nearly immersed, the face, arms, and legs -hanging downwards, and the loins being uppermost; this is the form which -the body must mechanically and hydrostatically assume, if the sustaining -power of generated air be, as it generally will, in the cavity of the -abdomen, where putrefaction is more likely to commence; for the head and -limbs are generally[40] specifically heavier than water, while the -trunk, especially if inflated with air, is somewhat lighter. - -It has been said that a position, different from that which we have just -described, will take place where the person has been strangled, and the -body then thrown into the water; for in this latter case, it is -contended, that the lungs will be distended with air, and that -consequently, the sustaining power must be in the thorax; in support of -this opinion the story of the appearance of _Caraccioli_[41], Admiral of -the Neapolitan navy, has been ingeniously adduced; this unfortunate man -was hanged in pursuance of the sentence of a court martial, and his body -was committed to the deep in the usual manner; thirteen days after -which, while the King of Sicily was walking on the deck of Lord -_Nelson’s_ ship, he suddenly exclaimed with a yell of horror—“_Vien! -Viene!_”—The Admiral’s corpse, breast high, was seen floating towards -the ship; the shot that had been attached to the feet for the purpose of -sinking it, not being sufficiently heavy. This may perhaps be explained -by supposing that the corpse was stiff before it was immersed, in which -case, the centre of gravity being exceedingly low on account of the shot -tied to the feet, he must have floated upright, wherever the buoyant -power from generated air might be situated. At all events, we feel no -hesitation in at once rejecting the proposition, for the support of -which it has been brought forward; the fact is that, in relation to -gaseous contents, the lungs are the same in strangled, as in drowned -persons; for in both cases a quantity of air is forcibly expelled from -them before dissolution. - - - 2. BY HANGING: - -The suspension of a person by means of a cord, or some other ligature, -round the neck, by which death is produced by closing the trachea, and -preventing respiration. - -Although we are in this case bound to admit that the immediate cause of -death is suffocation, yet we cannot deny that other injuries are often -produced by hanging, such as - - 1. _Pressure on the vessels._ - 2. _Pressure on the nerves._ - 3. _Fracture of the spine, and dislocation of the odontoid process._ - -1. _Pressure on the Vessels._—The red and livid hue of the face of -persons killed by hanging, very naturally induced a belief that -_Apoplexy_[42] was the immediate cause of death; while it is evident -that the pressure on the jugular veins must necessarily so prevent the -return of blood to the heart, as to produce an accumulation in the -vessels of the brain: _Dr. Hooper_ has a preparation of the brain of an -executed criminal, in which blood is seen extravasated among the -membranes; and various other cases have occurred, where dissection has -clearly demonstrated the existence of those vascular congestions and -sanguineous effusions, upon which apoplexy is supposed to depend; but -this merely goes to prove that apoplexy occasionally takes place from -hanging; it does not establish the fact of its being the common cause of -death on such occasions.[43] _Gregory_ made the following experiment to -shew that it is to the interception of air that death is to be -attributed; after having opened the trachea of a dog he passed a slip -knot round the neck, above the wound; the animal, though hanged, -continued to live and respire, the air was alternately admitted and -easily expelled through the small opening; but as soon as the -constriction was made below the orifice, the animal perished. _Mr. -Brodie_ hanged a dog, and as soon as it became insensible, the trachea -was opened below the ligature, upon which he breathed, and his -sensibility returned. - -2. _Pressure on the Nerves of the Neck._ Although the pressure of a -ligature on the nerves of the neck cannot be considered as the immediate -cause of death in hanging, yet _Mr. Brodie_ has very justly observed, -that if the animal recovers of the direct consequence of the -strangulation, he may probably suffer from the effects of the ligature -upon the nerves afterwards. _Mr. Brodie_ passed a ligature under the -trachea of a Guinea pig, and tied it tight on the back of the neck with -a knot; the animal was uneasy, but nevertheless breathed and moved -about; at the end of fifteen minutes the ligature was removed; on the -following morning, however, the animal was found dead. On dissection no -preternatural appearances were discovered in the brain, but the lungs -were dark and turgid with blood, and presented an appearance similar to -that which is observed after the division of the nerves of the eighth -pair; I do not, observes _Mr. Brodie_ (_Manuscript Notes_) positively -conclude from this experiment that the animal died from an injury -inflicted upon the nerves of the eighth pair, but I think that such a -conclusion is highly probable; and it becomes an object of inquiry -whether a patient having recovered from hanging, may not, in some -instances, die afterwards from the injury of the _par vagum_. - -3. _Fracture of the Spine, and Dislocation of the Neck._ The death of a -hanged person may occasionally take place by the luxation of the -cervical vertebræ, and the consequent injury of the spinal marrow; this -effect will be more likely to happen in heavy persons, and where the -culprit suffers on a drop that precipitates him from a considerable -height. It is said that _Louis_ discovered that of the two executioners -in Paris and Lyons, one dispatched the criminal condemned to be hanged -by luxating the head on the neck, whilst those who perished by the hands -of the other were completely strangled. - -An animal, when first suspended, is observed to make repeated but -ineffectual attempts to inspire; violent convulsions of the whole body -then ensue, but which are not to be considered as the indications of -suffering, for they arise in consequence of the dark coloured blood -having reached the brain and spinal marrow; and the animal at this -period is necessarily insensible; hanging does not occasion a painful -death.[44] - -The lips, nose, and all those parts in which the hue of the blood can be -observed, exhibit a dark colour; the countenance is distorted, the eyes -protruded, and frequently suffused with blood, the tongue is also forced -out of the mouth, and sometimes wounded, although it has been observed -that this phenomenon will entirely depend upon the position of the rope, -for that when it presses above the thyroid gland the tongue will be -pushed back, in consequence of a compression upon the _os hyoides_, -whereas if the pressure be applied under the _cricoid_ cartilage it will -have the effect of thrusting out the tongue. Blood is sometimes -discharged from the ears. It is not unusual for the sufferer to void his -urine, fæces, and even semen, in _articulo mortis_. The fingers are -usually bent, the nails blue, and the hands nearly closed; and the whole -physiognomy exhibits a highly characteristic appearance. - - “But see, his face is black and full of blood, - His eye-balls further out than when he lived, - Staring full ghastly, like a strangled man, - His hair uprear’d, his nostrils stretch’d with struggling, - His hands abroad display’d, as one that grasp’d - And tugg’d for life, and was by strength subdu’d.” - - _Henry_ VI, _Part_ ii, _Act_ iii, _s._ 2. - -The dissection of a hanged person exhibits the same phenomena as those -described under the history of drowning, with the exception of the -absence of water in the _bronchiæ_. With respect to the quantity of air -found in the lungs, much discrepancy of opinion has existed. _Dr. -Goodwyn_, in his experiments on respiration, found that the lungs of a -person who had died from hanging, contained double the quantity of -gaseous contents of those who had died a natural death. This result, -however, is certainly not correct; for there is always, as we have -already stated, a very forcible expulsion of air from the lungs in the -act of strangulation, and they are accordingly found almost empty after -death. _Mr. Coleman_ hanged an animal, and then secured the _trachea_ by -a ligature, and removed the lungs; when, upon receiving their gaseous -contents in the hydro-pneumatic apparatus, he found their quantity was -very far less than that which would have been collected under other -circumstances. - - - 3. BY MANUAL STRANGULATION. - -Whether strangulation be induced by the suspension of the body by the -neck, or by a ligature drawn tight, or by any other pressure upon the -trachea, the physiological phenomena of death are the same; where, -however, the person has died from manual strangulation, the marks about -the neck will probably be more evident, and the discolouration will -correspond with the marks of the fingers and nails; and we may also -expect to find traces of violence upon the chest, for since the weight -of the body is not obtained in such a case, additional force becomes -necessary to consummate the fatal act. On opening the bodies of those -who have been taken off by manual strangulation, _Dr. Smith_ thinks that -the usual appearances of this kind of death may not seem so conclusive -as in other cases: an opinion in which we feel inclined to coincide; for -in consequence of the greater resistance of the sufferer, the functions -of respiration and circulation may continue in some measure for a longer -period than in drowning or hanging, which must be considered as more -summary processes of suffocation. In the case of a woman who had been -thus strangled by two men, _Littre_ found the tympanum of the left ear -lacerated, whence flowed about an ounce of blood; the vessels of the -brain were unusually turgid, red blood was extravasated in the -ventricles, as well as at the base of the cranium; the lungs were -distended and their membrane vascular; not more, however, than an ounce -of blood was found in the right ventricle of the heart, and it was fluid -and frothy, like that in the lungs; this circumstance deserves -particular notice, and can only be explained by supposing that the -respiration and circulation were not at once arrested, but that the -unhappy sufferer was enabled to inhale air, at intervals, during the -protracted struggle[45]; and yet in certain cases, death may be very -easily occasioned by manual strangulation, of which the murder of _Dr. -Clench_, in the year 1692, may be adduced as an example; this gentleman -was strangled in a hackney coach by two men, while driving about the -streets of the city, without the coachman having the slightest knowledge -of the transaction, until he afterwards found him quite dead, kneeling -down with his head on the seat, and a handkerchief bound about his neck, -in which was a piece of coal, placed just over the windpipe.[46] - - - 4. BY SMOTHERING. - -In this act the transit of the air into the lungs is prevented by -forcibly closing the nostrils and mouth. It is very obvious that such a -mode of destruction can very rarely occur in an adult; for a -comparatively feeble resistance will be sufficient to overcome the -assailant in such an attempt. It may, however, occur accidentally; it is -not difficult to imagine that a person, in a fit of intoxication, may be -unable to extricate himself from a position in which he might fall, and -in which respiration could not be performed. In children this mode of -suffocation is less rare, and it may be either the result of design or -accident, to which we shall have occasion to refer, when treating the -subject of Infanticide. - - - 5. BY THE INHALATION OF AIR DEPRIVED OF OXYGEN. - -There are many gases, the inspiration of which occasions death; some of -these act simply by excluding oxygen, while others exert an absolutely -deleterious action in consequence of the specific powers which they -possess. It is exclusively to the first species that our attention is at -present to be directed; the latter will constitute matter for future -consideration, under the title of _Aërial Poisons_. - -It is a fact too well established to require any discussion, that -_oxygen_ is the only principle which is capable of producing the -necessary changes in the blood, during its transmission through the -lungs; and that, accordingly, whenever atmospheric air is deprived of -this principle, it is no longer capable of supporting life, and the -animal immersed in it instantly dies. It is thus that death takes place -from exposure to the fumes of charcoal[47], to those of lime-kilns, to -the atmosphere of cellars, caverns, wells, and dungeons.[48] - -The asphyxia from privies, drains, and common sewers, depends upon a -different cause, and will be considered under the head of _Sulphuretted -Hydrogen_, in the history of poisons. - -The fatal effects of confined air in a small and crowded room, were -fully exemplified in the year 1742, when twenty persons were crammed in -a part of St. Martin’s round-house called the _hole_, during the night, -several of whom died; the surgeons on that occasion gave it as their -opinion, that when the doors and windows were shut, the place could not -support twenty persons for three hours without danger of their lives. A -trial took place at the Old Bailey in consequence; but we have not been -more successful than _Dr. Gordon Smith_ in our search for its report. -The medical jurist would be called upon, on such an occasion, for his -opinion as to the nature of the deteriorated air, the causes of its -accumulation, and whether it was adequate to the production of the -alleged effects; and possibly, whether the fatal consequences might not -have been averted by judicious caution, or active exertion. The most -awful exemplification of the fatal effects of confined air is, however, -recorded in the interesting narrative of what happened to the English in -the _black hole_ at Calcutta; and which we shall briefly relate in this -place; as it involves some physiological phenomena to which we shall -hereafter have occasion to refer. - -It was in the month of June, 1756, that the Viceroy of Bengal laid siege -to Fort William, the English factory at Calcutta. _Mr. Holwell_, -assisted by the factors and the garrison, defended this post with -extreme bravery; but was at length obliged to surrender. There were at -this time remaining in the fort, an hundred and forty-five men and one -woman. The whole of this unfortunate company, many of whom were wounded, -and several very dangerously, were shut up the same night in a small -prison only eighteen feet square. This prison, which is now better known -in England by the name of the _black hole_, was enclosed by strong -walls, and had only two small windows at one end, secured by iron -grates. In this confined situation, which allowed only a space of about -eighteen square inches to each individual, the heat and want of fresh -air soon excited the most horrible effects; the prisoners, in a state of -despair, began by attempting to force open the door, but in this they -were unsuccessful. Mr. _Holwell_, who was placed near one of the -windows, was more at his ease than the rest, and was consequently more -cool and tranquil; and he recommended his companions to be quiet and -orderly, and not to exhaust their strength by useless efforts. This -advice produced some little calm, interrupted, however, by the groans of -the wounded and the dying. The heat increased every moment. Mr. -_Holwell_ recommended them to strip off their cloaths, as a means of -acquiring more space; this was accordingly done, but with no great -relief; they attempted to improve this by fanning the air with their -hats, but even this was too painful a task for men who were worn out by -the fatigue of the siege, and the heat of this dungeon. Another of the -company was for their kneeling down, that they might have more air. They -all readily agreed to do this; and to rise together in order to avoid -confusion. This was done several times, but every time the signal was -given to rise, the number of those who had strength enough to obey it -diminished. There were constantly some remaining on the floor, who were -unable to get up, and these were trodden to death by the survivors. All -this happened during the first hour of their imprisonment. At nine -o’clock in the evening they began to complain of excessive thirst, and -to renew their efforts to open the prison door, and to tempt the -centinels to fire upon them. Some of those who were farthest from the -window became at once furiously delirious. The cry for water was -unanimous. The guards brought water, and _Holwell_ and two of his -wounded friends received it at the window in their hats, and were going -to pass it on to the rest; but so eager and tumultuous were the efforts -of the crowd to get at this water, that _Holwell’s_ two friends were -suffocated, the water was spilt, and _Holwell_ saw himself surrounded -with dead bodies, who had either been crushed to death, or died for want -of fresh air. - -Hitherto the commander and benefactor of these unfortunate people, had -been treated with some degree of respect, but now all distinction began -to be forgotten; the whole company eagerly threw themselves towards the -windows, and seizing the iron bars, some of them got even upon his -shoulders. He was so borne down by this enormous weight, as to be -deprived of all power of motion; he implored the pity of those who were -upon his head and his shoulders, and requested them to let him go and -die at the bottom of the prison; this request was readily complied with, -every one was desirous of succeeding to his place, and without much -difficulty he reached the farther end of the dungeon. The third part of -these unhappy people were already dead, and they who were still alive -pressed so eagerly towards the windows, that _Holwell_ found himself -somewhat freer in his new station; but the air was so corrupted, that -his breathing soon became extremely difficult and painful. Unable -therefore to support this, he attempted once more to make his way to the -windows; and leaning on a heap of dead bodies, he now resolved to wait -patiently for death. In this situation he remained about ten minutes, -and then he experienced such a pain of the breast, and so violent a -palpitation of the heart, that he was obliged to make one more attempt -towards getting a less fatal air. There were five rows of his companions -between himself and the window; his despair carried him through four of -these. The palpitation of his heart now began to abate, but he felt -inexpressible thirst, and cried out for water; but the water seemed to -increase instead of alleviating his thirst; he therefore resolved to -drink no more, and rather chose to suck the moisture from his shirt, -which seemed to afford him some relief. A young man quite naked, who -stood before him, eagerly seized the sleeve of his shirt, and for some -moments deprived him of this salutary refreshment. It was not yet -midnight. The small number of those who were left, were transported to -the greatest excess of rage and despair. They all called aloud for air, -because the water that had been brought to them afforded no relief. Soon -after this the noise suddenly ceased. The greater part who were living -laid themselves down, deprived of all their strength, and peaceably -breathed their last. Others aimed at getting into _Holwell’s_ situation; -a Dutchman mounted on one of his shoulders, and a black soldier on the -other. In this situation he remained till two in the morning, when he -gave up his place to a marine officer, who was soon forced out of it by -the Dutchman. The officer retired with _Holwell_ to the other corner of -the prison, and in a few moments afterwards died. _Holwell_ himself was -soon deprived of sense, and from that time till sun rise we have no -account of what passed. One of those who remained alive, at five in the -morning, drew forth _Holwell_ from the heap of dead, and found in him -some signs of life; about that time the Viceroy inquired whether he was -still alive; he was told, that if the door was immediately opened, it -would, perhaps, be possible to recover him, and orders were accordingly -given for this purpose. But the door of the prison opened inwards, and -they who were within it, and living, were deprived of all their -strength, so that more than twenty minutes elapsed before the dead -bodies were removed, which prevented the door from being opened. - -At a quarter after six o’clock, there came out of this melancholy -dungeon three and twenty persons, the remains of the hundred and -forty-six who had entered it on the preceding evening. - -Upon the events thus related we have to remark, that no advice could be -more judicious than that given by _Holwell_ to his companions in the -early part of their imprisonment—“to be quiet and orderly, and not to -exhaust their strength by useless efforts.” Nor can we imagine any -measure more calculated to increase the sufferings of their situation -than that which was subsequently proposed, and adopted, by another of -the company, “to fan the air with their hats, and to kneel down and rise -together, by a simultaneous motion.” It has been satisfactorily -established by physiological researches, that the demand for oxygen, in -an animal body, will be in proportion to its expenditure by muscular -exertions.[49] Whenever, therefore, circumstances may render a supply of -air deficient, we shall best economise that which we possess by perfect -quiet. _Lavoisier_ says, that a man, under ordinary circumstances, -consumes 1300 or 1400 cubic inches of oxygen in an hour, but he found -that if he is engaged in raising weights the consumption is at the rate -of 3200 in the hour. - -Infants appear to be less able to sustain the deprivation of oxygen than -adults; and in some cases on record, life has been destroyed by -circumstances that we should have _a priori_ considered as hardly -adequate to such an effect. A case is related of a child, who was -suffocated by some drunken men having repeatedly blown out a candle, and -held the smoaking wick under its nose. The faculty of Leipsic -investigated the circumstances, and declared the death to have taken -place in consequence of suffocation. (_Valentini Pand: Med: Legal: Sect: -2._) - - - 6. BY OTHER MODES, NOT INCLUDED IN THE FOREGOING SECTIONS. - -We have already stated that if the muscles of respiration be paralysed, -the animal can no longer breathe; and it dies in a state of suffocation. -There are several mechanical modes by which such a condition may be -produced; a person buried in a heap of ruins, although his head should -be free, will perish from the pressure of the surrounding rubbish -preventing the due action of the respiratory muscles. It was in this way -that criminals who obstinately refused to plead, often died under the -pressure of the weights that were heaped upon their bodies.[50]. - -There is a mode of suffocation, described by _Galen_, as being practised -by the slaves when brought into the presence of the judges or -executioners; it consisted in swallowing their tongue, by which it is -said they voluntarily terminated their own existence. Several more -modern authors have noticed this incredible mode of suicide, as one that -is resorted to by negroes: now to confute such an idea, we have only to -shew the attachment of the muscles of this part, and the motions which -they permit; equally absurd is it to suppose with other physiologists, -that persons can occasion suffocation by a voluntary suspension of their -breathing; for if such an attempt were even made, the effort would be -ended when self-possession was once lost, for then the impulse of nature -must instantly triumph over any struggle to oppose it. We are not, -however, prepared to say that such an attempt might not, in certain -cases, occasion such a cerebral congestion as to produce apoplexy. - -The last cause of suffocation which we have to mention is mechanical -obstruction, from the entrance of foreign bodies into the aperture of -the glottis; instances of this kind are too numerous and familiar to -require many observations: it is thus that _Anacreon_ is said to have -perished from a grape-seed; _Gilbert_, the poet, terminated his -existence in a similar manner; he was a man of great appetite, and in -the midst of a festival went into a neighbouring room, but did not -return to the great surprise of his convivial companions. He was found -stretched on a couch without any signs of life. The assistance -administered by his kind but uninformed friends was useless; on opening -the body a small piece of mutton was found, that had stopped at the -entrance of the larynx, and completely prevented the passage of air into -this organ. In Oct. 1821, two inquisitions were taken at Mildenhall, -before the Coroner of Bury St. Edmonds in Suffolk; in the one case it -appeared that _John Harris_ had eaten some honey, from the honey-comb, -and that a bee, having been concealed in it, entered the glottis, and -occasioned almost immediate death by suffocation; the other case was -that of an infant, _Mary Bacon_, who fell with her face upon a quantity -of slacked lime, when a particle of it getting into the wind-pipe, -produced inflammation of the lungs, and sloughing of the trachea, of -which she died. We have no doubt but that persons, during the state of -intoxication, or that of a spasmodic paroxysm, have often perished from -suffocation, when the death has been attributed to other causes; if the -stomach should reject its contents during a state of insensibility[51], -such an occurrence is by no means unlikely. We have lately received the -history of a case of this description, which occurred in the St. James’s -workhouse, and fell under the particular notice of Mr. _Alcock_. The -patient was seized after a hearty meal of pork with an epileptic fit, -during which he died; when upon opening the trachea, it was found to -contain a quantity of animal matter resembling the pork upon which he -had recently dined. - - - - - 8. DEATH BY EXPOSURE TO COLD. - - -That an animal must perish as soon as the temperature of the medium in -which it lives ceases to preserve the blood in a state of fluidity, is -one of those self-evident propositions which scarcely requires notice, -much less explanation; but that a degree of cold not sufficiently -intense to occasion any physical changes upon the constituent parts of -the body should extinguish its vitality is a fact, whose history -involves some of the most interesting questions of physiology. - -The degree of cold, necessary for the production of its fatal effects, -varies in a very remarkable degree with the strength and circumstances -of the individual to whom it is applied, as well as with the rapidity of -the cooling process. In some instances we find that man has endured an -extreme degree of cold with but little inconvenience, whilst in other -cases, we see him perishing from it in a temperature at which water even -retains its fluidity. The interesting history of Sir _Joseph Bankes_ (at -that time Mr. Bankes), Dr. _Solander_, and eleven others, on a botanical -excursion to the mountains of Terra del Fuego; and more recently, the -narrative of our enterprizing countrymen, in their voyage to the Polar -seas, will furnish a good illustration of the former fact, whilst the -melancholy fate of the Cambridge student, as hereafter explained, -affords a curious and instructive example of the latter. _Animal heat_, -as Mr. _Brodie_ observes, _is in some way or other dependant upon the -integrity of the functions of the Nervous System_; and consequently the -absolute degree of cold which an animal can bear with impunity will, -_cæteris paribus_, be determined by his powers of producing heat; we -must therefore cease to regard the fact as extraordinary, that an -animal, which is under the influence of a deleterious narcotic poison, -or in whom, from any other morbid cause, the powers of the nervous -system are exhausted, may be destroyed by a diminished temperature, that -would scarcely affect even the sensations of one, differently placed in -relation to his nervous energy; thus it is with a person in the last -stage of intoxication, in whom the powers of life are ebbing, in -consequence of the previous state of morbid excitement; in the course of -the last winter, two instances occurred of drunken persons being taken -to the watch-house; where, there not being any charge against them, they -were dismissed by the constable of the night, and perished in the -streets. A military friend has lately communicated to us an instance, -where out of a great number of troops who were exposed to intense cold, -the only one who perished was under the influence of intoxication; and -we learn from _Le Baume’s_ interesting account of the campaign in -Russia, that similar results were observed during the disastrous retreat -of the French army on that memorable occasion. - -In our own country scarcely a winter passes without the occurrence of -some event equally illustrative of this physiological fact; and it is -highly important that the medical jurist should be able to appreciate -its influence; those who perish in this manner are generally individuals -of the most wretched condition, and will be found to have undergone much -suffering and privation; by which their nervous energy had been too much -exhausted to generate sufficient heat to counteract the diminished -temperature of the atmosphere; an event of this nature occurred in -London during the winter of 1819, when a man and his wife, aged persons, -and poor, but not supposed, nor indeed proved to have been quite -destitute, were found dead in their apartment, although food was -discovered in the room, and money was in the pocket of the man: the -night (28th of December) had been inclement, and there was neither bed -nor fire in the miserable couple’s apartment. It appeared in evidence -that they had been previously ailing. The verdict recorded that they had -perished from the inclemency of the weather, in consequence of the -destitute circumstances under which they were found. - -It would seem that persons who are long exposed to intense cold do not -suffer a painful death; they gradually lose their sensibility, become -drowsy, and die as if through the effects of an opiate. Mr. _Brodie_[52] -classes the effects of cold in the following order. - -1. It lessens the irritability, and impairs the functions of the whole -nervous system. - -2. It impairs the contractile powers of the muscles. - -3. It causes contraction of the capillaries, and thus lessens the -superficial circulation, and stops the cutaneous secretion. - -4. It probably destroys the principle of vitality, equally in every -part, and does not exclusively disturb the functions of any particular -organ. - -These positions have been confirmed by experiment. Dr. _Chassat_ states -that in an animal immersed in a cold bath, death may take place at 79° -Fahr. (26 _Centig._), although it may be sometimes cooled down as low as -69° (17 _Cent._) before it dies; but, _cæteris paribus_, the animal dies -sooner as the cooling is more rapid. - -M. _Portal_ thinks that cold produces death by inducing apoplexy, and -remarks that the examination of the bodies of persons who have died from -cold, proves the presence of sanguineous congestions in the vessels and -cavities of the body, and especially in those of the brain. Dr. _Cooke_, -however, has remarked that “M. _Portal’s_ notions on this subject seem -to want confirmation. Excessive cold undoubtedly produces, first -drowsiness and afterwards a profound sleep, in which the unfortunate -individual generally perishes; but we have not on record a sufficient -number of cases with particular descriptions of symptoms and appearances -on dissection, to enable us to say positively that cold kills by -apoplexy.” - -After death the blood is generally florid in the aorta, so that the -animal does not die of suffocation; the heart sometimes contracts feebly -after the muscular irritability of the limbs and intestines are nearly -destroyed; the cerebral veins contain but little blood; the ventricles -contain a small portion of fluid. Mr. _Brodie’s_ experiments coincide in -most respects with those of Dr. _Chassat_, who uniformly found after -death, the heart much distended with blood, as in Syncope, scarlet blood -occupying the left side; and he also found that the heart ceased to -contract before the diaphragm, so that he has seen the animal -insensible, and gasp for breath, even after the chest was opened and the -heart excised! The muscles were unusually florid, and the peristaltic -motions of the intestines were generally observed to continue longer -than the action of the heart. The voluntary muscles, he says, lose their -irritability in different degrees, those of the legs before those of the -thighs, and those of the thighs before the abdominal muscles. - - - DEATH BY THE AGENCY OF HEAT. - -We have not yet a sufficient number of well reported experiments on the -effects of heat on animals, to enable us to draw any satisfactory -conclusions respecting the mode in which life is destroyed by this -agent; although it seems probable that it acts by destroying the -muscular energy of the heart and diaphragm.[53] - -Mr. _Brodie_ placed a rabit in a basket in an oven, the temperature of -which was not more that 150°, and it died in a few minutes without any -apparent suffering; the heart was afterwards found distended with blood, -on both sides, as in Syncope. - - - DEATH BY LIGHTNING. - -It has been incontrovertibly established by the experiments of modern -philosophers, that the phœnomena of electricity are identical with those -of thunder and lightning. The human body is alike affected by both; and -death, whether it be occasioned by the discharge of an electrical -battery, or by that of a thunder cloud, exhibits effects precisely -analogous. - -Mr. _Hunter_ supposed that when death is thus occasioned, there is an -instantaneous and entire annihilation of the vital principle, in every -part of the animal machine; and that the muscles are therefore relaxed, -and incapable of contraction, that the limbs do not stiffen[54], as in -other cases of death, nor the blood coagulate, and that the body very -speedily runs into a state of putrefaction. The experiments however of -Mr. _Brodie_[55] will induce us to pause, and institute farther -enquiries before we receive this theory as unexceptionable. It will -appear that in the following experiments of this physiologist, an -instantaneous extinction of vitality did not take place, but, on the -contrary, the functions of the brain were those on which the electric -shock exercised its primary influence. An electric battery of six jars -having been charged with electricity, the shock was made to pass through -a Guinea pig, in the longitudinal direction from the head to the tail: -the animal immediately fell on one side, insensible, as if stunned; a -convulsive action of the muscles of the extremities was observed, but -did not long continue; and the function of respiration was not -interrupted. In a few minutes sensibility was restored, and the animal -recovered. A shock from a battery of nine jars was then passed in the -same manner through another Guinea pig; the animal immediately fell on -its side, exhibited a convulsive action of the voluntary muscles of the -limbs, but uttered no cries, and although attentively watched, no signs -of respiration could be discovered after the shock had passed through -it. Three minutes afterwards, Mr. _Brodie_ opened the chest, and found -the heart acting with regularity and vigour, about 80 times in a minute, -and circulating dark coloured venous blood; the peristaltic motion of -the intestines was likewise visible; and the muscles, when made the part -of a galvanic circuit, readily contracted. In this experiment, observes -Mr. _Brodie_, it is evident that the electric shock did not destroy the -irritability of the muscular fibre, nor did it affect the action of the -heart. _Death took place precisely in the same manner as from a severe -injury of the head_; and the animal died, manifestly from the -destruction of the functions of the brain; and, in this case, Mr. -_Brodie_ has no doubt, but that if the lungs had been artificially -inflated, the action of the heart might have been maintained, and the -animal probably have been restored to life. - -The nature and extent of the injury inflicted by lightning, depend upon -the intensity and direction of the electrical discharge, and vary -greatly in degree; by far the greater number of flashes are harmless -discharges from one cloud to another, and the instances in which it -strikes the earth are comparatively rare: when however this does occur, -and it directs its course through a human being, it may expend its -influence upon the surface, and produce partial or general -vesications.[56] Sometimes the clothes of the person have been violently -rent, and the metallic substances about them melted; or it may pass -through the body, without including the clothes, and it may occasion -death without injuring the organic structure of any part of the body: or -it may pass through only a particular portion of the body, and produce -local injury. - -But it has happened that persons have been struck when the tempest has -appeared to be at a considerable distance; this has been explained by -Signor _Beccaria_, by supposing that it is a discharge of electric fluid -from the earth, occasioned by the passing of a cloud that has just -before, in the elemental strife, been rendered negatively electric. Lord -_Stanhope_ distinguishes such a discharge by the name of the _Returning -Stroke_.[57] - -As a provision for personal security during a thunder storm, a few -precautions are necessary, and we are induced to notice them in this -place, as their history is necessarily involved in our enquiries -concerning death by lightning. In the open air, shelter ought not to be -sought immediately under trees, for should they be struck, such a -situation would be attended with the most imminent peril: on the -contrary, the distance of twenty or thirty feet from such objects, may -be considered as affording a place of safety, for should a discharge -take place, they will most likely receive it, and the less elevated -bodies will escape. Any surface of water, and even the streamlets that -may have resulted from a recent shower should be avoided, for being -excellent conductors, the height of a man, when connected with them, is -very likely to determine the course of an electrical discharge. The -partial conductors, through which the lightning directs its course when -it enters a building, are usually the appendages of the walls and -partitions; the most secure situation is therefore the middle of the -room, and this situation may be rendered still more secure by lying on a -hair mattress, or even on a thick woollen hearth rug. The part of every -building least likely to receive injury is the middle story, as the -lightning does not always pass from the clouds to the earth, but is -occasionally discharged from the earth to the clouds, as in the case of -the “_returning stroke_;” hence it is absurd to take refuge in a cellar, -as recommended by Dr. _Priestley_; indeed many instances are on record, -in which the basement story has been the only part of a building that -has sustained severe injury, the electric charge being divided and -weakened as it ascended. Any approach to a fire-place should be -particularly avoided, for the chimneys are very likely to determine the -course of the lightning; the same caution is necessary with respect to -gilt furniture, bell-wires, and moderately extensive surfaces of metal -of every description. - - - DEATH BY STARVATION. - -That a living animal body cannot long survive without the ingestion of -alimentary matter, is too self-evident to require demonstration. Living -bodies, says _Cuvier_, may be considered as a kind of furnaces into -which inert substances are successively thrown, which combine among -themselves in various manners, maintain a certain place, and perform an -action determined by the nature of the combinations they have formed, -and at last fly off in order to become again subject to the laws of -inanimate nature. - -It must, however, be observed, that there is a difference, depending on -age and health, in the proportion of the parts which enter into the -current, and those which abandon it; and that the velocity of the motion -usually varies according to the different conditions of each living -body; hence it follows, that the period during which an individual may -exist without food, will be liable to variation. We have already stated -(page 394) that, _cæteris paribus_, he will perish from inanition with a -rapidity proportioned to his youth, and state of robust vigour; and we -remarked in what strict conformity with physiological principles the -poet _Dante_ had described the fate of _Ugolino_ and his family.[58] The -same fact appears also to have been well understood by the ancient -physicians;[59] equally evident is it that women are able to support -abstinence longer than men. It has been also observed that a moist -atmosphere contributes to the protraction of life, under circumstances -of privation; this may depend, not only upon the fluid matter thus -furnished to the body, but upon the non-conducting power of the medium, -in relation to aqueous vapour; the ingestion of a very small proportion -of water revives in an extraordinary degree, the animal perishing from -famine, and prolongs his existence. _Redi_[60] instituted a series of -experiments with the sole view of ascertaining how long animals can live -without food. Of a number of capons which he kept without either solid -or liquid food, not one survived the ninth day; but one to which he -allowed water, drank it with avidity, and did not perish until the -twentieth day. _Elizabeth Woodcock_, who was buried under the snow, near -Cambridge, for the space of eight days, undoubtedly owed her -preservation to the snow which she occasionally sucked.[61] - -Those cases of extraordinary fasting, which are recorded in the -different Transactions and Journals of almost every country, are to be -generally regarded as gross impositions; we[62] have already exposed the -fallacy of several of the more popular histories of this kind. Such -impostors, however, in their attempt to delude the world, have -unintentionally offered themselves as the voluntary victims of -physiological experiment; for we have at least learnt from them how -small a portion of aliment is sufficient to preserve the life of a human -being; a fact which had never before been satisfactorily proved, however -probable it had been rendered, by the recorded habits of many of the -early Christians, especially those of the East, who retired from -persecution into the deserts of Arabia and Egypt. - -The sufferings of a person perishing from inanition[63] must be -considered as the most acute that can befall humanity; and yet we have -instances on record of their having been voluntarily encountered as the -means of suicide; a very interesting and well-authenticated instance of -this kind has been related as having occurred in Corsica;[64] and, as it -is calculated to afford, at once, a history of the symptoms of -Starvation, and an exemplification of their severity, we shall introduce -a brief account of the case in this place. _Luc Antoine Viterbi_ was -condemned to death as an accomplice in the assassination of _Frediani_, -a crime which he denied to the last moment, and appealed against a -sentence passed upon him by a Court composed of his personal enemies. -Towards the end of November, _Viterbi_ (knowing his condemnation, and -being confined in the prison of Bastia), resolved to die. To effect his -purpose, he abstained from food for three days, and then ate -voraciously, and to a forced excess, in the hope that, after fasting so -long, he should thereby put an end to his existence; in this however he -was deceived, and, on the second of December, he determined to starve -himself to death; from that day nothing could shake his awful -resolution, although he did not expire until the night of the 21st of -that month. During the three first days, _Viterbi_ felt himself -progressively tormented by hunger; under these circumstances a report -was made to the public minister, who ordered bread, water, wine, and -soup to be taken daily to his cell, and placed conspicuously in view. No -debility was manifested during these three days, no irregular muscular -movement was remarked, his ideas continued sound, and he wrote with his -usual facility, but took no nourishment. - -From the 5th to the 6th, to hunger insensibly succeeded the much more -grievous suffering of thirst, which became so acute, that on the 6th, -without ever deviating from his resolution, he began to moisten his lips -and mouth occasionally, and to gargle with a few drops of water, to -relieve the burning pain in his throat; but he let nothing pass the -organs of deglutition, being desirous not to assuage the most -insupportable cravings, but to mitigate a pain which might have shaken -his resolution. On the 6th, his physical powers were a little weakened; -his voice was nevertheless still sonorous, pulsation regular, and a -natural heat equally extended over his whole frame. From the 3d to the -6th, he had continued to write; at night several hours of tranquil sleep -seemed to suspend the progress of his sufferings, no change was -observable in his mental faculties, and he complained of no local pain. -Until the 10th, the thirst became more and more insupportable; _Viterbi_ -merely continued to gargle, without once swallowing a single drop of -water; but in the course of the 10th, overcome by excess of pain, he -seized the jug of water, which was near him, and drank immoderately. -During the last three days, debility had made sensible progress, his -voice became feeble, pulsation had declined, and the extremities were -cold. _Viterbi_, however, continued to write; and sleep, each night, -still afforded him several hours ease. - -From the 10th to the 12th the symptoms made a slight progress. The -constancy of _Viterbi_ never yielded an instant; he dictated his -journal, and afterwards approved and signed what had been thus written -agreeably to his dictation. During the night of the 12th, the symptoms -assumed a more decided character, debility was extreme, pulsation -scarcely sensible, his voice extraordinarily feeble, the cold had -extended itself all over the body, and the pangs of thirst were more -acute than ever. On the 13th the unhappy man thinking himself at the -point of death, again seized the jug of water, and drank twice, after -which the cold became more severe; and congratulating himself that death -was nigh, he stretched his body on the bed, and said to the gendarmes -who were guarding him, “Look how well I have laid myself out.” At the -expiration of a quarter of an hour, he asked for some brandy; the keeper -not having any, he called for some wine, of which he took four -spoonsful; when he had swallowed these the cold suddenly ceased, heat -returned, and _Viterbi_ enjoyed a sleep of four hours. On awaking (on -the morning of the 13th) and finding his powers restored, he fell into a -rage with the keeper, protesting that they had deceived him, and then -began beating his head violently against the wall of his prison, and -would inevitably have killed himself, had he not been prevented by the -gendarmes. During the two following days he resisted his inclination to -drink, but continued to gargle occasionally with water; during the two -nights he suffered a little from exhaustion, but in the morning found -himself rather relieved. It was then that he penned some stanzas. On the -16th, at five o’clock in the morning, his powers were almost -annihilated, pulsation could hardly be felt, and his voice was almost -inaudible; his body was benumbed with cold, and it was thought that he -was on the point of expiring. At ten o’clock he began to feel better, -pulsation was more sensible, his voice strengthened, and, finally, heat -again extended over his frame, and in this state he continued during the -whole of the 17th. From the latter day until the 20th, _Viterbi_ only -became more inexorable in his resolution to die. During the 19th, the -pangs of hunger and thirst appeared more grievous than ever; so -insufferable, indeed, were they, that for the first time, _Viterbi_ let -a few tears escape him; but his invincible mind instantly spurned this -human tribute. For a moment he seemed to have resumed his wonted energy, -and said, in the presence of his guards, and the gaoler, “I will -persist, whatever may be the consequence; my mind shall be stronger than -my body; my strength of mind does not vary, that of my body daily -becomes weaker.” A little after this energetic expression, an icy -coldness again assailed his body, the shiverings were frequent and -dreadful, and his loins, in particular, were seized with a stone-like -coldness, which extended itself down his thighs. During the 19th a -slight pain at intervals affected his heart, and for the first time, he -felt a ringing sensation in his ears; at noon, on this day, his head -became heavy; his sight, however, was perfect, and he conversed almost -as usual, making some signs with his hands. - -On the 20th, _Viterbi_ declared to the gaoler and physician, that he -would not again moisten his mouth; and feeling the approach of death he -stretched himself, asking, as on a former occasion, whether he was well -out, and added, “I am prepared to leave this world.” Death did not this -time betray his hopes. On the 21st _Viterbi_ was no more. - -In this interesting history, we receive a faithful account of the -physical effects of starvation upon a human being, and perceive how -greatly a very inconsiderable portion of liquid is capable of producing -an invigorating effect upon the body, when in a state of extreme -inanition; but the mind of the subject before us was stern and -invincible, inflexibly bent upon self destruction; and we therefore do -not perceive the developement of those moral effects, which in other -cases are the general consequences of starvation. The histories of -besieged towns[65] would afford us ample evidence upon this subject; and -would shew that famine destroys all the most powerful instincts of our -nature. We know not, however, a more awful illustration of this fact -than that furnished by the account of the wreck of the _Méduse_,[66] and -its appalling consequences; it appears that this frigate struck on the -bank of Arguin, and as all attempts to save her were fruitless, nothing -remained but to concert immediate measures for the escape of the -passengers and crew; five boats were accordingly got in readiness, and a -raft, destined to carry the greatest number of people, was hastily -constructed; biscuit, wine, and fresh water were also apportioned to -each; but in the tumult of abandoning the wreck, it so happened that the -raft had the least share of the provisions, and in which there was not a -single barrel of biscuit. This raft, containing no less than one hundred -and fifty souls, was to have been towed by the boats, with which it was -connected by ropes; but the adventurers had not proceeded far, when the -boats cast off, and cruelly abandoned the raft to the mercy of the -ocean; to the scene which ensued it is impossible for any language, -however florid, to do adequate justice. Despair, aided by the pangs of -hunger, soon excited a mutiny; a dreadful slaughter ensued, and the -flesh of their murdered comrades afforded to the survivors a short -respite from the immediate sufferings of famine. - - - - -THE APPLICATION OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTS ESTABLISHED IN THE PRECEDING - CHAPTERS, TO THE GENERAL TREATMENT OF ASPHYXIA. - - -Although our researches into the causes and phenomena of asphyxia, or -suspended animation, will afford, on many occasions, but very scanty -encouragement with regard to the extent and value of the resources of -art, yet we apprehend that to the intelligent practitioner they will not -on that account be less acceptable; for to him it must be well known, -that the detection of error is the first step in the discovery of truth, -and although the tendency of the present investigation will be to -reject, as useless, many of those plans of treatment which have long -enjoyed the confidence of the public and the profession; yet it will -suggest the application of some that have not hitherto been duly -appreciated, and regulate that of others whose efficiency entirely -depends upon the time and manner of their administration. But the fact -is not to be concealed, that the medical profession, as well as the -public, have long been too sanguine in their estimate of the -probabilities of recovery by art, in cases where life is suddenly -arrested by the operation of external causes; and upon this occasion, -the establishment of the “ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY for the recovery of -persons apparently dead,” requires some notice, in relation to the -possible extent of its successful exertions. Without some explanation it -will be impossible to reconcile the reports of that philanthropic -institution, with the physiological views which we have attempted to -establish in the present work; it therefore becomes a part of our duty -to explain the nature of the fallacies into which the witnesses and -reporters of cases of suspended animation appear to us to have been -unconsciously betrayed, and which have so frequently bestowed upon fable -the colour of truth, and given to vague report, the apparent stability -of credible testimony. In the first place we would observe, that in -those cases in which a long interval is stated to have occurred between -the suspension of breathing, from drowning, and the restoration of that -function by art, it is probable that the anxiety of by-standers who -witnessed the struggles, and the impossibility of justly appreciating -the lapse of time in such moments of anxiety[67] and distress, have led -to the erroneous statements with which the subject is embarrassed. There -is, moreover, another fallacy into which the anxious observer is very -likely to fall,—the sufferer may have breathed unobserved during the -alleged interval of asphyxia; and if this fact be admitted, we at once -reduce some of the most incredible of these reports to the rational -standard of physiological probability. Nor shall we hesitate in the -present chapter to offer our remarks upon the plan of recovery proposed -by this society with as much freedom, and as little reserve, as we have -ventured to question the literal accuracy of their reports. But while, -thus fortified by physiological arguments, we profess to discredit many -of the results stated by this society, let it not be supposed that we -would prefer a charge of insincerity against their authors, or attempt -to withhold any portion of that public patronage and consideration, to -which their zeal and philanthropy so justly entitle them. - -The agents which are employed in cases of suspended animation, are far -too indiscriminately recommended; some of them, without doubt, offer -valuable resources to the physician, and only require a judicious -application to ensure their success; while others are entirely useless -and frivolous, and ought to be dismissed from our service, since the -retaining them only embarrasses the practitioner, and that too at a -period which of all others requires the utmost decision in the selection -of a plan of treatment, and the greatest promptness in its execution. - -The following may be considered as the principal resources upon which -the _Humane Society_ rely for restoration of persons apparently dead -from sudden accidents, viz. - - 1. _Inflation of the lungs._ - 2. _Application of heat._ - 3. _Internal Exhibition of stimulants._ - 4. _Friction._ - 5. _Electricity._ - 6. _Exposure of the surface of the body to cool air._ - 7. _Blood-letting._ - -We shall offer a few observations upon the methods of applying these -agents. - - - _On the manner of producing artificial respiration._ - -We are indebted to _Mr. Brodie_ for the valuable directions that are to -guide the execution of this important operation. (_Manuscript Notes._) A -common pair of bellows will be found as manageable and efficient an -apparatus for the inflation of the lungs, as any instrument that could -be contrived; those manufactured for the service of the Humane Society -are not of a size sufficient to inflate the lungs of even a large dog, -much less those of man; nor is it necessary to employ double bellows on -this occasion, for the air will escape from the lungs without being -withdrawn by suction; besides which, it is stated that the forcible -exhaustion of the lungs is liable to occasion pulmonic hemorrhage. It -has been proposed to insert the tube of the bellows into the trachea, by -means of a wound in that structure, but there are great objections to -such a proceeding; the hemorrhage which is likely to occur,[68] may -inundate the windpipe; besides which, the operation occasions delay, -which, however trifling, will be important in cases where the action of -the heart has become much enfeebled; and moreover the wound itself is an -evil which ought to be avoided, if artificial respiration can be -established without it; and were these objections even overruled, there -still remains another; experience has shewn that the air thus introduced -issues by the opening of the larynx, without having dilated the lungs. - -A tube may be constructed for the purpose of being inserted through the -mouth into the _rima glottidis_; if the patient be sensible, the -introduction of such a tube might be difficult; but as the patient is in -a state of insensibility, the introduction may usually be effected -without much difficulty, but not altogether without trouble; for the -mere circumstance of having to open the mouth, to pull forward the -epiglottis, to direct the tube into the proper aperture, may occasion -delay which will be of importance in cases where success depends upon -the skill with which the time has been economised. - -It is for such reasons more expedient to inflate the lungs by means of a -tube inserted into one nostril, keeping the other and the mouth -carefully closed: the bellows having been thus disposed, the air should -be driven into the lungs with a certain degree of force; the lungs will -thus become fully inflated, and in the intervals between the different -inflations, the air from the lungs will escape by the mouth and by the -other nostril, and when the lungs are thus emptied, the process may be -repeated. There is but one objection to this method of exciting -artificial respiration, viz. that at each inflation, a portion of air -will sometimes find its way into the stomach, through the œsophagus: it -is very desirable to prevent such an occurrence, for when the stomach is -much distended with air, the descent of the diaphragm is prevented, and, -consequently, a perfect inspiration cannot be accomplished. The passage -of air into the stomach may be prevented by pressing on the thyroid -cartilage, so as to close the communication between the pharynx and -œsophagus. All that is necessary for the operator is, to produce the -inspiration; we are recommended indeed to press the margin of the ribs -gently upwards, so as to expel the air, and produce expiration; but this -is altogether unnecessary, for the elasticity of the ribs, and the -pressure of the abdominal muscles and viscera, and the elasticity of the -lungs themselves, are quite sufficient to occasion the expiration -without any assistance from external pressure. We must not omit to state -that the inhalation of oxygen gas, instead of common air, has been -strongly recommended, not only as being in itself a more powerful -stimulus, but as being more efficient in the removal of the accumulation -of that carbonized matter which, under ordinary circumstances of -respiration, is regularly thrown off; the practical eligibility however, -of such a plan is very questionable, and to say nothing of the -difficulty of obtaining oxygen upon an occasion where the least delay is -fatal, it is very doubtful whether the effects of this gas are really -such as our theory would at once lead us to believe. We have deemed it -necessary to enter into these details, in order to afford some practical -instruction upon a subject of manipulation but little understood, but -which is undoubtedly the most valuable of all the resources which art -can furnish for the preservation of human beings that are in danger of -perishing from accidental causes. The principal circumstances to be -remembered are comprised in the following precepts. - - 1. The lungs are to be sufficiently, but not too much inflated. - - 2. The inspiration must be made of sufficient frequency. - - 3. The air is to be allowed a free exit from the lungs, so that the - same air shall not be transmitted more than once. - - 4. The method of inflating the lungs must be simple, and easy of - adoption; for as the interval of time, during which the artificial - respiration can possibly be of any service, is very limited, it is - important to avoid whatever may occasion the least delay. - - - _Application of Heat._ - -There is perhaps no medium through which we can more successfully apply -heat to the human body than that of the bath, because we can manage its -application with precision; we know the exact degree of heat, and can -avoid applying it in extremes; we, at the same time, can communicate it -more rapidly, and more equally, than by any other means, and we are -enabled to increase or diminish the temperature, by the addition of -fresh portions of water, as circumstances may render it expedient. - - - _Internal Exhibition of Stimulants._ - -The introduction of fluids into the stomach is not an easy process in -many cases of suspended animation, as _trismus_ is by no means an -uncommon occurrence; where, however, the spasm of the jaw has subsided, -the practitioner with a little address may by means of a flexible tube -easily accomplish his object. Glysters will likewise furnish an easy -mode of applying stimulants. - - - _Electricity._ - -No sooner was the discovery made that galvanism is capable of exciting -muscular contraction in animals apparently dead, than the physiological -enthusiast seized it with avidity, and at once hailed it as the long -desired influence that was to restore vigour to the enfeebled, and -resuscitation to those that were in a state of suspended animation. It -had been long known that muscles could be made to contract, by -irritating the nerves belonging to them with the point of the scalpel, -but not in a degree that remotely approached the vigorous contractions -occasioned by the galvanic influence, whose stimulus seemed almost -equivalent to that of volition. The sanguine expectations, however, -which were thus very naturally excited, have ended in the most complete -disappointment; and we are bound to confess that although _galvanism is -capable of exciting extraordinary contractions in the_ VOLUNTARY -_muscles, and of astonishing the multitude, yet its influence does not -extend to those that are_ INVOLUNTARY. _Bichat_ states distinctly that -_the involuntary muscles are beyond the reach of galvanism_.[69] Mr. -_Brodie_ has frequently attempted to restore the heart’s action by the -galvanic stimulus, in an animal dead from syncope, but never with -success. The author of the present work may add, that he has attempted -the same object by modifying the experiment in several different ways, -but with no better success. But it may be said that, as galvanism will -excite the contractions of the diaphragm, and other muscles of -respiration, it may be made subservient to the purpose of producing -artificial respiration: granted,—but it never can be made to act with -the certainty, regularity, promptness, or convenience, which attend the -operation of a common pair of bellows, nor even if it could, would any -advantage be obtained which might not be equally insured by the use of -this latter simple instrument. It is, moreover, questionable whether so -powerful a stimulus may not produce a subsequent exhaustion of the -muscular energy; such effect indeed would appear to have happened in the -case related by Dr. _Babington_, where the asphyxia had been occasioned -by the fumes of burning charcoal; “having passed,” says he, “a galvanic -shock through the chest, the patient instantly, to our surprise, drew -his breath deep; the muscles of the abdomen were seen to react, though -feebly, while those of the face were slightly convulsed, and the eyelids -were raised; at each successive application of this powerful agent, the -respirations were more forcibly performed, and the stroke of the artery -at the wrist rose in the same proportion. Having procured a bladder -filled with oxygen gas, we caused it to be inspired, and we thought that -it was followed by an increased activity of the powers of respiration -and circulation; as the heat of the body was not deficient, we now -sprinkled the face and chest with cold water, which also had the effect -of rousing the dormant powers of sensation, as the respiratory muscles -were uniformly thrown by it into action, though in a more feeble and -interrupted manner than when we employed the galvanic influence. Having -received a large supply of oxygen gas, we repeated the inhalation and -the galvanic succussions alternately, through the chest and head, every -half-hour, for three hours, when the galvanic influence was -discontinued, as the heart, though uniformly excited by it, seemed in -the intervals to act more feebly, and we were apprehensive that by -exalting the action of one power continually, we might destroy that -equilibrium of forces which is necessary to the maintenance of -life.”[70] - - - - - TREATMENT OF PARTICULAR CASES OF ASPHYXIA. - - - CASE I. - - _Wherein the action of the heart fails before that of the respiratory - organs._ - -In no case of this description can artificial inflation of the lungs -afford the least assistance, for the left side of the heart always -contains florid blood at the moment of its cessation; and since this -fact proves that it failed in its action, while under the full influence -of duly oxygenized blood, how can we expect that the stimulus, which was -unable to preserve the heart’s action while yet in motion, shall be able -to re-excite it after it has ceased? Such a practice can only have been -suggested by that erroneous physiology which maintained that the motion -of the lungs excited that of the blood. - -The preservation of the body from the influence of external cold is -always important, for it is only within a certain range of temperature -that the vital functions can be performed; and during a state of -asphyxia, the body is necessarily incapable of generating any portion of -animal heat; where the heat is lost it should be gradually restored, and -for such a purpose the introduction of wine, the volatile alkali, and -other stimulants, into the stomach, by means of a flexible tube, would -probably, in certain states of syncope, prove serviceable; although in -cases of suffocation it can never occasion the least benefit. We have -been also directed to employ frictions on the surface of the body, for -the purpose of assisting the circulation of the blood; as if, says Mr. -_Brodie_, (_Manuscript Notes_) this could answer any useful purpose -where the action of the heart has ceased, or as if it could be necessary -where it still continues. - -Under the head ‘death from cold,’ we have stated that the left cavities -of the heart contain florid blood; it therefore follows that the -directions of the Humane Society, to inflate the lungs in such cases, -are founded in error. - - - CASE II. - - _Wherein the function of respiration ceases, while the heart continues - to circulate black blood._ - -It has been stated that in cases of suffocation the heart continues to -contract for a short period, after the cessation of breathing; that this -interval is extremely short, but liable to vary from several causes; and -that it is uniformly shorter in cases of death by drowning, than in -those by strangulation. To the physician this is an interval of anxiety -and importance; let him beware how he trifles with the fleeting moments, -in which alone the resources of his art can be of any avail. If -artificial respiration be established at this period, the blood will -become once more oxygenised, the action of the heart will be continued, -the scarlet blood will be transmitted to the brain, and sensibility will -therefore return; the nervous energy will be once more transmitted to -the respiratory organs, and the animal will at length make a voluntary -effort to inspire air. Here then is the interval of time, during which -artificial breathing may be employed so as to effect a restoration to -life, where death must otherwise have been inevitable. Mr. _Brodie_ has -made a great variety of interesting experiments upon this subject, from -which may be deduced the following important corollaries. - - 1. If the lungs be inflated, the action of the heart will continue. - - 2. If the action of the heart has become feeble, but the circulation - is nevertheless not entirely suspended, the inflation of the lungs - will cause the feeble actions to become again frequent and vigorous. - - 3. If the action of the heart has entirely ceased, it is impossible to - restore it by the inflation of the lungs. - - 4. If the action of the heart has not entirely ceased, but is so - feeble as no longer to maintain the circulation, the artificial - respiration will prove as useless, as if the heart were perfectly - motionless. - -There is still, however, another period at which artificial respiration -may be employed with the greatest advantage; we have stated that after -the natural respiration has been re-established, and the animal would -appear to be advancing towards recovery, it not unfrequently relapses -into a state of insensibility, becomes convulsed, and dies. As this -depends upon the black blood which is circulating through the brain, so -paralysing that organ as to prevent a necessary transmission of its -influence to the muscles of respiration, life may be preserved if -artificial respiration be established until the brain is again supplied -with duly oxygenized blood; after which the animal will be enabled to -perform its own functions without any assistance from art. - -The same treatment will, of course, apply in every case where the -natural respiration ceases in consequence of being deprived of a due -supply of nervous energy, from the insensibility of the brain; as from a -blow on the head—the action of a narcotic poison—from lightning? - -It has been proposed, in cases of suffocation, to take away blood from -some of the larger veins; as far as relates to the asphyxia, no -advantage can accrue from such a practice, but incidental benefit may -arise where congestion has taken place in the brain, as happens in -hanging: in such cases the jugular veins are those from which the blood -can be taken with the greatest chance of success. - -Advantage is also said to accrue from the application of volatile -alkali, or other pungent bodies to the inside of the nostrils; whatever -promotes sneezing or coughing is supposed to give a succussion to the -diaphragm and its antagonist muscles, and thereby to promote the -re-establishment of respiration. - -Cordials, moderate warmth, and quiet, are the resources upon which we -are to rely for the ultimate recovery of the vital powers, after the -complete establishment of the function of respiration. - -For a long period, injections of tobacco enjoyed a high, but unmerited -reputation amongst the medicinal agents that were supposed capable of -rousing the latent energies of life, in cases of suspended animation; -and strange as it may appear, this most powerful narcotic poison, until -within a few years, was annually recommended for such purposes by those -who professed to instruct the profession and the public upon these -important topics; this may be considered as one of the most stupendous -errors that ever occurred in the exercise of the medical art. - -Where the asphyxia has arisen from the inhalation of noxious vapours, as -those emitted by burning charcoal, the exposure of the body to cold has -been strongly recommended. In Russia, where from the mode of heating the -dwellings, accidents of this kind very frequently occur, the general -practice is to rub the body with snow, and it is said with the happiest -effect; this plan, says Dr. _Babington_, is probably of use, from the -strong impression which is made upon the skin as a sentient organ. It is -also a well known fact, that the recovery of the dogs which are made the -subjects of experiment in the _Grotto del Cane_, is much favoured by -their being plunged into a neighbouring lake. - -Is it necessary to repeat, that the idea respecting the presence of any -considerable portion of water in the lungs of a drowned person, has no -foundation in truth? we should have scarcely deemed the notice of such a -fallacy, and that of the practice founded upon it, of hanging by the -heels, called for in this place, had not an opinion been lately -delivered, by a medical witness, that _a person drowned in the Thames -might possibly have been recovered, but for the impurity of the water, -arising from the gas-works_. We have only to observe upon this occasion, -that had the individual in question recovered in the hands of a -practitioner who could have delivered so absurd an opinion, he would -have been more indebted to good fortune than to skilful attention. - -A drowned animal will, in general, be recovered more slowly and with -greater difficulty than one which has fallen into a state of asphyxia -from strangulation. It is probable that, in the former case, the sudden -reduction of temperature will contribute to the more rapid extinction of -vitality. - -Having thus examined the pretensions to which the several modes of -restoring animation are entitled, we may conveniently introduce in this -place some observations upon the different methods which have been -adopted to secure condemned criminals against the fatal effects of their -execution. There can be no doubt but that by making an opening in the -trachea, below the ligature, death might in some cases be prevented, -provided the neck were not dislocated, nor the weight of the body very -considerable. _Richerand_ says, that a surgeon of the imperial armies, -whose veracity cannot be questioned, assured him that he had saved the -life of a soldier by performing the operation of laryngotomy some hours -before he was executed. - -Dr. _Male_[71] states that it was tried on one _Gordon_, a butcher, who -was executed at the Old Bailey in the early part of the last century; -the body having hung the usual time, was removed to a neighbouring -house, where a surgeon waited to receive it, and enforce every means -calculated to restore animation: he opened his eyes, and sighed, but -soon expired: the want of success was attributed to his great weight, -but we apprehend that, if the statement be correct as to his opening his -eyes and sighing, the failure must have depended upon want of skill in -the operators. We have yet to notice those cases of spontaneous recovery -which have taken place after execution, and which are too well -authenticated to admit of doubt; upon this point we would observe, that -such results by no means militate against the accuracy of the -physiological views which have been already presented to our readers. -Whenever such a recovery occurs, the strangulation has never been -complete, and feeble motions of the heart have been preserved by -imperfect and occasional respirations, during the interval of -suspension; this may depend, in a great measure, upon the situation of -the noose; if placed at the side of the neck, it would be pulled tight -by the weight of the body; but if at the back of the neck, it would be -far otherwise. _John Smith_, who was executed at Tyburn on the 24th of -December 1705, was cut down in consequence of the arrival of a reprieve, -nearly fifteen minutes after he had been turned off, but is said to have -been recovered by venesection and other means[72]; Governor _Wall_ was a -long time in the act of dying, and it was subsequently discovered that -this was owing to an ossified portion of the trachea resisting the -pressure of the rope; but the most extraordinary instance of this kind, -and one well authenticated, is that of _Margaret Dickson_, of -Musselburgh, who was tried and convicted in Edinburgh in the year 1728, -for the murder of her child; her conviction was accomplished by the -evidence of a medical person, who deposed that _the lungs of the child -swam in water_; there were, however, strong reasons to suspect the -justness of the verdict, and the sequel of the story was well calculated -to cherish a superstitious belief on the occasion. After execution, her -body was cut down, and delivered to her friends for the rites of -interment; it was accordingly placed in a coffin, and sent in a cart to -be buried at her native place, but the weather being sultry, the persons -who had the body in charge stopped to drink, at a village called -Peppermill, about two miles from Edinburgh; while they were refreshing -themselves, one of them perceived the lid of the coffin move, and -uncovering it, the woman immediately sat up, and most of the spectators -ran away with every sign of trepidation; a person, however, who was in -the public house immediately bled her, and in about an hour she was put -to bed, and by the following morning, was so far recovered as to be able -to walk to her own house[73], after which she lived twenty-five years -and had several children.[74] - - - - - OF THE CORONER’s INQUEST. - - -The office of Coroner (_Coronator_, from his duty in Pleas of the Crown, -2d Inst. 31. 4. Inst. 271) which is of great antiquity, was also of -considerable dignity;[75] for the Coroner, together with the Sheriff, -was to keep the peace of the county. He is to be elected by the full -county, and for life (except in cases of misconduct, when he may be -removed). The writ _De Coronatore eligendo_, F.N.B. 163, commands the -Sheriff “_quod talem eligi faciat, qui melius et sciat et velit et -possit officio illi intendere_”, and the 3 _Edw._ 1 _c._ 10. enacts, -that none but lawful and discreet knights should be chosen. But now it -is held sufficient if he have enough to be made a knight (1 _Bl. Com._ -347), which is but lands to the amount of £20 per annum, (I _Edw._ 1. -_Stat. de milit_). But as the office is attended with many unpleasant -duties, gentlemen, in these nicer times, have shrunk from its -performance, and it has consequently fallen into disrepute; and too -frequently into low and indigent hands. For though in great counties, -and some populous places, it is held by very worthy and experienced men, -yet in remoter parts it is to be feared that it is ill exercised; and at -least, that the persons holding it have not the learning and practice -necessary for its due execution. And this in all probability is an -increasing evil; for an office once fallen into disrepute, and only -propped by the addition of emoluments to be derived from fees (per job), -generally becomes venal; and there is now too much reason to fear, that -decency may be outraged by the ill-timed activity of some[76], as much -as justice is defeated by the corruption and supineness of others, who -have of late been chosen to this ancient and once honorable office. It -is therefore to be wished that some legislative measure may correct or -prevent this evil, by restricting the elections to persons duly -qualified; and by appointing medical assessors or inspectors, who might -usefully assist the Coroner in the discharge of his duties in cases of -inquisition of death. - -The statute _De Officio Coronatoris_, 4 _Edw._ 1 _c._ 2. directs the -mode in which Inquisitions of Death shall be held. “The Coroner, when -commanded by the King’s bailiffs, or by honest men of the county, shall -go to the places where any be slain, or suddenly dead or wounded, and -shall forthwith command four of the next towns[77], or five or six to -appear before him, in such a place; and when they are come thither, the -coroner upon the oath of them shall enquire if they know where the -person was slain; whether it were in any house, field, bed, town, -tavern, or company, and who were there. Likewise it is to be enquired -who were culpable either of the act or of the force; and who were -present, either men or women, of what age, if they can speak or have any -discretion. And such as are found culpable by inquisition shall be taken -and delivered to the sheriff, and committed to gaol; and such as be -found, and be not culpable (i.e. the witnesses, and these the coroner -shall bind over by recognizance to the next assizes,) shall be attached -until the coming of the justices[78] and their names written in the -coroner’s roll. If any be slain and the body found in the fields or -woods; first, it is to be enquired whether he was slain in the same -place or not;[79] and if it were brought and laid there, endeavour shall -be made to follow their steps who brought the body thither; whether -brought upon a horse or in a cart. Also it shall be inquired, whether -the dead person were known or a stranger, and where he lay the night -before. And if any be found culpable of the murder, the coroner shall -immediately go into his house, and inquire what goods he has, &c. how -much land, and the yearly value, and what corn on the ground, which -shall be valued and delivered to the township, which shall be answerable -before the justices for all; and the land shall remain in the king’s -hands until the lords of the fee have made fine for it, &c. - -“Also it is to be enquired of those who were drowned or suddenly dead; -and after it is to be seen of such bodies whether they were so drowned -or slain, or strangled by the sign of a cord tied straight about their -necks, or about any of their members, or upon any other hurt found upon -their bodies: whereupon they shall proceed in the form above said. And -if they were slain, then ought the coroners to attach the finders and -all others in company. - -“Upon appeal of wounds and such like, especially if the wounds be -mortal, the parties appealed shall be taken immediately, and kept until -it be known perfectly whether he that is hurt shall recover or not; and -if he die, the offenders shall be kept: and if the party recover, the -offenders shall be attached by four or six pledges after, as the wound -is great or small: if it be for a maim, he shall find more than four -pledges: and two pledges if it be for a small wound without mayhem. Also -all wounds ought to be viewed; the length, breadth, and depth, and with -what weapons, and in what part of the body the wound or hurt is, and how -many wounds there be, and who gave them: all which must be enrolled by -the coroner. - -“Moreover if any be appealed, the party appealing of the fact shall be -taken, and the party appealed of the force shall be attached also, and -kept in ward, until the parties appealed of the fact be attainted or -delivered. - -“Also horses, boats, carts, &c. whereby any are slain, shall be valued, -and delivered unto the towns as beforesaid. - -“If any be suspected of the death of any man, being in danger of life, -he shall be taken and imprisoned as before is said.” - -This statute is but in confirmation of the common law, and therefore -does not restrain the powers of the coroner which he before possessed, -even though they be not mentioned in it. 1 _East. P. C._ 381, where see -observations on each part of this duty. - -He is to inroll the verdict of his jury, written on parchment, and -return the Inquisition, either to the Justices of the next gaol delivery -of the county, or certify it into the King’s Bench, 2 _Roll. Abr._ 32. - -He must take notes of the evidence,[80] and bind the witnesses to -appear, for neglect of which he may be fined, 1 & 2 _Ph. & Mary_, _c._ -13. 1 _Lil. Abr._ 327. And if he hath not enough to answer, his fine -(for this or any other offence in execution of his office), shall be -levied on the county, as a punishment for electing an insufficient -officer. _Mirror_, _c._ 1. _s._ 3. 2 _Inst._ 175. - -When it happens that any person comes to an unnatural death, the -township shall give notice thereof to the coroner. Otherwise if the body -be interred before he come, the township shall be amerced. _Hale P.C._ -170. And _Holt_, C. J. says, It is a matter indictable to bury a man -that dies a violent death, before the Coroner’ Inquest have sat upon -him. 2 _Hawk. P.C._ _n._ 8. 1 _Burn’s Just._ 562. - -Though it is not necessary that the inquisition be taken in the place -where the body was viewed, 2 _Hawk. P.C._ _c._ 9. _s._ 25. yet he has no -authority to take an Inquisition of Death, without a view of the body, -and if an inquest be taken by him without such view, it is void. 2 -_Lev._ 140[81]. But after the view, which must be by the jury and -coroner together, the inquest may adjourn to a more convenient -place.[82] - -He may in convenient time take up a dead body that hath been buried, in -order to view it: but if it be buried so long that he can discover -nothing, or if there be danger of infection, the inquest ought not to be -taken by the coroner, but by Justices of Peace, by the testimony of -witnesses; for none can take it on view, but the coroner. _Bro. Coron._ -167. 173. If the body is improperly buried, or suffered to lie till it -stinks, the town shall be amerced. 2 _Danv. Ab._ 209. _Hale, P.C._ 270. -2 _Hawk._ 48. - -A Coroner’s Inquisition being final, the coroner ought to hear -counsel[83] and evidence on both sides.[84] 2 _Sid._ 90. 101. He must -admit evidence as well against the king’s interest as for it; and for -omitting to do so, his inquisition may be quashed. 2 _Hale, P. C._ -60.[85] 1 _East’s P.C._ 383. - -The coroner among other things must enquire of the deodand, which on the -violent death of any one, even though purely accidental, has accrued to -the king or his grantee. - -This mulct was, in ancient times, applied to the purpose of purchasing -masses, for the repose of the soul of the deceased; it is now converted -into an ill apportioned, arbitrary, or, in a few cases, inadequate -fine[86] on the individual, whose property has been, whether innocently -or culpably, the cause of death. It is as absurd that a ship under sail, -from which a man has fallen and been drowned, should be forfeited to the -king; as it is lamentable that the ignorant, and too frequently the -criminally negligent vender of oxalic acid for Epsom salts, should -escape all punishment. - -Where a thing is not in motion, that part of it which actually caused -the death is alone forfeited, “as if a man be climbing on the wheel of a -cart, and is killed by falling from it, the wheel alone is a deodand. 1 -_Bl. Com._ 300. But whenever the thing is in motion, not only that part -which immediately gives the wound, (as the wheel which runs over his -body) but all the things which move with it, and help to make the wound -more dangerous (as the cart and loading, which increase the pressure of -the wheel) are forfeited.” _ibid._ The utmost penalty of this law might -often be inflicted on the proprietors of stage coaches, where the wilful -negligence, drunkenness, or brutality of the driver had occasioned the -loss of life. “It matters not whether the owner were concerned in the -killing or not; for, if a man kill another with my sword, the sword is -forfeited.” _ibid._ The learned Commentator thus concludes, “But juries -have of late very frequently taken upon themselves to mitigate these -forfeitures, by finding only some trifling thing, or part of an entire -thing, to have been the occasion of the death. And in such cases, -although the finding of the jury be hardly warrantable by law, the Court -of King’s Bench hath generally refused to interfere on behalf of the -lord of the franchise, to assist so unequitable a claim.” 1 _Com._ 301. -Thus is the justice of the country injured, in order to restrain the -rapacity of individuals, improperly invested with the prerogatives of -the crown. See also 1 _East. P. C._ 386. - -A coroner may be punished for misconduct by fine, imprisonment, or -removal; as if he be remiss in coming to do his office when he is sent -for, he shall be removed by virtue of the statute _De Coronatoribus_ 4 -_Ed._ l. _c._ 2: _Salk._ 37. _Hale P. C._ 170. or if he do not properly -execute his office. 1 _Lill. Abr._ 327. - -If his Inquisition be quashed, and a _melius Inquirendum_ is granted, -that Inquisition must be taken by the Sheriffs or Commissioners, upon -affidavits.[87] 1 _Danv. Abr._ 210. _Salk._ 190. - -The filing of a coroner’s inquest may also be stopped for mismanagement. -1 _Mod._ 82. If he conceal felonies he shall be fined, and suffer one -year’s imprisonment. 3 _Ed._ 1 _c._ 9. In Lord _Buckhurst’s_ case a -coroner not returning his inquisition of murder to the next gaol -delivery, but suppressing it, was discharged from his office, and fined -£100. 1 _Kebl._ 280. - -If a coroner be convicted of extortion, wilful neglect of duty, or -misdemeanor in his office, the Court before whom he shall be convicted, -may adjudge that he shall be removed from his office. 25 _Geo._ 2. _c._ -29. - -And lastly, by the writ _De Coronatore exonerando_, _F.N.B._ 163. 164: -he may be discharged for negligence, or insufficiency, in the discharge -of his duty, and when coroners are so far engaged in any other public -business that they cannot attend the office; or if they be disabled by -old age or disease, or have not sufficient lands, or live in an -inconvenient part of the county. 2 _Inst._ 32. 2 _Hawk. P.C._ _c._ 9. -_s._ 12. But if any such writ be obtained on an untrue suggestion, the -coroner may procure a commission out of Chancery to enquire thereof; and -the king may grant a supercedeas of the writ. _Reg. Orig._ 177. 178. -_F.N.B._ 164. As the coroner’s is an office of freehold, the Court of -Chancery will not suffer the writ to issue, unless on affidavit that the -defendant has been served with notice of the petition for it. 3 _Atk._ -184. On the election of a new coroner the office of the old one is _ipso -facto_ extinguished. - -We have entered more fully into this description of the office and -duties of coroner in general, as we deem the due execution of them to be -of the utmost importance to the public welfare; not indeed intending it -as a guide to coroners themselves, for to that purpose it would be -insufficient; but to give some insight into the nature and character of -the office, to those who may, from time to time, be called upon to aid -its administration. It is however necessary for us to add that there are -some exceptions to the above mentioned rules, arising out of local -customs and peculiar jurisdictions; thus the Lord Mayor of London is by -virtue of his office, coroner within the City, and the Court is holden -before him or his deputy. 4 _Inst._ 250. And other places, as some of -the Royal residences, &c. have their separate coroners; but all, -whatever the mode of election or appointment, are in cases of misconduct -subject to the jurisdiction of the Court of King’s Bench. - - - - - SUICIDE. - - -Self-murder is ranked among the higher crimes, being a peculiar species -of felony, as implied in the technical term _felo de se_. To constitute -this offence, the party must be in his senses, else it is no crime; but -this excuse ought not to be strained to that length to which our -coroner’s juries are too apt to carry it,[88] viz. that the very act of -suicide is an evidence of insanity; as if every man who acts contrary to -reason, had no reason at all; for the same argument would prove every -other criminal _non compos_, as well as the self-murderer. The law very -rationally judges, that every melancholy or hypochondriac fit does not -deprive a man of the capacity of discerning right from wrong; and, -therefore, if a real lunatic kills himself in a lucid interval, he is -_felo de se_ as much as another man. 1 _Hales, P. C._ 412. 1 _Hawk. P. -C._ _c._ 27, _s._ 3. - -As to the punishment which human laws inflict on this crime, they can -only act upon what the criminal has left behind him,—his reputation and -fortune; on the former, by an ignominious burial in the highway, with a -stake driven through his body; on the latter, by the forfeiture of all -his goods and chattels to the king. - -In this as well as all other felonies, the offender must be of the age -of discretion, and _compos mentis_; and therefore an infant killing -himself, under the age of discretion, (of which some extraordinary -instances have lately been related in the public journals) or a lunatic -during his lunacy, cannot be a _felo de se_. 1 _Hawk. P. C._ _c._ 27, -_s._ 1. _Crom._ 30, _a_ 6, 31; _Hales P. C._ 28; _Dalt._ _c._ 92; 3 -_Inst._ 54. - -He who kills another, though at his own desire or command, is a -murderer;[89] and the person killed is not looked upon as a _felo de -se_, in as much as his assent was merely void, being against the law of -God and man; 1 _Hawk. P. C._ _c._ 27, _s._ 6; _Keilw._ 136; _Moor_ 754. -But query, as he is the guilty cause of his own death, is he not a -felon? for if the question had been of the death of another, his consent -to it would have been equally against the laws of God and man; yet if -poison were given by his direction or command, even though he were not -present, and might have repented, it would be murder, much more then, -when he actually assists at the perpetration. - -Further, as to what a _felo de se_ shall forfeit, it seems clear that he -shall forfeit all chattels, real or personal, which he hath in his own -right; and also all chattels real, whereof he is possessed jointly with -his wife, or in her right; and also all bonds and other personal things -in action, belonging solely to himself; and also all personal things in -action, and as some say, entire chattels in possession, to which he was -entitled jointly with another, on any account, except that of -merchandize. But it is said, that he shall forfeit a moiety only of such -joint chattels as may be severed, and nothing at all of what he was -possessed of as executor or administrator; 1 _Hawk. P. C._ _c._ 27, _s._ -7, and authorities there. However the blood of a _felo de se_ is not -corrupted, nor his lands of inheritance forfeited, nor his wife barred -of her dower. 1 _Hawk. P. C._ _c._ 27, _s._ 1; _Plowd. Com._ 261 b, 262 -a; 1 _Hales, P. C._ 413. The will of a _felo de se_ becomes void as to -his personal property, but not as to his real estate. _Plowd._ 261. - -Not any part of the personal estate is vested in the king, before the -self-murder is found by some inquisition; and consequently the -forfeiture thereof is saved by a pardon of the offence before such -finding; 5 _Co. R._ 110 b; 3 _Inst._ 54; 1 _Saund._ 362; 1 _Sid._ 150, -162. But if there be no such pardon, the whole is forfeited immediately -after such inquisition, from the time of the act done, by which the -death was caused; and all intermediate alienations and titles are -avoided. _Plowd. Comm._ 260; _Hales P. C._ 29; 5 _Co. R._ 110; _Finch._ -216. All such inquisitions ought to be by the coroner _super visum -corporis_, if the body can be found; and an inquisition so taken cannot, -as some say, be traversed. _Hale, P. C._ 29; 3 _Inst._ 55; 1 _Hawk. P. -C._ _c._ 27, _s._ 9, 10, 11. But see also 3 _Mod._ 238, 1 _Burr._ 17. - -But if the body cannot be found, so that the coroner, who has authority -only _super visum corporis_, (vide ante. p. 93), cannot proceed, the -inquiry may be by Justices of the Peace, (who by their commissions have -a general power to inquire of all felonies,) or in the King’s Bench, if -the felony were committed in the county where the court sits; and such -inquisitions are traversable by the executor, &c. 1 _Hawk. P. C._ _c._ -27, _s._ 12; 3 _Inst._ 55; _Hales P. C._ 29; 2 _Lev._ 141. - -Also all inquisitions of this offence being in the nature of -indictments, ought particularly and certainly to set forth the -circumstances of the fact; and in conclusion add, that the party in such -manner murdered himself. 1 _Hawk. P. C._ _c._ 27, _s._ 13; 3 _Lev._ 140; -3 _Mod._ 100; 2 _Lev._ 152. Yet if it be full in substance, the coroner -may be served with a rule to amend a defect in form. 1 _Sid._ 225, 259; -3 _Mod._ 101; 1 _Keb._ 907; 1 _Hawk. P. C._ _c._ 27, _s._ 15. - -If a person is unduly found _felo de se_; or on the other hand found to -be a lunatic, when in fact he was not so, and therefore ought to have -been found _felo de se_; although a writ of _melius inquirendum_ will -not be granted, yet the inquisition is traversable in the King’s Bench. -3 _Mod._ 238. - -By the rubrick in the Common Prayer, before the burial office, -(confirmed by _Statute_ 13 and 14, _Car._ 2, _c._ 4) persons who have -laid violent hands on themselves shall not have that office used at -their interment. Yet the priest has no power of enquiry, or even as it -would appear of delay, in order to enquiry, when a body (though it be of -a notorious suicide) is brought to his church for interment. “The proper -judges, whether persons who died by their own hands were out of their -senses” (and a fortiori whether they did or not die by their own hands) -“are doubtless the coroner’s jury. The minister of the parish hath no -authority to be present at viewing the body, or to summon or examine -witnesses, and therefore he is neither entitled nor able to judge in the -affair; but may well acquiesce in the public determination, without -making any private enquiry. Indeed, were he to make one, the opinion -which he might form from thence could usually be grounded only on common -discourse, and bare assertion. And it cannot be justifiable to act upon -these in contradiction to the decision of a jury, after hearing -witnesses upon oath. And though there may be reason to suppose that the -coroner’s jury are frequently favourable in their judgment in -consideration of the circumstances of the deceased’s family with respect -to the forfeiture, and their verdict is[90] in its own nature -traversable, yet the burial may not be delayed,[91] until that matter on -trial shall finally be determined. But on acquittal of the crime of -self-murder by the coroner’s jury, the body in that case not being -demanded by the law, it seemeth that a clergyman may and ought” (we can -safely add is compellable) “to admit that body to christian burial.” 1 -_Burn’s Ecc. Law_, _tit. Burial_. - - - - - OF MURDER GENERALLY. - - -There are so many various modes by which this infamous and horrid crime -may be perpetrated, that it would be an almost endless task to enumerate -them. In a legal point of view it is scarcely necessary; for wherever -death ensues from illegal violence[92], with malice _prepense_, it is -felony; yet for the better aid of medical investigation it is expedient -to class them under several heads. - -Sir _Matthew Hale_, in his pleas of the Crown, vol. 2, p. 431, -enumerates several ways of killing. - -1. By exposing a sick or weak person or infant unto the cold, to the -intent to destroy him, 2 _Ed._ 3, 189, whereof he dieth. - -2. By laying an impotent person abroad, so that he may be exposed to and -receive mortal harm, as laying an infant in an orchard, and covering it -with leaves, whereby a kite strikes it and kills it. 6 _Eliz. Compt. de -Pace_; 24 _Dalton_, _cap._ 93, (new edit. 145.)[93] - -3. By imprisoning a man so strictly that he dies, and therefore where -any dies in gaol, the coroner ought to be sent for to enquire of the -manner of his death. - -4. By starving or famine. - -5. By wounding or blows. - -6. By poisoning. - -7. By laying noisome and poisonous filth at a man’s door, to the intent -by a poisonous air to poison him. _Mr. Dalton_, _cap._ 93, out of _Mr. -Cook’s_ reading.[94] - -8. By strangulation or suffocation. - - “_Moriendi mille figuræ._” - -The two first of these modes frequently occur in cases of infanticide, -and to that head, which requires separate consideration on account of -its intricacy, we shall therefore refer it. Adults can seldom, if ever, -be exposed to destruction in this manner; though, as in —— _Brownrigg’s_ -case, and others of the same class, it may constitute a part of the -crime of murdering children, even of an advanced age, by duress and -starvation; where it is by a combination of cruel injuries, and not by -one specific blow or wound, that death is produced. These cases we shall -include under a general head, having first disposed of those which -require more specific notice. - - -“_By imprisoning a man so strictly that he dies, and therefore where any - dies in gaol[95] the coroner ought to be sent for to enquire of the - manner of his death._”[96] - -Death by duress of imprisonment was in all probability a very frequent -occurrence in the earlier periods of our history, we know that it has -often been inflicted by the individual tyranny of the nobles on their -vassals; and we have every reason to suppose, that even the keepers of -our public prisons were not free from the imputation of cruelty to their -unfortunate inmates; many have died by violence, more by neglect; it was -therefore a wise and humane precaution that the circumstances of every -death of a prisoner should be made the subject of minute enquiry; it is -also desirable that such enquiry should be carried on by persons of -competent skill, and with every possible and proper publicity. Our own -times we will hope are entirely free from the crime of premeditated -murder on the body of a prisoner; but we must not allow our confidence -in the modern improvements of prison discipline to lull us into a false -security as to the conduct of gaolers and their underlings many of these -may be men of mild and humane disposition, but as their daily occupation -must tend to blunt the finer feelings of humanity, it is well that every -charge of misconduct should be met by immediate and rigorous enquiry. On -this subject see _Rex_ v. _Huggins_, warden of the Fleet, 2 _Lord Raym._ -1578; 2 _Str._ 882; 9 _Harg. St. Tri._ 107; _Bambridge’s_ case, 9 _Harg. -St. Tri._ 146, 151; _Acton’s_ case, 9 _Harg. St. Tri._ 182, 210, 218; -see also the several Parliamentary Reports on Coldbath-fields, -Ilchester, &c. - -“A gaoler, knowing a prisoner to be infected with an epidemic[97] -distemper, confines another prisoner against his will, in the same room -with him, by which he catches the infection, of which the gaoler had -notice, and the prisoner dies; this is a felonious killing. _Stra._ 856; -9 _St. Tri._ 146. So, to confine a prisoner in a low damp unwholesome -room, not allowing him the common conveniences which the decencies of -nature require, by which the habits of his constitution are so affected -as to produce a distemper of which he dies; this also is felonious -homicide. _Stra._ 884; _Lord Raym._ 1578. For although the law invests -gaolers with all necessary powers for the interest of the commonwealth, -they are not to behave with the least degree of wanton cruelty to their -prisoners. _O. B._ 1784, p. 1177; and these were deliberate acts of -cruelty, and enormous violations of the trust the law reposeth in its -ministers of justice. _Forster_, 322.” See I _Hawk._ P. C. by _Leach_, -p. 119. - -Previous to the researches of the celebrated _John Howard_, (see his -treatise on Prisons and Lazarettos) our prisons appear to have been in a -most disgraceful state; they are now greatly improved, but something may -yet be done for their amelioration, more particularly as affecting the -health of the prisoners; and this principally, by allowing the most -unrestrained medical inspection by disinterested practitioners, who -should be as much as possible unconnected with local prejudices, or -partialities; some of the parliamentary regulations of madhouses might -in this respect be usefully extended to all places of confinement; those -who are not _sui juris_ are ever entitled to additional protection.[98] - -The best practical proof of improvement, in the construction of our -prisons, and in our prison discipline, is to be found in the -disappearance of that fatal pest, which was commonly called the gaol -fever, a disorder which, with something of retributive justice, -frequently extended its ravages to those, whose proper vigilance might -have prevented its generation. At the assizes held at Oxford in -1577,[99] called the black assize, we learn from _Baker’s_ Chronicle (p. -353) that all who were present died within forty hours: the Lord Chief -Baron, the Sheriff, and about three hundred more. _Lord Bacon_ ascribed -the fatality to a disease brought into court by the prisoners, and _Dr. -Mead_ entertained the same opinion; nor was similar infection, though to -a less extent, an uncommon occurrence[100], see vol. 1, p. 125. The -ancient practice of strewing the court with aromatic herbs and flowers, -and presenting bouquets to the Judges, is said to have derived its -origin from the idea of preventing infection: fresh air, still wanting -in our courts, would have proved a more powerful, and not less agreeable -prophylaitic. - - - BY WOUNDING, OR BLOWS. - -In investigating the subject of Wounds, it will be convenient to adopt, -on the present occasion, the usual classification of local injuries, -viz. 1. _Incised wounds_, or cuts; 2. _Punctures_, or such as are -inflicted by pointed instruments; 3. _Bruises_, injuries occasioned by -blunt instruments; 4. _Lacerations_, where the integuments are torn, and -5. _Gun-shot wounds_; upon each of which we shall offer a few -observations, and, in the first place, it may be remarked generally, -that no graduated scale of wounds, expressive of the degree in which -they are curable or dangerous, can ever be constructed; in appreciating -the probable degree of danger that attends a wound other data will be -required for the solution of the problem than those deduced from -situation and extent, such as the constitution and temperament, age, -habits of life, especially as they regard temperance and sobriety, -previous state of health, unnatural structure and disposition of parts, -and existing diseases of the wounded individual; together with the -temperature of the season, and other extrinsic circumstances. As a -general rule for our guidance a division of wounds into four classes has -been suggested, viz. 1. _Absolutely mortal._ 2. _Dangerous._ 3. -_Accidentally mortal._ 4. _Not mortal._ Every practitioner, however, -must be aware that death will occasionally supervene on the slightest -injury, and at other times that the patient recovers in spite of the -most serious and extensive mischief; in proof of the former assertion, -the author may state that he has seen a case in which the extraction of -a tooth was followed by death in less than forty-eight hours; and every -experienced surgeon must in the course of his practice have observed the -slightest wound[101] productive of alarming and even fatal consequences; -in illustration of the occasional occurrence of a contrary result we may -recal to the recollection of the reader the extraordinary case[102] of -Mr. _Thomas Tipple_, who recovered after an accident, by which the shaft -of a chaise had been forced through the thorax! There have also been -instances of the recovery of persons whose brain has been wounded to a -considerable depth, of others shot through the head; Dr. _Male_ states -that a pauper in Paris, some years ago, used to receive charity in a -piece of his skull. In the second volume of the _Medico-chirurgical -Transactions_, we have a well attested case of a bayonet wound in the -heart not causing immediate death. _Littre_ has given us a report of a -man who inflicted upon himself no less than eighteen stabs in the -abdomen with a knife; and although some of them did not penetrate beyond -the parieties, yet others wounded the contents; the symptoms which -followed are stated to have been very severe, but by judicious treatment -the patient recovered; seventeen months afterwards, however, he threw -himself into the street from a three pair of stairs window, and was -instantly killed. On examining the body all the wounds were found -healed, and, with the exception of one, all the cicatrices were firm and -level; they were traced into the intestines, where corresponding -adhesions were observed.[103] - -The surgical practitioner will, after such cases, be cautious in his -prognosis, and profit by the experience of Hoffman, who says, “_In -judicio de vulnerum lethalitate ferendo multorum Medicorum fama et -fortuna periclitantur_.”[104] Fortunately for the administration of -justice, that act of the Legislature, called “_the Ellenborough act_,” -relieves us from many of those embarrassments under which the -professional witness[105] must otherwise have laboured, and the surgeon -will appreciate the high importance and utility of the law, by which -wounding with an intent to kill is deemed equally criminal, whether -death be the result or not. Still, however, the testimony of the medical -practitioner will always be important; indeed the evil intent is often -to be inferred, or disproved, by the nature of the injury inflicted; as -is so well illustrated in the case of a man, who fractured the skull of -a boy with a stick, upon finding him in the act of plundering his -orchard; when it was clearly made out in evidence, that a mere -chastisement was only intended, for the size of the stick was not such -as to have occasioned any fatal effect, had not the skull of the -unfortunate boy been unusually thin. - -If the surgeon is called upon to inspect a wound, with a view to -ascertain whether it produced death, he should in the first instance, -endeavour to examine its nature and direction, so as to disturb as -little as possible the position in which the body was found; the knife -of the anatomist must afterwards explore its more particular condition -and relations, by a dissection, for the performance of which we shall -give ample directions in a future chapter. - -The importance of examining the wound, so as not to alter the position -of the parts must be obvious when we consider how necessary it may -afterwards become to compare as strictly as possible the internal -appearances with the external lesions. The direction of a wound is -frequently a circumstance of much greater importance than may at first -appear, we ought not therefore to probe it without extreme caution, lest -we should give to it a direction which it did not originally possess. -This precaution becomes the more necessary as the putrefactive process -advances. - -_Of incised wounds, or cuts._ The prognosis of wounds made with a -cutting instrument varies, _cæteris paribus_, according to the extent -and depth of the division, the nature of the injured parts, and the -circumstances which attend the operation; where the instrument has been -so sharp as not to occasion any contusion or laceration, the fibres and -texture of the wounded part will have suffered no other injury but their -mere division; and there is consequently less tendency to inflammation, -suppuration, gangrene, and other bad consequences; if the wound be large -and deep it will be more dangerous, as well as more difficult to heal, -than one which only affects the skin. Wounds, accompanied with injury of -considerable vessels or nerves, are more or less hazardous, according to -the magnitude or number of those vessels or nerves; generally speaking, -the most dangerous examples of incised wounds are those which are made -about the throat; here there are so many large blood-vessels, nerves and -other parts of great importance, that deep incised wounds often prove -fatal, either immediately, or in a few days; in some cases of suicide -the carotid artery is opened, and the person perishes from hemorrhage on -the spot, before any assistance can be afforded; in other instances he -divides some of the principal branches of the external carotid, and -after losing a great deal of blood, he faints, and the hemorrhage being -thus checked, the life of the patient is preserved, until surgical -assistance can be procured. Cut wounds of the extremities, when such -arteries as the femoral and brachial are injured, may also suddenly -destroy the patient, by hemorrhage. - -_Punctures_, or such as are made by the thrust of pointed weapons, as by -swords, daggers, lances, and bayonets, or by the accidental and forcible -introduction of considerable thorns, large nails, skewers, &c. into the -flesh,[106] comprise a class of wounds of great importance and danger, -as they generally penetrate to a great depth, so as to injure large -blood-vessels, nerves, viscera, and other organs of importance; and -being inflicted with considerable violence the parts always suffer more -injury than what would be produced by their simple division. It must -also be considered, that a great number of the weapons by which such -wounds are occasioned, increase materially in diameter from the point -towards their other extremity; and hence, when they penetrate far, they -must force the fibres asunder like a wedge, and cause a serious degree -of stretching and contusion. It is this circumstance which gives so -dangerous a character to bayonet wounds in the soft parts. The opening -which the point of such a weapon produces is quite insufficient for the -passage of the thicker part of it, which can therefore only enter by -forcibly dilating, stretching, and otherwise injuring the fibres of the -wounded flesh. But mortal injury may be inflicted by an extremely -slender instrument, so as to occasion an apparently trivial puncture; -and in some cases, the external injury is healed before the death, which -it occasions, takes place. Such cases can only receive satisfactory -elucidation from the lights of an anatomical dissection, under which -head we have furnished several instructive examples. - -_Bruises_, or _Contusions_, strictly comprehend those injuries which are -occasioned by the violent application of blunt or obtuse instruments to -the soft parts. They are not unfrequently complicated with severe -internal injury resulting from the violence which the parts have -sustained, such as inflammation, suppuration, or even the rupture of -some of the viscera, of which we shall hereafter present several -illustrative cases. - -A blow on the region of the stomach sometimes occasions instant death; -an effect which would appear to arise from an injury inflicted upon the -eighth pair, and great sympathetic nerves, by which the heart is -instantly paralysed. In these cases the heart has been found empty, and -the stomach has appeared red and inflamed; this latter appearance is the -obvious effect of the sudden cessation of the heart, producing the -settling of the blood in the extreme arterial branches. - -Wounds of this description are, of course, more or less important, -according to their locality; unless complicated with laceration, they -are never attended with any considerable hemorrhage, although the minute -vessels are necessarily ruptured, and the effusion of their contents -produces the discoloration so characteristic of this kind of injury. - -As in the case of wounds, so also in respect of blows, injuries -apparently inadequate have produced death; it then becomes difficult to -fix the degree of guilt which should be attached to the aggressor; for -though according to the strict letter of the law, every man is -responsible for the ultimate effect of an illegal act committed by him; -yet in moral justice there is much difference between the atrocity of -him who strikes a grievous wound with a deadly weapon, from which by -chance his victim may recover; and the fault of him who transported by -sudden passion gives an ordinary blow, which by accident, by reason of -some inward and unknown disease of his adversary, or by injudicious -treatment, becomes fatal. Numerous cases might be cited in support of -this position: that of _Brain_ for the murder of _Watts_, _Cro. Eliz._ -778: _H. P. C._ 455. is one of the most remarkable, not only from the -circumstances attending the trial, where the jury were fined and -imprisoned for a corrupt verdict, but also for the physiological -circumstance, that the deceased died instantly from a blow on the calf -of his leg. The parties had previously quarrelled and fought; and -_Brain_, the prisoner, was hurt; the next day _Watts_ passing his shop -made mouths at him, on which new provocation _Brain_ hit him the blow -which instantly proved fatal. The Court held that the new provocation -was insufficient, and that the death must be referred to precedent -malice—might they not also have considered that a blow on the calf of -the leg was more insufficient to produce death under ordinary -circumstances, than a wry face to induce or inflame a quarrel? The -prisoner was found guilty, but not without considerable and as it -appears to us proper resistance on the part of the jury; the case being -on Appeal, the Crown could not pardon, though the appellant might -compromise his suit:—we are not informed whether the prisoner was -executed. - -A case, nearly parallel to the above, is that of _Lydia Alder_, who was -tried in 1744 for the murder of her husband, whom she kicked on the -groin; in consequence of which, having at the time an inguinal rupture, -mortification came on, and he died. Verdict, _Manslaughter_. The -circumstances attending the case of _Bartholomew Quain_ were, in some -respects, different; he was tried and convicted for the murder of his -wife, at the Assizes for the Isle of Ely, in 1790. It appeared in -evidence, that a rupture of the spleen was produced by the violent -kicks, of which the indictment stated that she had died. The jury, under -the direction of the Chief Judge of Ely, found a special verdict, in -order to take the opinion of the Court of King’s Bench upon the -following question, whether the facts found by the jury amounted to -murder, or only to manslaughter, when the Court was clearly of opinion -that it was murder, because there did not appear to have been any -provocation on the part of the deceased; and no man had a right, even to -inflict chastisement, without a just provocation. - -_Lacerations_, where the integuments are torn.—These differ from incised -wounds not only in the circumstance of their being less disposed to heal -by the first intention, but in the singular fact of their not bleeding -to any extent; there are perhaps no facts, in the history of surgery, -more extraordinary than those which have been recorded on the subject of -whole limbs being torn away, without hemorrhage. The most remarkable of -these is related by _Cheselden_, in his work on Anatomy, being the case -of a miller, “whose arm, with the scapula, was torn off from his body, -by a rope winding round it, the other end being fastened to the coggs of -a mill; there was no hemorrhage, nor did any severe symptoms supervene, -so that the wound was cured by superficial dressings only, the natural -skin being left almost sufficient to cover it.” Analogous cases are -recorded by _La Motte_, in his _Traité des Accouchemens_; by Mr. -_Carmichael_, in the fifth volume of the _Edinburgh Medical -Commentaries_; and by others, in the second volume of the _Mem. de -l’Acad. de Chirurgie_. In appreciating the degree of danger attendant -upon wounds of this description, the practitioner must not overlook the -possible occurence of Tetanus. - -_Gun-shot wounds._ Long after the invention of gunpowder, Surgeons -continued to entertain very vague opinions respecting the nature of -wounds produced by it; some considered that the injured parts were -either dreadfully burnt by the heat of the projected body, or were -irritated by the presence of poison, communicated to them by the powder. -_Thomas Gale_, who served as a Surgeon in the army of _Henry_ 8th, at -Montreuil in 1554, was the first to refute the absurd opinions of “the -poisoning, burning, and conquassation of gun-shot wounds.” A gun-shot -wound is now defined “a violent contusion, with, or without a solution -of continuity, suddenly and rapidly effected by a solid body projected -from fire-arms.” If a musket or pistol ball has struck a fleshy part, -without injuring any material blood-vessel, we see a hole about the size -of, or smaller than the bullet itself; with a more or less discoloured -lip forced inwards, and if it has passed through the parts, we find an -everted edge, and a more ragged, and larger orifice at the point of its -exit; the pain in this case is so inconsiderable that the wounded person -is frequently not aware of his having received any injury. The course of -balls is frequently most extraordinary, and it behoves the judicial -surgeon to keep in mind a fact which may often throw considerable light -upon the subject of his investigation. A ball will often strike the -thorax or abdomen, and, to an inexperienced eye, appear to have passed -directly across, or to be lodged in one of the cavities. If great -difficulty of breathing or hemorrhage from the mouth, with sudden -paleness and laborious pulse, in the one case, or deadly faintness, -coldness of the extremities, and the discharge of stercoraceous matter -from the wound, in the second, are not present, we shall perhaps find -that the ball has coursed along under the integuments, and is marked in -its progress either by a redness, which Mr. _Hunter_ compared to a -blush, or by a wheal, or dusky line, terminated by a tumour, on the -opening which it will be easily extracted. In some of these long and -circuitous routes of balls, where we have not this mark, a certain -emphysematous crackling discovers their course, and leads to their -detection. The ball is in many instances found very close to its point -of entrance, having nearly completed the circuit of the body. In a case -related by Dr. _Hennen_, as one that occurred to a friend of his in the -Mediterranean, the ball, which struck about the _Pomum Adami_, was found -lying in the very orifice at which it had entered, having gone -completely round the neck, and being prevented from passing out by the -elasticity and toughness of the skin which had confined it to this -circular course. This circuitous route is a very frequent occurrence, -particularly when balls strike the ribs, or abdominal muscles, for they -are turned from the direct line by a very slight resistance indeed, -although they will at times run along a continued surface, as the length -of a bone, along a muscle, or a fascia, to a very extraordinary -distance. If there is nothing to check its course, and if its momentum -be very great, it is surprising what a variety of parts may be injured -by a musket ball. Dr. _Hennen_ states that in one instance, which -occurred in a soldier, who having his arm extended in the act of -endeavouring to climb up a scaling ladder, had the centre of his humerus -pierced by a ball, which immediately passed along the limb, and over the -posterior part of the thorax, coursed among the abdominal muscles, -dipped deep through the glutæi, and presented on the fore part of the -opposite thigh, about midway down. In another case, a ball which struck -the breast of a man standing erect in the ranks lodged in the scrotum. -The propensity of balls to take a curved direction is often seen in -their course on a concave surface; in short, they take very unusual and -deep-seated routes, not at all to be accounted for by any preconceived -theories drawn from the doctrine of projectiles, nor to be explained by -diagrams founded upon mathematical rules. These considerations ought to -render the Surgeon very cautious how he delivers his opinion, as to the -direction in which the shot was fired, and yet instances frequently -occur where no difficulty can arise upon this point, such was the case -of _Richard Annesley_, tried for the murder of _Thomas Eglestone_ (9 -_Harg. Sta. Tri._ 327). The deceased was a poacher. _Annesley_ who was -in company with the game-keeper, stated in his defence, that his gun had -accidentally gone off in his attempt to secure the deceased. The -instructions given by the Court on this occasion was that if the jury -were of opinion that the gun had so gone off accidentally, they should -bring in a verdict of _Chance-medley_, which was returned accordingly, -in consequence of the evidence of the Surgeon who had examined the -wound, and stated that its direction being upwards, very satisfactorily -proved that the fowling-piece had not been levelled from the shoulder, -which would have implied design; but must have been discharged at the -trail, which must have been accidental.[107] An idea long existed that a -ball might produce injury without striking any part of the body; this -was supposed by some to arise from the violent commotion produced in the -air by the rapid motion of the ball; and by others, to depend upon an -electrical shock on the parts, in consequence of the ball being rendered -electrical by friction in the calibre of the gun, and giving off the -electrical matter as it passes by. This, however, is contrary to all our -received notions respecting electricity; metals can never acquire such a -property by friction. - -In avowing our total disbelief in the existence of such -_wind-contusions_, as they have been called, we are well aware that we -shall oppose many very respectable authorities. “_Amicus Plato, sed -magis amica Veritas._” - -An important question, connected with the present subject, still remains -for elucidation; where a body has been found dead with wounds and -contusions, by what signs we are to determine whether they were -inflicted during life, or after death. As the solution of this -interesting problem requires various data, its consideration will be -reserved for that part of our work, where all the Objects of Inquiry, in -cases of sudden and mysterious death, are considered in their various -relations to each other, with a view to appreciate their individual and -joint importance. - - - BY POISONING. - -No species of murder is so base and cowardly, or so cool and deliberate -in its perpetration as murder by poison, which because of its secresy -prevents all precaution, whereas most open murder gives the party killed -some opportunity of defence;[108] it is generally committed in violation -of domestic duty and confidence, and too frequently evinces that -unrelenting and barbarous depravity, which can witness the sufferings of -its victim for days nay months unmoved; therefore our ancient laws -adjudged those convicted of poisoning to a severer punishment than other -offenders. 3 _Nels. Abr._ 363. _Jac. Law Dict. tit. Poison._ By the 22 -_Hen._ 8. it was _ex post facto_ enacted that _Richard Roose_, (or -_Cooke_), for putting poison into a pot of pottage in the Bishop of -Rochester’s kitchen, by which two persons were killed, should be boiled -to death; and that the offence in future should be adjudged High -Treason; but this among other new treasons (with which the reign of -_Henry_ the 8th had abounded) was abolished by the statute of _Edward_ -6, and now to poison any one wilfully is murder if the party die in a -year. 1 _Edw._ 6. _c._ 12. - -By the 43 _Geo._ 3. _c._ 58. (commonly called Lord _Ellenborough’s_ Act) -any person administering poison with _intent_ to murder another, (though -no death ensue) or to procure the miscarriage of a woman quick with -child, is declared guilty of felony without benefit of clergy: and -persons administering medicines to procure miscarriage, though the woman -is not quick with child, are declared guilty of felony, punishable by -imprisonment or transportation (_vide post_). If a man persuade another -to drink a poisonous liquor, under the notion of a medicine, who -afterwards drinks it in his absence, or if _A_, intending to poison _B_, -put poison into a thing, and deliver it to _D_ who knows nothing of the -matter, to be by him delivered to _B_, and _D_ innocently delivers it -accordingly in the absence of _A_;[109] in this case the procurer of the -felony is as much a principal as if he had been present when it was done -(2 _Hawk. P. C._ 443: _Vin. Ab. tit. Accessory_) or if one mix poison -with any eatable with intent to kill another, and a stranger casually -eat it and die,[110] it is murder; _Dalton_, 93. _Agnes Gore’s_ case for -poisoning by ratsbane (9 _Co. Rep._ 81: _Palm. R._ 547.), not so if it -be to kill vermin; but query if it be manslaughter where there is not -proper precaution, as where the poison is laid in ordinary places for -keeping meat, and mixed with ordinary food, so that a child may take it. -1 _East. P. C._ He that counsels another to give poison, if that other -doth it, the counsellor, if absent, is accessory _before_. _Coke, P. C._ -49. Case of the murder of Sir _Thomas Overbury_, _Harg. St. Trials_. But -he that absolutely gives or lays the poison, to the intent to poison, -though he be absent when it is taken by the party, yet he is principal, -and this was _Weston’s_ case. _Harg. St. Trials_: _Co. P. C._ _p._ 49. -_Vaux’s_ case, _ubi supra_, and _Donellan’s_ case for the murder of Sir -_Theodosius Boughton_, _Warwick Assizes_, 1784. See _Appendix_, 243. - -It is not our intention to detail every mode by which murder by poison -may be committed; too many are already known to the world in general; on -those which are known, we may safely comment; nor would there be as much -mischief as is commonly supposed in hinting at some others; for if any -should study this subject with evil intention, he may be assured that -the progress of modern science, though it may have discovered some new -modes of destruction, has been yet more fertile in antidotes for the -injured, and in means of detecting the guilty. - - - - - OF POISONS, - - CHEMICALLY, PHYSIOLOGICALLY, AND PATHOLOGICALLY CONSIDERED. - - -Toxicology, or the history of Poisons, forms one of the most important -and elaborate branches of Forensic Medicine, and in tracing the subject -through all its numerous and interesting relations to Jurisprudence, we -shall experience no small degree of gratification by observing, how -greatly and progressively this obscure department of science has, within -the last few years, been enlightened by the discoveries of Chemistry and -Physiology. - -The labours of the modern Chemist, indeed, have enabled us to recognise -and identify each particular substance by its properties and habitudes, -with an infallible delicacy, which the Physicians of a former age could -scarcely have anticipated, and much less practised. - -The Physiologist, by an invaluable series of observations and -experiments, has demonstrated the particular organ, or texture, upon -which each individual poison exerts its energies; and the Pathologist -has been thus enabled to establish the mode in which it depraves the -health, or extinguishes the life of an animal. Nor has the Anatomist -withheld his contributions upon this interesting occasion, for he has -demonstrated the situation, extent, and intensity of the organic lesions -which result from the operation of these terrible agents upon the living -body; and has pointed out several appearances which occur from natural -causes, but which might be mistaken by the unskilful or superficial -observer, for the ravages of poison. It remains for the Forensic -Physician to converge into one focus the scattered rays which have thus -emanated from so many points, and thereby to elucidate and determine the -line of conduct which the medical attendant is called upon to pursue, -for the relief of the patient suffering under the torments of poison, -and for the establishment of the guilt or innocence of the party charged -with the perpetration of a crime, which may be said to rob courage of -its just security, while it transfers to cowardice the triumphs of -valour. That engines so powerful and secret in their work of -destruction, should have universally excited the terror of mankind is a -fact which cannot surprise us, and, when we consider how intimate are -the relations between fear and credulity, we need not seek farther for -the solution of the many problems to which the exaggerated statements of -ancient Toxicologists[111] have given origin; the most extraordinary of -those relate to the alleged subtlety of certain poisons, which was -believed to be so extreme as to defeat the most skilful caution, and at -the same time so manageable, as to be capable of the most accurate -graduation; so that, in short, the accomplished assassin was not only -thus enabled to ensure the death of his victim through the most secret, -and least suspicious agents, but to measure his allotted moments with -the nicest precision, and to occasion his death at any period that might -best answer the objects of the assassination. The writings of -_Plutarch_, _Tacitus_, _Theophrastus_, _Quintillian_, and _Livy_, abound -with such instances of _occult_ and _slow_ poisoning; most of which, -however, notwithstanding the weight they may acquire from their -testimony, bear internal evidence of their fallacious character. -_Plutarch_ informs us that a slow poison which occasioned heat, cough, -spitting of blood, a lingering consumption of the body, and a weakness -of intellect, was administered to _Aratus_ of Sicyon. This same poison -is also alluded to by _Quintillian_ in his declamations. _Tacitus_[112] -informs us that _Sejanus_ caused a _secret_ poison to be administered by -an eunuch to _Drusus_, who in consequence gradually declined, as if by a -consumptive disorder, and at length died. _Theophrastus_[113] speaks of -a poison, prepared from Aconite, that could be so modified as to -occasion death within a certain period, such as two, three, or six -months, a year, and even sometimes two years. - -To such an extent does the crime of poisoning appear to have been -carried, about two hundred years before the Christian æra, that -according to _Livy_,[114] above one hundred and fifty ladies, of the -first families in Rome, were convicted and punished for preparing and -distributing poison. The most notorious and expert character of this -kind is handed down to us by the historians and poets under the name of -_Locusta_, who was condemned to die on account of her infamous actions, -but was saved in order that she might become a state engine, and be -numbered, as _Tacitus_ expresses it, “_Inter instrumenta regni_.” She -was accordingly employed to poison _Claudius_ by _Agrippina_, who was -desirous of destroying the Emperor, and yet feared to despatch him -suddenly, whence a slow poison was prepared by _Locusta_, and served to -him in a dish of mushrooms, of which he was particularly fond, -“_Boletorum appetentissimus_;” but it failed in its effects, as we learn -from _Tacitus_, until it was assisted by one of a more powerful nature. -“_Post quem nihil amplius edit._” This same _Locusta_ prepared also the -poison with which _Nero_ despatched _Britannicus_, the son of -_Agrippina_, whom his father _Claudius_ wished to succeed him on the -throne. This poison appears to have proved too slow in its operation, -and to have occasioned only a dysentery. The Emperor accordingly -compelled her by blows and threats, to prepare in his presence one of a -more powerful nature, and as the tale is related by _Suetonius_, it -appears that it was then tried on a kid, but as the animal did not die -until the lapse of five hours, she boiled it for a longer period, when -it became so strong as instantaneously to kill a pig to which it was -given. In this state of concentration it is said to have despatched -_Britannicus_ as soon as he tasted it.[115] Vide _Tac. An._ 13. _s._ 15. -16. Now it would clearly appear from these statements that _Locusta_, -avowedly the most accomplished poisoner of ancient Rome, was wholly -incapable of graduating the strength of her poisons to the different -purposes for which they were applied. - -The records of modern times will furnish examples no less atrocious than -those we have just related. _Tophana_, a woman who resided first at -Palermo, and afterwards at Naples, may be considered as the _Locusta_ of -modern history; she invented and sold those drops so well known by the -names of _Aqua Toffania_; _Aqua della Toffana_; _Acquetta di Napoli_, or -simply _Acquetta_. This stygian liquor she distributed by way of charity -to such wives as wished for other husbands; from four to six drops were -sufficient to destroy a man, and it was asserted that the dose could be -so proportioned as to operate within any given period.[116] It appears -that in order to secure her poison from examination, she vended it in -small glass phials, inscribed, “_Manna of Saint Nicolas Bari_,” and -ornamented the vessel with the image of the Saint. Having been put to -the rack she confessed that she had destroyed upwards of six hundred -persons, for which she suffered death by strangulation in the year -1709[117]. In 1670 the art of secret poisoning excited very considerable -alarm in France; the _Marchioness de Brinvillier_, a young woman of rank -and great personal beauty, having intrigued with, and subsequently -married an adventurer named _Saint Croix_, acquired from him the secret -of this diabolical act, and practised it to an extent that had never -before been equalled. She poisoned her two brothers through the medium -of a dish at table. She also prepared poisoned biscuits, and to try -their strength she distributed them herself to the poor at the Hotel -Dieu. Her own maid was likewise the subject of her experiments. To her -father she gave poisoned broth, which brought on symptoms characteristic -of those induced by corrosive sublimate. Her brothers lingered during -several months under much suffering. The detection of this wretch is -said to have been brought about in the following manner. _Saint Croix_, -whenever engaged in the preparation of his poisons, was accustomed to -protect himself from their dangerous fumes by wearing a glass mask, -which happening to fall off by accident, he was found dead in his -laboratory.[118] A casket directed to the Marchioness, with a desire -that in case of her death it might be destroyed unopened, was found in -his chamber, a circumstance which in itself was sufficient to excite the -curiosity and suspicion of those into whose hands it fell. The casket -was accordingly examined, and the disclosure of its contents at once -developed the whole plot, and finally led to the conviction of this -French Medea, who after a number of adventures and escapes, was at -length arrested and sent to Paris, where she was beheaded, and then -burnt, on the 11th of July, 1676. The practice of poisoning, however, -did not cease with her execution, and it became necessary in 1679 to -establish a particular Court, for the detection and trial of such -offenders; which continued for some time to exert its jurisdiction under -the title of CHAMBRE DE POISON, or CHAMBRE ARDENTE. - -With respect to the secret modes in which poisons have been supposed -capable of acting, mankind have ever betrayed the most extravagant -credulity, of which the numerous tales upon record afford ample proof; -such as that reported of _Parasapis_ by _Plutarch_, from _Ctesias_, in -his life of _Artaxerxes_, who, it is said, by anointing a knife on one -side by poison, and therewith dividing a bird, poisoned _Statira_ with -one half, and with the other regaled herself in perfect security. We are -also told of _Livia_ who poisoned the figs on a tree which her husband -was in the habit of gathering with his own hands. _Tissot_ informs us -that _John_, king of Castille, was poisoned by a pair of boots prepared -by a Turk; _Henry_ VI, by gloves[119]; Pope _Clement_ VII, by the fumes -of a taper[120]; and our king _John_, in a wassail bowl, contaminated by -matter extracted from a living toad. To these few instances of credulity -may be added the offer of the priest to destroy queen _Elizabeth_ by -poisoning her saddle[121], and the _Earl of Essex_, by anointing his -chair. - -Incredible and absurd as these opinions now appear, they continued until -a late period to alarm mankind, and to perplex and baffle judicial -investigations; even _Lord Bacon_ in his charge against the _Earl of -Somerset_ for the murder of _Sir Thomas Overbury_, in the Tower, seemed -to give credit to the story of _Livia_, and he seriously stated, that -“_Weston_ chased the poor prisoner with poison after poison; poisoning -salts, poisoning meats, poisoning sweetmeats, poisoning medicines and -vomits, until at last his body was almost come, by the use of poisons, -to the state that _Mithridates’s_ body was by the use of treacle and -preservatives, that the force of poisons was blunted upon him;” _Weston_ -confessing, when he was reproached for not despatching him, that he had -given enough to poison twenty men.[122] The power of so graduating the -force of a poison as to enable it to operate at any given period seems -to have been considered possible by the earlier members of the Royal -Society, for we learn from _Spratt’s_ history of that learned body, that -very shortly after its institution, a series of questions were drawn up -by the direction of the Fellows, for the purpose of being submitted to -the Chinese and Indians, viz. “_Whether the Indians can so prepare that -stupifying herb, Datura, that they make it lie several days, months, -years, according as they will have it, in a man’s body, without doing -him any hurt, and at the end kill him without missing half an hour’s -time?_” - -That mankind were, in a very early stage of their existence, not only -acquainted with the deadly effects of certain natural substances when -applied in minute quantities, but that they availed themselves of such -knowledge for the accomplishment of the worst purposes, is very -satisfactorily shewn by the records of sacred as well as profane -authors. But such is the ambiguity of ancient writers upon this subject, -and so intimately blended are all their receipts with the practices of -superstition, that every research, however learned, into the exact -nature of the poisons which they employed, is necessarily vague and -unsatisfactory. Of this one fact, however, we may be perfectly -satisfied, that they were solely derived from the animal and vegetable -kingdoms, for the discovery of mineral poisons was an event of later -date; owing however to the defect of botanical nomenclature, it is even -doubtful whether the plants which are designated by the terms _Cicuta_, -_Aconitum_, &c. in ancient authors, were identical with those we -designate by the same names. (See _Pharmacologia_, edit. v. vol. 1, p. -66.) With respect to the poisons of _Locusta_, all cotemporary writers -speak of the venom of the toad as the fatal ingredient of her potions, -and in the Alexipharmaca of _Dioscorides_ we find the symptoms -described, which are said to be produced by it;[123] but what is very -extraordinary, the belief of the ancients on this matter was all but -universal. _Pliny_ is express on the subject; _Ætius_ describes two -kinds of this reptile,[124] the latter of which, as Dr. _Badham_ has -suggested, was probably the frog, as well from the epithet, as that he -ascribes deleterious powers only to the former. It is scarcely necessary -to observe that this ancient belief has descended into later times; we -find Sir _Thomas Browne_ treating such an opinion as one of the vulgar -errors; and we have before alluded to the legend of king _John_ having -been poisoned by a wassail bowl in which matter extracted from a living -toad was said to have been infused. In still later times, we have heard -of a barrel of beer poisoned by the same reptile having found its way -into it. _Borelli_ and _Valisnieri_ maintain that it is perfectly -harmless, and state that they had seen it eaten with impunity. -_Spielman_[125] expresses the same opinion, “_Minus recte itaque -effectus venenati a bufonibus metuuntur._” _Franck_,[126] on the -contrary, accuses _Gmelin_ of too much precipitancy in rejecting the -belief respecting toad-poison,[127] Modern naturalists recognise no -poisonous species of toad; even the most formidable of the species, to -appearance, that of Surinam, is said to be perfectly harmless. - -If we may venture to offer a conjecture upon this subject, we are -inclined to consider the origin of this opinion to have been derived -from the frequency with which the toad entered into the composition of -spells or charms, into philtres or love potions, and which, like the bat -and the owl, most probably derived its magical character from the gloom -and solitude of its habitation. _Shakspeare_ has accordingly introduced -this reptile into the witches’ enchanted cauldron, in _Macbeth_. - - “Round about the cauldron go; - In the poison’d entrails throw. - Toad that under coldest stone - Days and nights hast thirty-one - Swelter’d venom sleeping got, - Boil thou first i’ the charmed pot!” - -This opinion receives further strength when it is considered how -frequently poisons were administered under the insidious form of charms -or incantations.[128] - -It has, however, been shewn by late experiments that the toad has, under -particular circumstances, the power of ejecting from the surface of the -body an acrid secretion which excoriates the hands of those that come in -contact with it; and this fact may perhaps have assisted in supporting -the general belief respecting the poisonous nature of this reptile. -_Pelletier_ has ascertained, that this corrosive matter, contained in -the vesicles which cover the skin of the common toad, (_Rana Bufo_) has -a yellow colour, and an oily consistence, and to consist of,—1st, an -acid partly united to a base, and constituting 1/20th part of the whole. -2d, very bitter fatty matter. 3d, an animal matter bearing some analogy -to gelatine. - -It would also appear from the writings of _Dioscorides_, _Galen_, -_Nicander_, _Ætius_, _Ælian_, and _Pliny_, that the ancients derived a -very energetic poison from the Sea Hare, _Lepus Marinus_,—the _Aplysia -Depilans_ of _Linnæus_; and, if we may credit _Philostratus_, it was -with such a poison that _Titus_ was killed by _Domitian_. - -There is, however, ample ground for supposing that the poisons of the -ancients were, for the most part, obtained from the vegetable kingdom, -and from the class of Narcotic plants;[129] that they were compounded of -a great variety of such ingredients, together with others that were -quite inert and useless, and which merely served to disguise their -composition. - -Ancient writers also allude to the blood of the bullock as a poison; -_Themistocles_ is said by _Plutarch_ to have destroyed himself by this -fluid; and _Strabo_ states that _Midas_ died of drinking the hot blood -of this animal, which he did, as _Plutarch_ mentions, to free himself -from the numerous ill dreams which continually tormented him. Some -historians assign the death of _Hannibal_ to the same draught. - -With respect to the poisons employed by _Tophana_, the Locusta of modern -days, and her infamous successors, there is less doubt; _Arsenic_, -_Corrosive Sublimate_, _Sugar of Lead_, and _Antimony_,[130] were -amongst the most powerful of their instruments of torture and death. -According to the declaration of the Emperor _Charles_ VII to his -physician _Garelli_, the _Aqua Toffania_ was a solution of arsenic in -_Aqua Cymbalariæ_.[131] Dr. _Hahneman_ considered its basis to have been -an arsenical salt. Others have, with little probability, regarded Opium -and Cantharides as the active ingredients. _Franck_,[132] speaking of -the _Aqua Toffania_, agrees with _Gmelin_,[133] that it is no other than -a solution of arsenic. The _Pulvis Successionis_, another instrument of -death, whose title announces the diabolical intention with which it was -administered, has been supposed to have been a preparation of lead; -while others have considered it to have consisted of diamond dust, and -to have acted mechanically. - -Having thus noticed a few of the more remarkable and interesting -features in the literary history of Toxicology, we shall proceed to -consider the subject of Poisons, in relation to their operation. - -A Poison, (_Toxicum_, _Venenum_, _Virus_), has been very correctly -defined by _Gmelin_ to be a substance which when administered -internally, or applied externally, in a small dose, impairs the health, -or destroys life. This definition is adopted by _Mead_, _Sproegel_, -_Plenck_, and _Tortosa_, and is to be preferred to every other,[134] not -only for its simplicity, but for its independence of any theory relative -to the _modus operandi_ of such agents. But it will be seen that, by -accepting this definition, we are necessarily led to admit the fact, -that poisoning may be acute, or chronic, that is to say, that it may at -once destroy life, or produce a disease which can be protracted to any -indefinite period. After the erroneous and vague notions which have been -entertained upon the subject of “_Slow poisons_,” it is highly essential -that the latitude of our belief should be accurately ascertained, and -the precise meaning of our terms defined. - - - OF SLOW, CONSECUTIVE,[135] AND ACCUMULATIVE POISONING. - -1. _Slow Poisons._ According to the popular acceptation of the term, -they may be defined, _Substances which can be administered -imperceptibly; and a single dose of which will operate so gradually, as -to shorten life like a lingering disease; their force, at the same time, -admitting of so nice an adjustment as to enable the artist to occasion -death at any required period._ We have now to inquire how far such -alleged powers are consistent with the known laws of physiology. It -cannot be denied that certain substances have been introduced into the -alimentary canal, where they have remained for an indefinite period, -without occasioning the slightest inconvenience, and at length excited a -disease that has terminated fatally; in the _London Medical and Physical -Journal_ for February 1816, a case is related in which death was -occasioned by a chocolate-nut having lodged in the entrance of the -_Appendix Vermiformis_; and in the _Edinburgh Medical and Surgical -Journal_ for July 1816, we have an analogous case, communicated by Dr. -_Briggs_ of Liverpool, where the _Appendix cæci_ sphacelated, owing to -the irritation of a human tooth which was found sticking in its cavity. -Mr. _Children_ has lately communicated to the Royal Society a case where -a concretion in the colon produced death; upon examination it was found -to contain a plum-stone, as a nucleus, and to consist of a fine fibrous -vegetable substance, from the inner coat enveloping the farina of the -oat, and which was derived from the oatmeal upon which the deceased had -fed. (_Phil. Trans._ 1822.) However disposed we may feel, by a forced -construction of the term, to consider such agents as _slow_ poisons, it -is very evident that they can rarely have been made subservient to the -purposes of secret poisoning; although a case occurred in the practice -of the author,[136] in which a girl swallowed six copper pence for the -avowed purpose of destroying herself; the coin produced a disease which -remained chronic for a very considerable period, when, after a lapse of -five years, they were voided, and the young woman recovered. A similar -attempt was also made by _Theodore Gardelle_, after his conviction for -the murder of Mrs. _King_ (_vide ante_), he swallowed a number of -halfpence, for the purpose of destroying himself, but without any ill -effect. Dr. _Baillie_, in his ‘_Morbid Anatomy_,’ relates an instance -where five halfpence had been lodged in a pouch in the stomach for a -considerable time, without occasioning any irritation; and Mr. _A. -Thomson_ has also furnished us with two analogous cases in children, in -one of which the copper coin remained six months in the intestines, and -in the other, two months. These facts furnish sufficient data to enable -the practitioner to appreciate the degree of danger attendant upon such -agents, and to determine how far they can ever become successful -instruments in the hands of the assassin.[137] - -But it has been supposed that certain bodies, as glass, enamel, -diamonds,[138] agates, smalt, &c. when administered in the form of -powder, so lacerate the membranes of the stomach, by the sharpness of -their particles, as slowly to destroy life; and upon the same principle, -it has been asserted, that human hair, chopped fine,[139] constitutes -the active ingredient of a slow poison frequently employed in Turkey, -and that it induces, by irritation, a chronic disease resembling cancer. -With respect to the danger arising from the ingestion of diamond dust, -enamel powder, powdered glass, and the like, there still may be said to -exist some difference of opinion. _Caldani_, _Mandruzzato_,[140] and M. -_Le Sauvage_, have reported experiments made upon men and inferior -animals, in which no bad consequences followed the administration of -such bodies; whereas _Schurigius_[141] and _Cardanus_[142] cite -instances where persons have died of ulcerations of the stomach from -such causes; and this opinion receives the support of _Plouquet_,[143] -_Stoll_,[144] _Gmelin_,[145] _Foderé_,[146] _Mahon_,[147] _Franck_,[148] -and many others. The modern pathologist will not find much difficulty in -reconciling such conflicting testimony. The experimentalist may -administer mechanical substances a thousand times without producing any -ill effects, while, under certain circumstances, the most trivial body -may lodge in the intestines and produce death; but surely the occasional -occurrence of such accidents ought not to confer the general title of -_poison_ upon the substances which may happen to produce them. - - -Having thus disposed of a considerable number of bodies, which have been -classed as _slow_ poisons, we may proceed to observe that most of the -other substances which have found a place in the same division, appear -to us to deserve consideration under a very different head, and that we -shall get rid of much obscurity by adopting the following arrangement. - -2. _Consecutive Poisoning._ Where the patient, having recovered from the -acute effects occasioned by the ingestion of a single dose of poison, -_subsequently suffers a series of symptoms from the injured structure to -which it had given origin_. By referring to our definition of _slow_ -poisoning, we shall at once perceive the striking and important -distinction between that and _Consecutive poisoning_. The following -case, related by M. _Orfila_, may serve as an illustration. _Maria -Ladan_ drank by mistake a spoonful of _Aqua fortis_, the most violent -symptoms supervened, but which by judicious treatment gradually -subsided, when at length she passed by stool a long membranous -substance, rolled up, and which represented the form of the æsophagus -and stomach, and which, in fact, was found to be the interior membrane -of these organs; from that moment the sensibility of the digestive -organs became excessive, and two months after the accident she -experienced a sudden shock and died. M. _Tartra_, in observing upon -cases of this kind, asserts that the symptoms produced at first by the -nitric acid decrease insensibly; and that at the end of a certain -period, the internal membrane of the digestive canal is struck with -death, and thrown off, and the person dies of a _Marasmus_. -_Fordyce_[149] relates the case of a woman who was subject to cholics -for the space of thirty years, in consequence of having _once_ taken an -infusion of the pulp of Colocynth prepared with beer. This was -undoubtedly an extraordinary instance of idiosyncrasy, but it is -probable that some organic lesion was occasioned by its operation, to -which the subsequent suffering is to be referred. We have hitherto only -considered the effects that may arise from the ingestion of a _single_ -dose of poison, but there are numerous and very interesting cases in -which fatal results have been produced by the repetition of small doses -at various intervals. We therefore propose a third, and new subdivision -of our subject, viz. - - -3. _Accumulative Poisoning._—By the repeated administration of a -substance, in doses, of which no single one could occasion harm; but -which, by gradually accumulating in the system, ultimately occasions -disease, and death. - -The familiar operation of mercury will at once suggest itself to the -Physician, as a striking illustration of that species of poisoning which -we have ventured to name _Accumulative_, and to the forensic student the -effects of this metal, in reference to such a quality, will form a more -than ordinary object of interest, as involving questions which have -frequently embarrassed judicial inquiry; as, for instance, _Whether it -can lie dormant any considerable time without betraying its effects upon -the constitution_, and, having displayed its powers, and the symptoms -having subsided, viz. salivation, &c. _Whether they can be renewed -without a fresh application of the substance?_ See Corrosive sublimate. - -To how many substances this power of accumulation extends is at present -not well understood. It may occur in those that act by absorption, and -in those whose action is wholly local. Arsenic, digitalis, and several -of the narcotic plants, as hemlock, may undoubtedly occasion serious -mischief in this manner, as the author has more fully explained in -another work,[150] and we have lately heard of several fatal cases -arising from accumulated masses of magnesia in the _primæ viæ_, from the -habitual use of small doses of that earth. - -The history of many of the arts, especially those of metallurgy, would -furnish also abundant examples of this kind of poisoning. - -These few facts are we trust sufficient to authorise the foregoing -arrangement, and we apprehend that the adoption of the distinctions, -upon which it is founded, will be of great service in establishing fixed -and definite notions with regard to the _chronic_ operation of poisons. -It may perhaps be useful to present the reader with a synoptical -recapitulation of the subject. - - _A Slow Poison._ A single dose is sufficient; which produces upon its - administration no sensible effect, but gradually undermines the - health. - - _A Consecutive Poison._ A single dose is sufficient; producing the - most violent symptoms, very shortly after its ingestion, but which - gradually subside, and the patient is supposed cured; when, at some - future period, death takes place from the organic lesions that had - been occasioned. - - _An Accumulative Poison._ Many doses are required; the effects being - produced by the repetition of doses which would, _individually_, be - harmless. - -There still remains another point of view in which it is essential to -regard the operation of a poison, in order to establish a distinction -between those substances which, in a given dose, will destroy life under -every circumstance of constitution, and those which occasion death in -consequence of some constitutional peculiarity in the individual to whom -they may have been administered, and which are innocuous to the general -mass of mankind; the gradations by which food, medicine, and poison, are -thus enabled to branch into each other cannot be defined, because the -circumstances with which they are related, defy generalization. The -distinction, however, must be acknowledged and preserved, and we know no -terms better adapted for expressing it than those of _Absolute_ and -_Relative_ poisons; and our readers are accordingly requested to receive -them in conformity with this explanation, whenever they occur in the -following pages. Every work professing to treat the subject of Poisons, -abounds with instances, in which articles that, by universal consent, -are considered innocuous, have occasioned the most direful effects. -_Morgagni_ relates a case of a person who died from eating bread made -with the farina of the chesnut. Dr. _Winterbottom_[151] says that he is -subject to severe nettle-rash after eating sweet almonds. _Schenkius_ -relates a case in which the general law of astringents and cathartics -was always reversed. _Donatus_ tells us of a boy whose jaws swelled, -whose face broke out in spots, and whose lips frothed, whenever he eat -an egg: we might add many more examples, but it is needless to encumber -a subject with illustrations which is already so obvious and -indisputable. Nor do the anomalies of constitutional idiosyncrasies end -here, for they not only convert food into poison, but they change poison -into food, or at least, into a harmless repast. The most extraordinary -exemplification of this on record is contained in the history of the old -man at Constantinople, as related by M. _Pouqueville_, physician to the -French army in Egypt, and who was a prisoner at Constantinople in the -year 1798[152]. “This man,” says he, “was well known all over -Constantinople, by the name of _Suleyman Yeyen_, or _Suleyman, the taker -of corrosive sublimate_. At the epoch when I was there he was supposed -to be nearly a hundred years old, having lived under the Sultans -_Achmet_ III, _Abdul Hamet_, and _Selim_ III. He had in early life -habituated himself to taking opium; but, notwithstanding that he -constantly increased the dose, he ceased to feel from it the desired -effect, and then tried sublimate, the effects of which he had heard -highly spoken of; for thirty years this old man never ceased to take it -daily, and the quantity he could now bear exceeded a drachm. It is said, -at this epoch he came into the shop of a Jewish apothecary, and asked -for a drachm of sublimate, which he swallowed immediately, having first -mixed it in a glass of water. The apothecary, terrified, and fearing -that he should be accused of poisoning a Turk, immediately shut up his -shop, reproaching himself bitterly with what he had done; but his -surprise was very great, when, the next day, the Turk came again, and -asked for a like dose of sublimate.” - -Morbid states of the body may also exist which are capable of resisting, -to a certain extent, or of modifying, the violent operation of -particular poisons. In the history of the Royal Academy of Sciences for -1703, a case is related of a woman, who being tired out by a protracted -dropsy, under which her husband had suffered, _charitably_ administered -to him fifteen or twenty grains of opium with the intention of -despatching him; but the dose immediately produced such copious -evacuations by sweat and urine, that it restored him to health. This -relation will immediately recal to the recollection of the classical -reader the story, recorded by _Plutarch_, in his life of _Crassus_, of -_Hyrodes_ king of the Parthians, who having fallen into a dropsical -complaint had poison (_Aconite_) administered to him by his second son, -_Phraates_, but which, instead of destroying the king, as intended, -cured his disease. The son, however, having thus failed in his attempt, -shortly afterwards smothered his father with his pillow. - - - - - GENERAL REMARKS - - ON THE MEDICAL EVIDENCE REQUIRED TO SUBSTANTIATE AN ACCUSATION OF - POISONING. - - -Although the phenomena by which we are enabled to discover the -administration of poison, will be fully enumerated, and carefully -examined, under the history of each particular substance, and will -necessarily vary according to the chemical properties, and physiological -action of each individual poison; yet there are some general points of -evidence, and several questions of importance, upon which it is very -essential to arrive at some definite conclusion, some fixed -understanding, before we proceed to the consideration of the particular -details, and subordinate ramifications, of this complicated subject. - -The great constituents which form the medical proof of poisoning, are -derived from Chemical, Anatomical, and Pathological researches; viz.—the -existence of poison in the stomach or intestines; the morbid -appearances, corresponding to such poison, upon dissection; and the -characteristic symptoms which accompanied the action of it, previous to -death. Where these circumstances occur in combination, the demonstration -may be said to be complete, for we have arrived at absolute certainty. - -But scientific evidence, short of such perfection, may be amply -sufficient to lead to conviction. The fact of a poison having been found -in the body may supersede the necessity of pathological testimony: thus -_Hoffman_,[153] “_Si venenum adhuc intra ventriculum reperitur, res est -clarissima, ubi vero, illud haud deprehenditur, res adhuc dubii plena -est._” We shall hereafter find that the discovery of organic lesions, -without the chemical proof (“_experimentum crucis_[154]”) is often -vague, and seldom satisfactory, and that even when sanctioned by the -testimony of the pathologist, will frequently be deemed insufficient to -sustain an indictment, unless indeed it be collaterally supported by a -very strong chain of circumstantial evidence of a moral nature, -especially such as relates to the character, conduct, and presumed -object of the prisoner. - -As the duty of the medical witness, upon such occasions, must always be -anxious, and generally perplexing, it becomes our duty at least to clear -away those adventitious difficulties with which ignorance on the one -hand, and sophistry on the other, have obstructed a path of inquiry, -which, from its very nature and direction, must necessarily be obscure -and intricate. - -We shall endeavour upon this, as we have upon similar occasions, to -bring the more leading and popular points of controversy within the -scope of a few prominent questions, assigning to each a share of -attention, commensurate with our idea of its importance. - - Q. 1. _Whether all, or most of the symptoms, characteristic of the - action of corrosive and narcotic poisons, may not arise from morbid - causes of spontaneous origin?_ - - Q. 2. _Whether organic lesions, similar to those produced by - poisoning, may not occasionally result from natural causes?_ - - Q. 3. _Whether the rapid progress of putrefaction, in the body - generally, or in any particular part, is to be considered as - affording any presumptive evidence, in favour of a suspicion of - poisoning?_ - - Q. 4. _How far the absence of poison, or the inability of the chemist - to detect it, in the body, or in the fluids ejected from it, is to - be considered as a negative to an accusation of poisoning?_ - - Q. 5. _What degree of information can be derived from administering - the contents of the stomach of a person supposed to have been - poisoned, to dogs, or other inferior animals?_ - -We shall now consider these questions in succession. - - - Q. 1. _Whether all, or most of the symptoms, characteristic of the - action of corrosive and narcotic poisons, may not arise from morbid - causes of spontaneous origin?_ - -It must be admitted that the symptoms produced by violent irritation in -the primæ viæ, are not characterised by a diversity, corresponding with -that of the causes which may excite it; thus it is, that we have a -disease to which the term “_cholera_” has been assigned, and which is -indicated by the following symptoms, “_Humoris biliosi vomitus, ejusdem -simul dejectio frequens; anxietas; tormina; surarum spasmata_,” (Cullen -Syn: LX. 1.) symptoms which supervene, and with nearly the same force, -the spontaneous effusion of acrid bile into the intestines, and the -ingestion of some acrid poison; and hence the nosologist has very -properly divided _cholera_ into two species, viz. - -C. _Spontanea_, “Tempestate calida, sine causa manifesta oboriens.” - -C. _Accidentalis_, “A rebus acribus ingestis.” - -The problem therefore for solution, is the mode of distinguishing the -two species from each other. Although the leading characters are, as we -have said, the same in both, such as bilious vomiting, and purging, -violent tormina of the bowels, cold sweats, cramps, faintings, and -death, yet by a careful and circumstantial examination of the case, the -intelligent practitioner will generally be enabled to arrive at a -probable conjecture; the season of the year[155], the prevailing -epidemics, the age[156] and constitutional predisposition of the -patient, his habit with respect to diet, are circumstances which will -greatly assist the diagnosis. The progress of cholera morbus is also -rarely, or never, fatal in this climate, especially in so short a period -as that in which death occurs from the operation of a violent, corrosive -poison.[157] There are besides in this latter case, very frequently -other symptoms which do not attend _cholera spontanea_,[158] such as -sanguineous vomiting, extreme burnings in the æsophagus and region of -the stomach, swollen countenance, great dryness and tumefaction of the -fauces, peculiar fætor of the breath, ischuria, with discharges of -bloody urine, and ulcerations about the fundament[159]; this latter -symptom was particularly remarkable in the case of _Mr. Blandy_, whose -history, as related by his physician, _Dr. Addington_, will be found in -our _Appendix_, _p._ 236, and well deserves the attentive consideration -of the medical jurist. The matter voided will also sometimes lead to a -just diagnosis; in the true cholera _spontanea_ there is a discharge of -almost pure bile by vomiting and stool, simultaneously or alternately; -now, although the same vomiting and purging may arise from the action of -a poison, yet it does not follow that the matter discharged is bilious. -The evidence delivered on the extraordinary trial of _Donnall_, for the -wilful murder of his mother-in-law, _Mrs. Elizabeth Downing_, has been -also printed in the _Appendix_, as well illustrating those doubts with -which the present question is naturally encompassed. An opinion has -existed that the appearance of jaundice during, or after the severe -symptoms of _cholera_, offers a satisfactory proof of its spontaneous -origin. Upon this point we would observe, that by violent and protracted -retching a person may sometimes become jaundiced, a circumstance not -unlikely to occur in cases of poisoning. The stomach, diaphragm, and -abdominal muscles are, under such repeated efforts, very apt to be -rendered eminently irritable, so that at each effort of the former to -discharge its contents, the latter will frequently be simultaneously -thrown into strong spasmodic contractions, and the liver, together with -the gall-bladder, will be suddenly caught, and, as it were, tightly -squeezed in a powerful press, in consequence of which the bile will -regurgitate, and be carried into the _venæ cavæ_; for _Haller_ has shewn -with what facility a subtle injection, when thrown into the hepatic -duct, will escape by the hepatic veins; upon which _Dr. Saunders_ has -made the following remark, “I know this to be a fact, for I have -ascertained by experiment, that water, injected in the same direction, -will return by the veins in a full stream, although very little force is -used.” - -The fact of the bile becoming, under certain circumstances, highly acrid -and deleterious, has been seized by the humoral pathologist as a -powerful argument in support of his doctrines. Amongst the more -distinguished authors who have fully treated this subject, and -maintained that our secretions may thus become acrid poisons, we have -_Galen_[160], _Aretæus_[161], _Fernelius_[162], _Morgagni_[163], -_Hebenstreit_[164], _Hilchen_[165], _Hoffman_[166], _Baumer_[167], -_Belloc_[168], _Alibert_[169], _Foderé_[170], _Mahon_[171], _De la -Mettrie_[172], and _Tronchin_[173]. Some of the authors above enumerated -have expressed their opinions in the strongest terms; thus _Morgagni_ -(loco citato) “_Facile agnosco a prava ipsa corporis dispositione -internum aliquando posse venenum gigni_;” and _Hebenstreit_ observes, -“_Possunt omnino in corpore venena nasci, atque ipsi humores vitales vim -vasa sua destruendi sæpe acquirunt._[174]” _Hilchen_, after attempting -to establish a diagnosis between the effects of poison, and those -arising from a morbid degeneracy of the fluids, exclaims, apparently in -despair, “_Inquilinos corruptosque humani corporis humores, eum -acrimoniæ gradum, eamque corrodendi vim acquirere posse, quæ eosdem edat -effectus, quos venena corrosiva sistunt, eamdem sordium vomitu -rejectarum putrilaginem, fætorem, haud dissimilem, et acerrimam, et -pelves arrodentem acrimoniam certum est._” And _Plouquet_, after -describing all the phenomena of poisoning, concludes by acknowledging -“_Probe autem notandum hæc omnia etiam ex aliis statibus morbosis nasci -posse._” _De la Mettrie_ also has observed upon this question, “_Il est -prouvé que la bile se peut changer dans nos corps en espece d’Arsenic!_” -Our own countryman, _Dr. Currie_[175], has furnished the public with an -opinion upon the subject under discussion, and he states his belief -that, under a peculiar state of irritation, the biliary organs may -secrete a bile of so very acrid a nature as to excite an almost -immediately fatal impression upon the alimentary canal, especially when -suddenly effused, and in a highly concentrated form. - -We have deemed it right to adduce these various authorities, in relation -to the important question before us, still, however, reserving our -opinion, that the physician will on such occasions, by means of the -subsidiary sources of discrimination above enumerated, generally be -enabled to form a diagnosis[176] which, although it may not amount to -certainty, must be considered as capable of increasing the weight of the -general mass of circumstantial evidence. - -As the medical treatment to be adopted in cases of acute disease, or -poisoning, can hardly be considered a subject of Medical Jurisprudence, -we should have passed it over in silence, did not the evidence delivered -upon the trial of Donnall imperiously call upon us for some -animadversion; and we feel it our painful duty upon this occasion to -observe, that the whole tenor of the medical defence displayed a very -unbecoming contest; the witnesses conducted themselves like advocates, -raising doubts, and defending their positions with a pertinacity that -belongs to those who seek triumph rather than truth. - -In the cure of cholera the experience of the physicians of all ages -wholly concurs. In the commencement of the disease the evacuation of the -redundant bile is to be favoured by the plentiful exhibition of mild -diluents, and after the redundant bile has been thus eliminated, or when -the spasmodic affections of the alimentary canal become dangerously -violent, opiates, in sufficiently large doses, but in small bulk, may be -administered. To employ evacuants, as _Sydenham_ quaintly observes, “is -to increase the disturbance, and as it were, to endeavour to quench fire -by oil; and on the other hand, to commence with opiates is shutting up -the enemy in the bowels.” Under such authority, we presume, one of the -witnesses in the defence of Donnall, felt justified in condemning the -practice of the respectable physician who attended the deceased -(_Appendix, p._ 304); but we here see a witness assuming as a fact, what -was never proved in evidence, and then deducing conclusions from it. -_Dr. Edwards_ informed the court that “there were no symptoms of cholera -morbus when _he_ saw Mrs. Downing; but from what _he_ heard of her -complaint, he imagined that there was something offensive either in the -stomach or bowels, which ought to be evacuated.” (_Ibid. p._ 286.) - -Nor are the symptoms produced by the operation of narcotic poisons so -distinct as to escape the possibility of being confounded with those of -spontaneous disease. They may, for instance, simulate those of apoplexy, -or epilepsy; but the history of the case, the odour of the breath, and -the subsequent examination of the body after death, will generally clear -up the difficulties which may at first present themselves. But we shall -have occasion to consider this subject hereafter; the difficulties of -the case are well illustrated by the evidence on the trial of -_Donellan_, for the murder of _Sir Theodosius Boughton_, with laurel -water, for which see _Appendix, p._ 243. - -Before we quit the subject which involves the consideration of our -fluids degenerating, under particular circumstances, into poisons, we -may just notice the opinion of some foreign chemists, that in certain -diseases the _Prussic acid_[177] is generated in some of the fluids of -the animal body. We are not inclined to accede to this proposition, -because during life we do not think the chemical decompositions, known -to be necessary for the production of this substance, can ever take -place. At all events, it must be preceded by a state of the system which -would necessarily prevent the chance of any medico-judicial fallacy. - - -Q. II. _Whether organic lesions, similar to those produced by poisoning, - may not occasionally result from natural causes?_ - -In entertaining this question, we are prepared to meet with numerous -alleged difficulties; but as many of them appear to have arisen, rather -from the ignorance or carelessness of the operator, than from the -natural obscurity of the subject itself, we are inclined to hope that by -getting rid of the former source of fallacy, we shall be enabled to -examine with some satisfaction and advantage, those which, in a greater -or less degree, will be liable to baffle the researches of the more -experienced anatomist. - -Such are the changes which an animal body undergoes after death, that -unless the anatomist be intimately acquainted with their nature and -extent, it is impossible that he should be able to derive any safe -conclusions from his dissection; thus, said _Mr. John Hunter_, we may -see appearances which are natural, and may suppose them to have arisen -from disease; we may see diseased parts, and suppose them to be in a -natural state, and we may suppose a circumstance to have existed before -death, which was, in reality, a consequence of it; or we may imagine it -to be a natural change after death, when it was truly a disease of the -living body. It is not difficult, therefore, to perceive, how a person -in such a state of ignorance must blunder, when he attempts to connect -the appearances in the dead body, with the symptoms that were observed -during life; and indeed it may be safely asserted, that the great -utility of anatomical inspections depends upon the accuracy, judgment, -and sagacity with which such comparisons are made. In our chapter, on -the art of conducting dissections, we have endeavoured to point out each -fallacy which is likely to present itself to the inexperienced -anatomist, we shall therefore confine ourselves, on the present -occasion, to the consideration of those points whose obscurity must be -admitted to belong intrinsically to the subject, and to be wholly -independent of the ignorance or skill of the dissector. - -Amongst the signs of the action of poison on the human body, disclosed -by the light of dissection, the separation of the villous coat of the -stomach has been generally considered the most certain criterion. -_Hebenstreit_, whose opinion has been adopted by _Mahon_, and many other -forensic physicians, has delivered his unreserved judgment upon the -question, in the following emphatic sentence. “_Præterea sola atque -infallibilis deglutiti veneni nota est, separata et veluti decorticata -simulque cruenta interna ventriculi tunica: nam separatio ista supponit -applicatam superficiei internæ ventriculi materiam fervidam, igni -similem, quæ tunicam istam a substrata solvit vasculari nervea._”[178] -In opposition to such an opinion, it is our duty to state that several -cases stand recorded[179] in which the detachment of the villous coat of -the stomach and intestines has taken place, without the slightest ground -to suspect the administration of poison, while many vegetable poisons -destroy life without occasioning any inflammation in the _primæ viæ_, -and consequently leave no traces of disorganization. But there still -remains another source of fallacy connected with the present question -which demands a full and impartial inquiry, viz. that the gastric juice, -by its action upon the dead stomach, can occasion such changes in -structure, as may be mistaken for the effects of a corrosive poison; -these changes are according to circumstances liable to vary in every -possible degree of intensity, from the slight erosion of the interior -villous coat of the stomach, as displayed by the smooth, thin, and more -transparent condition of that viscus, to the destruction of all its -membranes, and the production of large perforations in its great -extremity. This phenomenon, the nature of which was first explained by -_Mr. John Hunter_[180], depends upon the gastric juice, which the -stomach secreted during life, becoming its solvent after death. Amongst -the endless proofs which the history of the animal economy affords of -that universal law by which chemical and vital forces are wisely -preserved in a state of perpetual hostility, there is no illustration -more striking and satisfactory, than that which is furnished by the -phenomenon in question. If animals, or parts of animals, while possessed -of the living principle, be taken into the stomach, they are not in the -least affected by the solvent powers of its juices; thence it is that we -so constantly find animals of various kinds living in the stomach, or -even being hatched and bred there; but no sooner do these animals lose -the living principle, than they become subject to the digestive powers -of the stomach, and are accordingly dissolved, and assimilated. If it -were possible, says _Mr. Hunter_, for a man’s hand to be introduced into -the stomach of a living animal, and kept there for some considerable -time, it would be found that the dissolvent powers of the stomach could -produce no impression upon it; but if the same hand were separated from -the body, and introduced into the same stomach, we should then find that -this organ would immediately act upon it. _Spallanzani_, with a patience -that almost wearies his readers, made many attempts at dissolving the -stomach by its own juice, but succeeded satisfactorily in none; he -proved, however, two important facts, _first_, that the process of -digestion, or more correctly speaking, of solution, continues after -death; and _secondly_, that the stomach itself is digestible. The truth -of the first he demonstrated by introducing food into the stomach, after -he had killed his animal; and that of the second, by giving the stomach -of one dog to be devoured by another. The fact then is clearly -established, that the stomach, after death, may be dissolved by its own -juice[181]; and this may exist in its cavity, or be retained in the -vessels which had secreted it. It remains for us then to examine the -circumstances under which it is likely to occur, and the appearance by -which it may be distinguished; and we may here be allowed to observe -with an ingenious writer,[182] that were these points merely of a -speculative nature, or were their decision a matter of mere curiosity, -it would be idle to consume so much valuable time in their discussion; -but when we remember that they are questions upon which the medical -practitioner may be called upon to deliver a solemn opinion, in order to -determine the fate of a criminal, they undoubtedly demand the highest -attention of those who profess to aid the administration of Justice, by -the lights of science. We have, therefore, first to inquire into _the -circumstances under which this natural erosion of the stomach is known -to take place_. _Mr. John Hunter_[183] details the history of three -examples, in which the stomach was considerably perforated. Two of the -men had died shortly after having their skulls fractured, and the third -was a man who had been hanged, so that in each of these cases the person -had been deprived of life by violence; whence _Dr. Adams_[184] inferred, -that _Mr. Hunter_ limited the action of the gastric juice on the stomach -to such as died from violent and sudden causes; and many physiologists -have, accordingly, supposed that solution of the coats of the stomach -never takes place, except where the person has died suddenly; this, -however, is an inference, as _Mr. Burns_[185] has very justly observed, -“by no means warranted by the general tenour of _Mr. Hunter’s_ essay,” -indeed he expressly states, that “there are few dead bodies in which the -stomach is not, _at its great end_, in some degree digested;” “and any -one,” continues _Mr. Hunter_, “who is acquainted with the art of -dissection, can easily trace the gradations from the smallest to the -greatest.” The consideration of the vast importance of this fact, and -frequent opportunities of investigating the subject, induced _Mr. Burns_ -to collect the observations which he had made during the dissection of -those bodies in which he found the stomach digested; and these -observations, he informs us, have led him to conclude, that the -phenomenon in question is neither so rare in its occurrence as some have -imagined, nor confined to such subjects as had been, previous to death, -in a healthy condition; they have also convinced him, that other parts -of the stomach, besides the large end, may be occasionally acted on by -the gastric juice. “That the digestion of the coats of the stomach after -death is not a very rare occurrence, I think myself authorised to infer, -from my having examined nine bodies in which the solution had proceeded -to such an extent as to have made holes of considerable size through -that viscus; and, besides these nine instances in which the digestion of -part of the stomach was complete, I have had occasion to see, in opening -this viscus, various degrees of dissolution of its villous coat.”[186] - -In three of the instances alluded to by _Mr. Burns_, the patients had -been worn out by debilitating diseases; and they were emaciated and -anasarcous. That the solution of the coats of the stomach in these cases -was properly attributed to the gastric juice is very satisfactorily -shewn by the relation of the following instructive dissection. “I had -occasion,” says _Mr. Burns_, “two days after death, to open the body of -a very emaciated and anasarcous young girl, who had died from scrofulous -enlargement of the mesenteric glands. On raising the coverings of the -abdomen, the stomach, which was empty, presented itself to view, _with -its front dissolved_.[187] The aperture was of an oblong shape, about -two inches in its long diameter, and an inch in its short, with tender, -flocculent, and pulpy edges. This I demonstrated to the pupils attending -my class; and I especially called their attention to the fact, that the -liver, which was in contact with the hole, had no impression made on it. -Having proceeded thus far, I placed all the parts as they had been, -stitched up the abdomen, and laid the body aside in a cold situation for -two days. Then I opened it again, in presence of the same gentlemen, and -we found that, now, _the liver, where it lay over the dissolved part of -the stomach, was pulpy; its peritoneal coat was completely dissolved, -and its substance was tender to a considerable depth_. At this time the -other parts of the liver were equally solid as before, and as yet every -part of the subject was free from putrefaction; _the posterior face of -the stomach, opposite to the hole, was dissolved, all except the -peritoneal coat, at least the internal coats were rendered pulpy and -glutinous; the peritoneal covering had become spongy and more -transparent than it ought to have been_.” These facts, in addition to -the many other important conclusions to which they will give rise, -admonish us, that in judicial investigations into the cause of -dissolution of the coats of the stomach, _the appearances will vary, -according to the period after death at which the body is examined_. But -the most satisfactory case which has been reported, in proof that the -_post mortem_ solution of the stomach may occur after a lingering -disease, is that just published by _Dr. Haviland_,[188] where the -patient died of fever after an illness of 22 days; when upon opening the -body about 12 hours after death, the following appearances were noticed: -“On raising the stomach and examining the little omentum, we were -surprised by the appearance of a dark-coloured fluid, which seemed to -escape from the former viscus. A most careful search was now made, and a -large opening was perceived in the stomach on the upper and back part, -near the cardia. The stomach was then detached, with a portion of the -œsophagus and duodenum, when a large perforation of the diaphragm came -into view, in the muscular part, corresponding precisely to, and -communicating with, the hole in the stomach; so that a portion of the -contents of the latter organ had escaped into the cavity of the chest. -This part of the diaphragm was next removed. A careful examination of -the other abdominal and thoracic viscera did not lead to the detection -of the slightest diseased appearance. There was no where the smallest -evidence of previous inflammation, no adhesions or ulcerations of any -part of the viscera. The fluid which had escaped appeared to be nothing -more than the contents of the stomach, of which the wine and water[189] -formed a part, and probably gave it its dark colour. The stomach, on -being examined after its removal from the body, afforded the following -observations. The mucous membrane appeared to be more red and vascular -than usual throughout its whole extent, and, here and there, were small -spots of what seemed to be extravasated blood, lying below the mucous -coat—for these spots were not to be washed off, nor to be removed by the -edge of the scalpel. There were two holes in the stomach, the larger -very near to the cardiac end of the small curvature, and on the -posterior surface: this was more than an inch in length, and about half -that breadth; the other not far from the former, also on the posterior -surface, about the size of a sixpence. The edges of these holes were -smooth, well defined, and slightly elevated. The coats of the stomach -were thin in many other spots, and in one in particular nothing was left -but the peritoneum, the mucous and muscular coats being entirely -destroyed. The hole in the diaphragm was through the muscular portion, -where it is of considerable thickness, and was large enough to admit the -end of the finger. There was no appearance of ulceration or of pus -adhering to the edges of this perforation of the diaphragm.” We have -extracted a full account of this dissection, as the case is in itself -truly interesting. The symptoms of the patient had been carefully -watched, and no pain, or uneasiness was ever heard of, throughout the -whole course of the disease, except in the head. - -The powers of the stomach, as it would appear from the report, had -suddenly revived at about twelve hours before his death, for “he asked -for food, and swallowed a few spoonsfull of calves’-foot jelly with -apparent relish.” May we not then conclude by observing, that the facts -above related very satisfactorily corroborate the truth of the corollary -deduced by _Mr. Burns_, “that the digestion of the coats of the stomach -may take place under two very different conditions of the body; that -although such solution is most frequent in those who have been suddenly -deprived of life, when in full health, that it is not confined to those -alone, but does, under certain circumstances, occur in those who have -died from lingering diseases.” - -Having then shewn under what circumstances the phenomenon in question -may take place, we shall now proceed to describe more minutely the -appearances which it may assume, and _first, with respect to the part of -the stomach, more usually acted upon by the gastric solvent_. _Mr. -Hunter_ thought, that digestion of the stomach after death was -occasioned by that portion of the gastric juice _contained in the -cavity_ of the stomach; consequently it followed, as a fair inference -from this doctrine, that the coats of this viscus will only be acted on -at that part on which the contents of the stomach rested. In _Mr. -Hunter’s_ cases, the great end of the stomach, which in the supine -position of the body is the most depending part of this viscus, was -found to be chiefly affected; a fact which tended to corroborate and -support his opinion, and to render his conjecture extremely probable. -Other anatomists, however, have discovered instances of solution of -other parts of the stomach than the great end, indeed we have already -described such an instance in the case of the emaciated and anasarcous -girl examined by _Mr. Burns_, where the situation of the aperture was -different from what it had been in any of _Mr. Hunter’s_ cases. It was -seated _on the fore-part_ of the stomach, about an inch distant from the -pylorus, and mid-way between the smaller and greater curvatures of this -viscus; at a part of the stomach with which the gastric juice _could not -have come into contact_, as the body had constantly been in the supine -posture. “If then,” asks _Mr. Burns_, “the stomach was not acted on by -the fluid contained in its cavity, how came it to be dissolved?” To us -we confess his solution of the problem appears sensible and -satisfactory. “We cannot, with propriety, ascribe the digestion of the -stomach, in every case, to the gastric juice which has been _poured into -the cavity_ of that viscus; we are more properly in some instances to -refer it to the action of the fluid _retained in the vessels_ which had -secreted it.” If this be admitted as a correct explanation of the fact, -we shall cease to have any difficulty in accounting for the dissolution -of other parts of this viscus besides the large end. We shall learn that -the part acted on must vary, according to the place of the stomach where -the gastric juice is retained in the apparatus which secreted it, and -thus we shall be enabled to explain some cases, which, at present, seem -to be in opposition to the observation of _Mr. Hunter_. - -With respect to the appearances, which such erosions assume, some -difference of opinion has also unfortunately existed. _Mr. Hunter_ has -asserted that “there are very few dead bodies, in which the stomach is -not, _at its great end_, in some degree digested; and the anatomist,” -says he, “who is acquainted with dissections can easily trace the -gradations from the smallest to the greatest. To be sensible of this -effect, nothing more is necessary than to compare the inner surface of -the great end of the stomach, with any other part of the inner surface; -what is sound will appear soft, spongy, and granulated, and without -distinct blood-vessels, opaque, and thick, while the other will appear -smooth, thin, and more transparent, and the vessels will be seen -ramifying in its surface; and upon squeezing the blood which they -contain, from the larger to the smaller branches, it will be found to -pass out at the digested ends of the vessels, and appear like drops on -the inner surface.” This condition, however, of the vessels does not -invariably accompany such solution. In three of the subjects dissected -by _Mr. Burns_, there was no appearance of vessels ramifying on the -coats of the stomach. To account for the absence of this vascular -appearance several explanations have been attempted; “but we are not,” -says _Mr. Burns_, “to regard the cause of this deviation from _Mr. -Hunter’s_ description, as depending upon the particular part of the -stomach acted on in the different cases; neither are we to imagine that -the stage of the process at which we examine the body will assist us in -this investigation; we are rather to obtain an explanation of this fact, -from contemplating the difference of condition of the different -individuals at the time of death; the subjects, whose cases are detailed -by _Mr. Hunter_, were persons cut off by violence, in the plenitude of -health, their stomachs at the time excited by the stimulus of food to -vigorous action, and the process of digestion at the instant of death -going on briskly, circumstances under which it is reasonable to infer -that all the blood-vessels would be filled with blood, which it is -evident, from the nature of the causes depriving them of life, would be -detained in the veins. This being the state of his subjects at the -moment of death, we shall not wonder that, when he afterwards opened the -bodies, he could squeeze the blood from the digested ends of the -vessels.” This is certainly an ingenious explanation, and receives -considerable support from the important fact of the stomach presenting a -very high degree of vascularity, in cases of sudden death, as -exemplified by _Dr. Yelloly_[190] in his account of the appearances -found in the stomachs of several executed criminals soon after they had -undergone the sentence of the law. So also has dissection disclosed the -same phenomena, in those cases where life has been suddenly extinguished -by a blow on the region of the stomach; inflammation, in such instances, -is necessarily out of the question, for death is immediate; the red and -inflamed appearance therefore of the stomach can alone be accounted for -by regarding it as the effect of the sudden cessation of the heart, -producing an accumulation of the blood in the extreme arterial branches. -But what shall we say of _Dr. Haviland’s_ case? so far from the patient -dying suddenly, and in the plenitude of health, he expired after a -lingering illness of three weeks, and yet, upon dissection, the stomach -was found _highly vascular_. This is in direct opposition to the theory -of _Mr. Burns_, and, we must confess, is not a little embarrassing. -Where the gastric solution has proceeded so far as to produce -perforations in its coats, _Mr. Hunter_ states that, “the contents of -the stomach are generally found loose in the cavity of the abdomen, -about the spleen and diaphragm; and that in many subjects this digestive -power extends much farther than through the stomach. I have often -found,” says he, “that after it had dissolved the stomach at the usual -place, the contents had come into contact with the spleen and diaphragm, -and had partly dissolved the spleen, &c.” With respect to the appearance -of the gastric perforations, _Mr. Hunter_ characterises them as having -“their edges apparently half dissolved, very much resembling that kind -of dissolution which fleshy parts undergo when half digested in a living -stomach, viz. pulpy, tender, and ragged.” - -As certain corrosive poisons will occasionally produce such organic -lesions in the stomach, as lead to perforations in its membranes, a -question naturally arises, _how are we to distinguish such -disorganizations, produced by causes acting during life, from those -which result from solution after death_? To this we may at once return a -general answer, that in a judicial investigation, we ought not to -attribute erosion of the stomach to poison, except it be accompanied by -evident marks of previous inflammation and reaction, or with gangrenous -appearances; unless indeed the poisonous substance be found in the -stomach, or the symptoms, previous to death, be characteristic and -satisfactory. It has been stated that the edges of the natural -perforation are “pulpy, tender, and ragged,” whereas those produced by -the caustic action of a poison will generally be found well defined, and -of the same thickness as any other part of the stomach. But let it be -remembered, that, after all, it is upon the detection of poisonous -matter in the stomach, that the prudent physician will place his great -reliance. We have thus offered a review of the different opinions which -have been entertained upon this important question, and in conclusion we -may observe, that there will necessarily exist in each particular case, -circumstances which no general views can comprehend, and upon which the -practitioner must exercise his judgment and discretion. It is not our -intention at present to enter fully into the several questions which -were raised on the memorable trial of _Charles Angus_ for the murder of -_Margaret Burns_, but as we have already very frequently alluded to the -medical evidence delivered on this occasion, and as we shall hereafter -be called upon to notice some of its more striking features, we have -subjoined a report of the trial, and of the unhappy and ill-conducted -controversy to which it has given origin.[191] Whether the holes in the -stomach were the effects of corrosive poison or of that solvent action -after death, which we have just endeavoured to explain, must remain a -matter of doubt, for the erosion in this case was so considerable, and -the inflammation so slight, that it is impossible to assert that they -both depended on the same cause. - -With respect to the possibility of confounding the appearances of -gangrene, in the stomach, with those of putrefaction, some notice is -necessary in this place; and we cannot better illustrate the subject, -than by introducing the marks of discrimination which are considered by -_Mahon_[192] as decisive upon such occasions. The spots in the stomach, -resulting from putrefaction, says he, may be distinguished from those -which have resulted from violent causes, during life, in the following -manner. If the stomach retain its natural colour, and the spots are -mixed with a red hue, or the ulcers have pale, or bright red edges, such -have been the effect of some violent impression upon the living -membrane; whereas, on the contrary, if the stomach be pale, livid, or -green, and exhibit spots of the same colour, but of rather a deeper hue, -we may safely conclude that they are the genuine phenomena of -putrefaction. See the interesting account of the dissection of _William -Mitchell_, p. 191. - - - Q. 3. _Whether the rapid progress of putrefaction, in the body, - generally, or in any particular part, is to be considered as affording - presumptive evidence, in support of an accusation of poisoning?_ - -There are few opinions more popular than that which considers the speedy -putrefaction of the body as the universal and never failing consequence -of poisoning. To appreciate, however, the true value of such an -indication, and to avoid the fallacies with which it is surrounded, it -is essential to remember that the body of a person dying suddenly, and -in what may be called full health, is very liable to run rapidly into a -state of decomposition. As far, however, as our observations enable us -to deduce any conclusion, certain vegetable poisons appear to accelerate -such a change; for, very shortly after death, the body, under such -circumstances, will frequently swell, become highly offensive, assume a -black[193] appearance, and exhibit gangrenous spots on its surface. No -such appearances, however, it is said, usually follow as the _specific_ -consequence of the fatal operation of _mineral_ poisons; _Dr. Jaeger_ in -an Inaugural dissertation,[194] which deserves to be better known, -states, as the result of numerous experiments, that the putrefaction of -animal bodies, poisoned by arsenic, whether buried or not, does not -appear to be either unusually accelerated or retarded; and he moreover -found that the generation of infusory animals, the production of larvæ -and subterraneous vegetation, in and about the bodies of poisoned -animals, took place as usual; and he remarked that “the immediate -contact of an arsenical solution seemed, in several instances, to -retard, in some degree, the putrefaction of the part to which it was -applied in sufficient quantity.” In the extraordinary case examined by -_Metzger_, in which the largest quantity of arsenic ever, perhaps, taken -into the stomach, was found after death, the body was not opened until -eighteen days after dissolution, and yet, says the anatomist, “_cadaver, -quod mireris, sine ullo fœtore aut putredinis signo erat, ut et absque -maculis lividis, si digitorum apices excipias_.” A case is also related -by _Dr. Yelloly_,[195] in which death was occasioned by arsenic, but -where not the slightest appearance of putrefaction was visible at the -time of examination, which did not take place until forty-nine hours -after death. - -On the other hand, _Morgagni_[196] states that, on dissecting a female -who died from Arsenic, “_facies corporis posterior, ne suris quidem et -calcibus exceptis, tota erat nigra_.” And in the interesting case of -_William Mitchell_, as hereafter related, the appearance of the body -appears to have indicated that decomposition had proceeded with more -than ordinary celerity. - -The fact of accelerated, or retarded putrefaction, therefore, cannot be -received with any confidence as a collateral indication of poisoning. -_Dr. Carson_, however, in the trial of _Charles Angus_, adduced the -circumstance of its absence, as a negative proof that the deceased had -not been poisoned; and in the celebrated Scotch trial of _Patrick -Ogilvy_, and _Catharine Nairne_,[197] the same fact was forcibly urged -in their defence. - -_Gaspard à Reies_,[198] and other writers, have maintained that the -discovery of _living_ worms in the intestines of a person, suspected to -have died from poison, ought to be received as a direct refutation of -the charge. We are, however, not disposed to concur in such an opinion. -With respect to the value of the indication supposed to be afforded by -the circumstance of froth issuing from the mouth of the corpse, soon -after death, _Mr. Hunter_ has given a very satisfactory opinion, and to -which we must refer the reader, see _Appendix_, p. 273. - - - Q. IV. _How far the absence of poison, or the inability of the chemist - to detect it, in the body, or in the fluids ejected from it, is to be - received as a negative to an accusation of poisoning?_ - -We have already stated, that of all the proofs which can be adduced by -the physician, in support of a charge of murder by poison, no one can be -put in competition with that which arises from the discovery of the -poisonous substance itself, in the stomach, or in the contents of the -matter ejected by vomiting or purging. The law expects, therefore, that -the professional witness should be prepared to state, that every -experiment, calculated to detect the presence of poison, has been -scrupulously and faithfully performed; and we may take this occasion to -observe, that the circumstance of advanced putrefaction can rarely, in -the present state of our chemical knowledge, be admitted as a -satisfactory plea for not having proceeded to an anatomical inspection, -as preliminary to chemical inquiry; and, as to the danger of such -dissections, _Dr. Gordon Smith_ has very truly observed, “that much is -placed to this account which belongs merely to disgust.” Had an -examination of the body taken place in the case of _Ogilvy_ and -_Nairne_, how many doubts would have been cleared away; indeed, this -omission afforded the prisoners a strong ground of defence; they -complained that the informer had intentionally prevented the dissection -of the body, being conscious that the suspicions he had raised, and the -project he had formed for their ruin, would, by such a measure, have -been totally removed and defeated. To this it was answered, that when -the informer (a younger brother of the deceased) arrived, he did insist -on the body being opened and examined, as soon as a physician of -eminence could be present, which the prisoners did not then oppose; but -that when the physician arrived on the ensuing day, he declared the body -to be in such a putrid state, that no certain conclusions could be drawn -from outward appearances, nor even from a dissection of the body, which, -besides, could not be performed with safety to the surgeon and -attendants, and that he therefore thought proper to decline the -investigation. Fortunately for the ends of justice, the circumstantial -evidence of guilt was too strong to be affected by this culpable defect -in the medical testimony, although it has been often asserted that the -prisoners should have received the benefit of the omission by an -acquittal. See _Donellan’s_ case in the _Appendix_, p. 243. - -With respect to the mode of conducting a chemical analysis upon these -occasions, we have reserved our directions, until we shall enter on the -discussion of poisons individually. We have, however, in this place some -remarks of a general nature to offer, to which we are desirous of -drawing the attention of those, who, without much experience, may be -called upon to conduct such investigations. In the first place, we are -desirous of convincing him, that the processes which he must institute, -for the detection of a mineral body, are by no means so elaborate and -embarrassing, as a superficial view of the subject may lead him to -conclude. During the progress of the present work the author has -repeatedly felt the truth of the opinion which he is now expressing; -for, like _Becher_, he has laid down his pen, and taken up his tests, -and, by the most simple modes of manipulation, has satisfied his own -mind of the extreme delicacy of the different processes which are -recommended for the detection of a poisonous mineral; in short, it is -very difficult to convince those whose chemical knowledge is wholly -theoretical, with how little trouble, and with how much pleasure and -profit, such experiments may be conducted. If such then be the perfect -state at which our analytical knowledge has arrived, the reader may -perhaps conclude, that _in every case of mineral poisoning the -deleterious substance should be found, and that the inability of the -chemist to detect its presence, should go far to negative the charge_. -Such an inference, however, is neither correct, nor philosophical, for -the poison may have been absorbed, or eliminated, during life, it may -have undergone chemical changes, or it may have entered into -combinations, by which its characters are masked, or wholly changed. To -_Dr. Bostock_ the judicial physician is under many obligations, but -there is no discovery for which he is more deeply indebted to him, than -for that which has resulted from his satisfactory experiments, in -elucidation of the present question. He has shewn, in the instance of -_Corrosive Sublimate_,[199] that an animal may be suddenly killed by -receiving a metallic poison into the stomach, and yet that the most -delicate chemical re-agents may not be able to detect any portion of -such poison, after death, in the contents of that viscus. _Dr. Henry_, -in a letter to _Dr. Duncan_,[200] communicates the case of _Hannah -Tomlinson_, aged twenty, who died, under the care of _Dr. Holme_, on the -sixth day after a dose of _Corrosive Sublimate_. In this case, although -an ounce of the mercurial salt had been swallowed, and the fluid ejected -from the stomach was examined, only twelve hours afterwards, by _Drs. -Henry_ and _Roget_, yet not the slightest trace of the poison could be -detected! More recently we have received from the pen of _Mr. Alexander -Murray_,[201] surgeon of Alford, some highly interesting cases of -poisoning by Arsenic, and which are so illustrative of the present -question, as well as several others that have fallen under -consideration, that no apology can be necessary for introducing some -account of them in this place. A family of the name of _Mitchell_, and -which consisted of _William_, a robust man, aged 45, _James_, æt: 52, -_Mary_, æt: 50, and _Helen_, æt: 48, breakfasted together on Sunday -morning, (August 19, 1821) on porridge, consisting of milk, salt, and -meal. _William_ partook largely, but _James_, who perceived “a sickening -taste,” took less than common, while the sisters had their usual -quantity. _William_ was seized with sickness shortly afterwards, about -10 _a. m._, on his way to church, and then with thirst and headache; -and, on his return home, between three and four in the afternoon, he was -seized with vomiting, which recurred often during the next four or five -days, especially on his attempting to quench his thirst. In the early -part of the week, he was heard to complain of pain in his stomach, eyes, -throat, breast, and arms; he was observed to void his urine frequently; -and about this time, he pointed out to one of his sisters a hollow[202] -between his breast and belly, into which according to her expression, -“she could have laid her arm.” - -His illness had scarcely at any time confined him to bed. On the evening -of Friday, the 24th of August, he rode six miles, for the purpose of -consulting _Mr. Murray_, the surgeon, and reporter of the cases; on -Wednesday the 22d he had taken a dose of Epsom salts which operated, and -at the time _Mr. Murray_ first saw him he complained of the following -symptoms:—pain and heat in the region of the stomach and lower part of -the chest; occasional uneasiness in the abdomen, and sometimes -ineffectual efforts to go to stool; thirst; difficulty of breathing; -heat and uneasiness of throat, with hoarseness; soreness of eyes, which -had the common appearance of inflammation; shifting pains in his -extremities, particularly the arms, which had not their usual strength; -great restlessness; anxious expression of countenance; pulse frequent, -100-110, not strong. - -A blister was applied over the stomach and lower part of the chest, and -he took an opiate at bed time. On the following day, (Saturday 25th) -_Mr. Murray_ visited him at his own house, and found him nearly as -before, except that his countenance more strongly exhibited a disturbed -and anxious expression, and the redness of the eyes, and the hoarseness -were increased. _Mr. Murray_ also observed small roundish white -accuminated prominences, on the palate and uvula, apparently as if the -membrane covering the palate bones and _velum pendulum_, was detached at -the parts by a whitish liquid. This day he took an ounce of castor oil, -which operated in the afternoon, his illness was not observed to change -during the evening, and he retired at about eight o’clock to rest. At a -little past two in the morning, he rose in search of water to drink, and -on returning to bed he was heard to utter a deep groan; after which he -lay motionless and quiet, and very soon was found to have expired. The -surgeon who saw the body, about 10 _a. m._, states that “_many bluish -spots were observed on the inferior extremities_.” _James_, _Mary_, and -_Helen Mitchell_ were attacked the same forenoon with their brother -_William_, and with nearly similar symptoms; they were all, however, -fortunate enough to recover, although a considerable period elapsed -before their usual strength returned, and in all of them a numbness of -the arms, or legs, occurred, together with a loss of muscular power. - -The body of _William Mitchell_ was, owing to particular circumstances, -not opened until the 29th of August, (3 days 8 hours after death) when -the following appearances presented themselves. “The face had a natural, -composed appearance; and the rigidity of the body did not appear to be -different from what is common. The right ear, and corresponding side of -the face, as well as the scalp, exhibited a deep clay-blue colour. On -the chest and belly, several spots and streaks, some green, others blue, -were observed; and the back, upon which the body lay, was from head to -foot of a livid colour; while several roundish spots, of a still deeper -hue, gave to the shoulders and neck a mottled appearance. The penis was -much swollen and red. The scrotum also was enlarged, and of a dark blue -colour. - -Upon opening the abdomen, the smell was not unusually offensive, and its -contents did not appear to have undergone alteration after death, but -several ounces of a highly-coloured liquid were found in the cavity. The -surface of the jejunum and ilium presented many purple spots, some of -which were several inches in circumference. The peritoneal surface of -the stomach, in a tract which extended from the cardia, and occupied, -for some distance downwards, the whole circumference of that viscus, -except the small curvature, was of a clear, dark red colour; and through -this space dark lines, apparently veins, were observed to ramify. This -appearance, perhaps, from 20 to 30 square inches in extent, was strongly -marked in contrast with the natural state of the inferior extremity and -small curvature. The substance connecting the stomach to the spleen, -was, as well as a small part of the transverse colon, of a red colour. -The spleen was gorged with blood; the liver healthy. The duodenum, from -a small distance below the pylorus, almost to its inferior extremity, -and round nearly the whole intestine, was of a very dark purple colour. -Upon opening the stomach, the internal surface of that part where the -outward appearance, already described, existed, was found of a bright -red colour, and over this lighter dots were thickly scattered[203], -making such an appearance as might be produced by a red colour being -dashed from a painter’s pencil, upon a somewhat darker _ground_. - -The internal coats of the duodenum were very dark coloured, with a -slightly reddish hue, pulpy, thickened, and easily separated from the -peritoneal covering, while in one roundish spot, of the size of a crown -piece, the villous and muscular coats were entirely wanting. Red patches -were observed on the inner surface of the jejunum and ilium, the shape, -size, and situation of which were the same as those of the appearances -already noted as occurring on the outside of these intestines. The -stomach and duodenum contained about a quart of a brown, semi-opaque, -thickish liquid; the jejunum and ilium were empty, and coated with a -yellow viscid matter. The lungs and heart were quite healthy; but in the -cavity of the thorax were ten ounces of a reddish turbid liquid, and -about half that quantity in the pericardium. The pharynx was of an -unusually red colour. The whole of the brain was healthy, and of firm -consistence.” - -_Mr. Murray_ concludes by stating that no part of the salt and milk used -on the sunday morning, was to be found after he visited the family, and -that although the remainder of the meal, and also the contents of -_William Mitchell’s_ stomach and duodenum were examined by _Drs. -Henderson_ and _Fraser_, of Aberdeen, as well as by _Mr. Craigie_, -surgeon, who assisted in the dissection, and _Mr. Alexander Murray_, -yet, “_no poisonous ingredient was detected in these substances_.” - -The pathological and anatomical facts were, however, in themselves, so -striking and satisfactory, that not the slightest doubt can exist as to -the cause of the sufferings and death of the deceased; while, as _Mr. -Murray_ very justly states, the high probability, arising from the -separate symptoms of each individual, is strengthened almost to -certainty, by the simultaneous occurrence of these in a whole family of -four persons; while no similar disease, indeed no epidemic of any kind, -prevailed at that time. - -We have only to add that the brother-in-law of this family was, in -October, 1821, tried before the Judiciary Court at Aberdeen, for -administering poison to his four relations; when the testimony given by -the medical witnesses induced the judge and jury to consider the -abstract act of poisoning proved. The accused afterwards confessed his -guilt, and that he perpetrated the crime by means of _Arsenic_, put -among the salt on the sunday morning on which the family were taken ill. - -The public, and the profession, are greatly indebted to _Mr. Alexander -Murray_ for the details of this instructive case; and the patient -attention and judgment with which he conducted the investigation, -deserve the highest commendation, and afford an example which we -sincerely hope future practitioners will endeavour to follow. - - -Q. V. _What degree of information can be derived from administering the - contents of the stomach of a person supposed to have been poisoned, to - dogs, or other animals?_ - -It has from time immemorial been generally believed, that no proof of -poisoning is more satisfactory than that which is furnished by the -effects produced upon dogs, by their swallowing the contents of the -stomach of persons who are supposed to have died from poison. Writers on -Forensic medicine have, however, adduced several objections to the -validity of such a test; some of which are undoubtedly worthy of -consideration, while others are the deductions of a theory which -receives no support from experience. In the first place it has been -stated, that substances poisonous to man, will not always occasion -deleterious effects upon animals[204]; this, to a certain extent, is -undoubtedly true; some of the _Ruminantia_ appear to be less sensible to -the operation of narcotic plants, than carnivorous animals. _Aloes_ are -injurious to dogs and foxes. Oxen are said to eat the _Philandria -Palustris_, which is pernicious to horses; but we are very much inclined -to believe that a poison sufficiently powerful to destroy the life of a -man, would if administered in the same state of concentration, destroy -that also of an inferior animal. It is in smaller doses only that the -difference in the action of such bodies upon various animals becomes -evident and appreciable. This opinion is confirmed by numerous -experiments. _Mr. John Hunter_, in his evidence[205] on the trial of -_Donellan_, in answer to the question, whether any certain conclusion -can be drawn respecting the poisonous operation of a substance upon man, -from its effects upon an animal of the brute creation, replied, “_As far -as my experience goes, which is not a very confined one, because I have -poisoned some thousands of animals, they are very nearly the same; -opium, for instance, will poison a dog similar to a man; arsenic will -have very near the same effect upon a dog, as it would have, I take it -for granted, upon a man; I know something of the effects of them, and I -believe their operations will be nearly similar._” If any farther -confirmation of this opinion were required, how extensively and -satisfactorily has it been afforded by the late experiments of _M. -Orfila_.[206] _Mr. Hunter_ also, on the memorable trial above mentioned, -explained a source of fallacy which attends such experiments upon -animals; he is asked “whether there are not many things which kill -animals almost instantaneously, that will have no detrimental or noxious -effect upon a human subject, such, for instance, as spirits?” He replies -that a great deal depends upon the manner of conducting the experiment, -and that by forcing an animal to drink, the liquor often passes into the -lungs. See _Appendix_, _p._ 272. _Orfila_, in his valuable work on -poisons, instituted a series of experiments upon this subject, with the -intention of determining the value of an experiment so generally -accredited; from which he is led to conclude, 1st. That the practitioner -should never attempt by force to make an animal swallow the suspected -substance, nor should he put it into his food; for by such a proceeding -he would not only run the hazard of losing the greatest part of it, -because the animal would reject it, but the food with which it is -combined might exert upon it some chemical action, or so envelope it as -to protect the coats of the stomach from its contact; besides which it -would, says he, happen, at least six times in ten, that a part of it -would flow through the larynx into the lungs, and the animal will die of -Asphyxia. 2d. The best method that can be employed, consists in -detaching the œsophagus, perforating it with a small hole, introducing -into it a glass funnel, and pouring the liquid into the stomach; that -being done, the œsophagus is to be tied below the opening. It would, -observes _M. Orfila_, be imprudent to prefer to this method, the use of -an elastic gum tube adapted to a syringe, for many bite the tube, pierce -it with holes, and the fluid then flows out of the mouth; besides which, -syringes of tin might decompose certain poisonous fluids. The obvious -objection to such a mode of administration is anticipated by this -laborious experimenter with much ingenuity. It may be asserted, says he, -that the animal perished from the operation of tying the œsophagus, and -not from the action of the poison thus introduced into the stomach, but -such an objection has no foundation in truth, for either the suspected -substance is in quantity sufficient to destroy the animal, or it is not; -in the first case death will take place during the first forty-eight -hours, and will be preceded by symptoms more or less severe, a -phenomenon never observed in the simple ligature of the œsophagus; in -the second case, the experiment will not be more conclusive, than if the -œsophagus had not been tied: and the author asserts, that the operation -of tying the œsophagus would not, of itself, produce during the first -forty-eight hours any other symptom than a slight dejection, and that -consequently all other morbid phenomena that may be observed, upon such -trials, ought to be attributed to the poisonous substance. To all this -we reply, that we believe, in the hands of _Orfila_ who has made a -thousand experiments, that such results may be satisfactory, but we feel -no hesitation in declaring, that we should not place the smallest -reliance upon such an experiment when conducted by a person unaccustomed -to the operations of experimental physiology. If there be no other mode -of employing an animal as a test for poison, but by tying his œsophagus, -we must, in a judicial point of view, reject it altogether. - -But there still remains another source of fallacy connected with these -experiments, to which considerable importance has been attached. It has -been said that the acrid humours ejected from the stomach of a person -labouring under a _spontaneous_ disease, may kill an animal. -_Morgagni_[207] relates a very remarkable instance, in illustration of -this fact. A child having died of a fever was opened, when a quantity of -green bile was found in the stomach, which changed the colour of the -scalpel to violet; having dipped the point of the knife into this bile, -two pigeons were wounded with it, and they soon died in convulsions. The -bile was then mixed with some bread, and given to a cock, which also -died in the same manner. From this general view of the subject before -us, the forensic physician will be enabled to appreciate its just value, -and to apply the indications it may furnish, in each particular case, -without the risk of error. In some instances such experiments may prove -nothing, in others they may afford only equivocal results, but which may -add something to the general weight of circumstantial evidence; while -others, again, may furnish proofs so unquestionable, as to leave no -doubt upon the subject; such was the case in the instance of _Michael -Whiting_[208], who was convicted of administering corrosive sublimate to -his brothers-in-law, when it appeared in evidence that a portion of the -poisoned dumpling was given to a sow, who in consequence became sick, -and remained ill for several days. - -We have now disposed of the several questions connected with the subject -of poisoning, which must be regarded, in their forensic relations, as -being of the highest importance. In considering the subjects, generally, -there must necessarily remain doubts, many of which will be considerably -diminished, or entirely removed, upon their application to particular -cases; still, however, the nature of medical evidence upon such -occasions must be frequently regarded as only sustaining high -probabilities, and the professional witness may exclaim with -_Hoffman_[209] “_Ardua sane provincia ei imponitur cui determinandæ -ejusmodi quæstiones exhibentur._” - - - - - ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF POISONS. - - -Poisonous substances have been very differently arranged by different -authors, each appearing to have adopted a classification best suited to -promote the particular views and objects of his own pursuit; thus, the -botanist and chemist, engaged in the examination of the physical -characters by which poisons may be individually distinguished and -identified, have very judiciously erected their system upon the basis of -natural history. The pathologist, whose leading object is the -investigation of the morbid effects which follow the administration of -these agents, with equal propriety and justice prefers a classification -deduced from a generalization of the symptoms they are found to -occasion; while the physiologist, who seeks to ascertain through what -organs, and by what mechanism they destroy life, may be reasonably -expected to arrange the different poisons under divisions corresponding -with the results of so interesting an inquiry. - -To meet the comprehensive views of the forensic toxicologist, an -arrangement would seem to be required, that should at once embrace the -several objects which we have just enumerated; for the data from which -the proof of poisoning is to be inferred, are, as we have often stated, -highly complicated in their relations. No such classification, however, -can be accomplished, and we are therefore compelled to select one which -may approach the nearest to our imaginary fabric. That which was -proposed by _Fodéré_,[210] and adopted, with some trivial alteration in -the order of succession of the classes, by _Orfila_, in his celebrated -system of toxicology, although it has many defects and some errors, -nevertheless merits the preference of the forensic physician; its basis -is strictly pathological, and yet it distributes the different poisons, -with some few and unimportant exceptions, in an order corresponding with -that of their natural history. - -The first two classes, for instance, present us with substances of a -mineral origin; the third and fourth, with those which are principally -of a vegetable nature; and the sixth, with objects chiefly belonging to -the animal kingdom. The importance of acknowledging a division, which -has a reference to the three great kingdoms of Nature, is perhaps -greater than the reader may anticipate; for in enumerating the various -experiments to be instituted for the detection of poisons, we are, by -such an arrangement, enabled to bring together a connected series of -processes, nearly allied to, intimately connected with, and in some -respects, mutually dependant upon each other. - -The following is the arrangement of _Fodéré_ as modified by _Orfila_: -viz. Cl. I, _Corrosive_, or _Escharotic poisons_. Cl. II, _Astringent -poisons_. Cl. III, _Acrid_ or _Rubefacient poisons_. Cl. IV, _Narcotic_ -or _Stupefying poisons_. Cl. V, _Narcotico-Acrid poisons_. And Cl. VI, -_Septic_ or _Putrefying poisons_. - -Class I. CORROSIVE or ESCHAROTIC POISONS. Such as corrode and burn the -textures to which they are applied. When internally administered they -give origin to the following symptoms: violent pain accompanied with a -sense of heat and burning in the stomach, and throughout the whole -extent of the alimentary canal; frequent vomitings, often sanguineous, -and alternating with bloody diarrhœa, with or without tenesmus; the -pulse hard, small, frequent, and at length imperceptible; an icy -coldness of the body; cold sweats; a great anxiety and oppression at the -præcordia; and hiccup. Sometimes the heat of the skin is intense, the -thirst inextinguishable, and the unhappy patient is tormented with -Dysuria and Ischuria, violent cramps in the extremities, and horrid -convulsions, which are relieved only by death. Such are the general -symptoms by which this species of poisoning is characterised; the -rapidity with which the symptoms terminate their course, will depend -upon the violence of the dose, and the particular species of poison -which has produced them; there are, moreover, other symptoms which will -be more conveniently described, when we come to speak of the effects of -corrosive poisons individually. In this class are ranked the following -substances. METALS. I. Arsenic—1. _Arsenious Acid_, or white oxide of -Arsenic. 2. _Arsenites_, or combinations of that acid with _salifiable -bases_. 3. _Arsenic Acid._ 4. _Arseniates_, or combination of the -preceding acid with the bases. 5. _Sulphurets of Arsenic_, or _Orpiment_ -and _Realgar_. II. Mercury—1. _Corrosive Sublimate of Mercury_, or -_Oxy-muriate of Mercury_. 2. _Red Oxide of Mercury._ 3. _Red -Precipitate_, or _Nitric Oxide of Mercury_. 4. Other preparations of -Mercury. III. Antimony—1. _Tartarized Antimony_, or _Tartar Emetic_. 2. -_Oxide_ _of Antimony._ 3. _Antimonial Wine._ 4. _Muriate of Antimony_, -or _Butter of Antimony_. IV. Copper—1. _Blue Vitriol_, or _Sulphate of -Copper_. 2. _Verdegris._ 3. _Oxide of Copper._ 4. Other preparations of -Copper. V. Tin—1. _Muriate of Tin._ VI. Zinc—1. _Sulphate of Zinc_, or -_White Vitriol_. 2. _Oxide of Zinc._ VII. Silver—1. _Nitrate of Silver_, -or _Lunar Caustic_. The Concentrated Acids—1. _Sulphuric._ 2. -_Muriatic._ 3. _Nitric._ 4. _Phosphoric_, &c. Hot Liquids—1. _Boiling -water._ 2. _Melted Lead._ The Caustic Alkalies—1. _Potass._ 2. _Soda._ -3. _Ammonia._ The Caustic Alkaline Earths—1. _Lime._ 2. _Baryta._ 3. -_Muriate_, and _Carbonate of Baryta_. Cantharides. Phosphorus. - -Class II. ASTRINGENT POISONS. They occasion a remarkable and unrelenting -constriction of the great intestines, especially the colon, so as to -resist the operation of the most powerful cathartic remedies. Violent -cholics ensue, and partial paralysis; in the end if the dose be -sufficiently large, or if small doses have been frequently repeated, -they will excite inflammation of the alimentary canal, but it is not -succeeded by that disorganization which generally characterises the -operation of poisons, belonging to the preceding division. We rank under -the present class only the preparations of Lead, viz. 1, _Acetate of -Lead_, or _Sugar of Lead_; 2, _Oxides of Lead_; _Red Lead_; _Litharge_; -3, Various Saturnine impregnations. - -Class III. ACRID, or RUBEFACIENT POISONS. These poisons are known by -their producing an acrid taste, more or less pungent and bitter; a -burning heat, and considerable dryness in the mouth and fauces; and a -constriction, more or less painful, in the throat. Acute pains are, -after a short interval, experienced in the stomach and bowels, which are -quickly followed by copious vomiting and purging, and which continue, -with the most painful efforts, long after the alimentary canal has been -completely evacuated. A few hours after, phenomena are observed which -indicate a lesion of the nervous system, such as vertigo, dilated -pupils, dejection, insensibility, laborious respiration, and death. The -lesions of texture, occasioned by the action of _Acrid_ poisons, have -the greatest analogy to those produced by _Corrosive_ poisons; in fact, -says _M. Orfila_, “we do not hesitate to declare, that there exists a -perfect identity between the alterations of the digestive canal produced -by the poisons of these two classes, when introduced into the stomach.” -The substances included under this class belong, for the most part, to -the vegetable kingdom, such as _Scammony_, _Camboge_, _Black_ and _White -Hellebore_, _Bryony_, _Euphorbium_, Seeds of the _Ricinus_, _Iatropa -Curcas_ (Indian nut), _Croton Tiglium_, _Squill_, _Aconite_, &c. &c. - -Class IV. NARCOTIC, or STUPEFYING POISONS. Such as occasion stupor, -drowsiness, paralysis, or apoplexy, and convulsions. They do not produce -any change in the structure of parts to which they are applied. _M. -Orfila_ has satisfactorily ascertained that no alteration can be -discovered, on dissection, in the digestive canal of persons who have -swallowed any one of the poisonous substances of this class. - -Class V. NARCOTICO-ACRID POISONS. This division, as its name implies, is -intended to receive such substances as produce the united effects of -those belonging to the two preceding classes, acting for instance at the -same time, as narcotics and rubefacients. Amongst the articles of this -class the following may be enumerated, _Belladonna_, _Stramonium_, -_Tobacco_, _Foxglove_, _Hemlock_, _Nux Vomica_, _Camphor_, _Cocculus -Indicus_, certain _Mushrooms_, _Alcohol_, &c. &c. - -Class VI. SEPTIC and PUTREFYING POISONS. By this term are included those -poisons which, according to _Orfila_, “occasion a general debility, -dissolution of the humours, and syncope, but which do not, in general, -alter the intellectual faculties.” The articles of this class belong -almost entirely to the animal kingdom, with the exception perhaps of a -few gaseous compounds, and the _Spurred Rye_, or _Ergot_, viz. _venomous -animals_; _animals whose fluids have been depraved by antecedent -disease_; _the poison of fishes_; _substances in a state of putridity_; -_Spurred Rye_, or _Ergot_. - -Such is the classification which, for reasons already stated, it is our -intention to adopt on the present occasion. We shall, however, in an -additional chapter, under the title of “_Aërial Poisons_,” treat of -those substances which are exclusively capable of acting upon the body -through the medium of the atmosphere, or which require to be in a state -of vapour, or gas, to ensure their operation. - -With regard to the classification of _Fodéré_ and _Orfila_, we must here -observe that we follow it only conventionally, and that, while we -acknowledge it as being very convenient for the consideration of -poisons, in reference to their forensic relations, yet we must not be -considered as insensible to its many defects and fallacies. In the first -place, it has little or no reference to the enlarged views of the modern -physiologist, respecting the “_modus operandi_” of poisons; nor indeed -is its construction susceptible of such modifications and improvements, -as can ever render its degree of perfection progressive with the -advancement of science. In the next place, the classes are in many -particulars ill-defined, and indistinctly, if not erroneously, divided. -How questionable, for instance, are the boundaries which separate -_Corrosive_ from _Acrid_ poisons? even the respective species of each -class are, in many instances, less allied to each other than the great -divisions to which they are subordinate. As an exemplification of this -fact we have only to compare the physiological actions of _Arsenic_ and -_Corrosive Sublimate_; the former of these substances occasions death by -being absorbed, and thus acting as a vital agent, the latter, by its -local action as a caustic on the textures with which it comes in -contact. In the same manner, if we examine the individual actions of the -different species composing the class of “_Acrid_” poisons, we shall -find the same want of uniformity; thus the _Spurge-flax_, and the -_Jatropa Curcas_ act by occasioning a local inflammation, while the -_Hellebore_, being rapidly absorbed, exerts a fatal action on the -nervous system, and produces only a very slight inflammation. The class -of Narcotic poisons is more absolute in its definition, and more uniform -in its physiological affinities, and therefore less objectionable, than -the divisions to which we have just alluded; but the propriety of the -term “_Narcotico-Acrid_” may be very reasonably questioned;[211] even -_Orfila_ expresses his doubts upon the subject, “because the narcotic or -sedative effects only follow the previous excitement.” Some of the -poisons, under this last mentioned class, are rapidly absorbed, and act, -through the medium of the circulation, on the nervous system, without -producing any local inflammation; whilst others, again, merely act upon -the extremities of the nerves, with which they come in contact, and -without being absorbed, occasion death by a species of sympathetic -action. - -These few objections, and many more might be adduced, are sufficient to -demonstrate the imperfection of the classification under consideration, -and which would render it wholly unavailable to the pathologist who must -adopt his treatment according to the physiological action of each -poison. The author has accordingly, in his “Pharmacologia”[212] ventured -to propose an arrangement, in conformity with such views; and the -following sketch of it may perhaps form a useful introduction to the -general observations which it will be hereafter necessary to offer upon -the “_modus operandi_” of poisons. - - - - - A CLASSIFICATION OF THE DIFFERENT MODES BY WHICH POISONS PRODUCE THEIR - EFFECTS. - - -† This mark denotes that the substance, against which it is placed, may -also act by being absorbed. - -‡ Signifies that the article has also a local action. - - I. BY ACTING THROUGH THE MEDIUM OF THE NERVES, WITHOUT BEING ABSORBED, - AND WITHOUT EXCITING ANY LOCAL INFLAMMATION. - - a. _By which the functions of the nervous system are destroyed._ - - - Acrid. - - Aconite. - Jatropa Curcas. - - - Narcotico-Acrid. - - Alcohol. - Oil of Tobacco. - - - Narcotic. - - Essential Oil of Almonds.† - Camphor.† - Opium†? - - b. _By rendering the heart insensible to the stimulus of the blood._ - - Infusion of Tobacco. - _Upas Antiar._ - - II. BY ENTERING THE CIRCULATION, AND ACTING THROUGH THAT MEDIUM WITH - DIFFERENT DEGREES OF FORCE, ON THE HEART, BRAIN, AND ALIMENTARY - CANAL. - - Corrosive. - - Arsenic. - Emetic Tartar. - Muriate of Baryta. - - - Acrid. - - Hellebore. - Savine. - Meadow Saffron. - Squill. - - - Narcotic. - - Opium.‡ - Lettuce. - Henbane. - Prussic acid. - - - Narcotico-Acrid. - - Deadly Nightshade.‡ - Hemlock. - Camphor.‡ - Cocculus Indicus. - - III. BY A LOCAL ACTION ON THE MUCOUS MEMBRANE OF THE STOMACH, EXCITING - A HIGH DEGREE OF INFLAMMATION. - - Corrosive. - - Corrosive Sublimate.† - Verdegris. - Muriate and - Oxide of Tin. - Sulphate of Zinc. - Nitrate of Silver. - Acids. - Alkalies. - Cantharides.† - - - Acrid. - - Bryony. - Elaterium.† - Colocynth.† - Camboge. - Euphorbium. - Hedge Hyssop. - Croton Tiglium. - Ranunculi. - -The preceding classification of poisons will not only furnish the -practitioner with a general theorem for the administration of antidotes, -but it will suggest the different modes and forms of administration of -which each particular substance is susceptible; it will shew, that -certain poisons may occasion death without coming into contact with any -part of the alimentary canal, and that others will produce little or no -effect, however extensively they may be applied to an external surface. -The first class comprehends such poisons as operate, through the medium -of the nerves, upon the organs immediately subservient to life; in the -application of such agents it is obvious that they cannot require to be -introduced into the stomach, they may convey their destructive influence -by an application to any part duly supplied with nerves, and whose -extremities are exposed to their action; although at the same time, it -may be observed that, in general, poisons of this kind act most -powerfully when internally administered, owing to the extensive -sympathetic relations of this central organ over every function of the -living body. The second class consists of poisons that are incapable of -producing any effect, except through the medium of the circulation; -whence we shall be enabled to explain and appreciate the various -circumstances which may accelerate or retard their operation. Poisons of -this class may be applied externally to abraded parts, or even to -surfaces covered with cuticle, provided their absorption be promoted by -friction; and it may be here observed, that the function of absorption -is not performed with the same force in every tissue; as a general -proposition it may be said to be energetic in proportion to the number -of lymphatics and veins, although the late experiments of _M. Majendie_ -have shewn how greatly it is influenced by the state of the -circulation.[213] If these poisons be administered internally, they find -their way into the circulating current either through the branches of -the thoracic duct, or those of the _venæ portarum_; when, as if by a -species of election, each substance very frequently expends its venom -upon some one particular system of organs. Many of the substances -arranged under this second division, have moreover a local effect upon -the structure with which they first come in contact; it is thus with -_Colocynth_, and some other bodies; while on the contrary, several of -those poisons which are distinguished for their _local action_, are -subsequently absorbed, and are thus as it were enabled to ensure their -work of destruction by a double mode of operation. We shall receive -ample evidence of this truth, as we proceed in the history of particular -poisons. The third class comprises such agents as inflict their -vengeance upon the mucous membrane of the stomach, by actual contact, -and destroy, by exciting local inflammation. - - - - - _MINERAL POISONS._ - - -Under this head is included the greater proportion of those substances -which are employed as the instruments of crime; for they are generally -of easy access, require but little preparation, and are so destructive -in small doses, and, at the same time, so little disgusting in flavour, -as to furnish the assassin with the sure and secret means of -destruction. Fortunately, however, for the ends of justice, such agents -are pre-eminently the objects of successful analysis. In treating of the -history of the individual substances derived from this kingdom, we shall -consider, 1st. their _external characters_, such as form, colour, odour, -taste, specific gravity; 2d. their _chemical composition, and -habitudes_; 3d. _the tests by which their presence may be recognised_; -_4th. the symptoms which they occasion_; _5th. their physiological -action_; _6th. their different modes and forms of application_; _7th. -the lesions of structure they occasion_; _8th. the phenomena presented -on dissection_. - - - Cl. 1. CORROSIVE POISONS. - - - ARSENIC. - -The greek word Αρσενικον was employed by _Dioscorides_, and other -writers of that period, to denote a particular mineral of a reddish -colour, which _Aristotle_ had already described by the name of -σανδαρακη,[214] and his disciple _Theophrastus_, by that of αρρενικον. -It was employed by the ancients both as a pigment and as a medicine, and -appears to have been a compound of Sulphur, and a peculiar metal, to -which the name of _Arsenic_ is now exclusively applied. At what period -this metal was first discovered seems very doubtful; and although a -process for obtaining it is described in the Pharmacopœia of -_Schroeder_, published in 1649, yet its peculiar nature was examined, -for the first time by _Brandt_, in 1733. - -The metal, Arsenic, is distinguished by the following properties, viz. - -It has a bluish-grey colour, not unlike that of steel, and a -considerable lustre; its texture is grained, and sometimes scaly; its -hardness not very considerable, but its fragility is so great that it -falls to pieces under a moderate blow of the hammer, and admits of being -easily reduced to a very fine powder; according to _Bergman_ its -specific gravity is 8·31. When cold, it emits no sensible odour, but if -heated, it yields a strong _alliaceous_, or garlic-like smell, which is -to be considered as the most characteristic of its properties. Its point -of fusion is unknown, for it is the most volatile of all the metals, and -sublimes, before it melts, at the temperature of 540° Fah., and if the -process be conducted slowly in close vessels, the metallic sublimate -will assume a _tetrahedral_[215] form of crystallization; if the air be -admitted, and the temperature still farther raised, it will burn with an -obscure bluish flame. - -Arsenic is extremely susceptible of oxidation, and, by mere exposure to -the air, shortly loses its metallic lustre; and yet it may be kept under -the surface of _cold_ water, for any length of time without exhibiting -the signs of oxidation, or solution; a covering of this fluid, or of -alcohol, is therefore considered as affording the best means of -preserving the metal in a state of integrity. - -Arsenic is capable of combining with two proportions of oxygen, and of -forming two definite compounds, which we shall hereafter consider under -the title of _Arsenious_ and _Arsenic_ acids. The substance described by -some authors as the _black oxide_ of this metal would seem to be an -indefinite mixture of the metal itself, and the arsenious acid. - -Arsenic does not appear to possess any deleterious properties, but it is -almost impossible to reduce the metal to powder, so as to adapt it for -exhibition without its becoming oxidized. _M. Renault_ therefore, in -order to decide the question, had recourse to its alloys; and he found -that _Mispickel_ (an alloy of Arsenic and Iron), when given to the -extent even of two drachms, scarcely produced any effect; a result which -very satisfactorily accords with the conclusion drawn by _Bayen_, in his -work on Tin, and which proves that the arsenic contained in that metal, -need not excite the least alarm, since it exists in a metallic state. We -have upon another occasion[216] observed, that the vapours characterised -by an alliaceous odour are probably less noxious than the arsenical -fumes which are inodorous; and that the little injury experienced by -workmen who solder silver filligree with an arsenical alloy, may -probably depend upon the deoxidized state of its fumes. - - - ARSENIOUS ACID, or WHITE OXIDE OF ARSENIC. - -This is justly considered as the most fatal of all mineral poisons, and -is the one more frequently selected than any other, as the instrument of -assassination and suicide; while its numerous applications in medicine -and the arts, by making it an article of general and indiscriminate -sale, have rendered it an accidental as well as criminal source of -suffering and death. - -It is seldom prepared by the chemist, since it exists in a native state, -and is moreover procured abundantly and economically, during the -extraction of the other metals from their ores.[217] In the commercial -world the substance is still known by the name of _White Arsenic_; and -continues to be expressed in popular language, by the simple term -_Arsenic_. - -It generally occurs in the form of white compact masses, opaque on their -exterior surface; transparent, and presenting a vitrified aspect in the -interior. Its taste is acrid and corrosive, but not to a degree -corresponding with its virulence. _Specific gravity_ 3·7. When reduced -to powder it bears a strong resemblance to refined sugar, for which it -has sometimes been fatally mistaken, and with which it has been often -mingled for criminal purposes. At the temperature of 383° _Fah._ it is -volatilized, and is capable of crystallizing in tetrahedrons with -truncated angles, or rather in octohedrons; by a strong heat, in close -vessels, it is vitrified and becomes pellucid, and acquires the specific -gravity 5·000[218]; but when exposed to the air, it shortly returns to -its former appearance. _In the state of vapour it is quite inodorous_, -although the contrary is positively asserted in several chemical works -of high authority, and it is stated to be characterised by a smell like -that of garlic; the fact is, that the _alliaceous or garlic-like smell -is wholly confined to metallic arsenic in a state of vapour_; and -whenever the arsenious acid seems to yield such an odour, we may very -confidently conclude that its decomposition has taken place, and that it -has been reduced to its _metallic_ state. Such a reduction will -generally happen when it is projected upon ignited charcoal, or when -heated in contact with those metallic bodies which readily unite with -oxygen, such as _Antimony_, _Zinc_, &c. It is stated by _Orfila_ and -other writers, that if it be projected upon heated copper the alliaceous -odour is evolved. This assertion is undoubtedly true, but the fact -requires to be explained with more precision, or we may fall into an -important error respecting it. The author has shewn by several -experiments, already published in his _Pharmacologia_,[219] that the -phenomenon takes place only when the copper is in a state of ignition, -at which temperature its affinity for oxygen enables it to reduce the -arsenious acid, and consequently to develope the metallic odour. We have -ascertained by repeated experiments that if a few grains of arsenious -acid be heated on a plate of copper, by means of a spirit lamp or the -blow-pipe, no odour is perceptible; for, in this case, the whole of the -acid will be dissipated before the copper can acquire a temperature -sufficiently exalted to deoxidize, and reduce it. If the arsenious acid -be heated on a plate of zinc, the smell will not be evolved until the -latter metal is in the state of fusion. If, instead of the foregoing -surfaces, we employ in our experiments those of gold, silver, or -platina, no alliaceous smell whatever is produced, at any temperature, -provided every source of fallacy be carefully avoided; but it deserves -particular notice, that the author has found the flame of the spirit -lamp to be in itself, capable of decomposing the arsenious acid, in -consequence, it is presumed, of the operation of its hydrogen;[220] a -fact which is very likely to betray the experimenter, as in the first -instance it did the author, into a belief that the arsenious acid does -actually yield the odour in question. - -The term Arsenious _acid_ was first bestowed upon this substance by -_Fourcroy_, since it was found to possess many of the essential -habitudes of an acid; as for instance, that of combining with the pure -alkalies to saturation. It dissolves in water; but, according to -_Klaproth_, although it requires for its solution 400 parts of that -fluid, at the temperature of 60° _Fah._ it requires not more than 13, at -212°; and it moreover appears that if 100 parts of water be boiled on -the arsenious acid, and suffered to cool, it will retain 3 grains in -solution, and deposit the remainder in crystals. This fact shews the -great importance of employing boiling water in every chemical -examination of substances supposed to contain arsenic. It proves also -that a fatal dose of the poisonous mineral may be very easily -administered in any watery vehicle, a fact which was denied on the trial -of _Ogilvy_ and _Nairne_[221] by _Dr. James Scott_, who deposed that -“Arsenic would not dissolve in warm water, but almost instantly subside -to the bottom of the vessel,” although, at the same time, he -acknowledged that “if it were put into tea with milk and sugar, and -stirred about, it _might_ be suspended long enough to kill those who -should drink the potion.” It is soluble in alcohol, and in fixed oils, -the former taking up two per cent. By the addition of an alkali, an -_arsenite_ of great solubility will result, and a solution of extreme -virulence may be thus effected. With _lime-water_ arsenious acid -produces a white precipitate of _arsenite of lime_, but which is soluble -in an excess of the acid. With _magnesia_ it also forms a very soluble, -and extremely active, _arsenite_. - - - _Symptoms of Poisoning by the Arsenious Acid._ - -_Hahnemann_, in his work on Arsenic, proposes a classification of its -effects founded on their relative duration and violence, and which it is -our intention to adopt on the present occasion, without any other -alteration than that of reversing the order of the classes. - -Poisoning by Arsenic may accordingly be considered as admitting of three -degrees of intensity, viz. 1st. Where the case, although attended with -dangerous symptoms, does not terminate fatally. 2d. Where death does not -follow until after a lapse of twenty-four hours. 3d. Where death takes -place within twenty-four hours after the exhibition of the poison. - -1. _Symptoms of the first and lowest degree._ In the slighter cases in -which the operation of arsenic is recorded as producing poisonous -effects, the symptoms were, uneasiness of the præcordia; cholics; -thickness, redness, and stiffness of the palpebræ; soreness of the gums; -ptyalism; itching over the surface of the body, sometimes attended with -a slight eruption; restlessness; cough; head-ache; strangury, and _ardor -urinæ_. Where the dose of poison has been somewhat greater, although -still inadequate to the destruction of life, violent vomiting is -commonly the first symptom, preceded in some instances with a sense of -heat and dryness in the fauces; in such cases where the vomiting has -very shortly succeeded the ingestion of the Arsenic, and the stomach has -at the same time been filled with food, the patient may owe his escape -to the poison being discharged before it had time to act. _Morgagni_ -relates a case of poisoning at an Italian feast, where the dessert was -intentionally sprinkled with Arsenic instead of flour; those who had -previously eaten but little speedily perished, but those who had eaten -heartily were saved by vomiting. Although in this degree of poisoning -the life of the patient may be spared, yet a variety of _consecutive_ -symptoms may continue to harrass him for a longer or shorter period, -such as indigestion, debility, partial paralysis, and epilepsy. The -history[222] of the cases of _Mr. Turner_ and his family, of Chancery -lane, for the poisoning of whom _Eliza Fenning_ was executed, will -afford a striking illustration of this fact. The hair of the head has -also been observed, in some cases, to fall off. _Dr. Male_ is also of -opinion that the long protracted and injudicious use of this mineral, as -a medicine, will induce exostosis and caries of the bones. - -2. _Symptoms of the second degree._ In this case where the patient lives -two or three days, or perhaps longer, as in the case of _William -Mitchell_ above described (p. 190), the earliest symptoms are heat and -thirst, or vomiting, and inexpressible uneasiness and anxiety, the -former of which is less frequently observed than the two latter; -purging, or sometimes a repeated but ineffectual desire to go to stool; -wandering pains; quick, but feeble pulse; head-ache; distended and -painful abdomen; priapism; towards the close of the scene the patient -often becomes more tranquil and is inclined to sleep, although, in some -instances, the pains, attended with convulsions, continue to the latest -moments. In general, death takes place suddenly. In cases where the -effects of the poison are not immediately fatal, we must necessarily -expect the occurrence of many phenomena, indicative of the re-action of -the system, and which will be better illustrated by a reference to the -history of individual cases, such for instance, as those of _William -Mitchell_, (p. 190) and _Mr. Blandy_, (_Appendix_) than by any general -description which can be given in this place. It is also worthy remark -that in such cases, from the length of time, there will necessarily -occur a greater opportunity for the co-operation of other contingent -causes, whether they be connected with previously existing diseases, or -the action of remedies; and the intelligent practitioner will not -neglect to appreciate their influence in modifying the character of each -particular case. There are besides symptoms highly characteristic when -they do arise, but which are of comparatively rare occurrence, such as -the ulcerated condition of the fundament, as in the case of _Mr. -Blandy_, and the inflamed eyes and state of the mucous membranes, in -that of _William Mitchell_. - -3. _Symptoms of the third and highest degree._ Soon after a large dose -of Arsenic has been swallowed, an austere taste, and a sense of heat and -constriction of the pharynx and œsophagus are perceived; in a short -period excruciating pains in the stomach and bowels, accompanied with -vomiting of the most violent character, the matter voided being -generally of a brown colour, and not unfrequently mixed with blood; with -these symptoms are conjoined an inexpressible anxiety about the -præcordia, and frequent faintings; the stomach at the same time acquires -such a high degree of irritability, as to reject the mildest fluids. The -alvine discharges now become frequent and painful, and consist of dark -and extremely fœtid matter, frequently mixed with blood. The thirst is -unquenchable, and the heat of the surface becomes extreme. The pulse is -small, frequent, and irregular; palpitations of the heart, violent -cramps in the legs, sometimes a painful strangury and bloody micturition -ensue. The powers of life begin to fail, respiration becomes laborious, -cold sweats break out, hiccup occurs, the countenance assumes a singular -character of anxiety and distress, a livid circle appears around the -eyes, the pulse is imperceptible, the body swells and sometimes becomes -covered with a species of miliary eruption, or with dark purple spots. -In some cases convulsions ensue, but delirium, or loss of reason, is -very rarely the consequence of this species of poisoning, and the -unfortunate sufferer is conscious until a few moments before the -termination of his existence. Such are the general symptoms, but it is -rare to see them all united in the same case; sometimes the greater part -of them are absent. _M. Chaussier_ reports the case of a robust middle -aged man, who swallowed a quantity of arsenious acid in large lumps, and -died without discovering any other symptom than slight syncope; other -cases are related where only vomiting and purging[223] have been -observed, and the symptoms have been mistaken for those of _cholera -spontanea_. - -The practitioner is therefore not to withhold his belief in a case of -poisoning, on account of the absence of several of those symptoms which -are enumerated in systematic works on Toxicology. - -It is only by the study of individual cases, that he can learn to -appreciate the just value of those pathognomonic combinations which -afford the least exceptionable evidence upon such occasions. - - - _The different modes of Poisoning by Arsenious Acid._ - -It has been proved by numerous experiments that the life of an animal -may be destroyed with equal certainty by arsenious acid, whether it be -_internally_ administered, or _externally_ applied to abraded surfaces, -sores, or bleeding wounds; and it has been, moreover, shewn, that in -either instance the symptoms will be analogous, except in the latter -case they will often be more rapid in their course. - -_Lionardo di Capoa_ relates the case of a child killed by the violent -vomiting and purging arising from a slight wound made in the head by a -comb, wet with oil in which arsenic had been infused for the purpose of -killing vermin; and we have numerous instances on record, where the -application of arsenical cerates and ointments has been followed by -violent and dangerous symptoms. We also learn from the different -historians of the Plague of London, that the arsenical amulets which -were worn, as preservatives, on that occasion, were sometimes attended -with deleterious consequences; _Crato_[224] observed an ulcer of the -breast produced by them. _Verzascha_, violent pains and syncope. -_Diemerbroeck_,[225] and Dr. _Hodges_,[226] death itself. Amongst the -foreign authors who have related cases of poisoning by the external -application of arsenic we may mention _Desgranges_,[227] who records the -history of a chambermaid, poisoned by having rubbed her head with an -arsenical ointment for the purpose of destroying vermin; and -_Roux_,[228] who confessed to have killed a girl of eighteen by an -application of the “_Pâte Arsenicale_” to a cancerous breast. _M. -Renault_ has also given us the results of his experiments upon Arsenic -when applied externally to dogs; when the skin was sound, it excited a -pustular eruption without inflammation; but, when the skin was broken, -more serious effects followed, both general and local, and in some cases -death.[229]. In an experiment performed by Mr. _Hunter_, and Mr. _Home_, -in which arsenic was applied to a wound in a dog, the animal died in -twenty-four hours, and the stomach was found to be considerably -inflamed. Mr. _Brodie_ repeated the experiment several times, always -with the precaution of tying a bandage, to prevent the animal licking -the wound; the results were uniform; the stomach was, in every case, not -only more violently, but more rapidly, inflamed, than when the poison -had been internally administered, and it even preceded any inflammatory -appearance of the wound. In the _Journal de Medecine_, the following -case is related of a woman who was killed by her husband having -insinuated powdered arsenic into the vagina,[230] at the moment of -enjoying the conjugal rites. “A woman at _Leneux, departement de -l’Ourthe_, aged forty, having died after a short illness, attended with -considerable tumefaction of the genital parts, uterine hemorrhage, -vomiting, and purging, the body was inspected by order of the mayor, -when the surgeons reported that they found the vulva in a state of -gangrene, the abdomen much distended with air, and the intestines -inflamed and gangrenous. The culprit was arrested, convicted, and -executed.” In the _Acts of the Society of Copenhagen_, a similar crime -stands recorded, and which was also committed by a peasant; in this -latter case, although some small pieces of arsenic were found within the -vagina, yet some doubts arose respecting the possibility of such a -species of poisoning, and the magistrates accordingly consulted the -College of Medicine of Copenhagen, who decided the question in the -affirmative, having first instituted a series of experiments upon -horses. - -Death may also be produced by the introduction of arsenic into the -rectum; it is said that Sir _Thomas Overbury_, after the failure of the -various poisons[231] that were administered to him, was at last -despatched by an arsenical glyster. - -With respect to the quantity of arsenic required for the production of -such effects it is difficult to offer a decided opinion, as its -operation must in every case be liable to contingency; but a very few -grains are in general amply sufficient. - - - _Physiological action of Arsenious Acid._ - -It had long been supposed that arsenic occasioned death by inflaming the -stomach; but Mr. _Brodie_[232] has very satisfactorily proved, that its -influence arises from its being absorbed, and that it must be regarded -as a _vital_ rather than as a _chemical_ agent, and as having a -constitutional, not a local mode of operation. - -In the first place, he has in many instances found the inflammation of -the stomach so slight,[233] that on a superficial examination it might -have been easily overlooked; and in most of his experiments with -arsenic, death took place in too short a period to be considered as the -mere effect of inflammation. In the next place we have already shewn -that in whatever manner the poison is applied, whether _externally_ to a -wound, or _internally_, to the alimentary canal, the same inflammatory -appearance will be visible in the stomach; a fact which can only be -explained by admitting that the poison is absorbed, and that it acts -upon these organs through the medium of the circulation; it acts at the -same time upon the brain, and heart, but with different degrees of force -in different cases; so that it is sometimes difficult to ascertain which -of these organs is the first to fail in its functions. According then to -these experiments and observations, inflammation of the alimentary canal -is not to be considered as the general cause of death in poisoning by -arsenic; and yet cases will occur, where the local affection may prove -fatal, the animal having survived the effects produced on the organs -more immediately subservient to life, as the brain and heart. Mr. _Henry -Earle_ communicated to Mr. _Brodie_ a case highly illustrative of this -fact, which occurred in St. Bartholomew’s hospital; a woman had taken -arsenic, and having recovered from the alarming symptoms which first -occurred, died at the end of four or five days, when upon dissection, -there appeared extensive ulcerations of the stomach and bowels. This -then was evidently a case of “_Consecutive_” poisoning. - -The dissertation of _Dr. Jaeger_, to which we have before alluded, -contains the result of a very extensive series of experiments, in -illustration of the physiological action of the arsenic. He diligently -examined its effects upon all classes of organized beings, as well of -the vegetable as of the animal kingdoms. The general conclusions which -he has drawn from his experiments on vegetables are, that arsenic is in -most cases a rapidly destructive poison to them, with the exception -perhaps of a few of the simplest forms of existence;[234] and that their -death was induced by means of the gradual absorption and distribution of -the poison by the vessels and cellular membrane, so that the parts died -in succession, as the particles of the poison reached them. _Dr. Jaegar_ -also found that arsenic was a quick and destructive poison to animals, -and that death was preceded, in every instance, from the infusory -animalcula up to man, by inordinate motions; and that the secretion was -most remarkably increased from the mucous membranes. His experiments -also proved that arsenic exerted the most powerful effects, when it was -injected into the veins, or applied to a bleeding wound; next, when it -was introduced into the stomach; but less so, when injected into the -large intestines, which have fewer absorbing vessels.[235] - - - _Organic Lesions, discovered on Dissection._ - -The examination of the bodies of persons poisoned by arsenic, must not -be expected to furnish constant and uniform results, since they will be -found to vary very considerably in different cases. As we have already -considered the value of accelerated and retarded putrefaction, as an -indication of poisoning, we shall at once proceed to the description of -the morbid phenomena which are presented by the internal organs on -dissection. The stomach and intestines are the parts in which we may -expect to find the most decided marks of the ravages from arsenic. The -former viscus will be found more or less inflamed; in some instances, -the dusky redness will appear in patches, interspersed with points and -streaks of a brighter hue; the villous coat of the stomach will be -almost always softened, and, as if macerated, can be easily rubbed off -in pieces with the fingers from the coats beneath; actual ulceration and -sloughing are, according to the observations of _Mr. Brodie_, never -found unless where death is late in taking place, in which case -extensive ulceration of all the coats, amounting to actual perforation, -may be expected to happen. This statement agrees with the observation of -_Ruysch_, who says that where there had been sufficient time, he found -the stomach ulcerated in those who had died from the effects of arsenic, -but that if death supervened earlier, he only discovered bloody points, -distant from each other, throughout the viscus. On the subject of -sloughs upon such occasions, our enlightened author remarks, that -anatomists have often been betrayed into a fallacy respecting their true -nature; on opening the stomach of a dog which had taken a large quantity -of arsenic, _Mr. Brodie_ observed a dark brown spot about an inch in -diameter, having all the appearance of a slough; on a closer -examination, however, it appeared that this spot was no other than a -very thin layer of coagulated blood, of a dark colour, and adhering very -firmly to the surface of the mucous membrane, and having a few particles -of arsenic entangled in it. He states that he has at several times -observed a similar appearance but occupying a less extent of surface; -and he informs us that, in the Hunterian museum, there is a human -stomach, which was preserved for the sake of exhibiting what was -considered a slough, produced by the action of arsenic; but that, on -examining the preparation carefully, the dark coloured spot was -discovered to be simply a layer of coagulated blood, similar to that -before described. _Dr. Baillie_ and _Dr. Yelloly_ have found the stomach -thickened in several parts, as if by coaguable lymph, and in one case -the thickening of the coats was the only alteration of structure -observable; and _M. Renault_ relates a case, where the arsenic was taken -in large pieces, which produced no other effect than slight syncope on -the approach of death; and that, upon opening the body, the arsenic was -found in the state it was swallowed, but there was neither inflammation -nor erosion of the stomach. Where the arsenic has been swallowed in -substance, it will be generally found attached to the membrane of the -stomach by a peculiar glairy fluid; if the poison should have been -administered in solution, the same organic lesions will be discovered, -but the presence of the arsenic in the stomach can scarcely be expected, -although the contents of the viscus, as well as all the matter ejected -from the body before death, must be carefully examined by a chemical -process to be hereafter described. The duodenum, like the stomach, -generally affords evidence of the same inflamed and disorganized -condition; and the whole track of the intestinal canal will be found -more or less affected, according to the quantity of arsenic that has -been administered, the period of time which has elapsed before death, -and other circumstances which have been already enumerated as capable of -modifying the action of this destructive substance. It however deserves -notice that in many cases the rectum appears to be more affected than -the other intestines; _Dr. Male_[236] states, that he has frequently -found it abraded and ulcerated, and even more inflamed than the stomach -itself; _Mr. Brodie_ likewise observed, in his physiological experiments -upon this substance, that the inflammation produced by it was greatest -in the stomach and the rectum. _Dr. Baillie_ has recorded several -instances where a mortification of the rectum followed as an effect of -this poison; and in the case of _Mr. Blandy_, detailed in the -_Appendix_, p. 237, _Dr. Addington_ stated, that the extremity of the -rectum was extremely painful, and surrounded by excoriations and ulcers. - -_Mr. Brodie_ has stated, in the paper to which we have so often alluded, -that the organic lesions occasioned by arsenic are confined to the -stomach and intestines, and that he _never found any appearance of -inflammation in the pharynx or œsophagus_. This statement, however, is -at variance with a great weight of authority; we have ourselves -witnessed cases in which dissection has demonstrated extensive -inflammation in these parts; indeed it would appear, that this poison -acts more particularly on the mucous membranes; and it is reasonable -therefore to conclude, that those with which it comes in actual contact -will not escape its virulence. The serous membranes which receive less -blood, and more lymphatics, are necessarily less affected by it. - -In the case of _William Mitchell_, as related at _page_ 188, the patient -complained of soreness of the eyes, heat and uneasiness in the mouth and -throat; and the surgeon observed the membrane on the palate and uvula to -be detached; so in that, again, of _Mr. Blandy_, _Dr. Addington_ found -on inspection that “his tongue was swelled, and his throat inflamed and -excoriated; his lips, especially the upper one, dry and rough, and -having angry pimples on them; the inside of his nostrils in the same -condition, and his eyes a little blood shot.” (_Append._ _l. c._). In -the celebrated Scotch case of _Oglivy_ and _Nairne_ (_see page_ 184) -_Peter Meik_, surgeon of Alyth, deposed, that, upon inspecting the body -four or five days afterwards, he found “the tongue swelled beyond its -natural size, and cleaving to the roof of the mouth, which he had never -observed after a natural death.” Many more instances might be adduced to -shew that the fauces, pharynx, and œsophagus are very frequently -inflamed and excoriated by the ingestion of arsenic. Mortification of -the pudenda[237] has been said to be an effect peculiar to the action of -arsenic; certain it is that in males, priapism is sometimes a symptom of -this poison, and the penis is found swollen and red after death, as was -observed in the case of _William Mitchell_ (p. 190). The scrotum was -also enlarged and of a dark colour. We have been long aware that persons -exposed to the fumes of arsenic, or accustomed to handle any of its -preparations, have been liable to a peculiar affection of these parts, -but we have generally explained the fact by supposing that the poison -had in such cases, been locally applied to them. The author has been -lately informed by his friend _Mr. Parkes_, that several persons in his -establishment were thus attacked, during the time they were engaged in -preparing an arsenical solution, as a dye for the calico printers; and -we have stated on another occasion,[238] that the smelters and workmen -engaged in the copper works, and tin burning houses of Cornwall, are -occasionally affected with a cancerous disease in the scrotum, somewhat -similar to that which infests chimney sweepers. It is also singular that -_Stahl_, in describing the putrescent tendency in the bodies of those -who die from this poison, mentions in particular the gangrenous -appearances of the parts of generation. The other organs of the body do -not exhibit any particular appearances, which ought to be regarded as -characteristic of death by arsenic; we must necessarily expect to find -the traces of morbid action, especially where life has been unusually -protracted; and the serous effusions found in the body of _William -Mitchell_, are to be referred to such a cause. - -_Mr. Brodie_ has stated that, in animals killed by arsenic, the blood is -usually found fluid in the heart and vessels after death; this agrees -with the observation of _Ruysch_, who says that he never found the blood -coagulated in the human body, after death occasioned by this poison; as -well as with that of _Dr. Jaeger_, who describes the cavities of the -heart, especially of the right side, to be, upon these occasions, turgid -with blood, but that coagula are very seldom found in them. - -A question, of a very considerable importance in a forensic point of -view, has arisen with respect to the means, by which we may distinguish -whether arsenic, found in the body, had been introduced into the -digestive canal during life, or after death. In general, this fact is -placed beyond suspicion by the testimony of those to whose care the body -had been confided, previous to dissection. But cases have occurred where -a poisonous substance has been introduced into the rectum of a dead -body, with the diabolical intention of accusing an innocent person of -having been the perpetrator of the poisoning. We are not aware of any -English case of this kind, but _M. Orfila_ states that in the -proceedings of the Criminal Court of Stockholm such a case stands -recorded. Fortunately there would not be much difficulty in detecting -the crime; for were the arsenic applied to the rectum after death, the -change of structure would not extend beyond the part in actual contact -with it, but would be distinctly separated from the rest of the -intestine _by a well defined line of demarcation_, which can never -happen where the arsenic has acted during life; for, in this latter -case, the transition from the diseased to the healthy structure will be -gradual, and the limits of each imperceptible. - -Before we conclude our observations upon the organic lesions occasioned -by arsenic, we may caution the anatomist not to confound the red or -violet colour which characterises inflammation, with that which has been -occasionally found to arise from the ingestion of certain coloured -drinks. The following case related by _Foderé_, and cited by _Orfila_, -may serve to illustrate this subject. “A private person of Châlons -sur-Marne, who was in a state of convalescence from a disease under -which he had laboured, took a slight purgative, and died very shortly -afterwards. He was believed to have been poisoned through some error in -the medicine, and in order to be assured of this, the body was opened. -The œsophagus and stomach were found to be red, and in certain places -livid, as if in a state of gangrene. These appearances at first induced -a belief that the deceased had died from poison; but _M. Varnier_, a -physician of Châlons, concluded from the appearances, that death was the -consequence of the disease, and that the apparent convalescence was only -an insidious respite. It became therefore necessary to give some account -of the state of the œsophagus and stomach; and having learnt that the -deceased was in the habit of using a _strong infusion of red poppies_, -the idea immediately struck him that the extraordinary colour of these -organs might possibly depend on this infusion. In order to determine the -validity of this explanation, he caused a dog to swallow, several times, -a similar infusion; when upon opening its body, he discovered that the -corresponding parts of this animal had assumed the same colour as had -been observed in the stomach of the deceased above-mentioned, and, -moreover, that this violet red colour was so firmly fixed that it -resisted the action of repeated washings.” _Tincture of Cardamoms_ will -also be liable to occasion a coloured appearance in the stomach, as -described in _Mr. Stanley’s_ case of the death of a woman by a dose of -opium.[239] - - -_Of the Chemical Processes, by which the presence of Arsenious Acid may - be detected._ - -This poison may either be submitted to the judicial physician for -examination, in its solid form, or in that of solution; and in this -latter state it may be mixed with various alimentary substances, whose -presence will necessarily embarrass the inexperienced operator, and -multiply the apparent difficulties of his task. It becomes our duty, -therefore, upon this occasion, to enter very fully and minutely into the -history of the various processes, which have been proposed for the -solution of the important problem under consideration; to appreciate the -relative value of each, and to point out the sources of fallacy and -failure, to which they are severally exposed. - -Such a review of the subject would, moreover, appear to be essentially -necessary at the present period, since the evidence, lately delivered on -an extraordinary trial,[240] has, to a certain extent, very unjustly -shaken the public confidence in the tests of chemistry. We shall -therefore proceed to consider the processes which are calculated to lead -to the detection of _Arsenic_, in relation to the different -circumstances under which it may be presented for investigation, viz. 1, -In a solid form; 2, In the simple state of solution; and 3, In the state -of combination with various alimentary substances. - -1. _The Arsenic is in a solid form._ This is the most simple case which -can occur, and the experiments by which its presence is to be -demonstrated, will constitute the basis of the inquiry, which we shall -be hereafter called upon to institute, for the detection of the same -substance under other circumstances of mixture and combination. - -The order of succession to be observed in the different experiments -which we are about to describe, must, in a great measure, be regulated -by the quantity of the material to be submitted to examination. Should -it be small, it will be prudent to reserve the process of metallization, -by which a considerable loss must necessarily arise, until we have -submitted it to the various re-agents which are calculated to afford -indications of its nature. If, on the contrary, the quantity of the -substance exceed two or three grains, it will be adviseable to proceed -in its examination by the following processes, reserving a portion for -future analysis. - -A. _By its reduction to a metallic state._ Mix a portion of the -suspected substance in powder, with three times its weight of _black -flux_[241]; put the mixture into a thin glass tube, about eight inches -in length, and a quarter of an inch in diameter, and which is -hermetically sealed[242] at one end. Should any of the powder adhere to -the sides of the tube it must be carefully brushed off with a feather, -so that the inner surface of its upper part may be perfectly clean and -dry. The closed end of the tube, by way of security, may be thinly -coated with a mixture of pipe-clay and sand[243]; but this operation is -not absolutely necessary. The open extremity of the tube is to be -loosely plugged with a piece of paper. The coated end must now be -submitted to the action of heat, by placing it in a chaffing dish of red -hot coals, for ten minutes, or a quarter of an hour; when, if our -supposition respecting the nature of the substance has been correct, -metallic arsenic will sublime, and be found lining the upper part of the -tube with a brilliant metallic crust. The glass tube, when cold, may be -separated from its sealed end by the action of a file, which will enable -us to collect and examine the metallic sublimate. If a portion of this -brilliant matter be laid on heated iron, it will indicate its nature by -exhaling in dense fumes, having a powerful smell of garlic. Another -portion should be reserved for future experiments. - -This method of detecting the presence of _Arsenious acid_ has been -considered the most decisive, and indeed the only unexceptionable one, -but of this we shall speak hereafter; at present we have only to -observe, that it is very far from being a minute test, for _Dr. -Bostock_[244] confesses that where less than _three-fourths of a grain_ -were used, he could not say that the metallic crust was clearly -perceptible; and _Dr. Black_[245] appears to have considered that _one -grain_ was the smallest quantity which could be distinctly recognised by -such a process. - -Chemists were formerly[246] in the habit of at once projecting any -substance, supposed to be _Arsenic_, on some burning body, in order to -develope the alliaceous odour; we have accidentally stumbled upon an -instance of this kind, in the fourth volume of the _London Medical and -Physical Journal_, which may serve as an illustration; it is a case -communicated by _F. Thackeray, Esq._ of a child poisoned by arsenic, in -which the author says, “_the inner surface of the stomach was very red, -and was studded throughout with a white powder, which when exposed to -the flame of a candle, yielded fumes, and a garlic odour was emitted, -proving it was arsenic; of which there can be no doubt, as the girl -afterwards confessed that she had given arsenic to the infant_.” - -After the facts we have offered with respect to the _alliaceous odour_ -of arsenical fumes, it is only necessary to state, in this place, that -such a test, when conducted in the manner just related, must be -considered as extremely equivocal. - -Another method of identifying “_White Arsenic_,” by metallization, is to -form at the moment of its reduction, an alloy with copper, which may be -easily effected in the following manner: Mix the suspected powder with -_black flux_, as in the former experiment, and place the mixture between -two polished plates of copper; bind them tightly together by iron wire, -and expose them to a low red heat; if the included substance contain -arsenic, a silvery white stain will be left on the surface of the -copper, which is an alloy of the two metals. In this, as in the former -experiment, the presence of an _alkali_ in the flux is essential, since -it forms immediately an _arsenite of potass_, and thereby fixes the -arsenious acid, and prevents it from being volatilized before the -temperature is sufficiently high to enable the charcoal to decompose it; -we therefore differ with _Dr. Bostock_, when he states that _powdered -charcoal_ may be substituted for the _black flux_. - -The property of _whitening_ copper is regarded as a very satisfactory -test of the presence of arsenic; but _Dr. Bostock_ has pointed out some -circumstances attending it, which we shall here enumerate for the -instruction and satisfaction of the less experienced operator. “It may -be necessary,” says he, “in the first place, to describe the phenomena -that take place when copper is heated according to the process that is -described above, but without the addition of the arsenic. Two copper -disks, of nearly an inch and a half in diameter, scoured bright with -sand, had one grain of powdered charcoal, made into a paste with oil, -placed between them; they were bound together with an iron wire, and -then kept red hot for ten minutes. When they were withdrawn from the -fire, the metal was found to have lost its former appearance, and to -have acquired the dull white colour of lead or zinc; the insides of the -disks were found to present the same whitish appearance, except on the -spot where the charcoal was placed, a small part of which still remained -unconsumed. As the disks cooled the whitish matter which covered them -began to separate, and fly off with some force, in the form of small -scales, leaving a clean surface of the proper copper colour. The -charcoal was rubbed off, and the surface below it was found smooth and -polished; it had acquired a light colour, resembling that of brass; and, -near the centre, there was a small spot, which approached to a steel -grey. This appearance still continued, after it had been rubbed with -fine sand. The above description,” concludes _Dr. Bostock_, “will -probably impress the Society[247] with the same idea, that, I confess, -it gave to myself, that if I had performed this experiment upon a -substance, which had been suspected to contain arsenic, and I had not -been aware of the appearance that I was to meet with, I should have -conceived that I had detected its presence. Upon repeating the process, -in precisely a similar manner, except that one grain of arsenic was -added to the charcoal, the oxidation of the copper took place as before, -and a small part of the charcoal remained unconsumed; but upon rubbing -it, the white stain was perfectly visible. However, when these disks -were compared with those in which the former experiment had been made, -the difference between them seemed more in _degree_ than in _kind_; so -that I should not choose to decide upon the presence of arsenic, as -indicated by this test, unless the result were more obvious than we can -ever expect to find it, where the quantity of arsenic is so small. It -may be proper to observe, that copper, whitened in this manner by -arsenic, is very subject to tarnish; in three days I could with -difficulty distinguish which of the disks had been employed in these two -experiments.” - -In connection with the different modes of identifying arsenic by -metallization, we may relate a test lately proposed by _Mr. A. Thomson_, -which, as a collateral proof, merits some attention. “Into any solution, -in which arsenic may be suspected, stir a moderate quantity of charcoal -powder; allow it to settle; then pour off the clear supernatant liquor, -or filter the mixture; and when the powder which remains on the filter -is dry, sprinkle some of it on a red hot poker; if the solution contain -arsenic, the odour of garlic will be rendered sensible. This effect -becomes more obvious if a few grains of dry sub-carbonate of potass be -added to the dried charcoal powder.”[248] - -If, instead of _Black flux_, or charcoal, the arsenious acid be heated -in a glass tube with quick-lime, a sudden ignition will take place, when -one part of the white arsenic will be metallized, and the other farther -acidified, so as to produce an _arseniate of lime_; in this case, -therefore, a certain portion of the arsenious acid is robbed of its -oxygen to complete the acidification of the rest. - -The habitudes of arsenious acid with the _nitrates_, as first observed -by _Kunkel_, deserve also some attention. If they be heated together, -the former will be oxygenated at the expense of the nitric acid, nitrous -acid vapour will be disengaged, and an _arseniate of potass_ remain. The -forensic chemist may avail himself of these facts, and obtain a very -useful test, which may be applied in the following manner.[249] Take a -grain or two of the suspected powder, and mix it with double the -quantity of _Nitrate of Potass_; introduce this mixture in a small glass -tube, and apply the flame of a spirit lamp under the powder; when, if it -contain arsenic, the nitrate will be decomposed, nitric oxide and -nitrous acid be evolved in a gaseous form, and an arseniate of potass -remain. - -The acid vapour may be easily recognised by its colour and smell, or by -placing a piece of moistened litmus paper within the tube. The -_arseniate_ may be identified by the _brick-red_ precipitate, produced -in its solution, by _Nitrate_ of Silver. So small is the quantity of -arsenic required for this latter mode of trial, that _Mr. Smithson_, in -a late paper, observes “that a drop of a solution of arsenious acid in -water, which at the height of 54·5 _Fah._ contains not more than 1/80th -of the acid, put to nitrate of potass in a platina spoon, and fused, -affords a considerable quantity of _arseniate_ of silver. Hence when no -solid particle of oxide of arsenic can be obtained, the presence of it -may be established by infusing in water the matters which contain -it.”[250] - - - B. _By the application of certain re-agents, or tests, to its - solutions._ - -_a._ _Fused Nitrate of Silver, or Lunar Caustic._ For this test we are -indebted to _Mr. Hume_, who first suggested its application in the -Philosophical Magazine for May 1809, (vol. xxxiii). His method of using -it is as follows: into a clean Florence flask introduce two or three -grains of the suspected substance, in the state of powder, to which add -about eight ounces of rain or distilled water, and heat the solution -until it begins to boil; then while it boils frequently shake the flask, -and add to the hot solution a grain or two of sub-carbonate of potass, -agitating the whole to make the mixture uniform. Pour into a wine glass -about two table spoonsful of the solution, and touch the surface of the -fluid with a stick of lunar caustic. If arsenic be present, a beautiful -yellow precipitate will instantly proceed from the point of contact, and -settle towards the bottom of the glass as a flocculent and copious -precipitate. By this test the 60th part of a grain may be satisfactorily -recognised in two ounces of water. The presence of some alkali is -essential to the success of the experiment, since arsenious acid is -incapable, by the operation of simple affinity, to decompose the -_nitrate of silver_.[251] The validity of this test has been questioned -on several distinct grounds, and which the author has endeavoured to -answer in another work[252]; such, however, is the importance of the -question in its judicial consequences, that we shall re-consider it on -the present occasion. - -OBJECTION 1. _The alkaline Phosphates are found to produce precipitates -with silver, analogous in colour and appearance to the arsenite of -silver._ This constituted one of the principal points in the evidence -for the defence, on the trial of _Donnall_ for the murder of _Mrs. -Downing_ (_see Appendix_, p. 299), and it must be admitted as a valid -objection, if the experiment be performed in the manner just stated; but -there are other reagents which will immediately distinguish these -bodies, as we shall presently have occasion to state, under the history -of the _Ammoniuret of silver_, as a test for arsenic. The author has -also shewn that there is a mode of so modifying the application of the -present test, that no error or doubt can arise in the use of it, from -the presence of any phosphoric salt. This method consists in conducting -the trial on writing paper, instead of in glasses; thus—drop the -suspected fluid on a piece of white paper, making with it a broad line; -along this line a stick of _lunar caustic_ is to be slowly drawn several -times successively, when a streak is produced of a colour resembling -that known by the name of _Indian Yellow_; and this is equally produced -by the presence of arsenic, and that of an alkaline phosphate, but the -one from the former is rough, curdy, and flocculent, as if effected by a -crayon, that from the latter is homogeneous and uniform, resembling a -water-colour laid smoothly on with a brush; but a more important and -distinctive peculiarity soon succeeds, for, in less than two minutes the -phosphoric yellow fades into a _sad green_, and becomes gradually -darker, and ultimately quite black; while, on the other hand, the -arsenical yellow remains permanent, or nearly so, for some time, when it -becomes brown. In performing this experiment the sun-shine should be -avoided, or the transitions of colour will take place too rapidly. It -would be also prudent for the inexperienced operator to perform a -similar experiment on a fluid known to contain arsenic, and on another -with a phosphoric salt, as a standard of comparison. - -In this way the _nitrate of silver_, without the intervention of any -other test, is capable of removing every ambiguity, and of furnishing a -distinguishing mark between the chemical action of arsenic and that of -the phosphates. _Mr. Hume_[253] states that he has repeated this -modification of his experiment with entire satisfaction; and that, in a -late unfortunate case of poisoning, he derived considerable information -by its application. One of the great advantages of this test is the very -small quantity that is required for examination, and which will -therefore never prevent our pursuing the subject through the other -channels of investigation. - -OBJECTION 2. _The muriates produce precipitates with silver, so copious -and flocculent, as to overcome every indication which the presence of -arsenic would otherwise afford._ - -From the general use of common salt, the chemist must be prepared to -meet with a _muriate_ in almost every examination after arsenic, besides -which this latter substance is occasionally adulterated with the -_muriate of baryta_ and by _sulphate of lime_. _Dr. Marcet_ proposes to -obviate the difficulties which the presence of a _muriate_ must -occasion, by adding to the fluid to be examined dilute _nitric_ acid, -and then cautiously applying the _nitrate of silver_ until all -precipitation ceases; in this way the muriatic acid will be entirely -removed, while the arsenic, if present, will be retained in solution, -and may be afterwards rendered evident by the affusion of ammonia, which -will instantly produce the yellow precipitate in its characteristic -form. It must, however, be confessed, that this mode appears -complicated, and, moreover, requires some chemical address for its -accomplishment; it should be also known that the yellow precipitate thus -produced is not always permanent, for it is soluble in an excess of -_ammonia_. Under these circumstances, it is surely preferable to -precipitate at once from the fluid under examination, all the substances -which nitrate of silver can affect, and then to expose the mixed and -ambiguous precipitate, so obtained, to a low heat, in a glass tube, when -the arsenious acid will be separated by sublimation. In this way the -presence of _muriates_ and even _phosphates_, may, in certain cases, be -serviceable, especially if the quantity of arsenic be very minute; for, -by increasing the bulk of the precipitate, we shall decrease the -difficulty of its examination. - -OBJECTION 3. _Chromate of potass produces with nitrate of silver a -yellow precipitate, which, when placed side by side with one produced by -arsenious acid, cannot be distinguished by colour or appearance from -it._ This fact has lately been announced by Dr. Porter, of the -University of South Carolina (_Silliman’s Journal_, _iii._ 355); but as -the presence of _Chromate of Potass_ can never be suspected in any -research after arsenic, in cases of forensic interest, it is unnecessary -to enter into any details respecting it. - -We have stated above, that in consequence of the inability of arsenious -acid to decompose _nitrate of silver_ by simple elective attraction, the -presence of _some_ alkali becomes indispensable in the examination; and -for this purpose _Dr. Marcet_ suggested the superior advantages which -would attend the application of _ammonia_, in all those cases where the -arsenic had not been previously combined with a fixed alkali; since the -former does not, when added singly, decompose nitrate of silver; a -circumstance which, in using the fixed alkalies, is very liable to -occasion fallacy. This led _Mr. Hume_ to improve his original plan, by -forming at once a compound,[254] which he calls the _Ammoniaco-nitrate -of silver_, but which may with more propriety be designated, as an -_ammoniuret_ of that metal. - -_b._ The _Ammoniuret of Silver_. This is an improvement of considerable -value; for, while it obviates the necessity of ascertaining the exact -proportion[255] of alkali required in each experiment, it possesses the -desirable property of not in the least disturbing the solution of -_phosphate of soda_. - -_c._ _Sulphate of Copper._ This test of arsenic is the one discovered by -_Scheele_; when added to the _arsenite of potass_ a beautiful green -precipitate (constituting a pigment known by the name of _Scheele’s -green_) is produced; “so decidedly,” says _Dr. Bostock_, “does this -phenomenon indicate the presence of arsenic, that I thought it desirable -to ascertain, as exactly as possible, what were the best proportions in -which the ingredients should be employed, and in what way they should be -mixed, so as to exhibit the effect in the most obvious manner. After a -number of trials, in which the substances were employed in various -quantities, and under different circumstances, I am disposed to -recommend that the proportions of the _arsenic_, the _potass_, and the -_sulphate of copper_, should be to each other as the numbers _one_, -_three_, and _five_, respectively; for instance, if one grain of arsenic -and three grains of potass, be dissolved in two drachms of water; and, -in another equal quantity of water, five grains of sulphate be -dissolved, we have two solutions, which are transparent, and nearly -colourless; but upon mixing them together, the whole is converted into -the most beautiful grass-green, from which a copious precipitate of the -same hue slowly subsides, leaving the supernatant fluid nearly without -colour. If the same materials are employed, in the same manner, but -without the arsenic, a delicate _sky-blue_ is formed, which is so -decidedly different from the former colour as not to admit of the -possibility of error.” In this experiment then, as well as in that with -the nitrate of silver, it is necessary that the arsenious acid should be -combined with an alkaline base; and for the same reason, in order to -bring the double elective attractions into play; _Mr. Hume_ has -accordingly availed himself of the property of ammonia, to form an -_ammoniuret of copper_, which is to be made according to the formula -already given for the preparation of the silver test. - -_d._ _Ammoniuret of Copper._ In using this test care must be taken that -it be not too highly concentrated, for in that state it will not produce -precipitation. - -Notwithstanding the confidence with which _Dr. Bostock_ has supported -the pretensions of the _Sulphate of Copper_, as an infallible test for -arsenic, its validity has been lately called in question, and it has -been stated that a _decoction of onions_ has the property of imparting -to the copper precipitate, produced by a fixed alkali, a green colour -and appearance completely analogous to that which is occasioned by the -presence of arsenic. This opinion was boldly advanced, and supported, on -the trial of _Donnall_, before alluded to, and of which we have given a -very ample report in the _Appendix_. Since this event an opportunity -occurred which enabled the author to examine this alleged fact, by a -fair and appropriate series of experiments,[256] the result of which has -satisfactorily proved that the opinion was grounded on an optical -fallacy, arising from the _blue_ precipitate assuming a _green_ colour, -in consequence of having been viewed through a yellow medium.[257] The -phosphoric salts may also, under similar circumstances, be mistaken for -arsenic; for the intense blue colour of the _phosphate of copper_ will, -when viewed through a yellow medium, necessarily appear green. Such -instances of optical fallacy are by no means uncommon in the history of -chemical reagents; thus _corrosive sublimate_ has been said to possess -alkaline characters, in consequence of appearing to turn the syrup of -violets green, whereas this apparent change is to be solely attributed -to the optical combination of the yellow hue of the sublimate with the -blue colour of the violet. - -Whenever therefore such a source of fallacy can be suspected, the -operator would do well to repeat his experiment on white paper, in the -manner we have already pointed out, when treating of the silver test; -and let it be remembered that the results, when obtained in glasses, -should always be examined by day light, and viewed by reflected, and not -by transmitted light. _Dr. Bostock_ observes, that a weak solution of -the sulphate of copper, without any addition, when held between the eye -and the window, frequently presents a greenish tinge. It should be also -known that the usual reaction of the _ammoniuret of copper_, upon a -diluted solution of arsenic, is prevented by the presence of _tannin_; -strong tea may therefore render the test inefficient. - -_e._ _Sulphuretted hydrogen._ This is a very delicate test for arsenic, -producing with its solution a beautiful golden coloured liquor, which, -after a short time, lets fall a precipitate, and which will take place -sooner if a small quantity of acetic acid be added. By this re-agent so -small a quantity as 1/100000 may be detected in solution. The test, -however, is not, says _Dr. Bostock_, sufficiently discriminative to be -depended upon alone; since _tartarized antimony_ and some other bodies, -will produce phenomena that may be mistaken for the effects of arsenic. -It has, however, the merit of not being affected by _tannin_, and may -therefore be conveniently employed for precipitating arsenious acid, -when dissolved in tea. - -_f._ _Lime water_ produces with the solution of arsenic a beautiful -white precipitate of _arsenite of lime_, which easily dissolves in an -excess of arsenious acid. - -The precipitates occasioned by the foregoing reagents, should be -carefully collected, and treated with _black flux_, in a glass tube, for -the purpose of obtaining the metallic sublimate, as above described. - -We cannot quit this part of our subject without directing the reader’s -attention to the chemical evidence given by _Dr. Addington_, on the -trial of _Mary Blandy_ (_see Appendix, p._ 241) to prove that arsenic -was contained in a powder with which she was supposed to have poisoned -her father. To those in the least acquainted with the habitudes of -arsenious acid, it must be evident, that no one of the appearances -described by _Dr. Addington_ indicates the presence of arsenic;[258] and -his evidence is only to be reconciled upon the supposition that, instead -of the arsenic itself, he, in this case, detected the foreign substances -with which it had been adulterated; thus it has been before stated that -_white arsenic_, as sold by the druggists, is often adulterated with -_sulphate of lime_; and the decomposition of this substance by the -_sub-carbonate of ammonia_ (“_Spirit of sal-ammoniac_”) or by the -_sub-carbonate of potass_ (“_Lixivium of tartar_”) would occasion the -precipitation of a white substance, as stated in the evidence; it is -however difficult to account for the “considerable precipitation of a -lightish coloured substance” by muriatic acid (_spirit of salt_) by the -presence of any impurity likely to be contained in the arsenic, or in -the water employed for its solution. If any lime were present, it would -probably give “white glittering crystals” of sulphate of lime, by the -addition of sulphuric acid (_spirits of vitriol_). The only plausible -evidence of the presence of arsenic in the suspected powder is “the -alliaceous smell and white flowers” which _Dr. Addington_ describes as -occurring when it was thrown on red hot iron; it must however be -confessed, that from the fallacy of the other experiments, it is even -impossible to place any confidence in those last mentioned. - -Arsenic does not blacken a knife by which it is cut, as stated on the -trial of _Eliza Fenning_; nor does it, when mixed with dough, prevent -its rising.[259] - -We have now concluded our history of the different tests which have been -proposed for the detection of arsenic. Much has been said and written -upon the relative degree of confidence to which they are respectively -entitled, and it has been asserted on several occasions, that nothing -short of the reproduction of the metal ought to be received by the -tribunals of justice, as an unequivocal proof of the presence of -arsenious acid. (See _Dr. Neale’s Evidence on the trial of Donnall_. -_Appendix, p._ 297.) In taking an impartial review of all the evidence -which the investigation of this subject can furnish, it must appear to -the most fastidious, that the _Silver_ and _Copper_ tests, above -described, are capable, under proper management and precaution, of -furnishing striking and infallible indications; and that in most cases -they will be equally conclusive, and in some even more satisfactory in -their results, than the metallic reproduction upon which so much stress -has been laid; and for this obvious reason, that unless the quantity of -metal be considerable, its metallic splendour and appearance is often -very ambiguous and questionable. The author is personally acquainted -with a case, where the medical person, by no means deficient in chemical -address, actually ascribed the presence of arsenic to that which was no -other than a film of finely divided charcoal: in this state of doubt the -last resource was to ascertain whether it yielded, or not, upon being -volatilized, an alliaceous odour. Surely an unprejudiced judge would -prefer the evidence of _sight_, as furnished by the tests, to that of -_smell_, as afforded in the experiment to which we allude; especially -after the various fallacies, which we have shewn in the course of the -present enquiry, to have occurred with regard to this latter sense. But -the question at issue may be easily disposed of to the satisfaction of -all parties; for let it be remembered, that the application of chemical -reagents on solutions suspected to contain arsenic, so far from throwing -any obstacle in the way of the _metallic reproduction_ of that -substance, are the very steps which should be adopted as preparatory to -the “_experimentum crucis_.” It is only necessary to collect the -precipitates, and to decompose them in the manner already described; and -this confirmation of our results should never be neglected, for it is -the bounden duty of the forensic chemist, who is called upon to decide -so important a question as the presence of a corrosive poison, to -prosecute by the fullest enquiry every point which admits of the least -doubt; he should also remember that in a criminal case, where the life -of a human being depends upon his testimony, he has not only to satisfy -his own conscience, but that he is bound, as far as he is able, to -convince the public mind of the accuracy and truth of his researches. - - - 2. _The Arsenious Acid is mixed with various alimentary and other - substances._ - -The detection of the presence of arsenic, amidst a complicated mass of -alimentary matter, has long been a problem of interest and difficulty. -In the directions which have been already offered for the discovery of -arsenic in solution, we have in some measure anticipated several of the -resources, of which we are now to avail ourselves. It has been seen how -greatly coloured fluids are capable of obscuring, and changing, and even -altogether preventing, the arsenical indications. _M. Orfila_, with an -assiduity and accuracy which so eminently characterise all his -toxicological labours, has accordingly investigated the peculiar -appearances assumed by the arsenical precipitates in different media, -such as bile, tea, coffee, wine, broth, jelly, &c. Since the publication -of the great work[260] in which these phenomena are recorded, its author -has proposed a new method[261] of removing its difficulties and -embarrassments, occasioned by the colouring matter of the above media; -which consists in a previous application of _Chlorine_, so as to change -the colour to a shade, that will not offer any optical impediment to the -characteristic indications of the tests in question. We are ready to -admit that such a mode of proceeding may, on certain occasions, assist -the accomplished chemist in his analysis; but in the hands of a person -less accustomed to chemical manipulation, we hesitate not to declare -that it is subject to fatal fallacies; whereas, by collecting the -precipitate, and submitting it to the process of sublimation we shall at -once obtain the arsenious acid in a pure form, and be enabled to test -it, in distilled water without the chance of error. Why then should we -attempt to pursue our game through the windings of a labyrinth, when a -direct road lies before us by which we may drive it into the open plain? - -We accordingly recommend the juridical chemist, who suspects the -presence of arsenious acid in broth, coffee, or any coloured liquid, to -add a solution of _ammoniuret of silver_, and thus to precipitate -indiscriminately all the bodies which it may be capable of so affecting. -The precipitate may then be collected, and submitted to heat in a glass -tube, as before directed. - -But the _Arsenious acid_ may perchance be so mixed with various foreign -matter as to render its separation by filtration difficult; in such a -case, after having boiled it in distilled water, in order to procure all -the soluble matter from it, the residual mass may be evaporated to -dryness, care being taken that the heat applied for such a purpose never -exceeds 250° _Fah._ or we shall lose the arsenic, should any be present, -by volatilization. The residue thus obtained may then be submitted to a -higher temperature in a subliming vessel, in order to procure the -arsenious acid in its pure state. This process applies particularly to -the examination of the matter vomited, or the feculent evacuations -passed, by the patient. Should the arsenious acid have, in the first -instance, been dissolved in oil, _Dr. Ure_ proposes to boil the solution -in distilled water, and to separate the oil afterwards by the capillary -action of wick threads. If the arsenious acid be mixed with resinous -bodies, _Oil of Turpentine_ may be employed as their solvent, which will -leave the arsenic untouched. _Dr. Black_ directed the application of -alcohol for this purpose, but this is obviously improper, since -arsenious acid is soluble in that fluid. - -If the physician be called upon to investigate the contents of the -alimentary canal after death, and the arsenious acid cannot be -discovered amongst the suspected matter, the stomach itself must be cut -into small pieces, and in compliance with the directions of _Orfila_, -boiled in ten or twelve times their weight of distilled water, which -should be renewed as fast as a portion of it flies off in vapour; this -liquor should be cooled and decanted, in order to put a few drops of it -into the solutions of the different re-agents which we have before -described. If the precipitates should indicate the presence of arsenic, -we may proceed according to the directions we have already laid down; -if, on the other hand, the fluid offers no indication of poison, the -mass exhausted by water should be treated, according to the process -suggested by _Rose_, by boiling it for some time in a solution of -potass, by which means the stomach will be partly decomposed and -dissolved, and the arsenious acid, with which it might have been -combined, saturated by the alkali. In this state the liquor is to be -filtered, again boiled, and nitric acid added, little by little, until -it passes from a dark to a clear yellow colour. The object of the acid -in this stage of the process being to decompose and destroy the animal -matter. The excess of acid should be saturated with potass, when an -_Arsenite of Potass_ will be formed, if there really existed any -arsenious acid in the stomach. This _M. Orfila_ recommends us to -precipitate by the _Hydro-sulphuret of Ammonia_, and a few drops of -nitric acid; (_Rose_ prefers _lime water_ for the same purpose); a -yellow _sulphuret of Arsenic_ will be the result, from which the whole -of the metal may be obtained, by drying it upon a filter, mixing it with -an equal bulk of potass, and melting it in a small glass tube. - -This complicated mode of proceeding will rarely be found necessary; but -it should not be neglected, where the presence of arsenic cannot be -otherwise detected in the alimentary canal of those who are suspected to -have died from its ingestion, especially in the examination of a body -where, from the length of time it may have been under ground, there is -reason to suppose that the acid exists in a state of intimate -combination with the animal matter. And we may take this opportunity to -observe, that advanced putrefaction, however disagreeable it may render -such researches, will not, in the case of arsenic, defeat their success; -let the forensic physician, then, remember, that the length of time -which may have elapsed since the death of the body, ought never to be -urged as a plea for not having proceeded in its dissection. The task may -be personally disagreeable, but it will be less painful than the -reflections which must attend a breach of duty; upon such an occasion we -would address the anatomist in the quaint but expressive words of -_Teichmeyer_[262], “_Præstat enim manus quam conscientiam cruentare et -contaminare._” - - - ARSENIC ACID, and ITS SALTS. - -It has been stated, that the Metal Arsenic is susceptible of two degrees -of oxidizement, the result of its first degree being Arseni_ous_ acid, -and that of its second Arsen_ic_ acid. This latter compound, of which we -are now to treat, may be obtained by the repeated distillation of white -arsenic with nitric acid. In a solid state it is white, not -crystallizable; of a sour, and at the same time, metallic taste; its -specific gravity is 3·391; when exposed to the action of heat in a close -vessel, it does not become volatile, but melts and vitrifies; thrown on -burning coals, it swells, parts with its water, and becomes opaque; if -the process of deoxidation be continued, it will, at length, rise in -vapours, like those of arsenious acid, and which, like them, will yield -an alliaceous odour, or not, according to the circumstances already -explained. The _Arsenic acid_ dissolves very readily in water, and is -even indeed deliquescent. With alkalies, earths, and oxides, it -constitutes a class of salts, called “_Arseniates_,” all of which, as -well as the pure acid, are extremely active poisons; fortunately, -however, they are not much employed[263] in this country, and are not -likely to become the instruments of crime. These salts, like those of -the arsenious acid, are obedient to the different re-agents which were -enumerated under the consideration of this latter substance, but with -different results; thus the _silver_ test, instead of producing the -yellow indication, occasions an equally characteristic precipitate of a -red, or brick colour. The ammoniuret, and acetate of copper, furnish a -bluish-white precipitate. The arsenic acid, in a solid form, or the -arseniate, mixed with black flux, will, like white arsenic, furnish a -metallic sublimate, when heated in a glass tube. - - - THE SULPHURETS OF ARSENIC. - -There are two Sulphurets of Arsenic: the yellow variety known in -commerce under the name of _Orpiment_, and the red sulphuret, termed -_Realgar_. The bodies, as they occur _native_, do not appear to be -endowed with the virulent powers which distinguish the other compounds -of arsenic. _M. Renault_[264] gave as much as two drachms of the native -orpiment to dogs of different sizes, from which they experienced no -inconvenience. _Hoffman_[265] also offers his testimony of the inertness -of this substance. The same observations apply to the _Realgar_. It is -not a little singular that while these native sulphurets of arsenic -should be so harmless, those which are produced by artificial fusions, -are extremely virulent in very small doses. _M. Renault_ supposed that -this remarkable difference of effect was owing to the arsenic being -oxidized in the latter compound, and in its metallic state in the -former. This explanation, however, is not considered as satisfactory by -_M. Orfila_, who states that it does not embrace all the varieties of -the case, for that the _sulphuret_, which is artificially obtained by -pouring the arsenious acid into a solution of sulphuretted hydrogen, is -as inert as the native compounds; besides which, chemical analysis has -proved that there is no oxygen in any of these _sulphurets_, and that -they only differ from one another, by a greater or less proportion of -their two ingredients. This apparent anomaly induced _M. Orfila_ to -institute a series of experiments for its investigation, but the results -which he has obtained are too unsatisfactory to enable him to decide the -question. - -The presence of an _Arsenical Sulphuret_ is to be sought for by -calcination with caustic potass, in a small glass tube. The sulphuret is -decomposed in a few seconds, yielding its sulphur to the potass, while -its metallic element is volatilized with the usual phenomena. - - - MERCURY. - -Mercury, or Quicksilver[266], was known in the earliest ages. Its -external characters are too familiar to require any particular -description in this place. Its specific gravity is 13·568.[267] In its -metallic state it exerts no action on the living system, except that -which may depend upon its mechanical properties, although a different -opinion has been entertained, (see _Pharmacologia_, art. Hydrargyrum.) - -Several of the combinations of this metal are, however, highly -destructive in small doses, and are consequently objects of forensic -interest. - - - CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE. - - _Oxy-muriate of Mercury. Bi-chloride of Mercury._ - -This metallic salt is by far the most active of all the mercurial -preparations. According to the latest views of Chemistry it is a -compound of two proportionals of chlorine, and one proportional of -metallic mercury, and is therefore a _bi-chloride of Mercury_. It -generally occurs in the form of a crystalline mass, made up of very -small prismatic crystals, which undergo a slight alteration by exposure -to air, becoming opaque and pulverulent. Its taste is extremely acrid, -with a metallic astringency, occasioning a sensation of obstruction in -the throat which continues for some time. Its specific gravity is -5·1398[268]. When pulverised and thrown upon burning coals, it is -immediately volatilized, giving out a thick white smoke, of a very -pungent smell, not at all resembling garlic, but which irritates the -mucous membranes extremely, and is highly dangerous to those who breathe -it. It is soluble in eleven parts of cold, and in three of boiling -water; and this solubility may be farther increased by the addition of a -few drops of rectified spirit, or of muriatic acid. When swallowed in -small quantities it acts as a most virulent poison.[269] - - - _Symptoms of Poisoning by Corrosive Sublimate._ - -The effects, as well as the _modus operandi_, of this salt, will vary -with the quantity swallowed. We shall, therefore, first consider the -acute symptoms which supervene a dose sufficiently powerful to destroy -life in a few hours; and afterwards those which may arise from its long -continued use in small quantities, and at different intervals. - -1. _Symptoms which follow a large dose._ A most painful burning and -sense of constriction is experienced in the fauces; dryness of the mouth -and lips; excruciating pain in the stomach and bowels, increased by the -slightest pressure, and generally attended with considerable distention; -excessive vomiting and purging of frothy mucus; the countenance is -frequently red and swollen, and the eyes exhibit a sparkling appearance, -accompanied by contraction of the pupils. The pulse is in general quick, -small, and hard; suppression of urine takes place, and cold sweats; -anxiety; universal pains; convulsions, and death. If the patient -survives long enough, a violent ptyalism, and sloughing of the mouth and -gums may take place. - -2. _Symptoms which are produced by the repetition of small doses._ In -this case the mercurial salt acts as an “Accumulative Poison.” (_See -page_ 148). The most striking of the symptoms are those arising from its -specific action upon the salivary glands, in consequence of which an -increased flow of saliva takes place, the gums become tender and sore, -the breath intolerably offensive, and if the use of the salt be not -discontinued, the teeth loosen, and even fall out, and their loss is -sometimes followed by that of the bones of the palate, or maxillæ; at -the same time other evils, although perhaps less apparent, soon arise; -the strength and muscular powers of the body begin to fail; emaciation -proceeds rapidly; cardialgia, dyspepsia, diarrhæa, and a train of morbid -symptoms succeed; violent pains are experienced in the muscles, tendons, -or joints; tremors of the limbs, and even paralysis may result; and in -some cases, pulmonary consumption terminates the existence of the -unhappy sufferer. It has been asserted that _Corrosive Sublimate_, when -taken for a long time in small quantities, will sometimes occasion all -the symptoms of debility above enumerated, together with hectic fever, -without producing salivation. This is a truth which the author’s -personal experience will enable him to confirm. The Countess of -Soissons, mother of the celebrated Prince Eugene, was accused, at the -latter end of the seventeenth century, of having destroyed her husband -by these means. A question of considerable importance has arisen, with -regard to the specific effects of mercury, which demands some notice in -this place. _Whether salivation, after having entirely subsided, can -ever return without a fresh exhibition of Mercury?_ Two instances are -related by _Dr. Mead_ of the return of salivation, after an interval of -several months, when not a particle of mercury had been administered, in -any form, during that period.[270] _Dr. Male_, in his work on Juridical -Medicine,[271] relates an analogous case which occurred in his own -practice: “In March, 1815,” says he, “I gave a small quantity of -triturated mercury to a respectable woman in this town, who had been -long ill; she became suddenly and unexpectedly salivated. She soon -recovered, and enjoyed better health than she had done for a -considerable time. In October, without (as she informed me) having taken -any medicine whatever, the salivation returned with extreme violence, -her mouth sloughed and mortified; and in a few weeks she died.” _Dr. -Hamilton_, the Professor of Midwifery in Edinburgh, relates in his -lectures the case of a married lady, who had been under the necessity of -going through a course of mercury, under the care of the late _Mr. -Bennet_, who, from motives of delicacy did not enquire very minutely -into the particular circumstances; but, according to the rule of the -day, gave his patient a sore mouth. Four months afterwards she -miscarried, and salivation again came on. It was removed for a week, at -the end of which it returned, and harrassed her for about twelve -months.[272] The author, in his _Pharmacologia_,[273] has cited a case -from _Hufeland’s Journal_, (vol. ix) wherein mercurial influence, after -its complete subsidence, had been renewed by doses of opium. In the -trial of _Miss Butterfield_, at the Croydon assizes, for poisoning _Mr. -Scawen_, in the year 1775, the merit of the case entirely hinged upon -this question. See vol. 1, p. 303. - - - _Physiological action of Corrosive Sublimate._ - -When this salt is introduced into the stomach in a large dose, it -immediately exerts a corrosive action on that organ, in consequence of -which the heart and brain become sympathetically affected, and death -results from the suspension of their functions. For this view of the -_modus operandi_ of this mercurial salt we are indebted to _Mr. -Brodie_,[274] whence it would appear that its physiological action is -very different from that of arsenious acid; the former acting as a -simple _escharotic_, on the coats of the alimentary canal, the latter -requiring to be absorbed, before it can display its energies. These -observations, however, apply only to those cases in which the quantity -of poison has been so considerable as to destroy life in a few hours; -where the dose has been small, and the symptoms have arisen from its -frequent repetition, the salt produces its effects by a different mode -of operation. In this latter case it is absorbed, and carried into the -current of the blood, so as to be distributed to every part of the -living system; and it has been asserted that, after the long continued -and improper use of mercury, it has been discovered in different parts -of the body, and even in the brain, in the form of globules. In this way -then deleterious effects may arise from the external application of -corrosive sublimate, and numerous instances are recorded where such -consequences have followed the injudicious use of lotions and plasters, -into which it had entered as an ingredient.[275] In the _Medical -Repository_, for December, 1821, _Mr. Sutleffe_ has communicated the -case of a girl of five years of age, who became salivated, and died, in -consequence of an application made to the head for _tinea capitis_, -consisting of pomatum rubbed up with a few grains of _corrosive -sublimate_. - - - _Antidotes to Corrosive Sublimate._ - -After the view which we have taken of the operation of this salt in -large doses, it necessarily follows that copious dilution is the very -first object which we have to accomplish, and then the ejection of the -fluid by vomiting. _Sydenham_ relates an interesting case of poisoning -by this substance, which was successfully treated by copious draughts of -water, and repeated vomiting.[276] But it becomes a question of great -practical importance to enquire, whether there may not exist some -counterpoison or antidote which, by decomposing the salt, will at once -disarm it of its virulence? This question has been investigated in a -very masterly style by _Orfila_, who has clearly proved by experiment, -that neither the _alkaline salts_ and _earths, the sulphurets of potass -and of lime_, nor the _martial alkaline tinctures_, as proposed by -_Navier_,[277] deserve the least confidence; for although the salt may -by some of these bodies be decomposed, yet the resulting oxide will -prove as virulent as the original compound; equally inefficient are the -other substances which have been proposed as counter-poisons, such as -_sulphuretted hydrogen_, _solutions of sugar_,[278] _the infusions of -Peruvian bark_,[279] and _metallic mercury_.[280] - -_M. Orfila_ having observed the facility with which _albumen_ decomposes -corrosive sublimate, and gives rise to a triple compound of albumen, -muriatic acid, and protoxide of mercury, induced him to ascertain by -experiments whether the _white of eggs_ might not prove an antidote to -that poison; the result of his inquiry has shewn that this is the case; -and that by mixing such albuminous matter, in _large quantities_, with -the diluents given to provoke vomiting, the happiest effects may be -anticipated. Many examples are recorded of the success of this practice. -In the Transactions of the King and Queen’s College of Physicians in -Ireland, an interesting case of this kind is related by _Dr. Lendrick_; -it is, however, but justice to state, that there are instances also of -the failure of this antidote. In the 41st volume of the _London Medical -and Physical Journal_, p. 204, the reader will find the case of a girl -who was poisoned by a drachm of sublimate, and who, notwithstanding the -copious administration of albumen, died in ninety hours afterwards. - -It has lately been discovered that vegetable _gluten_, as existing in -wheat flour, is capable of producing upon corrosive sublimate the same -chemical decomposition, as that which we have stated to arise from the -action of albumen; whence the administration of wheat flour and water -has been suggested as a ready antidote. On the trial of _Michael -Whiting_, for administering poison (_corrosive sublimate_) to his -brothers-in-law, _George_ and _Joseph Langman_, the housekeeper, -_Catharine Carter_, stated in evidence, that the flour, (which was -subsequently proved to contain corrosive sublimate) could scarcely be -made into dumplings with milk[281]; and another witness, _Mrs. Hopkins_, -a neighbour who took charge of the dumpling that had not been boiled, -described it as “_a comical sort of paste; like glazier’s putty more -than paste, though not greasy_.” In order to ascertain the correctness -of this statement, we mixed powdered sublimate with wheat flour, and -proceeded to make it into dough with milk; when the same difficulty as -that stated by the above witnesses, embarrassed the process, and -satisfied us of the truth of their testimony. The phenomenon would -appear to depend upon the mutual chemical changes which arise in the -gluten and mercurial salt. - - - _Organic Lesions discovered on Dissection._ - -The œsophagus and stomach will be found inflamed, and sometimes eroded, -as in poisoning by arsenic. _Salin_ has asserted, that this salt never -produces perforation of the intestinal tube; this, however, is not the -fact; and we know not of any exclusive appearances, by which the organic -lesions inflicted by this poison can be distinguished, unless indeed it -be the black appearance of the stomach, as if it had been burnt, which -occasionally presents itself. - - -_Of the Chemical Processes by which the presence of Corrosive Sublimate - may be detected._ - -As the chemist, devoted to forensic enquiry, will be required to -identify this substance under very different states of mixture and -combination, we shall proceed to enumerate the various obstacles that -may possibly oppose his researches; and, at the same time, to suggest -the expedients by which they may be successfully evaded. Unlike -arsenious acid, corrosive sublimate is so readily decomposed by various -alimentary substances, that, when we attempt to demonstrate its presence -in such mixtures, we shall be more frequently compelled to rest our -proof upon the products of the analysis, than upon the actual -reproduction of the salt. - -We shall proceed to consider the best modes of establishing the presence -of this salt, in the different forms in which it may occur, viz. 1, _In -the solid form_; 2, _Dissolved in water or spirit_; 3, _In various -coloured liquids_; 4, _In a state of mixture with various solids_; 5, -_Combined with solid or liquid aliments, by which it undergoes -decomposition_; 6, _In a state of combination with the textures of the -alimentary canal_. - -1. _The sublimate is in its solid form._ The external characters by -which this salt is distinguished will go far to establish its identity; -but the fact should always receive the support of a chemical proof; and -as this is to be derived from the phenomena afforded by its solutions -through the intervention of various tests, it will meet with full -consideration in the following section, viz. - -2. _The salt is in the state of solution, in water, or spirit._ Let us -then suppose that we have a solution of some body in distilled water, -which we suspect to be corrosive sublimate, by what means are we able to -identify it? - -(_a_) _By its metallization, through the agency of galvanism._ We are -indebted to _Mr. Sylvester_ for first suggesting the mode by which -galvanic electricity might be applied for the detection of minute -quantities of corrosive sublimate in solution. His method is as follows. -A piece of zinc or iron wire, about three inches in length, is to be -twice bent at right angles, so as to resemble the greek letter π, the -two legs of this figure should be distant about the diameter of a common -wedding ring from each other, and the two ends of the bent wire must -afterwards be tied to a ring of this description. Let a plate of glass, -not less than three inches square, be laid as nearly horizontal as -possible, and on one side drop some sulphuric acid, diluted with about -six times its weight of water, till it spreads to the size of a -halfpenny. At a little distance from this, towards the other side, next -drop some of the solution supposed to contain corrosive sublimate, till -the edges of the two liquids become joined; and let the wire and ring, -prepared as above, be laid in such a way, that the wire may touch the -acid, while the gold ring is in contact with the suspected liquid. If -the minutest quantity of corrosive sublimate be present, the ring, in a -few minutes, will be covered with metallic mercury on the part which -touched the fluid. - -The above experiment may be beautifully simplified in the following -manner[282]. Drop a small quantity of a solution, supposed to contain -the salt in question, on a piece of gold, and bring into contact a key, -or some piece of iron, so as to form a galvanic circuit; when, if -sublimate be present, the gold will immediately be whitened. - -A solution of _nitrate of silver_ will, under similar treatment, -occasion on gold a white precipitate; but as no amalgamation takes -place, it is readily wiped off, and cannot therefore occasion any -fallacy. - -(_b_) _By precipitating metallic mercury from its solution, by the -contact of a single metal._ It should be generally known that, by virtue -of superior affinity, certain metals will decompose the solution of -corrosive sublimate, with different phenomena; in those cases where the -precipitating metal is capable of forming a direct union with mercury, -we shall find the precipitates to consist of an amalgam of the metal -employed; where no such combination takes place, the mercury may be -frequently seen standing on the surface as a metallic dew. This is -particularly striking when iron or steel has been employed. In the -evidence given on the trial of _Mary Bateman_[283], better known by the -name of the “Yorkshire Witch,” _Mr. Thomas Chorley_, surgeon at Leeds, -stated that he had received from his assistant, _Mr. Hammerton_, a jar -which he had carefully preserved in his possession, and of the contents -of which he gave the following account. “Upon tasting a portion, it was -very acrid, styptic, and permanent upon the tongue; I then took a small -quantity of it upon a clean knife, and rubbed it with my finger; a -change of colour immediately appeared; _further rubbing produced -numerous globules of quicksilver_, and the knife was, at the same time, -blackened by it; this change of colour led me to suspect that it must be -a mercurial composition, and having made a solution of it, and subjected -it to a series of tests and experiments, it is my opinion, that the -mixture in the pot did contain _honey_, and _corrosive sublimate of -mercury_. In order, however, more fully to satisfy myself upon this -point, a mixture was made of these ingredients, when it was found to -yield the same results.” In the above experiment, the steel knife -decomposed the sublimate, forming a _chloride of iron_, while the -mercury, thus disengaged in its metallic form, being unable to -amalgamate with the iron, appeared in globules[284] upon its surface. At -the same time the knife _became blackened_ owing to the precipitation of -carbonaceous matter from the steel. - -(_c_) _Carbonate of Potass._ A saturated solution of this salt, added to -that of corrosive sublimate, will produce a _deep brick coloured_ -sediment, which is stated to consist of per-carbonate of mercury[285]; -while a muriate of potass will be found to remain in solution. The -_sub-carbonate of potass_ will occasion a somewhat different -precipitate, of a _clear brick_ colour, and consisting of a mixture of -the carbonate, and oxide of the metal.[286] - -(_d_) _Ammonia._ A solution of the volatile alkali produces a _white -precipitate_, which is an insoluble triple salt, composed of muriatic -acid, ammonia, and oxide of mercury; being heated it grows yellow; it -passes afterwards to red, and according to _Orfila_ gives out ammoniacal -gas, nitrogen, calomel, and metallic mercury. In this operation the -oxide of mercury is supposed to be deoxidized by the hydrogen which -results from a portion of the decomposed ammonia. - -(_e_) _Lime water._ This reagent may be said to decompose corrosive -sublimate more perfectly than any alkaline body; occasioning a -precipitate of a deep yellow colour, which will be found to be a -peroxide of mercury; unless indeed the quantity of lime water be very -small, when it will be a sub-muriate of the peroxide. - -(_f_) _Nitrate of Tin._ According to _Dr. Bostock_[287] this test is -capable of detecting the three-millionth part of a grain in solution. A -single drop will produce an immediate and copious dark-brown -precipitation. - -All the above precipitates, if rubbed on a bright plate of copper, will -render its surface silvery white, in consequence of the amalgamation -which takes place. - -_Brugnatelli_ has lately proposed a method of distinguishing _corrosive -sublimate_ from _arsenic_, which we have repeated to our satisfaction; -but the experiment requires some nicety of manipulation to secure its -success. Take a quantity of fresh wheat starch, mix with water, and add -a sufficient quantity of _iodine_ to give the liquid a blue colour; if -either of the above poisons be now introduced into it, the colour will -be destroyed, and assume a reddish tint; but if the change has been -effected by the latter substance, a few drops of sulphuric acid will -restore the blue colour; whereas if it has been produced by the former, -it is not recoverable by such means.[288] - -3. _It is dissolved in various coloured liquids._ Under this subdivision -we have to consider the corrosive sublimate as existing in a state of -solution, in liquids, whose colour will be liable to obscure the -characteristic indications which the several reagents would otherwise -occasion. It has been proposed to obviate such impediments by the -previous addition of chlorine, which will discharge the colour in -question. _Orfila_ recommends such a process, where the salt has been -dissolved in wine. The same objections which we urged against this mode -of proceeding, under the consideration of arsenic, appear to us to apply -to corrosive sublimate. - -It will be preferable on these occasions to precipitate the salt by an -appropriate reagent, and then to assay the precipitate for metallic -mercury; or to evaporate the solution, and to submit the matter so -obtained to the process of sublimation, when the sublimate may be -dissolved in distilled water, and examined by the tests above described. -This circuitous process may, however, in many cases be rendered -unnecessary, by dropping the solution on the surface of white paper, and -in such a situation proceeding to its examination by tests; when the -colour of the precipitate will rarely be exposed to any optical fallacy. -The Galvanic process of metallic reduction will also furnish a -satisfactory solution of the problem. - -4. _It is mixed, or combined, with some medicinal body in a solid form._ -As persons have been poisoned by empirical remedies, and other medicines -containing sublimate, accidentally or by design, it is necessary to -point out the readiest mode by which the investigation may be pursued. -If it should form part of a plaster, it will be adviseable to cut it up -in small pieces, and boil them for a quarter of an hour in distilled -water; this fluid, after standing for some time, should be filtered, and -examined as we have before directed. It is evident that, if the -sublimate is neither decomposed, nor strongly retained by the materials -which compose the plaster, it ought to be found in the above solution; -if, however, no such result can be obtained, the solid portion should be -dried in a capsule, and mixed with potass; and in this state submitted, -in the usual manner, to the process of sublimation, when the appearance -of metallic globules will announce the existence of the salt in -question, or, at least, of the presence of some mercurial preparation. - -5. _It is united with alimentary substances which have effected its -decomposition._ It has been frequently stated during the course of the -present inquiry, that corrosive sublimate is easily susceptible of -decomposition, and that various alimentary substances, of animal as well -as vegetable origin, have the power of converting it into -_calomel_.[289] This important fact was first noticed by -_Chaussier_[290] and has been more fully investigated and confirmed by -_Orfila_.[291] Where the quantity of mercurial salt has been -considerable, we may generally obtain, on washing the alimentary matter, -a sufficient portion for experiment; but where the dose has been small, -or where it has been ejected by frequent vomiting, the whole residue may -be decomposed; in which case we must seek to establish the fact of -poisoning, through the detection of metallic mercury, by the processes -of calcination and sublimation. - -6. _It is decomposed, and a part exists in intimate combination with the -membranes of the alimentary canal._ If all the preceding experiments -have failed in detecting the presence of corrosive sublimate, it becomes -our duty to examine the textures with which it may be supposed to have -come in contact; the coats of the canal should be cut into pieces, and -calcined with potass, when, if they have been acted upon by sublimate, -they will yield metallic mercury by sublimation. “The alimentary canal,” -says _M. Orfila_, “acts upon the sublimate like all other animal -substances; muriatic acid is disengaged, and muriate of mercury _ad -minimum_ (_calomel_) is formed, which combines with the substance of the -viscus. - -It may be objected,” continues this distinguished experimentalist, “that -this chemical action does not take place in the living animal; that our -texture, while endued with the vital principle, is not subservient to -the same laws as inorganic substances: I am not ignorant of the extent -to which this objection is well-founded; but admitting the justice of -it, the conclusion is not less true, that if the stomach contains -corrosive sublimate at the moment of death, this body will, from that -moment, act on the texture of the viscus itself. If the stomach contain -a large quantity of aliment, the effects of such an action may be -scarcely perceptible; but on the contrary, they will be easily -applicable, should the viscus be empty, and especially if the -examination of the body takes place several days after death.”[292] - -In conducting experiments upon this, and indeed all other mineral -poisons, the chemist must be prepared to meet with anomalies depending -upon the impurities or adulterations of the substance under examination. - - - RED OXIDE OF MERCURY. _Precipitate per se._ - -We are not aware of any instance of death having, from accident or -design, taken place in consequence of the administration of this -substance; indeed its red colour, insolubility in water, and comparative -rarity, will protect mankind sufficiently against mistake, and at the -same time render its secret administration extremely difficult. It is, -moreover, mild in its effects, unless in large doses, or, under -particular circumstances of constitution. It may be identified by its -form, which is that of minute crystalline scales, of a deep red colour, -and by exposing it to heat in a glass tube, by which it undergoes -decomposition, giving out metallic mercury, adhering to the sides of the -tube, and oxygen gas, which is disengaged. - - - RED PRECIPITATE, or _Nitric Oxide of Mercury_. - -This is, strictly speaking, a _sub-nitrate_ of mercury, and is much more -poisonous than the preceding substance. _Plouquet_[293] relates the case -of a man, who swallowed by accident some red precipitate, when he -immediately experienced violent colics, copious vomitings, a trembling -of his limbs, and cold sweats. Its external characters will at once -enable the chemist to identify it. - - - OTHER PREPARATIONS OF MERCURY. - -The various saline compounds of this metal, as the acetate, sulphate, -and nitrate, are all highly poisonous, but they do not appear to us to -merit a separate consideration; and more especially as we have already -explained the various processes by which every variety of preparation -may be identified. We may just remark that the _sulphuret_, better known -by the name of _cinnabar_, or _vermilion_, has been known to occasion -deleterious effects. _Dr. Gordon Smith_[294] states, upon the authority -of _Mr. Accum_,[295] that “Vermilion has been detected as a poisonous -ingredient in cheese:” this may be very true, but he should have stated -at the same time, that the deleterious effects produced by it, did not -arise from the mercurial sulphuret, but from the red lead with which it -happened to be adulterated; and it is necessary to acquaint the forensic -chemist, that such a fraud[296] is by no means uncommon; it may be very -easily detected by burning a small portion of the suspected sample on a -piece of bread in the candle, when metallic globules will announce the -presence of lead; for the oxide of mercury, although revived by the -process, will at the same time be volatilized. The bread by combustion -affords the carbon by which the metallic reduction is effected. - -The presence of very minute quantities of _vermilion_ may, according to -_Mr. Smithson_, be detected by the following simple experiment. Boil a -portion with sulphuric acid in a platina spoon, and lay the sulphate -thus produced in a drop of muriatic acid, on a piece of gold, and then -bring a piece of metallic tin in contact with both, when the white -mercurial stain will be produced. - - - ANTIMONY. - -Although the ancients were entirely ignorant of this metal, they were -well acquainted with several of its combinations,[297] _Basil -Valentine_, a German Benedictine Monk, was the first who described the -process for obtaining it from its ore; to this work, originally written -in high Dutch, and known by the title of the “_Currus Triumphalis -Antimonii_,” which was published towards the end of the 15th century, we -are indebted for almost all our knowledge respecting this metal. - -Antimony is of a greyish white colour, having considerable brilliancy; -its texture is laminated, and exhibits plates crossing each other in -every direction; its _specific gravity_ is 6·7021; when rubbed upon the -fingers it communicates to them a peculiar taste and smell; it is very -brittle, and fuses at the temperature of 809°, but does not appear to be -volatile; when fused, with the access of air, it emits white fumes, -consisting of an oxide of the metal, which formerly was called -_Argentine flowers of Antimony_. When the metal is raised to a white -heat, and suddenly agitated, it enters into a state of combustion, and -is converted into the same white coloured oxide. - -According to _Thenard_,[298] antimony is susceptible of no less than six -different degrees of oxidation; _Proust_, however, has shewn that they -may all be reduced to two, viz. _protoxide_ and _peroxide_. The former -of which alone exerts any sensible activity upon the human body; but -this constitutes the basis of several preparations, which although in -common use for medical purposes, are so extremely poisonous in larger -doses, as to render them objects of interest to the forensic physician. - - - EMETIC TARTAR.[299] _Tartarized Antimony._ - -This saline body appears in the state of white crystals, whose primitive -figure is the regular tetrahedron, although it assumes a variety of -secondary forms. Its chemical composition is still involved in some -obscurity; it is stated, in the different dispensatories, to be a triple -salt, consisting of tartaric acid, oxide of antimony, and potass, and -that it ought therefore, according to the principles of the reformed -nomenclature, to be termed a _Tartrate of Antimony and Potass_. The -truth of these views, however, we have already[300] ventured to -question; _Gay Lussac_ has stated that in the various metalline -compounds of which _Super-tartrate of Potass_ is an ingredient, this -latter substance acts the part of a simple acid; an opinion which -receives considerable support from the great solvent property of _cream -of tartar_, and from the striking fact that it is even capable of -dissolving various oxides which are insoluble in tartaric acid, of which -the protoxide of antimony is an example. In such a state of doubt, a -better name could not be found than that of _tartarized antimony_. - -The salt, according to _Dr. Duncan_, is soluble in three times its -weight of distilled water at 212° _Fah._ and in fifteen, at 60°. - -When it is heated red hot in an earthen crucible, it blackens, and -undergoes decomposition like a vegetable body, leaving a residuum of -metallic antimony, and slightly carbonated potass. - - - _Symptoms of Poisoning by Emetic Tartar._ - -A question has arisen whether this salt can be considered as a poison, -capable of occasioning death? In general where a large dose has been -administered, it is all rejected by the vomiting which it excites; we -accordingly find in the works of _Morgagni_ and other pathologists, the -history of various cases in proof of the innocence of this salt. -_Hoffman_, however, relates the case of a woman who experienced very -severe symptoms shortly after having taken tartar emetic, and that she -ultimately died,[301] and there are other similar instances recorded in -the works of _Foderé_ and _Orfila_. It also deserves notice, that -tartarized antimony is very liable to produce deleterious effects, -where, from the insensibility of the nervous system, the operation of -vomiting cannot be excited, as in apoplexy, drunkenness, and in that -state of coma, which follows the ingestion of narcotic vegetables. _M. -Cloquet_ communicated to _Orfila_ a case highly illustrative of this -fact, in which a person, labouring under apoplexy, received into his -stomach more than forty grains of tartar emetic, without exciting either -nausea or vomiting. On opening the body, independent of the morbid state -of the brain, which must be regarded as the immediate cause of death, -extensive organic lesions were discovered in the alimentary canal, which -could alone be attributed to the action of the tartar emetic. This fact -will suggest a very important precaution to the practitioner, who may be -called upon to treat a person labouring under a state of the system -which will prevent the act of vomiting.[302]. - -The symptoms produced by this salt will resemble those of a corrosive -poison; and where vomiting is produced, it frequently happens that -although the patient may be eventually saved, an irritability of -stomach, so great as to cause the rejection of all aliments, will remain -for a considerable period; and _Dr. Male_ states that in the only case -of poisoning by this salt which he had ever seen, the person was -affected with violent convulsions, which returned at intervals for -several weeks after recovery from the immediate effects of the -poison.[303] _M. Orfila_, after detailing several cases of poisoning by -emetic tartar, concludes by saying that the general symptoms, upon such -occasions, may be reduced to the following: a rough metallic taste; -nausea; copious vomitings; frequent hiccup; cardialgia; burning heat in -the epigastric region; pains of the stomach; abdominal colics; -inflation; copious stools; syncope; small, contracted and accelerated -pulse; skin cold, sometimes intensely hot; breathing difficult; vertigo, -loss of sense, convulsive movements; very painful cramps in the legs; -prostration of strength,—death. - -Sometimes to the above symptoms is joined a great difficulty of -swallowing; deglutition may be suspended for some time. The vomiting and -alvine evacuations do not always take place, the necessary consequence -of which is an increase in the violence of the other symptoms. - - - _Antidotes._ - -The great indication to be fulfilled in a case of this description, is -the ejection of the salt by vomiting. _MM. Orfila_ and _Berthollet_ rely -very confidently upon the effects of _bark_, _strong tea_, _infusion of -galls_, and other _vegetable astringents_, which have undoubtedly the -power of decomposing the salt. They ought, therefore, to be employed as -diluents to assist vomiting, but they are not to be considered as -antidotes which can render this latter operation less indispensable. - - - _Physiological action of emetic tartar._ - -_M. Majendie_ has shewn by experiment, that if _tartarized antimony_ be -injected into the veins of a dog, the animal vomits, and has frequent -stools; his breathing becomes difficult; his pulse frequent and -intermitting; a great degree of disquietude, and tremblings are the -precursory signs of death, which generally takes place within the first -hour from the injection of the emetic tartar. On opening the body great -alterations are perceived in the lungs; they are found of an orange or -violet colour, have no crackling, are distended with blood, and of a -tight texture. The mucous membrane of the intestinal canal, from the -cardia to the extremity of the rectum is red, and strongly injected. - -If, instead of thus injecting the emetic tartar into the veins, it be -injected into the stomach, and the œsophagus is tied to prevent -vomiting, _M. Orfila_ informs us that the same alterations will be found -after death. The very same effects will also arise from the application -of the emetic tartar to the different absorbing surfaces, such as the -cellular substances, &c. - -_Mr. Brodie_[304] has also thrown considerable light upon the action of -this salt. He observes that the effects of emetic tartar so much -resemble those of _arsenic_, which we have already described, and those -of _muriate of baryta_, which will form a future subject of inquiry, -that it would be needless to enter into a detail of the individual -experiments which he made with it. When applied to a wound in animals -which are capable of vomiting, it usually, but not constantly, operated -very speedily as an emetic; in other respects he found no material -difference in the symptoms produced in the different species of animals, -which he had been in the habit of employing as subjects of experiment. -The symptoms were paralysis, drowsiness, and, at last, complete -insensibility; the pulse became feeble, but the heart continued to act -after apparent death, and was maintained in action by means of -artificial respiration; but never for a longer period than for a few -minutes. Whence it would appear, that this poison acts by being -absorbed, and that it directs a sedative influence upon the heart, as -well as the brain, but that its principal action is on the latter. The -length of time which elapses, from the application of the poison to the -death of the animal, varies; in some instances _Mr. Brodie_ found that -it did not exceed three quarters of an hour, but in others, it was two -or three hours, or even longer, before death took place. When a solution -of emetic tartar was injected into the stomach of a rabbit, _Mr. Brodie_ -observed the same symptoms to take place, as when it was applied to a -wound. - - - _Organic lesions discovered by dissection._ - -_Mr. Brodie_, in his examination of animals poisoned by _emetic tartar_, -sometimes found the stomach bearing the marks of inflammation, but at -other times, its appearance was perfectly natural. In no case did he -discover any traces of inflammation in the intestines. The reader must -compare this account with that already given by _M. Majendie_, at p. -282. - - - 1. _Tests for the detection of emetic tartar._ - -1. _The poison is in a solid form._ Dissolve a portion of the suspected -salt in about fifteen times its weight of boiling distilled water; if it -be emetic tartar, the following reagents will identify it, viz. - -(_a_) _The hydrosulphurets_ will occasion a reddish-yellow precipitate, -which is a combination of _oxygen_ and _antimony_, proceeding from the -emetic tartar; and of _hydrogen_ and _sulphur_, from the reagent -employed. If it be dried on a filter, and mixed with charcoal and the -potass of commerce, it gives, by the action of heat, a cake of metallic -antimony. - -(_b_) _Tincture of galls._ This is regarded as the most sensible test of -this salt, affording a precipitate of a curdled, dirty white colour, -inclining to yellow. - -(_c_) _Lime water._ This reagent produces a white precipitate, which is -extremely thick, and is easily redissolved by pure nitric acid. In this -case the lime forms an insoluble tartrate, and the tartrate of antimony, -thus rendered insoluble, subsides along with it. - -(_d_) _Concentrated sulphuric acid_ gives a white precipitate, which -consists of the oxide of antimony retaining a small portion of the acid. -It redissolves in an excess of the precipitant. - -(_e_) _Vegetable extractive_, occasions in the solution of this salt, a -reddish-yellow precipitate, which has been found to consist of _oxide of -antimony_, and a portion of vegetable matter. - - - 2. _It is mixed with various alimentary substances._ - -If our attempts should fail to procure a solution of the salt by -filtration, answering to the above reagents, we must rely upon the proof -of metallic reproduction. Various circumstances may invalidate the -action of our tests, such, for instance, as the ingestion of some -vegetable infusion or decoction, especially that of galls, or yellow -bark. - -With respect to the other preparations of antimony, it is unnecessary to -waste our time in their consideration; the precepts already given will -afford the practitioner every requisite hint for the prosecution of the -enquiry. - - - COPPER. - -This metal, with the exception of gold and silver, and perhaps tin, was -known earlier than any other metal; but its applications were entirely -confined to the arts. It was first discovered by the Greeks in the -island of Cyprus, whence its name; and we learn from _Homer_, that even -during the Trojan war, the combatants had no other armour but what was -made of bronze, which is a mixture of _copper_ and _tin_.[305]. - -The external characters of the metal are too well known to require -minute description. Its taste is styptic and nauseous; and the hands -when rubbed for some time on it, acquire a peculiar and disagreeable -odour. When melted, its specific gravity is 8·667; but after being -hammered it is 8·9. It is only susceptible of two degrees of oxidation. -If the protoxide be _native_, it is red; if _artificial_, orange -coloured. The peroxide is black. - -Copper, on exposure to a moist atmosphere, becomes tarnished, absorbs a -portion of its oxygen, and passes into the state of an oxide, which -shortly unites with the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, and forms a -greenish carbonate of copper. - -Metallic copper, perfectly pure, does not possess any deleterious -properties. We have already cited instances[306] sufficiently conclusive -to establish this fact. It becomes, therefore, a subject of no little -interest to enquire, under what circumstances it may become poisonous by -combination. _M. Orfila_ observes that it has been long maintained, that -milk heated, or allowed to remain in vessels of copper not oxidized, -dissolved a portion of this metal, and acted as a poison. _Eller_, a -philosopher of Berlin, has, however, very clearly proved such an opinion -to be incorrect. He boiled in succession, in a kettle well freed from -verdegris, milk, tea, coffee, beer, and rain water; after two hours -boiling, he found it impossible to discover, in any of these fluids, the -least vestige of copper. _M. Drouard_ has also shewn that distilled -water, left for a month together on the filings of this metal in a glass -bottle, did not dissolve an atom of it. The celebrated toxicologist -above cited, after relating these important facts, concludes by -observing, that the phenomena are very different, if, instead of pure -water, we substitute that which contains a certain quantity of muriate -of soda. _Eller_ has demonstrated the presence of a very small quantity -of copper in water, which contained 1/20th of its weight of muriate of -soda, and which had been boiled in a brass kettle. This fact is of the -highest importance, for it will explain the reason why highly seasoned -aliments have proved deleterious, when cooked in vessels of copper. But -we are indebted to _Mr. Eller_ for a still more important discovery; he -found that if, instead of heating a simple solution of common salt in -copper vessels, the salt be previously mixed with beef, bacon, and fish, -the fluid resulting from it does not contain an atom of copper.[307] In -relating this fact, _M. Orfila_ observes, “however astonishing it may -appear, it is quite correct, _M. Eller_ was the first to announce it, -and I have several times ascertained the truth of it; it is probable,” -continues _Orfila_, “that the combination of several kinds of aliments -destroys the effect of the solution of the muriate of soda; which -consequently ought to render the cases of poisoning by aliments cooked -in copper vessels, _which are not oxidized_, extremely rare.” - -Copper combines with sulphur, and affords a black sulphuret. - - - OXIDE OF COPPER. - -By oxidation, copper becomes poisonous. The substance may be easily -recognised by the change of colour which it produces in ammonia; this -alkali will dissolve it instantly, and assume a beautiful blue colour. -It is wholly insoluble[308] in water. In oils and fatty matter it is -easily and copiously dissolved at the ordinary temperature of the -atmosphere. Such bodies also, when boiled in vessels of perfectly clean -copper, facilitate their oxidation, especially if left to cool a few -minutes before they are poured out. - - - GREEN CARBONATE OF COPPER—_Natural Verdegris_. - -This substance forms spontaneously on surfaces of copper and brass; it -differs from the oxide in its green colour, and in effervescing with -dilute sulphuric acid; with ammonia, however, it demeans itself in the -same manner, and is likewise insoluble in water. It is poisonous. - -From the above history of these substances the medical practitioner will -easily perceive under what circumstances, and by what bodies, metallic -vessels of copper may be rendered dangerous. The oxide and carbonate, -formed in them, will easily dissolve in acidulous and oily aliments, -whence it follows that all preparations of such food, if conducted in -vessels whose surfaces have contracted this change will be liable to -prove deleterious.[309] If the vessels be perfectly clean, acid -preparations may be safely boiled in them, but they must be poured out -immediately, and not suffered to remain sufficiently long to allow the -copper to become oxidized. To the formation of the oxide of copper, and -to the acetic acid contained in the wine, vinegar, beer, and cider, _M. -Orfila_ attributes the production of the _acetate_ which forms about the -corners of the cocks in vessels containing these liquors. Upon the same -principle the _soda water_ sold in this town, in a draught, from the -pump, is liable to metallic impregnation, as we have fully satisfied -ourselves. - -Equally important is it for the forensic physician to be acquainted with -the various other sources from which copper poison may be derived. In -consequence of the fact of the oxide of copper forming, with the acids, -compounds of a beautiful green colour, the metal is often employed in -cookery to impart a vivid hue to various articles; the sale of pickles, -for instance, frequently depends upon the liveliness of their green -colour; whence we find, in works[310] on cookery, directions for -ensuring such an effect, by boiling the pickles with copper coin, or by -suffering them to stand for some time in vessels of that metal. In the -third volume of the _Medical Transactions of the College of Physicians_ -we shall find an interesting history, related by _Dr. Percival_ of -Manchester, of a young lady who amused herself, whilst under the hands -of the hair-dresser, with eating pickled samphire, of which she consumed -two breakfast plates full; she shortly afterwards complained of great -thirst, pain in the stomach, and a rash appeared upon her hands and -breast. After an illness of nine days, during which she suffered severe -vomitings, and tormina of the bowels, she expired. Upon examining the -samphire, _Dr. Percival_ found that it was very strongly impregnated -with copper. In the preparation of confectionary, especially -sugar-plums, and sweatmeats of a green colour, copper is very generally -introduced, and many instances are recorded of their having proved -highly deleterious. Catsup is also said to be occasionally impregnated -with verdegris; and vestiges of this metal have been detected in the -well known cordial, called _Shrub_. - -In order to prevent the _contingent_ dangers attendant upon copper -vessels, they ought always to be _tinned_;[311] and it is a very curious -and interesting fact, that this latter metal, although it may cover the -copper surface only imperfectly, will nevertheless protect us from its -effects; for _M. Proust_ has shewn that the superior readiness with -which _tin_ is oxidized and acted upon by acids, when compared with -copper, will not allow this latter metal to appropriate to itself a -single atom of oxygen. - -But copper vessels, notwithstanding this fact, unless well tinned, -should be dismissed from the service of the kitchen. The Senate of -Sweden, in the year 1753, prohibited them entirely, and ordered that -none but such as were made of iron should be used in their fleets and -army. - - - VERDEGRIS. _Ærugo._ - -The verdegris of commerce is a compound mass, consisting of the acetate, -and sub-acetate of copper, carbonate of copper, and copper partly -metallic, and partly oxidized; it, moreover, contains the stalks of -grapes and other extraneous matter. Boiling water dissolves it in part, -and, at the same time, occasions in it a chemical change, by -transforming one portion of the _sub_-acetate into the soluble acetate, -and another, into an oxide of copper, which is precipitated. With cold -water, verdegris demeans itself very differently; the acetate is -dissolved by it, whilst that portion which is in the state of _sub_-salt -remains suspended in the form of a fine green powder. Vinegar converts -all the _ærugo_ into a soluble acetate. Sulphuric acid poured on its -powder decomposes it with effervescence, and vapours of acetic acid are -disengaged; a character by which this substance may be easily -identified. - - - BLUE VITRIOL. _Sulphate of Copper._ - _Blue Copperas—Roman Vitriol._ - -This salt occurs in crystals of a deep rich blue colour, and whose form -is that of a rhomboidal prism; their taste is harsh, acrid, and styptic; -on exposure to air they slightly effloresce, and assume a greenish hue. -When treated with sulphuric acid, no effervescence occurs, a -circumstance which at once distinguishes this salt from _ærugo_. - - - _Symptoms of Poisoning by the Salts of Copper._ - -The operation of these bodies, upon the human system, is betrayed by an -acrid, styptic, coppery taste, in the mouth; nausea; head-ache; a dry -and parched tongue; vomiting; coppery eructations; a cutaneous eruption; -violent pains in the bowels; very frequent alvine evacuations, sometimes -green, and often bloody and blackish; great and painful distention of -the abdomen; small and irregular pulse; heat of skin; ardent thirst; -difficult and laborious respiration; hiccup; syncope; cold sweats; -convulsions—death. It does not, however, kill so speedily as arsenic, or -corrosive sublimate. - - - _Organic Lesions discovered on Dissection._ - -Where death has been speedily produced by a cupreous poison, dissection -will generally discover inflammation, and even gangrene in the mucous -membrane of the alimentary canal. Like other poisons of the corrosive -class it will also be found to have occasionally extended its -inflammatory action to all the coats of the canal, producing sloughs, -easily detached, and leaving perforations. _Dr. Male_ has also remarked -that inflammation will sometimes be observed in the brain; but that this -is not an universal effect of copper poison. It has been stated, that -the fluids contained in the _primæ viæ_ are, upon these occasions, very -frequently tinged with a green colour. - - -_Chemical Tests by which the presence of the preparations of Copper may - be detected._ - -1. _The suspected body is in a solid form._—We have already pointed out -the characters by which the principal preparations of copper may be -identified. Our judgment, however, upon these occasions will require -that confirmation from experiment, which the following processes are -calculated to afford. - -A. _By its reduction to a metallic state._ If the copper presents itself -in the form of an oxide, it may be easily reduced by heating it, in the -usual manner, in contact with some carbonaceous matter; an earthen -crucible will furnish the most convenient vessel for the occasion. If -the substance has been scraped from a surface of copper, it is probably -in the state of carbonate, (_natural verdegris_,) and may be calcined -with charcoal in order to procure the metal. Should the substance in -question be true _ærugo_, we may at once heat it to redness in an -earthen crucible, when, without the aid of any carbonaceous matter, we -shall obtain metallic copper. - - - B. _By the application of certain reagents, or tests, to its solutions._ - -It may happen that the quantity of the above substances is not -sufficient to allow their metallic reduction by calcination. In that -case, we must proceed to obtain a solution; but since neither the oxide, -nor the carbonate, is soluble in water, it will be necessary to bring -them in contact with concentrated acetic acid, so as to obtain an -acetate of copper; which will furnish the following indications with the -respective tests. - -_a._ _A surface of clean iron._ If dipped into the solution will become -coated with metallic copper, and appear as if transmuted into that -metal. - -_b._ _Ammonia._ This test, when added in a quantity more than sufficient -to saturate any excess of acid, will strike a beautiful blue colour; in -the first instance we shall obtain a deep blue precipitate, but this -will be redissolved by an excess of alkali. To detect the presence of -copper, therefore, in pickles, it is only necessary to cut them into -small pieces, and to pour liquid ammonia, diluted with an equal bulk of -water, over them in a stopped phial: if the pickles contain the most -minute quantity of this metal, the ammonia will assume a blue colour. In -the same manner cupreous impregnations may be discovered in the various -articles of confectionary above enumerated, and in those foreign -conserves which are imported into this country, and usually sold in -round boxes. - -_c._ _Sub-carbonate of Potass._ By this re-agent a precipitate of a pale -blue colour is produced. - -_d._ _Arsenite of Potass_ instantly occasions a copious precipitate in -the acetate of copper, which is of a green colour, and is in fact an -arsenite of the metal. - -_e._ _Triple Prussiate of Potass._ This test gives a brown precipitate -with a solution of verdegris, which is found to consist of prussiate of -copper, and prussiate of iron; while the liquor contains an acetate of -potass. - - - 2. _The suspected poison is mixed and combined with various alimentary - substances._ - -We have in this case the same embarrassments to encounter, as those -already noticed under the consideration of arsenic. Our tests may -produce their respective precipitates, but they will present different -colours according to the nature of the fluids with which the substance -happens to be mixed; whence the circumstance of colour, so -characteristic on other occasions, cannot be received as a satisfactory -indication. In such a difficulty, we may collect the precipitates, and -calcine them in a crucible with charcoal, in order to obtain the metal; -or we may at once evaporate the whole of the alimentary mass, and submit -it to a high temperature, by which means all the vegetable and animal -principles, which can form a part of the liquor vomited, will be -decomposed and converted into several volatile productions, and into -charcoal; this combustible body will decompose the oxide of copper, and -reduce it to its metallic state.[312]. - -Nor is this process without its fallacies; it is often difficult to -recognise the metal, dispersed as it necessarily must be, in small -quantity, through a considerable mass of charcoal; in this case we are -recommended by _Orfila_ to place the product of the calcination in -water, when in a short period, the copper, from its superior specific -gravity will subside from the lighter particles of charcoal. But it -would be still better to pour nitric acid upon the product of the -calcination, and thereby to obtain a solution of _nitrate of copper_, -which by filtration might be immediately prepared for the application of -appropriate re-agents. - -It merits notice, however, that in certain cases of poisoning by copper, -no vestiges of the substance can be found in the matters voided from the -stomach. In that case, _Orfila_ directs that the mucous membrane of the -stomach, and of the intestines, should be scraped off, dried, and -submitted to the action of a strong heat in a crucible. “I have,” says -this distinguished experimentalist, “twice obtained metallic copper, by -calcining in this manner a portion of the membranes of the stomach of -two dogs that I had poisoned with verdegris. This effect particularly -takes place when the mucous membrane is of a bluish colour, hard, and -strongly adhering to the substance of the stomach.” - - - TIN and its MURIATE. - -It is clearly established by the experiments of _Bayen_ and -_Charlard_,[313] as well as by those of _Proust_,[314] that this metal -possesses no poisonous properties. Its muriate, however, has been shewn -by _Orfila_ to possess highly corrosive properties. It excites violent -vomiting, great depression, and death, without convulsions. Its antidote -is milk, which it speedily coagulates; and by chemical combination with -it, the poison is rendered inert. On dissection, the stomach is said to -have been found corrugated and indurated, and has been compared to -tanned skin, but its colour is not altered. - -As this substance is never likely to become an object of forensic -interest, in this kingdom, we shall pass it over without farther notice. - - - ZINC. - -The ancients were acquainted with a mineral to which they gave the name -of _Cadmia_,[315] from Cadmus, who first taught the Greeks to use it. -They knew that when melted with copper it formed brass; and that when -burnt, a white spongy kind of ashes was volatilized, which they used in -medicine.[316] This mineral contained a good deal of zinc; and yet there -is no proof remaining that the ancients were acquainted with that metal. -It has a brilliant white colour, with a shade of blue, and is composed -of a number of thin plates adhering together; its specific gravity is -7·1. When strongly heated in a crucible, it quickly goes into fusion, -absorbs the oxygen of the atmosphere, and burns with a beautiful white -flame, inclining to green, and extremely brilliant. The oxide of zinc -thus formed, is diffused through the atmosphere, and is there condensed -into extremely light flakes of a beautiful white appearance. This oxide -was formerly known under the fanciful names of _nihil album; lana -philosophorum, &c._ - -In its metallic state it is quite inert; but late experiments by -_Vauquelin_ and _Deyeux_, have proved that it is very easily acted upon -by water, the weakest vegetable acids, some saline substances, and -butter; a fact which is hostile to the proposal of employing this metal -for the manufacture of culinary utensils. - - - WHITE VITRIOL. _Sulphate of Zinc._ - -This salt occurs in masses, consisting of crystals which are four-sided -prisms, terminated by four-sided pyramids. Their taste is styptic, -metallic, and slightly acidulous. They are soluble in 2·5 times their -weight of water at 60°, and in less than their own weight of boiling -water, but they are quite insoluble in alcohol. Thus dissolved they -redden the tincture of tournesol. - - - _Symptoms of Poisoning by Sulphate of Zinc._ - -This salt, like tartarized antimony, from the high degree of emetic -virtue which it possesses, generally proves its own antidote; still, -however, it must be considered as a poison; for several cases are on -record, where the most alarming symptoms, and indeed death itself, have -been the effect of its ingestion. _Metzger_[317] mentions the case of a -woman, who accidentally ate a trifling quantity of a cake, into which -_White Vitriol_ had been introduced for the purpose of shortening the -days of an old man. The woman died; but the intended victim escaped, -after severe vomiting. _M. Orfila_ has also related several cases of -poisoning by this salt. The symptoms which presented themselves on these -occasions were, an astringent metalline taste, a sense of constriction -in the fauces, so distressing as even to excite in the patient a fear of -suffocation; frequent vomitings; copious stools; pains in the epigastric -region, extending afterwards over the whole abdomen; difficulty of -breathing; frequency of pulse; paleness of the countenance, and coldness -of the extremities. - -We have lately heard of a case in which a noble lord swallowed a -solution of white vitriol, which had been sent to him by mistake, for -Epsom salts, to which it bears some analogy. Fortunately, however, the -violent emetic effect which followed removed the poison from the -stomach, and obviated any farther injury. - - - _Organic lesions discovered on Dissection._ - -We have no well authenticated dissection of a human being who had died -from the ingestion of this poison. The examination of animals[318] who -have been so killed has shewn nothing more than an inflammation, not -very severe, of the membrane with which it had come in contact; -sometimes dark blood is observed to be extravasated upon the muscular -coat of the stomach and intestines. - - - _Chemical processes for the detection of Sulphate of Zinc._ - -The chemist must remember that the _White Vitriol_ of commerce always -contains sulphate of iron, and sometimes sulphate of copper. When -dissolved in distilled water it may be identified by the following -re-agents; _viz._ - -_a._ _Potass_, and _Ammonia_, precipitate an oxide of a greenish white -colour, easily soluble in an excess of the latter of these alkalies. The -oxide obtained by potass, being washed and dried, and calcined with -charcoal, is revived, provided the temperature be very much elevated. It -should be known, that if the salt has been previously purified, the -above tests will occasion a _white_ precipitate. - -_b._ _Prussiate of Potass_ produces a precipitate of a rather deep blue -colour; which, consists of a mixture of the prussiates of zinc and iron. -If the salt has been divested of all impurity, the precipitate will be -white. - -_c._ _The Hydro-sulphurets_ instantly occasion a blackish precipitate, -which, like the former, will be found to be a mixture of zinc and iron, -in the state of an hydro-sulphuret. If the salt, however, is pure, its -colour will be white with a tinge of yellow. - - - SILVER. - -This metal does not exert any influence on the living body; but its -oxide in combination with nitric acid constitutes one of the most -corrosive of all the metallic salts. - - - LUNAR CAUSTIC. _Nitrate of Silver._ - _Lapis Infernalis._ - -The usual state in which this substance occurs is in that of small -cylinders, having been cast into moulds for the purpose of imparting to -it a form best adapted for the purposes it is designed to answer. - -Its action on animal matter is highly caustic, and when introduced in -any considerable quantity into the stomach, will induce death by -corroding the texture with which it may come in contact. At the same -time there is reason to believe that the whole, or part of its -composition, may be absorbed; for we have many instances on record where -the frequent repetition of this metallic salt, in small doses, has -imparted a blue tinge to the skin, which can only be explained on the -supposition that the oxide of the metal has been actually deposited in -the rete mucosum[319]. - -We are not aware that there is any modern case of poisoning by this -salt[320]. The medical practitioner, however, ought to know, that common -salt, is its true antidote; indeed so completely does it decompose and -separate it from water, that if a saturated solution of nitrate of -silver be filtered through common salt, it may be afterwards drunk with -impunity. _M. Orfila_, by a series of experiments, has shewn that if the -_muriate of soda_ be administered a very short time after the ingestion -of lunar caustic, it will disarm it of its virulence by transforming it -into an insoluble muriate, possessing no power of acting on the animal -œconomy. - - - _Chemical processes for the detection of Lunar Caustic._ - -If a small portion of the salt can be procured it may be dissolved in -distilled water, and immediately identified by the following tests. - -_a._ _Muriatic acid, or any soluble Muriate_, will precipitate the -muriate of silver, which is white, curdled, very heavy, insoluble in -water, or nitric acid; but soluble in liquor ammoniæ; when exposed to -the air it acquires a black colour. - -_b._ _Potass_, _Soda_, and _Lime water_, will occasion a precipitate of -the oxide, of a deep brown colour. - -_c._ _Ammonia._ This alkali will form an _ammoniuret of silver_, and in -consequence of the solubility of this new product, little or no -disturbance is occasioned by the test. - -_d._ _Arsenite of Potass._ As all re-agents must be considered as -reciprocal in their operation, it is hardly necessary to state that this -is one of the best tests for nitrate of silver. See the history of its -effects at p. 240. - -If it should be necessary to discover the nitrate of silver amongst the -fluids vomited, or those contained in the stomach of the deceased, we -are very properly directed by _M. Orfila_ to filter, and then assay by -the appropriate tests; if, however, the different aliments should -disguise the characteristic colour and appearance of these precipitates, -we must proceed to desiccate and calcine them in order to obtain the -silver in a metallic state. - - - THE CONCENTRATED ACIDS. - -These must be regarded as the most terrible of all corrosive poisons. -Their action is so immediate and energetic, as generally to destroy the -membranes of the stomach, before their peculiar antidotes can be -applied. Notwithstanding the obvious suffering they must occasion, and -the facility with which they may be detected, such bodies have -frequently, especially in France, been the instruments of suicide and -murder; whilst in this country, we have had many lamentable -illustrations of their deadly force, by their ingestion from fatal -carelessness. In conformity with our general plan we shall proceed to -consider the individual substances included under this general class, -although the symptoms do not materially differ in the different kinds, -nor are the indications of cure peculiar to any of them. There are -however chemical characters which exclusively belong to each acid, with -which the forensic physician must be accurately acquainted, in order -that he may be enabled to detect their presence. - - - OIL OF VITRIOL. _Sulphuric Acid._ - -This acid, when perfectly pure, exists in the form of a colourless -liquid, without smell, and of an oily consistence; whence its popular -name. Its specific gravity is 1·85, so that, in round numbers, it may be -stated that an ounce, by measure, will weigh fourteen drachms. It -acquires a brown tinge from the smallest portion of carbonaceous matter; -mere exposure to the atmosphere is sufficient to effect this change, in -consequence of the acid disorganizing and carbonating the vegetable and -animal matter suspended in the air. This fact sufficiently explains why -we generally find the acid of commerce of a brown colour. - -Its taste is highly acid and caustic. So powerful is its affinity for -water, that upon its admixture with this fluid, a heat, sufficiently -great to boil water, may be produced. When exposed in its concentrated -state to the air, it will imbibe at least seven times its own weight of -water, and so rapidly as to have its weight doubled in a month. Straw, -wood, and all vegetable substances, when immersed in the sulphuric acid, -without heat, are disorganized, softened, and blackened, and there is -separated from them a certain portion of charcoal. Like the other -mineral acids, the _Oil of Vitriol_ has never been obtained in an -insulated state without water; according to the latest views of _Sir H. -Davy_, the composition of the strongest acid may be expressed as -follows. Sulphur 30, oxygen 45, water 17. - - - _Symptoms of Poisoning by Oil of Vitriol._ - -An extremely austere, acid, and burning taste; a painful heat in the -fauces and throat, along the œsophagus, and in the stomach; excruciating -pain; nausea, and excessive vomiting; at one time the fluid vomited is -as black as ink, at another reddened by arterial or venous blood, -producing in its passage through the throat, the most intense pain, -accompanied with a sensation of bitterness quite intolerable; if, by -chance, a portion of it should fall on the hearth or pavement, or on any -other calcareous substance, it will denote its true nature by an -effervescence; constipation, or sometimes bloody stools; gripes and -excruciating pains over the abdomen, with a tenderness of these regions, -so exquisite as not to allow the slightest pressure without torment; -pains of the breast; difficulty of breathing; extreme anxiety; the pulse -becomes frequent, small, contracted, and irregular; shiverings; great -restlessness, dejection, and agitation; convulsive motions of the -countenance; sometimes a cutaneous eruption betrays itself. Amidst all -these symptoms, the intellectual powers remain unobscured. The parts -about the fauces, the uvula, &c. having lost their vitality, slough, and -become detached, which occasion an indescribable fetor of the breath, -while they produce a perpetual cough, and the voice becomes so altered, -that it resembles the sounds of a person labouring under croup. - - - _Organic lesions discovered on Dissection._ - -As this substance destroys life by simply acting as an escharotic, it is -not difficult to anticipate the disorganization which dissection will -display. The extent of the lesion, however, must in every case depend -upon the quantity and degree of concentration of the acid, the state of -the stomach in relation to its alimentary contents, and other incidental -circumstances not to be exactly appreciated. The mucous membrane of the -mouth, the tongue, and œsophagus, will in general be found destroyed, -and converted into a pulp. - - - _Antidotes._ - -The great indications to be fulfilled in this distressing case, is the -immediate dilution, saturation, and expulsion of the poison. Copious -draughts of water, holding calcined[321] magnesia in suspension, should -be administered without any loss of time. If this is not in readiness, -soap and water should be administered; mucilaginous drinks, milk, and -even warm or cold water, in the absence of more eligible potations, -should not be neglected. It must be never forgotten, exclaims _Orfila_, -that success upon these occasions depends upon the activity of the -practitioner; the delay of a few moments will entirely change the fate -of the patient, as the sulphuric acid destroys the texture of the organs -with a fearful celerity. After having thus neutralized the caustic, it -will be our duty to obviate the effects it may be likely to occasion; -the lancet must be used with boldness, and the detraction of blood -repeated at short intervals; at the same time emollient clysters may be -advantageously injected. - - - _Chemical processes for the detection of Oil of Vitriol._ - -In the pure state, there can exist no difficulty in identifying it; its -specific gravity, and its action on vegetable matter, will, without any -other tests, be quite sufficient to fulfil our object. If heated with -metallic mercury, it will disengage sulphurous acid gas; and if united -with lime, a sulphate of lime will be produced, which the chemist may -easily recognise by dissolving a portion in distilled water, and -assaying the solution by _muriate of baryta_, which will produce with -the sulphate a precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid. By the last -mentioned tests we shall be enabled to detect the presence of sulphuric -acid, in whatever state of complication it may happen to exist with -alimentary matter. - - - NITRIC ACID. - -This acid, when pure, assumes the form of a limpid fluid, emitting white -fumes of a suffocating odour; its taste is highly acid, and corrosive; -and it is at once distinguished from all other acids, by its tinging the -skin indelibly yellow. When of the specific gravity 1·5 it contains -74·895 per cent of dry acid, (whose ultimate elements are one -proportional of nitrogen, and five of oxygen) the complement 25·105 -parts, is water.[322] It is decomposed with violent action by all -combustibles, and when mixed with volatile oils it causes their -inflammation. - -From the facility with which this acid undergoes decomposition, it is -rarely found in commerce in a colourless condition; indeed the action of -light is sufficient to impart a tawny tinge to it; when this change has -proceeded to such an extent as to render the acid orange coloured, it is -called _Nitrous acid_, or, in the language of the arts, _aqua fortis_, -although in a chemical point of view, such a nomenclature is incorrect, -for it is nothing more than nitric acid, holding nitrous acid gas -loosely combined. - - - _Symptoms of Poisoning by Nitric Acid._ - -This acid has been so frequently swallowed in France, for the purpose of -committing suicide, that it has enabled the pathologists of that country -to afford a very satisfactory account of its operation, and effects. To -_M. Tartra_ we are particularly indebted for a very full and interesting -investigation of the subject, and we shall avail ourselves upon the -present occasion, of the many facts and observations with which his -treatise[323] abounds. In describing the symptoms occasioned by the -ingestion of this acid, _M. Tartra_ establishes four different -gradations, viz. 1. When the death is speedy, for it is never sudden, it -commonly takes place from the _primary_ effects in about twenty-four -hours, varying from six to forty-eight hours. 2. When it proves fatal -from its _secondary_ effects, at different intervals, from fifteen days -to several years. 3. When death does not take place, but the recovery is -imperfect. 4. When a perfect cure is sooner or later obtained. The first -case is illustrated by the following example, which will serve to convey -a very just idea of the progress and intensity of the symptoms. “A man, -driven by distress to commit suicide, under the greatest agitation of -mind, and upon an empty stomach, swallowed, at a draught, two ounces of -concentrated nitric acid. Instantly he was seized with the most -excruciating pains and agitation, and could not lie in bed, but rolled -himself upon the floor. Vomiting came on, accompanied by a general -sensation of coldness, especially in the extremities. Every time he -vomited, the matter effervesced upon the pavement. A solution of soap -and oil was administered to him, and in two hours he was brought to the -hospital, often having vomited, and stopped on the road to drink. On his -arrival, he had emollient drinks, especially linseed tea, in great -abundance. He was in continual agitation, and his countenance was -greatly altered. He now vomited every instant a blackish glairy matter; -he opened his mouth easily, and his tongue was white, with a tinge of -yellow; he complained of acute pains in his mouth, along the œsophagus, -and in his stomach. His belly, slightly tense, could not bear the -slightest pressure, without great torment. The surface of the body was -cold; the pulse small and frequent; he had hiccup, and the respiration -was laborious. - -His symptoms increased. He uttered sighs and lamentations; his limbs -became icy; a cold sweat covered his whole body; his pulse was scarcely -perceptible; the pain was constant; still he could rise and make -continual but useless efforts to quench his thirst, and satisfy his -urgent desire to void urine, and go to stool. He continued in this state -during the night; the matters vomited became more clear, and of a yellow -colour. He at last made a few drops of urine. The shocking appearance of -his body already resembled that of a corpse, but he retained his senses, -and was speaking when he expired, nineteen hours after swallowing the -acid.” The burning heat and pains which are commonly the immediate -effects of the ingestion of this acid are very variable in their -intensity and duration, and _M. Tartra_ observes that, in general, they -are not in proportion to the quantity or strength of the acid swallowed. -It often happens that persons who have taken only a small dose, are -seized with the most excruciating and dreadful pains, and some of those -who have swallowed a great quantity, two or three ounces for example, -have had scarcely any suffering, but remained very tranquil. In the -first case, the patients either recover, or survive a long time; in the -second, speedy death is almost always the consequence; thus a young man -of twenty died in twenty hours, without any agitation or signs of acute -pains. On opening the body, the highest degree of disorganization -appeared, perforations of the stomach, and great effusion of its -contents into the abdomen. The second variety of the progress and -termination of poisoning by nitric acid, exhibits, at first, the same -phenomena as the preceding; but less alarming symptoms succeed by -degrees; after some months, the inner membrane of the alimentary canal -detaches itself in portions, the patient falls into a marasmus, and -dies. We are here presented with a case of _consecutive_ poisoning, see -_page_ 147. - -The third termination is in imperfect recovery. A slow and progressive -amendment ensures the safety of the patient; but there still remains -some complaint; obscure pains in the throat, and especially in the -epigastric region; habitual constipation, occasional vomiting, and -increased sensibility of the stomach, so that it can only support light -nourishment and bland liquors; in short, they continue invalids during -the rest of their lives; they are subject to repeated and even habitual -indispositions, and sometimes to pain and insupportable heat of the -stomach; but they are able to follow their occupations, and long survive -their poisoning. - -The total disappearance of the symptoms produced by swallowing nitric -acid; or complete and absolute recovery without leaving any -consequences, is the last variety of termination. - - - _Organic lesions discovered on Dissection._ - -_Tartra_ has furnished us with the following interesting account of the -dissection of those who have died of the primary effects of nitric acid. -The external appearance of the body presents no alteration; every part -is sound and natural, and possesses, in a certain degree, the firmness -and freshness of life. The epidermis of the margins of the lips has -commonly an orange colour, more or less deep. It seems burnt and easily -separates. Sometimes yellow spots are discovered on the hands and other -parts of the body, caused by the contact of the acid. A yellow fluid, in -some cases very abundant, flows from the mouth and nostrils, and the -belly is considerably distended with air. The alimentary canal is -remarkably affected. All the internal membrane of the mouth is burnt, -and has sometimes a white colour, but is more commonly yellow; it is -separate in some places, and adheres in others. The teeth are often -loose, and have a very marked yellow colour at their _crown_. The mucous -membrane of the pharynx exhibits the same change, or is in a state of -inflammation of a dirty red colour. The whole extent of the œsophagus is -lined with a dense mass of a fine yellow colour, dry on its surface, -unctuous and greasy to the touch, and which seems to be formed both of -the mucous membrane, altered in a particular manner, and of the albumen -contained in the viscid fluid which exudes from the membrane of the -œsophagus, solidified by the nitric acid. This lining adheres in very -few points, and is easily detected from the other membranes of the -œsophagus, which are brown and blood-shot. When the stomach is not -perforated, it has commonly a considerable size; externally, its -membranes are slightly and partially inflamed, but very much towards the -pylorus and beginning of the duodenum. Its colour is faded, livid, of a -yellowish green, with large gangrenous spots. It adheres every where to -the neighbouring parts, the diaphragm, liver, spleen, and transverse -arch of the colon, by means of a concrete lymphatic exudation; its -sides, which are thin and yellow in some places, and thick and black in -others, exhibit net-work of dilated blood-vessels filled with black -coagulated blood. Often there are several points of the stomach -dissolved, and ready to burst with the slightest touch; it contains a -great quantity of gas, which has a peculiar smell, resembling that of -bitter almonds; it also very commonly contains a great quantity of -yellow matter, of a pultaceous consistence; the substance of the stomach -is generally swelled in some places, and deeply marked with black, -without being dissolved; this effect is most remarkable at the great -end, into which the acid seems to fall by its weight; the rugæ of the -stomach are very brown, and are reduced to a mucilaginous consistence. -The other parts of the alimentary canal exhibit the same organic -lesions, although the phenomena have less intensity in proportion as the -part is more distant from the stomach. - -In those cases where the stomach is found perforated, its bulk is very -small; the holes commonly occur in the large and small extremities; -their form is circular, and their edges thin, and as if dissolved. The -urinary bladder contains no urine, although the patient have not -discharged any. - -The appearances upon dissection of those who die of the _secondary_ -effects are entirely different from those above described. It would be -difficult to find an example of greater emaciation, more advanced -consumption, or more disgusting form. Nothing is equal to the degree of -withering, and decrepitude of the whole organs; their colour is faded; -the internal cavities do not contain the usual serum; the cellular and -muscular systems are almost annihilated; the bones become dry, as in -persons of advanced age, and break with extraordinary facility; but -these changes are general and secondary, and depend upon local organic -derangement of the alimentary tube. The stomach and whole intestinal -canal are contracted to an extremely small size; the intestines are not -larger than the little finger, sometimes not exceeding a thick writing -quill; their coats are very thick, their cavity almost obliterated, and -containing only a little mucosity. The stomach, which often resembles a -portion of a small intestine, appears sound externally, and only -presents some adhesions to the neighbouring viscera; internally, the -most remarkable change is the contraction of the pylorus, the passage -through which will scarcely admit a probe; and the membranes of the -stomach itself are so thickened and compacted around it, that they have -lost all their natural suppleness. On the internal surface, there are -irregular spots, or rather smooth and red places, which seem to be -covered with a regenerated mucous membrane, less villous than that which -had been destroyed by the action of the acid; these cicatrices are -particularly large and numerous in the great end of the stomach, and -around the circumference of the pylorus. - - - _Chemical processes by which the presence of Nitric Acid may be - discovered._ - -If the acid be in any quantity, and without mixture, there cannot exist -any difficulty in demonstrating its presence. If added to copper -filings, there will be a copious disengagement of orange-coloured fumes, -and a nitrate of copper of a blue colour will remain, as the product. If -it be saturated with potass, we shall at once obtain by due evaporation -the well known substance, nitre; this salt will announce its nature by -deflagrating with charcoal or sulphur. This latter test is the one we -must employ for the detection of nitric acid, when mixed with vinegar, -and other liquids. Where the acid has combined with the animal matters -with which it may have come into contact, they must be boiled for an -hour in a solution of pure potass, when the solution will assume a -reddish appearance; this must be filtered, and evaporated in a capsule -of porcelain, when the mass so obtained will leave a residuum of nitrate -of potass. - -_Dr. Marcet_, in a paper just published in the _Philosophical -Transactions_,[324] on the composition of sea water, employed a new mode -of assaying the solution for nitric acid, and for which he acknowledges -himself indebted to _Dr. Wollaston_. Having concentrated the _bittern_ -in a glass vessel, until it began to deposit solid matter, he added -sulphuric acid and gold leaf, and boiled the mixture; the gold leaf was -not in the least acted upon, nor was any smell of nitric acid perceived; -but on adding the smallest quantity of nitre to the same mixture, the -gold was dissolved, and the smell of _aqua regia_ instantly perceived. -The rationale of the experiment is obvious, gold, although insoluble in -muriatic acid, is instantly dissolved on the addition of nitric acid, in -consequence of the developement of chlorine. - - - SPIRIT OF SALT. _Muriatic Acid._ - -The liquid acid, of which we are about to treat, is a solution of -muriatic acid gas in water; when of the specific gravity 1·16, according -to _Davy_, it contains 32·32 per cent. of the gas, which recent -experiments have proved to be a compound of _Chlorine_ (oxy-muriatic -acid) and _hydrogen_, in equal volumes. It has accordingly received a -name expressive of its composition, and is called _Hydro-chloric acid_. -Its odour is strong and peculiar; when exposed to the air it emits white -fumes; its taste is intensely sour and caustic; it is, however, the -weakest of the three mineral acids, and no remarkable elevation of -temperature is produced by dilution. It readily combines with potass, -soda, &c. and furnishes a class of salts which may be easily recognised -by their characters. - - - _Symptoms of Poisoning by Muriatic Acid._ - -As the effects of muriatic acid do not differ from those which have been -described, as the consequences of poisoning by the other mineral acids, -it will be unnecessary to enumerate them. _Orfila_, however, remarks, -that the patients who have swallowed a certain quantity of it, emit, in -the first moments of the accident, a thick smoke of a white colour, and -very pungent smell. - - - _Chemical processes for the detection of Muriatic Acid._ - -This acid, in its free state, immediately announces its nature by the -fumes which it emits. When the acid, however, exists in a more -questionable shape, as in the matter vomited by the patient, or in that -found in the digestive canal after death, it will be necessary to -saturate the liquid part with pure potass, and to boil it for some time, -when we shall obtain a fluid, from which the nitrate of silver will -throw down a dense precipitate. By evaporation, we shall obtain a -crystallized muriate, which may be identified by the following tests: 1, -When concentrated sulphuric acid is poured upon it, a brisk -effervescence is immediately occasioned, and the muriatic acid is -disengaged in the form of white vapours, which are thick, and of an -excessively pungent smell. 2, If instead of employing concentrated -sulphuric acid, this acid be used in a state of dilution, and the -muriate be mixed with some substance which easily yields its oxygen, the -muriatic acid will be decomposed, its hydrogen, combining with the -oxygen so as to form water, while the chlorine will be disengaged, and -by its pungent and peculiar odour at once announce the nature of the -acid under examination. - - - OXALIC ACID. _Acid of Sugar._[325] - -This salt occurs in small crystals, whose form is that of a four sided -prism. It is extremely acid to the taste, so that by applying the tongue -to one of its crystals, its nature may be immediately discovered. It -dissolves in twice its weight of cold, and in an equal weight of hot -water; it is also soluble in boiling alcohol which takes up about half -its weight; the solutions act powerfully on the vegetable colours, and -at once denote their acid properties. On account of the strong -resemblance which the crystals of this acid bear to those of sulphate of -magnesia, or _Epsom_ salts, many fatal accidents have occurred. We are -not aware that it is ever purchased, in retail, for any other purpose -than as a detergent, to clean the tops of boots; in the large way, it is -an article of extensive trade with the calico printers. Its salts[326] -are likewise employed for various purposes in the arts. - -Amongst the many schemes which have been proposed to secure the public -against the possibility of mistaking this acid for Epsom salts, there -does not appear to be one which admits of successful application; nor -are we able to propose any test of discrimination which is not far -inferior in accuracy and convenience, to that which is afforded by the -mere taste of the crystal; indeed we cannot understand how so acid a -solution can be swallowed, without an immediate discovery. - - - _Symptoms of Poisoning by Oxalic Acid._ - -From the history of the many cases on record, it appears that this acid -produces all the grievous symptoms, which characterise the action of a -corrosive poison; its operation upon the stomach is similar to that of -any other powerful acid; and dissection displays the same destruction of -parts, as that we have already described under the consideration of the -mineral acids. - - - _Antidotes._ - -We should endeavour to form as quickly as possible an insoluble oxalate -of lime; copious draughts of lime water, or magnesia and water, should -be administered; and vomiting immediately excited. - - - _Chemical tests for the detection of Oxalic Acid._ - -If any of its crystals can be obtained, we shall be immediately able to -identify them. They dissolve very readily in water, and since the oxalic -has a greater affinity for lime, than any other acid, and forms an -insoluble salt with it, we have thus a ready test of its presence, for -it will decompose all the calcareous salts, not even excepting the -sulphate. - - - BOILING WATER. - -Many cases are recorded of the death of children from the ingestion of -boiling water; an accident which will be always liable to occur, as long -as the peasant allows his family to quench their thirst by drinking the -cold water through the spout of the tea kettle. It has been very -generally supposed that fatal effects have, on these occasions, -supervened the high state of inflammation produced in the æsophagus and -stomach by the boiling liquid. _Dr. Marshall Hall_ has, however, lately -published a very interesting paper on this subject, in the twelfth -volume of the _Medico-Chirurgical Transactions_; from which it would -appear, that the patient, under these circumstances, actually dies of -suffocation as in croup; and that the boiling water is arrested in its -progress to the stomach by the convulsive action of the muscles of the -pharynx. In passing, however, to the posterior part of the mouth, it -scalds the _epiglottis_, and _glottis_, which afterwards become more and -more swollen, until at length the _rima glottidis_, or orifice into the -larynx, becomes completely obstructed. Here then we have a new instance -in which the operation of laryngotomy, or of tracheotomy, may be -performed with the effect of preventing impending suffocation, and -perhaps of saving life. _Dr. Marshall Hall_ relates four cases in -illustration of this interesting fact; of which one recovered from -imminent suffocation immediately after screaming[327]; two died from -suffocation, one 10, the other 17 hours, after the accident; the fourth -was completely relieved by the operation of tracheotomy, and survived 34 -hours, but died, exhausted by the irritation produced by the primary -affection. - - - MELTED LEAD. - -An instance stands recorded in the history of the destruction of the -Eddystone-light house, by fire, where a quantity of melted lead fell -into the mouth, and was swallowed by a person who was attentively -watching the conflagration. It is very singular, that this man lived -many days after the accident; a fact which at least shews what extensive -injury the stomach will occasionally sustain, without the immediate -destruction of life. The lead taken out of the stomach after death, in -this case, weighed exactly seven ounces, five drachms, and eighteen -grains.[328] - - - THE CAUSTIC ALKALIES. - -These bodies are distinguished by a highly corrosive and peculiar taste; -they change the blue[329] juices of vegetables to a green, and the -yellow to a brown; they are soluble in water, and have the power of -imparting the same property to oils, by combining with them, and thus -forming saponaceous compounds. With the different acids they constitute -peculiar salts. When applied to the flesh of animals they act as -powerful caustics, destroying its texture, and ultimately dissolving it; -they are accordingly arranged with great propriety under the head of -corrosive poisons. - -There are three[330] alkalies—_potass_, _soda_, and _ammonia_. To the -two former the epithet _fixed_ has been applied, since they require a -very high temperature for their sublimation; while to the third, that of -_volatile_ has been assigned, because, when uncombined, it exists in a -state of gas. _Potass_, as it was considered the product of vegetation, -has received the name of the _vegetable_ alkali, while _soda_, as the -base of rock salt, has been distinguished by that of _mineral_ alkali. -The distinctions, however, originally established by _Avicenna_, must -now be abandoned, for they have not the slightest foundation in truth; -_potass_, so far from being the exclusive product of vegetation, exists -as a constituent part of the _Granite_, which forms the foundation of -our globe; it has also been discovered in the _Pumice stone_; in some -minerals of the _Zeolite_ family; in the _Leucite_; in the aluminous -ores of _La Tolfa_, &c. and, although potass is undoubtedly procured by -lixiviation from the ashes of burnt wood, and other vegetable -substances, yet there is ample grounds for supposing that the living -plant receives it from the soil in which it vegetates. - - - POTASS, or _Potash_— - -LIQUOR POTASSÆ—POTASSA FUSA, or _Kali Causticum_—_Lapis - Infernalis_—_Causticum commune acerrimum_. POTASSA CUM CALCE—POTASSÆ - SUB-CARBONAS, or _Salt of Tartar_—_Potash_—_Pearl ash_. - -Potass is rarely met with in a pure form, except in the laboratory of -the philosophical chemist, and is therefore not likely to become an -object of judicial enquiry; but in various states of mixture, as -presented in the different preparations above enumerated, it may become -the accidental, as well as criminal means of poisoning; we shall -therefore consider the chemical history of these different preparations -separately, and then describe the symptoms which they generally -occasion. - - - _Liquor Potassæ._ - -This may be considered as a nearly pure solution of potass, although, as -it is usually prepared, it contains small portions of _muriate_ and -_sulphate of potass_, _silica_, and _lime_. It is a limpid, dense, -colourless solution; when rubbed between the fingers it feels soapy, in -consequence of a partial solution of the cuticle. As it constitutes a -medicine in common use, and, moreover, forms the basis of many _quack -medicines_, as well as of those preparations which are sold under the -name of _Depilatories_, it may readily become the accidental instrument -of mischief. - - - _Chemical Tests for its detection._ - -There cannot exist any difficulty in this investigation; its highly -alkaline characters will be immediately announced by its effects on the -vegetable test papers, and by its power of saturating acids; while the -particular species of alkali may be readily identified by the following -reagents. - -(_a_) _Carbonic acid; or water saturated with the gas._ This will not -produce any[331] disturbance in the solution of potass; a fact which at -once serves to distinguish this alkali from the earths, _baryta_ and -_lime_. - -(_b_) _Deuto-muriate of Platina_ occasions a canary-yellow precipitate, -consisting of the deutoxide of platina, potass, and muriatic acid; as -this precipitate is, to a certain extent, soluble in water, the test may -fail through dilution. With soda, this reagent will not occasion any -precipitate, a fact which depends upon the solubility of the triple salt -formed, and affords an easy method of distinguishing the fixed alkalies -from each other. - -(_c_) _Tartaric acid._ If an excess of this acid be added, we shall -obtain crystals of a _bi-tartrate_; a phenomenon which will not take -place if soda be the alkali employed. - - - _Potassa Fusa_, or _Kali Causticum_. - -This substance, which occurs in sticks, or cylinders, is an extremely -caustic and deliquescent substance; it is principally employed in -surgery, to establish an ulcer; or, instead of incision, to open a -tumour. See _Pharmacologia_. As it differs from potass, only in the -degree of purity, it is unnecessary to offer any farther remarks. - - - _Potassa cum Calce._ - -This is a mixture of the preceding substance with lime, which is added -with a view to diminish the deliquescent property of the alkali, and -thus to render it more manageable as an escharotic. There will be no -difficulty in separating these ingredients. Their different solubilities -will furnish an easy mode of effecting it to a certain extent, and we -may then precipitate the remaining portion of lime, by carbonic acid. - - - _Sub-carbonate of Potass_—_Salt of Tartar_—_Pearl-ash_—_Potash_. - -Although potass becomes comparatively mild, by its union with carbonic -acid; yet the present preparation retains so much causticity as to -render it poisonous, if administered in any considerable dose. _Plenck_ -reports a case of this kind, where a patient having swallowed an ounce -of _salt of tartar_, was shortly afterwards seized with a violent -vomiting, which continued for forty-eight hours, followed by a violent -inflammation of the stomach; from which, however, he ultimately -recovered. - - - _Symptoms of Poisoning by any of the above preparations of Potass._ - -A styptic, urinous, and caustic taste; a severe heat in the throat; -violent vomiting, generally of alkaline matter, turning the syrups of -violets green, and where the alkali has been in the state of -_carbonate_, effervescing with acids; sometimes the matter thus ejected -is mixed with blood; copious alvine evacuations; severe pain in the -epigastric region; excruciating tormina of the bowels; depravation of -the intellectual faculties, and death. It will be easily perceived that -the above symptoms merely indicate the operation of a corrosive poison. -They offer no characteristic peculiarities which can enable us to decide -upon the particular substance that has been swallowed, unless, indeed, -the matter vomited can be submitted to examination. - - - _Antidotes._ - -From the experiments of _Orfila_, it appears that vinegar, diluted with -water, is the remedy which can be administered with the greatest -success, where any preparation of this alkali has been swallowed in a -poisonous dose. - - - _Organic lesions discovered on dissection._ - -In consequence of the peculiar action of this alkali upon animal matter, -we shall generally find the stomach perforated, and its coats -extensively dissolved. We shall moreover discover the usual indications -of violent inflammation in this viscus, as well as in the intestines. - - - SODA. - -We have already stated by what chemical reagents this alkali may be -distinguished from _potass_; it only remains for us to observe that its -physiological action, the symptoms arising from its ingestion, and the -organic lesions discovered on dissection, are strictly analogous to -those we have described as the effects of potass. - - - AMMONIA, and its CARBONATE. - -Ammonia, in its uncombined state, exists in the state of gas, and is -incapable of application; its affinity, however, for water, enables it -to combine with that fluid, and to form liquid ammonia, (_Liquor -Ammoniæ_) in which state it is useful in medicine, and in the arts. This -solution is colourless; its taste extremely caustic; and its odour -strong, pungent, and peculiar. Exposed to the action of heat, the -ammoniacal gas is driven off, and may be recognised by its -characteristic odour, as well as by its effects upon moistened -_turmeric_ paper. When brought into contact with muriatic acid, it will -form dense white vapours, consisting of _muriate of ammonia_. A most -elegant and sensible test for ammoniacal gas is afforded by a mixed -solution, consisting of arsenious acid and nitrate of silver; these -substances when mixed in solution do not occasion the least disturbance -in each other, for reasons already explained, (see page 240) but upon -spreading a portion of the liquid upon glass or paper, and bringing -ammoniacal gas into contact, a beautiful yellow cloud immediately -diffuses itself over the surface of the solution. - -_Sub-carbonate of ammonia_ occurs in solid, white, semi-transparent -masses, of a highly pungent and ammoniacal odour. Its chemical -composition has been found to vary materially according to the -circumstances under which it has been prepared; _Mr. R. Phillips_, who -has made some highly interesting experiments upon this subject, -considers the _sub-carbonate_ to be a _sesqui_-carbonate, composed of 3 -atoms of carbonic acid, 2 atoms of ammonia, and 2 of water. By long -exposure to the air, its pungency is lost, and it is converted into an -inodorous carbonate. - - - _Symptoms of poisoning by Ammonia._ - -Cases wherein death has been produced in a few minutes, from the -ingestion of liquid ammonia, stand recorded on the authority of -_Martinet_, _Huxham_, _Haller_, and other physiologists. In such cases -the lips, tongue, and fauces are described as being burnt by the -causticity of the fluid; while hemorrhage of the intestines marks the -organic lesions which it occasions. The nervous system would appear also -to suffer greatly, at the same time that the abdominal organs are -affected with violent inflammation. - - - THE CAUSTIC ALKALINE EARTHS. - -Under this division, we have to consider the two earths, _Lime_ and -_Baryta_; both of which are highly corrosive, although they essentially -differ from each other in their physiological action. In this respect -they may be compared to _corrosive sublimate_ and _arsenic_, and offer -an additional illustration of the imperfection of the present -classification; for while _lime_ acts as a local caustic upon the parts -with which it comes in contact, _baryta_ will require, for its action, -to be absorbed and carried into the current of the circulation. - - - QUICK LIME. - -This earth is of a white colour, and of a hot caustic taste; with acids -it forms peculiar salts; a fact which we shall shew affords the most -decisive means of identifying its presence. It changes vegetable blues -to a green, and reddens _turmeric_; it is capable of fusion; so great is -its affinity for water, that it will absorb and solidify one third of -its weight of that fluid, and yet remain perfectly dry. The heat, -therefore, that is evolved in the process of slacking lime, evidently -proceeds from the water, which yields its caloric, as it passes from the -liquid to the solid state. - - - _Symptoms of poisoning by Lime._ - -It is perhaps the least energetic of the corrosive poisons; and yet, -when taken in any quantity, it will produce nausea, vomiting, colics, -frequent stools, and all the symptoms which characterise, or are -complicated with, inflammation of the stomach and intestines.[332] Lime -in combination with carbonic acid is not considered as poisonous. - - - _Organic lesions discovered on dissection._ - -In examining the body of an animal that has been killed by caustic lime, -we shall find the mucous membrane of the stomach reddened, and evincing -marks of inflammation in those parts which have been in contact with it. - - - _Tests for the detection of Quick-lime._ - -We may proceed, if the substance be free from mixture, to obtain a -solution of the earth in distilled water, and to assay it by the -following reagents. - -(_a_) _Carbonic acid, and the soluble alkaline sub-carbonates_ produce a -copious white precipitate, which is soluble in an excess of carbonic -acid. The _carbonate of lime_, of which this precipitate consists, is -also decomposed by muriatic acid, with effervescence, a soluble muriate -remaining. - -(_b_) _Oxalic acid, and oxalate of ammonia._ They precipitate lime-water -of a white colour, and the resulting _oxalate_ is not soluble in an -excess of acid. - -(_c_) _Sulphuric acid._ This acid does not precipitate lime water, since -the _sulphate of lime_ formed does not require more than 300 parts of -water to dissolve it. Whereas, says _M. Orfila_, the smallest quantity -of an exceedingly diluted solution of _baryta_ becomes instantly turbid -on the addition of that acid, because the _sulphate of baryta_ is -insoluble in several thousand times its weight of water. By this test, -therefore, we are at once enabled to distinguish lime-water, from -barytic water. - - - BARYTA, AND ITS SALTS. - -_Baryta_, like lime, is a solid, heavy, alkaline earth, having an acrid -and peculiar taste; and turning the syrup of violets _green_, and the -juice of turmeric _red_. When perfectly calcined, it absorbs water very -rapidly, disengaging at the same time a quantity of caloric; the -phenomenon is similar to that of _slacking lime_, and admits of the same -explanation. It dissolves in about 20 parts of water, at the temperature -of 60°; but boiling water will dissolve half its weight of this earth, -part of which will crystallize on cooling. - -MURIATE OF BARYTA. This salt crystallises in square plates, or -four-sided prisms; its taste is acrid and pungent. It dissolves in 2½ -parts of distilled water at 60° _Fah._ The solution is limpid and -colourless, and has been employed in medicine, as a remedy in scrofula, -cancer, some forms of syphilis, and in hectic fever connected with -ulceration. _Dr. Johnstone_ says that he has seen a delicate female take -as much as thirty drops of a saturated solution of this salt, -_repeatedly_, without nausea; whence he concludes that it would require -at least 2 or 3 drachms to do mischief.[333] - - - _Symptoms of poisoning by Baryta._ - -All the soluble compounds of this earth are poisonous, especially the -_muriate_; which, whether injected into the veins, introduced into the -stomach, or externally applied to an abraded surface, will occasion -death in a very short period. We are not aware that any case stands -recorded of poisoning by baryta. _Orfila_[334] and _Brodie_[335] have, -however, investigated the symptoms which this poison produces on -animals, and they appear to be analogous to those occasioned by the -ingestion of arsenic. The muriate, on account of its greater solubility, -would appear to be much more active than the pure earth, or its -carbonate. - - - _Physiological action of Baryta._ - -Barytic poisons require to be absorbed before they act on the system; -they may therefore destroy by external application, although it would -appear that, unlike arsenic, they act sooner when internally -administered. _Mr. Brodie_ thinks that the _muriate of baryta_ occasions -death by acting upon the brain and the heart; at the same time it exerts -a local action, and corrodes the viscus with which it comes into -contact. - - - _Antidotes._ - -It has been shewn by the experiments of _Orfila_, that the soluble -sulphates, as _Glauber_ or _Epsom salts_, by converting the _baryta_ -into an insoluble _sulphate_, will act as antidotes to its virulence. In -the first instance, therefore, it will be prudent to produce this -chemical decomposition in the poison, and then to expel it, as quickly -as possible, by emetics. - - - _Chemical tests for the detection of Baryta._ - -Where the pure earth, _baryta_, or its solution in water, is presented -for our investigation, it may be identified by the following reagents. - -(_a_) _Sulphuric acid, and the soluble sulphates._ These bodies -precipitate from the barytic solution, a white _sulphate_ of the earth, -insoluble in water, and nitric acid. - -(_b_) _Carbonic acid gas, and the alkaline sub-carbonates_, produce in -it a white _carbonate of baryta_. - -(_c_) _Muriatic acid_ combines with baryta, and furnishes a salt which -is capable of being identified by numerous reagents. _M. Orfila_ has -furnished us with the following satisfactory compendium of its -habitudes. “A salt which does not redden the tincture of tournesol, -which does not turn the syrup of violets green, which is not -precipitated by the alkaline hydro-sulphurets,[336] nor by ammonia; but -which, on the contrary, is precipitated by the sub-carbonate of ammonia, -soda, or potass; which is not soluble in concentrated alcohol; which -furnishes, with the sulphate of potass, or the sulphuric acid, a white -precipitate insoluble in water and in the nitric acid, and which gives -with the nitrate of silver a curdled precipitate of muriate of silver, -likewise insoluble in the nitric acid, _can be no other than the muriate -of baryta_.” - -But it may happen, that the above salt is so mixed with alimentary -matter, as to defy the action of the tests; in this case we must -endeavour to obtain from it the pure earth, by precipitating the -suspected fluids by the sub-carbonate of ammonia; when a _carbonate of -baryta_ will fall down, which must be dried on a filter, and calcined -with charcoal. - - - CANTHARIDES. _Spanish Flies_—_Blistering Flies_. (_Cantharis - Vesicatoria_, Sp. 1, of Latreille.)[337] - -Cantharides are imported into this country in their entire state, and -are so kept in the shops; their form and general appearance are too well -known to require description, and they will rarely become the objects of -inquiry; in powder, however, they may be presented to us for -investigation, and it is therefore essential that the forensic physician -should be acquainted with the appearances which they assume in the state -of disintegration. This powder has a greenish colour, tinged with grey, -and abounding with shining points of a very beautiful green colour, and -which may be recognised in whatever state of division the powder may -exist, even after it has passed through a silken sieve. Its odour is -acrid and nauseous; when thrown on burning coals it emits that peculiar -smell, which generally attends the destruction of animal matter by heat. -The chemical history of _cantharides_ is still involved in some -obscurity; according to _Robiquet_, who has furnished us with the most -satisfactory analysis, they contain various fatty principles; the -phosphates of lime, and magnesia; and the acetic and uric acids; -together with a peculiar crystalline principle, in which the vesicatory -properties wholly reside, and to which the name of _cantharidin_ has -been given by _Dr. Thomson_.[338] It may be obtained in plates, having a -micaceous lustre; when perfectly pure it is insoluble in water, but it -is rendered soluble in that fluid, by the presence of a yellow matter -which exists in native combination with it; it is very soluble in oils. - - - _Symptoms of poisoning by Cantharides._ - -As this substance forms an article of the materia medica it may become -an accidental source of poisoning; whilst a general belief in its -aphrodisiac powers may induce a trial of its efficacy, to goad the -exertions of exhausted nature, or to incense the passion of females, -whose seduction is meditated. In the annals of crime in this country, we -are acquainted with but few instances in which cantharides have been -given with the view of destroying life; we have already referred[339] to -the case of _Vaux_, who was executed for poisoning with cantharides; -there is also that of _Sir Thomas Overbury_, who, on the confession of -the person who gave it to him, is said to have taken it, mixed with his -sauces. Cantharides may be administered in the form of powder, infusion, -or tincture. The following may be considered the more prominent symptoms -which will follow the ingestion of a large dose. Violent retching; -copious alvine evacuations, frequently bloody; very severe colics; -active inflammation of the stomach and intestines; sometimes universal -convulsions, attended with a horror of liquids, resembling that which -occurs in hydrophobia; furious delirium, &c. But the affections of the -urinary passages, and organs of generation, may be regarded, κατεξοχην, -as the peculiar symptoms of poisoning by cantharides; such as heat in -the bladder, bloody micturition; horrible strangury; painful and -obstinate priapism; _satyriasis_, &c. If the dose has not been -sufficient to occasion speedy death, it may produce marasmus. - - - _Organic lesions discovered on dissection._ - -Where the poison has been administered internally, we shall find the -stomach and intestines presenting an appearance of inflammation, very -similar to that which we have described as the general result of -corrosive poisons. Marks of inflammatory action, and sometimes -ulceration, will be also discovered in the urinary and genital organs; -especially in those cases where the person dies shortly after the -ingestion of the poison. - - - _Methods of detecting the presence of Cantharides._ - -Where the poison has been administered in substance, we shall generally -discover some of its particles mixed with the ejected matter; or, after -death, adhering to the coats of the stomach, or to the folds of the -intestines, and which may be easily identified by their peculiar green -and brilliant hue. If the poison should have been administered in the -form of infusion, or tincture, our chemical resources will fail us, and -we must rely alone upon the evidence furnished by the symptoms, and -organic lesions. - - - PHOSPHORUS. - -This singular substance was accidentally discovered by _Brandt_, a -chemist of Hamburgh, in the year 1669,[340] as he was attempting to -extract from human urine a liquid capable of converting silver into -gold. It was also subsequently discovered by _Kunkel_ and by _Boyle_, -without these latter chemists having, in any way, participated in the -researches of each other. - -Phosphorus, when pure, is semi-transparent and of a yellowish colour; -but when kept some time in water, it becomes opaque externally, and then -has a great resemblance to white wax. Its consistence is nearly that of -wax; it may be cut with a knife. Its mean specific gravity is 1·770. It -generally occurs in sticks. When exposed to the air, provided the -temperature be not lower than 43°, it emits a white smoke, which has the -smell of garlic, and is luminous in the dark. This smoke is more -abundant, the higher the temperature is, and is occasioned by the -gradual combustion of the phosphorus. When heated to 148° it takes fire, -and burns with a very bright flame, and gives out a great quantity of -white smoke, which is phosphoric acid. Oils dissolve phosphorus, -provided the temperature be a little raised. Water has no effect upon -it, unless it be aerated, when it renders the surface of the phosphorus -opaque and white, which in a short time becomes red. This change depends -upon oxidation. - - - _Symptoms of poisoning by Phosphorus._ - -This substance, whether introduced into the stomach in its pure form, or -dissolved in oil, will occasion the most violent symptoms, from its -escharotic action,[341] It has been employed in medicine,[342] in a -state of minute division, in the dose of one-fourth of a grain, and is -said by _Leroi_ to be very efficacious in restoring and establishing the -force[343] of young persons exhausted by sensual indulgence, and of even -prolonging the life of the aged.[344] It has also been given as a -stimulant in local fevers. We are, however, greatly inclined to question -the safety of such a practice, notwithstanding the diminutiveness of the -dose. The reader will find some interesting cases of poisoning by -phosphorus, translated from the German work of _Weickard_, in _Hooper’s_ -Medical Dictionary, under the consideration of that article. Should such -a case present itself for the investigation of the forensic physician, -he will not find any difficulty in identifying the substance; its -external character, its smell, and, above all, its peculiar property of -yielding luminous vapour, are too palpable and distinctive, to admit the -possibility of error. - - - MECHANICAL POISONS—_Powdered glass_—_Enamel powder_—_Chopped hair, &c. - &c._ - -We have already examined the pretensions of these bodies to the rank of -corrosive poisons, (_page_ 145) and we should have not reverted to the -subject, but from a wish to introduce the account of “_a case of -Schirrus in the intestines, arising from hairs remaining in the canal_,” -as related in the _Edinburgh Medical Journal_,[345] by _Dr. Burrell_, -and which had, on the former occasion, escaped our notice. The subject -of this history, _Laurence Harding_, æt. 35, being a private soldier, -was admitted into the regimental hospital, for an unrelenting -constipation of the bowels; but it appears also that he had been -affected with dyspeptic symptoms, and pain in his abdomen, for several -years; which pain was aggravated by the ingestion of solid food. He -received but little benefit from the remedies that were administered, -his strength gradually declined, and, about a month after his admission, -he expired. - -“On laying open the abdomen, the stomach was found much thickened -throughout its whole substance, and the pylorus very much contracted, -which contraction continued down the duodenum. Through all the -intestines this thickening and gristly appearance was observed. The -colon was prodigiously enlarged in its calibre, until where it forms its -sigmoid flexure; at which point there were three distinct holes -ulcerated through the coats of the intestine, and forming a -communication with the abdominal cavity. Beyond the sigmoid flexure the -intestine was contracted in its diameter, so as hardly to admit the -little finger to pass downwards. On cutting open the pylorus and small -intestines, the internal coats were found to be covered with a soft -substance, which resembled size. The internal coats of the colon were of -a dark colour, and in general were completely ulcerated, and hanging in -shreds. The colour of the colon was of a dark lurid red. At the sigmoid -flexure there was much contraction, and the thickening was so great on -one side, and the valve found so considerable, as hardly to admit a -common bougie through it. The portion forming the sigmoid flexure was -cut out; and on laying it open, and removing some hardened fæces, _five -or six hog’s brittles were seen distinctly crossing each other in -different directions_; they were partially invested in the villous coat, -which had grown over them, and which had retained them in the different -positions in which they were placed; and so firmly were they kept down -by those partial coverings, that it required some force to draw them -out. The mesenteric glands were of a cartilaginous appearance; the liver -was suffused with blood, and the gall-bladder full of bile. The spleen -was very small, and compressed into an oblong shape, probably arising -from the pressure of the colon when distended with feculent matter. - -This man had formerly been a shoemaker. There was no evidence as to the -period at which he swallowed these hairs; but, from the derangement -which always existed in the bowels, and the pain referred to the sigmoid -flexure, little doubt can be entertained but that these hairs were the -cause of all his complaints, and ultimately of his death.” - - - CL. II. ASTRINGENT POISONS. - - - LEAD. - -This metal appears to have been known in the earliest ages; and is -mentioned several times by _Moses_.[346] It has a bluish-white colour; -is very brilliant when first cut with a knife, but soon tarnishes by -exposure to air; when rubbed violently, it emits a peculiar smell; it is -malleable and ductile, but possesses very little tenacity. It is -scarcely sonorous; being the softest of all the metals, it yields -readily to the hammer. Its specific gravity is 11·35; it melts at 612°. -According to the experiments of _Dr. Thomson_,[347] it is susceptible of -four degrees of oxidation, presenting us with four distinct, and well -defined oxides, viz. - - Yellow (_protoxide_) contains of lead 91·5 oxygen 8·5 - Yellow (_deutoxide_) contains of lead 90·5 oxygen 9·5 - Red (_tritoxide_) contains of lead 88· oxygen 12· - Brown (_peroxide_) contains of lead 80· oxygen 20· - -Lead, in its metallic state, does not exert any action on the living -system; but, when oxidized, or in the state of salt, its virulence is -very considerable, producing a train of symptoms, so peculiar to itself, -as to justify our placing its preparations in a separate class, under -the title of _astringent_ poisons, as explained at page 202. - -Metallic lead, although _per se_ inert, may occasion deleterious effects -when introduced into the stomach, in consequence of its meeting with -acids in the _primæ viæ_; from the same cause, liquids which are liable -to become in any degree acidulous, if kept in leaden vessels, may be -productive of much danger to those who drink them. Pure water, provided -the air be excluded, does not appear to exert any sensible action upon -this metal; but the combined influence of these agents converts the lead -into a carbonate: a fact which is at once exemplified by the white line -which is so constantly visible at the surface of the water preserved in -leaden vessels. So well acquainted were the ancients with this fact, -that we find frequent allusions in their works to the dangerous property -of leaden utensils. _Vitruvius_[348] published a very strong -remonstrance against leaden pipes, when used for the purpose of -conveying water; and _Galen_ cautions us continually, not to employ -water that has flowed through pipes of this metal; since he had observed -that the _sediment_ of such water, (υποσταθμη του τουιουτου υδατος) -rendered such as swallowed it, δυσεντερικους, subject to disorders in -the intestines. - -_Dr. Lambe_, to whom we are indebted for an important work[349] upon -this subject, states, that there is a great diversity in the corrosive -powers of different waters; in some places the use of leaden pumps has -been in part discontinued, from the expense entailed upon the -proprietors by the perpetual want of repair;[350] and if any acidity be -communicated to the water, from the accidental intrusion of decayed -leaves or other vegetable matter, its power of dissolving this metal -will be increased to a very dangerous extent. The noted colic of -Amsterdam is said by _Tronchin_, who has written a history of the -epidemic, to have been occasioned by leaves falling and putrefying in -leaden cisterns, filled with rain water. _Van Swieten_[351] has also -related an instance of a whole family who were afflicted with colic from -a similar cause; and _Dr. Lambe_[352] entertains no doubt but that the -very striking case recorded in the Medical Commentaries,[353] proceeded -more from some foulness in the cistern than from the solvent power of -the water; in this instance, the officers of a packet vessel used water -out of a leaden cistern; the men also drank the same water, except that -the latter had been kept in wood; the consequence was, that all the -officers were seized with colic, while the men remained healthy. _Sir -George Baker_ has furnished the following striking illustration of the -subject. “The most remarkable case that now occurs to my memory, is that -of _Lord Ashburnham’s_ family, in Sussex; to which, spring water was -supplied from a considerable distance in leaden pipes. In consequence, -his lordship’s servants were every year tormented with colic, and some -of them died. An eminent physician of Battle, who corresponded with me -on the subject, sent up some gallons of that water, which were analysed -by _Dr. Higgins_, who reported that the water had contained more than -the common quantity of carbonic acid; and that he found in it lead in -solution, which he attributed to the carbonic acid. In consequence of -this representation, _Lord Ashburnham_ substituted wooden for leaden -pipes; and from that time his family have experienced no particular -complaints in their bowels.” - -But the most extensive and dangerous source of poisoning by lead, is the -presence of this metal in various wines, and acescent drinks, and meats, -and which may arise either from accident or design. A knowledge of the -different avenues, through which this poison may gain admittance into -the human body, is therefore of great importance to the forensic -physician, and we shall accordingly proceed to the investigation of the -subject. - -That certain wines were occasionally liable to produce endemic colics, -is a fact which has been long known; although the disease was -universally ascribed to a mistaken origin, until the publication of the -elaborate researches[354] of _Sir George Baker_, into the cause of the -Devonshire colic; which, like the same disease observed in other -countries, was attributed to the acidity of the liquor so abundantly -drunk[355] in these districts. This celebrated physician, however, was -early led to entertain doubts with respect to the truth of this -doctrine: “when I consider,” says he, “that this colic of Devonshire is -precisely the same disease as that which is the specific effect of all -saturnine preparations, and that there is not the least analogy between -the juice of apples and the poison of lead, it seems to me very -improbable that two causes, bearing so little relation to one another, -should make such similar impressions on the human body.” The -investigation of the subject completely established the justness of -these views; and no doubt remains, but that the endemic colic, which -harrassed the cyder drinkers in Devonshire for some years, was the -effect of saturnine impregnation, derived from the lead used in the -construction of the apple mills and cyder presses; and in some cases, -from the pernicious practice of introducing a leaden weight into the -cask, or even racking the cyder into leaden cisterns, where the liquor -fretted too much, and was thereby in danger of becoming acetous. _Sir G. -Baker_ also states that the custom of boiling the _must_ in vessels -capped with lead, affords another source of saturnine impregnation; and -he informs us that, a few years ago, this very practice produced the -_Devonshire colic_ in the county of Kent. Some cyder, which had been -made in a gentleman’s family, being thought too sour, was boiled with -honey in a brewing vessel, capped with lead. All, who drank this liquor, -were seized with this disease; some more, others less violently; one of -the servants died very soon in convulsions: several others were cruelly -tortured a long time. The master of the family, notwithstanding all the -assistance which art could give him, never recovered his health; but -died miserably, after having for nearly three years languished under a -tedious and incurable malady. _Dr. Lambe_ observes, that the saturnine -colic is not endemial in Devonshire, or the other cyder countries, -during the whole year, but is confined to those months when the liquor -is still new, crude, and the fermentation incomplete. When the liquor -becomes fine, the noxious matter in a great measure separates, and is -carried to the bottom of the vessel, as the feculencies subside. Tartar -is generated during the vinous fermentation, the acid of which, uniting -with the lead, forms a salt, scarcely, if at all, soluble in water; and -hence the purification which the liquor receives. But although this new -salt is insoluble in water, it is otherwise in regard to vinegar; for -this acid dissolves a small quantity, and forms a triple compound, an -_aceto-tartrate of lead_;[356] and since no cyder, or perhaps wine, is -wholly destitute of vinegar, it necessarily follows that if the liquor -has been once contaminated during the first stages of fermentation, it -is impossible for it ever to become entirely pure, except by processes -which would render it unfit for drinking.[357] It has very lately been -discovered, that _Gallic acid_ and _tannin_ are capable of combining -with lead in solution, and of forming a perfectly insoluble substance, -which falls to the bottom of the cask; hence all liquors which have been -kept in oak casks, for a certain time, must be freed from lead. This -explains a fact with respect to the effect of new rum in the West -Indies, of some importance. This spirit, when newly distilled, is found -to contain traces of lead, derived from the leaden rims of the coppers, -and the leaden worm, used for its condensation; but, by keeping about -twelve months in oaken casks, it loses its deleterious properties, and -no longer exhibits any traces of this metal.[358] - -Another source, from which acescent liquids may contract saturnine -impregnation, is afforded by the metallic glazing of earthenware[359]; -that for instance of the common _cream coloured_ ware is composed of an -oxide of lead,[360] and is accordingly easily acted upon by vinegar, and -saline compounds; jars and pots of this description ought therefore -never to be used for preserving pickles, jellies of fruits, marmalade, -and similar conserves. For the same reason, _Sir George Baker_ protests -against the custom of baking fruit tarts in such ware.[361] _Stone ware_ -is glazed with muriate of soda, and is therefore not liable to such an -objection.[362] - -The custom which prevails in some parts of England of keeping milk in -leaden vessels, is extremely improper; _Dr. Darwin_[363] has illustrated -this subject by the following case; “A delicate young girl, the daughter -of a dairy farmer, who kept his milk in leaden cisterns, used to wipe -off the cream from the edges of the lead, and frequently, as she was -fond of cream, licked it from her finger. She was seized with the -saturnine colic, and semi-paralytic wrists, and sunk from general -debility.” We are informed by _Mr. Parkes_,[364] that in Lancashire the -dairies are furnished with milk-pans made of lead; and that when he -expostulated with some individuals on the danger of this practice, he -was told that _leaden_ milk pans throw up the cream much better than -vessels of any other kind. - -There is, says _Dr. Darwin_, a bad custom in almost all families, and -public houses, of washing out their wine bottles by putting a handful of -shot corns into them, and by shaking them about forcibly to detach the -super-tartrate of potass from their sides; that such a practice may -occasionally give origin to serious consequences, will become evident by -the relation of the following case.[365] “A gentleman who had never in -his life experienced a day’s illness, and who was constantly in the -habit of drinking half a bottle of Madeira after his dinner, was taken -ill three hours after dinner with a serious pain in the stomach and -violent colic, which gradually yielded within twelve hours to the -remedies prescribed by his medical attendant. The day following he drank -the remainder of the same bottle of wine which was left the preceding -day, and within two hours afterwards he was again seized with the most -violent pains, head-ache, shiverings, and great pain over the whole -body. His apothecary becoming suspicious that the wine he had drunk -might be the cause of the disease, ordered the bottle, from which it had -been decanted, to be brought to him, with a view that he might examine -the dregs, if any were left. The bottle happening to slip out of the -hand of the servant, disclosed a row of shot, wedged forcibly into the -angular bent-up circumference of it. On examining the beads of shot, -they crumbled into dust, the outer crust (defended by a coat of black -lead with which the shot is glazed) being alone left unacted on, whilst -the remainder of the metal was dissolved. The wine, therefore, had -become contaminated with _lead_, and perhaps _arsenic_, for in order to -form shot the former metal is alloyed with the latter.”[366] - -But we have, hitherto, only directed the reader’s attention to the -different sources from which wine, and acescent liquors, may -_accidentally_ derive saturnine impregnation. We have now to state that -such liquors have, in different ages and countries, been fraudulently -adulterated with lead. It appears to have been early discovered, that -wines which have become morbidly acescent may be corrected by the -addition of lead; whence, in those countries where Rhenish, Moselle, and -other similar wines are drunk, the saturnine colic has been endemic. The -celebrated colic which raged in the province of _Poitou_, towards the -end of the sixteenth, and in the beginning of the seventeenth century, -was evidently the effect of such adulteration.[367] We find that, in the -year 1487, there was a _Recessus Imperii_ promulgated at Rotenberg; and, -in the year 1498, at Friberg; which was enacted, in the year 1500, at -Tubingen; and, in the year 1508, at Frankfort; and, in the year 1577, in -the same place. By which decrees it was made a capital crime to -adulterate wines with _litharge_, or to use _bismuth_ in the fumigation -of them; it having been, at several periods, represented to the -Emperors, that great mischief had accrued from such adulterations; and -that they had been the cause of insuperable and mortal diseases. It -should seem, that these laws were not carried into strict execution; -and, indeed, that in the latter end of the seventeenth century, it was -hardly known in Germany that such laws existed. In consequence of which, -an epidemic colic arose, which was at length traced to the effects of -lead in the wines.[368] A representation of this fact having been made -to the _Duke of Wirtemberg_, it was ordained a capital crime to mix -litharge with wine, or even to sell it in the shops, by a decree, -bearing date March 10, 1696. But, notwithstanding the severity of this -law, we are informed by _Zeller_, that in the year 1705, the same -dangerous experiments were repeated in the circle of _Zwaabe_, with a -view to correct the acidity of the weaker wines. _Bishop Watson_[369] -informs us that, in the year 1750, the _Farmers general_ in France being -astonished at the great quantities _de vin gaté_ which were brought into -Paris, in order to be made into vinegar, redoubled their researches to -find out the cause of the great increase in that article; for nearly -thirty thousand hogsheads had been annually brought in for a few years -preceding the year 1750, whereas the quantity annually brought in forty -years before, did not exceed 1200 hogsheads. They discovered that -several wine merchants, assuming the name of vinegar merchants, bought -these sour wines, and afterwards, by means of litharge, rendered them -potable, and sold them as genuine wines.[370] _Dr. Warren_[371] has -related the cases of thirty-two persons in the _Duke of Newcastle’s_ -family, who were residing in Hanover in June, 1752, and were seized with -the _Colica Pictonum_, after having used, as their common drink, a small -white wine that has been adulterated with lead. Nor has the English -vintner been less regardless of the health of his employer. In a popular -work on wine making by _Graham_,[372] which has gone through six -editions, and may therefore be supposed to have done some mischief, we -find under the article of _vintner’s secrets_, the following receipts.— - - “_To hinder wine from turning_, - -“Put a pound of melted lead, in fair water, into a cask, pretty warm, -and stop it close.” - - “_To soften green wine_, - -“Put in a little vinegar, wherein litharge has been well steeped, and -boil some honey to draw out the wax. Strain it through a cloth, and put -a quart of it into a tierce: and this will mend it, in summer -especially.” - -We have already alluded to the presence of lead[373] in the _new_ rum of -the West Indies, as the cause of the disease known in that country by -the name of the _dry belly-ache_; it remains for us to state that the -excise officers frequently avail themselves of the peculiar power of the -_sub-acetate of lead_ to precipitate colouring matter, in order to -remove from seized Holland gin, the colour which it obtains by being -long kept in the tubs in which it is smuggled over. A practice which it -is said renders the gin liable to gripe. - -According to the important experiments of _Proust_,[374] it appears, -that if lead be associated with tin, it will be incapable of furnishing -to acids any saturnine impregnation. The following are the interesting -conclusions at which this philosopher has arrived, viz. - -“That the _tinning_, which contains even so large a proportion as an -equal part of lead, cannot be dangerous; since it is sufficient that the -lead should be combined with tin, in order to prevent it from being -dissolved, either in lemon juice, or vinegar, the two acids most to be -feared. The tin, being more oxidable than the lead, dissolves -exclusively in these acids, and prevents the second from being attacked. -_The lead cannot appropriate to itself an atom of oxygen, but the tin -would carry it off in an instant._” - - - SUGAR OF LEAD—_Saccharum Saturni_—_Cerussa Acetata_—_Plumbi - Super-acetas_. - -This salt of lead, to whose presence the numerous accidental maladies -above enumerated are to be chiefly attributed, occurs in commerce in the -form of irregular masses resembling lumps of sugar, being an aggregation -of acicular four-sided prisms terminated by dihedral summits; its taste -is sweet and astringent. It is soluble in 25 parts of water, hot, or -cold; when common spring water, however, is employed for such a purpose, -a white precipitate occurs from the presence of a certain proportion of -_sulphates_ and _carbonates_. - -When this salt is exposed to the action of heat, it undergoes aqueous -fusion, then dries, and at length is decomposed, leaving a globule of -metallic lead, mixed with the yellow protoxide, and an acid product of a -fetid smell. This decomposition is similar to that which vegetable -substances undergo when heated for some time. The quantity of metallic -lead, thus obtained, will be more considerable if the salt has been -previously mixed with charcoal, and particularly if it be submitted for -a long time to the action of a powerful heat. The strong sulphuric acid -of commerce, when poured upon _sugar of lead_ in powder, decomposes it -with effervescence, and disengages vapours of acetic acid. - -This must be considered as an active preparation, and may, when -administered in doses of a few drachms, speedily occasion death. At the -same time, like other poisons, it may by judicious administration, -become a valuable remedy. See _Pharmacologia_, art. _Plumbi -Super-acetas_. - -In consequence of the sweet taste of this salt, children have been -induced to swallow it. - - - GOULARD’S EXTRACT. _Liquor Plumbi Sub-acetatis._ - -This liquor is a saturated solution of the _sub-acetate of lead_. Spring -water, from the salts which it contains, produces with it a very milky -and turbid appearance; and even when _distilled_, in consequence of the -carbonic acid diffused through it, it will occasion precipitation. It is -principally used as an external application to diminish inflammation, an -effect which it probably produces by paralysing the nerves of the part. -Cases have occurred where this lotion has been accidentally swallowed, -and the usual symptoms of saturnine poisoning have supervened. How far -its external application may be capable of occasioning mischief, will -form a subject of inquiry under the consideration of the physiological -action of the preparations of lead. - - - WHITE LEAD. _Sub-Carbonate of Lead._ _Cerusse._ - -The substance, known in commercial language by the name of _White Lead_, -has received at different times, very various appellations, in -consequence of the fluctuating opinions which have prevailed respecting -its composition. Thus it has been successively styled a _sub-acetate_, -an _oxide_, and a _sub-carbonate_; of which the last is unquestionably -the correct name. In the large way it is prepared by exposing sheets of -metallic lead to the fumes of vinegar. The sub-carbonate so produced -appears as a white, brittle, and scaly substance, on the surface of the -lead; which is scraped off, and afterwards ground in mills fitted for -the purpose. Formerly, it was ground dry, and the workmen suffered -severely from the operation; it is now ground in water, and the -sub-carbonate is afterwards dried in earthen pans placed in stoves, -heated by means of flues; still, however, persons employed in grinding -white lead, as well as painters[375] who are constantly using it, -occasionally suffer severely, from the want of cleanliness in not -washing their hands before eating, by which some of the white lead is -introduced into the stomach with their food. - - - LITHARGE. _Semi-vitrified Oxide of Lead._ - -This is a yellow protoxide of lead, which has been melted, and left to -crystallize by cooling. It is in the form of small reddish, or yellowish -scales, which are brilliant and vitrified. Its character is so peculiar -that it cannot easily be mistaken. It is employed for various purposes -in the arts, and is the saturnine preparation more usually selected for -the purpose of removing acidity from wines, as above related. - -When treated with a muriatic salt, and submitted to a high temperature, -a _muriate of lead_ is produced, of a bright yellow colour, the -brilliancy of which may be much heightened by grinding it as usual with -oil. In this state it forms the pigment known by the name of _Turner’s -yellow_, or _patent yellow_.[376] It is very poisonous. - - - RED LEAD. _Minium._ - -This red oxide of lead is easily distinguished by its colour, weight, -and the facility with which it yields metallic lead, when heated with -carbonaceous matter. Common red wafers, which derive their colour from -this oxide, afford a striking illustration of this fact, for if burnt in -a candle, globules of metallic lead will be observed to flow from them. -It is poisonous; and we have already alluded to a case where Gloucester -cheese[377] occasioned deleterious effects, in consequence of its -adulteration with _red lead_. (p. 277) It is destructive also to -inferior animals, apparently in very small quantities; red wafers prove -poisonous to birds who may pick them up; and the same paste is sold for -the purpose of destroying beetles, in which it succeeds very -effectually. Since it is employed as a pigment, it may on many occasions -prove an accidental cause of poisoning; there is indeed one very common -and dangerous source, mentioned by _Sir George Baker_,[378] which -deserves to be particularized in this place, viz. the practice of -painting toys with _red lead_, and other poisonous substances; children, -observes this distinguished physician, are apt to carry every object -which gives them delight to their mouths, the painting of toys, -therefore, with poisonous colours, is a practice which ought to be -abolished, and is the more open to censure, as it is of no real utility. - - - _Symptoms of poisoning by the different preparations of Lead._ - -The effects of this poison will vary considerably according to the -quantity swallowed, and the circumstances under which it is taken. We -shall, therefore, first consider its operation, in doses sufficiently -large to occasion at once violent effects; and then describe its agency -as an _accumulative_ poison, where it is introduced into the system -gradually, and in small quantities, so as to act slowly and -imperceptibly, and to lay the foundation of irreparable mischief, before -any alarm is occasioned. - -1. _Symptoms which follow a large dose._ Where a salt of lead has been -taken in a considerable dose, the patient soon experiences excruciating -pains in the abdomen, accompanied with sickness and vomiting; the colic -increases to a violent degree, but admits of temporary alleviation by -pressure, a circumstance which at once distinguishes it from the effects -of corrosive poison. Although it is necessary to observe, that -inflammatory symptoms may afterwards occur, where the dose has been very -considerable, and the consequences direct and speedy. - -The patient describes the pain as if produced by a boring instrument, -and the abdominal muscles become knotted, and sometimes painfully -retracted with all the contents of the abdomen towards the spine.[379] -The sphincter muscles of the bladder and anus are always affected; -sometimes strangury and tenesmus are the consequences; at other times, a -total incapacity of making any water at all, and so great a contraction -of the sphincter ani that a clyster can hardly be introduced. After -suffering these torments for a period of an indefinite duration, -delirium and cold sweats may supervene, and the patient die in -convulsions. If, however, the treatment has been prompt and judicious, -and the quantity of poison has not been excessive, he may recover from -its immediate effects, and live to testify the severity of the -consecutive phenomena. A most inveterate constipation of the bowels will -continue for a considerable period, and there will be an occasional -recurrence of colic; at length a peculiar species of palsy will -supervene in the upper extremities, especially affecting the muscles of -the fore arm, and wrist,[380] _Citois_ has given us a striking -description of this stage of the saturnine disease. “_Per vicos, veluti -larvæ, aut arte progredientes statuæ, pallidi, squalidi, macilenti -conspiciuntur, manibus incurvis et suo pondere pendulis, nec nisi arte -ad os et cæteras supernas partes sublatis, ac pedibus non suis, sed -crurum muculis, ad ridiculum, ni miserandum, incessum compositis, voce -clangosa et strepera._” It does not appear that the train of symptoms -above described has ever been excited by any other external cause than -the one here assigned. Whenever we meet with colic, attended with -paralytic symptoms of the extremities, we may at once conclude that it -has arisen from the influence of lead. - -The disease has been described by authors under the name of the _colic -of Poitou_,[381] or _colica Pictonum_,[382] from the circumstance of its -having raged with such epidemic fury in that province, in consequence of -the adulteration of its wines with lead. It is also mentioned as the -painter’s colic, since this class of artists is very commonly visited by -the disease, in consequence of the _white lead_ contained in their -pigments. At the Lead Hills, it is known to the miners, under the -provincial name of _milreek_; and in Derbyshire, under that of -_belland_.[383] - - - 2. _Symptoms arising from the introduction of lead into the system, by - small and repeated doses._ - -The effects produced upon various artists by the imperceptible operation -of lead, sufficiently shew the power which this metal possesses of -accumulating in the human system, and it is probable, says _Sir George -Baker_, that from an observation of such slow, but certain effects of -lead, the French and Italians derived the hint of preparing their -celebrated poisons, called “_Poudres de Succession_;”[384] the basis of -which has been supposed to have been some preparation of that mineral. -_Zeller_ mentions a certain chemical operator, near the confines of -Bohemia, who, after having diligently applied himself to the composition -of poisons, did, by means of lead, combined with some more volatile and -corrosive substance, prepare a most slow poison, which given to dogs and -other animals, had the power of destroying them, without producing any -violent symptoms, after several weeks, or even months.[385] - -The following-curious case,[386] communicated by _Dr. Wall_, of -Worcester to _Sir George Baker_, will serve to illustrate the present -subject, and to shew that lead may gain admittance into the human body, -unobserved, and even unsuspected. “A gentleman of Worcester was the -father of a numerous offspring, having had one and twenty children, of -whom eight died young, and thirteen survived their parents. During their -infancy, and indeed until they had quitted the place of their usual -residence, they were all remarkably unhealthy; being particularly -subject to disorders of the stomach and bowels. The father, during many -years, was paralytic; the mother, for as long a time, subject to colics -and bilious obstructions. She died at last of an obstinate jaundice. -This disease had been several times removed by the use of the Bath -water; but it always came on again soon after her return to Worcester; -and at last eluded every method and medicine which was tried. After the -death of these parents, the family sold the house which they had so long -inhabited. The purchaser found it necessary to repair the pump. This was -made of lead; and, upon examination, was found to be so corroded, that -several perforations were observed in the cylinder, in which the bucket -plays; and the cistern in the upper part was reduced to the thinness of -common brown paper, and was full of holes like a sieve. The waters of -this town are remarkably hard. It is then more than probable that the -water of this pump, thus impregnated with lead, occasioned the -unhealthiness of the family who drank it. I have been just informed by -the plumber,” adds _Dr. Wall_, “that he had several times repaired the -pump in question; and that he had done so not more than three or four -years before the gentleman’s death; when he found it nearly in the same -state as it has been described; so that the corrosion was effected in a -short time; and consequently the water must have been very strongly -impregnated with the noxious quality of the metal.” - - - _Organic lesions discovered on dissection._ - -The reports of the dissection of those who have been destroyed by -saturnine poisons are far from being satisfactory. Where the person has -died from the primary effects of a large dose of the acetate of lead, -the stomach has betrayed a state of inflammation, similar to that which -results from the action of a corrosive poison; black points and spots, -from venous extravasation, have been also observed in the interior of -this viscus; _M. Orfila_ states that he has seen in the stomach of -animals who have taken a large dose of the acetate of lead, and have not -vomited, a membraneous lining tolerably thick, of an ash colour, easily -detaching in small pieces; the origin of which appeared to be owing to -the decomposition of a part of the acetate of lead by the mucous, -bilious, and other fluids, contained in this viscus. The mucous membrane -lying under this lining, was of a dark grey colour throughout its whole -thickness, and appeared to have exercised the same action on the acetate -of lead. The case is very different in those who have died from the slow -action of this metal; all anatomists agree in reporting, that in the -_colica pictonum_, the digestive canal exhibits no vestige of -inflammation;[387] but the diameter of the large intestines, especially -that of the colon, is generally contracted; thus displaying the effects -of that operation, which is supposed to be characteristic of the -compounds of lead, and which has bestowed upon them the peculiar -designation of _astringent_ poisons. _Foderé_ states that the mesentery -and its glands; and the lacteal and lymphatic vessels, are inflamed and -obstructed, and the thoracic duct almost obliterated; the liver, spleen, -pancreas, and lungs often inflamed, tumefied and purulent, and even the -heart shrivelled;[388] and the whole body, in consequence of the -constriction of the chyliferous vessels, in a state of complete -marasmus. Upon this passage _Orfila_ makes the following observation. -“We are under the necessity of declaring, that almost all these signs -are wanting in the majority of the cases of simple colic of lead, -terminated by death.” _Fourcroy_, in a note to his translation of -_Ramazzini_, “_De Morbis Artificum_,” observes that the intestines have, -in these cases, been discovered distended by air, parched, and slightly -altered in colour; and that in the larger ones, balls of dry, dark -coloured, excrementitious matter, have been found. - - - _Physiological action of Lead Poisons._ - -The preparations of lead seem to act upon the nervous system, destroying -its energy, and thereby producing paralysis. Whether this is effected -through the medium of the circulation, or whether they produce their -effects without being absorbed, appears to us to be a question which has -not hitherto received a satisfactory answer. It must, however, be -admitted that they act upon the alimentary canal, by coming into contact -with its nerves; and in some cases, where the dose of the _acetate_ has -been large, it may have produced death by the local injury which it -inflicted. _Dr. Lambe_ observes upon this subject, that “certain facts -render it probable that lead does not operate entirely through the -medium of the circulation, nor by nervous sympathy; but also topically, -affecting the part to which it is applied more than the other parts of -the body.” This latter position is clearly established by the beneficial -effects occasioned by the topical application of lead to inflamed -surfaces; nor can any doubt exist as to the fact of such applications -having produced local paralysis. There is a paper in the third volume of -the _Medical Transactions_ by _Dr. Reynolds_, in which the case of a -gentleman is detailed, who brought on a temporary paralysis of the -_sphincter ani_, by freely using _Goulard’s_ lotion for the cure of -piles. Foreign writers have also maintained that saturnine applications -have frequently occasioned impotence; for further information upon this -subject the reader may refer to _Istitutione di Medicina Forens: di -Tortosa_, _vol._ 1, _p._ 58; also _Fritze Compend: sopra i Malat. -Vener._ _p._ 189; and _Monteggia Annotat. sopra i Mali Venerei_, _p._ -36. _Sir George Baker_ states that he has some reason to doubt, whether -_litharge_, the common basis of our plasters, when used for the purpose -of dressing issues, has not, in certain irritable constitutions, -produced some of the ordinary effects of saturnine preparations taken -internally. There have been instances of children thrown into -convulsions, by _cerusse_, sprinkled on excoriated parts. _Zeller_ -quotes, on the authority of _Molingius_, a remarkable instance of the -pernicious effects of _litharge_, externally applied.[389] _Sir George -Baker_ met with a most violent and obstinate colic, which seemed to have -been occasioned by some litharge, mixed in a cataplasm, and applied to -the _vagina_, with a view to allay a troublesome itching; and he says -that he was informed by _Dr. Petit_ that _Goulard’s poultice_ applied -for some time to a patient’s knee, in St. George’s hospital, occasioned -violent pain in the bowels, which did not cease until the poultice had -been removed; nor are authorities deficient to prove, that the -fashionable application of _cerusse_ to the skin has been followed by -obstinate colics, pains, and tremors. We have been desirous of laying -before our readers the above authorities, in proof of the constitutional -effects which may be occasionally produced by the external application -of lead, since the fact has been questioned, and is still considered by -many as involved in doubt and uncertainty. _Dr. Lambe_ is inclined to -believe, that “to the production of the saturnine colic, it is necessary -that the metal should be applied _immediately_ to the stomach and -intestines.” If this hypothesis be just, he excludes nervous sympathy, -as well as absorption, as a proximate cause of saturnine colic; and, -consequently, no dependence can be placed on the accounts given by the -above pathologists with regard to the production of such an effect by -lotions and cataplasms of lead. - - - _Of the chemical processes, by which the presence of lead may be - detected._ - -These will necessarily vary according to the different states of -combination in which it may be supposed to exist; we shall, therefore, -proceed to consider the modes of establishing its presence, 1, In -solution in _water_; _wine_; _spirit_; and _oils_. 2. In a state of -mixture with _various solids_. 3. Combined with _solid or liquid -aliments_. - -1. _The lead exists in some unknown state of combination in solution in -water._ We are greatly indebted to _Dr. Lambe_[390] for the able -directions which he has afforded us for ascertaining the presence of -minute portions of lead in water; and we recommend the practitioner, who -may be engaged in such an investigation, to peruse his work with -attention. The following are the reagents through which our analysis -must be conducted. - -(_a_) _Sulphuretted hydrogen._ A solution of this gas in distilled water -is a very delicate test for lead, throwing down a precipitate of a very -dark brown colour, approaching to black. The competency, however, of -this test to the discovery of very minute quantities of lead, in certain -states of combination, has been questioned by _Dr. Lambe_; who was -enabled to detect the presence of this metal, by other methods, in water -that manifested no indication with _sulphuretted hydrogen_. He detected -it, for instance, in the precipitate occasioned in such water by the -carbonate of potass or soda. In operating on these waters, he noticed -the following appearances. - - 1. _The precipitate, produced as above stated, when re-dissolved in - nitric acid, formed a dark cloud with sulphuretted hydrogen._ - - 2. _Although the sulphuretted hydrogen formed no cloud, the - precipitate itself became darkened by it._ - - 3. _The precipitate re-dissolved in nitric acid_, (as in 1) _formed, - with sulphuretted hydrogen, a white cloud._ - - 4. _Sulphuretted hydrogen neither formed a cloud, nor darkened the - precipitate._ - - 5. _In the cases 2, 3, 4, if the precipitate be heated to redness, in - contact with an alkaline carbonate; and after dissolving out the - carbonate, it be redissolved in nitric acid; then sulphuretted - hydrogen will form a dark cloud with the solution._ In these - experiments it is necessary that the acid used to redissolve the - precipitate be not in excess; if it should so happen, the excess - must be saturated, before the test is applied. It is better to use - so little, that some precipitate may remain undissolved. The nitric - acid, used in these experiments, should be perfectly pure; and the - sulphuretted hydrogen test should be recently prepared by saturating - distilled water with the gas. - -(_b_) _Sulphate of soda, or potass._ This test will produce a white -precipitate in water, containing one hundred-thousandth of its weight of -lead; and is considered by _Dr. Thomson_ as the most unequivocal reagent -of that metal which we possess. “The precipitate is a fine dense powder, -which speedily falls to the bottom, and is not re-dissolved by nitric -acid; no other precipitate can be confounded with it, except _sulphate -of baryta_, and there is no chance of the presence of baryta in solution -in water.”[391] - -(_c_) _Muriate of soda._ One of the methods of analysis proposed by _Dr. -Lambe_, consists in precipitating the lead by common salt; but as the -_muriate of lead_ is partly soluble in water, this test cannot be -applied to small portions of suspected water. The precipitate must, -therefore, be collected from two or three gallons, and heated to redness -with twice its weight of carbonate of soda. The alkaline carbonate is -then to be dissolved out, and nitric acid added, in order to saturate -any superfluity; the _sulphuretted hydrogen_ test will then produce its -indication. - -(_d_) _Reduction of the metal._ This is undoubtedly the most -satisfactory of all the tests; and, except the trouble of collecting a -large quantity of precipitate, is not embarrassed with any difficulty. -The precipitate may be mixed with its own weight of alkaline carbonate, -and exposed either with, or without, the addition of a small proportion -of charcoal, to a heat sufficient to melt the alkali. On breaking the -crucible, a small globule of lead will be found reduced at the bottom. -The precipitate from about fifty gallons of water yielded _Dr. Lambe_ -about two grains of lead. - -2. _The lead is dissolved in wine._ For the detection of this dangerous -fraud, the reagent invented by _Dr. Hahnemann_ affords a ready and -convenient test. It consists of water saturated with sulphuretted -hydrogen gas, and acidulated with muriatic acid;[392] this latter -ingredient is added for the purpose of preventing the precipitation of -any iron, which the wine might accidentally contain. This liquor will, -if added in the proportion of one part to two of wine, produce with the -smallest quantity of lead, a dark coloured, or black precipitate; which, -if collected, dried, and fused before the blow-pipe on a piece of -charcoal, will yield a globule of metallic lead. Or we may modify the -experiment by passing a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas through the -wine, having previously acidulated it with muriatic acid, to prevent the -precipitation of the iron. - -A farther proof of the presence of lead in wines is the occurrence of a -precipitate, on adding a solution of the sulphate of soda. - -The most satisfactory proof, however, is derived by distilling off the -alcohol, and calcining the residuum with charcoal, in order to obtain -the metallic lead. - -The quantity of lead which has been detected in sophisticated wine, may -be estimated at forty grains of the metal in every fifty gallons,[393] -but this will of course be liable to vary with the degree of acidity it -was intended to correct. - -3. _The lead is dissolved in oils._ In this case the lead may be -detected by shaking, in a stopped phial, one part of the suspected oil, -with two or three parts of water, impregnated with _sulphuretted -hydrogen_. This test will announce the presence of the deleterious -metal, by occasioning a dark brown, or black colour. - -4. _The lead is mixed with alimentary matter._ _M. Orfila_ has furnished -us with the following directions for assaying the matter vomited, or -that which may be found in the digestive canal, after death. “After -having expressed the fluid portion through a piece of fine linen, it -must be assayed by the _tests_, which have been already enumerated as -being capable of detecting the salts of lead; and if the precipitates -obtained are of a nature to induce a belief, that the fluid contains -some preparation of this kind, it must be evaporated to dryness, and -calcined with charcoal in a crucible; when, at the expiration of three -quarters of an hour, metallic lead will be obtained. If all the -experiments made on the fluid portion of the matter vomited, for the -discovery of this poison, should be fruitless, the whole of the solid -portions, previously dried, should then be calcined with potass and -charcoal, by which means metallic lead will be obtained.” - - - VEGETABLE POISONS. - -The poisons of which we are about to offer the physiological and -chemical history, although more numerous than those which belong to the -mineral kingdom, are, notwithstanding, of far less importance in a -forensic point of view. With the exception of opium, and some few -others, they must be considered as objects of accidental, rather than of -criminal poisoning; and even with respect to the former narcotic, it may -be said to afford more frequently the means of destruction to the -suicide, than to the assassin. - -The sensible qualities of smell, taste, and sometimes colour, which so -eminently characterise deleterious plants, must necessarily render them -ill calculated to favour that secresy, which constitutes the -indispensable companion of crime; while their bulk, and the -pharmaceutical preparation which they require, are alike inconsistent -with the hope of concealment. - -Thus we receive, as it were, from Nature, that protection which art can -no longer supply; and the commission of crime is either prevented or -discovered, in cases where the powers of chemistry would fail in its -detection. - -The objects which constitute the vegetable kingdom differ from every -species of mineral matter, not only in their peculiar organized -structure, but in the chemical arrangement of their elements; those of -inorganic matter are generally combined in very simple proportions, as -one and one, or one and two, &c. whereas in organized bodies, their -proportions are much more complicated; and _Dr. Ure_ observes,[394] that -such substances derive the peculiar delicacy of their chemical -equilibrium, and the consequent facility with which it may be subverted -and new modelled, to the multitude of atoms grouped together in a -compound; hence too, as _Mr. Children_[395] has observed, is one reason -of our utter inability to reproduce even the simplest body of this -class, when once its elements have been separated; it is not in the -diversity of these elements, but in the manner in which they are -grouped, that this peculiarity consists, for, continues the accomplished -chemist last mentioned, “vegetable substances seldom contain, as -essential, more than three principles—_oxygen_, _hydrogen_, and -_carbon_, and sometimes _azote_. With four simple elements then, a brief -alphabet for so comprehensive a history! has a bountiful Omnipotence -composed the beautiful volume of the living world, where, turn to what -page we may, fresh loveliness meets the eye, fresh cause of admiration -and delight.” - -The analysis of vegetable bodies resolves itself into two parts, each of -which constitutes an equal object of interest to the forensic physician; -who, it will be shewn, may occasionally derive important information -from both. The first relates to the discovery of the _proximate_ -principles of a vegetable substance. The second, to that of its -_ultimate_ elements. By the _proximate_, or, as they are sometimes -termed, the _immediate_ principles, we mean those compound substances -which exist in the living plant in a state identical with that, under -which chemical processes exhibit them, and are chiefly separable by the -action of different solvents. The number of these principles is -considerable, as _gum_, _starch_, _sugar_, _gluten_, _extractiue_, -_tannin_, _oils_, _acid_, _&c. &c._ By the _ultimate_ elements, we -understand those, of which the _proximate_ are composed, as _oxygen_, -_hydrogen_, _carbon_, and _azote_. In submitting a plant to destructive -analysis, for the purpose of obtaining its ultimate elements, we shall -derive compounds, which formed no part of the vegetable structure, and -which result from a new arrangement of the elements composing it; -_acetic_ and _carbonic acids_, for example, are obtained by the -destructive distillation of several vegetable substances, in which -neither of these acids existed ready formed, but only their -elements.[396] It may easily be imagined to what numerous fallacies such -a law of composition must have given origin, in the earlier periods of -chemical inquiry; and it is equally evident, that the utmost refinement -of chemical science, and the most rigorous methods of analysis, will be -required to enable us to deduce any satisfactory conclusion with respect -to the quality of a plant, from these data. Such perfection, indeed, has -not hitherto been attained, but the period is probably not far distant, -when our most sanguine anticipations upon this point may be realised. We -have only to trace the history of this branch of chemistry for the last -century, to become satisfied of its gradual and important progress -towards such an epoch, and of the improvements of which this department -of vegetable analysis is farther susceptible; let us, for the sake of -illustration, only compare the rude results obtained by the academicians -of Paris, at about the commencement of the seventeenth century, with -those of _MM. Gay-Lussac_ and _Thenard_[397], or with those, very lately -instituted in this country by _Dr. Ure_,[398] and we shall perceive that -while the former of these experimentalists, by the aid of heat, were -unable to form the slightest distinction between the most inert, and the -most poisonous species of plants, the latter, by means of the same -agent, aided by the modern doctrine of equivalent ratios, has succeeded -in establishing the proportions in which the elements of each vegetable -body combines; and with such accuracy, as to discriminate between -substances, which bear the greatest analogy to each other; as between -the varieties of sugar, and those of oil; and even between common flax, -and the same substance prepared according to the improved process of -_Mr. Lee_. This statement is sufficient to show the capability of -ultimate analysis, on certain occasions, to identify vegetable bodies; -but we are, at present, scarcely advanced far enough in such an -investigation, to make it subservient to the detection of vegetable -poisons. Nor has our knowledge with regard to proximate analysis, been -less successfully advanced. The late researches of the French and German -chemists have demonstrated the existence of several new alkaline bodies -in the class of vegetable poisons, to which some of these plants appear -to be exclusively indebted for their activity, as the _poppy_, -_hellebore_, _colchicum_, _&c._; and whose characters are so distinct -and striking, as to enable the chemist to recognise their presence by -appropriate re-agents. In other cases, the virulence of a plant would -appear to depend upon the combination of several[399] proximate -principles; while in some few instances there exist in the same -individual vegetable, two distinct elements of activity, as illustrated -by the interesting history of tobacco. - -In cases of vegetable poisoning it will occasionally occur, that some -remains of the plant may be collected; and seeds, portions of the fungi, -and leaves, may be found in the contents of the stomach; whence a -knowledge of botany becomes indispensable. This branch of science is, -moreover, important to the toxicologist, as enabling him to pursue the -study of plants with greater precision; for experience has shewn that -there is a wonderful analogy between the structure of those plants which -resemble each other in medicinal operation. Thus those which, from their -dismal and dusky appearance, have been arranged under the title of -_Luridæ_, are in general highly poisonous; they also possess a very -peculiar and disagreeable smell, so that Nature has, upon this occasion, -kindly given us notice of approaching danger, by means of our senses. - -Of equal importance with the knowledge of the generic and specific -characters, is that of their sensible qualities, and the changes which -these latter undergo by pharmaceutical preparation. - - - Cl. III. ACRID, or RUBEFACIENT POISONS. - -Most of the subjects of this class constitute articles of Materia -Medica; so that ignorance on the one hand, and accident on the other, -may render them the unexpected source of mischief. With respect to the -physiological action of these bodies, the reader has only to refer to -our classification at page 207, to perceive that it will not admit of -generalization; for each division, it will be observed, contains -individuals which belong to the class of acrid poisons. - -As the history of most of these articles is to be found in works on -Materia Medica, we shall not enter so fully into their properties, as we -might otherwise have considered necessary. - - - CAMBOGE or GAMBOGE. - -This beautiful gum-resin is obtained by making incisions in the leaves -and young sprouts of the _Stalagmitis Cambogioides_[400] (Polygamia -Monæcia—_Nat. ord._ Tricoccæ. _Wild_:) It is first collected, in the -kingdoms of Siam and Ceylon, in cocoa-nut shells, and is thence -transferred into large earthen jars, where it remains until it is nearly -dried to a cake, when it is formed into rolls, and wrapped up in leaves. -It is imported into Europe[401] in cases and boxes. Its deep yellow -colour, which is so materially brightened by being wetted, and its -shining fracture, are characters sufficiently striking to enable the -practitioner to identify it; and when we add to these the history of its -habitudes with different menstrua, the chemist will have no difficulty -in detecting its presence, viz. when triturated with water, two-thirds -of its substance are speedily dissolved, and a turbid solution results; -alcohol dissolves nine-tenths, and forms a yellow transparent tincture, -which is rendered turbid by the addition of water; sulphuric ether -dissolves six-tenths of the substance; it is also soluble in alkaline -solutions, and the resulting compound is not rendered turbid by water, -but is instantly decomposed by acids, and the precipitate so produced is -of an extremely brilliant yellow colour, and soluble in an excess of -acid. - -Its action upon the animal œconomy is that of a powerfully drastic -purge. We are, however, not acquainted with any case in which death -followed its administration. From the experiments made upon animals, it -would appear to produce its effects by a local action on the textures, -with which it comes in contact, and it will accordingly be found in the -third class of our physiological classification, (page 207.) - - - WHITE HELLEBORE.[402] - - _Veratrum Album._ (Polygamia—Monæcia—_Nat. Ord._ Coronariæ. - _Linn._—Junci. _Juss._) - -This is undoubtedly the true hellebore of the ancients. It is a native -of the mountainous parts of Greece, Italy, Switzerland, and Russia. -Those specimens which are cultivated in our gardens flower in July. The -root is the only part employed in medicine, but every part of the plant -is extremely acrid and poisonous. Upon the animal œconomy it acts as a -violent cathartic and emetic; producing bloody stools, excessive -vomitings, great anxiety, vertigo, tremors, sinking of the pulse, -syncope, cold sweats, convulsions, and death. There are many cases on -record, where such effects have followed the ingestion of this plant. -_Helmont_ reports that a royal prince died in the course of three hours -after taking a scruple of this poison, which induced convulsions; and -_Vicat_[403] relates the case of a tailor, his wife, children, and -workmen, who having taken soup, in which, through mistake, the root of -white hellebore had been introduced instead of pepper, were seized with -a universal coldness, and such extreme debility, as to become nearly -insensible. At the expiration of two hours, the eldest child, who was -not four years of age, began to vomit copiously, but with considerable -straining; the rest were shortly after in the same condition. _Vicat_, -who was called in at this critical period, ordered them to take a -considerable quantity of warm water and oil; shortly after which he -administered an infusion of mallow sweetened with honey; by which means, -we are informed, they were relieved, and ultimately restored. According -to the testimony of various physiologists, as well as from the -experiments of _Orfila_, it appears that this plant, if externally -applied, will produce the same effects. _Etmuller_ says, that the -external application of the root to the abdomen will produce vomiting; -and _Schroeder_ observed the same phenomenon to take place in a case -where it was used as a suppository; the juice of the plant has been also -applied to the purpose of poisoning arrows. It must, therefore, act by -being absorbed into the circulating current, thereby destroying the -energy of the nervous system. It accordingly finds a place in the second -division of our classification. Late experiments upon this substance -have shewn that its activity depends upon a peculiar alkaline principle, -to which the name of _veratria_[404] has been given; and that it exists -in native combination with an excess of gallic acid, (_super-gallate of -veratria_). - -When taken internally, as a poison, the most effectual antidote is said -to be a very strong infusion of nut-galls. - - - BLACK HELLEBORE. _Melampodium._ - - _Christmas-rose._ (Polyandria Polygynia. _Nat. Ord._ Multisiliquæ, - _Linn._ Ranunculaceæ, _Juss._) - -This plant, which has derived its name from the dark colour of the root, -is a native of Austria, the Apennines, and Italy; it has, however, -obtained a place in our gardens,[405] and from the circumstance of its -flowering from December till March, it has acquired the name of the -christmas rose. The fibres of the roots are the parts employed in -medicine; their odour is fœtid, and their taste bitter and acrid. Its -action upon the animal œconomy is similar to that of the preceding -species. _Morgagni_ relates the history of a person who took half a -drachm of black hellebore, and expired eight hours afterwards. _M. -Orfila_ states that inflammation of the rectum is a constant occurrence, -where the animals who have taken this root, have survived its -administration for a few hours. - - - FŒTID HELLEBORE. _Helleborus Fœtidus._ _Helleboraster._ - -This plant is a native of England, growing in shady places, on a chalky -soil, and flowering in March and April. Like the former species of -hellebore, it is capable of producing fatal effects. A case is related -in the _London Chronicle_, 1768, no. 1760, of a child who died in -consequence of taking the root of this plant in the pulp of an apple. - - - ELATERIUM. _Wild_, or _squirting Cucumber_. - - _Momordica Elaterium_ (Monæcia Monadelphia. _Nat. Ord._ Cucurbitaceæ.) - -This plant is a perennial native of the south of Europe, flowering in -June and July; it is cultivated in England, but does not survive the -severity of our winters. The fruit (_poma_) has the appearance of a -small oval cucumber, of a greyish colour, and covered with prickles. -When fully ripe it quits the peduncal, and casts out the seed and juice, -with great force, and to a considerable distance, through the hole in -the base where the foot-stalk is inserted, whence the name of -_squirting_ cucumber. The author has instituted numerous experiments -upon this plant, the results of which will be found fully detailed, -under its history, in the fifth edition of his Pharmacologia. - -The plant appears, from the testimony of _Dioscorides_, and other -writers, to have been employed by the ancient physicians with much -confidence and success as a cathartic; all the parts of the plant were -considered as purgative, although not in an equal degree; thus -_Geoffroy_, “_radicum vis cathartica major est quam foliorum, minor vero -quam fructuum_.” This question, however, has been very lately set at -rest, by the valuable experiments of _Dr. Clutterbuck_,[406] which prove -that the active principle of this plant resides more particularly in the -juice which is lodged in the centre of the fruit. The forensic -physician, however, will scarcely be liable to meet with a case of -poisoning by the fruit of this plant. It is from that preparation of the -juice, which is admitted into our Pharmacopœia, under the title of -_Extract of Elaterium_, that we may expect to meet with mischief. - -This substance subsides spontaneously from the juice of the fruit; and -occurs in commerce in little thin cakes, or broken pieces, bearing the -impression of the muslin upon which it is dried; its colour is greenish, -its taste bitter, and somewhat acrid; and when tolerably pure it is -light, pulverulent, and inflammable. Notwithstanding its extreme -activity, it does not, according to our experiments,[407] contain more -than a tenth part of active matter, which is a vegetable proximate -principle, _sui generis_, and to which we have given the name of ELATIN. -By treating the Elaterium with alcohol, this principle may be obtained; -it imparts to the spirit a most brilliant, and beautiful grass green -colour—but see our experiments upon this subject. The action of -elaterium is that of a most violent drastic cathartic, especially -affecting the rectum. It destroys life by its local action, and -consequently finds a place in the third division of our classification. - - - COLOCYNTH. _Coloquintida_; _Bitter Apple_. - -This is the fruit of the _Cucumis Colocynthis_ (Monœcia Monodelphia, -_Nat. Ord._ Cucurbitaceæ) an annual of Turkey and Nubia. It is of the -size of an orange, of a yellowish-white colour, devoid of smell, round, -dry, light, spongy, and smooth on the outside, when ripe; it is -trilocular, each cell containing many ovate, compressed, whitish seeds, -enveloped by a white spongy pulp. It is imported into this country, -after having been peeled, and dried in a stove. Its taste is extremely -bitter and acrimonious. It acts upon the human body as a powerfully -drastic purgative. _Fordyce_,[408] relates the case of a woman who was -subject to colics for the space of thirty years, in consequence of -having taken an infusion of this fruit in beer. _Tulpius_[409] has also -furnished us with an account of the tremendous effects produced by an -overdose of the same article; and _Orfila_ has shewn, with his usual -accuracy, that it acts not only locally upon the _primæ viæ_, but by -being absorbed, and carried into the circulation. - - - EUPHORBIUM. _Euphorbia Officinarum_ (Dodecandria Trigynia. _Nat. Ord._ - Tricoccæ Lin. Euphorbiæ _Juss._) - -This gum resin is imported from Barbary, in drops, or irregular tears; -its fracture is vitreous; it is inodorous, but yields a very acrid, -burning impression on the tongue. Its acrid constituent resides -exclusively in that portion which is soluble in alcohol. This poison has -been sometimes administered imprudently as a purgative when it has -produced vomiting, and bloody stools. _Lamotte_ speaks of a clyster -prepared with it, which proved fatal. It acts as a caustic upon the -textures with which it comes in contact, and thus destroys life by a -local action; indeed its nature is so acrid that when applied to the -hair, or to warts, it causes them to fall off. _Scopoli_ mentions the -case of a person who, having the eye-lids closed, allowed them to be -rubbed with the juice of this plant; in consequence of which -inflammation followed, and the sight was lost. In pulverizing the -gum-resin, the parmaceutist should take the precaution of previously -moistening it with vinegar, or the powder will rise, excoriate his face, -and excite violent inflammation of the eyes. There are many species[410] -of _Euphorbium_, or _spurge_, which are highly poisonous; and, being -indigenous, they have frequently proved the cause of mischief; during -the last summer the author was consulted on the occasion of a family of -children having been seized with a violent inflammation of the eyes, and -eruption on the face, when the phenomenon was very satisfactorily traced -to the action of the _Euphorbia peplus_, which was growing very -luxuriantly in the garden where the children had been playing. - - - SAVINE. - - _Juniperus Sabina._ (Diæcia Monadelphia—_Nat. Ord._ Coniferæ.) - -This shrub is a native of the south of Europe and the Levant; but has -been long cultivated in our gardens. The leaves and tops of the plant -have a strong, heavy, disagreeable odour, and a bitter, hot taste, with -a considerable degree of pungency; qualities which depend upon the -presence of an essential oil. Upon the animal system it acts as a very -powerful stimulant, and has been received into the list of the materia -medica, as an active emmenagogue; while it has long enjoyed, amongst the -vulgar, the reputation of being capable of producing abortion.[411] Upon -this point we have only to observe, that it does not exert any specific -action on the uterus; but as a violent medicine, acting upon the general -system, it might, in common with other stimulants, produce so much -disturbance as to be followed by abortion. The experiments of _Orfila_ -have shewn that savine exerts a local action, but that its effects -depend principally on its absorption, through which medium it acts on -the nervous system, the rectum, and the stomach. - - - ACONITE. _Monkshood._ - - _Aconitum Napellus_ (Polyandria Trigynia—_Nat. Ord._ Multisiliquæ, - _Linn._ Ranunculaceæ, _Juss._) - -There are several species of aconite, all of which are poisonous. The -_monkshood_ is a well known plant, met with in our gardens, and when -swallowed in any quantity will produce the symptoms, characteristic of -vegetable poisons. All the parts of aconite, in the fresh state, when -chewed, produce a sense of heat, and shortly afterwards a sensation of -numbness in the lips and gums, which does not subside for several hours. - -In ancient authors, we frequently meet with _aconite_ as a poison, but -it has been fairly questioned whether any particular plant was -designated by the term[412]; like that of _cicuta_, it seems to have -been a word expressive of poisons generally. The most powerful form in -which this vegetable poison exists is in that of extract, or inspissated -juice[413], and, if prepared according to the improved process of _Mr. -Barry_,[414] it will prove highly dangerous in small doses. _M. Orfila_ -relates several fatal accidents from the ingestion of this plant; his -experiments have also shewn that it will produce its effects by an -external application. We agree, however, with _Mr. Brodie_ in -considering that it acts, without being absorbed, on the brain, through -the medium of the nerves; and we have accordingly placed it in the first -division of our classification. - -The plants already enumerated are sufficient to illustrate the symptoms -and physiological action of the acrid poisons of the vegetable kingdom. -We shall, therefore, conclude the history of this class with some -account of the _nitrate of potass_, which has been ranked both by -_Fodéré_ and _Orfila_ under this division of their classification. - - - NITRE. _Nitrate of Potass._ - -The sensible qualities of this salt are too well known to require any -description. It generally occurs crystallized in six-sided prisms, -terminated by dihedral summits. It is composed of one proportional of -nitric acid, and one proportional of potass. It dissolves in seven parts -of water at 60°, and in its own weight at 212° _Fah._ Its solution is -attended with a great reduction of temperature. It is permanent in the -air, melts when exposed to a moderate heat; and, when cast into moulds, -constitutes what is known in commerce by the name of _sal prunelle_. -When mixed with inflammable matter it undergoes, in a strong heat, a -rapid species of combustion, which, in chemical language, is termed -_deflagration_. Concentrated sulphuric acid, when poured upon this salt -in powder, decomposes it at the ordinary temperature, and disengages -vapours of nitric acid, which are white, and not very abundant. - - - _Symptoms of poisoning by Nitre._ - -This salt, when taken in a large dose, acts violently on the stomach and -bowels, and occasions syncope and death. There are several cases -recorded of its having been taken by mistake for _Glauber’s salt_. - -On these occasions, the patients have been seized with violent vomiting -and purging of blood, attended with severe pains in the bowels, and a -sense of burning heat, referred to the chest and stomach; cold -extremities, fluttering pulse, laborious breathing, syncope, and death. -The above effects have been produced by an ounce and a half of nitre; -although, as _Dr. Gordon Smith_ has observed, the same quantity of this -salt has been inadvertently swallowed _without_ the production of such -tremendous consequences. - -From the experiments of _Orfila_, it appears that if this salt be -inserted into a wound, it occasions a fatal gangrene. Its action is -undoubtedly the effect of its acrid nature, destroying the vitality of -the textures with which it comes in contact. It is not absorbed. - - - _Organic lesions discovered by dissection._ - -In those recorded cases of death from the ingestion of nitre, the -stomach has been found red, scattered over with blackish spots, and its -mucous membrane disorganized. - - - _Chemical processes for the detection of Nitre._ - -The property which this salt possesses of deflagrating with combustible -bodies, affords a ready indication of its presence. The process also, -which we have described under the history of nitric acid, (p. 312) as -the one suggested by _Dr. Wollaston_, and adopted by _Dr. Marcet_ in his -examination of sea water, furnishes an elegant mode of ascertaining the -presence of a nitric salt. - - - Cl. IV. NARCOTIC POISONS. - -These constitute a class of vegetable poisons, less extensive, perhaps, -but of far greater importance and interest, than the one we have already -considered. It would not be easy to enumerate the various purposes to -which the active imagination of man has applied the tribe of narcotic -plants. Medicines, poisons, intoxication, and madness, lie concealed -beneath their juices. They have, in their turn, arrested the pangs of -disease, and inflicted death upon the unsuspecting object of hatred and -revenge; they have animated the courage of the warrior, inspired the -enthusiasm of the poet, soothed the sorrows of the wretched, and -furnished the debauchee with a daily source of sensual gratification; -effects which, although apparently incompatible with each other, may be -commanded by the same substance, in a different dose. It would be -foreign to the plan of this work to enter into a physiological inquiry -into the _modus operandi_ of these extraordinary agents; and the author -relinquishes the labour with less regret, as he has already, in another -work,[415] very fully considered the several theories which have been -advanced for its explanation. - - - OPIUM, and its PREPARATIONS. - -This well known drug is the inspissated juice of the _Papaver -Somniferum_ (Polyandria Monogynia. _Nat. Ord._ Rhoedææ, _Linn._ -Papaveraceæ _Juss._) obtained by making incisions in the half ripe -capsules, at sun-set, when the night dews favour the exudation of the -juice, which is collected in the morning by old women and children, who -scrape it from off the wounds with a small iron scoop, and deposit the -whole in an earthen pot, where it is worked by wooden spatulas in the -sun-shine, until it attain a considerable degree of spissitude. It is -then formed by the hand into cakes, which are laid in earthen basins to -be further exsiccated.[416] Two kinds are found in commerce, -distinguished by the names of _Turkey_, and _East Indian_ opium. The -latter kind is regarded as being inferior to the former. - -_Turkey_ opium occurs in flat pieces, of a solid compact texture, -possessing considerable tenacity; its specific gravity is 1·336, so -that, when compared with concrete juices of other plants, it is heavy, -being exceeded only in this respect by opoponax and gum arabic. It is of -a reddish-brown, or fawn-colour, and has a peculiar, heavy, and narcotic -odour; its taste is acrid, bitter, and hot. By long exposure to the air, -it becomes hard, and breaks with a glimmering fracture, owing to the -presence of a few saline particles. It is plastic, and when worked with -the fingers is adherent to them. When brought near a lighted candle it -inflames, and burns with a brilliant light, but its odour at that time -is not narcotic. It is partially soluble in water, alcohol, æther, wine, -vinegar, and lemon-juice. When triturated with hot water, five parts in -twelve are dissolved, six suspended, and one part remains perfectly -insoluble, and resembles the gluten of wheat, but is of a dark colour. -The alcoholic is more highly charged with its narcotic principle than -the aqueous solution; but spirit, rather below proof, is its best -menstruum. - -Few vegetable substances have been more frequently, or more ably -submitted to analysis; and the history of the successive steps by which -our knowledge respecting its composition has advanced, must encourage us -in hoping that we shall shortly be enabled to identify, by chemical -tests, the presence of opium, with as little difficulty and as great -precision as we are already capable of recognising a metallic poison. - -According to the latest chemical views respecting the composition of -this body, it may be stated to consist of the following principles, viz. -resin, gum, bitter extractive, sulphate of lime, gluten, and the three -lately discovered bodies, _narcotine_, _morphia_, and _meconic acid_. - -In the year 1803, _Derosne_ first obtained from opium a crystalline -substance, which he found to dissolve in acids, but he does not appear -to have instituted many experiments, for the elucidation of its nature -and properties. In 1804 _Seguin_ discovered another crystalline body, -and although he described many of its properties, what appears very -extraordinary, he never even hinted at its alkaline nature. -_Sertuerner_, at Eimbeck in Hanover, had at the same time as _Derosne_ -and _Seguin_, obtained these crystalline bodies, but it was not until -the year 1817, that he first proclaimed the existence of a vegetable -alkali, and attributed to it the narcotic powers which distinguish the -operation of opium; to this body, he gave the name of _Morphia_, and it -would appear to be the same as the essential salt of _Seguin_. The salt -of _Derosne_ was also at first mistaken for the same principle, but the -experiments of _Robiquet_ have pointed out its distinctive properties, -and it has received the name of _Narcotine_. - -_Morphia_, upon which the soporific powers of opium depend, appears to -exist in native combination with a peculiar acid, to which the name of -_meconic_ acid has been bestowed. The following are the essential -characters of this alkaline body, when procured in a state of -purity.[417] - -It crystallizes in fine, transparent, truncated pyramids, the bases of -which are either squares or rectangles, occasionally united base to -base, and thereby forming octohedra. It is sparingly soluble in boiling -water, but dissolves abundantly in heated alcohol, giving rise to an -intensely bitter solution; in æther it is far less soluble. It has also -the characters of an alkali; affecting test papers tinged with tumeric -or violets, uniting with acids and forming neutral salts, and -decomposing the compounds of acids with metallic oxides. It unites with -sulphur by means of heat, but the combination is no sooner formed than -it is decomposed. It fuses at a moderate temperature, when it resembles -melted sulphur, and like that substance crystallizes on cooling; it is -decomposed by distillation, yielding carbonate of ammonia, oil, and a -black resinous residue, with a peculiar smell; when heated in contact -with air, it inflames rapidly, and like vegetable matter, it leaves a -carbonaceous residue. When analyzed by means of the deutoxide of copper, -it yields carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the atomic proportions of which -have not yet been ascertained. The nitric acid of commerce, when dropped -on _morphia_, communicates to it a beautiful red colour. _Sertuerner_ -has given us an account of the effect of the alcoholic solution of -_morphia_ on himself, and three of his pupils; he found that repeated -small doses of half a grain produced at first decided excitation; then -weakness, numbness, and tendency to fainting; after swallowing vinegar -while in this condition, violent vomiting was excited; in one delicate -individual, profound sleep intervened, and on the following day he -suffered from nausea, vomiting, head-ache, anorexia, constipation, and -heaviness.[418] This case is sufficient to shew, that although _morphia_ -possesses the characteristic powers of opium, its strength is by no -means commensurate with its supposed state of concentration. When -uncombined, it exerts little or no action, in consequence of its -insolubility in water, and in the fluids of the stomach. When, however, -it is combined with an acid, particularly the acetic, or the _meconic_, -with the latter of which we have before stated that it exists in opium, -it displays its properties in a very eminent degree. It is also very -soluble in oil; and, according to the experiments of _M. Majendie_, the -compound acts with great intensity. - -The _meconic acid_, when separated from the residuum of the magnesian -salt, as described in the process for the preparation of morphia (_note -p._ 386) does not appear to possess any medicinal activity. Its -distinguishing _chemical_ character is, that it produces an intensely -red colour in solutions of iron, oxidized _ad maximum_; and a deep blue, -with solutions of the salts of gold. _Narcotine_ is the salt originally -obtained by _Derosne_, and is supposed by _MM. Majendie_ and _Robiquet_ -to be the peculiar principle which produces the excitement experienced -by those who take small doses of opium. It may be entirely removed by -macerating the extract of opium in sulphuric æther. - - - _Symptoms of poisoning by Opium._ - -In considerable doses, the primary action of this substance, as a -powerful and diffusible stimulant, is not apparent; for the powers of -life are immediately depressed, drowsiness and stupor succeed, and these -are followed by delirium, stertorous breathing, cold sweats, -convulsions, and apoplectic death. - -The quantity of opium necessary for the production of such effects must -be regarded as _relative_. In no two cases can we ensure a similar -result, by the administration of the same dose. But, of all the -circumstances capable of modifying the power of this drug, habit is the -most remarkable; in illustration of which we have only to adduce the -history of the opium eater, or laudanum drinker; a species of debauchee -by no means uncommon, as every London chemist can testify, for he -frequently experiences considerable doubt and difficulty in -distinguishing persons, to whom habit has rendered large doses of opium -necessary, from such as purchase it with a view to suicide.[419] The -lowest fatal dose, to those unaccustomed to it, seems to be about four -grains; but the Turk will take three drachms in the morning, and repeat -the same dose at night, without any other effects than that of -cheerfulness and exhilaration. This temporary impunity, however, is -dearly purchased by years of suffering and sorrow. The effects of opium, -says _Russel_, on those who have been addicted to it, are at first -obstinate costiveness, succeeded by diarrhœa and flatulence, with loss -of appetite, and a sottish appearance; their memories soon fail, they -become prematurely old, and then sink into the grave objects of scorn -and pity.[420] - -Where a person has, from accident, or design, swallowed a large dose of -pure opium, or laudanum, the symptoms produced are so characteristic and -striking, that the practitioner, who may be summoned to render -assistance, will have no difficulty in ascertaining their cause. - -Insensibility, with a scarcely perceptible respiration, although in some -cases it is attended with an apopletic stertor; the countenance is livid -and cadaverous; the skin cold; and the muscles of the limbs and trunk in -a state of extreme relaxation. The pupils are insensible to the -impression of light, and the pulse is almost imperceptible. In some -stages, the patient, by being strongly shaken, may be roused for a few -moments from the lethargy; there is generally a narcotic odour -distinguishable in the breath. Vomiting may also take place upon the -first impression of the laudanum upon the stomach; although after its -action has been displayed upon the brain, it will be difficult to excite -emesis by the most powerful means; the reason of which may be very -satisfactorily deduced from the ingenious experiments of _M. Majendie_ -on the mechanism of vomiting; by which he proves, that without the -influence of the brain, the muscles, whose actions constitute an -essential part of the operation, are incapable of performing their duty, -and that vomiting therefore cannot take place. This is a very important -doctrine, inasmuch as it suggests to the pathologist several expedients, -by which he may be enabled to occasion vomiting, by recalling the -excitability of the brain. The period which will elapse, between the -ingestion of the poison, and the death of the sufferer, may be stated to -be from six to twenty-four hours; but it will in each case be liable to -vary, not only from the quantity of opium swallowed, but from the habit -and peculiar circumstances of the individual submitted to its operation. - - - _Physiological action of Opium._ - -It is still a question for the decision of future physiologists, whether -the narcotic principle of opium destroys the functions of the nervous -system by a local impression upon the stomach,[421] or by being -absorbed,[422] and brought into contact with the brain in the course of -the circulation. We are inclined to adopt this latter opinion, and have -therefore placed _opium_ in the second division of our classification; -at the same time, we think that it may occasionally produce an effect -upon the nervous extremities of the stomach, and we have accordingly -placed an _asterisk_ against the word, by which we denote this double -mode of operation. But, by whatever medium it may act, it is evident -that it occasions death by destroying the functions of the brain; in -consequence of which the muscles of respiration, no longer supplied with -nervous energy, cease to contract, and the animal dies in a state of -suffocation.[423] - - - _Of the treatment in cases of poisoning by Opium._ - -The first object is the evacuation of the stomach by vomiting; for which -purpose, the patient should be made to swallow from fifteen grains to a -scruple of _sulphate of zinc_; or, from five to ten grains of _sulphate -of copper_ dissolved in water; and the vomiting should be kept up for a -considerable time, and urged by irritation of the fauces. Where the act -of vomiting cannot be established, in consequence of the paralysed state -of the nervous system, cold affusion, applied by means of a shower bath, -has been said to restore the energy of the brain, and thus to render the -patient susceptible of the stimulus of an emetic.[424] Venesection has -also, under the same circumstances, been greatly extolled; and, as -vascular congestion in the brain is one of the effects of this poison, -it is reasonable to conclude that, by unloading the vessels of this -organ, we may restore its lost sensibility. _Tissot_ has strongly -recommended the practice,[425] and the experiments of _Orfila_ have -shewn that it never aggravated the symptoms of poisoning by opium, nor -accelerated the moment of death; but on the contrary, that in some -instances he found that it restored the animals which would have died, -if it had not been put in practice. Where the operation is performed, -the blood should be drawn from the jugular vein, in preference to any -other. Should these means prove insufficient to provoke vomiting, _M. -Orfila_ asks, whether one or two grains of _tartarized antimony_, -dissolved in one or two ounces of water, might not be injected into the -veins? It was formerly proposed by _Boerhaave_ to empty the stomach of -its poisonous contents, by the introduction of a syringe; an operation -which, it is said, has been lately performed with success.[426] Vinegar -and vegetable acids were long considered as _antidotes_ to opium; but -the experiments of _M. Orfila_ have clearly established that, as long as -any portion of the opium remains in the stomach, these potations, so far -from relieving, aggravate the symptoms of poisoning by this narcotic, in -consequence of the power which they possess of dissolving it. Where, -however, the opium has been expelled by vomiting, these acid drinks -possess the property of _diminishing the consecutive symptoms_, and of -thus realising the expectations which _Virgil_[427] has so poetically -raised, - - ----“_quo non præsentius ullum - Auxilium venit, ac membris agit atra venena_.” - -The powers of the habit should, at the same time, be supported by -brandy, strong coffee, and cordials. The sufferer should be kept awake; -and, if possible, in a continued gentle motion. _Dr. Currie_[428] has -recommended the affusion of warm water at 106°, or 108°, for removing -the stupor. - -A case is recorded by _Dr. Marcet_, in the first volume of the -Medico-chirurgical Transactions, where six ounces of laudanum were taken -by a young man, and remained for five hours in the stomach before any -remedies were applied for its removal; a strong dose of sulphate of -copper, however, provoked vomiting, and by judicious treatment he -eventually recovered. - - - _Organic lesions discovered on dissection._ - -It has been very truly remarked that although the instances in which -opium has proved fatal to human life have been very numerous, yet that -the accounts which we have received of the appearances of the body _post -mortem_, are by no means so satisfactory as we could desire. _M. Orfila_ -asserts that no alteration can be discovered on dissection, in the -digestive canal of persons who have swallowed any narcotic poison; and -that if facts contrary to this assertion be met with in various authors, -it is because there have been administered irritating substances capable -of producing inflammation.[429] The lungs, however, frequently exhibit -morbid phenomena; their colour is sometimes violet, and frequently a -deeper red than in the natural state. Their texture is also more dense, -and less crepitating; and they are marked by livid spots. The blood -contained in the ventricles of the heart, and in the veins, is said to -be found in a liquid state; but _Orfila_ advances a diametrically -opposite opinion, and asserts that it is frequently coagulated. The -brain and its membranes often exhibit a state of vascular congestion; in -the case recorded by _Mr. Stanley_, in the sixth volume of the -_Transactions of the College of Physicians_, the cellular tissue of the -pia mater was found to contain water.[430] - - - _Of the detection of Opium._ - -There is no mode of identifying opium, whether in a liquid or solid -form, so satisfactory as that which is at once afforded by its powerful -and highly characteristic odour. In fatal instances, we shall always -meet with it in the contents of the alimentary canal, and in such -quantities as will leave no doubt as to its nature. The chemist may also -proceed to a farther examination, by obtaining _morphia_ from its -solution, by a process which we have already described under the -chemical history of opium. - - - BLACK HENBANE. _Hyoscyamus Niger._ - - (Pentandria Monogynia. _Nat. Ord._ Luridæ _Linn._ Solaneæ _Juss._) - -Henbane is an indigenous annual, frequent on waste grounds, and at the -sides of roads, particularly on a calcareous soil, flowering in July. -The whole of the plant is poisonous when eaten; and in the recent state -the odour of the leaves occasions stupor and delirium. The root of this -plant when in full vegetation is very powerful; and there are several -cases on record, where it has been eaten in mistake for parsnips,[431] -which it strongly resembles in its sweet and agreeable flavour. Its -operation is very analogous to that of opium; producing sickness, -stupor, delirium, and coma, with dilation of the pupils. - -The pulse, at first hard, gradually becomes weak and tremulous; petechiæ -frequently make their appearance, and death ensues. Late experiments -have shewn that a peculiar alkaline body constitutes the active -principle of this plant, and it has accordingly received, from its -discoverers _MM. Meissner_ and _Brandes_, the name of _Hyoscyama_. - -_Boerhaave_ experienced a trembling and drunkenness, in consequence of -having prepared a plaister, into whose composition _henbane_ entered as -an ingredient; and the experiments of _M. Orfila_ have shewn that it -acts nearly in the same manner, whether applied upon the cellular -texture, introduced into the stomach, or injected into the veins. Hence -it follows that the active principle of this plant is carried into the -circulation, and exerts a remarkable action on the brain and nervous -system, producing an extraordinary state of delirium, which is succeeded -by stupefaction. The physician will never probably be called upon to -investigate a case of wilful poisoning by this narcotic; and should he -be summoned to attend a person who, through mistake or accident, had -swallowed it, we can hardly anticipate any peculiar mystery which -requires elucidation. - -There are several other species of henbane, as _hyos. alb. aureus_, -_physaloides_, all of which are poisonous, although not in the same -degree as the _hyoscyamus niger_, whose history we have just considered. - - - PRUSSIC ACID. _Hydro-cyanic Acid._ - - - The LAUREL (_Prunus lauro-cerasus_) and its distilled water. BITTER - ALMONDS, and their essential oil. - -Hydro-cyanic acid exists in a great variety of native combinations in -the vegetable kingdom, and imparts to them peculiar qualities, which -have been long known. It is, however, only within a few years, that this -singular body has been obtained in its separate and independent -form[432]; indeed it was not until the publication of the celebrated -memoir of _Gay-Lussac_ upon this subject, in the year 1815, that its -chemical composition was fully understood. In this memoir, it was -clearly shewn to consist of a peculiar, gaseous, and highly inflammable -compound of carbon and nitrogen, to which the name of _cyanogene_ has -been assigned, and hydrogen; the latter body acting as the acidifying -principle; whence the term _hydro-cyanic acid_ is very happily contrived -to express its composition. - -When obtained in its most concentrated form, by the process of _M. Gay -Lussac_,[433] it has the following characteristic properties, viz. At -ordinary temperatures, it is liquid, colourless, and transparent; -possessing an extremely powerful odour, very analogous to that of the -blossom of the peach, or bitter almond tree; its taste is, at first, -bland and sweetish, but afterwards pungent, bitter, and peculiar. Its -extreme volatility is such, that when a drop of it is exposed to the -air, on the end of a glass rod, it is rapidly crystallized. The same -phenomenon takes place, if a drop be suffered to fall on a sheet of -paper. Its specific gravity is ·7055; but, when in a concrete form it is -only ·9, while that of its vapour is ·947. If inhaled, it produces -almost immediate pain in the head, with deafness, unless very largely -diluted with air or water.[434] It is decomposed by a high temperature; -and by the action even of light it is, in the course of a very short -time, resolved into carbonic acid, ammonia, and carburetted hydrogen, a -carbonaceous matter remaining behind.[435] When brought near a body in a -state of combustion, it instantly inflames and burns with a blue light. -In water it is sparingly soluble; alcohol dissolves it copiously. - -The “_medicinal Prussic acid_,” as it has been called, as being the -preparation lately introduced into medicine,[436] differs only from that -we have just described, in its degree of concentration. It is, in fact, -the Prussic acid of _Scheele_, and may be considered as equivalent to -the preparation of _Gay-Lussac_ diluted with six times its volume, or -eight times and a half its weight, of distilled water. - -The _hydro-cyanic acid_ has been discovered, in a state of perfect -formation, in a variety of vegetables, whose peculiar odour at once -announces its presence; such are bitter almonds; the kernels of -apricots, cherries, particularly the _Cerasa Juliana_, and several -plums; the leaves of laurel; and peach blossoms; and the bark of the -_prunus padus_, or bird-cherry tree. The only mineral substance, in -which hydro-cyanic has yet been detected is the _Fer Azuré_ of -Hauy.[437] Animal substances, although they do not contain it ready -formed, yet, when treated with an alkali at a high temperature, they -yield it in great abundance, in consequence of the combination of its -elements. - - - _Action of hydro-cyanic Acid as a Poison._ - -The experiments which have been instituted with a view to ascertain the -exact effects of this substance upon animal life, very clearly prove -that the acid of _Gay-Lussac_ is one of the most active poisons in -nature; and that the various vegetable bodies, into whose composition it -enters, exert an energy, corresponding with the quantity of this -constituent, and the degree of concentration, in which it exists. The -experiments of _M. Orfila_ were made with Prussic acid, prepared -according to the process of _Scheele_, and consequently containing a -great proportion of water, as we have already explained; and yet the -effects which followed its administration were extremely energetic. From -the _Annales de Chimie_, for October 1814, we learn that a professor of -chemistry, having inadvertently left on his table a phial filled with a -solution of Prussic acid in alcohol, a female servant, who had been -seduced by its agreeable smell, drank a small glass-full of it, and fell -dead at the end of a few minutes, as if struck by apoplexy. - -The following case is quoted by _Dr. Granville_, from _Hufeland_. _D. -L._ a robust and healthy man, aged 36 years, while about to be seized as -a thief by the police officers, snatched a small sealed phial from his -pocket, broke off the neck of it, and swallowed the greatest part of its -contents. A strong smell of bitter almonds soon spread around, which -almost stupefied all present. The culprit staggered a few steps; then, -without a groan, fell on his knees, and sunk lifeless down to the -ground. Medical assistance being called in, not the slightest trace of -pulse or breathing could be found. A few minutes afterwards, a single -and violent expiration occurred, which was again repeated in about two -minutes. The extremities were perfectly cold, the breast and abdomen -still warm, the eyes half open and shining, clear, lively, full, almost -projecting, and as brilliant as those of the most ardent youth under -violent emotion. The face was neither distorted nor convulsed, but bore -the image of quiet sleep. The corpse exaled a strong smell of bitter -almonds, and the remaining liquid, being analysed, was found to be a -concentrated solution of Prussic acid in alcohol. Cases also stand -recorded where, from imprudent exposure to the vapours of the Prussic -acid, persons have exhibited all the appearances of being poisoned. Some -writers assert that _Scheele_ himself, who died suddenly, while engaged -in some inquiries into the nature and formation of this acid, was -affected by its deleterious qualities. _Orfila_ relates that -_Scharinger_, Professor at Vienna, prepared some pure concentrated -Prussic acid, and having diffused a certain quantity of it upon his -naked arm, he died a short time afterwards. The professor, however, did -not die in consequence of this accident; it appears, upon inquiry, that -he was seized with apoplexy while sitting in a coffee house in the -evening. - -The distilled water of the _cherry laurel_[438] has been proved, by -numerous awful examples, to be a most energetic poison; and from the -fatal effects to which the officinal preparation of it gave rise, it was -early expunged from the Pharmacopœia of the London College. In the -_Philosophical Transactions_ for the year 1731, we shall find the -history of its effects upon a woman of the name of _Boyce_, who, with a -view to disprove an allegation, that one _Mary Whaley_ had died in -consequence of drinking a small quantity of laurel water, swallowed -three spoonsful, and, afterwards, two more of the same liquid; after -which she died in a very short time, without making the least complaint, -and without any convulsion. - -_Foderé_ informs us that during the period he was pursuing his studies -at Turin in 1784, the chambermaid and man servant of a noble family of -that town, for the purpose of regaling themselves, stole from their -master a bottle of distilled laurel water; fearful of being surprised, -they hastily swallowed several mouthsful of it; but they soon paid the -price of their dishonesty, having almost instantly expired in -convulsions. Works on Toxicology also abound with the relation of -experiments, made by numerous physiologists on different animals, with -this deleterious liquid. Amongst the experimentalists we may enumerate -the names of _Madden_, _Mortimer_, _Browne_, _Langrish_, _Nicholls_, -_Stenzelius_, _Heberden_, _Watson_, _Vater_, _Rattrai_, the _Abbé -Rozier_, _Duhamel_, _Fontana_, and _Orfila_. In this country we have had -several fatal cases of poisoning by laurel water. In the year 1782, _Dr. -Price_, of Guildford, having professed to have converted mercury into -gold, offered to repeat his experiments before a competent tribunal, but -the unfortunate philosopher put a period to his existence before the day -appointed for his exhibition, by a draught of laurel water; a mode of -death which had been, no doubt, suggested by the celebrated trial of -_Donellan_, for the murder of _Sir Theodosius Boughton_, that had taken -place in the preceding year, and left a strong impression upon the -public mind; and whose details, it has been justly observed, are not -more important from the elucidation of the effects of this poison, than -from the strange display of professional testimony to which it gave -origin, (see _Appendix_, page 243.) There are those who still profess to -believe that the prisoner was unjustly convicted upon that occasion; -_Dr. Male_ states, without the least reserve, that it was neither proved -that the deceased was poisoned, nor that any poison had existed.[439] We -feel no difficulty in declaring that we hold a directly opposite -opinion; and we consider that many of the weaker points of professional -evidence delivered on the trial, have received powerful support and -elucidation from the experiments and observations of later physicians. - -Nor are the leaves of this plant wholly free from danger; it is true -that they have, for many years, been in general use among cooks, to -communicate an almond or kernel-like flavour to custards, puddings, -creams, _blanc-mange_, and other delicacies of the table; but the custom -has not always been harmless; a fact with which it behoves the forensic -physician to be acquainted. In some parts of the continent milk is -boiled with one or two leaves of the cherry-laurel in it, and -_Ingenhouz_ states that he saw people much affected by it. In the -_Literary Chronicle_ (no. xxii, p. 348, 1819) we find the following -illustrative case: “Several children at a boarding-school, in the -vicinity of Richmond, having partaken of some custard flavoured with the -leaves of the cherry-laurel, four of them were taken severely ill in -consequence. Two of them, a girl of six, and a boy of five years of age, -fell into a profound sleep, out of which they could not be roused for -ten hours, the other two complained of severe pains in the epigastric -region. By proper medical treatment, they all recovered, after an -illness of three days.” - -The essential oil of _bitter almonds_ is equally poisonous; and the -water distilled from them is highly dangerous if incautiously taken. -_Duvignau_ and _Parent_ instituted some experiments upon themselves to -ascertain this fact; they commenced by taking six drops of the water -distilled three times, in an appropriate vehicle, without producing any -other than a transient impression. On taking _eighteen_ drops, however, -vertigo was experienced, and a disposition to sleep, accompanied with a -tingling of the ears and dimness of sight. When the dose was increased -to _twenty-two_ drops, alarming symptoms followed, such as convulsions, -and vomiting; which, although the experimenters succeeded in allaying by -antispasmodics, cured them completely of any ulterior wish to ascertain -how far this substance might be deleterious. A drachm of the distilled -water of bitter almonds has killed a moderate sized dog. The _essential -oil_ is proportionally more active; _Mr. Brodie_[440] found that one -drop, when applied to the tongue of a cat, killed it in five minutes; no -sooner did the poison come in contact with the organ than the animal was -seized with convulsions. When two drops of the same oil were injected -with half an ounce of water into the rectum of a cat, it was not seized -for two minutes, but it died, as in the former experiment, after the -expiration of five minutes. While engaged in this inquiry, _Mr. Brodie_ -dipped the blunt end of a probe into the essential oil, and applied it -to his tongue, with the intention of tasting it, and not having the -least suspicion that so small a quantity could produce any of its -specific effects on the nervous system; but scarcely had he applied it, -when he experienced a very remarkable and unpleasant sensation, which he -referred chiefly to the epigastric region, but the exact nature of which -he could not describe, because he knew nothing similar to it. At the -same time there was a sense of weakness in his limbs, as if he had not -the command of his muscles; and he thought that he should have fallen. -The fascinating liqueur noyau, _créme de noyau_, is indebted for its -flavour to the essential oil of the bitter almond, or peach; and is -undoubtedly deleterious if taken in excess. In the _Journal des Debats_, -for 1814, we find that the late _Duke Charles de Lorraine_ had nearly -lost his life from swallowing some drops of _eau de noyau_ too strongly -impregnated with the essential oil of peach kernels. - -The bitter almond itself, in consequence of the manner in which its -deleterious principle is modified by the natural state of combination in -which it exists with sweet oil and albumen, does not produce an effect -corresponding with the proportion of essential oil which it yields. The -experiments of _Orfila_, however, prove that the almond, in doses of a -drachm, is destructive to cats; and there can be no doubt but that it -would be equally deleterious to the human species; but the quantity -required for the production of such an effect must ever prevent the -bitter almond from becoming either the accidental or criminal instrument -of death. - - - _Physiological action of Prussic acid._ - -The numerous experiments, which have been made with this poison, have -clearly established that its action is upon the nervous system, whose -energies it would seem to extinguish without any ostensible injury to -respiration and circulation; for in all those animals which were killed -by it, in the experiments of _Orfila_, _Brodie_, and others, the heart -was found acting regularly, and circulating dark coloured blood, and in -some cases this phenomenon was visible for many minutes after the animal -was in other respects apparently dead. _Orfila_ considers that he has -fully demonstrated that these effects depend on the absorption of the -poison, and its transmission to the brain through the medium of the -circulation. We have accordingly placed Prussic acid in the second -division of our classification. The essential oil of bitter almonds -would, according to the experiments of _Mr. Brodie_, appear to act -through the medium of the nerves, and it has accordingly been referred -to our first division. This is undoubtedly an anomaly, which it is not -easy to reconcile; the experiments, however, which led _Mr. Brodie_ to -the conclusion appear to us to warrant such a deduction; the -instantaneousness with which the poisonous effects were produced, and -the fact of its acting more speedily when applied to the tongue, than -when injected into the intestines, although the latter presents a better -absorbing surface, seem to oppose the idea of the oil requiring to be -absorbed, before it can display its energies. _M. Vogel_, of Munich, has -lately discovered some facts respecting the composition of this oil, -which may perhaps hereafter lead to the true explanation of this -apparent anomaly; this distinguished chemist succeeded in separating the -Prussic acid from the volatile oil with which it is combined, by -agitating the whole in a concentrated solution of potass, and distilling -to dryness; the oil volatilized together with the water, while the -residuum in the retort was found to contain _cyanide of potassium_. The -oil, thus separated from the Prussic acid, is without odour, and heavier -than water; its taste is extremely acrid and burning; in order to -discover whether it was still poisonous, _M. Vogel_ put a drop of it on -the tongue of a sparrow, when it died in a few seconds, after a very -violent convulsion; he also poisoned a dog, two months old, with four -drops of it; whence he concludes that the volatile oil, divested of its -hydro-cyanic acid is still a poison, although less energetic than that -which has not undergone such a change. Do there exist then two -independent principles of activity in the _bitter almond_? If such a -fact were established it would not be solitary, for we shall hereafter -shew that the energies of _tobacco_ are dependant upon an analogous -arrangement; and that our ignorance of the fact, at first, occasioned -apparent anomalies, as embarrassing as those which at present involve -the physiological history of the oil of almonds. - - - _Antidotes._ - -_Orfila_, in his celebrated Toxicology, informs us that vinegar, or the -vegetable acids; coffee; a solution of chlorine in water; camphor; -emollient drinks; and bleeding, have been successively, but not -successfully recommended.[441] With respect to the first of these -pretended _antidotes_, it deserves notice, that instead of palliating -the symptoms, it actually quickens, and gives more energy to the action -of the poison. Coffee, as far as it may stimulate, might be employed -with advantage; but its powers are not sufficient to meet the exigency -of the case. Bleeding seems decidedly a fatal measure. The authors of -the paper on Prussic acid, inserted in the _American Recorder_, consider -at length the claims of every substance which has been proposed as an -antidote to it; and they conclude by saying that, we are entirely -ignorant of a counter-agent of this poison. There is every reason, says -_Dr. Granville_, to believe that the Prussic acid taken in large -quantities, and in its concentrated state, is partially, if not wholly -absorbed ere it _reaches the stomach_;—else how happens it that scarcely -a minute after its exhibition, I have, in common with others, been -unable to detect its presence within that organ. If so, then all -chemical attempts must be nugatory, no decomposition, or fresh -combinations can be produced to render it harmless; nor will an emetic, -although so much recommended, be of much more service in freeing the -system of its presence. But although chemical remedies are thus shewn to -be of no avail, we may derive from the class of vital agents some -powerful antidotes; all medicines taken from the class of diffusible -stimuli will be useful in supporting the powers of the system against -the sedative influence of the poison. Hot brandy and water, with -ammonia, camphor, and other similar stimulants, are the resources to -which we should fly upon such occasions. - - - _Organic lesions discovered on Dissection._ - -The recorded dissections of persons, who have been poisoned by Prussic -acid, are too few and vague to furnish any satisfactory generalization. -In the case related by _M. Foderé_, of two servants who died after a -draught of laurel-water, the dead bodies were carried to the University -at Turin, and examined, when the stomach was found slightly inflamed, -but the other parts were in a sound state. We feel much hesitation in -giving credit to this report, the death was too immediate to allow the -access of inflammation; we are rather disposed to consider the -appearances of the stomach to have arisen from that species of -sanguineous congestion, which we have before alluded to, as sometimes -occurring in cases of sudden death. In other cases the coats of the -stomach are said to have been black and relaxed; the vessels of the -brain injected; the lungs have also been described as presenting -unnatural congestions, and purple spots; and the smell of Prussic acid -seemed as if it pervaded the whole system, and was embodied, as it were, -with the very substance of the muscles. In other cases, again, not the -slightest trace of any morbid appearance could be discovered. Some -authors have stated that in cases of death by this poison the cornea of -the eye does not collapse, but retains its fulness, and even its lustre, -for a considerable period. - - - _Chemical processes by which the presence of hydro-cyanic acid may be - ascertained._ - -The strong odour yielded by the body on dissection, will furnish a -satisfactory proof of the presence of this poison. Instances may occur, -when the practitioner will be called before a tribunal to answer, from -his professional knowledge, whether a particular case of death can have -happened from the action of the hydro-cyanic acid, or any of the -compounds in which it may enter as an ingredient; it therefore becomes -an object of great importance to inquire whether any farther tests might -be made subservient to our purpose. _Dr. Granville_, who has directed a -great share of his attention to the history of this poison, has given -some directions upon this point, which appear to us to be useful and -judicious; we shall, therefore, present them to our readers. “After -collecting the blood contained in the ventricles of the heart, a portion -of the contents of the stomach, and of the superior intestines, together -with a certain quantity of any fluid which may chance to be present -within the cavity of the head, chest, or abdomen; and having agitated -the mixture for some time in distilled water, and filtered the liquid, -taking care to keep the whole at a low temperature, proceed to the -following experiments. - - A. To a small quantity of the liquid add a few drops of a solution of - caustic potass in alcohol. - - B. To this, a few drops of a solution of sulphate of iron must be - added, when a cloudy and reddish precipitate, of the colour of burnt - _Terra-Sienna_ will fall down. - - C. Some sulphuric acid is now to be introduced into the tube, when the - colour of the precipitate will instantly change to that of a - bluish-green, which by a permanent contact with the atmosphere, - becomes gradually of a beautiful blue, assuming at the same time a - pulverulent aspect. - - OR - - A. Treat the filtered liquid with carbonate of potass. - - B. Add a solution of sulphate of iron with a small quantity of alum: a - precipitate, as in the former method, will fall down, which if - treated by free sulphuric acid, will also become blue and - pulverulent. During this latter part of the experiment, there is a - disengagement of carbonic acid. - -Evidence may be pushed still farther, and the existence of the Prussic -acid proved in a most positive manner by decomposing the precipitate, -above described, and which is a true Prussian blue, so as to separate -the acid. For this purpose, heat the precipitate with an equal quantity -of tartaric acid, in a glass retort, at the temperature of 150°, when -the hydro-cyanic vapours will soon exhale from the mixture, and may be -received in water.”[442] - - - Cl. V. NARCOTICO-ACRID POISONS. - -We have already stated our objections to this division, and our apology -for adopting it. _See page_ 205. - - - DEADLY NIGHTSHADE. _Atropa Belladonna._ - - (Pentandria Monogynia. _Nat. Ord._ Luridæ _Linn._ Solanaceæ. _Juss._) - -This plant is an indigenous perennial, found in many parts of Great -Britain, particularly in shady places where the soil is calcareous, in -large ditches, and on the edge of hilly woods; flowering in June, and -ripening its berries in September. Every part of the plant is poisonous; -and numerous instances have occurred where children, and the ignorant, -or those suffering from hunger, allured by the beautiful and tempting -appearance of the berries, have fallen victims to their deadly power. -The root of this plant partakes also of the same qualities as the leaves -and berries, but is perhaps less virulent. - - “Or have we eaten of the _insane root_, - That takes the reasoner prisoner.”—_Macbeth._ - -The inspissated juice (_Extractum Belladonnæ Pharm. Lond._) is also -extremely poisonous, when properly prepared; but, as usually met with in -commerce, it is of very variable strength; when prepared according to -the improved process of _Mr. Barry_, its activity is so considerable -that a dose of two grains is followed by unpleasant effects. (_See an -account of its effects in the Pharmacologia_, _vol._ 2, _p._ 199.) _M. -Brandes_ has lately ascertained that the active principle of this plant -is a peculiar alkaline body, to which he has assigned the name of -_atropia_. - - - _Symptoms of poisoning by Belladonna._ - -Shortly after the ingestion of the berries, leaves, or root, of this -plant, the patient complains of extreme dryness of the lips, tongue, -palate, and throat; the deglutition becomes difficult, and the pupil of -the eye immoveably dilated; nausea, rarely followed by vomiting; -symptoms of intoxication succeed, accompanied with fits of laughter, -dreadful ravings, violent gestures of the body, and continual motion of -the hands and fingers; sometimes the patient sinks into a state of -fatuity, but rarely of stupor; redness and tumefaction of the face, a -low and feeble pulse, paralysis of the intestines, livid spots on -different parts of the body, profuse sweats, convulsions, and death. In -the cases where recovery has taken place, there has been an insensible -restoration to health and reason, without any recollection of the -preceding state. - - - _Physiological action of Belladonna._ - -The results of the experiments of _Orfila_ authorise us to arrange the -nightshade under the second division of our classification; for it is -evidently absorbed, carried into the circulation, and is thus enabled to -act upon the nervous system, and particularly on the brain. At the same -time it exerts a local action upon the stomach, although less violent -than that occasioned by the acrid poisons. It, moreover, appears on some -occasions to act directly through the medium of the nerves, like those -substances which constitute our first class; or else how shall we -explain the fact of the pupil of the eye becoming permanently dilated, -by the contact of the belladonna with the tunica conjunctiva? It would, -therefore, appear that this plant unites within itself all the three -great modes of action, upon which we have attempted to found our -physiological arrangement of poisons, as expressed by the tabular -classification at page 207. - - - _Organic lesions discovered on dissection._ - -The bodies of those who have perished by belladonna, are extremely prone -to decomposition; they soon putrefy, swell remarkably, and are covered -with livid spots; blood flows from the mouth, nose, and eyes, and the -stench is insufferable. The stomach and intestines will sometimes -display extensive marks of inflammation, extending in some cases to the -mesentery and liver; and several cases are recorded in which the stomach -appeared ulcerated. The lungs are usually found livid, gorged with -venous blood, and studded with black spots; the heart has been also -observed to be livid. - - - _Modes of detecting the presence of Belladonna._ - -Where the berries of this plant have been swallowed, we shall generally -detect them in the matter vomited; or, in the event of death, in the -stomach, on dissection, for they would appear to be very indigestible; -in a case of poisoning by this plant, recorded in the history of the -French Academy for the year 1706,[443] the stomach was found to contain -some berries of the belladonna crushed, and some seeds. Where the -quantity of the plant is sufficient, we may proceed to identify it, by -obtaining _atrophia_[444] from it. For this purpose, the leaves, or the -crushed berries, or any other part of the suspected plant, must be -boiled in distilled water; the decoction must then be pressed out, and -filtered; after the albumen has been thrown down by a little sulphuric -acid, potass must be added as long as any precipitate is produced; when -the precipitate is to be washed in pure water, re-dissolved in muriatic -acid, and re-precipitated by ammonia. This last result will be -_atropia_. It is white, and collects in acicular crystals, insipid, -little soluble in cold water, or even in alcohol, but very soluble in -this latter fluid at a boiling temperature, from which, however, it is -deposited on cooling. - - - STRAMONIUM. _Thorn-Apple._ _James-town Weed._ - - _Datura Stramonium_ (Pentandria Monogynia. _Nat. Ord._ Solanaceæ, - _Linn._ Solaneæ, _Juss._) - -The thorn apple is an annual plant, a native of America, which gradually -diffused itself, from the south to the north, and is now naturalized to -this country, and is to be found very commonly about London growing on -dunghills, and by road sides. It flowers in July and August. Every part -of this plant is a strong narcotic poison, producing vertigo, and most -of those symptoms which we have described as the effects of belladonna, -although the former plant appears to excite the brain more violently. -_Dr. Barton_ mentions the case of two British soldiers, who ate it by -mistake, for the _chenopodium album_; one became furious, and ran about -like a madman; and the other died, with the symptoms of genuine tetanus. -In the fifth volume of the _Edinburgh Medical and Philosophical -Commentaries_, two cases are related by _Dr. Fowler_; and others are to -be found in the writings of _Haller_, _Krause_, _Sproegel_, _Gmelin_, -and _Orfila_, illustrative of the effects of this plant upon the human -species. There is reason to believe that this plant has been long known, -and that it has been very generally used by uncivilized nations, on -account of the narcotic effects which it occasions. - - - TOBACCO. _Nicotiana Tabacum._ - - (Pentandria Monogynia. _Nat. Ord._ Luridæ, _Lin._ Solaneæ, _Juss._) - -Tobacco is an annual plant, a native of America, from whence it was -imported into Europe. We learn from _Humboldt_ that it has been -cultivated from time immemorial by the native people of the Oroonoko; -and was smoked all over America at the time of the Spanish conquest. -_Hermandez de Toledo_ sent it into Spain and Portugal in 1559, when -_Jean Nicot_[445] was Ambassador at the court of Lisbon, from Francis -II, and he transmitted, or carried either the seed, or the plant to -_Catherine de Medicis_, as one of the wonders of the new world, and -which, it was supposed, possessed virtues of a very extraordinary -nature. This seems to be the first authentic record of the introduction -of this plant into Europe. In 1589 the Cardinal _Santa Croce_, returning -from his nunciature in Spain and Portugal to Italy, carried thither with -him tobacco; and we may form some notion of the enthusiasm with which -its introduction was hailed, from a perusal of the poetry which the -subject inspired. It is said that the smoking tobacco was first -introduced by _Sir Walter Raleigh_ on his return from America; and the -avidity with which the custom was immediately adopted is shewn by the -philippic written against it by King James, entitled the “_Counterblaste -to Tobacco_.” - -As an object of Medical Jurisprudence, its claims to our attention are -numerous and important; not only as having occasionally been the means -of destroying human life, but as furnishing, in its most romantic -history, a striking illustration of the triumph of popular opinion over -a series of legislative enactments[446] which had no other origin than -that of ignorance and prejudice. - -Tobacco was at one period of our history raised to a considerable extent -in Yorkshire; but the cultivation of it for the purposes of trade have -been long prohibited; and this country, as well as the greater part of -Europe, is chiefly supplied from Virginia, where the plant is cultivated -in the greatest abundance. The recent leaves do not possess any -considerable odour, nor have they much flavour; when dried, however, -their odour becomes strong, narcotic, and somewhat fœtid; their taste -bitter, and extremely acrid. We have stated, upon another occasion,[447] -that tobacco would appear to contain two independent elements of -activity, an essential oil, and a proximate principle, of an acrid -nature, to which _Vauquelin_ has bestowed the name of _Nicotin_. The -essential oil is an extremely virulent poison. _Mr. Barrow_, speaking of -the use which the Hottentots make of it for destroying snakes, says, “A -Hottentot applied some of it from the short end of his wooden -tobacco-pipe to the mouth of a snake, while darting out his tongue. The -effect was as instantaneous as an electric shock; with a convulsive -motion that was momentary, the snake half untwisted itself, and never -stirred more; and the muscles were so contracted, that the whole animal -felt hard and rigid, as if dried in the sun.” The author has ventured a -conjecture in his _Pharmacologia_,[448] with respect to this virulent -oil, which he takes this opportunity of repeating, that “_the juice of -cursed hebenon_,” by which, according to _Shakspeare_, the King of -Denmark was poisoned, was no other than the essential oil of tobacco. - - ----“Sleeping within mine orchard, - My custom always of the afternoon, - Upon my secure hour thy uncle stole, - With juice of _cursed hebenon_ in a vial, - And in the porches of mine ears, did pour - The leperous _distilment_.” - -In the first place, the learned commentator _Dr. Gray_ observes, that -the word here used (_hebenon_) was more probably designated by a -_metathesis_, either of the poet or transcriber, for _henebon_, i. e. -henbane. Now it appears from _Gerarde_ that _tabaco_ was commonly called -“_henbane of Peru_” (Hyoscyamus Peruvianus); and when we consider how -high the prejudice of the court ran against this herb, as so strikingly -evinced by the ‘_Counterblaste_’ of King James, it seems very likely -that _Shakspeare_, who was fond of playing the courtier, should have -selected it, as an agent of extraordinary malignity, upon such an -occasion. No preparation of the _hyoscyamus_ with which we are -acquainted, would produce death by an application to the ear; whereas -the essential oil of tobacco might, without doubt, occasion a fatal -result. The term _distilment_ has also called forth a remark from -_Steevens_, which is calculated to add a little farther weight[449] to -our conjecture; “surely” says he, “this expression signifies, that the -preparation was the result of a _distillation_.” - - - _Symptoms of poisoning by Tobacco._ - -The leaves of tobacco, whether whole, or reduced to powder, as they are -daily met with in commerce, or in the form of infusion in water or wine, -or in the state of smoke, are endued with poisonous properties of -extreme energy. Their administration is shortly followed by vertigo; -severe nausea; vomiting; a general tremor of the body, which is rarely -the result of any other poison; cold sweats; syncope; and death. The -author remembers witnessing a lamentable exemplification of the action -of tobacco upon a person labouring under a strangulated hernia. The -patient had been under the care of a medical practitioner in the -vicinity of London, who after repeated and fruitless efforts to return -the intestine, injected an infusion of tobacco into the rectum, and sent -him in a carriage to the Westminster hospital, for the purpose of -undergoing the operation; but the unfortunate man expired very shortly -after his arrival, in consequence of the effects of the tobacco clyster. -The external application of tobacco, in the form of cataplasm, or -infusion, will occasion all the effects above related. A woman applied -to the heads of three children afflicted with _tinea capitis_, a -liniment consisting of powdered tobacco and butter, soon after which -they experienced vertigo, violent vomiting, and fainting.[450] - -It was formerly a practice to inject the smoke of tobacco into the anus, -by means of a bellows of a peculiar construction, in cases of suspended -animation, with a view to _stimulate_ the rectum, and thereby to revive -the vital powers; we have already commented upon this most dangerous and -mistaken notion, (_see page_ 88.) - -In the process of _smoking_ tobacco, the oil is separated, and being -rendered empyreumatic by heat, it is thus applied to the fauces in its -most active form; whence vertigo, nausea, and all its characteristic -symptoms speedily arise upon that occasion; although the system becomes -easily habituated to the action of this narcotic, and we continually see -a large portion of the community using it daily, in various ways, and in -great quantities, as a luxury, without experiencing any other bad effect -than that which arises from their inability to relinquish the habit. - -The well known errhine, _snuff_, is prepared from the dried leaves of -tobacco, and possesses all the powers of the plant. The celebrated -_Santeuil_ experienced vomiting and horrible pains, amidst which he -expired, in consequence of having drank a glass of wine, into which some -Spanish snuff had been introduced.[451] - - - _Physiological action of Tobacco._ - -The deleterious effects of this plant appear to depend on an especial -action upon the nervous system; but farther experiments are required to -establish through what medium its powers are conveyed to the sensorium. -_Orfila_ concludes that the active part of the plant is absorbed, and -carried into the circulation. _Mr. Brodie’s_ experiments, however, would -lead to the conclusion that it operates through the medium of the -nerves; and, what is extremely singular, they shew that the _essential -oil_ operates very differently from the _infusion_ of tobacco; for that -while the former appears to act exclusively on the brain, leaving the -power of the circulation unimpaired, the latter acts on the heart at -once, suspending its action even before the animal ceases to respire, -and kills by producing syncope. This apparent anomaly at first led _Mr. -Brodie_, as he has since informed the author, to suspect the accuracy of -his experiments; but their careful repetition rendered this impossible. -We suggested to him, whether a probable explanation might not be found -in the late chemical results respecting the composition of tobacco, -which seemed to shew that this plant possesses two active elements.[452] - - - HEMLOCK. _Cicuta._[453] - - _Conium[454] Maculatum_ (Pentandria Digynia. _Nat. Ord._ Umbellatæ.) - -Hemlock is a biennial, umbelliferous, indigenous plant, growing very -commonly about the sides of fields, under hedges, and in moist shady -places. It is at once distinguished from other umbelliferous plants, -with which it may be confounded, by its _large_ and _spotted_ stem, the -dark and _shining colour of its lower leaves_, and their _disagreeable -smell_; which, when fresh and bruised is said to bear a strong -resemblance to that of the urine of a cat. Many[455] cases of persons -who have been poisoned by this plant are to be found in the writings of -different toxicologists. The extract, if properly prepared, is a very -energetic substance, and gives rise, in large doses, to all the symptoms -which we have so often described as the result of narcotic poisons. In -those fatal cases, where the bodies have been examined, _post mortem_, -inflammation of the stomach, and sanguineous congestion in the brain, -have been the most prominent phenomena. It would appear that the active -element of this plant is absorbed and carried into the circulation, -through which medium it exerts its action on the nervous system, and -more particularly on the brain. At the same time it seems to excite a -local irritation, capable of producing an inflammation more or less -violent. The best antidote is vinegar, after the stomach has been -evacuated, and the cerebral excitement reduced by bleeding and purging. - -The _Cicuta Virosa_, or _water hemlock_, with which the _conium -maculatum_ has been often confounded, is still more virulent; it is -however to be distinguished from the latter, by having its hollow roots -always immersed in water, while those of the _conium_ never are. _M. -Orfila_ has related several cases of poisoning by the _water hemlock_. - - - NUX VOMICA. - - This is the seed of the _Strychnus Nux Vomica_ (Pentandria Monogynia, - _Nat. Ord._ Apocyneæ, _Juss._) - -The tree[456] which produces these seeds grows in Ceylon, upon the coast -of Coromandel, and in Malabar. The nux vomica is round and flat, about -an inch broad, and nearly a quarter of an inch thick, with a prominence -in the middle on both sides, of a grey colour, covered with a kind of -woolly matter, but internally hard and tough. The kernel discovers to -the taste a considerable bitterness, but makes little or no impression -on the organs of smell. There is a popular belief that this substance is -poisonous to all animals, except man. Instances, however, are not -wanting to illustrate its deleterious effects upon the human species. It -proves fatal to dogs in a very short period; it has also poisoned hares, -foxes, wolves, cats, rabbits, and even some birds. _Loureiro_ relates -that a horse died in four hours after taking a drachm of the seed in an -half roasted state. Its effects, however, on different animals, and even -on those of the same species, are somewhat uncertain, and not always in -the proportion to the quantity given. With some animals it produces its -effects almost instantaneously: with others, not until after the lapse -of several hours, when laborious respiration, followed by torpor, -tremblings, coma, and convulsions usually precede the fatal spasms, or -_Tetanus_, which so especially distinguishes the operation of this -poison. _Hoffman_ reports the case of a young girl of ten years of age, -who, labouring under an obstinate quartan fever, took, at two doses, -fifteen grains of nux vomica, and died very shortly afterwards. _MM. -Pelletier_ and _Caventou_ have discovered in these seeds, a peculiar -proximate principle, to which their virulence is owing; it was -originally named _Vauqueline_, in honour of the celebrated French -philosopher, but in deference to the opinion of the French Academy of -Sciences, the discoverers have substituted the name _Strychnia_,[457] -because “a name dearly loved, ought not to be applied to a noxious -principle!” - -_Strychnia_ is highly alkaline, and crystallizes in very small -four-sided prisms, terminated by four-sided pyramids; its taste is -insupportably bitter, leaving a slight metallic flavour, and is so -powerful as even to be perceptible when a grain is dissolved in eighty -pounds of water;[458] it has no smell. So extreme is its activity upon -the animal system, that in doses of half a grain it occasions serious -effects, and in larger ones, convulsions and death. It is, perhaps, the -most powerful, and, next to _hydro-cyanic acid_, the most rapid of -poisons. _M. Majendie_ has killed a dog with one-eighth of a grain; and -the editor of the _Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal_ has seen one -die in two minutes after the injection of one-sixth of a grain into the -cavity of the pleura. - -Nux vomica is supposed by _Orfila_ to exert a specific action on the -spinal marrow, thereby producing tetanus, immobility of the thorax, and -consequently asphyxia, of which the animal dies. That this effect is -produced by the absorption of the poison, and its passage into the -circulation, is clearly established by the interesting and important -experiments of _M. Majendie_.[459] - - - COCCULUS INDICUS. - -This is the fruit of a shrub (_Menispermum Cocculus_) which grows -naturally in the sand, in the midst of the rocks, on the coast of -Malabar, in the island of Ceylon, and in other parts of the East Indies. -The berries are imported into this country in a dry and shrivelled -state. In India they are employed for killing fish, which they -intoxicate and poison, when thrown into fish ponds. _M. Goupil_, a -physician of Nemours, communicated to the Society of Medicine some -interesting facts on the subject of this poison;[460] and he has shewn -that it is not only destructive to fishes, but also to different -carnivorous quadrupeds, and, very probably, to man. He also states that -the poisonous principle of this substance is not sensibly changed by the -gastric juices, and the vital action of the organs of digestion; but, on -the contrary, that it passes into the absorbent system with all its -properties unimpaired; and that the flesh of those fishes which have -eaten it, irritates the stomach and bowels of the animals to which it is -given, nearly in the same manner as the _Cocculus Indicus_ itself. All -the fishes who eat it do not die in an equal space of time. _Roach_, -_pollard_, _breme_, _perch_, _tench_, and _barbel_, are affected in an -order corresponding with that in which they are here arranged; the -_roach_ is killed the easiest of all; the _barbel_ is the last to die, -and is moreover said to be, of all fish, the one whose flesh the most -frequently occasions accidents in those animals who eat it; probably, -says _M. Goupil_, because these fish, taking a longer time to die, the -poison is longer subjected to the action of the digestive juices, and a -considerable quantity of it is consequently absorbed.[461] - -Late experiments[462] have shewn that the active principle of the -_cocculus Indicus_ is an alkaline body, crystallizable, bitter, and -extremely poisonous; to this principle, _M. Boullay_ has given the name -of _picrotoxine_, and the experiments of _M. Orfila_ have confirmed the -idea of its constituting the only active element of the seeds. - - - POISONOUS MUSHROOMS. - -The common mushroom, or champignon, (_Agaricus Campestris_) has been -long esteemed an article of epicurean delicacy; and is eaten in its -fresh state either stewed or boiled; and as a preserve, in the form of -pickle or powder. Its juice, moreover, furnishes the sauce so well known -by the name of _ketchup_,[463] or _catsup_. _Mr. Miller_ informs us that -the true eatable mushroom may be easily distinguished from the poisonous -and unpleasant species by the following characters. “When young, it -appears of a roundish form, smooth, like a button; which together with -its stalk, is white, especially the fleshy part of the button; the gills -within, when broken, are livid. As it grows larger, it expands its head -by degrees into a flat form; the gills underneath are at first of a pale -flesh-colour, but become blackish on standing.” There are besides a vast -number of species which may be eaten with perfect impunity; the Agaricus -_Procerus_, or tall mushroom, is sometimes exposed for sale in Covent -Garden market, and is quite harmless; although, when preserved in -pickle, it is very apt to run into the vinous fermentation. With equal -safety the Agaricus _Pratensis_, or Scotch bonnet, as it has been -called, may be eaten; it occurs in those patches which are well known by -the popular name of _fairy rings_. The Agaricus _deliciosus_ is -considered by _Withering_ to have been the mushroom which formed the -vehicle of poison to _Claudius Cæsar_, as related at page 134 of this -volume, and which has been celebrated by the satiric pen of _Juvenal_, -and the epigrammatic muse of _Martial_; a species of mushroom, observes -_Withering_ which is still highly esteemed in modern Italy, as it was in -ancient Rome. _Schæfer_ and _Clusius_, however, consider the plant in -question to have been the Agaricus _Xerampelinus_, a species which -although esculent, has a strong, and by no means an agreeable flavour. -The common champignon has never, as far as we can learn, produced any -mischief, although a popular opinion prevails that soil, shade, and -other local circumstances, may render it virulent. If any unpleasant -symptoms were to follow its ingestion, we should be inclined to regard -them as the result of the peculiar idiosyncrasy of the individual, -rather than as the consequence of an _absolute_ poison; indeed a -question has been raised how far such an explanation may not apply to -all the cases of poisoning from this tribe of plants; for it has been -observed that in many parts of Europe several of those species of -mushroom are eaten with impunity, that are regarded by us as most -virulent poisons; of this number we may reckon the Agaricus _Piperatus_, -or _Pepper Agaric_, which is eaten in great quantity by the Russians, -who fill large vessels with them in the autumn, seasoning or pickling -them with salt, and then eating them in the ensuing lent.[464] There is, -however, too much direct evidence in favour of the existence of an acrid -poison in certain _Agarics_, to allow the supposition of their being -_relative_[465] in their operation, as exemplified in the history of the -_Agaricus Muscarius_, or _Bugagaric_, which is so called from its power -in destroying these insects; and for which purpose the inhabitants of -the north of Europe infuse it in milk, and set it in their windows. It -constitutes the _Mouchomore_ of the Russians, Kamtschadales, and -Koriars, who use it for the sake of intoxication; upon some occasions -they eat it dry, but generally it is steeped in a liquor made with the -_Epilobium Angustifolium_; upon drinking which, they are seized with -convulsions in all their limbs, followed by raving delirium: an effect -which renders it a desirable potation[466] to those who intend to -accomplish any desperate act, or premeditated assassination. It is also -stated that those who drink the urine of persons intoxicated by this -agaric, experience the effects of the mushroom. _Withering_,[467] who -has been very assiduous in the display of this species, acknowledges ten -varieties, all of which are natives of Britain. The _Agaricus -Semi-globalus_ of this botanist, and which is identical with the A. -_Glutinosus_ of Curtis, is extremely poisonous, and has proved fatal in -several instances in this country. There are a great many other species -equally destructive, but notwithstanding the labour that has been -bestowed upon this branch of natural knowledge, much remains to be -explained. The ancients appear to have taken considerable pains in -discriminating between esculent and poisonous fungi; among the moderns, -_Clusius_ has furnished a mass of information. _Withering_ has described -with great botanical minuteness and accuracy the different species and -varieties of this extensive genus of the cryptogamia; but he has failed -in pointing out the poisonous, from the esculent and harmless species. -_Orfila_, in his late lessons on Poisons,[468] has bestowed considerable -labour with a view to establish a practical distinction, and has -enriched his work with highly illustrative engravings. Upon the present -occasion, it is scarcely necessary to observe, that it would be foreign -to the plan of this work to enter into such botanical details as the -full elucidation of this subject would require; the research would, in -itself, occupy a quarto volume; we must therefore rest satisfied with -general observations. The following indications should excite a -suspicion of mushrooms. A marshy and shady locality; an ugly or lurid -physiognomy; a glairy or moist surface; a change of colour when cut, and -a soft, porous, and moist texture; a virulent smell; a bright colour, or -a combination of distinct colours. We ought also to reject as dangerous -all those which have bulbous and soft stems, or which have fragments of -skin glued to their surface. - - - _Symptoms of poisoning by Mushrooms._ - -Exhilaration of spirits, laughter, vertigo, sickness, griping pains, -vomiting, and purging, suffusion of the eyes, stupor, cold sweats, -syncope, convulsions, death. Numerous records of sickness and death -might be adduced in illustration of this subject. The celebrated -musician, _Schobert_, and, with the exception of one child, his whole -family, together with a friend and a physician who dined with him, were -all fatally poisoned by a dish of mushrooms, which he had himself -gathered in the fields of Saint Gervais, a village in the environs of -Paris. It is not known to what species the plants belonged. In the -_Gazette de Santé_, for August 1812, we have the following narrative. -“_M. Dufour_, a physician of Montargis, gathered in the neighbouring -forest some mushrooms, which were stripped of their skin, and their -stem, cut into pieces, and cooked in their juice with butter and fine -herbs, under a camp oven. They were served up at table. The servant -girl, aged twenty years, who had eaten the greatest quantity, very -shortly complained of confusion of the head, giddiness, and a slight -heaving of the stomach; her face was red and inflamed, the eyes starting -and lively, the pulse full and undulating. The eldest daughter of _M. -Dufour_ experienced the same symptoms without any nausea. A little -child, eighteen months old, that had only eaten some bread dipped in the -gravy, slept quietly for sixteen hours, contrary to his usual custom, -and exhibited no other remarkable phenomenon. The other child, aged -eleven years, complained of confusion of the head and intoxication; the -parents did not experience any ill effects. Upon investigation it was -discovered that two mushrooms of the _Agaricus Muscarius_, having been -confounded with the proper one, had entered into the composition of the -dish.” - -Amongst the cases which have occurred in this country, we may -particularize that related by _Mr. E. Brande_, in the third volume of -the _London Medical and Physical Journal_, p. 41, “J. S. gathered early -in the morning of the third of October, in the Green Park, what he -supposed to be small mushrooms; these he stewed with the common -additions in a _tinned iron_[469] saucepan. The whole did not exceed a -tea-saucer full, which he, and four of his children ate the first thing, -about eight o’clock in the morning, as they frequently had done without -any bad consequence; they afterwards took their usual breakfast of tea, -&c., which was finished about nine, when _Edward_, one of the children -(eight years old) who had eaten a large proportion of the fungi, was -attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, nor could the threats of his -father or mother restrain him. To this succeeded vertigo, or stupor; the -pupils of his eyes were, at times, dilated to nearly the circumference -of the cornea, and scarcely contracted at the approach of a strong -light; his breathing was quick, his pulse very variable, at times -imperceptible, at others too frequent and small to be counted, latterly -very languid; his feet were cold, livid, and contracted; he sometimes -pressed his hands on different parts of his abdomen, as if in pain, but -when roused and interrogated respecting it, he answered yes, or no, -evidently without any relation to what was asked. About the same time -the father, aged forty, was attacked with vertigo, and complained that -every thing appeared black, then wholly disappeared; to this succeeded -loss of voluntary motion and stupor; in about ten minutes he gradually -recovered, but complained of universal numbness and coldness, with great -dejection, and a firm persuasion that he was dying; in a few minutes he -relapsed, but recovered as before, and had several similar fits during -three or four hours, each succeeding one being less violent, and with -longer intermission than that preceding. _Harriet_, twelve years old, -who had eaten but a very small quantity, was also attacked at the time -with slight vertigo. _Charlotte_, a delicate little girl, ten years of -age, who had eaten a considerable quantity, was suddenly attacked in the -presence of _Dr. Burges_ and myself, with vertigo and loss of voluntary -motion. _Martha_, aged eighteen, who had eaten a small proportion, was -attacked with similar symptoms.” By judicious treatment they all -recovered. Upon investigation _Mr. Sowerby_ determined the mushroom to -have been a variety of the A. _glutinosus_ of Curtis (_Flora -Londinensis_) the same with _Dr. Withering’s_ A. _semi-globatus_; and -yet no notice of its deleterious properties is taken by either of these -botanists. - -A less fortunate case of poisoning by _Fungi_ is related in the -twentieth volume of the same journal by _Mr. Parrott_, surgeon of -Mitcham, of which the following is a sketch. The subject of the history -was a family of six persons, viz. _William Attwood_, ætat. 45; _Eliza_, -his wife, 38; and their daughters, _Mary_, æt. 14; _Hannah_, 11; -_Sarah_, 7; _Eliza_, 5. They all ate stewed champignons, at one o’clock, -on Monday the 10th of October, which stew was made in an iron vessel, -and consisted of the articles already mentioned with the addition of -butter and flour, pepper, salt, and water only; and each of the parties -(_Hannah_ excepted) was supposed to have eaten more than half a pint. -Within ten minutes after they had eaten their meal, they felt their -spirits exhilarated, and the eldest daughter said to her mother “_how -funny you look_.” All the parties continued cheerful till about six -o’clock, when having taken their tea, they were attacked with stupor, -which was soon succeeded, by severe pains in the bowels, accompanied -with violent vomiting, and copious purging, which continued till the -following afternoon, when the parents became alarmed and sent for the -surgeon. The treatment which was pursued appears to have been, in every -respect, judicious, and _Mary_ had so far recovered on the following day -(Wednesday) that she walked into the village about a quarter of a mile -from home; in the evening, however, the symptoms returned; on Thursday -evening she became convulsed, and died on Friday morning at two o’clock. -_Eliza_ did not complain much of her sufferings, but became convulsed at -the same time as her sister, and died half an hour after her. _Sarah_ -never complained of pain in the head, but was continually suffering -under extreme pain in the bowels, which was aggravated by pressure, but -no tension existed; she died on Saturday morning, in the same convulsed -state as her sisters. A dog which had partaken of the stew died on the -Wednesday night, apparently in great agony. The father recovered, the -mother, who was two months advanced in pregnancy, miscarried, but -ultimately became convalescent. _Mr. Wheeler_, of St. Bartholomew’s -hospital, a gentleman who has been long known to the profession as an -eminent botanist, no sooner heard of the event than he repaired to the -spot where the mushrooms had been gathered, when he immediately -recognised the _Agaricus semi-globatus_, which had nearly proved fatal -in the instance related by _Mr. E. Brande_, and which, upon being shewn -to the father, he instantly pronounced to be similar to those, of which -the family had so unfortunately eaten. - - - _Organic Lesions discovered on Dissection._ - -In the above case of the family of _Attwood_, the body of _Mary_ was -examined, but no morbid appearance whatever could be discovered. In -collecting the different phenomena exhibited in other recorded cases, -they may be reduced to the following: “violet coloured spots over the -integuments; abdomen extremely bulky; the _tunica conjunctiva_ of the -eye as if it were injected; the pupil contracted; stomach and intestines -inflamed, and scattered over with gangrenous spots; and, in some cases, -they have exhibited very considerable contractions, so much so as almost -to obliterate the canal. In no case have any remains of the mushroom -been found. The lungs have been observed inflamed, and gorged with black -blood.” - -There cannot, however, be any doubt but that the different species of -poisonous agarics act very differently. - - - _Antidotes._ - -In all cases, the first object is to evacuate the offensive matter by -emetics. After which, stimulants, especially _ammonia_, will be found -highly serviceable. - - - ALCOHOL. - -In treating of the action of this substance upon the human body, it may -be considered as a slow, or quick poison; as one which, according to the -circumstances of its administration, may either implant the seeds of -disease and death, by an insidious, and scarcely perceptible operation, -or extinguish the principle of animation in the space of a few hours. - -Its effects as an _accumulative_[470] poison are principally interesting -to the physician in their relations to therapeutics, although their -history may perhaps suggest some few points of interest to the founders -of medical police. - -We shall, therefore, observe, with regard to the habitual use of -fermented liquors, that the bodily evils which arise from the custom -rather depend upon the quality, or, in other words, the state of -combination in which the alcohol exists in such liquors, than on the -absolute quantity of the libation, or the frequency with which it is -repeated. Daily experience convinces us that the same quantity of -alcohol applied to the stomach under the form of wine, and in a state of -mixture with water, will produce very different effects upon the living -body, as well with reference to the immediate symptoms, as to the remote -consequences of the potation; it has, for instance, been clearly -demonstrated that port, madeira, and sherry, contain from one-fourth to -one-fifth their bulk of alcohol;[471] so that a person who takes a -bottle of either of these wines, will thus take nearly half a pint of -pure alcohol, which is equivalent to a pint of brandy! The remote -consequences too of alcohol in these different states, are as striking -and distinct as their immediate effects. It is well known that diseases -of the liver are the most common, and the most formidable of those -produced by the use of _ardent_ spirits; it is equally certain that no -such disorders follow the intemperate use of wine that is perfectly -_pure_; let it be remembered that the greater proportion of that which -is drunk in this country contains uncombined brandy, purposely added to -meet the demand of the British market; and _Dr. MacCulloch_ thinks that -it is to the unwitting and concealed consumption of this uncombined -spirit, that we ought to attribute the prevalence of those hepatic -affections which are comparatively little known to our continental -neighbours. But although wine, in a state of purity, may be thus fairly -excluded from the general obloquy which attaches to spirituous -potations, it must not be regarded as entirely free from imputation. -“The effects of wine,” says _Rush_ “like those of tyranny in a well -formed government, are first felt in the extremities; while spirits, -like a bold invader, seize at once upon the vitals of the constitution.” -And even with respect to ardent spirits, although they can only be -regarded as diluted alcohol, still each species appears to possess a -peculiarity of operation; owing, no doubt, to the modifying influence of -the other elements of the liquid; thus _brandy_[472] is said to be -cordial and stomachic; _rum_ more heating and sudorific; _gin_ and -_whiskey_, diuretic; and _arrack_, styptic, heating, and narcotic. It -seems also that a modified effect is produced by the addition of various -other substances, such as sugar and acids; which latter bodies, besides -their anti-narcotic powers, appear to act by favouring a more perfect -combination and mutual penetration of the particles of spirit and water. -The effects also which are produced by the habitual use of fermented -liquors differ essentially according to the kind that is drunk; thus ale -and porter, in consequence of the nutritive matter, and perhaps the -invigorating bitter with which they are charged, and the comparatively -small proportion of alcohol which they contain, dispose to plethora, -which is sometimes terminated by apoplexy.[473] - - - _Symptoms of Poisoning by Alcohol._ - -The ordinary effects of an excessive dose of any spirituous liquor are -too well known to require description; and generally pass off without -the necessity of professional interference. In cases, however, where the -draught has been very large, the person has suddenly fallen down in a -state of complete insensibility, and has exhibited all the phenomena of -apoplexy; or, in some instances, he has expired almost immediately. The -insensibility of the patient may render it difficult for the -practitioner to distinguish the immediate cause of the symptoms; -although his history for the last few hours, and the spirituous odour of -his breath, will generally announce the true nature of his situation. -_Mr. Brodie_ observes that there is a striking analogy between the -symptoms arising from the ingestion of spirits, and those produced by -injuries of the brain; concussion of the brain, which may be considered -the slightest degree of injury, occasions a state of mind resembling -intoxication; pressure on the brain, which is a more severe injury than -concussion, produces loss of motion, insensibility, dilation of the -pupils, laborious and stertorous respiration, and death. - - - _Physiological Action of Alcohol._ - -We shall not enter into the history of the slow operation of repeated -doses of spirit upon the human body; but limit our present inquiry to -the _modus operandi_ of this agent, as a quick and destructive poison. - -Large draughts of liquids containing alcohol, would appear to destroy, -at once, the functions of the brain, without occasioning that previous -stage of excitement, which is produced by smaller quantities of -spirit—whence coma and insensibility are the immediate consequences; and -the nervous energy being no longer conveyed to the muscles of -respiration, the breathing becomes laborious, and the patient dies, as -he does in apoplexy, for want of those changes in the blood which are -produced by the respiratory functions.[474] In the greater number, -however, of fatal cases of inebriety, life has been destroyed by -circumstances purely accidental; such as improvident exposure to cold, -as explained at _page_ 59, or suffocation from an imperfect act of -vomiting, during which a portion of the contents of the stomach are -forced into the trachea, (_see page_ 58,[475].) It having then been -clearly established that the brain is the organ principally affected by -a large dose of alcohol, it remains to be explained in what manner, and -through what medium such an effect is produced; upon this question we -are inclined to concur with _Mr. Brodie_, and to consider that alcohol -acts sympathetically on the brain by means of the nerves of the stomach; -for it has been observed that animals which die under such -circumstances, exhibit a decided inflammation of the stomach; and, in -the next place, the effects produced by this agent are too instantaneous -to admit the possibility of absorption, while repeated instances have -shewn that vomiting will often restore the intoxicated individual to his -senses. At the same time, we think it very probable that, upon some -occasions, the alcohol passes into the current of the circulation, and -is thus carried to remote organs. _Dr. Cooke_[476] has related a case, -on the authority of _Sir A. Carlisle_, of a person who was brought dead -into the Westminster hospital, in consequence of having drunk a quart of -gin for a wager, at a draught; and that upon examination, a considerable -quantity of a limpid fluid was found within the lateral ventricles of -the brain, _distinctly impregnated with gin_. We well remember this -case, for it occurred during the period that the author of the present -work held the situation of physician to that hospital. See -_Pharmacologia_, vol. 1, p. 138. - - - _Treatment of Persons in a State of Inebriety._ - -In the first instance we should endeavour to evacuate the stomach; for -which purpose a brisk emetic of sulphate of zinc, or tartarised antimony -may be administered. Blood should also be taken from the jugular vein, -or temporal artery; more especially if there appear a considerable -determination of blood to the head. The head should be also washed with -cold water, or some evaporating lotion. - -For reasons which we have already explained, the patient should be -carefully preserved in a warm atmosphere; and his body should be placed -in an easy reclining posture, and be disencumbered of all tight -bandages. These precautions are of the utmost moment, for many of those -cases of inebriety which stand recorded in our journals, have terminated -fatally, for want of attention to them. - - - ANIMAL POISONS. - -This extensive kingdom of Nature presents us with a variety of objects -destructive to human life; their agency, however, is on many occasions -involved in impenetrable obscurity, and we are not even able to discover -whether their deleterious effects depend upon certain definite -principles, or upon the combination of circumstances connected with the -individuals upon whom they act; and which thus render many substances -_relatively_ poisonous, that are innocuous to the general mass of -mankind. With regard to the chemical laws by which animal compounds are -governed, and the principles upon which their analysis may be conducted, -the same observations will apply as those with which we introduced the -consideration of vegetable poisons. - - - Cl. IV. SEPTIC POISONS. - - - THE BITES OF VENOMOUS ANIMALS. - -Of the whole class of serpents, which according to _Linnæus_ contains -132 species, _Plenck_ assures us that only 24 are venomous. Of these, -Europe has only 5, and England but 2; all of which are vipers, viz. -_Coluber Aspis_; _C. Chersea_; _C. Prester_ (_black viper_, peculiar to -England); _C. Illyricus_ (inhabits the mountains of Sclavonia); _C. -Berus_, (the common viper of Germany, Spain, Italy, and England.) - -The venom of the viper is contained in a bag situated on both sides of -the head, beneath the muscle of the superior jaw; it is secreted from -the blood by a gland which lies just behind the orbit of the eye; from -which a duct proceeds to the above-mentioned bag; in the upper jaw are -situated two moveable teeth, very sharp towards the point, and hollowed -nearly throughout their length. When the animal intends to bite, he -presses the bag by means of the muscle, the venom comes out, arrives at -the base of the tooth, passes through the sheath which envelopes it, and -enters into its cavity by a hole which is found at this base; then it -flows along the hollow of the tooth, and issues into the wound by the -opening which is near its end, for the point itself is solid and sharp, -in order that it may better penetrate the flesh of its victim. If these -fangs be removed, or their structure destroyed, the viper is necessarily -rendered harmless; whence _Galen_ has observed that the mountebanks used -to stop these perforations of the teeth with some kind of paste, -whenever they suffered the vipers to bite them before spectators. - - - _Symptoms occasioned by the Bite of a Viper._ - -Acute pain in the wounded part, attended with almost immediate -tumefaction; the part appears first red, and then livid; the local -affection extends itself, and the surrounding skin becomes similarly -affected. The pulse is small, frequent, and irregular; the respiration -is disturbed; the patient complains of great debility, and faintness -which often amounts to syncope; vomiting takes place; pain is felt in -the umbilical region, and he becomes jaundiced; and, in fatal cases, the -wound assumes a malignant character, and gangrene takes place. - -In this country the affection is rarely mortal,[477] although the -circumstances of constitutional debility, unusual heat of season, and -injudicious treatment, have in several instances led to a fatal issue. - - - _Physiological action of the Poison of Vipers._ - -The result of numerous experiments justify us in referring this poison -to the second division of our classification. The symptoms which it -produces evidently depend on its absorption, and its passage into the -circulation, when it exerts its peculiar action on the blood. It is -somewhat singular that this poison should be perfectly inert when taken -into the stomach; a fact, however, which appears to have been well known -from the earliest periods; whence such wounds were commonly sucked[478] -with impunity; and we learn that when _Cato_ marched the remains of -_Pompey’s_ army through Africa, he very wisely informed the soldiers, -who, although dying from thirst, feared to drink the waters which -contained serpents, that no evil could arise from such indulgence.[479] - - “Noxia Serpentum est admisto sanguine Pestis, - Morsu Virus habent, et Fatum Dente minantur, - Pocula Morte carent”---- - -Among the insects of Britain some will be found to possess fluids highly -stimulant, and sometimes, although rarely, occasioning death. These -British insects, however, cannot be compared in virulence with the -_Furia Infernalis_, _Pulex Penetrans_, the _Scorpion_, and the -_Tarantula_; but their natural history is nevertheless interesting, and -the instances of mischief arising from an application of their venom are -not unimportant. Of the genus _Vespa_ we have three species, each of -which possesses the property of producing violent and painful -inflammation, sometimes followed by considerable danger, where the -injury has been inflicted on parts of great sensibility, and in -irritable habits, viz. Vespa _Crabro_, the _hornet_; V. _Vulgaris_, -_common wasp_; C. _Coarctata_, _small wasp_. Instances are recorded of -the wasp, having been introduced into the mouth with fruit, and produced -by its sting on the _velum palati_ a sudden swelling which has so -intercepted the respiration as to occasion suffocation.[480] Of the -_Apis_ there are seven British species; the most remarkable of which are -the Apis _Rufa_, or _small field bee_; A. _Mellifica_, _the common hive -bee_; A. _Terrestris_, _humble bee_; and A. _Subterranea_, or _great -humble bee_. - -The sting of a single bee cannot be regarded as attended with danger, -except in certain constitutions; but there are many instances of men and -animals having suffered most terribly, and even fatally, by an attack of -a swarm of these insects. - -The supposed poison of the toad is a subject which we have already -disposed of, under the literary history of poisons, _page_ 139. - - - PUTRESCENT ANIMAL MATTER. - -A question has long since arisen, how far the ingestion of animal -matter, in a state of putrefaction, is liable to affect the health? On -the one hand it has been maintained that the custom of eating game, -venison, and other species of animal food, in a state of incipient -putrescence, has never been attended with any inconvenience; but -appears, on the contrary, to afford a repast of easier digestion, than -the flesh of recently killed animals. On the other hand, it has been -asserted by _Foderé_,[481] and corroborated by the testimony of others, -that corrupted meat, fish, and eggs, are undoubted poisons; if, through -inadvertence, necessity, or extreme hunger, they are taken in any -quantity. The same distinguished writer relates that, during the siege -of Mantua, several persons who were shut up in the town were seized with -gangrene of the extremities, and scurvy, in consequence of having been -driven to the alternative of eating the half putrid flesh of horses. In -_Crantz’s_ history of Greenland we read an account of the death of -thirty-two persons, at a missionary station, called Kangek, shortly -after a repast upon the putrid brains of a Walrus. - -It would appear that under circumstances not hitherto understood, -certain parts of animal bodies become poisonous; and the _virus_ would -not seem to be connected with any stage of putrefaction, nor with any -previous disease in the animal. As far as our limited experience upon -this subject will allow us to generalize, the brain and the viscera -would appear to be particularly susceptible of such a change. Some -curious and highly interesting observations have lately been published -by _Dr. Kerner_, of Wurtemberg, respecting the probable existence of a -species of animal poison not hitherto known. He informs us that the -smoked sausages, which constitute so favourite a repast to the -inhabitants of Wurtemberg, often cause fatal poisoning. The effects of -the poison occasionally manifest themselves in the spring, generally in -the month of April, in a degree more or less alarming. He states that -out of _seventy-six_ persons, who became sick from having eaten such -sausages, _thirty-seven_ died in a short time, and that several others -remained ill for years. Upon these occasions it has been observed, that -the most virulent sausages were made of liver. _M. Cadet_, of Paris, -analysed all the meats, examined all the vessels in which they had been -prepared; and inspected the matters vomited, or found in the stomach -after death, without being able to trace the vestige of any known -poison; nor was there the slightest evidence in these cases of -malevolence or negligence. Similar accidents have occurred at different -periods in Paris; upon which occasions, the police officers visited the -pig dealers, and were perfectly assured that the animals had never been -fed with unwholesome food; the use of poison for rats, with which these -places abound, was interdicted, and every precaution taken. What then, -asks _M. Cadet_, is this poison found in sausage meats—is it Prussic -acid—is it a new matter? It is evidently not the effect of putrefaction, -since it exists in meats perfectly well preserved. To the above queries -of _M. Cadet_, the author of the present work begs to add one more—may -not the skin enclosing the sausage meat be the part in which the poison -resides? It is well known that the bodies of animals who die of various -diseases, are capable of communicating fatal diseases to the human -species; and experience has shewn that such animal poison is -particularly energetic in those parts that are commonly called the -_offals_, in which term are included the intestines; in the history of -_fish-poison_, which will hereafter offer itself to our notice, we shall -find numerous instances of dogs, cats, hogs, and birds, dying from -eating these parts, while persons, who have partaken of the fish to -which these _offals_ belonged, remained uninjured. But to account for -the deleterious change of which these parts appear to be occasionally -susceptible, it does not appear necessary to suppose that the animal -died in a state of disease. _Captain Scoresby_, in his “Account of the -Arctic regions,”[482] states that although the flesh of the bear is both -agreeable and wholesome, the liver of that animal is poisonous; sailors -who had inadvertently eaten it, were almost always sick afterwards, and -some actually died; while in others the cuticle has peeled off their -bodies. The ancients appear to have entertained a fear with regard to -the wholesomeness of the viscera of certain animals, and of the fluids -which they secrete. _Pliny_ says that the gall of a horse was accounted -poison; and, therefore, at the sacrifices of horses in Rome, it was -unlawful for the _Flamen_ (priest) to touch it. _Mr. Brodie_ has lately -favoured the author with the communication of a fact, which goes far to -support the theory we have offered with respect to the possible source -of poison in sausages. He states that he has twice met with evidence of -the acrid and poisonous nature of “_dog’s meat_,” as sold in the streets -of London, which manifested itself by producing ulcerations, of a -peculiar character, on the hands, and swelling in the axillæ, of the -venders! May we venture to ask whether the prosecution of this inquiry -might not possibly lead to some new and important conclusions respecting -the origin of hydrophobia? - -Where animals have died from disease, their flesh has undoubtedly -produced affections by external contact, as well as by its ingestion. At -the Somerset assizes in 1819, a case was tried, whose merits wholly -turned upon the question now under discussion. A cow, having died of -some disease, was thrown into the river Yeo, and several cattle that -afterwards drank of the water died of a similar complaint. An action was -accordingly brought against the owner of the cow for damages. The -defendant, however, obtained a verdict, apparently from the evidence of -a medical person, who asserted that animal matter in a state of -putrefaction will not communicate contagion. But we must here beg to -observe that this is quite another and distinct question; the merits of -which we have already considered.[483] The physiological question -involved in the preceding case, is whether the carcase of an animal, -whose fluids have been depraved by antecedent disease, is capable, or -not, of producing morbid and fatal affections in the living animals with -which it may come in contact? The facts collected by _MM. Enaux_ and -_Chaussier_, in their work entitled “_Methode de traiter les Morsures -des Animaux enragés_,” prove in a very satisfactory manner that the -_Anthrax_, or _Malignant Pustule_, has for its cause a _septic virus_ -engendered in diseased animals, and transmitted to man.[484] The -following are amongst the more striking examples cited from these -authors by _Orfila_. “A shepherd bled one of his sheep, which had just -died suddenly; he carried it home on his shoulders; but the blood -penetrated his shirt, and was rubbed upon his loins. Two days after, a -_malignant pustule_ appeared upon this spot.” - -“A boy employed in skinning an ox which had been killed at an inn at -_Gatinais_, because it had been sick, put the knife into his mouth. -Shortly after which the tongue swelled; he experienced a tightness of -the chest; the whole body was covered with pustules, and he died on the -fourth day, in a state of general gangrene. The inn-keeper, who was -pricked in the middle of the hand by a bone of the same animal, suffered -great pain; gangrene seized the arm, and he expired on the seventh day. -The servant girl received on her right cheek a few drops of the blood of -the same ox, which produced inflammation, followed by gangrene.” - -In this country, a case has occurred highly illustrative of the present -subject. A pupil of the veterinary college accidentally inoculated -himself, during his dissection, with the matter of a _glandered_ horse; -the student soon experienced the usual symptoms of a septic poison; -abscesses formed in various parts of his body, and he sank under the -disease. Upon inoculating a healthy horse with some of the matter from -the abscesses, the animal was attacked with the glanders. - -This subject necessarily leads us to the notice of those effects which -are frequently produced in the anatomist, by a puncture made during -dissection. From the history of those cases which stand recorded, it -does not appear that the poisonous effects are either connected with the -putrefactive state of the body under dissection, or with the peculiar -disease of which it died; but rather with the depraved state of the -operator’s health; for it has been repeatedly remarked that those -students who enjoy high health universally escape the evil, however -repeatedly they may have been exposed to its causes. - - - POISONOUS FISHES. - -The number and validity of recorded cases establish the fact, beyond -dispute, that certain fish, especially the muscle, (_Mytilus Edulis_) -and others of the shell tribe, have occasionally proved fatal to those -who have eaten them; but it has been doubted whether such effects have -arisen from a specific poison, or from the peculiar state of the -stomach,[485] or idiosyncrasy of constitution, in the persons affected. -In other words, ought we to consider the fish, so circumstanced, as an -_absolute_ or _relative_ poison? Each of these theories has met with its -advocates, and many striking facts and illustrations have been adduced -in their support. The weight of authority, however, as well as of -argument, strongly inclines in favour of the existence of a specific -virus, generated under circumstances which we are at present unable to -appreciate. At the same time, it would be vain to deny, that certain -fishes are more obnoxious to the stomach of one individual than to that -of another; there are, for instance, those persons who are disordered -whenever they eat a muscle; others who are incapable of taking an oyster -without considerable disturbance of the digestive functions. This is -obviously _Idiosyncrasy_, and must not be confounded with those cases -where a number of persons have been simultaneously affected from a -particular food, which, on all former occasions, had been eaten by the -same individuals with perfect security. We must, therefore, at the very -outset of our inquiry, admit the occasional action of these articles of -diet as _relative_ poisons; although it is evident to demonstration, -that an _absolute_ virus is generated in particular fishes, by the -operation of causes hitherto unknown. - -As a subject, highly important in its relations to maritime œconomy, the -history of fish-poison constitutes an interesting branch of naval -hygiene; instructions, therefore, for its investigation, ought always to -be given to the naturalists and chemists who may be appointed to attend -voyages of discovery. The notice of the scientific men who accompanied -_Peyrouse_ was officially directed to this important object; but the -unhappy fate of that celebrated adventurer rendered the commission -fruitless. The obscurity which attends this branch of toxicology has in -many cases occasioned a corresponding degree of credulity; and sailors, -as well as others, entertain an unfounded prejudice against various -fish, that are not only innocuous, but even useful as articles of food. -It would, however, appear that those which are harmless in one latitude -may prove poisonous in another; it may be stated generally, that fish -are more deleterious within the tropics, than in other seas. In torrid -regions the softest kinds are the most susceptible of that change which -renders them poisonous, and hence the policy of the Hebrew legislator -becomes apparent; “_whatsoever has no fins nor scales in the waters, -that shall be an abomination unto you._” Levit. c. xi, v. 12, and Deut. -cxiv, v. 9, 10. - -The most complete history of this intricate subject, and of the -dissertations to which it has given rise, is to be found in the -_Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal_,[486] by _Dr. Chisholm_, who -has brought together, and cited a great number of authorities, biblical -and classical, foreign and domestic, for its illustration. An -interesting paper is also published on the same subject in the _Medical -Repository_,[487] by _Dr. Burrows_. To the above sources we must beg to -refer the reader who is desirous of farther information than can be -afforded him by the present work. - - - _Symptoms of Fish-poisoning._ - -Nausea; thirst; tormina of the bowels; vomiting; an eruption on the -skin, resembling the nettle-rash; tumefaction of the face; head-ache; -difficult respiration; distention of the abdomen; sometimes _cholera -morbus_; vertigo; delirium; cold sweats; convulsions; death. Such is the -train of symptoms, liable of course, to variation in the order of -succession, which are produced by the ingestion of fish-poison, as -occasionally existing in salmon, herrings, eels, mackarel, many of the -testaceous and most of the crustaceous fish of this country; and in a -great number of fish[488] inhabiting the tropical seas. - -The species of fish, from which deleterious effects have more commonly -arisen in this country, are the _Mytilus Edulis_, or muscle. _Dr. -Burrows_ has given us an account of two cases of death from eating these -fish, which occurred at Gravesend, under the care of _Mr. Rogers_, -surgeon of that place, upon whose authority the statement is drawn -up.[489] The subjects of the history were two youths of the ages of nine -and fourteen, who had each eaten about a dozen of small muscles, which -they had picked from the side of a fishing smack, in a dead and tainted -state. In the _Gazette de Santé_,[490] and in the works of -_Fodéré_,[491] and _Behren_,[492] similar cases are recorded. -_Vancouver_,[493] in his voyage to the coast of America, relates that -several of his men were ill from eating some muscles which they had -collected and roasted for breakfast; in an hour after which they -complained of numbness of the face and extremities, sickness, and -giddiness. Three were more affected than the others, and one of them -died. - - - _Origin of Fish-poison._ - -If we admit that the symptoms which are occasionally produced by the -ingestion of certain fish, depend upon the presence of poison, we have -next to inquire into its nature and origin. _Dr. Burrows_ considers that -all the opinions which have been advanced upon this subject may, for the -greater perspicuity and facility of discussion, be arranged under seven -heads, viz. does the poison exist—1. _In the skin?_—2. _In the stomach -and intestinal canal?_—3. _In the liver or gall bladder?_—4. _In the -entire substance of the fish?_—5. _In the food of fishes?_—6. _Is it a -morbid change in the system of the fish?_—7. _Is it a poison, sui -generis?_ - -Upon these several questions _Dr. Burrows_ has offered some -observations. There do not appear to be any facts which can induce us to -consider that the poison resides only in the skin. - -Experience has shewn that the _virus_ is particularly energetic in the -viscera, commonly called the _offals_; and yet there are no grounds for -concluding that it exclusively belongs to these parts. _Captain Cook_, -and _Messrs. Forster_ were poisoned by eating a piece of the liver only -of a species of _tetrodon_; yet they who ate of its substance were also -poisoned. - -An opinion has long prevailed that the poisonous principle is derived -from the substances upon which the fish feeds; and that of muscles, in -particular, from copper; this latter hypothesis has received the -sanction of _Dr. Chisholm_. We however agree with _Dr. Burrows_ in -considering that it has neither the support of observation or analogy. -_Dr. Beune_ has supposed that the acrid principle is no other than the -spawn of the _stella marina_, an insect which very commonly lodges in -the muscle. It seems, however, more probable that it is a product of -decomposition, but which requires the concurrence of certain -circumstances for its developement. - -Before we conclude the history of septic poisons, there appears to be a -species of death, particularly noticed by _Dr. Gordon Smith_,[494] which -merits our attention, as having some relation to this class of -agents—the fact of persons having been “_eaten to death by maggots_!” -Such a death has been assigned to _Sylla_, by _Plutarch_; and to -_Antiochus Epiphanes_, by _Josephus_, and the writer of the book of -Maccabees. The fate of _Herod_ is ascertained by Scripture. In modern -history we have similar instances in _Charles_ IX of France, and -_Philip_ II of Spain. - -Numerous cases are recorded, in different medical works,[495] of the -generation of maggots, _i. e._ the _larvæ_ of different species of fly, -not only in external sores and excoriations, but in the internal -cavities of the human body. _Dr. Lempriere_[496] has related the case of -an officer’s lady, who had gone through an acute fever, but in whom -these maggots were produced, which burrowed, and found their way by the -nose through the _os cribriforme_, into the cavity of the cranium, and -afterwards into the brain itself, to which she owed her death. But of -all the cases of this kind, that related by _Dr. Gordon Smith_ is of the -most revolting kind. “In the month of July 1809, a man was found near -Finglas, in Ireland, lying under the wall of a lime-kiln, at an early -hour in the evening, with his face on the ground, apparently dead. On -turning him on his back to ascertain the real state of the case, it was -discovered that he was yet alive, but under the most appalling -circumstances. On removing his coat, the whole surface of his body -appeared to be a moving mass of worms. His face was considerably injured -as if from a fall, or bruises; his eyes were dissolved, and their -cavities, as well as those of the ears, nose, and mouth, were filled -with a white living mass, from which such innumerable quantities of -maggots were continually pouring out, that the skull seemed to be filled -with nothing else. After some time he recovered strength enough to walk, -and regained recollection and voice sufficient to tell who he was, where -he lived, and how he had been brought into that situation. It appeared -that he was returning home upon a car the evening before; having drank -to excess, he fell off, and remained in a state of insensibility until -he was discovered. He could neither account for the wounds in his head, -nor for his being so far from the road; but it appeared probable that he -had received the contusion from the fall, and had insensibly crawled to -the place where he lay. It was conjectured that the state of the -atmosphere, as to humidity and temperature, had brought on a solution of -the solids in the bruised parts, already disposed to putrescency, and -now in close contact with the moist earth. In these, the eggs of -innumerable insects being deposited, their generation proceeded with -rapidity under circumstances so favourable. Every attention was paid to -the unfortunate individual; he was removed to shelter, the parts were -washed with spirits and vinegar, and the loathsome objects removed, as -far as was possible. Cordials were poured down his throat, but he -swallowed with difficulty; and in a very short time spasms took place -which prevented him from swallowing altogether. The putrescence -advanced; in a short time he became insensible; and about noon the -following day he died, in a state of total _putrisolution_.” - - - AERIAL POISONS. - -Under this division we include all those deleterious substances which -can be administered through the medium of the atmosphere. - -Those gases, the respiration of which occasions death by the negative -operation of excluding oxygen, are not ranked under the class of -poisons, for the history of such bodies involves physiological views -peculiar to themselves, and belongs more correctly to the subject of -suffocation, under which head it has already met with full -consideration, _vol._ 2, _p._ 48. - -_Aërial poisons_ are of very undefined extent, and their history is -involved in considerable obscurity. Every poison, capable of -volatilization, may be admitted into the division; and even those -substances which are generally regarded as fixed, may be mechanically -suspended in the air, and thus produce their effects on the living -system, through the medium of the lungs, stomach, or nerves. In the -present state of our knowledge, we have, perhaps, only an imperfect idea -of the distinction between a fixed and a volatile body. A very -interesting paper on this subject was read before the Royal Academy of -Berlin, by _Professor Hermbstaed_,[497] in which he observes that, -generally speaking, we might consider all bodies as volatile, as it is -most probable that, could we produce a sufficient degree of heat, no -substance could resist it. The professor also states that many bodies, -hitherto considered as fixed, are actually volatilized at the -temperature of boiling water; such he found to be _lime_, _baryta_, -_strontia_, and _potass_. We apprehend, however, that the professor has, -in these instances, mistaken a phenomenon for _volatility_, which it is -highly important to distinguish from it, viz. _the elevation of a -certain portion of a fixed body, by the carrying power of a vapour_; -thus, fixed oil may, in a minute proportion, be carried up with the -steam of water. Certain bodies, however, which have been long considered -as perfectly fixed at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, have -been lately discovered to undergo a slow and almost imperceptible -evaporation under such circumstances; and the discovery has led to a -very satisfactory solution of several problems which were previously -unintelligible. We shall adduce a striking exemplification of this -truth, under the consideration of mercurial vapours. - -The substances, included under the head of _Aërial poisons_, may be -conveniently arranged in two orders, viz. - - I. Those, whose particles exist mechanically suspended in the - atmosphere. - - II. Those, which are presented to us in a _vaporous_ or _gaseous_ - form. - -Of the first division the various arts will furnish ample illustration, -as for instance the occupations of the colour-maker, plasterer, -cotton-spinner, dry-grinder,[498] stone-cutter, hatter, furrier, miller, -&c. &c. In all of which a subtle matter is given off, which becoming -mechanically suspended in the air, penetrates the structure of the -pulmonary organs, and excites disease, and even death.[499] In -illustration of the second division, we have the trades of -water-gilders, acid manufacturers, night-men, bleachers, and various -others, many of which have been already noticed under the medical and -chemical consideration of nuisances, _vol._ I, _p._ 330. - -In the present chapter we cannot attempt an enumeration of every -substance which may act as an aërial poison; we shall confine our -attention to the history of a few bodies which are calculated to afford -general elucidation, and are likely to become objects of forensic -interest. - - - MERCURIAL VAPOURS. - -It is not the least interesting fact in the history of aërial poisons, -that substances, which are found to be extremely slow in their action, -or even quite inert, when administered in their solid or liquid state, -exert a very rapid and energetic operation when they are presented to -the human body in the attenuated form of vapour. This fact is well -illustrated by the subtlety and activity of metallic mercury _in the -state of vapour_; a substance which, according to the highest -authorities, is quite inactive when introduced in its grosser form into -the stomach. It is thus that the workmen employed in gilding, silvering -looking-glasses, constructing barometers, &c. experience such dreadful -effects; that such effects arise from the _metal_ in a state of vapour, -and not, as some have supposed, from the _oxide_,[500] is a fact capable -of demonstration, for the artists at Birmingham affix an apparatus in -their chimneys as a system of economy, in order to collect the mercury, -which is always found in its _metallic_ state.[501] From the late -interesting experiments of _Mr. Faraday_,[502] it appears that _mercury_ -rises in vapour at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere; the -knowledge of which fact will afford a very satisfactory explanation of -several phenomena, which were previously unintelligible. _Dr. -Hermbstaed_, in the memoir, above mentioned, “on the volatility of -substances hitherto considered as fixed bodies,” relates the following -curious fact with regard to the volatility of mercury. “At the Royal -Manufactory of looking-glasses in Berlin, during a severe winter, the -artificers who worked in a room, which had originally served for the -process of _silvering_ the glasses, lighted a fire, and thus heated the -apartment to between 86° and 96° _Fah._ In a few days the whole of them -were, to their great surprise, affected by a strong salivation, as there -was no trace of mercury in, or near the room. They consulted on the -subject, and suspecting the real cause of the event, had the flooring of -the room taken up, when about 40 lbs of the metal were found spread -about in different parts, where it had fallen at various times during -the operation of silvering, which had been executed in that room -before.” With such facts before us, we shall no longer be unable to -explain the effects which were produced on board his majesty’s ship -_Triumph_, off Cadiz, in April 1809, by the bursting of leathern bags -containing quicksilver, and the consequent dispersion of not less than -three tons of the metal through the vessel. The interest excited by this -case has been very great, and as the facts, involved in its history, are -of high medical importance, we were induced to apply for permission to -search the journals of the ship; and, through the kindness of _Dr. -Burnett_, one of his majesty’s commissioners for victualling the navy, -and the assistance of _Mr. Plowman_, who held the situation of surgeon -to the _Triumph_, we have been enabled to obtain a correct and detailed -history of the event. Previous to the circumstances we are about to -describe, “the ship’s company had been tolerably healthy, when -unfortunately a quantity of quicksilver was received on board, and -diffused over the ship in consequence of the bursting of the leathern -bags, in which it had been enclosed; when its effects were soon -displayed upon the crew, by occasioning ptyalism, partial paralysis, -affections of the bowels; so that in three weeks, no less than two -hundred men were in a state of salivation. In consequence of which two -transports were taken up as hospital ships, in which the slighter cases -soon recovered; but as many fresh cases occurred daily, _Vice-Admiral -Pickmore_ ordered a survey on the ship, and ship’s company, by the -surgeons of the squadron, on the third of May, who reported the -necessity of sending the ship into port, in order to clear her hold, -change part of her provisions, into which the quicksilver had insinuated -itself, and to purify her by means of ablution. This was accordingly -done; but on stowing the hold afresh, every man so employed, as well as -those engaged in the steward’s room, were attacked with ptyalism. Fresh -cases happened daily, until they took their departure from Cadiz on the -13th of June; after which but few occurred, which was attributed by the -surgeon to the coldness of the weather, the fresh breezes from the -north-east, from the men having been kept constantly on deck, and not -allowed to sleep on the orlop, and from not suffering those affected -with ptyalism to lie on the lower deck; as well as from the constant -attention paid in the ventilation of the ship by means of wind-sails. -But, notwithstanding all these precautions, the ship had not been more -than ten days at sea, when many of the men became worse, and it was -found necessary to send twenty-four seamen on board the _Goshawk_, and -two transports. On the arrival of the _Triumph_ in Cawsand Bay, on the -5th of July, there did not remain one case of ptyalism on their list. -During this extraordinary visitation two men died from excessive -ptyalism, one of them at Cadiz, having previously lost his teeth, and -both cheeks at the time of his decease being in a state of sphacelation; -the other, who died at Gibraltar, had lost the whole of his teeth, -two-thirds of his tongue, and, at the time of his death, the lower lip -was in a state of gangrene. To the interesting facts above related, _Mr. -Plowman_ adds, that the interior of the ship was covered with a black -powder, and that the copper bolts displayed the mercurial influence. The -mercurial vapours proved fatal to the living stock on board, for nearly -all the poultry, sheep, pigs, mice,[503] goats, cats, a dog, and even a -canary bird, died from its influence.” - - - SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN GAS. - -This gas is transparent and colourless; it has the property of -inflammability, and when set on fire in the open air, burns with a -bluish flame, and deposits a certain portion of sulphur. It is -distinguished by an excessively fœtid smell, which has been aptly -compared to that of rotten eggs. Its habitudes with other gases are -interesting and important; by admixture with _chlorine_, it immediately -undergoes decomposition, yielding its hydrogen, so as to form -_hydro-chloric acid_ (_muriatic acid_), and consequently depositing its -sulphur; with _ammoniacal gas_ it combines, and forms an -_hydro-sulphuret of ammonia_; when mingled with _sulphurous acid gas_, -the hydrogen of the former combines with the oxygen of the latter, and -the sulphur of both is precipitated; when passed over ignited charcoal -it is converted into carburetted hydrogen gas, and sulphur is deposited. - -It is soluble in water, and the solution precipitates the different -metals from their saline solutions, in the form of sulphurets; a -property which at once distinguishes this gas from every other. - -It has been long considered a very energetic poison, and it would, at -the same time, appear to be a very insidious one; for sensibility is -quickly destroyed by it, without any previous suffering. We are -acquainted with a chemist who was suddenly deprived of sense, as he -stood over a pneumatic trough, in which he was collecting the gas. It -would seem to act upon the nervous system through the medium of the -blood, in which it is extremely soluble. It constitutes the particular -gas of privies, and is the immediate cause of those accidents which we -have already described in a former part of this work, _vol._ 1, _page_ -100; since the printing of which we have heard of the death of four -persons from emptying a privy at Brompton. This gas will be sometimes -developed during the imperfect combustion of wet coals[504]; and it was -probably owing to its presence, or to that of _carburetted hydrogen_, -that the accident arose which is recorded by _Mr. Sutleffe_ in the -_Medical Repository_. “He was hastily summoned to a neighbouring family -at bed-time, where he found a female domestic labouring under a shrill, -laborious inspiration; she had taken up from a good kitchen fire, a -panful of live coals, from which a sudden suffocating blast seized her.” - - - CARBURETTED HYDROGEN GAS. - -This gas is developed by several chemical processes. We have just stated -that if, during the burning of charcoal, moisture be present, it is -evolved in abundance. It appears to be particularly fatal to animal -life. _Dr. Beddoes_ made many experiments upon the subject, from which -it would seem to destroy life by rendering the muscular fibre -inirritable without producing any previous excitement. In order to -decide this question, _Sir Humphry Davy_[505] ventured to take three -inspirations of the gas produced from the decomposition of water by -charcoal. “The first inspiration produced a sort of numbness and loss of -feeling in the chest, and about the pectoral muscles; after the second,” -says he, “I lost all power of perceiving external things, and had no -distinct sensation, except a terrible oppression on the chest; during -the third expiration, this feeling disappeared; I seemed sinking into -annihilation, and had just power enough to drop the mouth-piece from my -unclosed lips. There is every reason to believe, that if I had taken -four or five inspirations, instead of three, they would have destroyed -life immediately, without producing any painful sensation.” - - - CHLORINE—_Oxy-muriatic Acid Gas_. - -This gas, which is now considered as an elementary body, has received -from _Sir Humphry Davy_ the name of _chlorine_, from the green colour -which characterises it. Its odour is so penetrating and insupportable -that it is impossible to respire it, even when considerably diluted with -atmospheric air, and yet it will support combustion. It discharges -vegetable colours, whence it forms the basis of various bleaching -preparations. According to the experiments[506] of _M. Nysten_, this gas -is not absorbed when respired pure, but appears to act only by -irritating the bronchiæ locally; and so energetic is its action, that -the animal dies before there is sufficient time for asphyxia to take -place from the circulation of black blood. When it is respired in a -dilute form, it produces a severe cough, and, according to _Fourcroy_, -it occasions a phlegmonic inflammation of the bronchial membranes. The -death of the ingenious and indefatigable _Pelletier_ was occasioned by -his accidentally inhaling a proportion of this gas; a consumption was -the consequence, which in a short time proved fatal. In the _London -Medical and Physical Journal for November, 1821_, a case of a person is -recorded who was poisoned by bleaching liquor. - - - SULPHUROUS ACID GAS. - -The gas is generated by the combustion of sulphur. It is colourless; has -a pungent smell, resembling that of burning sulphur, and is very soluble -in water. It would appear to destroy life by a peculiar action on the -blood. - - - - - OF HOMICIDE BY MISADVENTURE OR ACCIDENT. - - -If a physician gives a person a potion without any intent of doing him -any bodily hurt, but with an intent to cure or prevent a disease, and -contrary to the expectation of the physician it kills him, this is no -(culpable) homicide, and the like of a chirurgeon; _1 Hale_, _P. C._ -429; _4 Bl. Comm._ 197. But query if he were not a regular physician or -surgeon? on this there appears to be some difference of opinion; it was -anciently holden that if one, that is not of the mystery of a physician -or surgeon, take upon him the cure of a man, and he dieth of the potion -or medicine, this is covert felony. _Si un que nest physition ou surgeon -emprent sur luy un cure, que murrust in sa main, que cest felonie_; -_Stanford’s Pleas of the Crown_, _cap._ 9; _Fitzherbert_, _tit. coron._ -_p._ 311; _Briton_, _fol._ 14; _Lombard_, _Eiren. tit. Felonie_ saith -thus; that _Thorpe_, _43 Ed. 3_, 33, saith he knew one to be indicted -accordingly. _Dalton_, _p._ 470, queries this case, as it is difficult -to determine the actual cause of death, and there appeareth no will to -do harm, but rather to do good, and “the _34 Hen. 8_, _c._ 8, leaveth so -great a liberty of such practice to unskilful persons, that it will be -hard now to make it felony.” Now the statute of _Henry the eighth_ -applies only to the cure of certain diseases or sores, particularly -specified, and others like to the same, by external applications, and to -drinks for the stone, strangury, or agues, provided (if the preamble may -be relied on) “the said persons have not taken any thing for their pains -or cunning, but have ministered the same to the poor people only, for -neighbourhood, and God’s sake, and of pity, and charity;” in such sense -the act is reasonable even to this day, much more then, when from the -scarcity of regular practitioners, the charitable in the country were -frequently called upon to administer on emergencies, where no medical -aid could be procured; but surely this act can never have been intended -to warrant the administration of dangerous medicines, arsenic, corrosive -sublimate, or cantharides, such indeed as may be fairly classed as -absolute poisons, except when in skilful hands, nor the performance of -surgical operations. _Dalton_ indeed adds “But if a smith or other -person (having skill only in dressing or curing the diseases of horses -or other cattle) shall take upon him the cutting, or letting blood, or -such like cure of a man, who dieth thereof, this seemeth to be felony; -for the rule is, _quod quisque norit, in hoc se (non) exerceat_.” And if -it were otherwise, great evils might arise; for persons intending to -commit murders, need only cover their design by a pretence of -administering medicine;[507] thus in _Vaux’s_ case, the professed -purpose of administering the cantharides, was not illegal, yet the -prisoner was found guilty of murder. In _Donellan’s_ case, what would a -plea have availed, that the chemical principle of laurel water was, in -the prisoner’s opinion, a cure for consumption, with which _Sir -Theodosius Boughton_ was threatened, and that it had been administered -to cure, and not to kill him; or on the death of _Mr. Scawen_,[508] that -his mistress had infused or dissolved corrosive sublimate in all his -drinks and medicines, to cure him of an ulcer, with which he was -afflicted; and that she had done it secretly, because he had an avowed -aversion to mercurial medicines. Yet such pleas would continually be -made, if the doctrine of allowing all persons however ignorant and -unqualified to tamper with medicines, should be admitted. On the other -hand there is very considerable weight of authority; _Sir. Wm. -Blackstone_ follows _Sir Mathew Hale_ in his opinion, that this -doctrine, that if any die under the hand of an unlicenced physician it -is felony, is apocryphal, and fitted to gratify and flatter doctors and -licentiates in physic; though it may have its use to make people -cautious, and wary, how they take upon themselves too much in this -dangerous employment; _1 Hales_, _P. C._ 429, 430; _4 Bl. Com._ _c._ 14, -_p._ 197; it is difficult to imagine how caution is to be enforced by -taking away the liability to punishment. Mr. Serjeant _Hawkins_ takes a -different ground; “Also it hath been anciently holden, that if a person, -not duly authorised to be a physician or surgeon, undertake a cure and -the patient die under his hand, he is guilty of felony;” but inasmuch as -the books wherein this opinion is holden (_Stamford_, _P. C._ 16; -_Pulton_, 22; _Crom._ 27; _43 Ed. 3_, 33; _Fitz H. Cor._ 163; _Britt._ -_c._ 5; and _4 Inst._ 251) were written before the statutes of _23 Hen. -8_, which first excluded such felonious killing, as may be called wilful -murder of malice prepense, from the benefit of clergy, it may be well -questioned whether such killing shall be said to be of malice prepense -within the intent of that statute; however it is certainly highly rash -and presumptuous for unskilful persons to undertake matters of this -nature; “_and indeed the law cannot be too severe in this case_, in -order to deter ignorant people from endeavouring _to get a livelihood_ -by such practice, which cannot be followed without the manifest hazard -of the lives of those who have to do with them;” _1 Hawk. P. C._ 131. -This doctrine does not by any means go as far as _Sir Mathew Hale_; for -as the supposed alteration of the law is referred to the operation of -the statute, which takes away the benefit of clergy from murders, that -is to say from felonious killing with malice prepense, it does not apply -to manslaughter, to which the benefit of clergy was still allowed. But -there yet remains a question, whether in the case of a person illegally -taking upon himself the administration of dangerous medicines, for -profit, (and it must be observed that the greater number of nostrums -are, from the powerful nature of their ingredients, highly dangerous) -does not subject himself to a charge of murder if any die under his -hands; for “if a man does such an act, of which the probable consequence -may be, and eventually is, death, such killing may be murder, although -no stroke is struck;” _4 Bl. Com._ 197. What then if a man for profit -administer dangerous preparations of mercury to persons necessarily -exposed to change of temperature, and inclemency of weather; nay, -delusively hold out to them, that no mercury is employed, by which they -are induced to neglect the most ordinary precautions; if death ensue is -not this equally murder, _in foro conscientiæ_, as killing with the -sword? Malice may be implied in law, as well as apparent; it may be -general, as well as particular; and whenever a man has evinced, whether -from avarice, cruelty, or wantonness, such disregard for the lives and -safeties of mankind, as warrants the imputation of general malice, it is -not necessary that individual malice be proved towards the party who has -become his victim.[509] _1 Easts. P. C._ 231. “So too if a man hath a -beast that is used to do mischief, and he knowing it, suffers it to go -abroad, and it kills a man, even this is manslaughter in the owner: but -if he had purposely _turned it loose_, though barely to frighten people, -and make what is called sport, it is with us (as in the Jewish law) as -much murder as if he had incited a bear or dog to worry them;” _4 Bl. -Com._ 197. And _Hale_ says, _1 P. C._ 431, I have heard that the owner -was hanged for it. Is there much difference, whether the mischief be -done by a dangerous beast, or a poisonous drug? to us it appears that -the man who vends or administers the one, is as guilty as he who is -convicted of turning out the other. If _A_ give purging comfits to _B_ -to make sport and not to hurt him, and _B_ dies thereof, it is a killing -by _A_, but not murder, but manslaughter; 1, _II. P. C._ 431; _Dalt._ -_cap._ 93. Here _A_ is not supposed cognisant of the dangerous nature of -the comfits. - -With every deference therefore to the very high authorities, which have -supported a contrary opinion, we cannot but conclude, that the unlawful -administration of medicine for profit, by which death ensues, may -constitute wilful murder in some cases, manslaughter in most, and a high -misdemeanor in all, according to the quantity of general malice, -ignorance, and presumption, evidenced in each case; under what class -each individual instance may fall, is a proper subject for a jury. If -the law be defective on this point it cannot be too soon amended, and we -must express our sanguine hope, that the consideration of revenue, as -arising from the stamp duties on patent medicines, will not be allowed -to influence the legislature in a matter vitally important to the public -health, and to the lives of his majesty’s subjects, more especially as -the evil principally operates on the class, whose personal vigour -constitutes the strength and sinews of the country. And yet in candour -we must admit the difficulties and embarrassments with which the subject -is beset: the multiplication of restraints in a free country is very -naturally regarded with extreme jealousy, and however anxiously we may -desire to crush those harpies of society, who scatter poison and death -around, under the pretence of affording relief, yet the object must not -be purchased by the infringement of civil liberty. - -Doctor _Goodall_, in his historical account of the college’s proceedings -against empiricks, published in 1684, mentions many cases in which death -has ensued from unlawful administration of medicine; in some of these -cases, the college punished the offenders according to their -jurisdiction; some by fine and imprisonment, for mala praxis; others -they sued at law, for the penalty of five pounds per month for -unlicensed practice. But in those instances which appeared to require -greater severity of punishment, they consigned the accused to the -ordinary course of justice. See _Humphrey Beven’s_ case, _Goodall’s -Pro._ 425—_John Hope’s_ case, for giving two apples of coloquintida to a -man as a purge, of which he died. _Ibid._ 441. - - - - - END OF VOL. II. - - - London: Printed by William Phillips, George Yard, Lombard Street. - - - - - Footnotes - - -Footnote 1: - - “But there is a particular kind of manslaughter proper to be - considered here, from which the benefit of the clergy is taken away by - _Ja._ 1, _c._ 8.” “Where any person shall stab or thrust any person or - persons that hath not then first striken the party which shall so stab - or thrust, so as the person or persons so stabbed or thrust, shall - thereof die within the space of six months then next following, - although it cannot be proved that the same was done of malice - forethought.” See 1 _Hawk. P. C._ This statute was passed in - consequence of the numerous murders committed by the Scots, who with - their dirks stabbed before an ordinary weapon could be drawn. - - For an extraordinary case on this statute, and much learning on the - subject, see the trial of _William Chetwynd_ for the murder of _Thomas - Rickets_. 18 _How St. Tri. p._ 290. - -Footnote 2: - - Od. Lib. v. lin. 757. - -Footnote 3: - - Tractat. de Peste Lib. iv. Hist. 85. - -Footnote 4: - - In returning, the ship was cast away on the island of Zante, when this - unfortunate philosopher perished from hunger. - -Footnote 5: - - _Bruhier, John_, a physician at Paris, in the middle of the - seventeenth century; he was author of many works, but his principal - celebrity rested on his warnings against burying persons, supposed to - be dead, too early. “Dissertation sur l’Incertitude des signes de la - Mort et l’abus des enterremens, et embaumemens precipites.” Paris, - 1742. He was at the pains of collecting histories of persons who had - revived after being supposed to be dead, some of whom had been buried. - Bodies ought not to be interred, he says, until putrefaction has - commenced. “Memoire sur la necessité d’un Reglement general au sujet - des enterremens.” 1745. No one should be buried until the fourth day - from their dying. “Addition aux Memoires,” &c. in which he adds to the - number of examples of persons who had been buried alive, or had - revived after being interred. These works have passed through numerous - editions, and have been translated into several other European - languages. - -Footnote 6: - - Horrible as it may appear, it was a custom in Persia, at the time that - _Herodotus_ wrote, of _burying alive_; and this historian was informed - that _Amestris_, the wife of _Xerxes_, when she was far advanced in - age, commanded fourteen Persian children of illustrious birth to be - interred alive, in honour of the Deity whom they supposed to exist - under the earth.—_Polyhymnia_, c. xiv. - -Footnote 7: - - “A Dissertation on the _Disorder of Death_, or that state of the frame - under the signs of Death, called Suspended Animation,” by the Rev. - _Walter Whiter_, Rector of Hardingham. Norwich, 1819. 8vo. - -Footnote 8: - - _Plin._ Nat. Hist. Lib. vii, c. 52; see also _Valer. Maxim._ Lib. 1, - c. 8. For extraordinary histories of persons roused from the tomb, see - _Diemerbroeck_, Lib, ii; _Joannes Mathæus_, Quæst. Med.; _Hildanus_ - Cent. 2. Obs. 95, 96; _Phillip Salmuth_ Cent. 2, Obs. 86, 87, 95. - _Maximilian Misson_ relates in his voyages many curious cases of this - kind. “_Nouveau_ Voyage d’Italie.” But the works of _Bruhier_, before - mentioned, contain the greatest collection of such anecdotes. - -Footnote 9: - - Thus in the Greek, the most philosophically constructed language with - which we are acquainted, the _alpha_ and _omega_, the first and last - acts of life, are conveyed in the verb αω _spiro_ compounded of those - letters. In Latin we also find _spiro_ and _spiritus_. - -Footnote 10: - - Lettres sur la certitude des signes de la mort. - -Footnote 11: - - Recherches Physiologiques sur la Vie et la Mort. - -Footnote 12: - - Phil. Trans. 1811. - -Footnote 13: - - Phil. Trans. 1667, vol. ii, p. 539. - -Footnote 14: - - _Hunter_ on the Blood, p. 54. - -Footnote 15: - - Medical Reports, p. 75. - -Footnote 16: - - Zoonomia, vol. 1, p. 40. - -Footnote 17: - - An Essay on Respiration by _J. Bostock_, M. D. - -Footnote 18: - - A question has arisen, says _Mr. Brodie_, (_Manuscript Notes_) whether - the whole of the brain is essential to the function of respiration, or - whether the power of calling the respiratory muscles into action may - not reside in some particular part of that organ? It has been stated - by _Le Gallois_ that if you expose the cavity of the cranium, and - remove the upper part of the brain, the muscles of respiration - continue to act as usual; if, however, the dissection be continued, as - soon as that portion of the _Medulla Oblongata_ is removed which - corresponds to the _Corpora Olivaria_, their action is immediately - suspended. The theory which such an experiment naturally establishes - has received no inconsiderable support from the history of a fœtus, - published by _Mr. Lawrence_ in the Medico Chirurgical Transactions: in - this monster the _Cerebrum_ and _Cerebellum_ were entirely absent, but - the _Medulla Spinalis_ was continued for about an inch above the - _Foramen Magnum_ of the occiput, so as to form an imperfect _Medulla - Oblongata_, and to give origin to several nerves. Death did not take - place immediately after birth, as in other instances of cerebral - deficiency, but the child breathed for four days after it had been - expelled from the uterus. - -Footnote 19: - - _Lower_, as early as the year 1667, shewed that if the nerves which go - to the diaphragm in a dog be divided, he breathes “like a - broken-winded horse.” _Phil. Trans._ vol. ii, p. 544. - -Footnote 20: - - While this work was in progress we have read an account of a person - who, being in a state of debility, died suddenly from the shock of a - shower bath at Brighton. In this case Syncope was probably occasioned - in the same manner as by a blow on the head. - -Footnote 21: - - _Trance._ Although this term is extremely familiar, it does not appear - that any precise meaning is attached to it; the popular notion is that - the body may for a time be abandoned by the soul, and remain for a - certain period in a deep sleep, during which the exercise of the vital - functions is so obscure, that the individual is reduced to a state of - close simulation of death. - -Footnote 22: - - A great question has arisen upon this subject, whether rupture of the - heart ever takes place in the sound state of that organ? And it has - been answered by several pathologists in the affirmative. Fischer’s - case from the JOURNAL DER PRACTISCHEN HEILKUNDE, may be seen in the - MEDICAL REPOSITORY, Vol. 11, p. 427, and Vol. 12, p. 164. HARVEY found - in a male subject a rupture in the aortic ventricle, capable of - admitting a finger, and remarked that the parietes of the cavity - possessed their natural strength and thickness (Exercitat III. De - Circulo Sanguinis, T. p. 1. 281.) BOHN also gives a case of a man who - had died suddenly, when a fissure was discovered in the _Ostium - Aortæ_. PORTAL has informed us, that in a rupture of the basis of the - heart, which he examined, the structure of the organ was as firm and - compact as in the natural state, and that in another case the parietes - of the heart displayed their natural solidity. (Memoires de l’Academie - des Sciences, a Paris, 1784, p. 51.) SOEMERING considers it as having - been very correctly remarked by Portal, that the Aortic ventricle - commonly bursts without any previous weakening of the substance of the - heart. (See Soemering’s German Translation of Baillie’s Morbid - Anatomy, with Additions.) DR. WHYTT has likewise seen the heart burst - from protracted grief, and therefore does not regard the term, “BROKEN - HEART,” in the light of a mere metaphor. On the contrary, BOERHAAVE - has recorded two cases, and believes that the rupture was occasioned - by the morbid accumulation of fat; KREYSIG suspects that in most of - these cases of ruptured heart an insidious inflammation had been - established, and he considers that the quantity of adipose substance - in which ruptured hearts are so commonly found enveloped, furnishes an - evidence of this inflammatory state (Sopra i Malattée del cuore.) We - are decidedly of opinion that such ruptures take place in consequence - of a morbid state of the heart capable of diminishing the cohesive - power of its fibres. See a Treatise on the Diseases of the Chest by - _R. T. H. Laennec, M. D._ translated by _J. Forbes, M. D._ London, - 1821. - -Footnote 23: - - Recueil Periodique de la Societé de Medicine de Paris. T. LXI. p. 87 - -Footnote 24: - - Medico-Chirurg. Trans. vol. 1, p. 157. Analogous cases to those - related by _Mr. Chevalier_ will be found in _Bonetus_ Sepulchr. Anat. - vol. 1, p. 383; and _Morgagni_ Epist. 48, Art. 44; see also a - communication by _Dr. Ozanam_ in the Recueil Periodique de la Societé - de Medicine de Paris, tom. 61, p. 87. - -Footnote 25: - - A young animal may not so soon perish as an older one; and a strong - and healthy individual may survive during a longer period than a - creature that is in a state of debility. By filling the lungs with air - a person may also be enabled to dispense with the act of respiration - for a longer period; _Mr. Kite_ made a very deep inspiration of 300 - cubic inches, and was thus enabled to retain this quantity for 72 - seconds, without a fresh inspiration; and divers in the pearl - fisheries, inspire deeply before they descend. It has been, moreover, - established by numerous experiments that the demand for oxygen in the - lungs is materially influenced by the nature of the ingesta received - into the stomach; _Mr. Spalding_, the celebrated diver, observed, that - whenever he used a diet of animal food, or drank spirituous liquors, - he consumed in a much shorter time the oxygen of the atmospheric air - in his diving-bell; and therefore he had learned from experience to - confine himself to a vegetable diet, and water, when following his - avocation. And the priest, or conjurer (_Pillal Karras_, in the - Malabar language) who attends the divers in the pearl fisheries of the - east, enjoins, as a religious duty, an abstinence from all food, - before he plunges into the ocean. - - Muscular exertions, as in the act of struggling, will without doubt - contribute to the expenditure of oxygen, and increase the demand for - it, and therefore in its absence such movement must accelerate death - by suffocation; this physiological fact will be hereafter more fully - elucidated. - -Footnote 26: - - We anticipate the objections that will be urged against the truth of - this assertion. It will be asked how it can be reconciled with the - accounts of persons who have recovered after an asphyxia of a much - longer duration? It may be inquired how the statement can be - reconciled with the ordinary histories of divers, who have become so - expert in the art which they profess, as to be capable of remaining - beneath the water for twenty minutes, or even for a longer period: we - are bound to consider such statements as no better than extravagant - fables; not more authentic, says _Mr. Brodie_ (Manuscript Notes), but - certainly less poetical and elegant, than those of the nymphs and - mermaids, whose ordinary residence is in grottos beneath the waves of - the sea; or than those Arabian fictions which have amused and - astonished our youthful imaginations with the description of the - Princes who govern the submarine nations, and pass their lives in - palaces of crystal at the bottom of the ocean—but of this we shall - speak more fully hereafter. - -Footnote 27: - - Although the term ASPHYXIA merely signifies the absence of the pulse, - yet the name is erroneously applied to every apparent loss of - vitality. - -Footnote 28: - - DE HAEN thought that death was produced in drowning by the water - flowing into the lungs, and thus stopping the passage of the blood in - the arteries. This belief gave origin to the very erroneous and - mischievous practice, which still continues amongst the more ignorant, - of suspending drowned persons by the heels, or of rolling them over - barrels. - -Footnote 29: - - _Mr. Coleman_ examined the lungs of a cat which had been drowned, by - placing a ligature on the trachea, removing the lungs from the thorax, - and then making an opening in the trachea under water, so as to - collect the air which issued from the orifice; the whole quantity of - air thus obtained, amounted only to half a drachm; yet the same lungs - when inflated, required as much as two ounces of air, by measure, for - their distention. Nor would the presence of water appear to be - immediately fatal, when introduced into the lungs; Dr. _Goodwyn_ - poured two ounces of water into the lungs of a cat, through an opening - made between the cartilages of the trachea; the animal had an - immediate difficulty of breathing, and a feeble pulse, but lived - several hours afterwards without much apparent inconvenience; it was - at length strangled, and the water was found in the lungs. From which - it would appear, that the admission of a certain portion of water, - does not tend to hasten death. The author of this note was present at - an experiment made by Mr. _Brodie_, in which he drowned a guinea pig, - whose trachea had been previously perforated; so that in this case, no - spasm of the glottis could arrest the ingress of the water into the - pulmonary air cells; but this produced no modification of the usual - symptoms; nor did it prevent the resuscitation of the animal, which - was afterwards effected by the appropriate methods. - -Footnote 30: - - An animal also dies sooner by drowning, than by simple strangulation; - Mr. _Brodie_ considers that the abstraction of heat in the former case - is quite sufficient to account for this difference. - -Footnote 31: - - _Foderè_, 90. - -Footnote 32: - - _Walther_, de Morbis Peritonai, et Apoplexia. 3 _Foderè_, p. 106. - -Footnote 33: - - See the Reports of the Edinburgh colleges, in the case of Sir _James - Standsfield_, as printed in the Appendix, p. 225, also Extracts from - Medical Evidence in the case of _Spencer Cowper_, Esq. for the murder - of _Sarah Stout_, ibid. p. 230. 3 _Foderè_, p. 93. 100. 108. The case - of _Servin_, ib. 125. of _Paulet_, ib. 126. - -Footnote 34: - - Medicine Légale, vol. iii. p. 85. - -Footnote 35: - - During such a state of the body there would be but a feeble call for - oxygen; it is muscular action which so rapidly expends this important - principle. - -Footnote 36: - - In an experiment with a drowned cat, Mr. _Brodie_ found less than a - drachm of water in the bronchial vessels. Other physiologists have - ascertained the same fact by drowning animals in different coloured - fluids. - -Footnote 37: - - See a very curious paper upon this subject by Mr. _Robertson_, in the - Philosophical Transactions, 1757, vol. 1. p. 30; from which it appears - that the author made ten experiments, in which, with the exception of - one person, he found all the men _specifically lighter_ than water, - and hence he concludes that drowning might be avoided, if the person - who falls into the water were not deprived of his presence of mind. - -Footnote 38: - - _Franklin’s_ Art of Swimming. - -Footnote 39: - - Vide _Valent. Pand. Med. Leg._ 297. “De reperto sub aqua Cadavere,” - and 299 “De Submersorum morte sine pota aquæ.” - -Footnote 40: - - We say, “_generally_” because the comparative size of bone, on the one - hand, or the quantity of fat on the other, will make a very - considerable difference in the specific gravity of different parts of - the human body. - -Footnote 41: - - See _Southey’s_ Life of Nelson; and the New Monthly Magazine for - January, 1821. - -Footnote 42: - - This was the opinion of _Boerhaave_ and _Morgagni_. _M. Portal_ also - coincides with them, and observes that the examination of the bodies - of executed criminals formerly carried to him at the _Jardin des - Plantes_ for his lectures, has confirmed him in this idea. - -Footnote 43: - - See 3 _Foderè_, 130. - -Footnote 44: - - See several cases cited by _Foderè_, T. 3. p. 134. - -Footnote 45: - - Memoires de l’Academie Royale, &c. 1704. - -Footnote 46: - - State Trials, vol. xii. - -Footnote 47: - - In consequence of plants, in the absence of the sun, giving off - nitrogen and carbonic acid gases, the custom of sleeping with flowers - in the bed chamber is deleterious, and may even, under certain - circumstances prove fatal; a melancholy proof of this occurred in - October, 1814, at Leighton-Buzzard, in Bedfordshire. “_Mr. Sherbrook_ - having frequently had his pinery robbed, the gardener determined to - sit up and watch. He accordingly posted himself with a loaded fowling - piece, in the green-house, where it is supposed he fell asleep, and in - the morning was found dead upon the ground, with all the appearance of - suffocation, evidently occasioned by the discharge of _Mephitic_ gas - from the plants during the night.” _Observer_ of 16th, and _Times_ of - 17th October, 1814; see also _Currie’s_ “Observations on Apparent - Death,” &c. p. 181. - -Footnote 48: - - _Rozier_ and _Sir Humphrey Davy_ conclude from their experiments that - carbonic acid kills by exciting a spasmodic action, in which the - epiglottis is closed, and the entrance of this fluid into the lungs - altogether prevented. _Dr. Babington_ appears to entertain a different - opinion, (see “a case of exposure to the vapour of burning charcoal,” - Medico-Chirurg. Trans. vol. 1, p. 83,) and asks how we shall explain - the fact, that the loss of irritability in the muscles of animals - which have been destroyed by immersion in noxious airs, is - comparatively greater than in such as are hanged or drowned, unless we - suppose that the carbonic acid exerts a deleterious influence on the - nervous and muscular systems? The farther consideration of this - subject will be more properly entertained under the head of poisons. - -Footnote 49: - - Comparative anatomy would furnish us with a variety of beautiful - arguments, if it were necessary, to support these views. The bird - whose muscular exertion is so great during its flight, is provided - with a more than ordinary extent of pulmonary apparatus; and amongst - insects we find that many of the _coleopterous_ species disclose - avenues of air, in the act of flying, which, in their quiet state, are - closed by the cases of their wings, thus procuring for themselves a - larger supply of oxygen, at a period when from their exertions they - most require it. Flat fish who, having no swimming bladder, remain at - the bottom, and possess but little velocity, have gills that are quite - concealed, while those who encounter a rude and boisterous stream, as - trout, perch, or salmon, have them widely expanded. For further - observations upon this subject, the author begs to refer to his paper - in the 10th vol. of the Linnean Transactions, entitled “On the - Physiology of the Egg,” by _J. A. Paris, M. D._ &c. - -Footnote 50: - - This was the _peine fort & dure_ of our ancient law, which was - inflicted on prisoners who stood mute out of malice, or who feigned - themselves mad, or challenged peremptorily more than the number of - Jurors allowed by law, thus refusing their legal trial. “The manner of - inflicting this punishment may be best found from the Books of Entries - and other law books, all of which generally agree, that the prisoner - shall be remanded to the place from whence he came, and put into some - low dark room, and there laid on his back without any manner of - covering, except for the privy parts, and that as many weights be laid - upon him as he can bear and more, and that he shall have no manner of - sustenance but the worst bread and water, and that he shall not eat - the same day in which he drinks, nor drink the same day on which he - eats, and that he shall so continue till he die.” Some authorities say - till he answers. See 2 _Hawk. P. C._ 330. _c._ 30. § 16. 4 _Bl. Com._ - _p._ 319. _Jac._ Law Dict. tit. Mute. The memory of this barbarous - punishment remains “as a monument of the savage rapacity with which - the lordly tyrants of feudal antiquity hunted after escheats and - forfeitures,” for when the criminal died mute, the lord in some cases - lost his escheat; (see 4 _Bl. Com._ 323). But its execution is no - longer permitted by our laws. By Stat. 12 _Geo._ 3. c. 20, sentence - may be passed on those who stand mute as if they had been found or - pleaded guilty. - -Footnote 51: - - This, however, can but rarely occur; and it seems to have been wisely - ordained by Nature, that the stomach should lose the power of - rejecting its contents, whenever the brain loses its sensibility. See - _Paris’s_ Pharmacologia, edit. 5, vol. 1, p. 150. - -Footnote 52: - - Manuscript Notes. - -Footnote 53: - - _Dr. Badenoch_ has very satisfactorily shewn that the _Coup de Soleil_ - kills by producing apoplexy. - -Footnote 54: - - This does not hold universally, for _Beccaria_ mentions the case of a - man whose body became exceedingly stiff, very shortly after having - been struck dead by lightning;—and in one of Mr. _Brodie’s_ - experiments, the muscles of a Guinea pig killed by electricity became - stiff. - -Footnote 55: - - Manuscript Notes. - -Footnote 56: - - _Mayer_ directed his attention very particularly to the appearances - which were thus produced, and had drawings made of them. It would - appear that they most commonly passed in the direction of the spine. - - In the First Volume of the Philosophical Transactions, there is an - account of the dissection of a man killed by lightning, but it - contains nothing remarkable. - -Footnote 57: - - See also an account of a thunder-storm, by Mr. _Brydone_, in the 77th - vol. of Phil. Trans. - -Footnote 58: - - _Morgagni_ de Sedibus et Causis Morb. Epist. 68. No. 6 and 7. - -Footnote 59: - - _Hippocrat._ Aphor. 13. Sect. 2. - -Footnote 60: - - Osservaz: intorno agli Anim. viventi, etc. No. 3 et 4. - -Footnote 61: - - This event occurred during the period of the author’s studies at - Cambridge; and he can therefore offer his testimony to the truth of - the statement; he visited the woman soon after her disinterment. - -Footnote 62: - - See Vol. i. p. 369. - -Footnote 63: - - Starving to death was a punishment inflicted by the people of Aragon, - some years ago; and it is reported by _Tavernier_, that the chief - ladies in the kingdom of Tonquin, are at this day starved to death for - adultery. The severity of the Roman law on an unchaste Vestal has - often exercised the pencil of the artist. An account of its execution - on _Rhea_, marked as it always was by circumstances of peculiar horror - and solemnity, is to be found in _Plutarch’s_ Life of _Numa_; the - offender, conducted by a mute procession across the Forum to the place - of her interment near the Colline gate, was made to descend a ladder - into the sepulchre, and left there with a lamp, a loaf of bread, and a - cruse of water, the opening being immediately closed with earth and - stones. - -Footnote 64: - - Corsican Gazette, and London Med. & Phys. Jour. March, 1822. - -Footnote 65: - - The siege of Jerusalem by the Romans will at once occur to the reader; - and of which _Josephus_ has left us so tragic a history: amongst other - atrocities, an unhappy woman, reduced to the last extremity by - pinching hunger, sacrifices the feelings of a mother to the voracious - calls of appetite, butchers her child, and feeds upon the body! - -Footnote 66: - - See “Naufrage de la Frégate la Méduse, faisant partie de l’Expedition - du Sénégal en 1816,” par _F. B. Savigny_, ex Chirurgien de la Marine, - et _Alexandre Corréard_, Ingénieur-Geographe. Paris, 1817.—A very - interesting account of this narrative may be found in the Quarterly - Review, for October, 1817. - -Footnote 67: - - That which we call duration is in fact a feeling of succession, and is - computed by the number of ideas that pass through the mind; whenever - an event occurs which powerfully excites the attention of an observer, - he watches the most minute change, whence he believes that the time - which elapses before the whole event is completed, appears to be - unusually prolonged. When the infidel sultan of Egypt refused to - believe that Mahomet could have ascended into the seven heavens, and - have held some thousand conferences with the Almighty in the space of - a few minutes, the learned mussulman, who was consulted on the - occasion, endeavoured to turn his Majesty to a more strict faith, by - demonstrating to him that a short period of time became converted into - a long one, when a great multitude of important events were crouded - into it. - -Footnote 68: - - In a tract entitled “Observations on Animal Life and Apparent Death, - by _John Franks_, surgeon, 8vo. London, 1790,” the author says that - “when the late _Mr. Justamond_ (Surgeon to the Middlesex hospital) - lived on the terrace, Palace yard, Westminster, a boy who had been - drowned in the Thames was brought to him; he made an opening into the - wind-pipe, in order to inflate the lungs; but the discharge of blood - which ensued was such as gave him no chance of succeeding in the - recovery; for he could not prevent the blood from pouring down into - the lungs.” Although, says _Dr. Currie_, nothing is said in this case - about the pulse, yet from the blood flowing so copiously, there is - reason to believe that the heart had begun to act; and therefore to - conclude, that life was in fact _destroyed_ by this operation, which - _might_ have been saved without it. See “Observations on Apparent - Death from Drowning, Hanging, Suffocation by noxious vapours, &c.” by - _James Currie_, M.D. London, 1815. - -Footnote 69: - - The first body galvanised in this country was that of the malefactor - _George Foster_, who was executed in January 1803, before Newgate, for - the murder of his wife and infant daughter, by drowning them in the - Paddington Canal; the experiment was conducted under the direction of - _Aldini_, the nephew of _Galvani_. - -Footnote 70: - - _Medico-Chirurg. Trans._ vol. 1, p. 26. - -Footnote 71: - - Elements of Juridical or Forensic Medicine. - -Footnote 72: - - Newgate Calendar. - -Footnote 73: - - See _Maclaurin’s Crim. Ca._ _p. 71._ where this circumstance is - alluded to. - -Footnote 74: - - By the Scottish law, in part founded on that of the Romans, a person - against whom the judgment of the Court has been executed, can suffer - no more in future, but is thenceforward totally exculpated; and it is - likewise held, that the marriage is dissolved by the execution of the - convicted party. _Margaret Dickson_ then, having been convicted and - executed, as above mentioned, the king’s advocate could prosecute her - no farther, but he filed a bill in the high court of Judiciary against - the sheriff, for omitting to fulfil the law. The husband of this - revived convict, however, married her publicly a few days after her - resuscitation; and she strenuously denied the crime for which she had - suffered. - -Footnote 75: - - The Lord Chief Justice of the King’s Bench is the principal Coroner in - the kingdom, and may, if he pleases, exercise the jurisdiction of a - coroner in any part of the Realm. 4 _Rep._ 57. - -Footnote 76: - - Except in case of persons dying in jail, the Coroner must not hold - unnecessary inquests on the bodies of those who have died in the - ordinary course of nature. “And the Court of King’s Bench, on two - several occasions within my own memory, blamed the Coroners of Norfolk - and Anglesea, for holding repeated and unnecessary inquests, for the - sake of enhancing their fees, on bodies and parts of bodies which were - cast up by the sea shore, without the smallest probability or - suspicion of the deaths happening in any other manner than by the - unfortunate perils of the sea.” 1 _East. P.C._ 382. See _ib._ the case - of _Rex v. Harrison_, for extorting money for _not_ holding an - inquest. - -Footnote 77: - - For this purpose the Coroner issues a precept to the constable of such - townships to return a competent number of jurors, viz. not less than - twelve. 2 _Hale, P.C._ 59. 62. 1 _East. P.C._ 380. - -Footnote 78: - - But this power should be used with discretion. On a late occasion, the - Judge severely reprobated the conduct of a magistrate, who had - committed a poor lad to await the assizes, in company of notorious - thieves and other desperate characters, because he had been the - innocent witness of a felony, and was too poor to find recognizance. - -Footnote 79: - - Thus in the case of Sir _Edmondsbury Godfrey_, much blood might have - been spared, and much political controversy avoided, if it had been - possible to determine whether the murder had taken place in the field - where the body was found, or at Somerset House, as charged by - witnesses who afterwards confessed their perjury. - -Footnote 80: - - “It is true that the statute does in terms only require the coroner to - put in writing _the effect_ of the evidence. But this must not be - taken to give him a latitude, such as hath been but too often taken by - persons of this description to the great perversion of truth and - justice, of putting down, not the words of the witnesses, but his own - conception of their tendency. It is doubtless the meaning of the act, - that the examination of the witnesses should be taken down with the - greatest possible accuracy as to all material points of the inquiry: - otherwise one great benefit of the act, which is to enable the Court - to compare the examination with the evidence, must be defeated. _The - effect_ mentioned therein, means the true and genuine sense of the - evidence, as delivered in detail, not indeed in letters, syllables, or - even words; though these should not be needlessly departed from; but - the fair and obvious meaning of the words spoken, and not the final - result of the evidence. Complaints have in my own memory been made by - judges on the circuits of the culpable neglect of coroners in this - respect, and threats of exemplary punishment holden out to them, to - prevent a repetition of the same abuse in future.” 1 _East. P.C._ 384. - -Footnote 81: - - It must be on the actual view of the body, the coroner and his party - seeing it together. 2 _Hale_ 60. 1 _East._ 380. _King v. Ferrand._ 2 - _Barn. & Ald._ 260. - - It was evidently the original intention of the Legislature, that the - coroner should view the body on the spot where it was found; that he - and his jury might judge as well by inspection of the body, as by an - examination of surrounding objects, whether the deceased had died by - violence. And Sir _William Blackstone_ says, “He must also sit at the - _very_ place where the death happened,” 1 _Com._ 348. and this should - certainly be done in all possible cases, for the state of surrounding - objects most frequently will testify more strongly than any other - evidence. Modern fastidiousness has introduced the custom of removing - the body to some public-house, even where the death had happened in an - ordinary dwelling; this if not illegal, is at least improper. - -Footnote 82: - - See also the proceedings on the Oldham inquest, and the subsequent - judgment in the Court of King’s Bench. _A.D._ 1818, 1819. The _King - against Ferrand_, 2 _Barn & Ald._ 260. - -Footnote 83: - - This was publicly disputed on a late occasion; it is well to question - all extra-judicial dicta, which may be delivered during the heat of - political controversy. - -Footnote 84: - - The evidence must be on oath; _vide ante_ _p._ 167. - -Footnote 85: - - In _Scorey’s_ case, _Leach C. L._ 50. the coroner refused to take the - evidence of a man who had accompanied the accused in search of - deer-stealers, and only admitted the man who was with the deceased. - The coroner, on the testimony of this man, told the jury, that the - crime was murder, but they refused to find any other verdict than - _Accidental death_; which verdict the coroner recorded, and then by - his warrant sent _Scorey_ to the county goal for murder. - - _Scorey_ being now brought up by Habeas Corpus—The Court, on full - affidavit of the fact, admitted him to bail, and granted a rule - against the coroner to shew cause why an information should not be - filed against him. - -Footnote 86: - - There are many cases in which there is no substance which can be made - the subject of deodand; as in death by poison or by explosions in - mines, either from inflammable gas, or the powder used in blasting. - The first of these cases calls for immediate remedy; as the instances - of fatal substitution of poison for medicine occur continually, - notwithstanding the repeated warnings published on the subject. Nor - are accidents in mines less worthy of attention; ordinary precaution - might have prevented many which have lately taken place. The Safety - lamp of Sir _H. Davy_ is so firmly established in reputation, that no - doubts can be entertained of its efficacy; some late inventions also - have secured the miner from the numerous disasters to which he is - liable in the dangerous operation of blasting. When the conductors of - mines neglect these ordinary and well-known precautions, they become - morally responsible for any mischief which may consequently occur; we - have only to lament that they are not legally answerable for their - criminal neglect. - -Footnote 87: - - With respect to a second inquest, the law is thus laid down (3 _Barn. - & Ald._ 266.) So also he (the coroner) may dig up the body, if the - first Inquisition be quashed. _Str._ 533. But it must be by order of - the Court of King’s Bench, on motion, _Str._ 167. And the judges will - exercise their discretion, according to the _time_ and circumstances, - whether he shall or shall not do it. _Salk._ 377. _Str._ 22. 533. 2 - _Mod._ 16. - -Footnote 88: - - It is not for us in this place to argue the question whether excessive - severity of punishment does or does not defeat its punishment; as more - injury is done by inducing that illegal mercy which is here complained - of, than benefit is derived by terror of the unexecuted sentence of - the law: the subject is in abler hands; we shall, therefore, content - ourselves with suggesting, that coroners should be far more strict in - their examination of the bodies of persons supposed to be _felo de - se_; nay, that anatomical inspection of the great cavities should be - absolutely required in all cases. We will not maintain with a French - author on Medical Jurisprudence, that the signs of insanity can often - be discovered on dissection; though we can imagine some cases, as - where there has been an excessive determination of blood to the brain, - in which this inspection may be satisfactory; (See vol. 1, p. 327). - _Fourcroy_ and _Durande_ have also found, on dissecting persons who - had committed suicide, hardness of the liver, and gall stones; and - _Foderé_ observes that, in failure of other evidence, such appearances - deserve to carry some weight. But benefit would still result from the - practice; first from the general horror in which dissection is held, - for if the dread of an ignominious burial, however remote the chance - of its infliction, can be supposed to discourage this offence, under - the existing law, the certainty of personal mutilation would operate - in the proposed alteration. It is related, that when suicide had - become so frequent among the Roman ladies, as to threaten ill effects - to the commonwealth, the Senate decreed that the bodies of all who - died by their own hands should be exposed naked in the public ways. - - The effect of the decree was an immediate cessation of the crime; - possibly the same result might be produced by the dread of dissection. - -Footnote 89: - - Al sessions al Newgate post natalem dom. 1604, 2 _Jac._ Le case fuit - que en home et se feme ayant longe temps vive incontinent ensemble, le - homme ayant consume son substance et cressant en necessity, dit al - feme que il fuit weary de son vie, et qu’il voiloit luy m occider, a - que la feme dit que donques el voiloit auci moryer ove luy: per que le - home praya la feme que el voiluit vaar et acheter ratisbane, et ils - voilont ceo beber ensemble, le quel el fist, et el ceo mist en le - drink, et ils bibe ceo, mes la feme apres prist sallet oyle, per que - el vomit et fuit recover, mes le home morust: et le question fuit si - ceo fuit murther en la feme. _Montague_ recorder cause l’especial - matter d’estre trove: _quære_ le resolucion. _F. Moore_, 754. - -Footnote 90: - - Vide ante, tit. Coroner’s Inquest. - -Footnote 91: - - Decency and public policy require that burials should not be delayed, - and it may not be amiss here to observe that the old notion of - arresting a body for debt, is now utterly exploded, as contrary not - only to the civil and canon law, (see _Wood’s Civ. Law_, 148; 2 - _Domat_ 628: _Lindw._ 278,) but to reason and the law of the land. - Vide ante, Vol. 1. p. 100. - -Footnote 92: - - It is said that to act upon the mind by terror, continual griefs or - vexations, though with the intent to kill, is not murder, unless there - be some personal violence, 1 _East. P. C._, _p._ 225: but query this, - the proof of the crime may be difficult, but its perpetration is far - from impossible. To act on the mind of a pregnant woman by extreme - terrors, and so produce abortion and death of malice prepense, would - certainly be murder in its most atrocious form; it might require some - ingenuity in framing the indictment; but our law is fertile in - fictions on less worthy occasions, and ought not to allow its just - vengeance to be avoided. In cases of murder by starvation there may be - no actual violence, yet the law reaches this offence; sometimes indeed - imprisonment forms a part of the crime, but this may not always be the - case; for if the deceased were confined to his bed by disease, so that - he could not seek his own food, and those who were bound to supply him - maliciously neglected their duty, it would be murder by omission - without any personal violence committed. _See_ _Self’s_ case, 1 _East. - P. C._ 226: 1 _Leach, C.C._ 163, and authorities there. So in an - indictment for starving a servant, _Lawrence_, J. intimated, that he - thought the indictment insufficient, in not alleging _that Elizabeth - Williams was a girl of tender years, and under the dominion and - controul of the defendant_. _Rex v. Eliz. Ridley_, 2 _Camp. R._ 650. - See also _Regina v. Gould. Salk._ 381. - -Footnote 93: - - “Such also was the case of the parish officers who shifted a child - from parish to parish, till it died for want of care and sustinence.” - 1 _East. P. C._ 226, and authorities there. Unfortunately this species - of crime is not of very rare occurrence; numerous instances might be - cited where the death of a pauper has been caused by the barbarous - custom of removing the poor, without the slightest regard to their - age, disease, or infirmity. - -Footnote 94: - - As we are not aware of the existence of any poisonous filth so noxious - as to destroy by its mere stench, we shall not enlarge on this head; - we have indeed heard of an attempt to kill by the smoke of burning - Euphorbium, but without believing in its power. _Vide ante tit. - Nuisance, et post, Aerial poisons._ - -Footnote 95: - - In this case it is not necessary that there should be any signs or - even suspicion of violence; the bare fact that they died in gaol is - enough. - -Footnote 96: - - One half of the jury should be of the prisoners, 1 _East P. C._ 383, - for they are most likely to know if any unnecessary hardship had been - inflicted on the deceased. - -Footnote 97: - - The learned Reporter does not appear to have adverted to the - distinction between epidemic and contagious distempers. See vol. 1, p. - 105. - -Footnote 98: - - It is to be feared that grand juries will discontinue their salutary - custom of visiting the prisons, in consequence of a recent decision - that they have no right to demand admission. As the propriety of their - inspection is generally granted, we may venture to hint a wish that - some enactment may pass on this subject, and that the temporary - political objection, arising out of the seclusion of state prisoners, - may not be permitted to operate as a general and permanent obstacle. - It is to the zeal of individuals in tracing abuses, rather than to - legislative enactment for their prevention, that we look for the still - necessary improvements of our prison discipline; for no government, - however vigilant, can guard against the secret misconduct of its - obscurer agents; all it can do, is to encourage enquiry, whenever the - first hint of delinquency or even of suspicion is communicated. The - subject is now under legislative consideration, and we may therefore - hope that a due system may be adopted, one which shall equally steer - clear of the wasteful expenditure of the Millbank Penitentiary, and - the enormities imputed to Ilchester: that prisons may be made places - of confinement, coercion, and punishment; but not of torture, - contagion, and despair. - - The improvement in morals, order, and cleanliness introduced into some - prisons by the exertions of a benevolent individual (_Mrs. Fry_) - deserves our notice; her attention indeed has been mainly directed to - the mental and religious instruction of female prisoners, but this - mental improvement is not without its effect on their bodily health; - order, temperance, and cleanliness, will always produce a physical as - well as moral improvement on the minds and persons of the lower - orders. - -Footnote 99: - - A similar calamity occurred in Dublin in 1776, when the sheriff, - several counsellors, and others, fell victims to this disease. Gents. - Mag. The death of the late Judge _Osborne_ also is attributed to an - ill-ventilated court. - -Footnote 100: - - The law does not appear to have made any sufficient provision for the - (not improbable) contingency of a highly infectious disorder breaking - out in any prison, yet it is evidently unjust that a prisoner for a - debt of _one shilling!_ or any other sum, should be exposed to the - hazard of his life by remaining in contact with the infected, (see - _Buxton’s_ Inquiry.) Formerly the writ of _Habeas Corpus_ was granted - on such occasions, but abuses having arisen it was ultimately referred - to the judges to consider the legality of this application of the - writ, who decided against it; adding, however, that in case of great - infection some house in some good town might be assigned for the - warden of the Fleet, and the like for the marshal of the King’s Bench, - where they might keep their prisoners _sub arcta et salva custodia_. - _Hutt._ 129. But query, how far this course would be applicable to - other prisons? - -Footnote 101: - - The learned _Jacob Bryant_ lost his life from mortification in his - leg, originating in the slight circumstance of a rasure against a - chair, in the act of reaching a book from a shelf. - -Footnote 102: - - See “An account of a case of recovery, after an extraordinary - accident, by which the shaft of a chaise had been forced through the - thorax.” by William Maiden; London, 1812. - -Footnote 103: - - Memoires de l’Acad. Royale. 1705. - -Footnote 104: - - Med. Polit. P. 1. C. 1. - -Footnote 105: - - _Hebenstreit_ observes that if a man is wounded by two different - persons, one of whom stabs in the side, the other in the belly, it - becomes necessary after death to ascertain of which wound the deceased - died, in order that the actual murderer may be punished. By the law of - England this question can never arise. - -Footnote 106: - - The bites of venomous animals will be considered under the head of - Poisons. - -Footnote 107: - - This trial is the more remarkable as forming one of the numerous - persecutions to which the prisoner claimant of the Annesley Peerage - was subjected by the rancour of his opponent; for the other - proceedings _see State Trials_. - -Footnote 108: - - Poisoning, in war, is even considered by the law of nations as more - odious than assassination, of this _Grotius_ (lib. iii. c. 4.) has - enlarged. It was a maxim of the Roman senate, that war was to be - carried on by arms, and not by poison (_Aul. Gell. Nat. Altico._ lib. - iii. c. 8.). Even _Tiberius_ rejected the proposal made by the Prince - of the Catti, that if poison was sent to him, he would destroy - _Arminius_; he received for answer, that the Roman people chastised - their enemies by open force, without having recourse to wicked - practices and secret machinations (_Val. Max._ 1. iv. c. 5.) - -Footnote 109: - - See also 4 _Co. R._ case of _Vaux_, who was executed for poisoning - with Cantharides. “Persuadebat eundem Nichol’ recipere et bibere - quemdam potum mixtum cum quodam veneno vocat cantharides, affirmans et - verificans eidem Nichol’ quod præd’ potus sic mixtus cum præd’ veneno - vocat’ canth’ non fuit intoxicatus (Anglice poisoned) sed quod per - reception’ inde præd’ Nich’ exit’ de corpore dictæ Margaretæ tunc - uxoris suæ procuraret et haberet.” It is to be hoped that the age of - Philtres and love powders is passed. - -Footnote 110: - - At Warwick Assizes, 18 _Eliz._ _John Saunders_ and _Alexander Archer_ - were indicted for the wilful murder of _Eleanor Saunders_, an infant - of 3 years of age, daughter of the first prisoner. _Saunders_ wishing - to get rid of his wife consulted _Archer_, by whose advice he gave her - (being ill) a roasted apple, with which he had mixed _arsenic_ and - _roseacre_. She ate a small part of it, and in his presence gave the - remainder to the infant, for which _Saunders_ reprehended her, saying - apples were not good for such children, but he permitted the child to - swallow the poison, lest he should be suspected. He was condemned and - executed, but a point was reserved as to the guilt of his accomplice - _Archer_, for which, see _Plowden’s Rep._ 474. - -Footnote 111: - - The study of poisoning appears to have been of considerable antiquity. - _Ulysses_ sought poison for his weapons from _Ilus_, “φαρμακον - ανδροφονον” Od. 1. 1. v. 261; but the conscientious pharmacopolist - refused to furnish his dangerous preparations to the wily chief. - -Footnote 112: - - Taciti Annal: Lib: iv. c. 8. - -Footnote 113: - - Hist: Plant. Lib: ix. c. 16, p. 189. - -Footnote 114: - - Lib: viii, c. 18. - -Footnote 115: - - For the ingenious mode in which this poison was administered, see - _Tacitus_. The prince having called for a cup of wine, it was - purposely presented too hot; he desired cold water to be added to it, - and the opportunity was then taken to infuse the poison. By this - stratagem the taster (“calida gelidæque minister.” _Juv. Sat._ v. _v._ - 63.) escaped its effects, in which he must otherwise have participated - with _Britannicus_. - -Footnote 116: - - The reader will find a very interesting account of this diabolical - woman in _Labat’s Travels through Italy_, and also in _Beckman’s - History of Inventions_. - -Footnote 117: - - _Hoffman_ Medicin. Rational. - -Footnote 118: - - This story, if we mistake not, suggested to the successful author of - Kenilworth, the tragic death of his Alchymist. - -Footnote 119: - - The belief in the possibility of poisoning by the vestments is very - ancient, as is shewn by the fabled death of Hercules. - - ----“Capit inscius heros: - Induiturque humeris Lernææ virus Echidnæ. - ----------------------------------------- - ----------------------------------------- - Incaluit vis illa mali; resolutaque flammis; - Herculeos abiit late diffusa per artus.” - - _Ovid. Metam. Lib._ ix. _v._ 157. - -Footnote 120: - - Quæst. Med. Leg. - -Footnote 121: - - _Sir Edward Coke in the trial of Sir John Hollis._ - -Footnote 122: - - _Bacon’s_ works, vol. ii. p. 614. - -Footnote 123: - - “επιφερεν οιδηματα σωματος, μετα ωχροτητος επιτεταμενης. δυσπνοειν και - δυσωδια οδωδεναι το στομα, και λυγμος αυτοις επεται, ενιοτε δε και - σπερματος απροαιρετος εκκρισις.” - -Footnote 124: - - 1. κωφος η αφθογγος; 2. φωνητικος. - -Footnote 125: - - Instit. Mater. Medic. p. 176. - -Footnote 126: - - _Manuale di Tossicologia_, p. 79. 245. - -Footnote 127: - - See also _Istituzioni di Med. For. di G. Tortosa_, vol. 2. p. 67, and - authorities there cited. - -Footnote 128: - - This fact may be illustrated by ancient as well as modern records; - from the poisoned tunic of the Centaur Nessus, to the treacherous - powders of the diabolical _Mary Bateman_. - -Footnote 129: - - THEOPHRAST. _Hist. Plant._ lx. c. 16. STRABO mentions the action of - the _Lauro-cerasus_, as a poison, and observes that it occasions a - death like that of Epilepsy. - -Footnote 130: - - All these substances were found in the casket of _Saint Croix_. - -Footnote 131: - - _Gerarde_, in his Herbal, considers the _Cymbalaria_ to be the - Pennywort of which he describes two varieties, viz. the - Wall-pennywort, and the Water-pennywort; and he blames the “ignorant - apothecaries,” for using the latter instead of the former, as - extremely dangerous and destructive to life. Modern botanists consider - it as an _Antirrhinum_,—A. Cymbalaria. Lin. i. e. Ivy-leaved - Toad-flax. We are not aware of any part of this genus being poisonous. - The _A. Linaria_, common Toad-flax, appears to be the only one to - which any medicinal virtues have been ascribed. _Linnæus_, however, - says (Flor. Suec.) that this plant is used as a poison to flies. - -Footnote 132: - - Man. de Toxicol. - -Footnote 133: - - Hist. General de Venen. mineral. - -Footnote 134: - - BOERHAAVE gives us the following definition. “_Venenum dico omne illud - quod ingestum vel applicatum corpori, talem in corpore humano - mutationem excitat, quæ per ipsam eam mutationem non superatur. - Medicamentum præterea in eo differt, quod ipsa, quam facit mutatio, in - sanitatem tendat, venenum vero corpus mutat, ut ex sano ægrum fiat, - aut cadaver._” (Prælect. Acad. T. vi, p. 283.) HOFFMANN has furnished - us with a definition less exceptionable than the foregoing, but still - inferior to that of _Gmelin_. “_Alit natura res, quæ exigua mole et - summa partium tenuitate, brevi tempore, concentum atque ordinem motuum - vitalium pervertunt, vel plane destruunt; et hæ vocari solent - Venena._” (M.R.S.T. II. p. 88.) - -Footnote 135: - - We have adopted this term, as one that has been in previous use, - although we are by no means satisfied that a more expressive word - might not be found. - -Footnote 136: - - This case is detailed in his ‘Pharmacologia,’ under the article _Cupri - Sulphas_. - -Footnote 137: - - See an interesting paper by Dr. _Marcet_, in the 12th volume of the - Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, entitled, “_Account of a man who - lived ten years after having swallowed a number of clasp knives._” - -Footnote 138: - - In the reign of LOUIS XIV, _Henrietta_, Duchess of Orleans, is said to - have been poisoned by diamond-dust mixed with powdered sugar. The same - substance is enumerated among other extraordinary poisons, as having - been administered in the case of _Sir Thomas Overbury_. - -Footnote 139: - - Old women in the country recommend the same remedy for the destruction - of worms; probably the medicine and the poison may be equally - effective. - -Footnote 140: - - Saggi Scientif. e letter dell’ Accademia di Padova. T. III. p. 11, p. - 1. - -Footnote 141: - - Chylologia. - -Footnote 142: - - De Venenis. - -Footnote 143: - - Comment. super Homicid. p. 177. - -Footnote 144: - - Ratio Medendi. Part VI, p. 60. - -Footnote 145: - - Hist. General de Venenis Mineral. - -Footnote 146: - - Med. Leg. Tom. II. p. 170. - -Footnote 147: - - Tom. II. p. 346. - -Footnote 148: - - Man. de Toxicol. - -Footnote 149: - - Fragmenta Chirurg. et Med. p. 66. - -Footnote 150: - - Pharmacologia, Edit. v. vol. I. p. 324. - -Footnote 151: - - See Medical Facts and Observations, Vol. v. - -Footnote 152: - - See M. _Pouqueville’s_ “Voyage de Morée,” also Mr. _Thornton’s_ - Travels; and Notes to Lord _Byron’s_ Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage. - -Footnote 153: - - M. R. S. T. iv. Part iii, p. 278. - -Footnote 154: - - For the purpose of propitiating the favour of heaven, the alchymist - stamped the figure of the cross upon the vessel, in which he expected - to obtain the long sought prize that was to convert the baser metals - into gold, whence the term _Crucible_ derived its origin. And when the - experiments of chemistry began to be considered as the true tests of - philosophical truth, the expression of “_Experimentum crucis_” was - adopted to signify the highest degree of proof of which a subject is - susceptible. - -Footnote 155: - - _Sydenham_ considered the occurrence of cholera, as a disease in - England, to be confined to the month of August, at which time, says - he, it appears as certainly as swallows in the early spring, or - cuckows at the approach of summer; but he himself observed it to - appear sometimes towards the end of summer, when the season was - unusually warm; and that the violence of the disease was in proportion - to the degree of heat. _Note. Mrs. Downing_ died in November, and - _Miss Burns_, whose case is so frequently alluded to in this work, in - March. - -Footnote 156: - - Youths and adults are more generally affected than children and old - persons. - -Footnote 157: - - _Sydenham_ describing the violent symptoms of cholera concludes by - observing, “and such like symptoms as frighten the by-standers, and - kill the patient in 24 hours.” Syd. Sect. iv, c. 2. It must be - remembered that _Sydenham_ is here describing an extreme case. The - unfortunate _Mrs. Downing_ (see Appendix, p. 277) died in fourteen - hours! - -Footnote 158: - - See the case of _Mr. Robert Turner_, poisoned by _Eliz. Fenning_, as - related by _Mr. Marshall_. - -Footnote 159: - - See _Baillie’s_ Morbid Anatomy. - -Footnote 160: - - Opera Omnia Ch. iv, p. 34. - -Footnote 161: - - De Causis et Signis. Lib. 1, c. 7. - -Footnote 162: - - De Abdit. rerum Causis. Lib. ii, c. 15. - -Footnote 163: - - De Sedibus, &c. Epist. 59, n. 16. - -Footnote 164: - - Anthropolog: Forens. p. 523. - -Footnote 165: - - De Signis Veneni dati Diagnosticis, n. 8. - -Footnote 166: - - M. R. S. T. iv, p. 3, c. 8. - -Footnote 167: - - Med. Forens. p. 169. - -Footnote 168: - - Cours de Med. Leg. p. 248. - -Footnote 169: - - Nouveau Ellem. de Therapeutiq. T. 1, p. 408. - -Footnote 170: - - Med. Leg. T. 2, p. 225 - -Footnote 171: - - Med. Leg. T. ii, p. 260. - -Footnote 172: - - Œuvres de Medecine, T. 1, p. 69. - -Footnote 173: - - De Cholica Pictonum, p. 37. - -Footnote 174: - - See also _Sloane MSS._ Brit. Mus. 330: 9135. “_Venenum potest generari - in corpore._” - -Footnote 175: - - Observations on Apparent Death from Drowning, &c. by _James Currie_, - M.D. p. 156. - -Footnote 176: - - We are informed by _Tortosa_ (Istituzioni di Med. For. vol. ii, p. 62) - that a work has been published by a celebrated physician of Verona, - Rotario, in which the author attempts to establish a diagnosis by - which these symptoms may be distinguished. (Opere Med. p. 116.) We - have not been so fortunate as to obtain a sight of this work. - -Footnote 177: - - Those who are desirous of becoming farther acquainted with the history - of this opinion may consult the “_Recherches et Considerations - Medicales, sur l’acide Hydro-cyanique, son radical, ses composés, et - ses antidotes_,” par _J. Coullon_, D. M. 1 vol. 8vo. 1819. _Dr. - Granville_ has also in his Treatise on Hydrocyanic acid (edit. 2d - 1820) alluded to this opinion, and to the different authors who have - supported it, p. 24. The reader will also find a case by _Fourcroy_, - (Annales de Chimie, tom. 1, p. 66) of a woman, of about thirty years - of age, who in consequence of protracted grief, laboured under a - nervous and melancholic affection; she became extremely emaciated, and - her livid paleness, and universal langour seemed to indicate a - depressed state of vitality, and a decomposition of the animal fluids; - after a few days she was seized with faintings and convulsions, which - were followed by the discharge of drops of blood from the edge of the - eye-lids, the nostrils, and the ears. The linen with which the blood - was wiped was marked with spots of a beautiful blue. Fourcroy examined - this matter, and concluded that the blood contained Prussiate of iron. - -Footnote 178: - - Anthropolog. Forens. p. 526. - -Footnote 179: - - Edinburgh Medical Essays. - -Footnote 180: - - Phil. Trans. A. D. 1772, “_On the Digestion of the Stomach after - Death_,” by _John Hunter_, F. R. S. and Surgeon to St. George’s - Hospital. - -Footnote 181: - - This phenomenon is frequently exhibited, in a very satisfactory - manner, by inferior animals who die suddenly. _Mr. Hunter_ noticed it - particularly in fish. - -Footnote 182: - - We allude to a highly interesting paper, to which we shall have - frequent occasion to refer in the progress of the present inquiry, - entitled “_Observations on the Digestion of the Stomach after Death_,” - by _Allan Burns_, Lecturer on Anatomy and Surgery in Glasgow. - Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journ. for April, 1810. - -Footnote 183: - - _Hunter’s_ Observations on Digestion, p. 185. - -Footnote 184: - - _Adams’s_ Observations on Morbid Poisons, edit. 2, p. 30, where he - says “but for this purpose, _Mr. Hunter_ saw that the animal must be - in health immediately before death, otherwise neither the quantity nor - quality of the secretion would be equal to the purpose; he was - confirmed in this by the instances in which he saw the stomach - digested; both were men who had died from a violent death; both had - been previously in sufficient health to eat a hearty meal. The fair - inference from these was, that when men die of disease, the appetite - usually ceases, and probably the secretion of the gastric juice also.” - -Footnote 185: - - _Burns_, loco citato. - -Footnote 186: - - “It will generally be found that, where the coats of the stomach are - softened by the gastric juice, the vessels are unable to resist the - force of the syringe in injecting the body. In such subjects, - therefore, we find the cavity of the stomach filled with wax, and we - likewise see masses of it collected between the coats of the viscus.” - -Footnote 187: - - Mark this circumstance, for we shall have occasion to revert to it, - when we come to consider _the part_ of the stomach which undergoes - solution from the action of the gastric juice. - -Footnote 188: - - A case of extensive solution of the Stomach by the Gastric fluids, - after Death. By _John Haviland_, M. D. Regius Professor of Physic in - the University of Cambridge. Transactions of the Cambridge - Philosophical Society, vol. 1, part ii, p. 287. - -Footnote 189: - - He had taken, at intervals, a small quantity of port wine and water. - -Footnote 190: - - Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vol. iv. - -Footnote 191: - - 1. “The trial of _Charles Angus, Esq._ for the murder of _Margaret - Burns_, taken in short hand by _William Jones_, jun. 8vo.” Liverpool, - pp. 1808, 288. Also - - 2. “A vindication of the opinions delivered in evidence by the medical - witnesses for the crown, on a late trial at Lancaster for murder, - 8vo.” 1803. - - 3. “Remarks on a late publication, entitled “A Vindication of the - Opinions delivered in Evidence by the Medical witnesses for the Crown, - on a late trial at Lancaster.” By _James Carson, M.D._” - - 4. “An Exposure of some of the false statements contained in _Dr. - Carson’s_ pamphlet, entitled “Remarks, &c.” in a letter to that - gentleman, by _James Dawson_, Surgeon.” - - The suspicion against the prisoner, _Charles Angus_, was, that he had - endeavoured to procure a premature delivery, or abortion, by means of - an instrument resembling a long trochar, and that he had administered, - or been privy to the administration of certain drugs, which had - occasioned such effects upon the stomach of the deceased, as in the - end produced her death. The prisoner was a retired merchant, with two - or three children, with whom the deceased had lived as housekeeper and - governess. It appeared in evidence that improper familiarities had - been noticed between them, and that Miss _Burns_ had, for some time, - appeared out of health, and that her abdomen was much increased in - size at the period when she was attacked with the symptoms which - preceded her death, and which, as we learn from the witnesses on the - trial, presented the following history. - - The deceased was seen by the servants of the family at about six - o’clock, on Wednesday morning, the 23d of March, 1808, at which time - she was in her usual state of health; but replied to one of them, who - remarked her having risen earlier than usual, that she could not - sleep. She was next seen by the servants at a quarter before nine, - sitting at breakfast with _Mr. Angus_, but apparently very ill; after - breakfast she was lying on a sofa complaining of a pain in her bowels, - but she was not then sick. On moving about afterwards, she held by the - chair, as if from pain, and about an hour and a half after breakfast, - she ordered some water gruel, of which she drank nearly three quarts - in the course of the day, being very thirsty, and in considerable - pain, and so sick as to reject the gruel almost as soon as it was - taken. The matter vomited was described by the house-maid as being, at - first, very black, but becoming, towards the last, of a green colour; - the kitchen maid, however, described it as being in the first instance - of a green colour, with yellow pieces in it resembling the inside of - an orange, or the yolk of an egg, and as turning blacker after it - ceased to be green. While thus retching, _Miss Burns_ observed to the - house-maid, “Oh, Betty, what bile comes off my stomach! I wish I had - taken an emetic long since.” On the servants going to bed that night, - she seemed very poorly, but did not complain to them. - - On Thursday morning, at six o’clock, she was lying, as she had been - left the night before, on the sofa, with pillows under her head; she - complained that she was very thirsty; said she was tired of gruel, and - had some water posset, and a little warm beer. She also complained - that she was badly hurt to make water; but was relieved by sitting on - a sliced onion, with some boiling water poured over it. Her vomiting - was now of a blacker colour, and she continued sick and vomiting all - day, till towards evening, when the sickness went off, and she - appeared better, and could stir more about. - - On Friday morning, at four o’clock, the house-maid went into the room, - and thought her much worse, as she breathed quicker than before. She - was seen again at six in much the same state, and lying in the same - posture on the sofa; she asked for some warm beer, which settled on - her stomach, and she also took about a pint of gruel; she said that - the pain had left her. Her vomiting had ceased, but was succeeded by a - “_lax_,” which continued all the morning. A little before ten, the - house-maid was sent out for some Madeira, _Miss Burns_ having - expressed a wish for some. Between the hours of ten and eleven, the - kitchen maid was in the room, and received orders about dinner; and - _Miss Burns_ said she would have some barley water. On the return of - the house-maid, about eleven, she went straight into the parlour, - where _Miss Burns_ was found lying dead in the corner, by the door, - with her face against the wall, “_cowered of a lump_,” her elbows upon - her knees, and one foot “_crudled_” under her; _Mr. Angus_, who had - nursed her throughout, sitting in an arm chair, apparently so fast - asleep that he was not roused without difficulty. During the whole - course of her illness, she did not go to bed, but remained in the - parlour, generally lying on a sofa. She refused to have medical - assistance; but _Mr. Angus_ said that he had given her seven drops of - laudanum on one night, and ten on another, and that on the morning of - her death he had given her some castor oil, in spirit, but that it - came up immediately. - - - REPORT OF THE DISSECTION. - - On Sunday the 27th of March, 1808, at noon, _Dr. Rutter_ was desired - by the Coroner of Liverpool to take with him an experienced surgeon to - the house of _Mr. Charles Angus_, and there to examine the body of a - young lady who had died suddenly. - - The examination was made at two o’clock the same day, by _Mr. Hay_, a - surgeon in Liverpool, with his apprentice, in company with _Dr. - Rutter_ and _Dr. Gerard_; and the following report on the subject was - presented to the coroner in writing. - - “On our arrival at the house, we were introduced into a parlour, where - we found _Mr. Angus_, with some other persons to us unknown; and we - delivered to him the note from the coroner as the authority under - which we acted. Upon perusing it, he expressed perfect willingness - that the examination should be made. We were then introduced into the - room up stairs, were the body of the deceased was laid. After having - removed the body, a small stain of blood was observed on the sheet of - the bed on which it had laid; and the pillow was stained with a fluid - which had issued from the head. The body being laid on a table, a - large quantity of a thin yellowish fluid poured out from the nostrils, - and was collected in vessels. No marks of external violence were - discovered on the body; nor was there any appearance of commencing - putrefaction. The nails of the fingers were of a bluish colour; and - the veins on the external surface of the _abdomen_ or belly appeared - to be much enlarged. At this period we were joined by _Mr. Christian_, - surgeon. On opening the _abdomen_, a considerable quantity of fluid - was found to have been effused into that cavity, similar in colour and - smell to that which issued from the nostrils, but more turbid. Marks - of inflammation were found on the external or peritoneal coat of - different portions of the small intestines; but the large intestines - were free from it. The external coat of a part of the smaller - curvature of the stomach was also inflamed; and a similar appearance - of inflammation was observed on a small portion of the anterior edge - of the liver, directly over the smaller curvature of the stomach. On - raising up the stomach, an opening through its coats was found in the - anterior and inferior part of its great curvature; and from this - opening a considerable quantity of a thick fluid of a dark olive - colour issued; of which fluid some ounces were collected and - preserved. The natural structure of the coats of the stomach for a - considerable space around this opening was destroyed; and they were so - soft, pulpy, and tender, that they tore with the slightest touch. - Around this part of the coats of the stomach, there were no traces of - inflammation whatever. The stomach was then taken out of the body; and - its inner surface was carefully washed; and the contents washed out - were preserved. A quantity, about three ounces, of a fluid resembling - that in the stomach, but not quite so thick, was also taken out of one - of the small intestines, and preserved. - - “On examining the womb, it was found to be very considerably enlarged, - and, on its inner surface, the part to which the _Placenta_, or - after-birth, had adhered, was very plainly discernible. This part was - nearly circular, and occupied a space of about four inches in - diameter. The mouth of the womb was greatly dilated. In a word, the - appearances of the womb were such as might have been expected a few - hours after the birth of a child nearly full grown. - - “The fluid taken out of the stomach and intestines, and cavity of the - _Abdomen_, as well as that collected from the nostrils, was taken - away: and, afterwards, in the course of the same day, examined, and - subjected to various trials, with a view to discover the presence of - such mineral substances as were likely to produce appearances or - effects similar to those which were found in the stomach of the - deceased. In this examination, we thought it right to request the - assistance of _Dr. Bostock_. The contents of the stomach were, as has - already been mentioned, of a dirty olive colour, thick, and of an acid - smell. A considerable number of large globules of a dark coloured, - dense, oily fluid, floated upon them; but no particular smell that we - could discover. We could not discover, in the contents of the stomach, - by the smell, the presence of any known vegetable substance, capable - of producing deleterious effects when introduced into it. The fluid - contained in the stomach deposited no sediment; nor was any but a - mucous sediment found in the water with which the inner surface of the - stomach was washed. Upon subjecting the contents of the stomach, in - the state in which we found them, to such tests as are deemed - sufficient to detect the presence of any active preparation of Mercury - or Arsenic, we could not detect either of these substances. The - contents of the stomach were then filtered, and subjected to the same - trials, but with the same result. These trials were made at _Dr. - Bostock’s_, in the presence of _Dr. Gerard_ and _Dr. Rutter_.” - - The substance of this report was afterwards delivered, in evidence, on - the trial; and the following additional circumstances stated. - - “The preternatural opening in the stomach was larger than a crown - piece; but _Mr. Hay_ thinks he may have increased it in drawing down - the stomach, as it was nearly in the centre of the disorganized - portion, where the coats were thin, soft, and semi-transparent. The - stomach was nearly full of the fluid described, but not distended. The - intestines also contained a great deal of a similar fluid; and the - internal villous coat of the duodenum was slightly inflamed, while its - external coat was also more inflamed than that of the other - intestines.” - - In consequence of the suspicious circumstances attending the death of - _Miss Burns_, _Charles Angus_ was indicted for her murder; but, after - a trial which occupied the court from eight o’clock on Friday morning, - until three on Saturday, the 2d of September, 1808, the prisoner was - acquitted. - - The medical defence, conducted by _Dr. Carson_, and which savoured - more of the ingenuity of the forensic pleader, than the justice of the - honest inquirer after truth, rested upon the following grounds, viz. - 1. The appearances of the stomach upon dissection are to be reconciled - upon the supposition of the dissolution of its coats having taken - place, _after death_, in consequence of the action of the gastric - fluid. 2. The symptoms which preceded death were not such as accompany - corrosive poisoning. 3. No poisonous substance was detected in the - body. 4. The appearance of the uterus does not justify the conclusion - that a delivery had recently taken place; such a dilated state of the - organ, had it lately parted with a placenta, must have occasioned - death by hemorrhage, or it must have been found gorged with coagulated - blood. 5. The appearances may be reconciled by supposing that an - expulsion of hydatids had taken place. - - We must not omit to state, that in consequence of the intense interest - excited by this trial, the ovaria were subsequently examined, when a - _corpus luteum_ was discovered. - - We cannot conclude this account without expressing a regret that - several important sources of information should have been neglected. - The omitting to inspect the appendages of the uterus, to examine the - œsophagus, the chest, and the head, and to analyse the membranes of - the stomach, are instances of inattention, for which it is not easy to - find an excuse. May they furnish a salutary lesson for future - anatomists. - -Footnote 192: - - Med. Leg. vol. ii, p. 315. - -Footnote 193: - - This appearance is particularly mentioned by _Juvenal_ as an effect of - poison. - - “Per famam et populum _nigros_ efferre maritos.”—_Sat._ i, _v._ 72. - - The reader will remember, that we have already stated our opinion, - that the poisons of the ancients were of a vegetable origin. - -Footnote 194: - - Dissertatio Inauguralis de effectibus Arsenici in varios Organismos, - nec non de Indicus quibusdam Veneficii ab Arsenicoillati. Quam præside - _C. F. Kielmayer_ publicé defendet, Jan. 1808, Auctor _Georg_: _Fred_: - _Jäeger_, Stuttgardianus. A very full analysis of this Essay was - published by Dr. _Siegwart_ in _Gehlen’s_ Chemical and Physical - Journal; and which afterwards found its way into the Edinburgh Medical - and Surgical Journal, no. xxv, Jan. 1811. - -Footnote 195: - - Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journal, no. XX. - -Footnote 196: - - Epist. lix, 3. - -Footnote 197: - - _Patrick Ogilvy_ and _Catharine Nairne_ were indicted for incest, and - the murder, by Arsenic, of _Thomas Ogilvy_, brother of the said - _Patrick_, and husband of the said _Nairne_. This celebrated Scotch - trial commenced at Edinburgh, on Monday the 12th of August at seven in - the morning, and the court continued setting until about two on - Tuesday morning, when the Jury being inclosed, it adjourned until - Wednesday at four o’clock in the afternoon. They were both found - guilty. After several respites _Ogilvy_ was executed. _Nairne_ escaped - from prison, and was never afterwards heard of. - -Footnote 198: - - Camp: Elys: - -Footnote 199: - - Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. no. xvii. - -Footnote 200: - - Ibid. no. xxvi. - -Footnote 201: - - Ibid. no. lxxi, for April, 1822. - -Footnote 202: - - _Mr. Marshall_, in his account of the symptoms of _Mr. Robert Turner_, - who was poisoned by _Eliza Fenning_, states, “On examination I - discovered a very remarkable irregularity of surface, occasioned by - the spasmodic contractions of the muscles of the abdomen, and even of - the viscera; this unevenness extended from the epigastric region to - the pubes, and to the right and left hypochondrium.” - -Footnote 203: - - Nothing can be more strikingly illustrative of the characteristic - appearances which distinguish the effects of violence during life, - from those which result from putrefaction as described at page 181. - -Footnote 204: - - The author refers the reader to the first volume of his - _Pharmacologia_, page 124, _note_. In addition to what he has there - observed it may be stated, that many fallacies have arisen in - pharmacology, from deducing conclusions respecting the effects of - remedies upon inferior animals. One example will suffice.—Several - substances have gained the reputation of Styptics, from the effects - which have followed their application to the wounded and bleeding - vessels in the extremities of the horse and ass; whereas the fact is - that the blood-vessels of these animals possess a power of contraction - which does not exist in those of man, and to which the cessation of - the hemorrhage, fallaciously attributed to the styptic, is to be - wholly attributed. - -Footnote 205: - - See Appendix, page 272. - -Footnote 206: - - Toxocologie Générale considérée, sous les Rapports de la Physiologie, - de la Pathologie, et de la Medicine légale. Paris, 1815. This work has - been faithfully translated into English by _John Walker_, in two - volumes. London, 1817. - -Footnote 207: - - De Sed. et Caus. Morb. per Anat. indag. Epist. 59, 18. - -Footnote 208: - - See the interesting trial of _Michael Whiting_, for administering - poison to _George_ and _Joseph Langman_, of Downham, in the Isle of - Ely, at the Assizes holden at Ely on Wednesday, March 4th, 1822, - before _Edward Christian, Esq._ Chief Justice of the Isle. The - prisoner was convicted and executed. - -Footnote 209: - - M. R. S. T. iv, P. iii, p. 278. - -Footnote 210: - - “Nous adoptons la division suivante, en six classes, de tous les - poisons connus, et de toutes les manières possibles par lesquelles - les substances vénéneuses peuvent nuire au corps humain: - POISONS SEPTIQUES—Poisons STUPEFIANS, ou NARCOTIQUES—Poisons - NARCOTICO-ACRES—Poisons ACRES, ou RUBEFIANS—Poisons CORROSIFS, ou - ESCAROTIQUES—Poisons ASTRINGENS.” - -Footnote 211: - - _Belloc_ surmises that where acrid poisons have been administered, - narcotics may have been taken to relieve pain; and thus that a sort of - combination of the symptoms of both classes may be produced. - -Footnote 212: - - PHARMACOLOGIA. Edit. 5th, vol. i, page 225, c. _Antidotes_. - -Footnote 213: - - Journal de Physiologie Experimentale, (1er numero Janvier 1821.) - -Footnote 214: - - The adoption of this term led to a very extraordinary error in - medicine—the application of Arsenic in the form of vapour, together - with the fumes of frankincense, myrrh, and other gums, in a paroxysm - of Asthma! This frightful practice arose from confounding the gum - Juniper, or Vernix of the Arabians, which by their medical writers was - prescribed in fumigations, under the name of Sandarach, for the - Σανδαρακη of the Greeks. - -Footnote 215: - - _Orfila._ Toxicolog. General. - -Footnote 216: - - Pharmacologia, edit. v, vol. 2, art. _Arsenici Oxydum_. - -Footnote 217: - - A very large quantity is annually prepared from the sublimate which - collects in the chimneys and flues of the smelting works and burning - houses in Cornwall. We have examined samples prepared according to the - improved process of Dr. _Edwards_, and found them to be perfectly free - from foreign admixture: a fact of much greater importance than the - reader may at first imagine. Those who require farther information - upon this subject may consult a paper in the first volume of the - _Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall_, by J. H. - VIVIAN, Esq. entitled “_Observations on the processes for making the - different preparations of Arsenic, which are practised in Saxony_.” - -Footnote 218: - - _Bergman_ ii, 286. We are, however, upon the authority of _Mr. Richard - Phillips_, inclined to consider this statement of its specific gravity - incorrect. He found that when transparent it did not exceed 3·715, - and, when opaque, 3·260. - -Footnote 219: - - Vol. ii, p. 86. - -Footnote 220: - - The chemist may satisfy himself of this fact by heating some arsenious - acid on a piece of platina foil, and then alternately raising and - depressing it into the blue flame of the spirit, when corresponding - changes in odour will take place in the fumes. - -Footnote 221: - - See page 184, Note. - -Footnote 222: - - See _Mr. Marshall’s_ Remarks, &c. - -Footnote 223: - - See the case reported by _Dr. Yelloly_, in the 5th volume of the - Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journal. - -Footnote 224: - - Epist. 168. - -Footnote 225: - - De Pest. Hist. 99. Annot. - -Footnote 226: - - De Peste Lond. p. 239. - -Footnote 227: - - Recueil Periodique de la Societé de Med. de Paris, tom. vi. p. 22. - -Footnote 228: - - Nouveaux Elemens de Med. operat. par _J. P. Roux_. - -Footnote 229: - - Nouvelles Experiences sur les Contre-Poisons de l’Arsenic. Par - _Casimir Renault_. A. Paris. A. 9, pp. 119. - -Footnote 230: - - A belief in this mode of poisoning appears to be of very ancient - origin. CALPURNIUS BESTIA was said by _Pliny_ (Hist. Nat. Lib. 27. - Cap. 2.) to have been particularly skilled in such a process, and to - have murdered many of his wives when asleep, by bathing the parts of - generation with the juice of Aconite; and Dr. _Gordon Smith_, in his - work on Forensic Medicine, relates, on the authority of _Schenckius_, - the tragical death of _Ladislas_, or _Lancelot_, surnamed the - Victorious and the Liberal, who succeeded to the contested throne of - Naples in 1386, and died at the age of thirty-eight in great pain, in - consequence of having been poisoned by the daughter of a physician, of - whom he was passionately fond, _per concubitum_. Sir _Thomas Brown_, - in his _Vulgar Errors_, alludes to an ancient story of an “Indian king - that sent unto _Alexander_ a fair woman, _fed with Aconites_, and - other poisons, with the intent that she either by converse or - _copulation_ might destroy him.” - -Footnote 231: - - See page 137. - -Footnote 232: - - _Philosophical Transactions._ 1811. - -Footnote 233: - - M. _Orfila_ observes that there are many cases of poisoning by - arsenious acid introduced into the stomach, in which we are unable to - discover the slightest appearance of erosion or inflammation in the - alimentary canal; such cases are recorded by _Chaussier_, _Etmuller_, - _Marc_, _Sallin_, and _Renault_. - -Footnote 234: - - We well remember performing some experiments at Cambridge, many years - ago, upon mildew, which as far as they went corroborate this assertion - of _Jaegar_, for its propagation was not prevented by arsenic. See - also “The effects of Arsenical fumes,” vol. I, p. 332. - -Footnote 235: - - See Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journ. for January 1, 1811. - -Footnote 236: - - Elements of Juridical Medicine, p. 76. - -Footnote 237: - - Prestwich on Poisons. - -Footnote 238: - - Pharmacologia, Edit. 5. vol. ii. p. 89. - -Footnote 239: - - Medical Transactions, vol. vi, p. 414. - -Footnote 240: - - See Appendix, page 277. - -Footnote 241: - - This substance may be said to consist of Charcoal, in a state of - extremely minute division, and the sub-carbonate of Potass. It is - prepared by deflagrating, in a crucible, two parts of Super-tartrate - of Potass with one part of Nitrate of Potass. - -Footnote 242: - - In order to close the end of the tube, where a blow-pipe is not to be - procured, (which, says _Dr. Bostock_, we may suppose upon these - occasions will often be the case) the end is to be placed in a common - fire until it is completely softened, and a pair of small tongs being - at the same time made red hot, the tube is to be withdrawn from the - fire, and the heated end pinched by the tongs, and at the same time - bent up at an acute angle, so as to be brought parallel to the body of - the tube. The tube is then to be heated a second time, and being again - firmly pinched by the hot tongs, the end will be found to be - completely impervious. - -Footnote 243: - - _Dr. Bostock_ states that the best proportions for this coating are, - one part of common pipe clay, to three parts of fine sand; which are - to be well kneeded together, and reduced to such a state of tenacity, - that the lute will readily adhere to the tube, and its different parts - unite without forming a visible seam. “_Observations on the different - methods recommended for detecting minute portions of Arsenic, by J. - Bostock, M.D._” Read before the Liverpool Medical Society, and - published in the Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journ. April, 1809. - -Footnote 244: - - See the paper above quoted. - -Footnote 245: - - _Black’s_ Lectures, v. ii, p. 430. - -Footnote 246: - - _Foderé_ recommends this process, _Traité de Med. Leg._ t. iv, p. 153; - and Dr. Jaeger, in his Thesis, before quoted, observes that he has - been enabled to recognise the tenth of a grain of arsenious acid, - although mixed with sugar, by its odour, when thrown upon burning - coals! We must be allowed to question this fact; Dr. Jaeger, no doubt, - believed that he recognised the alliaceous odour, but it must have - been the sole effect of the imagination. Dr. Bostock states that such - a test is not to be depended upon; for, unless the arsenic be in - considerable quantity, the odour is not sufficiently perceptible; and - if it be mixed with either an animal or a vegetable substance, the - smoke and smell arising from these bodies, when heated, will - altogether prevent our recognising the peculiar odour of the arsenic. - When a quantity of arsenic is mixed with an equal weight of flour, and - placed upon iron at a low red heat, so as not to cause the flour to - inflame, the suffocating smoke that arises from the latter can be - alone perceived; nor is it possible to discover that any thing has - been mixed with it. _Edinb. Med. Journ._ _l. c._ This last objection - of Dr. Bostock is true in fact, although it admits of a different - explanation, for at a low temperature the arsenious acid will be - volatilized _without decomposition_; in which case no alliaceous odour - can be developed. - -Footnote 247: - - The paper was read before the Liverpool Medical Society. - -Footnote 248: - - London Dispensatory. Edit. 3, p. 176. - -Footnote 249: - - See a letter from _Mr. Hume_ on the subject, to the Editors of the - Medical and Physical Journal. July, 1810. - -Footnote 250: - - On the detection of very minute quantities of Arsenic and Mercury. By - _James Smithson_, Esq. F.R.S. _Annals of Philosophy_, August, 1822. - -Footnote 251: - - If any trifling opacity occur in a simple solution of arsenic, when - assayed by the nitrate of silver, it may be considered as the effects - of some casual impurity; this may be farther demonstrated by bringing - over the surface of the arsenical liquid, a piece of blotting paper, - or a stopper moistened with a solution of ammonia, when there will - instantly form a copious yellow precipitate of arsenite of silver. If - this experiment be performed by spreading the mixed solutions of - arsenious acid and nitrate of silver over a surface of glass, laid - upon white paper, the result will be most striking and beautiful, for - on slowly bringing the ammoniacal test over it, the yellow cloud will - gradually diffuse itself over the surface. - -Footnote 252: - - Pharmacologia. Edit. 5, vol. ii, p. 96. - -Footnote 253: - - London Medical and Physical Journal, January, 1818. - -Footnote 254: - - The following is the formula for its preparation. Dissolve ten grains - of _lunar caustic_, in ten times its weight of distilled water; to - this add, _guttatim_, liquid ammonia, until a precipitate is formed; - continue cautiously to add the ammonia, repeatedly agitating the - mixture until the precipitate is nearly redissolved. The object of - allowing a small portion to remain undissolved is, to guard against an - excess of ammonia. Wherever the test is used, the liquid to which it - is added ought to be quite cold. - -Footnote 255: - - This is very important, for an excess of ammonia redissolves the - yellow precipitate, and therefore defeats the object of the test. The - fixed alkalies, in excess, have not such a property. - -Footnote 256: - - The great impression made upon the public mind in Cornwall by the - above trial, produced a disposition to regard every sudden death with - more than usual jealousy. In consequence, therefore, of a report - having arisen that a young woman had died after an illness of - forty-eight hours, and been hastily buried at Madron, near Penzance, - the magistrates of that district issued their warrant for the - disinterment of the body, and requested the author’s attendance at the - examination. The dissection was accordingly conducted in the church, - when it appeared that the immediate cause of death had been an - inflammation of the intestines; the stomach was found to contain a - considerable portion of liquid, which was carefully collected and - examined; no solid matter could be discovered in it, nor were any - particles found to be adhering to the coats of the stomach. The fluid - appeared to consist principally of the remains of a quantity of - pennyroyal tea, which had been the last thing administered to the - deceased. This was divided into several distinct portions, and placed - in separate wine glasses, and submitted, in the presence of the High - Sheriff, and some other gentlemen whose curiosity had been excited by - the late trial of _Donnall_, to a series of experiments, amongst which - the following may be particularized, as bearing upon the present - question, and as affording an important elucidation of it. - - A few drops of a solution of _sub-carbonate of potass_ were added to - the liquid, in one of the glasses, when its colour, which was - originally of a light hazel, was instantly deepened into a reddish - yellow; the sulphate of copper was then applied, when a precipitate - fell down, which every one present simultaneously pronounced to be of - a “_vivid grass green_” hue; but, on pouring off the supernatant - liquid, and transferring the precipitate upon a sheet of white paper, - it assumed the blue colour which is so characteristic of the - _carbonate of copper_. The explanation of the phenomenon, and the - fallacy to which it gave rise, became obvious; the yellow colour - imparted to the liquid by the alkali, was the effect of the latter - body upon the vegetable extractive matter of the infusion. The other - portions were then strictly examined, but no indications of arsenic or - any other metallic poison were discovered. - -Footnote 257: - - This explanation applies equally to the objection lately advanced by - _Dr. Porter_, of the University of South Carolina, who, in his - observations on the tests of arsenic, remarks, that an appearance - similar to “_Scheele’s Green_,” is produced by the carbonate of - potass, when added to a solution of the sulphate of copper in coffee, - but without arsenic, more striking than if even a weak solution of - arsenic were used. _Silliman’s Journal_, iii. 865. - - FODERE reports a case, in which an erroneous conclusion respecting the - presence of arsenic was drawn, evidently owing to the same source of - fallacy. The Society of Medicine at Marseilles, in consequence of a - girl having been poisoned by a quack medicine, appointed a scientific - person to examine the composition of the _Nostrum_; this person, - strongly prepossessed with the opinion that it contained arsenic, - applied the _copper test_ above described, and having obtained by - means of it, a _green precipitate_, reported, without any further - inquiry, that the medicine in question was an arsenical solution. - _Foderé_, however, suspected the correctness of the conclusion, in - consequence of the residue not yielding by combustion, any alliaceous - odour; a new analysis was therefore made, which proved the nostrum to - be nothing more than a very strong alcoholic tincture of colocynth. - _Médecine Légale, tom. iv. p._ 137. - -Footnote 258: - - It is hardly necessary to observe that neither the carbonate of - ammonia or of potass, or sulphuric or muriatic acid, produce any - effect whatever in a pure solution of white arsenic. - -Footnote 259: - - Corrosive sublimate, however, produces both these effects, from causes - which we have fully explained under the consideration of that poison. - -Footnote 260: - - _Toxicologie Générale_, supra citat. - -Footnote 261: - - See _Leçons de Médecine Légale_, a Paris, 1821. “Experiences chimiques - propres à decouvrir les poisons minéraux qui ont été mêlés avec du - thé, du café, du vin, ete.” _Trente-unieme Leçon._ _p._ 415. - -Footnote 262: - - Chirurg. Med. p. 185. - -Footnote 263: - - The _arsenite of potass_, which has been long known under the name of - the “_arsenical salt of Macquer_” has been used in medicine, and the - Dublin Pharmacopœia contains a process for the preparation of - “_arsenias kali_.” - -Footnote 264: - - Nouvelles Experiences, &c., op. sup. cit. - -Footnote 265: - - Opera Omnia de Venenis, 1761. - -Footnote 266: - - Υδραργυρος of the Greeks from its fluidity and colour. Quicksilver. - _Quick_, in the old Saxon tongue signified living: an epithet derived - from its mobility. - -Footnote 267: - - _Cavendish._ - -Footnote 268: - - _Hassenfratz_ Ann. de Chim. xxviii, 12. - -Footnote 269: - - Hence it was called by the alchymists the _Dragon_. - -Footnote 270: - - _Mead_ on Poisons, edit. 4, p. 196. - -Footnote 271: - - Second edition, p. 89. - -Footnote 272: - - For the report of the above satisfactory case we are indebted to _Dr. - Gordon Smith_, who has related it in his work on Forensic Medicine, p. - 114. - -Footnote 273: - - Edit. 5, vol. 1, p. 260. - -Footnote 274: - - “Further experiments and observations on the action of Poisons on the - animal system.” Phil. Trans. 1812. - -Footnote 275: - - For a history of the different quack medicines which contain mercury, - see Pharmacologia, vol. ii, p. 239. - -Footnote 276: - - Opera Medica. Epist. i, p. 200. - -Footnote 277: - - Contre-poisons de l’Arsenic, du sublimé corrosif, &c. - -Footnote 278: - - Proposed by _M. Duval_, “Dissertation sur la Toxicologie.” - -Footnote 279: - - _M. Chausarel._ “Observations sur diverses substances Vénéneuses,” p. - 47. - -Footnote 280: - - We find in an ancient epigram of Ausonius, that a woman gave to her - husband some metallic mercury, with the design of increasing the - energy of a certain poison, which she administered to him. But instead - of producing this effect, the mercury, on the contrary, entirely - re-established the health of the person poisoned. The celebrated - _Goethe_ upon asking the Professor _Doebereiner_ of Jena, his opinion - upon the above case, received in reply, that the poison must have been - corrosive sublimate, since, of all the known poisons, it was the only - one whose power was weakened by mercury. - - This story induced _Orfila_ to ascertain the truth by experiment, and - he has shewn THAT METALLIC MERCURY IS NOT AN ANTIDOTE TO CORROSIVE - SUBLIMATE. - -Footnote 281: - - _Mr. Hart._ “What did you do with the flour and pork? - - _C. Carter._ I made it into four dumplings, two with pork, and two - without, and tied the two largest, with pork in them, up in bags. - - ---- With what did you mix the flour? - - ---- With milk. - - ---- When you were making these dumplings, did you observe any thing? - - ---- They made different to any thing which I had ever made before. - - ---- Explain that difference? - - ---- They broke and crumbled all into little bits. I had to knock them - in a stant like when we make butter. They would not hold together. - - ---- Had you more or less difficulty than usual? - - ---- More trouble than I ever had before.” - - _Extract from the trial._ - -Footnote 282: - - We have been informed that, by this simple and beautiful test, Mr. - Archdeacon _Wollaston_ identified the presence of corrosive sublimate - in the dumplings by which _Michael Whiting_ attempted to poison his - brothers-in-law, at Ely, as stated in the preceding page, as well as - at 197. Although in the report of the trial in our possession, the - professor does not appear to have furnished the court with any account - of the process by which he discovered the poison. - -Footnote 283: - - Trial of Mary _Bateman_ for the wilful murder of _Rebecca Perigo_, at - the York Assizes, 1809. As we have on several occasions alluded to - this trial, it may perhaps be satisfactory to give a short sketch of - the case in this place. - - This diabolical woman, under the pretext of possessing the art of - witchcraft, committed numerous frauds, and worked with so much success - upon the credulity of her victims, as to obtain considerable sums of - money, and reduce them to the extremes of poverty; while, in order to - conceal the frauds, she consigned whole families to the grave by her - poisons. Her detection was brought about by the robbery of a family of - the name of _Perigo_, from whom she obtained the sum of seventy - pounds, besides cloathes and furniture, under the pretence of engaging - a Miss _Blythe_ to relieve _Perigo’s_ wife from the effects of an - “evil wish,” under which she was supposed to labour; when the - appointed time arrived for the restoration of the property, and the - promised cure of the wife, _Mary Bateman_ sent a powder (_Arsenic_) - which she directed them to add to their pudding, and advised them, - should they be ill after eating it, to take a spoonful of prepared - honey with which she supplied them. The wife ate the pudding, and soon - afterwards died; the husband, however, very narrowly escaped: for this - murder she was tried and convicted; and thus was a system of robbery - and murder, scarcely equalled in the annals of crime, happily exposed - and ended. - -Footnote 284: - - In the Philosophical Magazine for December, 1821, a communication is - to be found from a Mr. _Murray_, which would have been too ridiculous - to require notice, had it not involved a question connected with the - habitudes of corrosive sublimate and iron, which might possibly - occasion error. After stating that certain metallic solutions may be - decomposed through the agency of magnetism, he says, a solution of - corrosive sublimate may be thus made to yield metallic mercury, by - introducing into it a bar of magnetised iron! He had not the wit to - inquire whether unmagnetised iron might not prove equally powerful as - a decomposing agent. - -Footnote 285: - - _Orfila_, l. c. - -Footnote 286: - - _Orfila_, l. c. - -Footnote 287: - - Edinburgh Med. & Surg. Journal, v. - -Footnote 288: - - Ann. de Chimie et Phys. iv. 334. - -Footnote 289: - - Tartarized Antimony, administered as an emetic, may decompose the salt - in the stomach. - -Footnote 290: - - Consultation Medico-legale sur une Accusation de l’empoisonnement par - le _Muriate de Mercure sur-oxydé_. p. 146. - -Footnote 291: - - L. C. - -Footnote 292: - - The above passage is quoted from _Waller’s_ translation of _Orfila’s_ - Treatise on Poisons, vol. i, p. 73. - -Footnote 293: - - Comment: Med. in Processus Criminales. - -Footnote 294: - - Principles of Forensic Medicine, p. 113. - -Footnote 295: - - _Accum_ on culinary poisons, or “Death in the Pot.” As this is the - last occasion which we shall have to mention the above work, we may - observe by the way, that this _ad captandum_ title is not original - with _Mr. Accum_, for there is a dissertation by _Mauchart_, entitled - “MORS IN OLLA.” - -Footnote 296: - - Many of the preparations lately presented by _Dr. Baillie_ to the - College of Physicians have become black, in consequence of the - vermilion, with which they are injected, having been adulterated with - red lead. - -Footnote 297: - - Upon this subject, the reader may consult the Historical Introduction - to the Pharmacologia, page 87. - -Footnote 298: - - Annal. de Chem. xxxii. 255. - -Footnote 299: - - We have upon this, as well as on similar occasions, preferred adopting - the name by which the substance is known in common parlance, to that - which might more strictly accord with our scientific views of its - composition. - -Footnote 300: - - Pharmacologia, Edit. v. vol. 2. p. 65. - -Footnote 301: - - F. Hoffmanni Op. om. T. 1. par. ii. c. v. p. 219. - -Footnote 302: - - This subject is treated very copiously in the first volume of the - Pharmacologia, page 152. To this work the author must refer the - reader, for the limits of the present volume will not allow more than - a mere enunciation of the fact. - -Footnote 303: - - Elements of Juridical Medicine, edit. 2, p. 96. - -Footnote 304: - - “Further experiments and observations on the Action of Poisons on the - Animal system, by _B. C. Brodie, Esq._ F. R. S. Communicated to the - Society for the improvement of Animal Chemistry, and by them to the - Royal Society.” _Phil. Trans._ for 1812, vol. 102, p. 205. - -Footnote 305: - - To those who are curious upon this subject, we recommend the perusal - of an interesting essay, entitled “Observations on the Tin trade of - the Ancients in Cornwall, and on the Ictis of Diodorus Siculus,” by - Sir _Christopher Hawkins_, Bart. F.R.S. &c. - -Footnote 306: - - See page 144 of this volume; and article _Cupri Sulphas_ in - Pharmacologia, vol. 2, p. 167, _note_. - -Footnote 307: - - We have long considered that the process of salting meat is something - more than the mere saturation of the animal fibre with muriate of - soda; some unknown combinations and decompositions take place, which - future experiment will probably discover. - -Footnote 308: - - Water may thus be preserved in copper cisterns, without contracting - any metallic impregnation, even should the surface of the cistern be - coated with the oxide and carbonate of copper. - -Footnote 309: - - _Dr. Johnson_, in his Essay on Poison, relates the history of three - men being poisoned, after excruciating sufferings, in consequence of - eating food cooked in an unclean copper vessel, on board the Cyclops - frigate; and, besides these, thirty-three men became ill from the same - cause. - -Footnote 310: - - See the Ladies Library, vol. ii, p. 203; Modern Cookery, or the - English Housewife, edit, 2, p. 94; and the English Housekeeper, p. - 352, 354. - -Footnote 311: - - This practice is of ancient origin, thus _Pliny_ “Stannum, illinitum - æneis vasis, saporem gratiorem facit, et compescit æruginis virus.” - Lib. xxxiv, cap. 17. - -Footnote 312: - - _Orfila_, l. c. - -Footnote 313: - - Recherches Chimiques sur l’Etain par _Bayen et Charlard_, 1781. - -Footnote 314: - - Annales de Chimie. - -Footnote 315: - - See _Thomson’s_ System of Chemistry. - -Footnote 316: - - Plinii Lib. xxxiv. cap. 2, 10. - -Footnote 317: - - We extract the notice of this case from Dr. _Gordon Smith’s_ work, not - having a copy of Metzger’s Principles of Judiciary Medicine at hand. - -Footnote 318: - - _Orfila_, l. c. - -Footnote 319: - - Pharmacologia, vol. ii. art. _Argenti Nitras_. - -Footnote 320: - - _Boerhaave_ relates the instance of a student in pharmacy having - swallowed some lunar caustic, in consequence of which the most serious - symptoms resulted, such as excruciating pains, gangrene, and sphacelus - of the primæ viæ. _Metzger_ also mentions a case, where a piece of - lunar caustic was accidentally dropped into the throat of a person - while applying it to an ulcer, but that the patient was saved by - drinking copious draughts of milk. - -Footnote 321: - - In the neutralization of acid poisons in the stomach, it is a great - object to avoid _carbonated_ alkalies and earths, on account of the - large volume of carbonic acid, thus given off, proving highly - distressing. - -Footnote 322: - - Pharmacologia, vol. ii, art. _Acid Nitric_. - -Footnote 323: - - Traité de l’Empoisonment par l’Acide Nitrique; par _A. E. Tartra_, - Médecin. à Paris 1802. - -Footnote 324: - - Some experiments and researches on the saline contents of sea-water, - undertaken with a view to correct and improve its chemical analysis. - By _A. Marcet_, M.D. F.R.S. in the Phil. Trans. for the year 1822. - part 2. - -Footnote 325: - - It is known in commerce by this name, since it is prepared on a large - scale, by distilling sugar with nitric acid. It derives the term - _oxalic_ acid, from the plant which so abundantly contains it, viz. - _oxalis acetosella_, or wood sorrel. - -Footnote 326: - - ESSENTIAL SALT OF LEMONS. “The preparation sold under this name, for - the purpose of removing iron moulds from linen, consists of cream of - tartar, and super-oxalate of potass, or _salt of sorrel_, in equal - proportions.” _Pharmacologia._ - -Footnote 327: - - The parents of this child suppose that the violence of the screaming - ruptured the vesicles by which the breathing was impeded, and thus - proved an unexpected means of cure. - -Footnote 328: - - See “An account of the case of a man who died of the effects of the - fire at Eddystone Light-house,” by Mr. _Edward Spry_, Surgeon, at - Plymouth. PHIL. TRANS. vol. xlix, part 2, p. 477, A. D. 1756. - -Footnote 329: - - There are some exceptions to this law; for instance, the tincture of - litmus, and litmus paper, are always rendered more intensely blue, by - the addition of alkalies. There are also other bodies, besides - alkalies, which change the yellow colour of turmeric to a brown. Upon - this subject see an interesting paper in the 26th number of the - Journal of Science and the Arts, p. 315, by _Mr. Faraday_, entitled - “On the changing of vegetable colours as an alkaline property, and on - some bodies possessing it.” By this communication we are informed that - even the strong acids redden turmeric paper, and that a very weak - nitric acid gives it a tint exactly like that produced by an alkali. - Different metallic salts are characterised by similar effects. - -Footnote 330: - - A new alkali has been lately discovered in a mineral called - _Petalite_, by _M. Arfwedson_, a young Sweedish chemist, but as the - extreme rarity of the substance will prevent its ever becoming an - object of forensic interest, we shall pass it over without further - notice. Some new alkaline principles have also been developed by the - French and German chemists, in the analysis of certain vegetables, but - as these bodies have a physiological action, which is wholly - independent of their alkalinity, they will be more properly noticed - under the history of the vegetables which contain them. - -Footnote 331: - - Should the solution contain a small portion of lime, as may occasionly - happen, the cloud will be very slight, and cannot give origin to any - important fallacy. - -Footnote 332: - - _Orfila_, vol. i, p. 404. - -Footnote 333: - - Essay on Poisons, page 143. - -Footnote 334: - - _Orfila_, Lib. Cit. - -Footnote 335: - - _Brodie_, Phil. trans. 1812. - -Footnote 336: - - This is an important characteristic, since all the metallic poisons - yield an abundant precipitate, either black, yellow, or red, on the - addition of one or other of the alkaline hydro-sulphurets. - -Footnote 337: - - “GENERA CRUSTACEORUM ET INSECTORUM,” tom. 2, p. 220. The London - College in their present pharmacopœia refer this insect to the genus - LYTTA, an error which will be corrected in the future edition. - -Footnote 338: - - System of Chemistry, edit. 5, vol. iv. p. 436. See also Ann. de Chim. - lxxvi. p. 308. - -Footnote 339: - - Page 129, _note_. - -Footnote 340: - - _Homberg_, Mem. Par, 1692. - -Footnote 341: - - Ann. de Chim. xxvii, 87. - -Footnote 342: - - The earliest account we have of this substance having been used in - medicine is to be found in the seventh volume of _Haller’s_ collection - of Theses, relating to the history and cure of diseases. The original - dissertation is entitled “_De Phosphori loco Medicamenti adsumpti - virtute medica, aliquot casibus singularibus confirmata,” Auctore J. - Gabi, Mentz_. - -Footnote 343: - - Memoirs of the Society of Emulation at Paris. - -Footnote 344: - - See _Nicholson’s_ Journal iii, 85. - -Footnote 345: - - For July, 1813. - -Footnote 346: - - Numb. xxxi, 22. - -Footnote 347: - - System of Chemistry, 4th edit. 1, 274-277. - -Footnote 348: - - De Architectura, lib. viii, c. 7. - -Footnote 349: - - Researches into the Properties of Spring water, with Medical cautions - against the use of Lead, by _W. Lambe_, M.D. &c. - -Footnote 350: - - A case is recorded, wherein a legal controversy took place, in order - to settle the disputes between the proprietors of an estate and a - plumber, originating from a similar cause—the plumber being accused of - having furnished a faulty reservoir; whereas the case was proved to be - owing to the chemical action of the water on the lead. _Dr. Lambe_ - states an instance where the proprietor of a well, ordered his plumber - to make the lead of a pump of double the thickness of the metal - usually employed for pumps, to save the charge of repairs; because he - had observed that the water was so hard, as he called it, that it - corroded the lead very soon. - -Footnote 351: - - _Van Swieten_ ad _Boerhaave_ Aphorism. 1060 Comment. - -Footnote 352: - - Libro supra citato, p. 24. - -Footnote 353: - - _Duncan’s_ Med. Comment. Dec. 2, 1794. - -Footnote 354: - - See the papers by Sir George _Baker_, in the first volume of the - Medical Transactions of the College of Physicians, viz. “_An Inquiry - concerning the Cause of the Endemial Colic of Devonshire_,” p. 175. - - “_An Examination of several means by which the_ POISON OF LEAD _may be - supposed frequently to gain admittance into the human body, - unobserved, and unsuspected_,” p. 257. - - “_An attempt towards an historical account of that species of - Spasmodic Colic, distinguished by the name of the Colic of_ POITOU,” - p. 139. - -Footnote 355: - - See a work by Dr. _William Musgrave_, which contains the earliest - account of the Devonshire colic, entitled “_Dissertatio de Arthritide - symptomatica_,” 1703; and also Dr. _Huxham’s_ work on the “_Morbus - Colicus Damnoniorum_.” - -Footnote 356: - - Annales de Chimie, vol. 1, p. 76. - -Footnote 357: - - See _Fourcroy_, Memoire sur la nature du Vin lithargyré, in the - “Histoire de l’Academie Royale,” for 1817. - -Footnote 358: - - Sir _George Baker_ considered that the dry belly ache, which is common - to the drinkers of _new_ rum, in the West Indies, ought to be wholly - referred to its contamination with lead. - -Footnote 359: - - The art of glazing earthenware with lead is of modern invention; that - part of the old earthenware, preserved in the British museum, which is - supposed to have been of Roman manufacture, is not glazed. The - vessels, which are called Etruscan, and which are supposed to be of - greater antiquity than the Roman, have indeed a paint or polish on - their surfaces; but that does not appear to resemble our modern - saturnine vitrification. - -Footnote 360: - - The workmen who are employed at the glazing tub are subject to colics - and paralysis. - -Footnote 361: - - The frequency with which the inhabitants of Madrid, and of a great - part of New Castille in Spain, were harrassed with colic, as recorded - by _M. Thierry_, received a satisfactory explanation from the fact of - glazed earthenware having been universally used in that country for - culinary vessels. - - _Sir G. Baker_ in a paper entitled “_Further Observations on the - Poisons of Lead_,” Med. Trans. vol. 2, p. 419, mentions the practice - of drinking cyder out of glazed earthen vessels as dangerous. Dr. - _Watson_, junior, saw several instances of the Devonshire colic, - during the time of harvest, apparently from this cause. And a similar - instance fell under the notice of Dr. _Charleston_, where six persons - became, at one time, paralytic, by drinking cyder, brought to them - while at harvest work, in a new earthen pitcher, the inside of which - was glazed. That the glazing was dissolved by the liquor appeared not - only by the effects which it produced, but from its having given, as - these persons informed Dr. _Charleston_, that astringent sweetish - taste to the liquor, by which the solutions of this metal are so - peculiarly distinguished. - -Footnote 362: - - As it is very desirable to exclude the use of _lead_ altogether, the - Society for the promotion of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, has - offered a premium for a substitute for this metallic glaze. For an - account of several new glazes, as substitutes for _lead_, see - _Parkes’s Chemical Essays_, vol. iii, p. 193-576. - -Footnote 363: - - _Darwin’s_ Zoonomia, vol. 3, cl. 1, 2, 4, 8. - -Footnote 364: - - Chemical Essays, vol. v, p. 193. - -Footnote 365: - - Philosophical Magazine, 1819, no. 257, p. 229. - -Footnote 366: - - The use of the arsenic is to render the lead more brittle, and to - dispose it to run into spherical drops. - -Footnote 367: - - _Francis Citois_, the historian of this celebrated epidemic, published - his “_Diatriba de novo et populari apud Pictones, dolore colico - bilioso_,” A.D. 1617. In which he states that the “_dolor colicus - Pictonicus_” was a new epidemic in the province of Poitou, about the - year 1572; and after having prevailed in that province about 60 or 70 - years, it became milder, less untractable, and by degrees was - translated to other parts of France. The supposition, however, says - Sir _George Baker_, that the colic of Poitou was a new disease, about - the time when Citois lived, is not true; the disease was even - mentioned by our countryman _John of Gaddesden_, who appears to have - written his _Rosa Anglica_ early in the fourteenth century. If we - consult authors posterior to _Citois_, we find this species of colic - mentioned in almost every practical book. We have an account in - _Sennertus_ of its having prevailed epidemically, all over Silesia, in - the year 1621. _Baglivi_ even affirms that “nihil facilius colicæ - supervenit, quam paralysis.” None of these authors, however, appear to - have entertained the slightest suspicion of the true source of the - malady. - -Footnote 368: - - EPHEMERIDES GERMANICÆ, Ann. 4.—Observ. 60 by _Cockelius_.—Obs. 92 by - _Brunnerus_.—Obs. 100 by _Wicarius_. - -Footnote 369: - - Chemical Essays, vol. 3, page 369, edit. 3. - -Footnote 370: - - Exam. Chy. de Differ. Subs. par M. Sage, p. 157. - -Footnote 371: - - Medical Transactions of the College of Physicians, vol. ii, p. 86. - -Footnote 372: - - The art of making wines, from fruits, flowers, and herbs; all the - native growth of Great Britain, by _William Graham_, late of Ware in - Hertfordshire. - -Footnote 373: - - See “_Some experiments made upon Rum, in order to ascertain the cause - of the colic, frequent among the Soldiers in the island of Jamaica, in - the years 1781, and 1782_”; by JOHN HUNTER, M.D. In the Medical - Transactions, vol. 3, p. 227. - -Footnote 374: - - Annales de Chimie, tom. lvii, p. 84. Memoire de _M. Proust_. - -Footnote 375: - - _Cerusse_ was in great request among the Roman ladies as a cosmetic. - -Footnote 376: - - The manufacture of this colour was long kept secret; but its - consumption has lately been greatly lessened by the introduction of - the artificial CHROMATE OF LEAD, which is a yellow of much greater - brilliancy than the muriate of that metal. - -Footnote 377: - - See Repository of Arts, vol. viii, no. 47, p. 262. - -Footnote 378: - - Med. Trans. vol. 2, p. 445. - -Footnote 379: - - See a paper in the Medical Transactions, vol. 2, p. 68, “Of the Colica - Pictonum,” by _R. Warren_, M.D. &c. - -Footnote 380: - - _Paulus Ægineta_ is the first writer who has described a species of - Colic terminating in Paralysis. (Lib. iii, c. 18, 43.) - -Footnote 381: - - Poitou, this late province in France was divided at the revolution - into the three departments of Vendée, Vienne, and the Two Sevres. - -Footnote 382: - - Pictones—_Cæs._ People of France, whose chief city is Pictavium, now - called Poictiers. - -Footnote 383: - - _Percival’s_ Essays, vol. 1, p. 458. - -Footnote 384: - - See our remarks upon this subject at page 142. See also _Teichmeyer_, - Inst. Med. For. p. 164. - -Footnote 385: - - Upon the subject of slow poisons we have already expressed the - latitude of our belief, see page 143. - -Footnote 386: - - Medical Transactions, vol. 2, p. 420. - -Footnote 387: - - Transactions of Medical Society of London. - -Footnote 388: - - Med. Legale, iv, § 921. - -Footnote 389: - - “De Lithargyrio quoque mihi narravit, matronam quandam nobilem - pulverem ejus in rubore faciei, postquam hic ipsi tanquam singulare et - certissimum arcanum deprædicatus fuisset, in petia ligatum, axillis - bis vel ter die aspersisse cum præsentaneo effectu; verum exinde - subsecuta fuisse dyspnæam, lipothymiam, dolores vagos in abdomine, - vomituritionem, et nauseam.” - -Footnote 390: - - See his “Researches into the Properties of Spring water.” 8vo. London. - _Johnson._ 1803. - -Footnote 391: - - Observations on the Water with which Tunbridge is supplied for - domestic purposes. - -Footnote 392: - - The following is the method of preparing the test. Expose equal parts - of sulphur and powdered oyster shells to a white heat for fifteen - minutes; and, when cold, add an equal quantity of cream of tartar; - these are to be put into a strong bottle with common water to boil for - an hour; and the solution is afterwards to be decanted into ounce - phials, adding twenty drops of muriatic acid to each. - -Footnote 393: - - _Lambe_, op. sup. cit. page 175. - -Footnote 394: - - On the ultimate Analysis of Vegetable and Animal Substances, by - _Andrew Ure_, M.D.F.R.S. Phil. Trans. for 1822, part. 2. - -Footnote 395: - - Essay on Chemical Analysis, by _J. G. Children, Esq._ - -Footnote 396: - - Where a compound is merely separated it is called an EDUCT; but where - it arises from a new combination of the elements it is distinguished - by the term PRODUCT. - -Footnote 397: - - Recherches Physico-Chimiques. - -Footnote 398: - - On the ultimate Analysis of Vegetable and Animal Substances, by - _Andrew Ure_, M.D.F.R.S. Phil. Trans, for 1822, part 2. - -Footnote 399: - - The author has already in the fifth edition of his Pharmacologia, - entered so fully into the philosophy of medicinal combination, that he - can scarcely feel regret at the limits of the present work not - allowing him to dwell upon the subject. - -Footnote 400: - - The Cambogia _Gutta_ Lin. (Polyandria Monogynia) and several species - of Hypericum; Chelidonium, &c. also yield a similar juice. - -Footnote 401: - - The Dutch appear to have first introduced it into Europe about the - middle of the seventeenth century. - -Footnote 402: - - Ελλεβορος λευκος of Dioscorides. - -Footnote 403: - - Histoire des Plantes Vénéneuses de la Suisse. - -Footnote 404: - - The same alkali has been discovered in the seeds of the _Veratrum - Sabadilla_, and in the root of the _Colchicum Autumnale_. - -Footnote 405: - - It was first cultivated by _Gerarde_ in 1596. - -Footnote 406: - - See London Medical Repository, vol. xii, no. 67. - -Footnote 407: - - Pharmacologia, vol. ii, art. _Extract. Elaterii_, p. 204. - -Footnote 408: - - Fragmenta Chirurg. et Med. p. 66. - -Footnote 409: - - Obs. Lib. iv, c. xxvi, p. 208. - -Footnote 410: - - The juice of every species of _spurge_ is so acrid, that it corrodes - and ulcerates the body wherever it is applied. Warts or corns, - annointed with the juice presently disappear; hence this tribe of - plants has derived the popular name of _wart weed_. - -Footnote 411: - - One of the supposed proofs of the guilt of _Charles Angus_ in the case - of _Margaret Burns_, as stated at page 177, rested upon the fact, that - on searching the prisoner’s bed room, three bottles were found in the - wardrobe, viz. one marked “_poison water_;” a second “_Jacob’s - water_;” and a third “_Savine oil_.” - -Footnote 412: - - The roman poets constantly use it in the plural number, which - evidently shews that it was meant to denote other kinds of poisons, or - poisons in general; thus JUVENAL in the first satire, v. 156. - - “Qui dedit ergo tribus patruis ACONITA, vehetur - Pensilibus plumis,——” - - So again _Ovid_ in the first book of Metamorph, v. 47. - - “Lurida terribiles miscent ACONITA novercæ.” - -Footnote 413: - - _Theophrastus_ tells us that a poison may be prepared from _aconite_ - so as to occasion death within any definite period; see page 183 in - the present volume. - -Footnote 414: - - See an account of this process of preparing extracts _in vacuo_, in - Medico-Chirurg. Trans. vol. x, p. 240; and for a history of their - superior powers, the author begs to refer the reader to an account of - the articles in his Pharmacologia. - -Footnote 415: - - Pharmacologia, vol. 1, p. 136. - -Footnote 416: - - Med. Observ. and Inquiries, vol. v. p. 317. - -Footnote 417: - - It may be obtained from opium by the following process, invented by - ROBIQUET. Three hundred parts of pure opium are to be macerated during - five days, in one thousand parts of common water; to the filtered - solution, fifteen parts of perfectly pure magnesia (carefully avoiding - the _carbonate_) are to be added; boil this mixture (A) for ten - minutes, and separate the sediment (B) by a filter, washing it with - cold water until the water passes off clear; after which, treat it - alternately with hot and cold alcohol (12, 22. Bé) as long as the - menstruum takes up any colouring matter; the residue is then to be - treated with boiling alcohol (22, 32, Bé) on cooling, the solution - will deposit the _Morphia_ in crystals. - - _Rationale of the process._ A soluble _meconiate of magnesia_ is, in - the first place, formed; (A) while the sediment (B) consists of - _morphia_, in the state of mixture, with the excess of magnesia; the - boiling alcohol, with which this residuum is treated, exerts no action - upon the magnesia, but dissolves the _morphia_, and, on cooling, - surrenders it in a crystalline state. - -Footnote 418: - - Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. tom. v. - -Footnote 419: - - “Confessions of an English opium-eater.” London, 1822. - -Footnote 420: - - History of Aleppo. - -Footnote 421: - - _Orfila_ states that animals, on which the section of the _par vagum_ - of both sides has been performed, die at the end of two or three - hours; after having experienced intoxication, somnolency, and - convulsions. _Bulletin de la Soc. Philomatique, Mai 1808_, _t._ 1, - _p._ 143. - -Footnote 422: - - _Toriosa_ (_Istituzioni di Med. For._) has remarked that opium may act - mortally without losing much of its weight in the stomach. We are very - sceptical upon this point. - -Footnote 423: - - The reader is requested to refer to our chapter “On the Physiological - causes and phenomena of sudden death,” p. 22. - -Footnote 424: - - See “Cases illustrating the decided efficacy of cold affusion in the - treatment of poisoning by opium, by _S. Wray_.” _London Medical and - Physical Journal_, for September 1822. - - “A case of poisoning by opium, in which the cold affusion was - successfully employed; with observations on the medical management of - similar occurrences, by _J. Copland_, M. D.” _Ibid._ - - “On the most efficacious means of remedying the effects of opium, when - taken in poisonous doses, by _J. H. Sprague_.” _Ibid._ - -Footnote 425: - - Avis au _peuple_, tom. ii, § 535, p. 280, 7th edit. - -Footnote 426: - - “On the common syringe, with a flexible tube, as applicable to the - removal of opium, and other poisons, from the stomach, by _F. Bush_.” - _London Med. and Phys. Journ._ for September, 1822. - - “New means of extracting opium, &c. from the stomach, by _E. Jukes, - Esq_.” _Ibid._ for November, 1822. - -Footnote 427: - - See Pharmacologia, vol. 1, p. 234. - -Footnote 428: - - Reports on Water, 1, 80. - -Footnote 429: - - A very high degree of vascularity is often found in the stomach and - alimentary canal of those who have been suddenly deprived of life. The - reader may consult _Dr. Yelloly’s_ paper in the _Medico-chirurgical - Transactions_, vol. iv, respecting the appearances found in the - stomachs of several executed criminals. - - A case of poisoning by opium is given in the foreign department of the - London Medical Repository, for November 1820; in which two drachms of - solid opium had been swallowed, and on dissection a general congestion - of blood was found in the internal organs. - -Footnote 430: - - The stomach in this case was observed to be red, but the colour was - traced to the tincture of cardamoms, which the deceased had taken. - -Footnote 431: - - Philosophical Transactions, vol. xl, p. 446. - -Footnote 432: - - It was discovered by _Scheele_, but _Gay-Lussac_ first succeeded in - depriving it of a very great quantity of the water with which it was - combined, when prepared according to the process of its discoverer. - See _Annales de Chimie_, tom. lxxvii, p. 123. - -Footnote 433: - - By the decomposition of muriatic acid, and the cyanuret of mercury. - -Footnote 434: - - _Dr. Majendie_ has informed us that, in consequence of some - carelessness, he breathed a portion of the vapour, while preparing the - acid for the purpose of experiment; and that he suffered very violent - pains in the chest, accompanied by feelings of oppression, which - endured for several hours. - -Footnote 435: - - “En conservant cet acide dans des vases bien fermés, même sans quil - ait le contact de l’air, il se decompose quelquefois en moins d’une - heure.” _Gay-Lussac._ - -Footnote 436: - - See “An Historical and Practical Treatise on the Internal use of - hydro-cyanic (Prussic) acid, by _A. B. Granville_, M.D.” Second edit. - London, 1820. - -Footnote 437: - - See, however, an account of “A new substance found accompanying Welsh - Culm, by _J. A. Paris_, M.D.” in the first volume of the Transactions - of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. - -Footnote 438: - - The poisonous properties of this plant are alluded to by _Strabo_, who - says that the _Lauro-cerasus_ produces a mode of death, similar to - that of epilepsy. - -Footnote 439: - - The merits of this case are to be found very fully discussed in a - pamphlet, entitled “Considerations on the criminal proceedings of this - country; on the danger of convictions on circumstantial evidence, and - on the case of _Mr. Donellan_.” By a barrister of the Inner Temple, - London, 1781. - -Footnote 440: - - “Experiments and Observations on the different modes in which Death is - produced by certain vegetable poisons.” Phil. Trans. vol. 101, for the - year 1811. - -Footnote 441: - - To those who may wish to gain further information upon this subject, - we beg to recommend the perusal of _Dr. Granville’s_ work above - quoted. - -Footnote 442: - - Treatise on Prussic acid, sup. citat. p. 96. - -Footnote 443: - - Journal General de Médecine, 1. xxiv, p 224. - -Footnote 444: - - Annals of Philosophy, vol. i, p. 2, _new series_. - -Footnote 445: - - From this person the plant received its generic name, _Nicotiana_; the - specific appellation being taken from _Tabac_, the name of an - instrument used by the natives of America in smoking the herb. - -Footnote 446: - - In 1624 Pope Urban the VIII, published a decree of excommunication - against all who took snuff in the church. Ten years after this, - smoking tobacco was forbidden in Russia, under the pain of having the - nose cut off. In 1653 the Council of the Canton of Appenzel cited - smokers before them, whom they punished; and they ordered all - inn-keepers to inform against such as were found smoking in their - houses. The police regulations of Berne, made in 1661, were divided - according to the ten commandments, in which the prohibition of smoking - stood immediately beneath the command against adultery. This - prohibition was renewed in 1675, and the tribunal instituted to put it - into execution—viz. “CHAMBRE AU TABAC,” continued to the middle of the - eighteenth century. Pope Innocent the XII, in 1590 excommunicated all - those who were found taking snuff, or using tobacco, in any manner, in - the church of St. Peter at Rome; even so late as 1719 the Senate of - Strasburgh prohibited the cultivation of tobacco, from an apprehension - that it would diminish the growth of corn. Amurath the IV published an - edict which made the smoking tobacco a capital offence; this was - founded on an opinion that it rendered the people infertile. - -Footnote 447: - - Pharmacologia, vol. 1, 228, and vol. 2, art. Tabaci Folia. - -Footnote 448: - - Vol. ii, p. 404. - -Footnote 449: - - We are, however, by no means disposed to assign greater weight to this - expression that it can fairly sustain; it may perhaps refer to the - operation of dropping the poison into the ear, and not to the poison - itself—thus _Juvenal_, “_stillavit_ in aurem.” - -Footnote 450: - - Ephemerides des Curieux de la Nature, Dec. ii, An. i, p. 46. - -Footnote 451: - - _Orfila_, Toxicol. - -Footnote 452: - - Pharmacologia, vol. 1, p. 228. - -Footnote 453: - - Pliny informs us that the word _cicuta_ amongst the ancients, was not - indicative of any particular species of plant, but of vegetable - poisons in general. We have already made the same remark with respect - to Aconite. - -Footnote 454: - - Κωνειον of Dioscorides. - -Footnote 455: - - In the London Medical and Physical Journal, vol. 14, p. 425, we shall - find a case wherein the hemlock was eaten through mistake for common - parsley. Similar accidents are also recorded in _Miller’s_ Dictionary. - -Footnote 456: - - It is figured in the Hortus Malabaricus under the name of _Canirum_. - -Footnote 457: - - Annales de Chimie, t. 8 to 10. - -Footnote 458: - - Ibid. t. x, 153. - -Footnote 459: - - Journal de Physiologie Experimentale, 1^{er} numeroJanvier 1821, in a - paper entitled “_Memoire sur le Méchanisme de l’Absorption_.” - -Footnote 460: - - We avail ourselves of this report, as given by _Orfila_ in his System - of Toxicology. - -Footnote 461: - - Bulletin de la Société de Med. Nov. 1807. - -Footnote 462: - - Analyse Chimique de la Coque du Levant. Paris, 1812. - -Footnote 463: - - We have already stated that this sauce has been occasionally rendered - poisonous by the presence of copper, p. 290. - -Footnote 464: - - _Haller_, Helvet. hist. - -Footnote 465: - - We have explained, at page 150, the sense in which we wish these terms - to be received. - -Footnote 466: - - Krascheminckow, Histoire Naturel du Kamtschatka, p. 209. - -Footnote 467: - - Systematic arrangement of British Plants, vol. iv, p. 181. - -Footnote 468: - - Leçons, faisant partie du Cours de Medecine Legale de _M. Orfila_. - Paris, 1821. - -Footnote 469: - - This fact is particularized, as some persons have supposed the - symptoms which have arisen from the ingestion of these fungi, may have - been the effect of copper derived from the cooking utensils. - -Footnote 470: - - Let it be remembered that this term is to be received conventionally; - we merely intend it to express certain phenomena, without any - reference to their cause. - -Footnote 471: - - _Mr. Brande._ Phil. Trans. 1811 and 1813. - -Footnote 472: - - “I apprehend that the peculiar flavour of _cogniac_ depends upon the - presence of an æthereal spirit, formed by the action of tartaric, or - perhaps acetic acid upon alcohol. It is on this account that nitric - æther, when added to malt spirits gives them the flavour of brandy.” - Pharmacologia, vol. 2, p. 396. - -Footnote 473: - - Pharmacologia, vol. 2, p. 397. - -Footnote 474: - - See our chapter on “_the Physiological causes and Phenomena of Sudden - Death_,” page 16. - - In the course of the present work we have frequently recommended the - artificial inflation of the lungs, in cases where life is liable to be - extinguished by suffocation, (_page_ 78); but we have not yet hinted - at the possibility of employing such a resource with success in cases - of narcotic poisoning, wherein the death may be physiologically - considered as analogous to that occasioned by suffocation. _Mr. - Brodie_ was the first philosopher who ventured to propose such an - expedient, and in an experiment carefully performed on an animal under - such circumstances its life was preserved. - - The success of the process will depend upon our being able to keep up - an artificial breathing, until the effects of the narcotic have passed - away, and the energy of the brain is restored. As during this interval - the generation of animal heat appears to be in a great measure - suspended, it will be necessary to maintain a sufficient temperature - by art. - -Footnote 475: - - We have just received from _Mr. Alcock_ a history of the particular - circumstances of the interesting case alluded to at page 58 of the - present volume, and we shall give insertion to it in our chapter on - Anatomical Dissection. - -Footnote 476: - - Treatise on Nervous Diseases, vol. 1, p. 221. - -Footnote 477: - - Case of a woman bitten by a viper, _Med. and Phy. Journ._ vol. ii, p. - 481. - -Footnote 478: - - Celsus Medicin. lib. 5, c. 27. - -Footnote 479: - - Lucan Pharsal, c. 9. - -Footnote 480: - - See our remarks on the effects produced by the accidental ingestion of - boiling water, page 317, and which will apply to the circumstances of - the present case. - -Footnote 481: - - Med. Legale, t. iv, 835. - -Footnote 482: - - Vol. 1, p. 519. - -Footnote 483: - - See volume 1 of the present work, p. 95. - -Footnote 484: - - See _Orfila_, vol. 2. - -Footnote 485: - - See _Dr. Stone_ on the Diseases of the Stomach, p. 80. We also beg to - direct the attention of the medical reader to a paper entitled “On the - effects of certain articles of food, especially oysters, on women - after child-birth, by _John Clarke_, M. D.” Med. Trans. vol. v, p. - 109. - -Footnote 486: - - For October, 1808, vol. iv, p. 393. - -Footnote 487: - - For June, 1815, vol. 3, p. 445. - -Footnote 488: - - _Dr. Burrows_ has given us a list of them in the paper above alluded - to; the most poisonous of which is the yellow-bill’d sprat, (_Clupea - Thryssa_.) Indeed, says this author, it has rarely occurred that - _immediate_ death has ensued between the tropics from the virus of any - other fish. _M. Orfila_ observes that the action of this fish is so - rapid, that it has been often seen at _St. Eustatia_ that persons have - expired while still eating it. - -Footnote 489: - - Med. Rep. vol. 3, p. 445. - -Footnote 490: - - Gazette de Santé, Ire Mars, 1812, p. 51.—Ibid. 21 Mars, 1813.—Ibid. 1, - Octob. 1812. - -Footnote 491: - - Tom. iv, p. 85. - -Footnote 492: - - _Behren’s_ Dissert. de Affect. a comest Mytil. - -Footnote 493: - - Voyage of Discovery, vol. 2, p. 286, 287. - -Footnote 494: - - The Principles of Forensic Medicine, _page_ 191. - -Footnote 495: - - See Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journal, for Jan. 1811, p. 41.—_Bateman_ - on Cutaneous Diseases, art. _Prurigo_. - -Footnote 496: - - Observ. on the Diseases of the Army in Jamaica, vol. ii, p. 182. - -Footnote 497: - - Giornale di Fisica, &c. Secondo Bimestre, 1817. - -Footnote 498: - - There is no trade more immediately destructive of health than dry - grinding steel; the workmen are usually attacked by what is called the - grinder’s asthma at twenty-five or thirty years of age, and few of - them live to forty. The Society of Arts have long offered a reward for - the invention of some mode of securing the workmen from this dreadful - calamity, and in 1822 awarded their gold medal to _Mr. J. H. Abraham_, - of Sheffield, for his Magnetic Guard for Needle-pointers, (see - Transactions for 1822.) The contrivance is likely to answer its - intended purpose, provided the obstinacy and prejudice of the workmen - can be overcome by the perseverance of the master manufacturers, who - are morally bound to adopt every probable means of securing the health - of those employed under them, even though their servants should - themselves neglect it. - -Footnote 499: - - _Diemerbroeck_, lib. ii, p. 443. - -Footnote 500: - - The oxide of mercury is not volatile. - -Footnote 501: - - Where mercury is sublimed, it will usually assume the appearance of a - black powder, in consequence of the extreme state of division it has - undergone. This appearance has no doubt deceived the superficial - observer, and given origin to many erroneous statements. - -Footnote 502: - - “A small portion of mercury was put through a funnel into a clean dry - bottle, capable of holding about six ounces, and formed a stratum at - the bottom not one-eighth of an inch in thickness; particular care was - taken that none of the mercury should adhere to the upper part of the - inside of the bottle. A small piece of leaf-gold was then attached to - the under part of the stopper of the bottle, so that when the stopper - was put into its place, the leaf-gold was enclosed in the bottle. It - was then set aside in a safe place, which happened to be both dark and - cool, and left for between six weeks and two months. At the end of - that time it was examined, and the leaf-gold was found whitened by a - quantity of mercury, though every part of the bottle and mercury - remained, apparently, just as before. This experiment has been - repeated several times, and always with success. The utmost care was - taken that mercury should not get to the gold, except by passing - through the atmosphere of the bottle. I think therefore it proves that - at common temperatures, and even when the air is present, mercury is - always surrounded by an atmosphere of the same substance.”—_On the - vapour of mercury at common temperatures, by M. Faraday, Chemical - Assistant at the Royal Institution._ Journal of Science and the Arts, - vol. 10, p. 354. - -Footnote 503: - - _Mr. Plowman_ has since stated, in conversation, that he has seen five - or six mice, in one day, come into the ward-room, leap up a - considerable height, and fall down dead on the deck. He also stated - that the food for the use of the canary bird was kept in well closed - bottles, so that it was impossible for it to have contracted any - metallic impregnation. - -Footnote 504: - - The gases given off by burning coal, will vary very much according to - the activity of the combustion, and the degree of moisture present; so - that we may expect to receive sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphurous acid, - carbonic oxide, carbonic acid, and carburetted hydrogen. - -Footnote 505: - - Researches Chemical and Philosophical, chiefly concerning nitrous - oxide, &c. London, 1800. - -Footnote 506: - - Recherches de Physiologie et de chimie, p. 144, an. 1811. - -Footnote 507: - - See the case in _Valentini_, _P. M. L._ p. 538, of a woman wilfully - killed by continual and excessive doses of sulphuric acid, - administered to her under pretence of medicine. - -Footnote 508: - - See the trial of _Jane Butterfield_ for the murder of _Wm. Scawen_, - Esq. published from the short hand writer’s notes, London 1775. _Miss - Butterfield_ was acquitted, the case is therefore put - supposititiously. - -Footnote 509: - - Such was the case of the ignorant man who went out at night with the - intention of shooting a ghost, which was supposed to haunt the village - of Hammersmith; he actually shot a bricklayer’s labourer who was - returning from his work; this was held to be murder, and the prisoner - was convicted; he was not indeed a fit subject for execution, and was - therefore pardoned; but this should not be extended into a doctrine, - that gross ignorance, producing death, is always a pardonable offence. - - - - - Transcriber’s Note - - -This book uses inconsistent spelling and hyphenation, which were -retained in the ebook version. Ditto marks and dashes used to represent -repeated text have been replaced with the text that they represent. Some -corrections have been made to the text, including correcting the errata -noted in Volume 1 of this work, normalizing punctuation. Diacritics were -left off Greek words since they were used inconsistently and when they -were used they were often incorrect. Further corrections are noted -below: - - p. 6: proved the means of resucitating -> proved the means of - resuscitating - Anchor position for Footnote 8 assumed - p. 14: whereas the _cadeverous_ stiffness -> whereas the _cadaverous_ - stiffness - p. 24: in cases of supended animation -> in cases of suspended animation - p. 30: in such cases it become a question -> in such cases it becomes a - question - Footnote 21: _Tranee._ Although this term -> _Trance._ Although this - term - p. 28: killed at the seige of Osen -> killed at the siege of Osen - p. 37: there is asecond period of danger -> there is a second period of - danger - p. 41: until a sufficient quanity of air -> until a sufficient quantity - of air - p. 46: 3. BY MANUAL STRAGULATION. -> 3. BY MANUAL STRANGULATION - p. 58: no doubt but that persous -> no doubt but that persons - p. 75: cases were life is suddenly arrested -> cases where life is - suddenly arrested - p. 85: are founded n error -> are founded in error - p. 87: animal will be enable to perform -> animal will be enabled to - perform - Anchor position for Footnote 72 assumed - p. 110: it is scarely necessary; -> it is scarcely necessary; - p. 116: 1. _Absolutely mortal._ 2. _Dangerous._ 8. _Accidentally - mortal._ -> _Absolutely mortal._ 2. _Dangerous._ 3. _Accidentally - mortal._ - p. 120: footnote marker removed for which no footnote was printed: - destroy the patient, by hemorrhage. - Anchor position for Footnote 152 assumed - p. 154: our idea of it importance -> our idea of its importance - p. 162: with numerous alledged difficulties -> with numerous alleged - difficulties - Footnote 187: the stomach which undergeos solution -> the stomach which - undergoes solution - p. 171: satisfactorily corrobrate the truth -> satisfactorily - corroborate the truth - p. 174: the red and inflammed appearance -> the red and inflamed - appearance - Footnote 191: being very thirsy, and in considerable pain -> being very - thirsty, and in considerable pain - Footnote 191: wlth yellow pieces in it -> with yellow pieces in it - Footnote 191: that they torn with the slightest -> that they tore with - the slightest - p. 191: was of an unusally red colour -> was of an unusually red colour - p. 193: which are undoubtedly worthy consideration -> which are - undoubtedly worthy of consideration - p. 195: from which he his led to conclude -> from which he is led to - conclude - p. 200: some few and unimportannt exceptions -> some few and unimportant - exceptions - p. 200: Cl. V, _Narotico-Acrid poisons_ -> Cl. V, _Narcotico-Acrid - poisons_ - p. 210: The greek work Αρσενικον -> The greek word Αρσενικον - σανδαραχη -> σανδαρακη - αρρενιχον -> αρρενικον - Footnote 214: Σανδαραχη -> Σανδαρακη - p. 211: will assume a _tretrahedral_ form -> will assume a _tetrahedral_ - form - p. 217: the head has also been observd -> the head has also been - observed - Footnote 230: at the age of thirth-eight -> at the age of thirty-eight - p. 227: confined to the stomach and ntestines -> confined to the stomach - and intestines - Footnote 245: _Black’c_ Lectures, v. ii, p. 430. -> _Black’s_ Lectures, - v. ii, p. 430. - p. 240: application in the Philosophial Magazine -> application in the - Philosophical Magazine - p. 248: no solid matter could be dicovered in it -> no solid matter - could be discovered in it - p. 253: difficulties and embarassments, occasioned by -> difficulties - and embarrassments, occasioned by - p. 273: containing sublimate, accidently or by design -> containing - sublimate, accidentally or by design - Footnote 296: having been adulterated with red red -> having been - adulterated with red lead - p. 297: but their are quite insoluble -> but they are quite insoluble - Footnote 359: supposed to have been of Roman manafacture -> supposed to - have been of Roman manufacture - p. 373: thereby destroying the energ of the nervous system -> thereby - destroying the energy of the nervous system - Footnote 426: New means of extractiug opium -> New means of extracting - opium - p. 395 with dilalation of the pupils -> with dilation of the pupils - Footnote 431: Philosophical Taansactions, vol. xl, p. 446 -> - Philosophical Transactions, vol. xl, p. 446 - p. 400: footnote marker after _Foderé_ removed since there was no - corresponding footnote - p. 403: taking six dops of the water -> taking six drops of the water - p. 406: but not succesfully recommended -> but not successfully - recommended - p. 414: most of those symytoms which we have described -> most of those - symptoms which we have described - p. 430: he answed yes, or no -> he answered yes, or no - p. 430: longer intermission than that preceeding -> longer intermission - than that preceding - Footnote 469: which have arisen form the ingestion -> which have arisen - from the ingestion - Footnote 474: in cases were life is liable to be -> in cases where life - is liable to be - Anchor position of Footnote 482 assumed - p. 449: or idosyncrasy of constitution -> or idiosyncrasy of - constitution - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Medical Jurisprudence, Volume 2 (of 3), by -John Ayrton Paris and John Samuel Martin Fonblanque - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, VOLUME 2 *** - -***** This file should be named 63830-0.txt or 63830-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/8/3/63830/ - -Produced by Sonya Schermann and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Medical Jurisprudence, Volume 2 (of 3) - -Author: John Ayrton Paris - John Samuel Martin Fonblanque - -Release Date: November 21, 2020 [EBook #63830] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, VOLUME 2 *** - - - - -Produced by Sonya Schermann and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class='covercaption'> - -<p class='c000'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -</div> - -<div> - <h1 class='c001'>MEDICAL<br /> <br />JURISPRUDENCE.</h1> -</div> -<hr class='c002' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>BY</div> - <div class='c004'><span class='large'>J. A. PARIS, M.D. F.R.S. F.L.S.</span></div> - <div>FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS;</div> - <div class='c004'>AND</div> - <div class='c004'><span class='large'>J. S. M. FONBLANQUE, <span class='sc'>Esq.</span></span></div> - <div>BARRISTER AT LAW.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c005' /> -<p class='c000'>“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hæc est illa amica Imperantiam atque Medentium conspiratio, qua -effectum est, ut aliquo veluti connubio Medicina ac Jurisprudentia inter -se jungerentur.</span>”</p> - -<div class='c006'><i>Hebenstreit Anthropolog: Forens:</i></div> - -<hr class='c005' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>IN THREE VOLUMES.</div> - <div class='c004'>VOL. II.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c007' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>LONDON:</div> - <div class='c004'>PRINTED & PUBLISHED BY W. PHILLIPS, GEORGE YARD, LOMBARD STREET;</div> - <div>SOLD ALSO BY T. & G. UNDERWOOD, AND S. HIGHLEY, FLEET STREET;</div> - <div>AND W. & C. TAIT, EDINBURGH.</div> - <div class='c004'>1823.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c008'>Medical Jurisprudence.<br /> <br />PART III <i>continued</i>.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c009'><a href='#c3'>3. <i>Of Homicide generally.</i></a>—<a href='#c4'> -4. <i>Of Real and Apparent Death.</i></a>—<a href='#c5'> -5. <i>Of the Physiological Causes, and Phenomena of Sudden Death.</i></a>—<a href='#c6'> -6. <i>Of Syncope.</i></a>—<a href='#c7'> -7. <i>Of Suffocation, by Drowning, Hanging, and other causes.</i></a>—<a href='#c8'> -8. <i>Death by exposure to Cold—Heat—Lightning—Starvation.</i></a>—<a href='#c9'> -9. <i>Application of the Physiological Facts established in the preceding chapters, to the general treatment of Asphyxia.</i></a>—<a href='#c10'> -10. <i>Of the Coroner’s Inquest.</i></a>—<a href='#c11'> -11. <i>Suicide.</i></a>—<a href='#c12'> -12. <i>Of Murder generally—by Wounding or Blows—by Poisoning.</i></a>—<a href='#c13'> -13. <i>Of Poisons, Chemically, Physiologically, and Pathologically considered.</i></a>—<a href='#c14'> -14. <i>Of Homicide, by Misadventure or Accident.</i></a>—15. <i>A Synopsis -of the Objects of Inquiry in Cases of sudden -and mysterious Sickness and Death,—Commentary -thereon, including practical rules for Dissection.</i>—16. -<i>Abortion and Infanticide—with Physiological -Illustrations.</i>—17. <i>Of Criminal Responsibility, and -Pleas in bar of Execution.</i>—18. <i>Of Punishments.</i>—19. -<i>Postscript.</i></p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span> - <h2 id='c3' class='c008'>3. OF HOMICIDE GENERALLY.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>To aid the administration of justice in cases of homicide -is not only the most useful, but the most frequent, -application of medical jurisprudence; this -subject, as well for its complexity as for its importance, -must be subdivided into many heads. It is first -necessary that the medical practitioner should determine -by examination, inspection, or dissection, -whether the matter ought to be referred to the criminal -tribunals, or whether the decease of the party is -to be attributed to any of those natural causes, which -are generally classed as “Death by the Visitation of -God.” In some instances this examination will take -place in aid of the coroner’s inquest, in others it will -be preparatory to it; in both cases it is equally important -that it should be minutely, faithfully, and -ably conducted; for it is on the medical report that -the first impressions will be founded, and the prejudices -created by it in the public mind may not easily -be effaced by any subsequent investigation. If, however, -it be determined that the cause of death has -been violent, it is then necessary to enquire to which -of the classes of homicide the act is to be attributed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Homicide, properly so called, is either against a -man’s own life, or that of another.” 1 <i>Hawk. P. C.</i> -102.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The first offence constitutes the crime of suicide or -<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">felo de se</span></i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The second has many varieties; it may be justifiable, -excusable, or wilful; and this last again, -may be with, or without, malice prepense, which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>constitutes the difference between manslaughter and -murder; both are felony, the one with,<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c011'><sup>[1]</sup></a> the other -without, the benefit of clergy; to these and their -numerous subdivisions we shall separately direct the -attention of our reader; having first, by a general -view of the physiology of death, and some practical -observations on the best modes of investigation, prepared -the way for a minuter examination of many of -those various modes of destruction to which human -life is liable.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span> - <h2 id='c4' class='c008'>OF REAL AND APPARENT DEATH.</h2> -</div> -<p class='c010'>If life be defined, that power by which organized -beings are enabled to resist the physical and chemical -operation of surrounding agents, it follows that death -must be marked by the occurrence of those phenomena -to which the elective attractions, no longer -suspended or controlled, will necessarily give rise; -hence putrefaction has been considered by many -authors as the only certain sign of dissolution; unfortunately, -however, this process of decomposition -does not immediately display its agency by visible -effects; the countenance has remained unchanged for -a considerable time after death, and cases have occurred -in which its colour and complexion have not -only been preserved, but even heightened. This difference -in the celerity with which the body putrefies -did not escape the observation of the ancients, and -like every other mysterious occurrence, was attributed -by them to divine interposition; we accordingly find -that their poets mentioned those who preserved the -appearance of freshness after death, as favoured persons, -who had fallen by the gentle darts of Apollo -and Diana; thus Hecuba<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c011'><sup>[2]</sup></a> declares that Hector, although -dead for twelve days, still remains fresh, like -one who had died by the hands of Apollo. On the -other hand, in certain morbid states of the living -frame, so feebly do the powers of life resist the operation -of physical agents, that if the body cannot be -said actually to enter into a state of putrefaction, it -may at least assume appearances so analogous as to -be mistaken for it. The test of death, therefore, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>must rather be sought for amongst those signs which -indicate the quiescence, or cessation of the functions -of life, than from those which manifest the decomposition -of the organs by which they are performed; and -here again it may be imagined that no difficulty or -fallacy can occur; the total cessation of respiration, -pulsation, sensation, and all motion, it might be supposed, -would indicate to the least experienced the departure -of life, while the general aspect of the body, -its pale and livid hue, the coldness of its surface, and -the stiffness of its limbs, we might conclude were -signs so palpable and satisfactory as to defy the possibility -of doubt. To the skilful medical practitioner -we apprehend such signs must ever be unequivocal; -but we are not prepared to say that a common observer -may not be sometimes deceived by them; in -cases of extreme debility, as in the latter stage of -fever, and where the patient is confined in vitiated -air, the exhaustion may be so considerable as to lend -all the appearance of death; indeed that such cases -have occurred we have no less a testimony than that -of the philanthropic <i>Howard</i>, who, in his work on -Prisons, says, “I have known instances where persons -supposed to be dead of the gaol fever, and -brought out for burial, on being washed with cold -water, have shewn signs of life, and soon afterwards -recovered.” <i>Hippocrates</i>, in his Epidemics, also -mentions the case of a woman who, being in appearance -dead, from fever, was recovered by throwing -thirty amphoræ of cold water over her body. <i>Diemerbroeck</i><a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c011'><sup>[3]</sup></a> -relates the case of a rustic who having appeared -to die of the plague, discovered after three -days no signs of respiration, but, on being carried -<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>to the grave, recovered and lived many years afterwards; -and <i>Paul Zacchias</i> relates an analagous case -which occurred at the hospital of <i>Santo Spirito</i> at -Rome. At a period when the small-pox raged with -such epidemic fury, and physicians so greatly aggravated -its violence by their stimulating plan of cure, -there can be no doubt but that many persons were -condemned as dead who afterwards recovered; -amongst the numerous cases that might be cited in -support of this opinion, the following may be considered -as well authenticated: the daughter of <i>Henry -Laurens</i>, the first President of the American congress, -when an infant, was laid out as dead, in the -small-pox; upon which the window of the apartment, -that had been carefully closed during the progress -of the disease, was thrown open to ventilate the -chamber, when the fresh air revived the supposed -corpse, and restored her to her family; this circumstance -occasioned in the father so powerful a dread -of living interment, that he directed by will that -his body should be burnt, and enjoined on his children -the performance of this wish as a sacred duty.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We can also imagine, that women, after the exhaustion -consequent on severe and protracted labours, -may lie for some time in a state so like that of death, -as to deceive the by-standers; a very extraordinary -case of this kind is related in the <cite>Journal des Sçavans</cite>, -Janvier 1749.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Dr. Gordon Smith</i>, in his work on Forensic Medicine, -has observed that in cases of precipitancy or -confusion, as in times of public sickness, the living -have not unfrequently been mingled with the dead, -and that in warm climates, where speedy interment is -more necessary than in temperate and cold countries, -persons have even been entombed alive; we feel no -<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>hesitation in believing that such an event may be possible; -but the very case with which the author illustrates -his position is sufficient to convince us that its -occurrence would be highly culpable, and could only -arise from the most unpardonable inattention; “I -was” says <i>Dr. Smith</i>, “an eye witness of an instance -in a celebrated city on the continent, where a poor -woman, yet alive, was solemnly ushered to the margin -of the grave in broad day, and whose interment -would have deliberately taken place, but for the interposition -of the by-standers;” if the casual observer -was thus able to detect the signs of animation, the -case is hardly one that should have been adduced to -shew the difficulty of deciding between real and apparent -death. Many other illustrations might be adduced, -but it is not our intention to amuse the reader -with a relation of those numerous <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">nugæ canoræ</span></i> that -enliven several popular productions on the subject of -<em>trances</em>, premature interments, and extraordinary resuscitations; -the public have always betrayed a morbid -curiosity upon the subject, and the stories of persons -buried alive have ever found a ready access to -our credulity, as well as to our compassion.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Amongst the different anecdotes which have been -brought forward in support of the popular belief in -the frequency of living interment, and in proof of -the fallacy of those signs which are commonly received -as the unerring indications of death, we read -of numerous instances where the knife of the anatomist -has proved the means of <a id='res'></a>resuscitating the supposed -corpse; <i>Philippe Peu</i>, the celebrated French -accoucheur, relates, himself, the case of a woman, -upon whose supposed corpse he proceeded to perform -the cæsarean section, when the first incision betrayed -the awful fallacy under which he operated; -the history of the unfortunate <i>Vesalius</i>, physician to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>Philip II. of Spain, furnishes another instance, upon -which considerable stress has been laid; upon dissecting -a Spanish gentleman, it is said that on opening -the thorax the heart was found palpitating; for -which he was brought before the inquisition, and -would probably have suffered its most severe judgment, -had not the king interceded in his behalf, and -obtained for him the privilege of expiating his offence -by a pilgrimage to the Holy Land.<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c011'><sup>[4]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'><i>M. Bruhier</i><a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c011'><sup>[5]</sup></a> also relates a case on the authority -of <i>M. l’Abbé Menon</i>, of a young woman who was restored -by the first incision of the anatomist’s scalpel, -and lived many years afterwards. With respect to -the instance of <i>Vesalius</i> we would make this general -observation, which will probably apply to most of -the cases on record; that the movements which have -been observed on such occasions are not to be received -as demonstrations of life, they merely arise from a -degree of muscular irritability which often lingers for -many hours after dissolution, and which, on its apparent -cessation, may be even re-excited by the application -of galvanic stimuli.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>But there is a propensity in the human mind to believe -in these horrors, because between credulity and -fear there is an inherent affinity and alliance; and it -may be very safely asserted, that there is nothing -of which we have a greater instinctive horror,<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c011'><sup>[6]</sup></a> than -of any force by which our voluntary exertions are -totally repressed; hence it is, as <i>Cuvier</i> has remarked, -that the poetic fictions best calculated to insure our -sympathy, are those which represent sentient beings -inclosed within immoveable bodies; the sighs of Clorinda -issuing, with her blood, from the trunk of the -cypress, as related in the fable of Tasso, would arrest -the fury of the most savage mortal; and the -sufferings which attended the confinement of Ariel, -by the witch <i>Sycorax</i>, within the rift of a cloven -pine, are described by Prospero as being of so pitiable -a description as to move the sympathy of the very -beasts of the forest.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>--------“She did confine thee,</div> - <div class='line'>By help of her more potent ministers,</div> - <div class='line'>And in her most unmitigable rage,</div> - <div class='line'>Into a cloven pine; within which rift</div> - <div class='line'>Imprison’d, thou didst painfully remain</div> - <div class='line'>A dozen years.”</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>--------------“Thou best knows’t</div> - <div class='line'>What torment I did find thee in: thy groans</div> - <div class='line'>Did make wolves howl, and penetrate the breasts</div> - <div class='line'>Of ever-angry bears; it was a torment</div> - <div class='line'>To lay upon the damn’d.”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='c006'><cite>Tempest</cite>, <i>Act</i> i, <i>s.</i> 2.</div> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>The author of the present chapter had once an opportunity -of witnessing a most striking manifestation -of the popular feeling to which he has just alluded; -a sailor, who had died suddenly on board a vessel in -Mount’s Bay, was sent on shore for interment on -the same evening: this indecent haste in consigning -the yet warm corpse of a human being to the grave, -excited a very strong and natural feeling in those to -whom the fact was communicated; in a few hours the -knowledge of the circumstance became general in the -town of Penzance, and imagination which, in cases -that interest the feelings, is always ready to colour -each feature with the hue most congenial to the fancy, -soon represented the case as one of living interment, -and by midnight the impression had produced so -strong an effect upon the credulity of the town, that -many hundred persons assembled at the house of the -mayor and insisted upon the disinterment of the -body; the author, in his professional capacity, was -called upon to accompany the magistrates in the investigation, -which was accomplished by torch light, -amidst an immense concourse of people; the body -was disinterred, when, it is almost needless to add, -that not the slightest mark was observed that could -in the least sanction the popular belief so readily -adopted, and enthusiastically maintained.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Within the last few years a singular and unphilosophical -work<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c011'><sup>[7]</sup></a> has appeared from the pen of a learned -divine, which is well calculated to cherish the public -credulity upon the subject under discussion, and to -excite many groundless alarms, as well as unjust expectations, -respecting the possibility of latent life; the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>reverend author, it must be confessed, has furnished -a practical proof of his talents in his favourite art of -resuscitation, by recalling into life the numerous idle -tales, and superstitious histories, that we had hoped -had long since been for ever consigned to the “tombs -of all the Capulets.” The histories of persons having -been buried alive, or recovered after apparent death, -are not, however, confined to the annals of modern -times; we are informed by <i>Diogenes Laertius</i> that -<i>Empedocles</i> acquired great fame for restoring a woman, -supposed to be dead, from a paroxysm of hysteria; -and <i>Pliny</i>, in his Natural History, devotes -a chapter to the subject, under the title of “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De his qui -elati revixerunt</span></i><a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c011'><sup>[8]</sup></a>;” in which an interesting case is related -of <i>Avicola</i>, whose body was brought out and -placed on the funeral pile, the flames of which are -said to have resuscitated the unhappy victim, but too -late to allow it to be rescued from its powers; but -such cases merely go to shew that the common observer -may be deceived. We feel no hesitation in -asserting that it is physiologically impossible for a -human being to remain more than a few minutes in -such a state of asphyxia, as not to betray some sign -by which a medical observer can at once recognise -the existence of vitality, for if the respiration be only -suspended for a short interval, we may conclude that -life has fled for ever; of all the acts of animal life -this is by far the most essential and indispensable; -<em>breath</em> and <em>life</em> are very properly considered in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>scriptures as convertible terms, and the same synonym, -as far as we know, prevails in every language.<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c011'><sup>[9]</sup></a> -However slow and feeble respiration may -become by disease, yet it must always be perceptible, -provided the naked breast and belly be exposed; for -when the intercostal muscles act, the ribs are elevated, -and the sternum is pushed forward; when the -diaphragm acts, the abdomen swells; now this can -never escape the attentive eye, and by looking at -the chest and belly we shall form a safer conclusion -than by the popular methods which have been usually -adopted, such as the placing a vessel of water on the -thorax, in order to judge by the stillness or agitation -of the fluid; or holding the surface of a mirror before -the mouth, which, by condensing the aqueous vapour -of the breath, is supposed to denote the existence -of respiration, although too feeble to be recognised -in any other way.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>----“Lend me a looking-glass;</div> - <div class='line'>If that her breath will mist or stain the stone,</div> - <div class='line'>Why, then she lives.”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='c006'><cite>Lear</cite>, <i>Act</i> v, <i>s.</i> iii.</div> - -<p class='c000'>For the same purpose, light down, or any flocculent -substance, from the extreme facility with which -it is moved, has been supposed capable of furnishing -a similar indication; but the result must not be received -as an unequivocal proof, and accordingly -<i>Shakspeare</i>, with that knowledge and judgment which -so pre-eminently distinguish him, has represented -<i>Prince Henry</i> as having been thus deluded, when he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>carried off the crown from the pillow of <i>Henry</i> the -<i>Fourth</i>—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>--------------“By his gates of breath</div> - <div class='line'>There lies a downy feather, which stirs not.</div> - <div class='line'>Did he suspire, that light and weightless down</div> - <div class='line'>Perchance must move.”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>With respect to the above tests it may be remarked, -that an imperceptible current of air may agitate the -light down, and thus simulate the effects of respiration, -while an exhalation, totally unconnected with -that function, may sully the surface of a mirror held -before the mouth; on the other hand, we have learnt -from experience that mirrors have been applied to -persons in a state of mere syncope without being in -the least tarnished.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Having thus considered the value of the tests of -respiration, we shall proceed to appreciate those -which have been considered as furnishing no less certain -indications of death. The absence of the circulation, -the impossibility of feeling the pulsations of -the heart and arteries have been regarded as infallible -means of deciding whether the individual be dead; but -it is proved beyond all doubt that a person may live -for several hours without its being possible to perceive -the slightest movement in the parts just mentioned. -It has been thought also, says <i>Orfila</i>, that -an individual was dead when he was cold, and that he -still lived if the warmth of the body was preserved; -there is perhaps no sign of so little value; the -drowned who may be recalled to life, are usually very -cold; whilst in cases of apoplexy, and some other fatal -diseases, a certain degree of warmth is preserved -even for a long period after death. Stiffness of the -body is another sign of death upon which great reliance -<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>has been placed; but as it sometimes happens -that it exists during life, it becomes necessary to -point out the difference between the stiffness of death, -and that which occurs during life, in certain diseases. -For the following observations upon this subject -we acknowledge ourselves indebted to the judicious -treatise of <i>Orfila</i>.</p> - -<p class='c012'>1. Stiffness may be very considerable in a person -who has been frozen, who is not yet dead, and -who may even be recalled to life. This stiffness -cannot be confounded with that which is the -inevitable result of death, because it is known -that the body has been exposed to the action -of severe cold, and above all because it is very -general; in fact, the skin, breasts, the belly, -and all the organs may possess the same rigidity -as the muscles, a circumstance not observable -in <em>cadaverous</em> stiffness, in which the muscles -alone present any degree of resistance; besides, -when the skin of a frozen person is depressed, -by pressing forcibly upon it with the finger, a -hollow is produced which is a long time in disappearing. -When the position of a frozen -limb is changed, a little noise is heard, caused -by the rupture of particles of ice contained in -the displaced part.</p> -<p class='c012'>2. The stiffness to which the late <i>M. Nysten</i> has -given the name of <em>convulsive</em>, and which sometimes -manifests itself in violent nervous diseases, -may be easily distinguished from <em>cadaverous</em> -stiffness; when a limb is stiff in consequence -of convulsions, &c. the greatest difficulty -is experienced in changing its direction, -and when left, it immediately resumes its former -<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>position; it is not the same in stiffness from -death; the limb, the direction of which has -been changed, does not return to its former -position.</p> -<p class='c012'>3. The stiffness which occurs in certain forms of -<i>Syncope</i>, can never be confounded with <em>cadaverous</em> -stiffness; for, in the former case, the -stiffness takes place immediately after the commencement -of the disease, and the trunk preserves -a degree of warmth; whereas the <a id='cad'></a><em>cadaverous</em> -stiffness is not observed until some time -after death, and when the heat of the body is -no longer evident to the senses.</p> - -<p class='c000'>If, from a cause which it is not always possible to -foresee, the individual who has been thought dead -for a long time be cold and <em>flexible</em>, instead of offering -a certain degree of stiffness, and at the same time -if no evidence of putrefaction has as yet displayed itself, -the body ought not to be buried hastily—“<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Satius -est adhiberi millies nimiam diligentiam, quam semel -omitti necessariam.</span></i>”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The cadaverous state of the face, of which <i>Hippocrates</i> -has given the following description, has been -regarded as a sign of real death; the forehead -wrinkled and dry, the eye sunken, the nose pointed, -and bordered with a violet or black circle, the temples -sunken, hollow, and retired, the ears sticking -up, the lips hanging down, the cheeks sunken, the -chin wrinkled and hard, the colour of the skin leaden -or violet, the hairs of the nose and eye-lashes sprinkled -with a kind of yellowish white dust. It must be admitted -that such signs, if taken separately, are of no -value, since they are sometimes observed in patients -twenty-four or forty-eight hours before death; while, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>on the other hand, they are often absent in cases of -sudden dissolution. The softness, dimness, and above -all, the flaccidity of the globe of the eye have been -considered as very unequivocal in their indication. -<i>Professor Louis</i><a id='r10' /><a href='#f10' class='c011'><sup>[10]</sup></a> has offered some remarks upon -this subject worthy our notice; he says that, in the -dead, the transparent cornea is commonly covered -with a thin slimy membrane, which breaks in pieces -when touched, and is easily removed by wiping the -cornea; but he remarks that some appearance of it -takes place in the eyes of the dying, and also allows -that it may be the result of disease; so much for the -value of this sign: the one which follows appears to -us less exceptionable; in a few hours after death, -adds this author, the eyes become soft and flabby, an -effect not to be produced under any circumstances in -the living body; we join in this opinion; but how -often does it happen that the globe of the eye undergoes -no alteration in form, until the putrefactive -process has been fully established?</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span> - <h2 id='c5' class='c008'>OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL CAUSES, AND PHŒNOMENA OF SUDDEN DEATH.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>It has been asserted by <i>Bichat</i><a id='r11' /><a href='#f11' class='c011'><sup>[11]</sup></a> that the immediate -cause of death, when it takes place suddenly, -must be the cessation of the functions of the heart, -brain, or lungs; although it is sometimes difficult to -determine which of these organs is the first to fail in -its action; this may be well exemplified by the poisonous -operation of Arsenic upon the animal economy, -which when introduced into the circulating -system will, according to the valuable experiments -of <i>Mr. Brodie</i>, occasion stupor and paralysis, a feeble -and intermitting contraction of the heart, and slow -and laborious respiration; but it is found that in -some cases, one order of symptoms will predominate, -and be the first to display themselves, whilst in -others, the very contrary will obtain, without perhaps -our being able to assign the immediate cause of -such deviations. There are, moreover, cases of sudden -death, in which the principle of animation would -seem to be at once annihilated in every part of the -animal machine, and when every organ appears to be -simultaneously affected, as in that occasioned by the -agency of intense cold, and sometimes, for it is not -in every instance, by that of lightning, or electricity; -still, as a general proposition, the aphorism of -<i>Bichat</i> must be admitted; and we shall proceed to investigate -the subject of sudden death, as connected -with medico-judicial inquiry, upon principles deduced -from the enlightened views of this distinguished -philosopher. To the able and satisfactory researches -<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>of our English physiologist, <i>Mr. Brodie</i>, we are also -greatly indebted for a correct notion of the nature -and order of succession, of those events by which life -is quickly extinguished; his attention was many years -ago directed to one important branch of this subject,—to -the investigation of that series of changes produced -on living bodies by the operation of poisons, the results -of which were published in the <cite>Philosophical -Transactions</cite>,<a id='r12' /><a href='#f12' class='c011'><sup>[12]</sup></a> to which we shall have frequent occasion -to refer in the following pages. Since that period -he has diligently pursued the subject in its more -extensive ramifications, and in his lectures, delivered -from the anatomical chair of the College of Surgeons -during the last year, he presented a condensed and -philosophical history of the phenomena of death, in -general, in which he elucidated many leading points -that were before obscure, established several propositions -that have long been considered doubtful, and -rejected a mass of popular error, which, under the -sanction of authority, has continued to retard our inquiries, -and to embarrass and misguide our practice. -The author of the present section of this work has to -acknowledge the kindness and liberality by which he -is enabled to avail himself of these luminous researches, -having been furnished by his friend <i>Mr. -Brodie</i> with the manuscript notes from which the -lectures were delivered.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The organs more immediately necessary to life are, -the <span class='sc'>Heart</span>, which conveys to every part of the body -that fluid, without a constant supply and change of -which, vitality must be speedily exhausted; and the -<span class='sc'>Lungs</span>, by whose functions this essential fluid undergoes -those unknown changes, from the action of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>atmosphere, which adapt it for the performance of -the important duties to which we have alluded.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In conformity with these views, the functions of -the heart, and their connection with those of the -lungs and brain, very naturally present themselves as -the first objects of physiological inquiry; and there -is certainly no discovery in modern times more interesting -in its relations, and at the same time so -useful in practical application, as that which has determined -the nature of the connections between the -functions of respiration and the motions of the heart; -and shewn why the cessation of the former should -occasion the destruction of the latter. The existence -of this mysterious connection constituted a subject of -interest and inquiry in the more remote ages, and it -will not be unprofitable to take a review of the different -theories which have been proposed for its explanation. -Until the celebrated experiment<a id='r13' /><a href='#f13' class='c011'><sup>[13]</sup></a> of <i>Hook</i>, -it was supposed that the heart’s motion was maintained -by the alternate contraction and dilatation of -the lungs in the act of breathing; but the extraordinary -philosopher above mentioned decided this point -by exposing the thorax of a dog, and separating the -pleura extensively from the external surface of the -lungs, and then, by means of a pair of double bellows, -keeping up a constant stream of air through the air -cells; by this contrivance respiration was duly performed, -while the lungs remained motionless, and -yet it was found that the vigour of the heart’s action -was not in the least impaired; whereas, if the theory -which <i>Hook</i> undertook to refute, had been founded -in truth, the heart, under such circumstances, must -necessarily have become quiescent. <i>Mr. Hunter</i><a id='r14' /><a href='#f14' class='c011'><sup>[14]</sup></a> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>supposed the existence of a sympathy, or association, -between the motions of the heart and lungs; and the -same opinion appears to have been entertained by -<i>Dr. Currie</i><a id='r15' /><a href='#f15' class='c011'><sup>[15]</sup></a>; <i>Dr. Darwin</i><a id='r16' /><a href='#f16' class='c011'><sup>[16]</sup></a> deduced the existence -of this immediate connection from that general -law of the animal œconomy, by which motions that -are frequently repeated in succession acquire the -power of recurring in the same order, independently -of the original exciting cause; “it is thus,” says he, -“that by the stimulus of the blood in the right -chamber of the heart the lungs are induced to expand -themselves.” <i>Dr. Bostock</i><a id='r17' /><a href='#f17' class='c011'><sup>[17]</sup></a>, however, has very -satisfactorily opposed this hypothesis, by observing -that in the fœtus the heart commences its contractions -immediately upon its formation, while the lungs -remain perfectly at rest; and that when the animal -leaves the uterus, the motion of the lungs commences, -but the periods of the contraction of the diaphragm -bear no determinate ratio to those of the -systole of the heart.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was long supposed that the cessation of respiration -occasioned that of the heart’s motion, in consequence -of the black blood not having sufficient power -to stimulate its fibres; but does not the right side of -the heart, which, under all circumstances, contains -de-oxygenated blood, contract with a vigour equal -to that of the left? It was reserved for <i>Bichat</i> to -offer a true explanation of this phenomenon; he has -very justly stated that, in consequence of the suspension -of the respiratory function, the coronary vessels, -by which the muscular structure of the heart is supplied, -are compelled to carry black, instead of scarlet -<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>blood; a fact which in itself is quite adequate to -explain the cause of the heart ceasing to contract; for -the irritability of this, like that of every other muscle, -can be alone maintained by duly oxygenized blood. -But it remains to be shewn how the functions of the -brain and nervous system stand related to those of -the heart and lungs. Although the agency of nervous -influence is necessarily involved in impenetrable obscurity, -yet we shall not have much difficulty in proving, -that <em>the brain</em><a id='r18' /><a href='#f18' class='c011'><sup>[18]</sup></a> <em>is immediately necessary to life -only because the muscles of respiration owe their action -to its influence</em>. <i>M. Lallemand</i> has published the -history of a fœtus, in which the brain and spinal marrow -were equally deficient, notwithstanding which, -it even exceeded the usual size, the heart was perfect, -and it was evident that the circulation had been -properly performed; no sooner, however, was the -monster born than it perished, because the diaphragm -and other muscles of respiration were unable to perform -<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>their functions without the aid of nervous excitement; -no air was therefore inhaled into the lungs, -and in a few minutes the heart ceased to contract from -the deficient supply of oxygenized blood. If the phrenic -nerves of a quadruped be divided,<a id='r19' /><a href='#f19' class='c011'><sup>[19]</sup></a> the motion -of the diaphragm ceases, and the animal breathes by -the motion of the ribs alone, panting and respiring -with difficulty and distress. If the spinal marrow be -divided below the origin of the phrenic nerves in the -lower part of the neck, no interruption is given to -the transmission of the nervous influence to the diaphragm, -but the ribs now become motionless, and -respiration is performed by the diaphragm only; if -the spinal marrow be divided in the upper part of the -neck, above the origin of the phrenic nerves, the -nervous influence is neither transmitted to the diaphragm, -nor to the muscles which produce the motion -of the ribs, and respiration is entirely suspended; -under these circumstances the heart continues to -contract for some minutes, after which it ceases, as -there is no supply of blood which has received the influence -of the air, and, consequently, the muscular -fibres of the heart lose their excitability, and the -blood is no longer circulated; if, however, the lungs -be artificially inflated, before the action of the heart -has ceased, its motions are continued. The experiment -may also be very satisfactorily varied in the following -manner; apply a ligature to the carotid arteries -in the neck, so as to prevent the occurrence of -hemorrhage, and then decapitate the animal; if respiration -be now artificially maintained, the heart -will suffer no disturbance in its motions, but the circulation -will be preserved for several hours in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>body of the decapitated animal. In further illustration -of this view of the subject, <i>Mr. Brodie</i> observes, -that many reptiles which are capable of respiring by -means of the skin, will survive the loss of the brain -for so long a period, that the wound made by decapitation, -becomes cicatrized, and death only takes place -at last in consequence of inanition.—(<cite>Manuscript -Notes.</cite>)</p> - -<p class='c000'>In farther illustration of these views, let us observe -the mode in which death takes place in apoplexy, or -in cases of pressure on the brain, whether occasioned -by a depressed portion of bone, or by blood extravasated -within the cranium. At first the patient is insensible -to all external impressions, but the breathing -is not affected; after an interval, however, the respiration -becomes difficult and laborious, and the purple -hue of the lips and cheeks, from the sub-cutaneous -vessels, demonstrates that the blood is imperfectly -oxygenized. The arterial action becomes more slow, -in proportion only as the respiration is more difficult; -and the pulse may even be distinguished at the -wrist, after the breathing has altogether ceased; under -such circumstances it is obvious that life might be -protracted for several hours by artificial inflation of -the lungs, but as no ultimate benefit could be derived -from such an operation, its expediency may be -fairly questioned.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Enough has been said to shew that the brain is not -<em>immediately</em> necessary to the action of the heart; but -<i>Mr. Brodie</i> has very justly observed that the general -proposition thus established, must not lead us to the -conclusion that the heart is therefore incapable of -being affected by violent impressions on the nervous -system; the fact is quite otherwise, for although the -brain may be removed, and the circulation be nevertheless -<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>maintained by artificial respiration, yet an injury -inflicted on the brain, of another kind, may be -followed by those immediately fatal consequences -which decapitation itself would not produce. <i>Dr. -Wilson Philip</i> states that if the brain be violently -crushed, the action of the heart is immediately -stopped; and the fact is too notorious to be questioned, -that a blow on the head is frequently succeeded -by Syncope; there are but few circumstances, -says <i>Mr. Brodie</i>, in the history of the animal œconomy -which appears more remarkable than this fact, -that <em>an injury of a part which is not immediately essential -to the heart’s action, should nevertheless, under certain -circumstances, have the effect of occasioning its -immediate cessation</em>. The late researches of <i>Le Gallois</i> -may perhaps receive farther elucidation from the -above proposition; this physiologist has stated that -if a wire be introduced into the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Theca vertebralis</span></i>, and -be moved upward and downward, so as to destroy -the texture of the spinal marrow, the action of the -heart presently ceases; and he from thence advances -to the conclusion, not only that the spinal marrow is -necessary to the heart’s action, but that every part of -the animal body derives its vital properties from it; -from what I have observed, says <i>Mr. Brodie</i> (<cite>Manuscript -Notes</cite>) in the repetition of the foregoing experiment, -I should infer that the fact is correctly -stated, as far as it relates to warm-blooded animals, -but the conclusions are undoubtedly premature; and -the history of the fœtus, as related by <i>Lallemand</i>, in -which, notwithstanding the absence of the brain and -spinal marrow, the child was even larger than usual, -the heart perfect, and it was manifest that the circution -had been duly performed, is in direct opposition -to such a theory. We must here agree with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span><i>Mr. Brodie</i>, that such phenomena are quite incompatible -with the doctrine in which the spinal marrow -is supposed to be directly necessary to the existence -of vitality in the system generally, and to the -action of the heart in particular; and that we must -therefore look for some other explanation of the -effects which are produced by the destruction of the -spinal marrow in warm-blooded quadrupeds.—May -they not be explained by supposing them to be the -effect of the shock which must necessarily attend the -removal of the spinal marrow, which can never be -effected with the facility that attends decapitation?</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have deemed it necessary to offer these few remarks -upon the relations which subsist between the -functions of the heart, lungs, and brain, in as much -as the propositions which have been thus established -respecting them, can alone lead to a correct pathology -of those diseases, by which life is suddenly extinguished, -or suggest a rational and effectual plan -of treatment, in cases of <a id='sus'></a>suspended animation.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span> - <h2 id='c6' class='c008'>SYNCOPE:<br /> <br />In which the pulsations of the heart cease, before the action of the respiratory organs.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The heart may cease to beat either from organic -lesions in its own structure, or in that of its vessels; -or from being sympathetically affected by injuries in -other parts<a id='r20' /><a href='#f20' class='c011'><sup>[20]</sup></a>; or from the operation of certain poisons; -or from a shock of the general nervous system, -as experienced in paroxysms of certain passions.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In ordinary fainting it is evident that some slight -and feeble motions of the heart still continue, although -insufficient to produce a sensible pulsation in -the more distant arteries; and where this has continued -for an unusual period, and the respiration has -been so obscure as to escape common observation, -the phenomenon has been eagerly seized by the admirers -of the marvellous, and credulity has attached -to its history, under the name of <em>Trance</em>,<a id='r21' /><a href='#f21' class='c011'><sup>[21]</sup></a> circumstances -of extravagance and mystery, to which it -can hardly be necessary to allude on the present occasion. -But the motions of the heart may have ceased -<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>altogether, and in such cases it <a id='bec'></a>becomes a question, -no less interesting to the practical physician than to -the physiologist, whether they can ever be restored, -and if so, we have to inquire under what limitation, -as to time; under what circumstances; and by what -means? The views which have been already offered -respecting the pathology of Syncope will afford us -considerable assistance in the solution of a problem, -so intimately connected with inquiries of forensic importance. -It would appear that where the heart has -ceased to pulsate, <em>in consequence of the cessation of -respiration, it can never again be set in motion</em>; but -that where it has stopped from other causes, as from -the operation of certain poisons, its muscular irritability -not having been exhausted, its action may be -occasionally revived. Where Syncope arises from -hemorrhage, we shall find, on dissection, that the -heart and its great vessels are either empty, or contain -only a small quantity of blood in their cavities; -but where Syncope arises from other causes, the heart -is seen distended to an unusual magnitude, and the -blood in the left auricle and ventricle is generally -of a more or less florid colour, and has not the hue -of venous blood; a circumstance which depends upon -the pulsation of the heart ceasing before the function -of respiration, and which is the very reverse of what -happens in death from suffocation, as we shall hereafter -explain.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Violent passions of the mind very commonly produce -syncope, which has in some instances terminated in -death; we are however inclined to believe that in -fatal cases of this nature the persons must have -laboured under some organic affection of the heart, -or its vessels; <i>Philip V.</i> died suddenly on being told -<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>that the Spaniards had been defeated, and on opening -the body, his heart was found ruptured.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Dr. Tissot</i> relates also the case of the father of a -numerous family, who having lost his wife whom he -tenderly loved, was suddenly seized with laborious -respiration, and died at the end of two days; when -the lungs were found gorged with blood, and the -heart ruptured. Now in both these cases, it is -probable that the muscular structure of the heart had -been softened by previous disease.<a id='r22' /><a href='#f22' class='c011'><sup>[22]</sup></a> So in the case -<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>of <i>Mr. John Hunter</i>, whose life was suddenly -extinguished by mental emotion, the valves of the -heart had been long in a state of disease, and so well -aware was he of the danger to which he was constantly -exposed, that he had for some time previous -to his death, been in the habit of retiring from all -those situations, in which his passions were likely to -be excited. It is said that the instances of death -from sudden joy are more numerous than those from -grief, probably because the effect of this latter passion -is rather to retard than to accelerate the circulation; -<i>Sophocles</i>, being desirous of proving that at an -advanced age he was in full possession of his intellectual -powers, composed a tragedy, was crowned, -and died through joy; the same fate befel <i>Philippides</i> -the comic writer; thus too the Lacedemonian <i>Chilon</i> -expired in the embrace of his son who had borne -away the prize at the Olympic games; and we read -of Roman women who died in the same manner, -upon seeing their sons return from the battles of -Thrasymene and Cannæ. On the other hand, we -might adduce much classical authority to shew that -death has frequently been the sudden effect of grief.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Montaigne</i> relates the case of a German, who after -having performed great feats of valour, was killed at -the <a id='sie'></a>siege of Osen; one of the general officers having -desired to see the corpse of so gallant a man, was -conducted to the body, when he instantly recognised -the features of his own son, and died on the spot. -The record of our own times will furnish us with an -instance in which an actor of celebrity suddenly -expired upon repeating a passage that contained a -fancied allusion to the domestic affliction under which -he was suffering.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span><i>Dr. Ozanam</i>,<a id='r23' /><a href='#f23' class='c011'><sup>[23]</sup></a> in illustration of the influence of -pain and terror in producing sudden extinction of life, -relates the case of a middle aged criminal, who having -throughout evinced extreme weakness and depression, -expired in his way to the scaffold, and was stiff before -he arrived at the place of execution, which was about -seven miles distant.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In such cases of sudden death, from the operation -of violent mental emotions, we apprehend that dissection -will frequently demonstrate the existence of -previous disease in some of the organs immediately -essential to life; and we shall hereafter have occasion -to refer to the influence of the passions in hastening -the fatal termination of a chronic disease; on the -present occasion we introduce the following extremely -interesting case, in confirmation of the position we -are endeavouring to maintain; the case was originally -published in the <cite>Transactions of the Physico-Medical -Society of New York, by Dr. Valentine Mott</cite>; it -afterwards appeared in the <cite>Journal Universel des -Sciences Medicales, Avril, 1819</cite>; and lately it has -found its way into the <cite>Medical Repository</cite> of this -country. A robust and plethoric female, aged 22, -long addicted to dissolute and intemperate habits, -had complained for some time of slight and apparently -rheumatic pains; but within a day or two of the -fatal event, she had been deserted by a man to whom -she was engaged in marriage; in consequence of -which her mind became very deeply affected; after -having supped on the preceding night, she retired to -rest as usual, and in the morning was found dead in -bed; she lay in a bent position on the left side; and -was hence supposed at first to be in a profound sleep; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>neither the countenance nor the limbs were in the -least distorted. On dissection the pericardium was -found to contain ten ounces of coagulated blood, and -two of serum; the heart on all sides being covered -by it, was of ordinary volume, but much loaded with -fat; at the summit of the aortic ventricle was discovered -the breach from which the effused blood had issued; -the parietes of the ventricle around the rupture were -much thicker than in the natural state, and on close -examination a very sensible fluctuation was distinguished, -to the extent of an inch on one side of it, -from which flocculi of a cheese-like substance were -discharged on pressure; the pericardium also presented -traces of inflammation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have here then a case in which a morbid -change in the structure of the heart had existed for a -considerable period, and which was suddenly brought -to a fatal termination by an affection of the mind.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Before we quit the consideration of <i>Syncope</i>, we -have to notice a fatal variety of that disease, which -well deserves the attentive consideration of the forensic -Physician, whose highest duty, let it be remembered, -is the investigation of sudden death. It -is described by <i>Mr. Chevalier</i><a id='r24' /><a href='#f24' class='c011'><sup>[24]</sup></a> under the term -<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Asphyxia Idiopathica</span></i>, in which the patient suddenly -faints and dies; the essential circumstances of the -disease evidently denote, says <i>Mr. Chevalier</i>, a sudden -loss of power in the extreme vessels to propel -the blood; in consequence of which the heart after -having contracted, so as to empty itself, and then dilated -<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>again, continues relaxed for want of the return -of its accustomed stimulus, and dies in that dilated -state. On dissection all the cavities of the heart are -found completely empty, and the viscus itself in a -state of extreme flaccidity.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span> - <h2 id='c7' class='c008'>SUFFOCATION.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Suffocation may be defined, the destruction of -life by the suspension of the function of respiration, -occasioned by external violence. Unless we add “<em>by -external violence</em>” we shall perceive that the definition -would be far too comprehensive; and the term <em>Suffocation</em> -would be made to embrace a much wider -range of subjects than its popular acceptation would -allow. If the physiological views be correct which -we have adopted and explained in the foregoing section, -“On the causes and phenomena of sudden -death,” we should be compelled, without such a protecting -adjunct, to include under the history of Suffocation, -not only the phenomena of Drowning, -Strangling, Hanging, Smothering, and noxious inhalation, -but even those of Apoplexy, fatal Intoxication, -and various diseases of the brain and spinal -marrow, together with the effects of a great proportion -of Poisons; for by such agents death is undoubtedly -occasioned through the failure of the respiratory -functions.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In Death from Suffocation the heart continues to -pulsate for several minutes after the breathing has -entirely ceased, in consequence of which the blood -which passes through the pulmonary vessels no longer -receives the influence of oxygen, and therefore <em>black</em> -blood circulates; the brain, it would appear, soon -feels the want of the florid arterial stream, by which -alone its energies can be maintained. <i>Bichat</i> has -shewn that when dark coloured blood is injected into -the vessels of the brain, by means of a syringe connected -<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>with the carotid artery, the functions of the -brain become immediately disturbed, and, in a short -time, entirely cease; the effect is precisely similar, -whether the dark coloured blood be transmitted to -the brain by the syringe of the experimentalist, or by -the heart itself. It is not until after the full effects -of the suspended respiration are thus produced on the -brain, that the motions of the heart become enfeebled, -and that the ventricles contract less powerfully, -and at longer intervals; at length, the action -of the heart is altogether arrested, and if the thorax -be examined at the instant that the circulation has -ceased, nothing is observed, except a slight tremulous -motion of the auricles; the cavities of the left -side are much contracted, and contain only a small -quantity of blood, while the right auricle and ventricle, -and the large vessels communicating with them, -are distended to an unusual size. This state of the -heart, it will be observed, is very different from that -which we have described as constantly occurring after -<i>Syncope</i>. In the contemplation of these phœnomena, -a question very naturally suggests itself in regard to -the probable interval which elapses between the cessation -of respiration, and the consequent failure of -the heart’s action; in other words, it may be asked, -how long can the heart support its contractions without -the aid of respiration? It would appear that this -interval not only varies in duration in different animals, -but even in the same animal under different -circumstances, such as that of age,<a id='r25' /><a href='#f25' class='c011'><sup>[25]</sup></a> capacity of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>thorax, quantity of air in the lungs, state of the -stomach, and general vigour of the animal; but in -man, under the most favourable circumstances, it is -extremely doubtful whether the heart ever continues -to pulsate for so long a period as five minutes<a id='r26' /><a href='#f26' class='c011'><sup>[26]</sup></a> after -the lungs have ceased to perform their office; and it -is very questionable whether, in most instances, the -interval is not considerably shorter than this.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span> - <h3 class='c013'>BY DROWNING.</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>It was formerly believed that <i>Asphyxia</i><a id='r27' /><a href='#f27' class='c011'><sup>[27]</sup></a> from -<em>drowning</em>, always depended upon the lungs and intestinal -canal being filled with water;<a id='r28' /><a href='#f28' class='c011'><sup>[28]</sup></a> whereas it -is hardly necessary to observe that it alone depends -upon the blood, in consequence of the suspension of -breathing, ceasing to possess the qualities which are -essential to the preservation of life. <i>M. Gauteron</i> -immersed a dog for more than a quarter of an hour, -without inflicting the least injury, having previously -inserted a long tube in the trachea, which was kept -elevated during the experiment above the surface of -the water.</p> - -<p class='c000'>If a small animal be immersed in water, contained -in a transparent glass vessel, the phenomena of drowning -are readily discernible; there is first a deep expiration, -by which bubbles of air are expelled from -the lungs; there is then an effort to inspire, but the -effort is ineffectual; there being no air which can be -received into the lungs, and a spasm of the muscles of -the glottis seems to forbid the admission of any considerable -quantity of water into the trachea. The -attempts to breathe are repeated several times, and -at each attempt at expiration a small proportion of -air is expelled from the mouth and nostrils, until the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>air-cells of the lungs are almost emptied;<a id='r29' /><a href='#f29' class='c011'><sup>[29]</sup></a> then -the animal becomes insensible; and convulsive action -of the voluntary muscles mark the instant when the -brain begins to suffer from the influx of the dark coloured -venous blood. After the cessation of these -convulsive actions, the animal becomes motionless, -and gives no sign of life; but if the hand be applied -to the thorax, the actions of the heart, gradually becoming -fainter and fainter, indicate that some remains -of vitality still linger in the system. Before the circulation -of the blood altogether ceases, the muscles -of respiration once more resume their actions, and ineffectual -efforts are made to breathe. It is a remarkable -circumstance that the diaphragm continues to -exert itself nearly as long as the heart itself, and that -the interval between the cessation of the motions of -the diaphragm and that of the motions of the heart, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>which is so short in animals that die by strangulation, -is still shorter in those who perish by drowning.<a id='r30' /><a href='#f30' class='c011'><sup>[30]</sup></a> -These phenomena follow each other in rapid succession, -and the whole scene is closed, and the living -animal is converted into a lifeless corpse, incapable -of recovery, in the brief space of a few moments, -(<cite>Brodie’s Manuscript Notes</cite>). If however the -animal be taken out of the water before the total extinction -of life, and the diaphragm contract afterwards, -so as to draw air into the lungs before the -action of the heart has ceased, the circulation is -maintained, and the animal continues to respire; he -will thus have escaped immediate death from suffocation; -but his life still remains in jeopardy, for -there is <a id='sec'></a>a second period of danger, and one at which -death may take place, when we are the least prepared -to expect it; for the dark coloured blood which has -been transmitted through the circulatory system, during -the suspension of respiration, would seem to -act like a narcotic poison upon the brain; no sooner -therefore does it enter that organ, but deleterious -effects are produced, the animal at first falls into a -state of stupor, the pupils of the eyes become dilated, -the respiration laborious, the muscles of the body -convulsed, and the animal dies, <em>poisoned by its own -blood</em>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The body of a person who has died from drowning -exhibits a physiognomy which it is important to notice. -The whole surface is distinguished by a remarkable -coldness and pallor; the eyes are half open, and -their pupils considerably dilated; the tongue is pushed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>forward to the internal edges of the lips, and -sometimes wounded; and the mouth and nostrils are -covered with foam. At other times, instead of a pallid -visage, we have one that is swelled, and bloated with -livid blood.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Upon dissection we shall perceive the vessels of the -brain more or less gorged with blood;<a id='r31' /><a href='#f31' class='c011'><sup>[31]</sup></a> in the trachea -a watery and bloody froth will be found; the lungs -will appear expanded, full of frothy mucus, and, -generally, livid; the right cavities of the heart gorged -with blood, the left nearly empty; and it has been -sometimes noticed that the blood remains fluid<a id='r32' /><a href='#f32' class='c011'><sup>[32]</sup></a>, -and follows after every incision by the scalpel. The -stomach will generally be found to contain some -water. <i>Hebenstreit</i> also states, that since in the act -of drowning the person dies on an inspiration, the -diaphragm is necessarily found convex, or bent towards -the abdomen; this statement however is erroneous.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Upon these appearances we have a few observations -to offer, especially as they have given origin to -some important questions; and first, with respect to -<em>the presence of water in the stomach and lungs</em>, than -which few indications, connected with the subject of -drowning, have given occasion to greater controversy.<a id='r33' /><a href='#f33' class='c011'><sup>[33]</sup></a> -For since it hath been observed that -water is rarely found in the stomach or lungs of a -person who has been submerged after death, it was -inferred that the presence of that fluid in these organs -necessarily proved that the individual must have been -<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>plunged into the water during life. As a general -proposition this may be admitted as correct, although -it is liable to certain exceptions with which the medical -jurist ought to be acquainted; we may, for instance, -suppose a case, in which the submerged person -may be so plunged at once under water, as to -have been suffocated without his previously coming to -the surface, and when <i>asphyxia</i> has taken place, the -powers of deglutition, on which the presence of water -in the stomach wholly depends, are at an end; or we -may suppose that the party in question faints from -terror; a remarkable instance of this kind is quoted -by <i>Foderè</i>,<a id='r34' /><a href='#f34' class='c011'><sup>[34]</sup></a> from <i>Plater</i>, of a young woman, who -having been condemned to be drowned for infanticide, -fainted at the moment she was plunged in the water, -and having remained for a quarter of an hour under -its surface, recovered after being drawn out.<a id='r35' /><a href='#f35' class='c011'><sup>[35]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>With respect to the presence of water in the bronchiæ -and lungs, we may observe that, in the violent -struggles of a drowning man, a certain portion of -water generally passes the epiglottis; and being immediately -mixed with the air and mucus of the trachea, -constitutes that frothy mucus, which we have -described as being so highly characteristic of this -species of violent death; although we are not to conclude -with <i>Larrey</i>, that it is the immediate cause of -dissolution in such cases. The quantity of water, -however, thus forced into the pulmonary structure, -is extremely small, for its entrance is powerfully opposed -by a spasm of the muscles of the glottis;<a id='r36' /><a href='#f36' class='c011'><sup>[36]</sup></a> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>were it to occur in any considerable quantity, and to -appear in its fluid state, instead of that of froth, the -influence would clearly be, that <em>it had passed in after -death</em>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Although the presence of this frothy matter must -be considered as a strong presumptive proof that the -person found in the water had perished by drowning, -the converse of this proposition is by no means established -by the absence of such an indication.</p> - -<p class='c000'><em>The buoyancy of the human body</em> is another point -in the history of Drowning, which has occasioned -much discussion; and in solving the problem, so -highly important in its forensic relations, <em>whether a -body found in the water, had been drowned, or thrown -in after death</em>, it has been considered by some physiologists -as capable of affording a certain degree of presumptive -evidence, although we are inclined to attach -but little or no importance to such an indication. The -specific gravity of the human body, under ordinary -circumstances, is very little greater than that of fresh -water, so small indeed is the difference that, when -the lungs are inflated, a man will float<a id='r37' /><a href='#f37' class='c011'><sup>[37]</sup></a> with little -or no effort, if he have sufficient self possession, and -does not attempt to raise too great a portion of his -body out of the sustaining fluid;<a id='r38' /><a href='#f38' class='c011'><sup>[38]</sup></a> but, when the -air of the lungs is expelled, and probably, at the -same time, a certain quantity of water is taken into -the stomach,<a id='r39' /><a href='#f39' class='c011'><sup>[39]</sup></a> the body becomes specifically heavier, -and the victim sinks. It may be assumed as a general -<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>rule, that no newly drowned body floats, although -many facts have been adduced in support of a contrary -opinion; the naval custom of loading the dead -bodies with weights, before they are consigned to a -watery grave, is not for the purpose of sinking the -corpse, but for preventing its rising after the process -of putrefaction has commenced. The period during -which a body will remain at the bottom cannot be -very accurately determined, as the change does not -take place until a sufficient <a id='qua'></a>quantity of air be generated -to buoy it again to the surface; in the melancholy -instance of the loss of the Royal George, the -dead bodies were observed ascending to the surface -of the sea, on or about the fifth day. The general -position of a body which has thus risen, provided -there be no external or adventitious circumstances -to change it, is such, that it floats nearly immersed, -the face, arms, and legs hanging downwards, and the -loins being uppermost; this is the form which the -body must mechanically and hydrostatically assume, -if the sustaining power of generated air be, as it generally -will, in the cavity of the abdomen, where -putrefaction is more likely to commence; for the head -and limbs are generally<a id='r40' /><a href='#f40' class='c011'><sup>[40]</sup></a> specifically heavier than -water, while the trunk, especially if inflated with air, -is somewhat lighter.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It has been said that a position, different from that -which we have just described, will take place where -the person has been strangled, and the body then -thrown into the water; for in this latter case, it is -contended, that the lungs will be distended with air, -and that consequently, the sustaining power must be -in the thorax; in support of this opinion the story of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>the appearance of <i>Caraccioli</i><a id='r41' /><a href='#f41' class='c011'><sup>[41]</sup></a>, Admiral of the -Neapolitan navy, has been ingeniously adduced; this -unfortunate man was hanged in pursuance of the sentence -of a court martial, and his body was committed -to the deep in the usual manner; thirteen days after -which, while the King of Sicily was walking on the -deck of Lord <i>Nelson’s</i> ship, he suddenly exclaimed -with a yell of horror—“<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Vien! Viene!</span></i>”—The Admiral’s -corpse, breast high, was seen floating towards the -ship; the shot that had been attached to the feet for -the purpose of sinking it, not being sufficiently heavy. -This may perhaps be explained by supposing that the -corpse was stiff before it was immersed, in which -case, the centre of gravity being exceedingly low on -account of the shot tied to the feet, he must have -floated upright, wherever the buoyant power from -generated air might be situated. At all events, we -feel no hesitation in at once rejecting the proposition, -for the support of which it has been brought -forward; the fact is that, in relation to gaseous contents, -the lungs are the same in strangled, as in -drowned persons; for in both cases a quantity of air -is forcibly expelled from them before dissolution.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>2. BY HANGING:</h3> - -<p class='c014'>The suspension of a person by means of a cord, or -some other ligature, round the neck, by which death -is produced by closing the trachea, and preventing -respiration.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Although we are in this case bound to admit that -the immediate cause of death is suffocation, yet we -cannot deny that other injuries are often produced by -hanging, such as</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>1. <i>Pressure on the vessels.</i></div> - <div class='line'>2. <i>Pressure on the nerves.</i></div> - <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>3. <i>Fracture of the spine, and dislocation of the odontoid process.</i></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>1. <i>Pressure on the Vessels.</i>—The red and livid -hue of the face of persons killed by hanging, very -naturally induced a belief that <i>Apoplexy</i><a id='r42' /><a href='#f42' class='c011'><sup>[42]</sup></a> was -the immediate cause of death; while it is evident -that the pressure on the jugular veins must necessarily -so prevent the return of blood to the heart, -as to produce an accumulation in the vessels of -the brain: <i>Dr. Hooper</i> has a preparation of the -brain of an executed criminal, in which blood is seen -extravasated among the membranes; and various -other cases have occurred, where dissection has -clearly demonstrated the existence of those vascular -congestions and sanguineous effusions, upon which -apoplexy is supposed to depend; but this merely -goes to prove that apoplexy occasionally takes place -from hanging; it does not establish the fact of its being -the common cause of death on such occasions.<a id='r43' /><a href='#f43' class='c011'><sup>[43]</sup></a> <i>Gregory</i> -made the following experiment to shew that it -is to the interception of air that death is to be attributed; -after having opened the trachea of a dog he -passed a slip knot round the neck, above the wound; -the animal, though hanged, continued to live and -respire, the air was alternately admitted and easily -expelled through the small opening; but as soon as -the constriction was made below the orifice, the animal -perished. <i>Mr. Brodie</i> hanged a dog, and as -soon as it became insensible, the trachea was opened -below the ligature, upon which he breathed, and his -sensibility returned.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>2. <i>Pressure on the Nerves of the Neck.</i> Although -the pressure of a ligature on the nerves of the neck -cannot be considered as the immediate cause of death -in hanging, yet <i>Mr. Brodie</i> has very justly observed, -that if the animal recovers of the direct consequence -of the strangulation, he may probably suffer from the -effects of the ligature upon the nerves afterwards. -<i>Mr. Brodie</i> passed a ligature under the trachea of a -Guinea pig, and tied it tight on the back of the neck -with a knot; the animal was uneasy, but nevertheless -breathed and moved about; at the end of fifteen -minutes the ligature was removed; on the following -morning, however, the animal was found dead. On -dissection no preternatural appearances were discovered -in the brain, but the lungs were dark and turgid -with blood, and presented an appearance similar -to that which is observed after the division of the -nerves of the eighth pair; I do not, observes <i>Mr. -Brodie</i> (<cite>Manuscript Notes</cite>) positively conclude from -this experiment that the animal died from an injury -inflicted upon the nerves of the eighth pair, but I -think that such a conclusion is highly probable; and -it becomes an object of inquiry whether a patient -having recovered from hanging, may not, in some instances, -die afterwards from the injury of the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">par -vagum</span></i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>3. <i>Fracture of the Spine, and Dislocation of the -Neck.</i> The death of a hanged person may occasionally -take place by the luxation of the cervical vertebræ, -and the consequent injury of the spinal marrow; -this effect will be more likely to happen in -heavy persons, and where the culprit suffers on -a drop that precipitates him from a considerable -height. It is said that <i>Louis</i> discovered that of the -two executioners in Paris and Lyons, one dispatched -the criminal condemned to be hanged by luxating the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>head on the neck, whilst those who perished by the -hands of the other were completely strangled.</p> - -<p class='c000'>An animal, when first suspended, is observed to -make repeated but ineffectual attempts to inspire; -violent convulsions of the whole body then ensue, -but which are not to be considered as the indications -of suffering, for they arise in consequence of the dark -coloured blood having reached the brain and spinal -marrow; and the animal at this period is necessarily insensible; -hanging does not occasion a painful death.<a id='r44' /><a href='#f44' class='c011'><sup>[44]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>The lips, nose, and all those parts in which the hue -of the blood can be observed, exhibit a dark colour; -the countenance is distorted, the eyes protruded, and -frequently suffused with blood, the tongue is also -forced out of the mouth, and sometimes wounded, -although it has been observed that this phenomenon -will entirely depend upon the position of the rope, -for that when it presses above the thyroid gland the -tongue will be pushed back, in consequence of a compression -upon the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">os hyoides</span></i>, whereas if the pressure -be applied under the <i>cricoid</i> cartilage it will have the -effect of thrusting out the tongue. Blood is sometimes -discharged from the ears. It is not unusual for the -sufferer to void his urine, fæces, and even semen, -in <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">articulo mortis</span></i>. The fingers are usually bent, the -nails blue, and the hands nearly closed; and the -whole physiognomy exhibits a highly characteristic -appearance.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“But see, his face is black and full of blood,</div> - <div class='line'>His eye-balls further out than when he lived,</div> - <div class='line'>Staring full ghastly, like a strangled man,</div> - <div class='line'>His hair uprear’d, his nostrils stretch’d with struggling,</div> - <div class='line'>His hands abroad display’d, as one that grasp’d</div> - <div class='line'>And tugg’d for life, and was by strength subdu’d.”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='c006'><cite>Henry</cite> VI, <i>Part</i> ii, <i>Act</i> iii, <i>s.</i> 2.</div> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>The dissection of a hanged person exhibits the -same phenomena as those described under the history -of drowning, with the exception of the absence of -water in the <i>bronchiæ</i>. With respect to the quantity -of air found in the lungs, much discrepancy of opinion -has existed. <i>Dr. Goodwyn</i>, in his experiments -on respiration, found that the lungs of a person who -had died from hanging, contained double the quantity -of gaseous contents of those who had died a natural -death. This result, however, is certainly not -correct; for there is always, as we have already -stated, a very forcible expulsion of air from the -lungs in the act of strangulation, and they are accordingly -found almost empty after death. <i>Mr. -Coleman</i> hanged an animal, and then secured the -<i>trachea</i> by a ligature, and removed the lungs; when, -upon receiving their gaseous contents in the hydro-pneumatic -apparatus, he found their quantity was -very far less than that which would have been collected -under other circumstances.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>3. BY MANUAL <a id='str'></a>STRANGULATION.</h3> - -<p class='c014'>Whether strangulation be induced by the suspension -of the body by the neck, or by a ligature drawn -tight, or by any other pressure upon the trachea, the -physiological phenomena of death are the same; -where, however, the person has died from manual -strangulation, the marks about the neck will probably -be more evident, and the discolouration will correspond -with the marks of the fingers and nails; and we -may also expect to find traces of violence upon the -chest, for since the weight of the body is not obtained -in such a case, additional force becomes necessary to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>consummate the fatal act. On opening the bodies of -those who have been taken off by manual strangulation, -<i>Dr. Smith</i> thinks that the usual appearances of -this kind of death may not seem so conclusive as in -other cases: an opinion in which we feel inclined to -coincide; for in consequence of the greater resistance -of the sufferer, the functions of respiration and circulation -may continue in some measure for a longer period -than in drowning or hanging, which must be -considered as more summary processes of suffocation. -In the case of a woman who had been thus strangled -by two men, <i>Littre</i> found the tympanum of the left -ear lacerated, whence flowed about an ounce of blood; -the vessels of the brain were unusually turgid, red -blood was extravasated in the ventricles, as well as -at the base of the cranium; the lungs were distended -and their membrane vascular; not more, however, -than an ounce of blood was found in the right ventricle -of the heart, and it was fluid and frothy, like -that in the lungs; this circumstance deserves particular -notice, and can only be explained by supposing -that the respiration and circulation were not at once -arrested, but that the unhappy sufferer was enabled -to inhale air, at intervals, during the protracted -struggle<a id='r45' /><a href='#f45' class='c011'><sup>[45]</sup></a>; and yet in certain cases, death may be -very easily occasioned by manual strangulation, of -which the murder of <i>Dr. Clench</i>, in the year 1692, -may be adduced as an example; this gentleman was -strangled in a hackney coach by two men, while driving -about the streets of the city, without the coachman -having the slightest knowledge of the transaction, -until he afterwards found him quite dead, -kneeling down with his head on the seat, and a handkerchief -<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>bound about his neck, in which was a piece -of coal, placed just over the windpipe.<a id='r46' /><a href='#f46' class='c011'><sup>[46]</sup></a></p> - -<h3 class='c013'>4. BY SMOTHERING.</h3> - -<p class='c014'>In this act the transit of the air into the lungs is -prevented by forcibly closing the nostrils and mouth. -It is very obvious that such a mode of destruction can -very rarely occur in an adult; for a comparatively -feeble resistance will be sufficient to overcome the -assailant in such an attempt. It may, however, occur -accidentally; it is not difficult to imagine that a -person, in a fit of intoxication, may be unable to extricate -himself from a position in which he might fall, -and in which respiration could not be performed. In -children this mode of suffocation is less rare, and it -may be either the result of design or accident, to -which we shall have occasion to refer, when treating -the subject of Infanticide.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>5. BY THE INHALATION OF AIR DEPRIVED OF OXYGEN.</h3> - -<p class='c014'>There are many gases, the inspiration of which -occasions death; some of these act simply by excluding -oxygen, while others exert an absolutely deleterious -action in consequence of the specific powers -which they possess. It is exclusively to the first species -that our attention is at present to be directed; -the latter will constitute matter for future consideration, -under the title of <i>Aërial Poisons</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>It is a fact too well established to require any discussion, -that <em>oxygen</em> is the only principle which is -capable of producing the necessary changes in the -blood, during its transmission through the lungs; -and that, accordingly, whenever atmospheric air is -deprived of this principle, it is no longer capable of -supporting life, and the animal immersed in it instantly -dies. It is thus that death takes place from -exposure to the fumes of charcoal<a id='r47' /><a href='#f47' class='c011'><sup>[47]</sup></a>, to those of lime-kilns, -to the atmosphere of cellars, caverns, wells, -and dungeons.<a id='r48' /><a href='#f48' class='c011'><sup>[48]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>The asphyxia from privies, drains, and common -sewers, depends upon a different cause, and will be -considered under the head of <em>Sulphuretted Hydrogen</em>, -in the history of poisons.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>The fatal effects of confined air in a small and -crowded room, were fully exemplified in the year -1742, when twenty persons were crammed in a part -of St. Martin’s round-house called the <em>hole</em>, during -the night, several of whom died; the surgeons on -that occasion gave it as their opinion, that when the -doors and windows were shut, the place could not -support twenty persons for three hours without danger -of their lives. A trial took place at the Old -Bailey in consequence; but we have not been more -successful than <i>Dr. Gordon Smith</i> in our search for -its report. The medical jurist would be called upon, -on such an occasion, for his opinion as to the nature -of the deteriorated air, the causes of its accumulation, -and whether it was adequate to the production of the -alleged effects; and possibly, whether the fatal consequences -might not have been averted by judicious -caution, or active exertion. The most awful exemplification -of the fatal effects of confined air is, however, -recorded in the interesting narrative of what -happened to the English in the <em>black hole</em> at Calcutta; -and which we shall briefly relate in this place; as it -involves some physiological phenomena to which we -shall hereafter have occasion to refer.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was in the month of June, 1756, that the Viceroy -of Bengal laid siege to Fort William, the English -factory at Calcutta. <i>Mr. Holwell</i>, assisted by the -factors and the garrison, defended this post with extreme -bravery; but was at length obliged to surrender. -There were at this time remaining in the -fort, an hundred and forty-five men and one woman. -The whole of this unfortunate company, many of -whom were wounded, and several very dangerously, -were shut up the same night in a small prison only -eighteen feet square. This prison, which is now -<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>better known in England by the name of the <em>black -hole</em>, was enclosed by strong walls, and had only two -small windows at one end, secured by iron grates. -In this confined situation, which allowed only a space -of about eighteen square inches to each individual, -the heat and want of fresh air soon excited the most -horrible effects; the prisoners, in a state of despair, -began by attempting to force open the door, but in -this they were unsuccessful. Mr. <i>Holwell</i>, who was -placed near one of the windows, was more at his -ease than the rest, and was consequently more cool -and tranquil; and he recommended his companions -to be quiet and orderly, and not to exhaust their -strength by useless efforts. This advice produced -some little calm, interrupted, however, by the groans -of the wounded and the dying. The heat increased -every moment. Mr. <i>Holwell</i> recommended them -to strip off their cloaths, as a means of acquiring -more space; this was accordingly done, but with no -great relief; they attempted to improve this by fanning -the air with their hats, but even this was too -painful a task for men who were worn out by the -fatigue of the siege, and the heat of this dungeon. -Another of the company was for their kneeling down, -that they might have more air. They all readily -agreed to do this; and to rise together in order to -avoid confusion. This was done several times, but -every time the signal was given to rise, the number -of those who had strength enough to obey it diminished. -There were constantly some remaining on the -floor, who were unable to get up, and these were -trodden to death by the survivors. All this happened -during the first hour of their imprisonment. -At nine o’clock in the evening they began to complain -of excessive thirst, and to renew their efforts -<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>to open the prison door, and to tempt the centinels to -fire upon them. Some of those who were farthest -from the window became at once furiously delirious. -The cry for water was unanimous. The guards -brought water, and <i>Holwell</i> and two of his wounded -friends received it at the window in their hats, and -were going to pass it on to the rest; but so eager and -tumultuous were the efforts of the crowd to get at this -water, that <i>Holwell’s</i> two friends were suffocated, -the water was spilt, and <i>Holwell</i> saw himself surrounded -with dead bodies, who had either been -crushed to death, or died for want of fresh air.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Hitherto the commander and benefactor of these -unfortunate people, had been treated with some -degree of respect, but now all distinction began -to be forgotten; the whole company eagerly threw -themselves towards the windows, and seizing the -iron bars, some of them got even upon his shoulders. -He was so borne down by this enormous weight, as -to be deprived of all power of motion; he implored -the pity of those who were upon his head and his -shoulders, and requested them to let him go and die -at the bottom of the prison; this request was readily -complied with, every one was desirous of succeeding -to his place, and without much difficulty he reached -the farther end of the dungeon. The third part of -these unhappy people were already dead, and they -who were still alive pressed so eagerly towards the -windows, that <i>Holwell</i> found himself somewhat freer -in his new station; but the air was so corrupted, that -his breathing soon became extremely difficult and -painful. Unable therefore to support this, he attempted -once more to make his way to the windows; -and leaning on a heap of dead bodies, he now resolved -to wait patiently for death. In this situation -<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>he remained about ten minutes, and then he experienced -such a pain of the breast, and so violent a -palpitation of the heart, that he was obliged to make -one more attempt towards getting a less fatal air. -There were five rows of his companions between himself -and the window; his despair carried him through -four of these. The palpitation of his heart now began -to abate, but he felt inexpressible thirst, and -cried out for water; but the water seemed to increase -instead of alleviating his thirst; he therefore resolved -to drink no more, and rather chose to suck the moisture -from his shirt, which seemed to afford him some -relief. A young man quite naked, who stood before -him, eagerly seized the sleeve of his shirt, and for -some moments deprived him of this salutary refreshment. -It was not yet midnight. The small number -of those who were left, were transported to the greatest -excess of rage and despair. They all called -aloud for air, because the water that had been -brought to them afforded no relief. Soon after this -the noise suddenly ceased. The greater part who -were living laid themselves down, deprived of all -their strength, and peaceably breathed their last. -Others aimed at getting into <i>Holwell’s</i> situation; a -Dutchman mounted on one of his shoulders, and a -black soldier on the other. In this situation he -remained till two in the morning, when he gave up -his place to a marine officer, who was soon forced out -of it by the Dutchman. The officer retired with -<i>Holwell</i> to the other corner of the prison, and in a few -moments afterwards died. <i>Holwell</i> himself was soon -deprived of sense, and from that time till sun rise we -have no account of what passed. One of those who -remained alive, at five in the morning, drew forth -<i>Holwell</i> from the heap of dead, and found in him -<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>some signs of life; about that time the Viceroy inquired -whether he was still alive; he was told, that -if the door was immediately opened, it would, perhaps, -be possible to recover him, and orders were -accordingly given for this purpose. But the door of -the prison opened inwards, and they who were within -it, and living, were deprived of all their strength, so -that more than twenty minutes elapsed before the -dead bodies were removed, which prevented the door -from being opened.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At a quarter after six o’clock, there came out of -this melancholy dungeon three and twenty persons, -the remains of the hundred and forty-six who had -entered it on the preceding evening.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Upon the events thus related we have to remark, -that no advice could be more judicious than that -given by <i>Holwell</i> to his companions in the early -part of their imprisonment—“to be quiet and -orderly, and not to exhaust their strength by useless -efforts.” Nor can we imagine any measure -more calculated to increase the sufferings of their -situation than that which was subsequently proposed, -and adopted, by another of the company, “to fan -the air with their hats, and to kneel down and rise -together, by a simultaneous motion.” It has been -satisfactorily established by physiological researches, -that the demand for oxygen, in an animal body, will -be in proportion to its expenditure by muscular -exertions.<a id='r49' /><a href='#f49' class='c011'><sup>[49]</sup></a> Whenever, therefore, circumstances -<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>may render a supply of air deficient, we shall best -economise that which we possess by perfect quiet. -<i>Lavoisier</i> says, that a man, under ordinary circumstances, -consumes 1300 or 1400 cubic inches of oxygen -in an hour, but he found that if he is engaged -in raising weights the consumption is at the rate of -3200 in the hour.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Infants appear to be less able to sustain the deprivation -of oxygen than adults; and in some cases on -record, life has been destroyed by circumstances that -we should have <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">a priori</span></i> considered as hardly adequate -to such an effect. A case is related of a child, who -was suffocated by some drunken men having repeatedly -blown out a candle, and held the smoaking wick -under its nose. The faculty of Leipsic investigated -the circumstances, and declared the death to have -taken place in consequence of suffocation. (<cite>Valentini -Pand: Med: Legal: Sect: 2.</cite>)</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>6. BY OTHER MODES, NOT INCLUDED IN THE FOREGOING SECTIONS.</h3> - -<p class='c014'>We have already stated that if the muscles of respiration -be paralysed, the animal can no longer breathe; -and it dies in a state of suffocation. There are several -mechanical modes by which such a condition may be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>produced; a person buried in a heap of ruins, although -his head should be free, will perish from the -pressure of the surrounding rubbish preventing the -due action of the respiratory muscles. It was in this -way that criminals who obstinately refused to plead, -often died under the pressure of the weights that -were heaped upon their bodies.<a id='r50' /><a href='#f50' class='c011'><sup>[50]</sup></a>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There is a mode of suffocation, described by <i>Galen</i>, -as being practised by the slaves when brought into -the presence of the judges or executioners; it consisted -in swallowing their tongue, by which it is said -they voluntarily terminated their own existence. Several -more modern authors have noticed this incredible -mode of suicide, as one that is resorted to by -negroes: now to confute such an idea, we have only -to shew the attachment of the muscles of this part, -and the motions which they permit; equally absurd -<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>is it to suppose with other physiologists, that persons -can occasion suffocation by a voluntary suspension of -their breathing; for if such an attempt were even -made, the effort would be ended when self-possession -was once lost, for then the impulse of nature must -instantly triumph over any struggle to oppose it. -We are not, however, prepared to say that such an -attempt might not, in certain cases, occasion such a -cerebral congestion as to produce apoplexy.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The last cause of suffocation which we have to -mention is mechanical obstruction, from the entrance -of foreign bodies into the aperture of the glottis; -instances of this kind are too numerous and familiar -to require many observations: it is thus that <i>Anacreon</i> -is said to have perished from a grape-seed; <i>Gilbert</i>, -the poet, terminated his existence in a similar manner; -he was a man of great appetite, and in the midst of a -festival went into a neighbouring room, but did not -return to the great surprise of his convivial companions. -He was found stretched on a couch without any -signs of life. The assistance administered by his kind -but uninformed friends was useless; on opening the -body a small piece of mutton was found, that had -stopped at the entrance of the larynx, and completely -prevented the passage of air into this organ. In Oct. -1821, two inquisitions were taken at Mildenhall, before -the Coroner of Bury St. Edmonds in Suffolk; in -the one case it appeared that <i>John Harris</i> had eaten -some honey, from the honey-comb, and that a bee, -having been concealed in it, entered the glottis, and -occasioned almost immediate death by suffocation; -the other case was that of an infant, <i>Mary Bacon</i>, -who fell with her face upon a quantity of slacked lime, -when a particle of it getting into the wind-pipe, produced -inflammation of the lungs, and sloughing of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>the trachea, of which she died. We have no doubt -but that <a id='per'></a>persons, during the state of intoxication, or -that of a spasmodic paroxysm, have often perished -from suffocation, when the death has been attributed -to other causes; if the stomach should reject its contents -during a state of insensibility<a id='r51' /><a href='#f51' class='c011'><sup>[51]</sup></a>, such an occurrence -is by no means unlikely. We have lately received -the history of a case of this description, which -occurred in the St. James’s workhouse, and fell under -the particular notice of Mr. <i>Alcock</i>. The patient was -seized after a hearty meal of pork with an epileptic -fit, during which he died; when upon opening the -trachea, it was found to contain a quantity of animal -matter resembling the pork upon which he had recently -dined.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span> - <h2 id='c8' class='c008'>8. DEATH BY EXPOSURE TO COLD.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>That an animal must perish as soon as the temperature -of the medium in which it lives ceases to -preserve the blood in a state of fluidity, is one of -those self-evident propositions which scarcely requires -notice, much less explanation; but that a degree of -cold not sufficiently intense to occasion any physical -changes upon the constituent parts of the body should -extinguish its vitality is a fact, whose history involves -some of the most interesting questions of physiology.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The degree of cold, necessary for the production of -its fatal effects, varies in a very remarkable degree -with the strength and circumstances of the individual -to whom it is applied, as well as with the rapidity of -the cooling process. In some instances we find that -man has endured an extreme degree of cold with but -little inconvenience, whilst in other cases, we see him -perishing from it in a temperature at which water -even retains its fluidity. The interesting history -of Sir <i>Joseph Bankes</i> (at that time Mr. Bankes), Dr. -<i>Solander</i>, and eleven others, on a botanical excursion -to the mountains of Terra del Fuego; and more recently, -the narrative of our enterprizing countrymen, -in their voyage to the Polar seas, will furnish a good -illustration of the former fact, whilst the melancholy -fate of the Cambridge student, as hereafter explained, -affords a curious and instructive example of the latter. -<em>Animal heat</em>, as Mr. <i>Brodie</i> observes, <em>is in some -way or other dependant upon the integrity of the functions -of the Nervous System</em>; and consequently the -absolute degree of cold which an animal can bear -with impunity will, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cæteris paribus</span></i>, be determined -<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>by his powers of producing heat; we must therefore -cease to regard the fact as extraordinary, that an -animal, which is under the influence of a deleterious -narcotic poison, or in whom, from any other morbid -cause, the powers of the nervous system are exhausted, -may be destroyed by a diminished temperature, that -would scarcely affect even the sensations of one, differently -placed in relation to his nervous energy; -thus it is with a person in the last stage of intoxication, -in whom the powers of life are ebbing, in consequence -of the previous state of morbid excitement; -in the course of the last winter, two instances occurred -of drunken persons being taken to the watch-house; -where, there not being any charge against them, they -were dismissed by the constable of the night, and -perished in the streets. A military friend has lately -communicated to us an instance, where out of a great -number of troops who were exposed to intense cold, -the only one who perished was under the influence of -intoxication; and we learn from <i>Le Baume’s</i> interesting -account of the campaign in Russia, that similar -results were observed during the disastrous retreat -of the French army on that memorable occasion.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In our own country scarcely a winter passes without -the occurrence of some event equally illustrative -of this physiological fact; and it is highly important -that the medical jurist should be able to appreciate -its influence; those who perish in this manner are -generally individuals of the most wretched condition, -and will be found to have undergone much suffering -and privation; by which their nervous energy had -been too much exhausted to generate sufficient heat -to counteract the diminished temperature of the atmosphere; -an event of this nature occurred in London -during the winter of 1819, when a man and his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>wife, aged persons, and poor, but not supposed, nor -indeed proved to have been quite destitute, were -found dead in their apartment, although food was -discovered in the room, and money was in the pocket -of the man: the night (28th of December) had been -inclement, and there was neither bed nor fire in the -miserable couple’s apartment. It appeared in evidence -that they had been previously ailing. The -verdict recorded that they had perished from the inclemency -of the weather, in consequence of the destitute -circumstances under which they were found.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It would seem that persons who are long exposed -to intense cold do not suffer a painful death; they -gradually lose their sensibility, become drowsy, and -die as if through the effects of an opiate. Mr. <i>Brodie</i><a id='r52' /><a href='#f52' class='c011'><sup>[52]</sup></a> -classes the effects of cold in the following order.</p> - -<p class='c000'>1. It lessens the irritability, and impairs the functions -of the whole nervous system.</p> - -<p class='c000'>2. It impairs the contractile powers of the muscles.</p> - -<p class='c000'>3. It causes contraction of the capillaries, and thus -lessens the superficial circulation, and stops the -cutaneous secretion.</p> - -<p class='c000'>4. It probably destroys the principle of vitality, -equally in every part, and does not exclusively -disturb the functions of any particular organ.</p> - -<p class='c000'>These positions have been confirmed by experiment. -Dr. <i>Chassat</i> states that in an animal immersed -in a cold bath, death may take place at 79° Fahr. -(26 <i>Centig.</i>), although it may be sometimes cooled -down as low as 69° (17 <i>Cent.</i>) before it dies; but, -<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cæteris paribus</span></i>, the animal dies sooner as the cooling -is more rapid.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>M. <i>Portal</i> thinks that cold produces death by inducing -apoplexy, and remarks that the examination -of the bodies of persons who have died from cold, -proves the presence of sanguineous congestions in the -vessels and cavities of the body, and especially in -those of the brain. Dr. <i>Cooke</i>, however, has remarked -that “M. <i>Portal’s</i> notions on this subject seem to want -confirmation. Excessive cold undoubtedly produces, -first drowsiness and afterwards a profound sleep, in -which the unfortunate individual generally perishes; -but we have not on record a sufficient number of cases -with particular descriptions of symptoms and appearances -on dissection, to enable us to say positively that -cold kills by apoplexy.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>After death the blood is generally florid in the aorta, -so that the animal does not die of suffocation; the -heart sometimes contracts feebly after the muscular -irritability of the limbs and intestines are nearly destroyed; -the cerebral veins contain but little blood; -the ventricles contain a small portion of fluid. Mr. -<i>Brodie’s</i> experiments coincide in most respects with -those of Dr. <i>Chassat</i>, who uniformly found after -death, the heart much distended with blood, as in -Syncope, scarlet blood occupying the left side; and -he also found that the heart ceased to contract before -the diaphragm, so that he has seen the animal insensible, -and gasp for breath, even after the chest was -opened and the heart excised! The muscles were -unusually florid, and the peristaltic motions of the -intestines were generally observed to continue longer -than the action of the heart. The voluntary muscles, -he says, lose their irritability in different degrees, -those of the legs before those of the thighs, and those -of the thighs before the abdominal muscles.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span> - <h3 class='c013'>DEATH BY THE AGENCY OF HEAT.</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>We have not yet a sufficient number of well reported -experiments on the effects of heat on animals, -to enable us to draw any satisfactory conclusions -respecting the mode in which life is destroyed by this -agent; although it seems probable that it acts by destroying -the muscular energy of the heart and diaphragm.<a id='r53' /><a href='#f53' class='c011'><sup>[53]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>Mr. <i>Brodie</i> placed a rabit in a basket in an oven, -the temperature of which was not more that 150°, and -it died in a few minutes without any apparent suffering; -the heart was afterwards found distended with -blood, on both sides, as in Syncope.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>DEATH BY LIGHTNING.</h3> - -<p class='c014'>It has been incontrovertibly established by the experiments -of modern philosophers, that the phœnomena -of electricity are identical with those of thunder -and lightning. The human body is alike affected by -both; and death, whether it be occasioned by the discharge -of an electrical battery, or by that of a thunder -cloud, exhibits effects precisely analogous.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Mr. <i>Hunter</i> supposed that when death is thus occasioned, -there is an instantaneous and entire annihilation -of the vital principle, in every part of the animal -machine; and that the muscles are therefore relaxed, -and incapable of contraction, that the limbs do not -stiffen<a id='r54' /><a href='#f54' class='c011'><sup>[54]</sup></a>, as in other cases of death, nor the blood -<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>coagulate, and that the body very speedily runs into -a state of putrefaction. The experiments however -of Mr. <i>Brodie</i><a id='r55' /><a href='#f55' class='c011'><sup>[55]</sup></a> will induce us to pause, and institute -farther enquiries before we receive this theory as -unexceptionable. It will appear that in the following -experiments of this physiologist, an instantaneous -extinction of vitality did not take place, but, on the -contrary, the functions of the brain were those on -which the electric shock exercised its primary influence. -An electric battery of six jars having been -charged with electricity, the shock was made to pass -through a Guinea pig, in the longitudinal direction -from the head to the tail: the animal immediately -fell on one side, insensible, as if stunned; a convulsive -action of the muscles of the extremities was observed, -but did not long continue; and the function -of respiration was not interrupted. In a few minutes -sensibility was restored, and the animal recovered. -A shock from a battery of nine jars was then passed -in the same manner through another Guinea pig; -the animal immediately fell on its side, exhibited a -convulsive action of the voluntary muscles of the -limbs, but uttered no cries, and although attentively -watched, no signs of respiration could be discovered -after the shock had passed through it. Three minutes -afterwards, Mr. <i>Brodie</i> opened the chest, and -found the heart acting with regularity and vigour, -about 80 times in a minute, and circulating -dark coloured venous blood; the peristaltic motion -of the intestines was likewise visible; and the muscles, -when made the part of a galvanic circuit, readily -contracted. In this experiment, observes Mr. <i>Brodie</i>, -it is evident that the electric shock did not destroy -<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>the irritability of the muscular fibre, nor did it affect -the action of the heart. <em>Death took place precisely in -the same manner as from a severe injury of the head</em>; -and the animal died, manifestly from the destruction -of the functions of the brain; and, in this case, Mr. -<i>Brodie</i> has no doubt, but that if the lungs had been -artificially inflated, the action of the heart might have -been maintained, and the animal probably have been -restored to life.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The nature and extent of the injury inflicted by -lightning, depend upon the intensity and direction of -the electrical discharge, and vary greatly in degree; -by far the greater number of flashes are harmless -discharges from one cloud to another, and the instances -in which it strikes the earth are comparatively -rare: when however this does occur, and it directs -its course through a human being, it may expend its -influence upon the surface, and produce partial or -general vesications.<a id='r56' /><a href='#f56' class='c011'><sup>[56]</sup></a> Sometimes the clothes of the -person have been violently rent, and the metallic -substances about them melted; or it may pass through -the body, without including the clothes, and it may -occasion death without injuring the organic structure -of any part of the body: or it may pass through -only a particular portion of the body, and produce -local injury.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But it has happened that persons have been struck -when the tempest has appeared to be at a considerable -distance; this has been explained by Signor -<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span><i>Beccaria</i>, by supposing that it is a discharge of electric -fluid from the earth, occasioned by the passing -of a cloud that has just before, in the elemental strife, -been rendered negatively electric. Lord <i>Stanhope</i> -distinguishes such a discharge by the name of the -<em>Returning Stroke</em>.<a id='r57' /><a href='#f57' class='c011'><sup>[57]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>As a provision for personal security during a thunder -storm, a few precautions are necessary, and we -are induced to notice them in this place, as their -history is necessarily involved in our enquiries concerning -death by lightning. In the open air, shelter -ought not to be sought immediately under trees, for -should they be struck, such a situation would be attended -with the most imminent peril: on the contrary, -the distance of twenty or thirty feet from such -objects, may be considered as affording a place of -safety, for should a discharge take place, they will -most likely receive it, and the less elevated bodies -will escape. Any surface of water, and even the -streamlets that may have resulted from a recent shower -should be avoided, for being excellent conductors, -the height of a man, when connected with them, is -very likely to determine the course of an electrical -discharge. The partial conductors, through which -the lightning directs its course when it enters a -building, are usually the appendages of the walls and -partitions; the most secure situation is therefore the -middle of the room, and this situation may be rendered -still more secure by lying on a hair mattress, -or even on a thick woollen hearth rug. The part of -every building least likely to receive injury is the -middle story, as the lightning does not always pass -from the clouds to the earth, but is occasionally discharged -<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>from the earth to the clouds, as in the case of -the “<em>returning stroke</em>;” hence it is absurd to take refuge -in a cellar, as recommended by Dr. <i>Priestley</i>; indeed -many instances are on record, in which the basement -story has been the only part of a building that -has sustained severe injury, the electric charge being -divided and weakened as it ascended. Any approach -to a fire-place should be particularly avoided, for the -chimneys are very likely to determine the course of -the lightning; the same caution is necessary with -respect to gilt furniture, bell-wires, and moderately -extensive surfaces of metal of every description.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>DEATH BY STARVATION.</h3> - -<p class='c014'>That a living animal body cannot long survive without -the ingestion of alimentary matter, is too self-evident -to require demonstration. Living bodies, says -<i>Cuvier</i>, may be considered as a kind of furnaces -into which inert substances are successively thrown, -which combine among themselves in various manners, -maintain a certain place, and perform an action determined -by the nature of the combinations they have -formed, and at last fly off in order to become again -subject to the laws of inanimate nature.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It must, however, be observed, that there is a difference, -depending on age and health, in the proportion -of the parts which enter into the current, and those -which abandon it; and that the velocity of the motion -usually varies according to the different conditions of -each living body; hence it follows, that the period -during which an individual may exist without food, -will be liable to variation. We have already stated -(page <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>) that, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cæteris paribus</span></i>, he will perish from -inanition with a rapidity proportioned to his youth, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>and state of robust vigour; and we remarked in what -strict conformity with physiological principles the -poet <i>Dante</i> had described the fate of <i>Ugolino</i> and his -family.<a id='r58' /><a href='#f58' class='c011'><sup>[58]</sup></a> The same fact appears also to have been -well understood by the ancient physicians;<a id='r59' /><a href='#f59' class='c011'><sup>[59]</sup></a> equally -evident is it that women are able to support abstinence -longer than men. It has been also observed -that a moist atmosphere contributes to the protraction -of life, under circumstances of privation; this -may depend, not only upon the fluid matter thus -furnished to the body, but upon the non-conducting -power of the medium, in relation to aqueous vapour; -the ingestion of a very small proportion of water revives -in an extraordinary degree, the animal perishing -from famine, and prolongs his existence. <i>Redi</i><a id='r60' /><a href='#f60' class='c011'><sup>[60]</sup></a> -instituted a series of experiments with the sole view -of ascertaining how long animals can live without -food. Of a number of capons which he kept without -either solid or liquid food, not one survived the ninth -day; but one to which he allowed water, drank it -with avidity, and did not perish until the twentieth -day. <i>Elizabeth Woodcock</i>, who was buried under the -snow, near Cambridge, for the space of eight days, -undoubtedly owed her preservation to the snow which -she occasionally sucked.<a id='r61' /><a href='#f61' class='c011'><sup>[61]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>Those cases of extraordinary fasting, which are recorded -in the different Transactions and Journals of -almost every country, are to be generally regarded as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>gross impositions; we<a id='r62' /><a href='#f62' class='c011'><sup>[62]</sup></a> have already exposed the fallacy -of several of the more popular histories of this -kind. Such impostors, however, in their attempt to -delude the world, have unintentionally offered themselves -as the voluntary victims of physiological experiment; -for we have at least learnt from them how small -a portion of aliment is sufficient to preserve the life of -a human being; a fact which had never before been -satisfactorily proved, however probable it had been -rendered, by the recorded habits of many of the early -Christians, especially those of the East, who retired -from persecution into the deserts of Arabia and -Egypt.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The sufferings of a person perishing from inanition<a id='r63' /><a href='#f63' class='c011'><sup>[63]</sup></a> -must be considered as the most acute that can befall -humanity; and yet we have instances on record of -their having been voluntarily encountered as the -means of suicide; a very interesting and well-authenticated -instance of this kind has been related -as having occurred in Corsica;<a id='r64' /><a href='#f64' class='c011'><sup>[64]</sup></a> and, as it is calculated -to afford, at once, a history of the symptoms -of Starvation, and an exemplification of their severity, -we shall introduce a brief account of the case -in this place. <i>Luc Antoine Viterbi</i> was condemned -to death as an accomplice in the assassination of -<i>Frediani</i>, a crime which he denied to the last moment, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>and appealed against a sentence passed upon him by -a Court composed of his personal enemies. Towards -the end of November, <i>Viterbi</i> (knowing his condemnation, -and being confined in the prison of Bastia), -resolved to die. To effect his purpose, he abstained -from food for three days, and then ate voraciously, -and to a forced excess, in the hope that, after fasting -so long, he should thereby put an end to his existence; -in this however he was deceived, and, on the second -of December, he determined to starve himself to -death; from that day nothing could shake his awful -resolution, although he did not expire until the night -of the 21st of that month. During the three first days, -<i>Viterbi</i> felt himself progressively tormented by hunger; -under these circumstances a report was made to -the public minister, who ordered bread, water, wine, -and soup to be taken daily to his cell, and placed -conspicuously in view. No debility was manifested -during these three days, no irregular muscular movement -was remarked, his ideas continued sound, and -he wrote with his usual facility, but took no nourishment.</p> - -<p class='c000'>From the 5th to the 6th, to hunger insensibly succeeded -the much more grievous suffering of thirst, -which became so acute, that on the 6th, without ever -deviating from his resolution, he began to moisten his -lips and mouth occasionally, and to gargle with a few -drops of water, to relieve the burning pain in his -throat; but he let nothing pass the organs of deglutition, -being desirous not to assuage the most insupportable -cravings, but to mitigate a pain which might -have shaken his resolution. On the 6th, his physical -powers were a little weakened; his voice was nevertheless -still sonorous, pulsation regular, and a natural -heat equally extended over his whole frame. From -<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>the 3d to the 6th, he had continued to write; at -night several hours of tranquil sleep seemed to suspend -the progress of his sufferings, no change was -observable in his mental faculties, and he complained -of no local pain. Until the 10th, the thirst became -more and more insupportable; <i>Viterbi</i> merely continued -to gargle, without once swallowing a single -drop of water; but in the course of the 10th, overcome -by excess of pain, he seized the jug of water, -which was near him, and drank immoderately. During -the last three days, debility had made sensible -progress, his voice became feeble, pulsation had declined, -and the extremities were cold. <i>Viterbi</i>, however, -continued to write; and sleep, each night, still -afforded him several hours ease.</p> - -<p class='c000'>From the 10th to the 12th the symptoms made a -slight progress. The constancy of <i>Viterbi</i> never -yielded an instant; he dictated his journal, and afterwards -approved and signed what had been thus written -agreeably to his dictation. During the night of the -12th, the symptoms assumed a more decided character, -debility was extreme, pulsation scarcely sensible, -his voice extraordinarily feeble, the cold had extended -itself all over the body, and the pangs of thirst were -more acute than ever. On the 13th the unhappy man -thinking himself at the point of death, again seized -the jug of water, and drank twice, after which the -cold became more severe; and congratulating himself -that death was nigh, he stretched his body on the -bed, and said to the gendarmes who were guarding -him, “Look how well I have laid myself out.” At -the expiration of a quarter of an hour, he asked for -some brandy; the keeper not having any, he called -for some wine, of which he took four spoonsful; when -he had swallowed these the cold suddenly ceased, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>heat returned, and <i>Viterbi</i> enjoyed a sleep of four -hours. On awaking (on the morning of the 13th) -and finding his powers restored, he fell into a rage -with the keeper, protesting that they had deceived -him, and then began beating his head violently against -the wall of his prison, and would inevitably have -killed himself, had he not been prevented by the -gendarmes. During the two following days he resisted -his inclination to drink, but continued to gargle -occasionally with water; during the two nights he -suffered a little from exhaustion, but in the morning -found himself rather relieved. It was then that he -penned some stanzas. On the 16th, at five o’clock -in the morning, his powers were almost annihilated, -pulsation could hardly be felt, and his voice was almost -inaudible; his body was benumbed with cold, -and it was thought that he was on the point of expiring. -At ten o’clock he began to feel better, pulsation -was more sensible, his voice strengthened, and, -finally, heat again extended over his frame, and in -this state he continued during the whole of the 17th. -From the latter day until the 20th, <i>Viterbi</i> only became -more inexorable in his resolution to die. During -the 19th, the pangs of hunger and thirst appeared -more grievous than ever; so insufferable, indeed, were -they, that for the first time, <i>Viterbi</i> let a few tears -escape him; but his invincible mind instantly spurned -this human tribute. For a moment he seemed to have -resumed his wonted energy, and said, in the presence -of his guards, and the gaoler, “I will persist, whatever -may be the consequence; my mind shall be -stronger than my body; my strength of mind does -not vary, that of my body daily becomes weaker.” -A little after this energetic expression, an icy coldness -again assailed his body, the shiverings were frequent -<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>and dreadful, and his loins, in particular, were seized -with a stone-like coldness, which extended itself down -his thighs. During the 19th a slight pain at intervals -affected his heart, and for the first time, he felt a -ringing sensation in his ears; at noon, on this day, -his head became heavy; his sight, however, was perfect, -and he conversed almost as usual, making some -signs with his hands.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On the 20th, <i>Viterbi</i> declared to the gaoler and -physician, that he would not again moisten his mouth; -and feeling the approach of death he stretched himself, -asking, as on a former occasion, whether he was -well out, and added, “I am prepared to leave this -world.” Death did not this time betray his hopes. -On the 21st <i>Viterbi</i> was no more.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In this interesting history, we receive a faithful -account of the physical effects of starvation upon a -human being, and perceive how greatly a very inconsiderable -portion of liquid is capable of producing an -invigorating effect upon the body, when in a state of -extreme inanition; but the mind of the subject before -us was stern and invincible, inflexibly bent upon self -destruction; and we therefore do not perceive the -developement of those moral effects, which in other -cases are the general consequences of starvation. The -histories of besieged towns<a id='r65' /><a href='#f65' class='c011'><sup>[65]</sup></a> would afford us ample evidence -upon this subject; and would shew that famine -destroys all the most powerful instincts of our nature. -We know not, however, a more awful illustration of -this fact than that furnished by the account of the wreck -<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>of the <i>Méduse</i>,<a id='r66' /><a href='#f66' class='c011'><sup>[66]</sup></a> and its appalling consequences; -it appears that this frigate struck on the bank of -Arguin, and as all attempts to save her were fruitless, -nothing remained but to concert immediate measures -for the escape of the passengers and crew; five boats -were accordingly got in readiness, and a raft, destined -to carry the greatest number of people, was hastily -constructed; biscuit, wine, and fresh water were also -apportioned to each; but in the tumult of abandoning -the wreck, it so happened that the raft had the least -share of the provisions, and in which there was not a -single barrel of biscuit. This raft, containing no less -than one hundred and fifty souls, was to have been -towed by the boats, with which it was connected -by ropes; but the adventurers had not proceeded far, -when the boats cast off, and cruelly abandoned the -raft to the mercy of the ocean; to the scene which -ensued it is impossible for any language, however -florid, to do adequate justice. Despair, aided -by the pangs of hunger, soon excited a mutiny; a -dreadful slaughter ensued, and the flesh of their murdered -comrades afforded to the survivors a short respite -from the immediate sufferings of famine.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span> - <h2 id='c9' class='c008'>THE APPLICATION OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTS ESTABLISHED IN THE PRECEDING CHAPTERS, TO THE GENERAL TREATMENT OF ASPHYXIA.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Although our researches into the causes and phenomena -of asphyxia, or suspended animation, will -afford, on many occasions, but very scanty encouragement -with regard to the extent and value of the resources -of art, yet we apprehend that to the intelligent -practitioner they will not on that account be less -acceptable; for to him it must be well known, that -the detection of error is the first step in the discovery -of truth, and although the tendency of the present -investigation will be to reject, as useless, many of -those plans of treatment which have long enjoyed the -confidence of the public and the profession; yet it will -suggest the application of some that have not hitherto -been duly appreciated, and regulate that of others -whose efficiency entirely depends upon the time and -manner of their administration. But the fact is not -to be concealed, that the medical profession, as well -as the public, have long been too sanguine in their -estimate of the probabilities of recovery by art, in -cases <a id='whe'></a>where life is suddenly arrested by the operation -of external causes; and upon this occasion, the establishment -of the “<span class='sc'>Royal Humane Society</span> for the -recovery of persons apparently dead,” requires some -notice, in relation to the possible extent of its successful -exertions. Without some explanation it will be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>impossible to reconcile the reports of that philanthropic -institution, with the physiological views -which we have attempted to establish in the present -work; it therefore becomes a part of our duty to explain -the nature of the fallacies into which the witnesses -and reporters of cases of suspended animation -appear to us to have been unconsciously betrayed, -and which have so frequently bestowed upon fable -the colour of truth, and given to vague report, the -apparent stability of credible testimony. In the first -place we would observe, that in those cases in which -a long interval is stated to have occurred between the -suspension of breathing, from drowning, and the -restoration of that function by art, it is probable that -the anxiety of by-standers who witnessed the struggles, -and the impossibility of justly appreciating the -lapse of time in such moments of anxiety<a id='r67' /><a href='#f67' class='c011'><sup>[67]</sup></a> and distress, -have led to the erroneous statements with which -the subject is embarrassed. There is, moreover, -another fallacy into which the anxious observer is -very likely to fall,—the sufferer may have breathed -unobserved during the alleged interval of asphyxia; -and if this fact be admitted, we at once reduce some -of the most incredible of these reports to the rational -<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>standard of physiological probability. Nor shall we -hesitate in the present chapter to offer our remarks -upon the plan of recovery proposed by this society -with as much freedom, and as little reserve, as we -have ventured to question the literal accuracy of their -reports. But while, thus fortified by physiological -arguments, we profess to discredit many of the results -stated by this society, let it not be supposed -that we would prefer a charge of insincerity against -their authors, or attempt to withhold any portion of -that public patronage and consideration, to which -their zeal and philanthropy so justly entitle them.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The agents which are employed in cases of suspended -animation, are far too indiscriminately recommended; -some of them, without doubt, offer valuable -resources to the physician, and only require a -judicious application to ensure their success; while -others are entirely useless and frivolous, and ought -to be dismissed from our service, since the retaining -them only embarrasses the practitioner, and that too -at a period which of all others requires the utmost -decision in the selection of a plan of treatment, and -the greatest promptness in its execution.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The following may be considered as the principal -resources upon which the <i>Humane Society</i> rely for -restoration of persons apparently dead from sudden -accidents, viz.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>1. <i>Inflation of the lungs.</i></div> - <div class='line'>2. <i>Application of heat.</i></div> - <div class='line'>3. <i>Internal Exhibition of stimulants.</i></div> - <div class='line'>4. <i>Friction.</i></div> - <div class='line'>5. <i>Electricity.</i></div> - <div class='line'>6. <i>Exposure of the surface of the body to cool air.</i></div> - <div class='line'>7. <i>Blood-letting.</i></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>We shall offer a few observations upon the methods -of applying these agents.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'><i>On the manner of producing artificial respiration.</i></h3> - -<p class='c014'>We are indebted to <i>Mr. Brodie</i> for the valuable -directions that are to guide the execution of this important -operation. (<cite>Manuscript Notes.</cite>) A common -pair of bellows will be found as manageable and efficient -an apparatus for the inflation of the lungs, as any -instrument that could be contrived; those manufactured -for the service of the Humane Society are not -of a size sufficient to inflate the lungs of even a large -dog, much less those of man; nor is it necessary to -employ double bellows on this occasion, for the air -will escape from the lungs without being withdrawn -by suction; besides which, it is stated that the forcible -exhaustion of the lungs is liable to occasion pulmonic -hemorrhage. It has been proposed to insert the tube -of the bellows into the trachea, by means of a wound -in that structure, but there are great objections to -such a proceeding; the hemorrhage which is likely to -occur,<a id='r68' /><a href='#f68' class='c011'><sup>[68]</sup></a> may inundate the windpipe; besides which, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>the operation occasions delay, which, however trifling, -will be important in cases where the action of -the heart has become much enfeebled; and moreover -the wound itself is an evil which ought to be avoided, -if artificial respiration can be established without it; -and were these objections even overruled, there still -remains another; experience has shewn that the air -thus introduced issues by the opening of the larynx, -without having dilated the lungs.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A tube may be constructed for the purpose of being -inserted through the mouth into the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">rima glottidis</span></i>; if -the patient be sensible, the introduction of such a tube -might be difficult; but as the patient is in a state of -insensibility, the introduction may usually be effected -without much difficulty, but not altogether without -trouble; for the mere circumstance of having to open -the mouth, to pull forward the epiglottis, to direct -the tube into the proper aperture, may occasion delay -which will be of importance in cases where success -depends upon the skill with which the time has been -economised.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is for such reasons more expedient to inflate the -lungs by means of a tube inserted into one nostril, -keeping the other and the mouth carefully closed: -the bellows having been thus disposed, the air should -be driven into the lungs with a certain degree of -force; the lungs will thus become fully inflated, and -in the intervals between the different inflations, the -air from the lungs will escape by the mouth and by -the other nostril, and when the lungs are thus -<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>emptied, the process may be repeated. There is but -one objection to this method of exciting artificial respiration, -viz. that at each inflation, a portion of air -will sometimes find its way into the stomach, through -the œsophagus: it is very desirable to prevent such an -occurrence, for when the stomach is much distended -with air, the descent of the diaphragm is prevented, -and, consequently, a perfect inspiration cannot be -accomplished. The passage of air into the stomach -may be prevented by pressing on the thyroid cartilage, -so as to close the communication between the pharynx -and œsophagus. All that is necessary for the operator -is, to produce the inspiration; we are recommended -indeed to press the margin of the ribs gently -upwards, so as to expel the air, and produce expiration; -but this is altogether unnecessary, for the elasticity -of the ribs, and the pressure of the abdominal -muscles and viscera, and the elasticity of the lungs -themselves, are quite sufficient to occasion the expiration -without any assistance from external pressure. -We must not omit to state that the inhalation of oxygen -gas, instead of common air, has been strongly -recommended, not only as being in itself a more -powerful stimulus, but as being more efficient in the -removal of the accumulation of that carbonized matter -which, under ordinary circumstances of respiration, -is regularly thrown off; the practical eligibility -however, of such a plan is very questionable, and to -say nothing of the difficulty of obtaining oxygen -upon an occasion where the least delay is fatal, it is -very doubtful whether the effects of this gas are really -such as our theory would at once lead us to believe. -We have deemed it necessary to enter into these details, -in order to afford some practical instruction -upon a subject of manipulation but little understood, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>but which is undoubtedly the most valuable of all the -resources which art can furnish for the preservation of -human beings that are in danger of perishing from -accidental causes. The principal circumstances to be -remembered are comprised in the following precepts.</p> - -<p class='c015'>1. The lungs are to be sufficiently, but not too -much inflated.</p> -<p class='c015'>2. The inspiration must be made of sufficient frequency.</p> -<p class='c015'>3. The air is to be allowed a free exit from the -lungs, so that the same air shall not be transmitted -more than once.</p> -<p class='c015'>4. The method of inflating the lungs must be -simple, and easy of adoption; for as the interval -of time, during which the artificial respiration -can possibly be of any service, is -very limited, it is important to avoid whatever -may occasion the least delay.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><i>Application of Heat.</i></h4> - -<p class='c014'>There is perhaps no medium through which -we can more successfully apply heat to the human -body than that of the bath, because we can manage -its application with precision; we know the exact -degree of heat, and can avoid applying it in extremes; -we, at the same time, can communicate it more rapidly, -and more equally, than by any other means, -and we are enabled to increase or diminish the temperature, -by the addition of fresh portions of water, -as circumstances may render it expedient.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span> - <h5 class='c016'><i>Internal Exhibition of Stimulants.</i></h5> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The introduction of fluids into the stomach is not -an easy process in many cases of suspended animation, -as <i>trismus</i> is by no means an uncommon occurrence; -where, however, the spasm of the jaw has -subsided, the practitioner with a little address may -by means of a flexible tube easily accomplish his object. -Glysters will likewise furnish an easy mode of -applying stimulants.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Electricity.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>No sooner was the discovery made that galvanism is -capable of exciting muscular contraction in animals -apparently dead, than the physiological enthusiast -seized it with avidity, and at once hailed it as the long -desired influence that was to restore vigour to the enfeebled, -and resuscitation to those that were in a state -of suspended animation. It had been long known -that muscles could be made to contract, by irritating -the nerves belonging to them with the point of the -scalpel, but not in a degree that remotely approached -the vigorous contractions occasioned by the galvanic -influence, whose stimulus seemed almost equivalent -to that of volition. The sanguine expectations, however, -which were thus very naturally excited, have -ended in the most complete disappointment; and we -are bound to confess that although <em>galvanism is capable -of exciting extraordinary contractions in the</em> <span class='fss'>VOLUNTARY</span> -<em>muscles, and of astonishing the multitude, -yet its influence does not extend to those that are</em> <span class='fss'>INVOLUNTARY</span>. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span><i>Bichat</i> states distinctly that <em>the involuntary -muscles are beyond the reach of galvanism</em>.<a id='r69' /><a href='#f69' class='c011'><sup>[69]</sup></a> -Mr. <i>Brodie</i> has frequently attempted to restore the -heart’s action by the galvanic stimulus, in an animal -dead from syncope, but never with success. The -author of the present work may add, that he has attempted -the same object by modifying the experiment -in several different ways, but with no better success. -But it may be said that, as galvanism will excite the -contractions of the diaphragm, and other muscles of -respiration, it may be made subservient to the purpose -of producing artificial respiration: granted,—but it -never can be made to act with the certainty, regularity, -promptness, or convenience, which attend the -operation of a common pair of bellows, nor even if it -could, would any advantage be obtained which might -not be equally insured by the use of this latter simple -instrument. It is, moreover, questionable whether -so powerful a stimulus may not produce a subsequent -exhaustion of the muscular energy; such effect indeed -would appear to have happened in the case related -by Dr. <i>Babington</i>, where the asphyxia had been -occasioned by the fumes of burning charcoal; “having -passed,” says he, “a galvanic shock through the chest, -the patient instantly, to our surprise, drew his breath -deep; the muscles of the abdomen were seen to react, -though feebly, while those of the face were -slightly convulsed, and the eyelids were raised; at -each successive application of this powerful agent, the -respirations were more forcibly performed, and the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>stroke of the artery at the wrist rose in the same proportion. -Having procured a bladder filled with -oxygen gas, we caused it to be inspired, and we -thought that it was followed by an increased activity -of the powers of respiration and circulation; as the -heat of the body was not deficient, we now sprinkled -the face and chest with cold water, which also had -the effect of rousing the dormant powers of sensation, -as the respiratory muscles were uniformly thrown by -it into action, though in a more feeble and interrupted -manner than when we employed the galvanic -influence. Having received a large supply of oxygen -gas, we repeated the inhalation and the galvanic -succussions alternately, through the chest and head, -every half-hour, for three hours, when the galvanic -influence was discontinued, as the heart, though -uniformly excited by it, seemed in the intervals to -act more feebly, and we were apprehensive that by -exalting the action of one power continually, we -might destroy that equilibrium of forces which is necessary -to the maintenance of life.”<a id='r70' /><a href='#f70' class='c011'><sup>[70]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c008'>TREATMENT OF PARTICULAR CASES OF ASPHYXIA.</h2> -</div> -<h3 class='c016'>CASE I.<br /> <br /><i>Wherein the action of the heart fails before that of the respiratory organs.</i></h3> - -<p class='c014'>In no case of this description can artificial inflation -of the lungs afford the least assistance, for the left -side of the heart always contains florid blood at the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>moment of its cessation; and since this fact proves -that it failed in its action, while under the full influence -of duly oxygenized blood, how can we expect -that the stimulus, which was unable to preserve the -heart’s action while yet in motion, shall be able to -re-excite it after it has ceased? Such a practice -can only have been suggested by that erroneous -physiology which maintained that the motion of the -lungs excited that of the blood.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The preservation of the body from the influence of -external cold is always important, for it is only -within a certain range of temperature that the vital -functions can be performed; and during a state of -asphyxia, the body is necessarily incapable of generating -any portion of animal heat; where the heat is -lost it should be gradually restored, and for such a -purpose the introduction of wine, the volatile alkali, -and other stimulants, into the stomach, by means of -a flexible tube, would probably, in certain states of -syncope, prove serviceable; although in cases of suffocation -it can never occasion the least benefit. We -have been also directed to employ frictions on the -surface of the body, for the purpose of assisting the -circulation of the blood; as if, says Mr. <i>Brodie</i>, (<cite>Manuscript -Notes</cite>) this could answer any useful purpose -where the action of the heart has ceased, or as if it -could be necessary where it still continues.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Under the head ‘death from cold,’ we have stated -that the left cavities of the heart contain florid blood; -it therefore follows that the directions of the Humane -Society, to inflate the lungs in such cases, are founded -<a id='in'></a>in error.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span> - <h3 class='c013'>CASE II.<br /> <br /><i>Wherein the function of respiration ceases, while the heart continues to circulate black blood.</i></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>It has been stated that in cases of suffocation the -heart continues to contract for a short period, after -the cessation of breathing; that this interval is extremely -short, but liable to vary from several causes; -and that it is uniformly shorter in cases of death by -drowning, than in those by strangulation. To the -physician this is an interval of anxiety and importance; -let him beware how he trifles with the fleeting -moments, in which alone the resources of his art can -be of any avail. If artificial respiration be established -at this period, the blood will become once more oxygenised, -the action of the heart will be continued, -the scarlet blood will be transmitted to the brain, and -sensibility will therefore return; the nervous energy -will be once more transmitted to the respiratory organs, -and the animal will at length make a voluntary -effort to inspire air. Here then is the interval -of time, during which artificial breathing may be employed -so as to effect a restoration to life, where -death must otherwise have been inevitable. Mr. -<i>Brodie</i> has made a great variety of interesting experiments -upon this subject, from which may be deduced -the following important corollaries.</p> - -<p class='c015'>1. If the lungs be inflated, the action of the heart -will continue.</p> -<p class='c015'>2. If the action of the heart has become feeble, but -the circulation is nevertheless not entirely suspended, -the inflation of the lungs will cause the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>feeble actions to become again frequent and -vigorous.</p> -<p class='c015'>3. If the action of the heart has entirely ceased, it -is impossible to restore it by the inflation of -the lungs.</p> -<p class='c015'>4. If the action of the heart has not entirely ceased, -but is so feeble as no longer to maintain the -circulation, the artificial respiration will prove -as useless, as if the heart were perfectly motionless.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There is still, however, another period at which -artificial respiration may be employed with the greatest -advantage; we have stated that after the natural -respiration has been re-established, and the animal -would appear to be advancing towards recovery, it -not unfrequently relapses into a state of insensibility, -becomes convulsed, and dies. As this depends upon -the black blood which is circulating through the -brain, so paralysing that organ as to prevent a necessary -transmission of its influence to the muscles of -respiration, life may be preserved if artificial respiration -be established until the brain is again supplied -with duly oxygenized blood; after which the -animal will be <a id='ena'></a>enabled to perform its own functions -without any assistance from art.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The same treatment will, of course, apply in every -case where the natural respiration ceases in consequence -of being deprived of a due supply of nervous -energy, from the insensibility of the brain; as from a -blow on the head—the action of a narcotic poison—from -lightning?</p> - -<p class='c000'>It has been proposed, in cases of suffocation, to -take away blood from some of the larger veins; as far -<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>as relates to the asphyxia, no advantage can accrue -from such a practice, but incidental benefit may arise -where congestion has taken place in the brain, as happens -in hanging: in such cases the jugular veins are -those from which the blood can be taken with the -greatest chance of success.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Advantage is also said to accrue from the application -of volatile alkali, or other pungent bodies to the -inside of the nostrils; whatever promotes sneezing -or coughing is supposed to give a succussion to the -diaphragm and its antagonist muscles, and thereby -to promote the re-establishment of respiration.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Cordials, moderate warmth, and quiet, are the resources -upon which we are to rely for the ultimate -recovery of the vital powers, after the complete establishment -of the function of respiration.</p> - -<p class='c000'>For a long period, injections of tobacco enjoyed a -high, but unmerited reputation amongst the medicinal -agents that were supposed capable of rousing the -latent energies of life, in cases of suspended animation; -and strange as it may appear, this most powerful -narcotic poison, until within a few years, was -annually recommended for such purposes by those -who professed to instruct the profession and the -public upon these important topics; this may be -considered as one of the most stupendous errors that -ever occurred in the exercise of the medical art.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Where the asphyxia has arisen from the inhalation -of noxious vapours, as those emitted by burning -charcoal, the exposure of the body to cold has been -strongly recommended. In Russia, where from the -mode of heating the dwellings, accidents of this kind -very frequently occur, the general practice is to rub -the body with snow, and it is said with the happiest -effect; this plan, says Dr. <i>Babington</i>, is probably of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>use, from the strong impression which is made upon -the skin as a sentient organ. It is also a well known -fact, that the recovery of the dogs which are made the -subjects of experiment in the <i>Grotto del Cane</i>, is much -favoured by their being plunged into a neighbouring -lake.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Is it necessary to repeat, that the idea respecting -the presence of any considerable portion of water in -the lungs of a drowned person, has no foundation in -truth? we should have scarcely deemed the notice of -such a fallacy, and that of the practice founded upon -it, of hanging by the heels, called for in this place, -had not an opinion been lately delivered, by a medical -witness, that <em>a person drowned in the Thames -might possibly have been recovered, but for the impurity -of the water, arising from the gas-works</em>. We -have only to observe upon this occasion, that had the -individual in question recovered in the hands of a -practitioner who could have delivered so absurd an -opinion, he would have been more indebted to good -fortune than to skilful attention.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A drowned animal will, in general, be recovered -more slowly and with greater difficulty than one -which has fallen into a state of asphyxia from strangulation. -It is probable that, in the former case, -the sudden reduction of temperature will contribute -to the more rapid extinction of vitality.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Having thus examined the pretensions to which the -several modes of restoring animation are entitled, -we may conveniently introduce in this place some -observations upon the different methods which have -been adopted to secure condemned criminals against -the fatal effects of their execution. There can be no -doubt but that by making an opening in the trachea, -below the ligature, death might in some cases be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>prevented, provided the neck were not dislocated, -nor the weight of the body very considerable. <i>Richerand</i> -says, that a surgeon of the imperial armies, -whose veracity cannot be questioned, assured him -that he had saved the life of a soldier by performing -the operation of laryngotomy some hours before he -was executed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Dr. <i>Male</i><a id='r71' /><a href='#f71' class='c011'><sup>[71]</sup></a> states that it was tried on one <i>Gordon</i>, -a butcher, who was executed at the Old Bailey -in the early part of the last century; the body having -hung the usual time, was removed to a neighbouring -house, where a surgeon waited to receive it, -and enforce every means calculated to restore animation: -he opened his eyes, and sighed, but soon expired: -the want of success was attributed to his great -weight, but we apprehend that, if the statement be -correct as to his opening his eyes and sighing, the -failure must have depended upon want of skill in the -operators. We have yet to notice those cases of -spontaneous recovery which have taken place after -execution, and which are too well authenticated to -admit of doubt; upon this point we would observe, -that such results by no means militate against the -accuracy of the physiological views which have been -already presented to our readers. Whenever such a -recovery occurs, the strangulation has never been -complete, and feeble motions of the heart have been -preserved by imperfect and occasional respirations, -during the interval of suspension; this may depend, -in a great measure, upon the situation of the noose; -if placed at the side of the neck, it would be pulled -tight by the weight of the body; but if at the back -of the neck, it would be far otherwise. <i>John Smith</i>, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>who was executed at Tyburn on the 24th of December -1705, was cut down in consequence of the arrival -of a reprieve, nearly fifteen minutes after he had -been turned off, but is said to have been recovered -by venesection and other means<a id='r72' /><a href='#f72' class='c011'><sup>[72]</sup></a>; Governor <i>Wall</i> was -a long time in the act of dying, and it was subsequently -discovered that this was owing to an ossified -portion of the trachea resisting the pressure of the -rope; but the most extraordinary instance of this -kind, and one well authenticated, is that of <i>Margaret -Dickson</i>, of Musselburgh, who was tried and convicted -in Edinburgh in the year 1728, for the murder -of her child; her conviction was accomplished -by the evidence of a medical person, who deposed -that <em>the lungs of the child swam in water</em>; there were, -however, strong reasons to suspect the justness of the -verdict, and the sequel of the story was well calculated -to cherish a superstitious belief on the occasion. -After execution, her body was cut down, and delivered -to her friends for the rites of interment; it was -accordingly placed in a coffin, and sent in a cart to -be buried at her native place, but the weather being -sultry, the persons who had the body in charge -stopped to drink, at a village called Peppermill, -about two miles from Edinburgh; while they were -refreshing themselves, one of them perceived the lid -of the coffin move, and uncovering it, the woman -immediately sat up, and most of the spectators ran -away with every sign of trepidation; a person, -however, who was in the public house immediately -bled her, and in about an hour she was put to bed, -and by the following morning, was so far recovered -<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>as to be able to walk to her own house<a id='r73' /><a href='#f73' class='c011'><sup>[73]</sup></a>, after -which she lived twenty-five years and had several -children.<a id='r74' /><a href='#f74' class='c011'><sup>[74]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span> - <h2 id='c10' class='c008'>OF THE CORONER’s INQUEST.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The office of Coroner (<i>Coronator</i>, from his duty -in Pleas of the Crown, 2d Inst. 31. 4. Inst. 271) -which is of great antiquity, was also of considerable -dignity;<a id='r75' /><a href='#f75' class='c011'><sup>[75]</sup></a> for the Coroner, together with the Sheriff, -was to keep the peace of the county. He is to be -elected by the full county, and for life (except in cases -of misconduct, when he may be removed). The writ -<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Coronatore eligendo</span></i>, F.N.B. 163, commands the -Sheriff “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">quod talem eligi faciat, qui melius et sciat et -velit et possit officio illi intendere</span></i>”, and the 3 <i>Edw.</i> 1 <i>c.</i> -10. enacts, that none but lawful and discreet knights -should be chosen. But now it is held sufficient if he -have enough to be made a knight (1 <i>Bl. Com.</i> 347), -which is but lands to the amount of £20 per annum, -(I <i>Edw.</i> 1. <i>Stat. de milit</i>). But as the office is attended -with many unpleasant duties, gentlemen, in -these nicer times, have shrunk from its performance, -and it has consequently fallen into disrepute; and -too frequently into low and indigent hands. For -though in great counties, and some populous places, -it is held by very worthy and experienced men, yet -in remoter parts it is to be feared that it is ill exercised; -and at least, that the persons holding it have -not the learning and practice necessary for its due -execution. And this in all probability is an increasing -evil; for an office once fallen into disrepute, and -only propped by the addition of emoluments to be -derived from fees (per job), generally becomes venal; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>and there is now too much reason to fear, that decency -may be outraged by the ill-timed activity of some<a id='r76' /><a href='#f76' class='c011'><sup>[76]</sup></a>, -as much as justice is defeated by the corruption and -supineness of others, who have of late been chosen to -this ancient and once honorable office. It is therefore -to be wished that some legislative measure may -correct or prevent this evil, by restricting the elections -to persons duly qualified; and by appointing -medical assessors or inspectors, who might usefully -assist the Coroner in the discharge of his duties in -cases of inquisition of death.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The statute <i>De Officio Coronatoris</i>, 4 <i>Edw.</i> 1 <i>c.</i> 2. -directs the mode in which Inquisitions of Death shall -be held. “The Coroner, when commanded by the -King’s bailiffs, or by honest men of the county, shall -go to the places where any be slain, or suddenly dead -or wounded, and shall forthwith command four of -the next towns<a id='r77' /><a href='#f77' class='c011'><sup>[77]</sup></a>, or five or six to appear before -him, in such a place; and when they are come thither, -the coroner upon the oath of them shall enquire -if they know where the person was slain; -whether it were in any house, field, bed, town, tavern, -or company, and who were there. Likewise -it is to be enquired who were culpable either of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>act or of the force; and who were present, either -men or women, of what age, if they can speak or -have any discretion. And such as are found culpable -by inquisition shall be taken and delivered to the -sheriff, and committed to gaol; and such as be found, -and be not culpable (i.e. the witnesses, and these the -coroner shall bind over by recognizance to the next -assizes,) shall be attached until the coming of the -justices<a id='r78' /><a href='#f78' class='c011'><sup>[78]</sup></a> and their names written in the coroner’s -roll. If any be slain and the body found in the fields -or woods; first, it is to be enquired whether he was -slain in the same place or not;<a id='r79' /><a href='#f79' class='c011'><sup>[79]</sup></a> and if it were -brought and laid there, endeavour shall be made to -follow their steps who brought the body thither; -whether brought upon a horse or in a cart. Also it -shall be inquired, whether the dead person were -known or a stranger, and where he lay the night -before. And if any be found culpable of the murder, -the coroner shall immediately go into his house, and -inquire what goods he has, &c. how much land, and -the yearly value, and what corn on the ground, which -shall be valued and delivered to the township, which -shall be answerable before the justices for all; and -the land shall remain in the king’s hands until the -lords of the fee have made fine for it, &c.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Also it is to be enquired of those who were drowned -<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>or suddenly dead; and after it is to be seen of such -bodies whether they were so drowned or slain, or -strangled by the sign of a cord tied straight about -their necks, or about any of their members, or upon -any other hurt found upon their bodies: whereupon -they shall proceed in the form above said. And if -they were slain, then ought the coroners to attach the -finders and all others in company.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Upon appeal of wounds and such like, especially -if the wounds be mortal, the parties appealed shall -be taken immediately, and kept until it be known -perfectly whether he that is hurt shall recover or -not; and if he die, the offenders shall be kept: and -if the party recover, the offenders shall be attached -by four or six pledges after, as the wound is great or -small: if it be for a maim, he shall find more than -four pledges: and two pledges if it be for a small -wound without mayhem. Also all wounds ought to -be viewed; the length, breadth, and depth, and with -what weapons, and in what part of the body the -wound or hurt is, and how many wounds there be, -and who gave them: all which must be enrolled by -the coroner.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Moreover if any be appealed, the party appealing -of the fact shall be taken, and the party appealed of -the force shall be attached also, and kept in ward, -until the parties appealed of the fact be attainted or -delivered.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Also horses, boats, carts, &c. whereby any are -slain, shall be valued, and delivered unto the towns -as beforesaid.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“If any be suspected of the death of any man, being -in danger of life, he shall be taken and imprisoned as -before is said.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>This statute is but in confirmation of the common -<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>law, and therefore does not restrain the powers of -the coroner which he before possessed, even though -they be not mentioned in it. 1 <i>East. P. C.</i> 381, -where see observations on each part of this duty.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He is to inroll the verdict of his jury, written on -parchment, and return the Inquisition, either to the -Justices of the next gaol delivery of the county, or -certify it into the King’s Bench, 2 <i>Roll. Abr.</i> 32.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He must take notes of the evidence,<a id='r80' /><a href='#f80' class='c011'><sup>[80]</sup></a> and bind -the witnesses to appear, for neglect of which he may -be fined, 1 & 2 <i>Ph. & Mary</i>, <i>c.</i> 13. 1 <i>Lil. Abr.</i> 327. -And if he hath not enough to answer, his fine (for -this or any other offence in execution of his office), -shall be levied on the county, as a punishment for -electing an insufficient officer. <i>Mirror</i>, <i>c.</i> 1. <i>s.</i> 3. -2 <i>Inst.</i> 175.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When it happens that any person comes to an unnatural -death, the township shall give notice thereof -to the coroner. Otherwise if the body be interred -before he come, the township shall be amerced. <i>Hale -<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>P.C.</i> 170. And <i>Holt</i>, C. J. says, It is a matter indictable -to bury a man that dies a violent death, before -the Coroner’ Inquest have sat upon him. 2 <i>Hawk. -P.C.</i> <i>n.</i> 8. 1 <i>Burn’s Just.</i> 562.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Though it is not necessary that the inquisition be -taken in the place where the body was viewed, 2 -<i>Hawk. P.C.</i> <i>c.</i> 9. <i>s.</i> 25. yet he has no authority to -take an Inquisition of Death, without a view of the -body, and if an inquest be taken by him without such -view, it is void. 2 <i>Lev.</i> 140<a id='r81' /><a href='#f81' class='c011'><sup>[81]</sup></a>. But after the view, -which must be by the jury and coroner together, the -inquest may adjourn to a more convenient place.<a id='r82' /><a href='#f82' class='c011'><sup>[82]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>He may in convenient time take up a dead body -that hath been buried, in order to view it: but if it -be buried so long that he can discover nothing, or -if there be danger of infection, the inquest ought not -to be taken by the coroner, but by Justices of Peace, -by the testimony of witnesses; for none can take -it on view, but the coroner. <i>Bro. Coron.</i> 167. 173. -If the body is improperly buried, or suffered to lie -<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>till it stinks, the town shall be amerced. 2 <i>Danv. Ab.</i> -209. <i>Hale, P.C.</i> 270. 2 <i>Hawk.</i> 48.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A Coroner’s Inquisition being final, the coroner -ought to hear counsel<a id='r83' /><a href='#f83' class='c011'><sup>[83]</sup></a> and evidence on both sides.<a id='r84' /><a href='#f84' class='c011'><sup>[84]</sup></a> -2 <i>Sid.</i> 90. 101. He must admit evidence as well -against the king’s interest as for it; and for omitting -to do so, his inquisition may be quashed. 2 <i>Hale, P. C.</i> -60.<a id='r85' /><a href='#f85' class='c011'><sup>[85]</sup></a> 1 <i>East’s P.C.</i> 383.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The coroner among other things must enquire of -the deodand, which on the violent death of any one, -even though purely accidental, has accrued to the -king or his grantee.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This mulct was, in ancient times, applied to the -purpose of purchasing masses, for the repose of the -soul of the deceased; it is now converted into an ill -apportioned, arbitrary, or, in a few cases, inadequate -fine<a id='r86' /><a href='#f86' class='c011'><sup>[86]</sup></a> on the individual, whose property has been, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>whether innocently or culpably, the cause of death. -It is as absurd that a ship under sail, from which a -man has fallen and been drowned, should be forfeited -to the king; as it is lamentable that the ignorant, -and too frequently the criminally negligent vender of -oxalic acid for Epsom salts, should escape all punishment.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Where a thing is not in motion, that part of it -which actually caused the death is alone forfeited, -“as if a man be climbing on the wheel of a cart, and is -killed by falling from it, the wheel alone is a deodand. -1 <i>Bl. Com.</i> 300. But whenever the thing is in motion, -not only that part which immediately gives the wound, -(as the wheel which runs over his body) but all the -things which move with it, and help to make the -wound more dangerous (as the cart and loading, -which increase the pressure of the wheel) are forfeited.” -<i>ibid.</i> The utmost penalty of this law might -often be inflicted on the proprietors of stage coaches, -where the wilful negligence, drunkenness, or brutality -of the driver had occasioned the loss of life. “It -matters not whether the owner were concerned in the -killing or not; for, if a man kill another with my -sword, the sword is forfeited.” <i>ibid.</i> The learned -Commentator thus concludes, “But juries have of -late very frequently taken upon themselves to mitigate -<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>these forfeitures, by finding only some trifling -thing, or part of an entire thing, to have been the -occasion of the death. And in such cases, although -the finding of the jury be hardly warrantable by law, -the Court of King’s Bench hath generally refused to -interfere on behalf of the lord of the franchise, to -assist so unequitable a claim.” 1 <i>Com.</i> 301. Thus is -the justice of the country injured, in order to restrain -the rapacity of individuals, improperly invested with -the prerogatives of the crown. See also 1 <i>East. P. C.</i> -386.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A coroner may be punished for misconduct by fine, -imprisonment, or removal; as if he be remiss in coming -to do his office when he is sent for, he shall be removed -by virtue of the statute <i>De Coronatoribus</i> 4 <i>Ed.</i> -l. <i>c.</i> 2: <i>Salk.</i> 37. <i>Hale P. C.</i> 170. or if he do not properly -execute his office. 1 <i>Lill. Abr.</i> 327.</p> - -<p class='c000'>If his Inquisition be quashed, and a <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">melius Inquirendum</span></i> -is granted, that Inquisition must be taken by -the Sheriffs or Commissioners, upon affidavits.<a id='r87' /><a href='#f87' class='c011'><sup>[87]</sup></a> -1 <i>Danv. Abr.</i> 210. <i>Salk.</i> 190.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The filing of a coroner’s inquest may also be stopped -for mismanagement. 1 <i>Mod.</i> 82. If he conceal felonies -he shall be fined, and suffer one year’s imprisonment. -3 <i>Ed.</i> 1 <i>c.</i> 9. In Lord <i>Buckhurst’s</i> case a coroner -not returning his inquisition of murder to the -next gaol delivery, but suppressing it, was discharged -from his office, and fined £100. 1 <i>Kebl.</i> 280.</p> - -<p class='c000'>If a coroner be convicted of extortion, wilful neglect -<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>of duty, or misdemeanor in his office, the Court -before whom he shall be convicted, may adjudge that -he shall be removed from his office. 25 <i>Geo.</i> 2. <i>c.</i> 29.</p> - -<p class='c000'>And lastly, by the writ <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Coronatore exonerando</span></i>, -<i>F.N.B.</i> 163. 164: he may be discharged for negligence, -or insufficiency, in the discharge of his duty, -and when coroners are so far engaged in any other -public business that they cannot attend the office; -or if they be disabled by old age or disease, or -have not sufficient lands, or live in an inconvenient -part of the county. 2 <i>Inst.</i> 32. 2 <i>Hawk. P.C.</i> -<i>c.</i> 9. <i>s.</i> 12. But if any such writ be obtained on an -untrue suggestion, the coroner may procure a commission -out of Chancery to enquire thereof; and the -king may grant a supercedeas of the writ. <i>Reg. Orig.</i> -177. 178. <i>F.N.B.</i> 164. As the coroner’s is an office -of freehold, the Court of Chancery will not suffer the -writ to issue, unless on affidavit that the defendant -has been served with notice of the petition for it. -3 <i>Atk.</i> 184. On the election of a new coroner the -office of the old one is <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ipso facto</span></i> extinguished.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have entered more fully into this description -of the office and duties of coroner in general, as we -deem the due execution of them to be of the utmost -importance to the public welfare; not indeed -intending it as a guide to coroners themselves, -for to that purpose it would be insufficient; but to -give some insight into the nature and character of -the office, to those who may, from time to time, be -called upon to aid its administration. It is however -necessary for us to add that there are some exceptions -to the above mentioned rules, arising out of -local customs and peculiar jurisdictions; thus the -Lord Mayor of London is by virtue of his office, -coroner within the City, and the Court is holden -<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>before him or his deputy. 4 <i>Inst.</i> 250. And other -places, as some of the Royal residences, &c. have -their separate coroners; but all, whatever the mode -of election or appointment, are in cases of misconduct -subject to the jurisdiction of the Court of King’s -Bench.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span> - <h2 id='c11' class='c008'>SUICIDE.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Self-murder is ranked among the higher crimes, -being a peculiar species of felony, as implied in -the technical term <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">felo de se</span></i>. To constitute this -offence, the party must be in his senses, else it is -no crime; but this excuse ought not to be strained -to that length to which our coroner’s juries are -too apt to carry it,<a id='r88' /><a href='#f88' class='c011'><sup>[88]</sup></a> viz. that the very act of -suicide is an evidence of insanity; as if every man -who acts contrary to reason, had no reason at all; -for the same argument would prove every other criminal -<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">non compos</span></i>, as well as the self-murderer. The -law very rationally judges, that every melancholy or -hypochondriac fit does not deprive a man of the capacity -of discerning right from wrong; and, therefore, -if a real lunatic kills himself in a lucid interval, he is -<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">felo de se</span></i> as much as another man. 1 <i>Hales, P. C.</i> -412. 1 <i>Hawk. P. C.</i> <i>c.</i> 27, <i>s.</i> 3.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As to the punishment which human laws inflict on -this crime, they can only act upon what the criminal -has left behind him,—his reputation and fortune; on -the former, by an ignominious burial in the highway, -with a stake driven through his body; on the latter, -by the forfeiture of all his goods and chattels to the -king.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In this as well as all other felonies, the offender -must be of the age of discretion, and <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">compos mentis</span></i>; -and therefore an infant killing himself, under the age -of discretion, (of which some extraordinary instances -have lately been related in the public journals) or a -lunatic during his lunacy, cannot be a <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">felo de se</span></i>. 1 -<i>Hawk. P. C.</i> <i>c.</i> 27, <i>s.</i> 1. <i>Crom.</i> 30, <i>a</i> 6, 31; <i>Hales -P. C.</i> 28; <i>Dalt.</i> <i>c.</i> 92; 3 <i>Inst.</i> 54.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He who kills another, though at his own desire or -command, is a murderer;<a id='r89' /><a href='#f89' class='c011'><sup>[89]</sup></a> and the person killed -is not looked upon as a <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">felo de se</span></i>, in as much as his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>assent was merely void, being against the law of God -and man; 1 <i>Hawk. P. C.</i> <i>c.</i> 27, <i>s.</i> 6; <i>Keilw.</i> 136; -<i>Moor</i> 754. But query, as he is the guilty cause of -his own death, is he not a felon? for if the question -had been of the death of another, his consent to it -would have been equally against the laws of God -and man; yet if poison were given by his direction -or command, even though he were not present, and -might have repented, it would be murder, much more -then, when he actually assists at the perpetration.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Further, as to what a <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">felo de se</span></i> shall forfeit, it -seems clear that he shall forfeit all chattels, real or -personal, which he hath in his own right; and also all -chattels real, whereof he is possessed jointly with his -wife, or in her right; and also all bonds and other -personal things in action, belonging solely to himself; -and also all personal things in action, and as some say, -entire chattels in possession, to which he was entitled -jointly with another, on any account, except that of -merchandize. But it is said, that he shall forfeit a -moiety only of such joint chattels as may be severed, -and nothing at all of what he was possessed of as executor -or administrator; 1 <i>Hawk. P. C.</i> <i>c.</i> 27, <i>s.</i> 7, -and authorities there. However the blood of a <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">felo -de se</span></i> is not corrupted, nor his lands of inheritance -forfeited, nor his wife barred of her dower. 1 <i>Hawk. -P. C.</i> <i>c.</i> 27, <i>s.</i> 1; <i>Plowd. Com.</i> 261 b, 262 a; 1 -<i>Hales, P. C.</i> 413. The will of a <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">felo de se</span></i> becomes -void as to his personal property, but not as to his -real estate. <i>Plowd.</i> 261.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Not any part of the personal estate is vested in the -king, before the self-murder is found by some inquisition; -and consequently the forfeiture thereof is -saved by a pardon of the offence before such finding; -5 <i>Co. R.</i> 110 b; 3 <i>Inst.</i> 54; 1 <i>Saund.</i> 362; 1 <i>Sid.</i> 150, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>162. But if there be no such pardon, the whole is -forfeited immediately after such inquisition, from the -time of the act done, by which the death was caused; -and all intermediate alienations and titles are avoided. -<i>Plowd. Comm.</i> 260; <i>Hales P. C.</i> 29; 5 <i>Co. R.</i> 110; -<i>Finch.</i> 216. All such inquisitions ought to be by the -coroner <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">super visum corporis</span></i>, if the body can be -found; and an inquisition so taken cannot, as some -say, be traversed. <i>Hale, P. C.</i> 29; 3 <i>Inst.</i> 55; 1 -<i>Hawk. P. C.</i> <i>c.</i> 27, <i>s.</i> 9, 10, 11. But see also 3 -<i>Mod.</i> 238, 1 <i>Burr.</i> 17.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But if the body cannot be found, so that the coroner, -who has authority only <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">super visum corporis</span></i>, -(vide ante. p. <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>), cannot proceed, the inquiry may -be by Justices of the Peace, (who by their commissions -have a general power to inquire of all felonies,) -or in the King’s Bench, if the felony were committed -in the county where the court sits; and such inquisitions -are traversable by the executor, &c. 1 <i>Hawk. -P. C.</i> <i>c.</i> 27, <i>s.</i> 12; 3 <i>Inst.</i> 55; <i>Hales P. C.</i> 29; 2 -<i>Lev.</i> 141.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Also all inquisitions of this offence being in the -nature of indictments, ought particularly and certainly -to set forth the circumstances of the fact; and -in conclusion add, that the party in such manner -murdered himself. 1 <i>Hawk. P. C.</i> <i>c.</i> 27, <i>s.</i> 13; 3 -<i>Lev.</i> 140; 3 <i>Mod.</i> 100; 2 <i>Lev.</i> 152. Yet if it be full -in substance, the coroner may be served with a rule -to amend a defect in form. 1 <i>Sid.</i> 225, 259; 3 <i>Mod.</i> -101; 1 <i>Keb.</i> 907; 1 <i>Hawk. P. C.</i> <i>c.</i> 27, <i>s.</i> 15.</p> - -<p class='c000'>If a person is unduly found <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">felo de se</span></i>; or on the -other hand found to be a lunatic, when in fact he was -not so, and therefore ought to have been found <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">felo -de se</span></i>; although a writ of <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">melius inquirendum</span></i> will not -be granted, yet the inquisition is traversable in the -King’s Bench. 3 <i>Mod.</i> 238.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>By the rubrick in the Common Prayer, before the -burial office, (confirmed by <i>Statute</i> 13 and 14, <i>Car.</i> 2, -<i>c.</i> 4) persons who have laid violent hands on themselves -shall not have that office used at their interment. -Yet the priest has no power of enquiry, or -even as it would appear of delay, in order to enquiry, -when a body (though it be of a notorious suicide) -is brought to his church for interment. “The -proper judges, whether persons who died by their -own hands were out of their senses” (and a fortiori -whether they did or not die by their own hands) -“are doubtless the coroner’s jury. The minister of -the parish hath no authority to be present at viewing -the body, or to summon or examine witnesses, -and therefore he is neither entitled nor able to judge -in the affair; but may well acquiesce in the public -determination, without making any private enquiry. -Indeed, were he to make one, the opinion -which he might form from thence could usually be -grounded only on common discourse, and bare -assertion. And it cannot be justifiable to act upon -these in contradiction to the decision of a jury, -after hearing witnesses upon oath. And though -there may be reason to suppose that the coroner’s -jury are frequently favourable in their judgment in -consideration of the circumstances of the deceased’s -family with respect to the forfeiture, and their -verdict is<a id='r90' /><a href='#f90' class='c011'><sup>[90]</sup></a> in its own nature traversable, yet the -burial may not be delayed,<a id='r91' /><a href='#f91' class='c011'><sup>[91]</sup></a> until that matter on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>trial shall finally be determined. But on acquittal -of the crime of self-murder by the coroner’s jury, -the body in that case not being demanded by the -law, it seemeth that a clergyman may and ought” -(we can safely add is compellable) “to admit that -body to christian burial.” 1 <i>Burn’s Ecc. Law</i>, <i>tit. -Burial</i>.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span> - <h2 id='c12' class='c008'>OF MURDER GENERALLY.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>There are so many various modes by which this -infamous and horrid crime may be perpetrated, -that it would be an almost endless task to enumerate -them. In a legal point of view it is <a id='sca'></a>scarcely necessary; -for wherever death ensues from illegal violence<a id='r92' /><a href='#f92' class='c011'><sup>[92]</sup></a>, -with malice <em>prepense</em>, it is felony; yet for the better -aid of medical investigation it is expedient to class -them under several heads.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Sir <i>Matthew Hale</i>, in his pleas of the Crown, vol. -2, p. 431, enumerates several ways of killing.</p> - -<p class='c000'>1. By exposing a sick or weak person or infant -unto the cold, to the intent to destroy him, 2 <i>Ed.</i> 3, -189, whereof he dieth.</p> - -<p class='c000'>2. By laying an impotent person abroad, so that -he may be exposed to and receive mortal harm, as -laying an infant in an orchard, and covering it with -leaves, whereby a kite strikes it and kills it. 6 <i>Eliz. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>Compt. de Pace</i>; 24 <i>Dalton</i>, <i>cap.</i> 93, (new edit. 145.)<a id='r93' /><a href='#f93' class='c011'><sup>[93]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>3. By imprisoning a man so strictly that he dies, -and therefore where any dies in gaol, the coroner -ought to be sent for to enquire of the manner of his -death.</p> - -<p class='c000'>4. By starving or famine.</p> - -<p class='c000'>5. By wounding or blows.</p> - -<p class='c000'>6. By poisoning.</p> - -<p class='c000'>7. By laying noisome and poisonous filth at a -man’s door, to the intent by a poisonous air to poison -him. <i>Mr. Dalton</i>, <i>cap.</i> 93, out of <i>Mr. Cook’s</i> reading.<a id='r94' /><a href='#f94' class='c011'><sup>[94]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>8. By strangulation or suffocation.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>“<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Moriendi mille figuræ.</span></i>”</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>The two first of these modes frequently occur in -cases of infanticide, and to that head, which requires -separate consideration on account of its intricacy, we -shall therefore refer it. Adults can seldom, if ever, -be exposed to destruction in this manner; though, -as in —— <i>Brownrigg’s</i> case, and others of the same -class, it may constitute a part of the crime of murdering -children, even of an advanced age, by duress and -starvation; where it is by a combination of cruel -<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>injuries, and not by one specific blow or wound, -that death is produced. These cases we shall include -under a general head, having first disposed of -those which require more specific notice.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>“<i>By imprisoning a man so strictly that he dies, and therefore where any dies in gaol<a id='r95' /><a href='#f95' class='c011'><sup>[95]</sup></a> the coroner ought to be sent for to enquire of the manner of his death.</i>”<a id='r96' /><a href='#f96' class='c011'><sup>[96]</sup></a></h3> - -<p class='c014'>Death by duress of imprisonment was in all probability -a very frequent occurrence in the earlier periods -of our history, we know that it has often been -inflicted by the individual tyranny of the nobles on -their vassals; and we have every reason to suppose, -that even the keepers of our public prisons were not -free from the imputation of cruelty to their unfortunate -inmates; many have died by violence, more by -neglect; it was therefore a wise and humane precaution -that the circumstances of every death of a prisoner -should be made the subject of minute enquiry; -it is also desirable that such enquiry should be carried -on by persons of competent skill, and with every -possible and proper publicity. Our own times we -will hope are entirely free from the crime of premeditated -murder on the body of a prisoner; but we must -not allow our confidence in the modern improvements -of prison discipline to lull us into a false security -as to the conduct of gaolers and their underlings -<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>many of these may be men of mild and humane disposition, -but as their daily occupation must tend to -blunt the finer feelings of humanity, it is well that -every charge of misconduct should be met by immediate -and rigorous enquiry. On this subject see <i>Rex</i> -v. <i>Huggins</i>, warden of the Fleet, 2 <i>Lord Raym.</i> -1578; 2 <i>Str.</i> 882; 9 <i>Harg. St. Tri.</i> 107; <i>Bambridge’s</i> -case, 9 <i>Harg. St. Tri.</i> 146, 151; <i>Acton’s</i> -case, 9 <i>Harg. St. Tri.</i> 182, 210, 218; see also the -several Parliamentary Reports on Coldbath-fields, -Ilchester, &c.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“A gaoler, knowing a prisoner to be infected with -an epidemic<a id='r97' /><a href='#f97' class='c011'><sup>[97]</sup></a> distemper, confines another prisoner -against his will, in the same room with him, by -which he catches the infection, of which the gaoler -had notice, and the prisoner dies; this is a felonious -killing. <i>Stra.</i> 856; 9 <i>St. Tri.</i> 146. So, to confine a -prisoner in a low damp unwholesome room, not allowing -him the common conveniences which the decencies -of nature require, by which the habits of his -constitution are so affected as to produce a distemper -of which he dies; this also is felonious homicide. -<i>Stra.</i> 884; <i>Lord Raym.</i> 1578. For although the law -invests gaolers with all necessary powers for the interest -of the commonwealth, they are not to behave -with the least degree of wanton cruelty to their prisoners. -<i>O. B.</i> 1784, p. 1177; and these were deliberate -acts of cruelty, and enormous violations of the -trust the law reposeth in its ministers of justice. -<i>Forster</i>, 322.” See I <i>Hawk.</i> P. C. by <i>Leach</i>, p. 119.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Previous to the researches of the celebrated <i>John -Howard</i>, (see his treatise on Prisons and Lazarettos) -<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>our prisons appear to have been in a most disgraceful -state; they are now greatly improved, but something -may yet be done for their amelioration, more -particularly as affecting the health of the prisoners; -and this principally, by allowing the most unrestrained -medical inspection by disinterested practitioners, -who should be as much as possible unconnected -with local prejudices, or partialities; some of -the parliamentary regulations of madhouses might in -this respect be usefully extended to all places of confinement; -those who are not <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sui juris</span></i> are ever entitled -to additional protection.<a id='r98' /><a href='#f98' class='c011'><sup>[98]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>The best practical proof of improvement, in the -construction of our prisons, and in our prison discipline, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>is to be found in the disappearance of that -fatal pest, which was commonly called the gaol fever, -a disorder which, with something of retributive -justice, frequently extended its ravages to those, -whose proper vigilance might have prevented its generation. -At the assizes held at Oxford in 1577,<a id='r99' /><a href='#f99' class='c011'><sup>[99]</sup></a> -called the black assize, we learn from <i>Baker’s</i> Chronicle -(p. 353) that all who were present died within -forty hours: the Lord Chief Baron, the Sheriff, and -about three hundred more. <i>Lord Bacon</i> ascribed the -fatality to a disease brought into court by the prisoners, -and <i>Dr. Mead</i> entertained the same opinion; -nor was similar infection, though to a less extent, -an uncommon occurrence<a id='r100' /><a href='#f100' class='c011'><sup>[100]</sup></a>, see vol. 1, p. 125. The -ancient practice of strewing the court with aromatic -herbs and flowers, and presenting bouquets to the -Judges, is said to have derived its origin from the -idea of preventing infection: fresh air, still wanting -in our courts, would have proved a more powerful, -and not less agreeable prophylaitic.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span> - <h3 class='c013'>BY WOUNDING, OR BLOWS.</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>In investigating the subject of Wounds, it will be -convenient to adopt, on the present occasion, the -usual classification of local injuries, viz. 1. <i>Incised -wounds</i>, or cuts; 2. <i>Punctures</i>, or such as are inflicted -by pointed instruments; 3. <i>Bruises</i>, injuries occasioned -by blunt instruments; 4. <i>Lacerations</i>, where -the integuments are torn, and 5. <i>Gun-shot wounds</i>; -upon each of which we shall offer a few observations, -and, in the first place, it may be remarked generally, -that no graduated scale of wounds, expressive of the -degree in which they are curable or dangerous, can -ever be constructed; in appreciating the probable -degree of danger that attends a wound other data -will be required for the solution of the problem than -those deduced from situation and extent, such as the -constitution and temperament, age, habits of life, -especially as they regard temperance and sobriety, -previous state of health, unnatural structure and -disposition of parts, and existing diseases of the -wounded individual; together with the temperature -of the season, and other extrinsic circumstances. As -a general rule for our guidance a division of wounds -into four classes has been suggested, viz. 1. <i>Absolutely -mortal.</i> 2. <i>Dangerous.</i> <a id='thr'></a>3. <i>Accidentally mortal.</i> -4. <i>Not mortal.</i> Every practitioner, however, must -be aware that death will occasionally supervene on -the slightest injury, and at other times that the patient -recovers in spite of the most serious and extensive -mischief; in proof of the former assertion, the author -may state that he has seen a case in which the extraction -of a tooth was followed by death in less than -forty-eight hours; and every experienced surgeon -must in the course of his practice have observed the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>slightest wound<a id='r101' /><a href='#f101' class='c011'><sup>[101]</sup></a> productive of alarming and even -fatal consequences; in illustration of the occasional -occurrence of a contrary result we may recal to the -recollection of the reader the extraordinary case<a id='r102' /><a href='#f102' class='c011'><sup>[102]</sup></a> of -Mr. <i>Thomas Tipple</i>, who recovered after an accident, -by which the shaft of a chaise had been forced through -the thorax! There have also been instances of the -recovery of persons whose brain has been wounded -to a considerable depth, of others shot through the -head; Dr. <i>Male</i> states that a pauper in Paris, some -years ago, used to receive charity in a piece of his -skull. In the second volume of the <cite>Medico-chirurgical -Transactions</cite>, we have a well attested case of a -bayonet wound in the heart not causing immediate -death. <i>Littre</i> has given us a report of a man who -inflicted upon himself no less than eighteen stabs in -the abdomen with a knife; and although some of them -did not penetrate beyond the parieties, yet others -wounded the contents; the symptoms which followed -are stated to have been very severe, but by judicious -treatment the patient recovered; seventeen months -afterwards, however, he threw himself into the street -from a three pair of stairs window, and was instantly -killed. On examining the body all the wounds were -found healed, and, with the exception of one, all the -cicatrices were firm and level; they were traced into -the intestines, where corresponding adhesions were -observed.<a id='r103' /><a href='#f103' class='c011'><sup>[103]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>The surgical practitioner will, after such cases, be -cautious in his prognosis, and profit by the experience -<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>of Hoffman, who says, “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">In judicio de vulnerum lethalitate -ferendo multorum Medicorum fama et fortuna -periclitantur</span></i>.”<a id='r104' /><a href='#f104' class='c011'><sup>[104]</sup></a> Fortunately for the administration -of justice, that act of the Legislature, called “<i>the -Ellenborough act</i>,” relieves us from many of those embarrassments -under which the professional witness<a id='r105' /><a href='#f105' class='c011'><sup>[105]</sup></a> -must otherwise have laboured, and the surgeon will -appreciate the high importance and utility of the -law, by which wounding with an intent to kill is -deemed equally criminal, whether death be the result -or not. Still, however, the testimony of the medical -practitioner will always be important; indeed the -evil intent is often to be inferred, or disproved, by -the nature of the injury inflicted; as is so well illustrated -in the case of a man, who fractured the skull -of a boy with a stick, upon finding him in the act of -plundering his orchard; when it was clearly made -out in evidence, that a mere chastisement was only -intended, for the size of the stick was not such as to -have occasioned any fatal effect, had not the skull of -the unfortunate boy been unusually thin.</p> - -<p class='c000'>If the surgeon is called upon to inspect a wound, -with a view to ascertain whether it produced death, -he should in the first instance, endeavour to examine -its nature and direction, so as to disturb as little as -possible the position in which the body was found; -the knife of the anatomist must afterwards explore its -more particular condition and relations, by a dissection, -for the performance of which we shall give -ample directions in a future chapter.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>The importance of examining the wound, so as not -to alter the position of the parts must be obvious -when we consider how necessary it may afterwards -become to compare as strictly as possible the internal -appearances with the external lesions. The direction -of a wound is frequently a circumstance of much -greater importance than may at first appear, we ought -not therefore to probe it without extreme caution, -lest we should give to it a direction which it did not -originally possess. This precaution becomes the more -necessary as the putrefactive process advances.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Of incised wounds, or cuts.</i> The prognosis of wounds -made with a cutting instrument varies, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cæteris paribus</span></i>, -according to the extent and depth of the division, the -nature of the injured parts, and the circumstances -which attend the operation; where the instrument -has been so sharp as not to occasion any contusion or -laceration, the fibres and texture of the wounded part -will have suffered no other injury but their mere division; -and there is consequently less tendency to -inflammation, suppuration, gangrene, and other bad -consequences; if the wound be large and deep it will -be more dangerous, as well as more difficult to heal, -than one which only affects the skin. Wounds, accompanied -with injury of considerable vessels or -nerves, are more or less hazardous, according to the -magnitude or number of those vessels or nerves; generally -speaking, the most dangerous examples of -incised wounds are those which are made about the -throat; here there are so many large blood-vessels, -nerves and other parts of great importance, that deep -incised wounds often prove fatal, either immediately, -or in a few days; in some cases of suicide the carotid -artery is opened, and the person perishes from hemorrhage -on the spot, before any assistance can be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>afforded; in other instances he divides some of the -principal branches of the external carotid, and after -losing a great deal of blood, he faints, and the hemorrhage -being thus checked, the life of the patient -is preserved, until surgical assistance can be procured. -Cut wounds of the extremities, when such -arteries as the femoral and brachial are injured, may -also suddenly destroy the patient, by hemorrhage.<a id='foo'></a></p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Punctures</i>, or such as are made by the thrust of -pointed weapons, as by swords, daggers, lances, and -bayonets, or by the accidental and forcible introduction -of considerable thorns, large nails, skewers, &c. -into the flesh,<a id='r106' /><a href='#f106' class='c011'><sup>[106]</sup></a> comprise a class of wounds of great -importance and danger, as they generally penetrate -to a great depth, so as to injure large blood-vessels, -nerves, viscera, and other organs of importance; and -being inflicted with considerable violence the parts -always suffer more injury than what would be produced -by their simple division. It must also be considered, -that a great number of the weapons by which -such wounds are occasioned, increase materially in -diameter from the point towards their other extremity; -and hence, when they penetrate far, they must -force the fibres asunder like a wedge, and cause a -serious degree of stretching and contusion. It is this -circumstance which gives so dangerous a character to -bayonet wounds in the soft parts. The opening which -the point of such a weapon produces is quite insufficient -for the passage of the thicker part of it, which -can therefore only enter by forcibly dilating, stretching, -and otherwise injuring the fibres of the wounded -flesh. But mortal injury may be inflicted by an extremely -slender instrument, so as to occasion an apparently -<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>trivial puncture; and in some cases, the -external injury is healed before the death, which it -occasions, takes place. Such cases can only receive -satisfactory elucidation from the lights of an anatomical -dissection, under which head we have furnished -several instructive examples.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Bruises</i>, or <i>Contusions</i>, strictly comprehend those -injuries which are occasioned by the violent application -of blunt or obtuse instruments to the soft parts. -They are not unfrequently complicated with severe -internal injury resulting from the violence which the -parts have sustained, such as inflammation, suppuration, -or even the rupture of some of the viscera, of -which we shall hereafter present several illustrative -cases.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A blow on the region of the stomach sometimes occasions -instant death; an effect which would appear -to arise from an injury inflicted upon the eighth pair, -and great sympathetic nerves, by which the heart is -instantly paralysed. In these cases the heart has been -found empty, and the stomach has appeared red and -inflamed; this latter appearance is the obvious effect -of the sudden cessation of the heart, producing the -settling of the blood in the extreme arterial branches.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Wounds of this description are, of course, more -or less important, according to their locality; unless -complicated with laceration, they are never attended -with any considerable hemorrhage, although the minute -vessels are necessarily ruptured, and the effusion -of their contents produces the discoloration so -characteristic of this kind of injury.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As in the case of wounds, so also in respect of blows, -injuries apparently inadequate have produced death; -it then becomes difficult to fix the degree of guilt -which should be attached to the aggressor; for though -<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>according to the strict letter of the law, every man is -responsible for the ultimate effect of an illegal act -committed by him; yet in moral justice there is much -difference between the atrocity of him who strikes a -grievous wound with a deadly weapon, from which -by chance his victim may recover; and the fault of -him who transported by sudden passion gives an ordinary -blow, which by accident, by reason of some -inward and unknown disease of his adversary, or by -injudicious treatment, becomes fatal. Numerous -cases might be cited in support of this position: that -of <i>Brain</i> for the murder of <i>Watts</i>, <i>Cro. Eliz.</i> 778: -<i>H. P. C.</i> 455. is one of the most remarkable, not only -from the circumstances attending the trial, where the -jury were fined and imprisoned for a corrupt verdict, -but also for the physiological circumstance, that the -deceased died instantly from a blow on the calf of -his leg. The parties had previously quarrelled and -fought; and <i>Brain</i>, the prisoner, was hurt; the next -day <i>Watts</i> passing his shop made mouths at him, on -which new provocation <i>Brain</i> hit him the blow which -instantly proved fatal. The Court held that the new -provocation was insufficient, and that the death must -be referred to precedent malice—might they not also -have considered that a blow on the calf of the leg was -more insufficient to produce death under ordinary -circumstances, than a wry face to induce or inflame a -quarrel? The prisoner was found guilty, but not -without considerable and as it appears to us proper -resistance on the part of the jury; the case being on -Appeal, the Crown could not pardon, though the appellant -might compromise his suit:—we are not informed -whether the prisoner was executed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A case, nearly parallel to the above, is that of -<i>Lydia Alder</i>, who was tried in 1744 for the murder -<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>of her husband, whom she kicked on the groin; in -consequence of which, having at the time an inguinal -rupture, mortification came on, and he died. Verdict, -<i>Manslaughter</i>. The circumstances attending the case -of <i>Bartholomew Quain</i> were, in some respects, different; -he was tried and convicted for the murder of his -wife, at the Assizes for the Isle of Ely, in 1790. It -appeared in evidence, that a rupture of the spleen -was produced by the violent kicks, of which the indictment -stated that she had died. The jury, under -the direction of the Chief Judge of Ely, found a special -verdict, in order to take the opinion of the Court -of King’s Bench upon the following question, whether -the facts found by the jury amounted to murder, or -only to manslaughter, when the Court was clearly of -opinion that it was murder, because there did not appear -to have been any provocation on the part of the -deceased; and no man had a right, even to inflict -chastisement, without a just provocation.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Lacerations</i>, where the integuments are torn.—These -differ from incised wounds not only in the circumstance -of their being less disposed to heal by the -first intention, but in the singular fact of their not -bleeding to any extent; there are perhaps no facts, -in the history of surgery, more extraordinary than -those which have been recorded on the subject of -whole limbs being torn away, without hemorrhage. -The most remarkable of these is related by <i>Cheselden</i>, -in his work on Anatomy, being the case of a miller, -“whose arm, with the scapula, was torn off from his -body, by a rope winding round it, the other end being -fastened to the coggs of a mill; there was no hemorrhage, -nor did any severe symptoms supervene, so that -the wound was cured by superficial dressings only, -the natural skin being left almost sufficient to cover -<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>it.” Analogous cases are recorded by <i>La Motte</i>, in -his <cite>Traité des Accouchemens</cite>; by Mr. <i>Carmichael</i>, in -the fifth volume of the <cite>Edinburgh Medical Commentaries</cite>; -and by others, in the second volume of the -<cite>Mem. de l’Acad. de Chirurgie</cite>. In appreciating the -degree of danger attendant upon wounds of this description, -the practitioner must not overlook the possible -occurence of Tetanus.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Gun-shot wounds.</i> Long after the invention of gunpowder, -Surgeons continued to entertain very vague -opinions respecting the nature of wounds produced -by it; some considered that the injured parts were -either dreadfully burnt by the heat of the projected -body, or were irritated by the presence of poison, -communicated to them by the powder. <i>Thomas Gale</i>, -who served as a Surgeon in the army of <i>Henry</i> 8th, -at Montreuil in 1554, was the first to refute the absurd -opinions of “the poisoning, burning, and conquassation -of gun-shot wounds.” A gun-shot wound is now -defined “a violent contusion, with, or without a solution -of continuity, suddenly and rapidly effected by -a solid body projected from fire-arms.” If a musket -or pistol ball has struck a fleshy part, without injuring -any material blood-vessel, we see a hole about the -size of, or smaller than the bullet itself; with a more -or less discoloured lip forced inwards, and if it has -passed through the parts, we find an everted edge, -and a more ragged, and larger orifice at the point of -its exit; the pain in this case is so inconsiderable that -the wounded person is frequently not aware of his -having received any injury. The course of balls is -frequently most extraordinary, and it behoves the judicial -surgeon to keep in mind a fact which may often -throw considerable light upon the subject of his investigation. -A ball will often strike the thorax or -<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>abdomen, and, to an inexperienced eye, appear to -have passed directly across, or to be lodged in one of -the cavities. If great difficulty of breathing or hemorrhage -from the mouth, with sudden paleness and -laborious pulse, in the one case, or deadly faintness, -coldness of the extremities, and the discharge of stercoraceous -matter from the wound, in the second, are -not present, we shall perhaps find that the ball has -coursed along under the integuments, and is marked -in its progress either by a redness, which Mr. <i>Hunter</i> -compared to a blush, or by a wheal, or dusky line, -terminated by a tumour, on the opening which it will -be easily extracted. In some of these long and circuitous -routes of balls, where we have not this mark, -a certain emphysematous crackling discovers their -course, and leads to their detection. The ball is in -many instances found very close to its point of entrance, -having nearly completed the circuit of the -body. In a case related by Dr. <i>Hennen</i>, as one that -occurred to a friend of his in the Mediterranean, the -ball, which struck about the <i>Pomum Adami</i>, was -found lying in the very orifice at which it had entered, -having gone completely round the neck, and -being prevented from passing out by the elasticity -and toughness of the skin which had confined it to -this circular course. This circuitous route is a very -frequent occurrence, particularly when balls strike -the ribs, or abdominal muscles, for they are turned -from the direct line by a very slight resistance indeed, -although they will at times run along a continued -surface, as the length of a bone, along a muscle, -or a fascia, to a very extraordinary distance. If there -is nothing to check its course, and if its momentum -be very great, it is surprising what a variety of parts -may be injured by a musket ball. Dr. <i>Hennen</i> states -<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>that in one instance, which occurred in a soldier, who -having his arm extended in the act of endeavouring -to climb up a scaling ladder, had the centre of his -humerus pierced by a ball, which immediately passed -along the limb, and over the posterior part of the -thorax, coursed among the abdominal muscles, dipped -deep through the glutæi, and presented on the fore -part of the opposite thigh, about midway down. In -another case, a ball which struck the breast of a man -standing erect in the ranks lodged in the scrotum. -The propensity of balls to take a curved direction is -often seen in their course on a concave surface; in -short, they take very unusual and deep-seated routes, -not at all to be accounted for by any preconceived -theories drawn from the doctrine of projectiles, nor -to be explained by diagrams founded upon mathematical -rules. These considerations ought to render -the Surgeon very cautious how he delivers his opinion, -as to the direction in which the shot was fired, -and yet instances frequently occur where no difficulty -can arise upon this point, such was the case of <i>Richard -Annesley</i>, tried for the murder of <i>Thomas Eglestone</i> -(9 <i>Harg. Sta. Tri.</i> 327). The deceased was a poacher. -<i>Annesley</i> who was in company with the game-keeper, -stated in his defence, that his gun had accidentally -gone off in his attempt to secure the deceased. The -instructions given by the Court on this occasion was -that if the jury were of opinion that the gun had so -gone off accidentally, they should bring in a verdict -of <i>Chance-medley</i>, which was returned accordingly, -in consequence of the evidence of the Surgeon who -had examined the wound, and stated that its direction -being upwards, very satisfactorily proved that the -fowling-piece had not been levelled from the shoulder, -which would have implied design; but must have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>been discharged at the trail, which must have been -accidental.<a id='r107' /><a href='#f107' class='c011'><sup>[107]</sup></a> An idea long existed that a ball might -produce injury without striking any part of the body; -this was supposed by some to arise from the violent -commotion produced in the air by the rapid motion -of the ball; and by others, to depend upon an electrical -shock on the parts, in consequence of the ball -being rendered electrical by friction in the calibre of -the gun, and giving off the electrical matter as it -passes by. This, however, is contrary to all our -received notions respecting electricity; metals can -never acquire such a property by friction.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In avowing our total disbelief in the existence of -such <em>wind-contusions</em>, as they have been called, we are -well aware that we shall oppose many very respectable -authorities. “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Amicus Plato, sed magis amica Veritas.</span></i>”</p> - -<p class='c000'>An important question, connected with the present -subject, still remains for elucidation; where a body -has been found dead with wounds and contusions, by -what signs we are to determine whether they were -inflicted during life, or after death. As the solution -of this interesting problem requires various data, its -consideration will be reserved for that part of our -work, where all the Objects of Inquiry, in cases of -sudden and mysterious death, are considered in their -various relations to each other, with a view to appreciate -their individual and joint importance.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span> - <h3 class='c013'>BY POISONING.</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>No species of murder is so base and cowardly, or -so cool and deliberate in its perpetration as murder -by poison, which because of its secresy prevents all -precaution, whereas most open murder gives the -party killed some opportunity of defence;<a id='r108' /><a href='#f108' class='c011'><sup>[108]</sup></a> it is -generally committed in violation of domestic duty and -confidence, and too frequently evinces that unrelenting -and barbarous depravity, which can witness the -sufferings of its victim for days nay months unmoved; -therefore our ancient laws adjudged those convicted -of poisoning to a severer punishment than other offenders. -3 <i>Nels. Abr.</i> 363. <i>Jac. Law Dict. tit. Poison.</i> -By the 22 <i>Hen.</i> 8. it was <i>ex post facto</i> enacted that -<i>Richard Roose</i>, (or <i>Cooke</i>), for putting poison into a -pot of pottage in the Bishop of Rochester’s kitchen, -by which two persons were killed, should be boiled -to death; and that the offence in future should be -adjudged High Treason; but this among other new -treasons (with which the reign of <i>Henry</i> the 8th had -abounded) was abolished by the statute of <i>Edward</i> 6, -and now to poison any one wilfully is murder if the -party die in a year. 1 <i>Edw.</i> 6. <i>c.</i> 12.</p> - -<p class='c000'>By the 43 <i>Geo.</i> 3. <i>c.</i> 58. (commonly called Lord -<i>Ellenborough’s</i> Act) any person administering poison -<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>with <em>intent</em> to murder another, (though no death ensue) -or to procure the miscarriage of a woman quick -with child, is declared guilty of felony without benefit -of clergy: and persons administering medicines to -procure miscarriage, though the woman is not quick -with child, are declared guilty of felony, punishable -by imprisonment or transportation (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide post</span></i>). If a -man persuade another to drink a poisonous liquor, -under the notion of a medicine, who afterwards drinks -it in his absence, or if <i>A</i>, intending to poison <i>B</i>, put -poison into a thing, and deliver it to <i>D</i> who knows -nothing of the matter, to be by him delivered to <i>B</i>, -and <i>D</i> innocently delivers it accordingly in the absence -of <i>A</i>;<a id='r109' /><a href='#f109' class='c011'><sup>[109]</sup></a> in this case the procurer of the felony -is as much a principal as if he had been present when it -was done (2 <i>Hawk. P. C.</i> 443: <i>Vin. Ab. tit. Accessory</i>) -or if one mix poison with any eatable with intent to -kill another, and a stranger casually eat it and die,<a id='r110' /><a href='#f110' class='c011'><sup>[110]</sup></a> -it is murder; <i>Dalton</i>, 93. <i>Agnes Gore’s</i> case for poisoning -<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>by ratsbane (9 <i>Co. Rep.</i> 81: <i>Palm. R.</i> 547.), -not so if it be to kill vermin; but query if it be manslaughter -where there is not proper precaution, as -where the poison is laid in ordinary places for keeping -meat, and mixed with ordinary food, so that a -child may take it. 1 <i>East. P. C.</i> He that counsels -another to give poison, if that other doth it, the counsellor, -if absent, is accessory <em>before</em>. <i>Coke, P. C.</i> 49. -Case of the murder of Sir <i>Thomas Overbury</i>, <i>Harg. -St. Trials</i>. But he that absolutely gives or lays the -poison, to the intent to poison, though he be absent -when it is taken by the party, yet he is principal, and -this was <i>Weston’s</i> case. <i>Harg. St. Trials</i>: <i>Co. P. C.</i> -<i>p.</i> 49. <i>Vaux’s</i> case, <i>ubi supra</i>, and <i>Donellan’s</i> case -for the murder of Sir <i>Theodosius Boughton</i>, <i>Warwick -Assizes</i>, 1784. See <i>Appendix</i>, 243.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is not our intention to detail every mode by -which murder by poison may be committed; too -many are already known to the world in general; on -those which are known, we may safely comment; nor -would there be as much mischief as is commonly -supposed in hinting at some others; for if any should -study this subject with evil intention, he may be assured -that the progress of modern science, though it -may have discovered some new modes of destruction, -has been yet more fertile in antidotes for the injured, -and in means of detecting the guilty.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span> - <h2 id='c13' class='c008'>OF POISONS,<br /> <br />CHEMICALLY, PHYSIOLOGICALLY, AND PATHOLOGICALLY CONSIDERED.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Toxicology, or the history of Poisons, forms one of -the most important and elaborate branches of Forensic -Medicine, and in tracing the subject through all its -numerous and interesting relations to Jurisprudence, -we shall experience no small degree of gratification -by observing, how greatly and progressively this obscure -department of science has, within the last few -years, been enlightened by the discoveries of Chemistry -and Physiology.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The labours of the modern Chemist, indeed, have -enabled us to recognise and identify each particular -substance by its properties and habitudes, with an -infallible delicacy, which the Physicians of a former -age could scarcely have anticipated, and much less -practised.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Physiologist, by an invaluable series of observations -and experiments, has demonstrated the particular -organ, or texture, upon which each individual -poison exerts its energies; and the Pathologist has -been thus enabled to establish the mode in which it -depraves the health, or extinguishes the life of an -animal. Nor has the Anatomist withheld his contributions -upon this interesting occasion, for he has -demonstrated the situation, extent, and intensity of -the organic lesions which result from the operation -of these terrible agents upon the living body; and has -pointed out several appearances which occur from -natural causes, but which might be mistaken by the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>unskilful or superficial observer, for the ravages of -poison. It remains for the Forensic Physician to converge -into one focus the scattered rays which have -thus emanated from so many points, and thereby to -elucidate and determine the line of conduct which -the medical attendant is called upon to pursue, for -the relief of the patient suffering under the torments -of poison, and for the establishment of the guilt or -innocence of the party charged with the perpetration -of a crime, which may be said to rob courage of its -just security, while it transfers to cowardice the -triumphs of valour. That engines so powerful and -secret in their work of destruction, should have -universally excited the terror of mankind is a fact -which cannot surprise us, and, when we consider how -intimate are the relations between fear and credulity, -we need not seek farther for the solution of the many -problems to which the exaggerated statements of -ancient Toxicologists<a id='r111' /><a href='#f111' class='c011'><sup>[111]</sup></a> have given origin; the most -extraordinary of those relate to the alleged subtlety -of certain poisons, which was believed to be so extreme -as to defeat the most skilful caution, and at -the same time so manageable, as to be capable of the -most accurate graduation; so that, in short, the -accomplished assassin was not only thus enabled -to ensure the death of his victim through the most -secret, and least suspicious agents, but to measure -his allotted moments with the nicest precision, and to -occasion his death at any period that might best -answer the objects of the assassination. The writings -of <i>Plutarch</i>, <i>Tacitus</i>, <i>Theophrastus</i>, <i>Quintillian</i>, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span><i>Livy</i>, abound with such instances of <em>occult</em> and <em>slow</em> -poisoning; most of which, however, notwithstanding -the weight they may acquire from their testimony, -bear internal evidence of their fallacious character. -<i>Plutarch</i> informs us that a slow poison which occasioned -heat, cough, spitting of blood, a lingering -consumption of the body, and a weakness of intellect, -was administered to <i>Aratus</i> of Sicyon. This same -poison is also alluded to by <i>Quintillian</i> in his declamations. -<i>Tacitus</i><a id='r112' /><a href='#f112' class='c011'><sup>[112]</sup></a> informs us that <i>Sejanus</i> caused -a <em>secret</em> poison to be administered by an eunuch to -<i>Drusus</i>, who in consequence gradually declined, as -if by a consumptive disorder, and at length died. -<i>Theophrastus</i><a id='r113' /><a href='#f113' class='c011'><sup>[113]</sup></a> speaks of a poison, prepared from -Aconite, that could be so modified as to occasion -death within a certain period, such as two, three, or -six months, a year, and even sometimes two years.</p> - -<p class='c000'>To such an extent does the crime of poisoning appear -to have been carried, about two hundred years -before the Christian æra, that according to <i>Livy</i>,<a id='r114' /><a href='#f114' class='c011'><sup>[114]</sup></a> -above one hundred and fifty ladies, of the first families -in Rome, were convicted and punished for preparing -and distributing poison. The most notorious and expert -character of this kind is handed down to us by -the historians and poets under the name of <i>Locusta</i>, -who was condemned to die on account of her infamous -actions, but was saved in order that she might -become a state engine, and be numbered, as <i>Tacitus</i> -expresses it, “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Inter instrumenta regni</span></i>.” She was accordingly -employed to poison <i>Claudius</i> by <i>Agrippina</i>, -who was desirous of destroying the Emperor, and yet -feared to despatch him suddenly, whence a slow poison -<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>was prepared by <i>Locusta</i>, and served to him in a -dish of mushrooms, of which he was particularly fond, -“<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Boletorum appetentissimus</span></i>;” but it failed in its effects, -as we learn from <i>Tacitus</i>, until it was assisted -by one of a more powerful nature. “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Post quem nihil -amplius edit.</span></i>” This same <i>Locusta</i> prepared also the -poison with which <i>Nero</i> despatched <i>Britannicus</i>, the -son of <i>Agrippina</i>, whom his father <i>Claudius</i> wished -to succeed him on the throne. This poison appears -to have proved too slow in its operation, and to have -occasioned only a dysentery. The Emperor accordingly -compelled her by blows and threats, to prepare -in his presence one of a more powerful nature, -and as the tale is related by <i>Suetonius</i>, it appears -that it was then tried on a kid, but as the animal -did not die until the lapse of five hours, she -boiled it for a longer period, when it became so -strong as instantaneously to kill a pig to which it was -given. In this state of concentration it is said to have -despatched <i>Britannicus</i> as soon as he tasted it.<a id='r115' /><a href='#f115' class='c011'><sup>[115]</sup></a> -Vide <i>Tac. An.</i> 13. <i>s.</i> 15. 16. Now it would clearly -appear from these statements that <i>Locusta</i>, avowedly -the most accomplished poisoner of ancient Rome, was -wholly incapable of graduating the strength of her -poisons to the different purposes for which they were -applied.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The records of modern times will furnish examples -no less atrocious than those we have just related. -<i>Tophana</i>, a woman who resided first at Palermo, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>afterwards at Naples, may be considered as the <i>Locusta</i> -of modern history; she invented and sold those -drops so well known by the names of <i>Aqua Toffania</i>; -<i>Aqua della Toffana</i>; <i>Acquetta di Napoli</i>, or simply -<i>Acquetta</i>. This stygian liquor she distributed by way -of charity to such wives as wished for other husbands; -from four to six drops were sufficient to destroy a man, -and it was asserted that the dose could be so proportioned -as to operate within any given period.<a id='r116' /><a href='#f116' class='c011'><sup>[116]</sup></a> -It appears that in order to secure her poison from -examination, she vended it in small glass phials, inscribed, -“<i>Manna of Saint Nicolas Bari</i>,” and ornamented -the vessel with the image of the Saint. Having -been put to the rack she confessed that she had -destroyed upwards of six hundred persons, for which -she suffered death by strangulation in the year 1709<a id='r117' /><a href='#f117' class='c011'><sup>[117]</sup></a>. -In 1670 the art of secret poisoning excited very considerable -alarm in France; the <i>Marchioness de Brinvillier</i>, -a young woman of rank and great personal -beauty, having intrigued with, and subsequently married -an adventurer named <i>Saint Croix</i>, acquired from -him the secret of this diabolical act, and practised it -to an extent that had never before been equalled. -She poisoned her two brothers through the medium -of a dish at table. She also prepared poisoned biscuits, -and to try their strength she distributed them -herself to the poor at the Hotel Dieu. Her own -maid was likewise the subject of her experiments. -To her father she gave poisoned broth, which brought -on symptoms characteristic of those induced by corrosive -sublimate. Her brothers lingered during several -<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>months under much suffering. The detection of -this wretch is said to have been brought about in the -following manner. <i>Saint Croix</i>, whenever engaged -in the preparation of his poisons, was accustomed to -protect himself from their dangerous fumes by wearing -a glass mask, which happening to fall off by accident, -he was found dead in his laboratory.<a id='r118' /><a href='#f118' class='c011'><sup>[118]</sup></a> A -casket directed to the Marchioness, with a desire that -in case of her death it might be destroyed unopened, -was found in his chamber, a circumstance which in -itself was sufficient to excite the curiosity and suspicion -of those into whose hands it fell. The casket -was accordingly examined, and the disclosure of its -contents at once developed the whole plot, and finally -led to the conviction of this French Medea, who after -a number of adventures and escapes, was at length -arrested and sent to Paris, where she was beheaded, -and then burnt, on the 11th of July, 1676. The practice -of poisoning, however, did not cease with her -execution, and it became necessary in 1679 to establish -a particular Court, for the detection and trial of -such offenders; which continued for some time to -exert its jurisdiction under the title of <span class='sc'>Chambre de -Poison</span>, or <span class='sc'>Chambre Ardente</span>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>With respect to the secret modes in which poisons -have been supposed capable of acting, mankind have -ever betrayed the most extravagant credulity, of -which the numerous tales upon record afford ample -proof; such as that reported of <i>Parasapis</i> by <i>Plutarch</i>, -from <i>Ctesias</i>, in his life of <i>Artaxerxes</i>, who, it is said, -by anointing a knife on one side by poison, and therewith -dividing a bird, poisoned <i>Statira</i> with one half, -and with the other regaled herself in perfect security. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>We are also told of <i>Livia</i> who poisoned the figs on a -tree which her husband was in the habit of gathering -with his own hands. <i>Tissot</i> informs us that <i>John</i>, -king of Castille, was poisoned by a pair of boots prepared -by a Turk; <i>Henry</i> VI, by gloves<a id='r119' /><a href='#f119' class='c011'><sup>[119]</sup></a>; Pope -<i>Clement</i> VII, by the fumes of a taper<a id='r120' /><a href='#f120' class='c011'><sup>[120]</sup></a>; and our king -<i>John</i>, in a wassail bowl, contaminated by matter extracted -from a living toad. To these few instances -of credulity may be added the offer of the priest to -destroy queen <i>Elizabeth</i> by poisoning her saddle<a id='r121' /><a href='#f121' class='c011'><sup>[121]</sup></a>, -and the <i>Earl of Essex</i>, by anointing his chair.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Incredible and absurd as these opinions now appear, -they continued until a late period to alarm -mankind, and to perplex and baffle judicial investigations; -even <i>Lord Bacon</i> in his charge against the -<i>Earl of Somerset</i> for the murder of <i>Sir Thomas Overbury</i>, -in the Tower, seemed to give credit to the -story of <i>Livia</i>, and he seriously stated, that “<i>Weston</i> -chased the poor prisoner with poison after poison; -poisoning salts, poisoning meats, poisoning sweetmeats, -poisoning medicines and vomits, until at last -his body was almost come, by the use of poisons, to -the state that <i>Mithridates’s</i> body was by the use of -treacle and preservatives, that the force of poisons -was blunted upon him;” <i>Weston</i> confessing, when he -was reproached for not despatching him, that he had -<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>given enough to poison twenty men.<a id='r122' /><a href='#f122' class='c011'><sup>[122]</sup></a> The power of -so graduating the force of a poison as to enable it to -operate at any given period seems to have been considered -possible by the earlier members of the Royal -Society, for we learn from <i>Spratt’s</i> history of that -learned body, that very shortly after its institution, -a series of questions were drawn up by the direction -of the Fellows, for the purpose of being submitted to -the Chinese and Indians, viz. “<i>Whether the Indians -can so prepare that stupifying herb, Datura, that they -make it lie several days, months, years, according as -they will have it, in a man’s body, without doing him -any hurt, and at the end kill him without missing half -an hour’s time?</i>”</p> - -<p class='c000'>That mankind were, in a very early stage of their -existence, not only acquainted with the deadly effects -of certain natural substances when applied in minute -quantities, but that they availed themselves of such -knowledge for the accomplishment of the worst purposes, -is very satisfactorily shewn by the records of -sacred as well as profane authors. But such is the -ambiguity of ancient writers upon this subject, and so -intimately blended are all their receipts with the -practices of superstition, that every research, however -learned, into the exact nature of the poisons which -they employed, is necessarily vague and unsatisfactory. -Of this one fact, however, we may be perfectly -satisfied, that they were solely derived from the animal -and vegetable kingdoms, for the discovery of -mineral poisons was an event of later date; owing -however to the defect of botanical nomenclature, it -is even doubtful whether the plants which are designated -by the terms <i>Cicuta</i>, <i>Aconitum</i>, &c. in ancient -authors, were identical with those we designate by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>the same names. (See <cite>Pharmacologia</cite>, edit. v. vol. 1, -p. 66.) With respect to the poisons of <i>Locusta</i>, all -cotemporary writers speak of the venom of the toad -as the fatal ingredient of her potions, and in the -Alexipharmaca of <i>Dioscorides</i> we find the symptoms -described, which are said to be produced by it;<a id='r123' /><a href='#f123' class='c011'><sup>[123]</sup></a> -but what is very extraordinary, the belief of the ancients -on this matter was all but universal. <i>Pliny</i> is -express on the subject; <i>Ætius</i> describes two kinds of -this reptile,<a id='r124' /><a href='#f124' class='c011'><sup>[124]</sup></a> the latter of which, as Dr. <i>Badham</i> -has suggested, was probably the frog, as well from -the epithet, as that he ascribes deleterious powers -only to the former. It is scarcely necessary to observe -that this ancient belief has descended into later -times; we find Sir <i>Thomas Browne</i> treating such an -opinion as one of the vulgar errors; and we have -before alluded to the legend of king <i>John</i> having been -poisoned by a wassail bowl in which matter extracted -from a living toad was said to have been infused. -In still later times, we have heard of a barrel of beer -poisoned by the same reptile having found its way -into it. <i>Borelli</i> and <i>Valisnieri</i> maintain that it is -perfectly harmless, and state that they had seen it -eaten with impunity. <i>Spielman</i><a id='r125' /><a href='#f125' class='c011'><sup>[125]</sup></a> expresses the -same opinion, “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Minus recte itaque effectus venenati a -bufonibus metuuntur.</span></i>” <i>Franck</i>,<a id='r126' /><a href='#f126' class='c011'><sup>[126]</sup></a> on the contrary, -accuses <i>Gmelin</i> of too much precipitancy in rejecting -the belief respecting toad-poison,<a id='r127' /><a href='#f127' class='c011'><sup>[127]</sup></a> Modern naturalists -<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>recognise no poisonous species of toad; even -the most formidable of the species, to appearance, -that of Surinam, is said to be perfectly harmless.</p> - -<p class='c000'>If we may venture to offer a conjecture upon this -subject, we are inclined to consider the origin of this -opinion to have been derived from the frequency -with which the toad entered into the composition of -spells or charms, into philtres or love potions, and -which, like the bat and the owl, most probably derived -its magical character from the gloom and solitude -of its habitation. <i>Shakspeare</i> has accordingly -introduced this reptile into the witches’ enchanted -cauldron, in <i>Macbeth</i>.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“Round about the cauldron go;</div> - <div class='line'>In the poison’d entrails throw.</div> - <div class='line'>Toad that under coldest stone</div> - <div class='line'>Days and nights hast thirty-one</div> - <div class='line'>Swelter’d venom sleeping got,</div> - <div class='line'>Boil thou first i’ the charmed pot!”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>This opinion receives further strength when it is -considered how frequently poisons were administered -under the insidious form of charms or incantations.<a id='r128' /><a href='#f128' class='c011'><sup>[128]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>It has, however, been shewn by late experiments -that the toad has, under particular circumstances, -the power of ejecting from the surface of the body an -acrid secretion which excoriates the hands of those -that come in contact with it; and this fact may perhaps -have assisted in supporting the general belief -respecting the poisonous nature of this reptile. <i>Pelletier</i> -has ascertained, that this corrosive matter, contained -in the vesicles which cover the skin of the -common toad, (<i>Rana Bufo</i>) has a yellow colour, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>an oily consistence, and to consist of,—1st, an acid -partly united to a base, and constituting 1/20th part of -the whole. 2d, very bitter fatty matter. 3d, an animal -matter bearing some analogy to gelatine.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It would also appear from the writings of <i>Dioscorides</i>, -<i>Galen</i>, <i>Nicander</i>, <i>Ætius</i>, <i>Ælian</i>, and <i>Pliny</i>, -that the ancients derived a very energetic poison from -the Sea Hare, <i>Lepus Marinus</i>,—the <i>Aplysia Depilans</i> -of <i>Linnæus</i>; and, if we may credit <i>Philostratus</i>, it -was with such a poison that <i>Titus</i> was killed by -<i>Domitian</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There is, however, ample ground for supposing -that the poisons of the ancients were, for the most -part, obtained from the vegetable kingdom, and from -the class of Narcotic plants;<a id='r129' /><a href='#f129' class='c011'><sup>[129]</sup></a> that they were compounded -of a great variety of such ingredients, together -with others that were quite inert and useless, -and which merely served to disguise their composition.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Ancient writers also allude to the blood of the -bullock as a poison; <i>Themistocles</i> is said by <i>Plutarch</i> -to have destroyed himself by this fluid; and <i>Strabo</i> -states that <i>Midas</i> died of drinking the hot blood of -this animal, which he did, as <i>Plutarch</i> mentions, to -free himself from the numerous ill dreams which continually -tormented him. Some historians assign the -death of <i>Hannibal</i> to the same draught.</p> - -<p class='c000'>With respect to the poisons employed by <i>Tophana</i>, -the Locusta of modern days, and her infamous successors, -there is less doubt; <i>Arsenic</i>, <i>Corrosive Sublimate</i>, -<i>Sugar of Lead</i>, and <i>Antimony</i>,<a id='r130' /><a href='#f130' class='c011'><sup>[130]</sup></a> were amongst the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>most powerful of their instruments of torture and -death. According to the declaration of the Emperor -<i>Charles</i> VII to his physician <i>Garelli</i>, the <i>Aqua Toffania</i> -was a solution of arsenic in <i>Aqua Cymbalariæ</i>.<a id='r131' /><a href='#f131' class='c011'><sup>[131]</sup></a> -Dr. <i>Hahneman</i> considered its basis to have been an -arsenical salt. Others have, with little probability, -regarded Opium and Cantharides as the active ingredients. -<i>Franck</i>,<a id='r132' /><a href='#f132' class='c011'><sup>[132]</sup></a> speaking of the <i>Aqua Toffania</i>, -agrees with <i>Gmelin</i>,<a id='r133' /><a href='#f133' class='c011'><sup>[133]</sup></a> that it is no other than a solution -of arsenic. The <i>Pulvis Successionis</i>, another -instrument of death, whose title announces the diabolical -intention with which it was administered, has -been supposed to have been a preparation of lead; -while others have considered it to have consisted of -diamond dust, and to have acted mechanically.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Having thus noticed a few of the more remarkable -and interesting features in the literary history of -Toxicology, we shall proceed to consider the subject -of Poisons, in relation to their operation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A Poison, (<i>Toxicum</i>, <i>Venenum</i>, <i>Virus</i>), has been -very correctly defined by <i>Gmelin</i> to be a substance -which when administered internally, or applied externally, -in a small dose, impairs the health, or destroys -life. This definition is adopted by <i>Mead</i>, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span><i>Sproegel</i>, <i>Plenck</i>, and <i>Tortosa</i>, and is to be preferred -to every other,<a id='r134' /><a href='#f134' class='c011'><sup>[134]</sup></a> not only for its simplicity, but for -its independence of any theory relative to the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">modus -operandi</span></i> of such agents. But it will be seen that, by -accepting this definition, we are necessarily led to -admit the fact, that poisoning may be acute, or chronic, -that is to say, that it may at once destroy life, or -produce a disease which can be protracted to any -indefinite period. After the erroneous and vague -notions which have been entertained upon the subject -of “<em>Slow poisons</em>,” it is highly essential that the latitude -of our belief should be accurately ascertained, -and the precise meaning of our terms defined.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>OF SLOW, CONSECUTIVE,<a id='r135' /><a href='#f135' class='c011'><sup>[135]</sup></a> AND ACCUMULATIVE POISONING.</h3> - -<p class='c014'>1. <i>Slow Poisons.</i> According to the popular acceptation -of the term, they may be defined, <i>Substances -which can be administered imperceptibly; and a single -dose of which will operate so gradually, as to shorten -life like a lingering disease; their force, at the same -time, admitting of so nice an adjustment as to enable the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>artist to occasion death at any required period.</i> We -have now to inquire how far such alleged powers are -consistent with the known laws of physiology. It -cannot be denied that certain substances have been -introduced into the alimentary canal, where they have -remained for an indefinite period, without occasioning -the slightest inconvenience, and at length excited -a disease that has terminated fatally; in the <cite>London -Medical and Physical Journal</cite> for February 1816, a -case is related in which death was occasioned by a -chocolate-nut having lodged in the entrance of the -<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Appendix Vermiformis</span></i>; and in the <cite>Edinburgh Medical -and Surgical Journal</cite> for July 1816, we have an -analogous case, communicated by Dr. <i>Briggs</i> of Liverpool, -where the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Appendix cæci</span></i> sphacelated, owing to -the irritation of a human tooth which was found sticking -in its cavity. Mr. <i>Children</i> has lately communicated -to the Royal Society a case where a concretion -in the colon produced death; upon examination it -was found to contain a plum-stone, as a nucleus, and -to consist of a fine fibrous vegetable substance, from -the inner coat enveloping the farina of the oat, and -which was derived from the oatmeal upon which the -deceased had fed. (<cite>Phil. Trans.</cite> 1822.) However disposed -we may feel, by a forced construction of the -term, to consider such agents as <em>slow</em> poisons, it is -very evident that they can rarely have been made -subservient to the purposes of secret poisoning; although -a case occurred in the practice of the author,<a id='r136' /><a href='#f136' class='c011'><sup>[136]</sup></a> -in which a girl swallowed six copper pence for -the avowed purpose of destroying herself; the coin -produced a disease which remained chronic for a very -considerable period, when, after a lapse of five years, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>they were voided, and the young woman recovered. -A similar attempt was also made by <i>Theodore Gardelle</i>, -after his conviction for the murder of Mrs. <i>King</i> -(<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide ante</span></i>), he swallowed a number of halfpence, for -the purpose of destroying himself, but without any -ill effect. Dr. <i>Baillie</i>, in his ‘<cite>Morbid Anatomy</cite>,’ relates -an instance where five halfpence had been lodged -in a pouch in the stomach for a considerable time, -without occasioning any irritation; and Mr. <i>A. Thomson</i> -has also furnished us with two analogous cases in -children, in one of which the copper coin remained six -months in the intestines, and in the other, two months. -These facts furnish sufficient data to enable the practitioner -to appreciate the degree of danger attendant -upon such agents, and to determine how far they can -ever become successful instruments in the hands of -the assassin.<a id='r137' /><a href='#f137' class='c011'><sup>[137]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>But it has been supposed that certain bodies, as -glass, enamel, diamonds,<a id='r138' /><a href='#f138' class='c011'><sup>[138]</sup></a> agates, smalt, &c. when -administered in the form of powder, so lacerate the -membranes of the stomach, by the sharpness of their -particles, as slowly to destroy life; and upon the -same principle, it has been asserted, that human hair, -chopped fine,<a id='r139' /><a href='#f139' class='c011'><sup>[139]</sup></a> constitutes the active ingredient of a -slow poison frequently employed in Turkey, and that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>it induces, by irritation, a chronic disease resembling -cancer. With respect to the danger arising from the -ingestion of diamond dust, enamel powder, powdered -glass, and the like, there still may be said to exist -some difference of opinion. <i>Caldani</i>, <i>Mandruzzato</i>,<a id='r140' /><a href='#f140' class='c011'><sup>[140]</sup></a> -and M. <i>Le Sauvage</i>, have reported experiments made -upon men and inferior animals, in which no bad consequences -followed the administration of such bodies; -whereas <i>Schurigius</i><a id='r141' /><a href='#f141' class='c011'><sup>[141]</sup></a> and <i>Cardanus</i><a id='r142' /><a href='#f142' class='c011'><sup>[142]</sup></a> cite instances -where persons have died of ulcerations of the stomach -from such causes; and this opinion receives the support -of <i>Plouquet</i>,<a id='r143' /><a href='#f143' class='c011'><sup>[143]</sup></a> <i>Stoll</i>,<a id='r144' /><a href='#f144' class='c011'><sup>[144]</sup></a> <i>Gmelin</i>,<a id='r145' /><a href='#f145' class='c011'><sup>[145]</sup></a> <i>Foderé</i>,<a id='r146' /><a href='#f146' class='c011'><sup>[146]</sup></a> -<i>Mahon</i>,<a id='r147' /><a href='#f147' class='c011'><sup>[147]</sup></a> <i>Franck</i>,<a id='r148' /><a href='#f148' class='c011'><sup>[148]</sup></a> and many others. The -modern pathologist will not find much difficulty -in reconciling such conflicting testimony. The experimentalist -may administer mechanical substances -a thousand times without producing any ill effects, -while, under certain circumstances, the most trivial -body may lodge in the intestines and produce death; -but surely the occasional occurrence of such accidents -ought not to confer the general title of <em>poison</em> upon -the substances which may happen to produce them.</p> - -<p class='c010'>Having thus disposed of a considerable number of -bodies, which have been classed as <em>slow</em> poisons, we -may proceed to observe that most of the other substances -which have found a place in the same division, -appear to us to deserve consideration under a very -different head, and that we shall get rid of much obscurity -by adopting the following arrangement.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>2. <i>Consecutive Poisoning.</i> Where the patient, having -recovered from the acute effects occasioned by the -ingestion of a single dose of poison, <em>subsequently suffers -a series of symptoms from the injured structure to -which it had given origin</em>. By referring to our definition -of <em>slow</em> poisoning, we shall at once perceive the -striking and important distinction between that and -<em>Consecutive poisoning</em>. The following case, related -by M. <i>Orfila</i>, may serve as an illustration. <i>Maria -Ladan</i> drank by mistake a spoonful of <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua fortis</span></i>, -the most violent symptoms supervened, but which -by judicious treatment gradually subsided, when at -length she passed by stool a long membranous substance, -rolled up, and which represented the form of -the æsophagus and stomach, and which, in fact, was -found to be the interior membrane of these organs; -from that moment the sensibility of the digestive -organs became excessive, and two months after the -accident she experienced a sudden shock and died. -M. <i>Tartra</i>, in observing upon cases of this kind, asserts -that the symptoms produced at first by the nitric -acid decrease insensibly; and that at the end of a -certain period, the internal membrane of the digestive -canal is struck with death, and thrown off, and the -person dies of a <i>Marasmus</i>. <i>Fordyce</i><a id='r149' /><a href='#f149' class='c011'><sup>[149]</sup></a> relates the -case of a woman who was subject to cholics for the -space of thirty years, in consequence of having <em>once</em> -taken an infusion of the pulp of Colocynth prepared -with beer. This was undoubtedly an extraordinary -instance of idiosyncrasy, but it is probable that some -organic lesion was occasioned by its operation, to -which the subsequent suffering is to be referred. We -have hitherto only considered the effects that may -<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>arise from the ingestion of a <em>single</em> dose of poison, but -there are numerous and very interesting cases in which -fatal results have been produced by the repetition of -small doses at various intervals. We therefore propose -a third, and new subdivision of our subject, viz.</p> - -<p class='c010'>3. <i>Accumulative Poisoning.</i>—By the repeated administration -of a substance, in doses, of which no -single one could occasion harm; but which, by gradually -accumulating in the system, ultimately occasions -disease, and death.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The familiar operation of mercury will at once suggest -itself to the Physician, as a striking illustration -of that species of poisoning which we have ventured -to name <i>Accumulative</i>, and to the forensic student the -effects of this metal, in reference to such a quality, -will form a more than ordinary object of interest, as -involving questions which have frequently embarrassed -judicial inquiry; as, for instance, <em>Whether it -can lie dormant any considerable time without betraying -its effects upon the constitution</em>, and, having displayed -its powers, and the symptoms having subsided, -viz. salivation, &c. <em>Whether they can be renewed without -a fresh application of the substance?</em> See Corrosive -sublimate.</p> - -<p class='c000'>To how many substances this power of accumulation -extends is at present not well understood. It -may occur in those that act by absorption, and in -those whose action is wholly local. Arsenic, digitalis, -and several of the narcotic plants, as hemlock, -may undoubtedly occasion serious mischief in -this manner, as the author has more fully explained -in another work,<a id='r150' /><a href='#f150' class='c011'><sup>[150]</sup></a> and we have lately heard of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>several fatal cases arising from accumulated masses of -magnesia in the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">primæ viæ</span></i>, from the habitual use of -small doses of that earth.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The history of many of the arts, especially those of -metallurgy, would furnish also abundant examples of -this kind of poisoning.</p> - -<p class='c000'>These few facts are we trust sufficient to authorise -the foregoing arrangement, and we apprehend that -the adoption of the distinctions, upon which it is -founded, will be of great service in establishing fixed -and definite notions with regard to the <em>chronic</em> operation -of poisons. It may perhaps be useful to present -the reader with a synoptical recapitulation of the subject.</p> - -<p class='c015'><i>A Slow Poison.</i> A single dose is sufficient; which -produces upon its administration no sensible effect, -but gradually undermines the health.</p> -<p class='c015'><i>A Consecutive Poison.</i> A single dose is sufficient; producing -the most violent symptoms, very shortly -after its ingestion, but which gradually subside, -and the patient is supposed cured; when, at some -future period, death takes place from the organic -lesions that had been occasioned.</p> -<p class='c015'><i>An Accumulative Poison.</i> Many doses are required; -the effects being produced by the repetition of -doses which would, <em>individually</em>, be harmless.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There still remains another point of view in which -it is essential to regard the operation of a poison, in -order to establish a distinction between those substances -which, in a given dose, will destroy life under -every circumstance of constitution, and those which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>occasion death in consequence of some constitutional -peculiarity in the individual to whom they may have -been administered, and which are innocuous to the -general mass of mankind; the gradations by which -food, medicine, and poison, are thus enabled to -branch into each other cannot be defined, because the -circumstances with which they are related, defy generalization. -The distinction, however, must be acknowledged -and preserved, and we know no terms -better adapted for expressing it than those of <em>Absolute</em> -and <em>Relative</em> poisons; and our readers are accordingly -requested to receive them in conformity with this -explanation, whenever they occur in the following -pages. Every work professing to treat the subject -of Poisons, abounds with instances, in which articles -that, by universal consent, are considered innocuous, -have occasioned the most direful effects. <i>Morgagni</i> -relates a case of a person who died from eating -bread made with the farina of the chesnut. Dr. <i>Winterbottom</i><a id='r151' /><a href='#f151' class='c011'><sup>[151]</sup></a> -says that he is subject to severe nettle-rash -after eating sweet almonds. <i>Schenkius</i> relates a -case in which the general law of astringents and -cathartics was always reversed. <i>Donatus</i> tells us of -a boy whose jaws swelled, whose face broke out in -spots, and whose lips frothed, whenever he eat an -egg: we might add many more examples, but it is -needless to encumber a subject with illustrations -which is already so obvious and indisputable. Nor -do the anomalies of constitutional idiosyncrasies end -here, for they not only convert food into poison, but -they change poison into food, or at least, into a harmless -repast. The most extraordinary exemplification -<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>of this on record is contained in the history of the old -man at Constantinople, as related by M. <i>Pouqueville</i>, -physician to the French army in Egypt, and who was -a prisoner at Constantinople in the year 1798<a id='r152' /><a href='#f152' class='c011'><sup>[152]</sup></a>. “This -man,” says he, “was well known all over Constantinople, -by the name of <i>Suleyman Yeyen</i>, or <i>Suleyman, -the taker of corrosive sublimate</i>. At the epoch when -I was there he was supposed to be nearly a hundred -years old, having lived under the Sultans <i>Achmet</i> III, -<i>Abdul Hamet</i>, and <i>Selim</i> III. He had in early life -habituated himself to taking opium; but, notwithstanding -that he constantly increased the dose, he -ceased to feel from it the desired effect, and then tried -sublimate, the effects of which he had heard highly -spoken of; for thirty years this old man never ceased -to take it daily, and the quantity he could now bear -exceeded a drachm. It is said, at this epoch he came -into the shop of a Jewish apothecary, and asked for -a drachm of sublimate, which he swallowed immediately, -having first mixed it in a glass of water. The -apothecary, terrified, and fearing that he should be -accused of poisoning a Turk, immediately shut up his -shop, reproaching himself bitterly with what he had -done; but his surprise was very great, when, the next -day, the Turk came again, and asked for a like dose -of sublimate.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Morbid states of the body may also exist which are -capable of resisting, to a certain extent, or of modifying, -the violent operation of particular poisons. In -the history of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1703, -a case is related of a woman, who being tired out by -a protracted dropsy, under which her husband had -suffered, <em>charitably</em> administered to him fifteen or -twenty grains of opium with the intention of despatching -him; but the dose immediately produced such -<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>copious evacuations by sweat and urine, that it restored -him to health. This relation will immediately -recal to the recollection of the classical reader the -story, recorded by <i>Plutarch</i>, in his life of <i>Crassus</i>, of -<i>Hyrodes</i> king of the Parthians, who having fallen -into a dropsical complaint had poison (<i>Aconite</i>) administered -to him by his second son, <i>Phraates</i>, but -which, instead of destroying the king, as intended, -cured his disease. The son, however, having thus -failed in his attempt, shortly afterwards smothered -his father with his pillow.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span> - <h2 class='c008'>GENERAL REMARKS<br /> <br />ON THE MEDICAL EVIDENCE REQUIRED TO SUBSTANTIATE AN ACCUSATION OF POISONING.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Although the phenomena by which we are enabled -to discover the administration of poison, will be fully -enumerated, and carefully examined, under the history -of each particular substance, and will necessarily -vary according to the chemical properties, and physiological -action of each individual poison; yet there -are some general points of evidence, and several -questions of importance, upon which it is very essential -to arrive at some definite conclusion, some fixed -understanding, before we proceed to the consideration -of the particular details, and subordinate ramifications, -of this complicated subject.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The great constituents which form the medical -proof of poisoning, are derived from Chemical, Anatomical, -and Pathological researches; viz.—the existence -of poison in the stomach or intestines; the morbid -appearances, corresponding to such poison, upon -dissection; and the characteristic symptoms which -accompanied the action of it, previous to death. -Where these circumstances occur in combination, the -demonstration may be said to be complete, for we -have arrived at absolute certainty.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But scientific evidence, short of such perfection, -may be amply sufficient to lead to conviction. The -fact of a poison having been found in the body may -supersede the necessity of pathological testimony: -thus <i>Hoffman</i>,<a id='r153' /><a href='#f153' class='c011'><sup>[153]</sup></a> “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Si venenum adhuc intra ventriculum -<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>reperitur, res est clarissima, ubi vero, illud haud -deprehenditur, res adhuc dubii plena est.</span></i>” We shall -hereafter find that the discovery of organic lesions, -without the chemical proof (“<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">experimentum crucis</span></i><a id='r154' /><a href='#f154' class='c011'><sup>[154]</sup></a>”) -is often vague, and seldom satisfactory, and -that even when sanctioned by the testimony of the -pathologist, will frequently be deemed insufficient to -sustain an indictment, unless indeed it be collaterally -supported by a very strong chain of circumstantial -evidence of a moral nature, especially such as relates -to the character, conduct, and presumed object -of the prisoner.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As the duty of the medical witness, upon such occasions, -must always be anxious, and generally perplexing, -it becomes our duty at least to clear away -those adventitious difficulties with which ignorance -on the one hand, and sophistry on the other, have -obstructed a path of inquiry, which, from its very -nature and direction, must necessarily be obscure -and intricate.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We shall endeavour upon this, as we have upon -similar occasions, to bring the more leading and popular -points of controversy within the scope of a few -prominent questions, assigning to each a share of attention, -commensurate with our idea of <a id='its'></a>its importance.</p> - -<p class='c015'>Q. 1. <i>Whether all, or most of the symptoms, characteristic -of the action of corrosive and narcotic -poisons, may not arise from morbid causes of spontaneous -origin?</i></p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>Q. 2. <i>Whether organic lesions, similar to those produced -by poisoning, may not occasionally result -from natural causes?</i></p> -<p class='c015'>Q. 3. <i>Whether the rapid progress of putrefaction, in -the body generally, or in any particular part, is -to be considered as affording any presumptive evidence, -in favour of a suspicion of poisoning?</i></p> -<p class='c015'>Q. 4. <i>How far the absence of poison, or the inability -of the chemist to detect it, in the body, or in the -fluids ejected from it, is to be considered as a negative -to an accusation of poisoning?</i></p> -<p class='c015'>Q. 5. <i>What degree of information can be derived -from administering the contents of the stomach of -a person supposed to have been poisoned, to dogs, -or other inferior animals?</i></p> - -<p class='c000'>We shall now consider these questions in succession.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>Q. 1. <i>Whether all, or most of the symptoms, characteristic of the action of corrosive and narcotic poisons, may not arise from morbid causes of spontaneous origin?</i></h3> - -<p class='c014'>It must be admitted that the symptoms produced -by violent irritation in the primæ viæ, are not characterised -by a diversity, corresponding with that of -the causes which may excite it; thus it is, that we -have a disease to which the term “<i>cholera</i>” has been -assigned, and which is indicated by the following -symptoms, “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Humoris biliosi vomitus, ejusdem simul -dejectio frequens; anxietas; tormina; surarum spasmata</span></i>,” -(Cullen Syn: <span class='fss'>LX.</span> 1.) symptoms which supervene, -and with nearly the same force, the spontaneous -effusion of acrid bile into the intestines, and the ingestion -<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>of some acrid poison; and hence the nosologist -has very properly divided <i>cholera</i> into two species, -viz.</p> - -<p class='c000'>C. <i>Spontanea</i>, “Tempestate calida, sine causa -manifesta oboriens.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>C. <i>Accidentalis</i>, “A rebus acribus ingestis.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The problem therefore for solution, is the mode of -distinguishing the two species from each other. Although -the leading characters are, as we have said, -the same in both, such as bilious vomiting, and purging, -violent tormina of the bowels, cold sweats, -cramps, faintings, and death, yet by a careful and -circumstantial examination of the case, the intelligent -practitioner will generally be enabled to arrive at a -probable conjecture; the season of the year<a id='r155' /><a href='#f155' class='c011'><sup>[155]</sup></a>, the -prevailing epidemics, the age<a id='r156' /><a href='#f156' class='c011'><sup>[156]</sup></a> and constitutional -predisposition of the patient, his habit with respect -to diet, are circumstances which will greatly assist -the diagnosis. The progress of cholera morbus is -also rarely, or never, fatal in this climate, especially -in so short a period as that in which death occurs -from the operation of a violent, corrosive poison.<a id='r157' /><a href='#f157' class='c011'><sup>[157]</sup></a> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>There are besides in this latter case, very frequently -other symptoms which do not attend <i>cholera spontanea</i>,<a id='r158' /><a href='#f158' class='c011'><sup>[158]</sup></a> -such as sanguineous vomiting, extreme burnings in -the æsophagus and region of the stomach, swollen -countenance, great dryness and tumefaction of the -fauces, peculiar fætor of the breath, ischuria, with -discharges of bloody urine, and ulcerations about the -fundament<a id='r159' /><a href='#f159' class='c011'><sup>[159]</sup></a>; this latter symptom was particularly -remarkable in the case of <i>Mr. Blandy</i>, whose history, -as related by his physician, <i>Dr. Addington</i>, -will be found in our <i>Appendix</i>, <i>p.</i> 236, and well deserves -the attentive consideration of the medical jurist. -The matter voided will also sometimes lead to a just -diagnosis; in the true cholera <i>spontanea</i> there is a -discharge of almost pure bile by vomiting and stool, -simultaneously or alternately; now, although the -same vomiting and purging may arise from the action -of a poison, yet it does not follow that the matter -discharged is bilious. The evidence delivered on the -extraordinary trial of <i>Donnall</i>, for the wilful murder -of his mother-in-law, <i>Mrs. Elizabeth Downing</i>, has -been also printed in the <i>Appendix</i>, as well illustrating -those doubts with which the present question is -naturally encompassed. An opinion has existed that -the appearance of jaundice during, or after the severe -symptoms of <i>cholera</i>, offers a satisfactory proof -of its spontaneous origin. Upon this point we would -observe, that by violent and protracted retching a -person may sometimes become jaundiced, a circumstance -not unlikely to occur in cases of poisoning. -The stomach, diaphragm, and abdominal muscles -are, under such repeated efforts, very apt to be rendered -<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>eminently irritable, so that at each effort of the -former to discharge its contents, the latter will frequently -be simultaneously thrown into strong spasmodic -contractions, and the liver, together with the -gall-bladder, will be suddenly caught, and, as it -were, tightly squeezed in a powerful press, in consequence -of which the bile will regurgitate, and be carried -into the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">venæ cavæ</span></i>; for <i>Haller</i> has shewn with -what facility a subtle injection, when thrown into -the hepatic duct, will escape by the hepatic veins; -upon which <i>Dr. Saunders</i> has made the following remark, -“I know this to be a fact, for I have ascertained -by experiment, that water, injected in the -same direction, will return by the veins in a full -stream, although very little force is used.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The fact of the bile becoming, under certain circumstances, -highly acrid and deleterious, has been -seized by the humoral pathologist as a powerful argument -in support of his doctrines. Amongst the -more distinguished authors who have fully treated -this subject, and maintained that our secretions may -thus become acrid poisons, we have <i>Galen</i><a id='r160' /><a href='#f160' class='c011'><sup>[160]</sup></a>, <i>Aretæus</i><a id='r161' /><a href='#f161' class='c011'><sup>[161]</sup></a>, -<i>Fernelius</i><a id='r162' /><a href='#f162' class='c011'><sup>[162]</sup></a>, <i>Morgagni</i><a id='r163' /><a href='#f163' class='c011'><sup>[163]</sup></a>, <i>Hebenstreit</i><a id='r164' /><a href='#f164' class='c011'><sup>[164]</sup></a>, -<i>Hilchen</i><a id='r165' /><a href='#f165' class='c011'><sup>[165]</sup></a>, <i>Hoffman</i><a id='r166' /><a href='#f166' class='c011'><sup>[166]</sup></a>, <i>Baumer</i><a id='r167' /><a href='#f167' class='c011'><sup>[167]</sup></a>, <i>Belloc</i><a id='r168' /><a href='#f168' class='c011'><sup>[168]</sup></a>, -<i>Alibert</i><a id='r169' /><a href='#f169' class='c011'><sup>[169]</sup></a>, <i>Foderé</i><a id='r170' /><a href='#f170' class='c011'><sup>[170]</sup></a>, <i>Mahon</i><a id='r171' /><a href='#f171' class='c011'><sup>[171]</sup></a>, <i>De la Mettrie</i><a id='r172' /><a href='#f172' class='c011'><sup>[172]</sup></a>, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>and <i>Tronchin</i><a id='r173' /><a href='#f173' class='c011'><sup>[173]</sup></a>. Some of the authors above enumerated -have expressed their opinions in the strongest -terms; thus <i>Morgagni</i> (loco citato) “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Facile agnosco -a prava ipsa corporis dispositione internum aliquando -posse venenum gigni</span></i>;” and <i>Hebenstreit</i> observes, -“<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Possunt omnino in corpore venena nasci, -atque ipsi humores vitales vim vasa sua destruendi sæpe -acquirunt.</span></i><a id='r174' /><a href='#f174' class='c011'><sup>[174]</sup></a>” <i>Hilchen</i>, after attempting to establish a -diagnosis between the effects of poison, and those -arising from a morbid degeneracy of the fluids, exclaims, -apparently in despair, “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Inquilinos corruptosque -humani corporis humores, eum acrimoniæ gradum, -eamque corrodendi vim acquirere posse, quæ eosdem -edat effectus, quos venena corrosiva sistunt, eamdem -sordium vomitu rejectarum putrilaginem, fætorem, -haud dissimilem, et acerrimam, et pelves arrodentem -acrimoniam certum est.</span></i>” And <i>Plouquet</i>, after describing -all the phenomena of poisoning, concludes -by acknowledging “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Probe autem notandum hæc omnia -etiam ex aliis statibus morbosis nasci posse.</span></i>” -<i>De la Mettrie</i> also has observed upon this question, -“<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Il est prouvé que la bile se peut changer dans -nos corps en espece d’Arsenic!</span></i>” Our own countryman, -<i>Dr. Currie</i><a id='r175' /><a href='#f175' class='c011'><sup>[175]</sup></a>, has furnished the public with -an opinion upon the subject under discussion, and he -states his belief that, under a peculiar state of irritation, -the biliary organs may secrete a bile of so very -acrid a nature as to excite an almost immediately fatal -impression upon the alimentary canal, especially -when suddenly effused, and in a highly concentrated -form.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>We have deemed it right to adduce these various -authorities, in relation to the important question before -us, still, however, reserving our opinion, that -the physician will on such occasions, by means of -the subsidiary sources of discrimination above enumerated, -generally be enabled to form a diagnosis<a id='r176' /><a href='#f176' class='c011'><sup>[176]</sup></a> -which, although it may not amount to certainty, must -be considered as capable of increasing the weight of -the general mass of circumstantial evidence.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As the medical treatment to be adopted in cases of -acute disease, or poisoning, can hardly be considered -a subject of Medical Jurisprudence, we should have -passed it over in silence, did not the evidence delivered -upon the trial of Donnall imperiously call -upon us for some animadversion; and we feel it our -painful duty upon this occasion to observe, that the -whole tenor of the medical defence displayed a very -unbecoming contest; the witnesses conducted themselves -like advocates, raising doubts, and defending -their positions with a pertinacity that belongs to -those who seek triumph rather than truth.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the cure of cholera the experience of the physicians -of all ages wholly concurs. In the commencement -of the disease the evacuation of the redundant -bile is to be favoured by the plentiful exhibition of -mild diluents, and after the redundant bile has been -thus eliminated, or when the spasmodic affections of -the alimentary canal become dangerously violent, -opiates, in sufficiently large doses, but in small bulk, -may be administered. To employ evacuants, as <i>Sydenham</i> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>quaintly observes, “is to increase the disturbance, -and as it were, to endeavour to quench -fire by oil; and on the other hand, to commence -with opiates is shutting up the enemy in the bowels.” -Under such authority, we presume, one of the witnesses -in the defence of Donnall, felt justified in condemning -the practice of the respectable physician who -attended the deceased (<i>Appendix, p.</i> 304); but we -here see a witness assuming as a fact, what was never -proved in evidence, and then deducing conclusions -from it. <i>Dr. Edwards</i> informed the court that “there -were no symptoms of cholera morbus when <em>he</em> saw -Mrs. Downing; but from what <em>he</em> heard of her complaint, -he imagined that there was something offensive -either in the stomach or bowels, which ought to -be evacuated.” (<i>Ibid. p.</i> 286.)</p> - -<p class='c000'>Nor are the symptoms produced by the operation -of narcotic poisons so distinct as to escape the possibility -of being confounded with those of spontaneous -disease. They may, for instance, simulate those of -apoplexy, or epilepsy; but the history of the case, -the odour of the breath, and the subsequent examination -of the body after death, will generally clear -up the difficulties which may at first present themselves. -But we shall have occasion to consider -this subject hereafter; the difficulties of the case -are well illustrated by the evidence on the trial -of <i>Donellan</i>, for the murder of <i>Sir Theodosius Boughton</i>, -with laurel water, for which see <i>Appendix, -p.</i> 243.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Before we quit the subject which involves the consideration -of our fluids degenerating, under particular -circumstances, into poisons, we may just notice the -opinion of some foreign chemists, that in certain diseases -<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>the <i>Prussic acid</i><a id='r177' /><a href='#f177' class='c011'><sup>[177]</sup></a> is generated in some of the -fluids of the animal body. We are not inclined to -accede to this proposition, because during life we do -not think the chemical decompositions, known to be -necessary for the production of this substance, can -ever take place. At all events, it must be preceded -by a state of the system which would necessarily prevent -the chance of any medico-judicial fallacy.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>Q. II. <i>Whether organic lesions, similar to those produced by poisoning, may not occasionally result from natural causes?</i></h3> - -<p class='c014'>In entertaining this question, we are prepared to -meet with numerous <a id='all'></a>alleged difficulties; but as -many of them appear to have arisen, rather from the -ignorance or carelessness of the operator, than from -the natural obscurity of the subject itself, we are inclined -to hope that by getting rid of the former source -of fallacy, we shall be enabled to examine with -some satisfaction and advantage, those which, in a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>greater or less degree, will be liable to baffle the researches -of the more experienced anatomist.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Such are the changes which an animal body undergoes -after death, that unless the anatomist be intimately -acquainted with their nature and extent, it is -impossible that he should be able to derive any safe -conclusions from his dissection; thus, said <i>Mr. John -Hunter</i>, we may see appearances which are natural, -and may suppose them to have arisen from disease; -we may see diseased parts, and suppose them to be in a -natural state, and we may suppose a circumstance to -have existed before death, which was, in reality, a -consequence of it; or we may imagine it to be a natural -change after death, when it was truly a disease -of the living body. It is not difficult, therefore, to -perceive, how a person in such a state of ignorance -must blunder, when he attempts to connect the appearances -in the dead body, with the symptoms that -were observed during life; and indeed it may be -safely asserted, that the great utility of anatomical inspections -depends upon the accuracy, judgment, -and sagacity with which such comparisons are made. -In our chapter, on the art of conducting dissections, -we have endeavoured to point out each fallacy which -is likely to present itself to the inexperienced anatomist, -we shall therefore confine ourselves, on the -present occasion, to the consideration of those points -whose obscurity must be admitted to belong intrinsically -to the subject, and to be wholly independent of -the ignorance or skill of the dissector.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Amongst the signs of the action of poison on the -human body, disclosed by the light of dissection, the -separation of the villous coat of the stomach has been -generally considered the most certain criterion. <i>Hebenstreit</i>, -whose opinion has been adopted by <i>Mahon</i>, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>and many other forensic physicians, has delivered his -unreserved judgment upon the question, in the following -emphatic sentence. “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Præterea sola atque infallibilis -deglutiti veneni nota est, separata et veluti decorticata -simulque cruenta interna ventriculi tunica: -nam separatio ista supponit applicatam superficiei internæ -ventriculi materiam fervidam, igni similem, quæ -tunicam istam a substrata solvit vasculari nervea.</span></i>”<a id='r178' /><a href='#f178' class='c011'><sup>[178]</sup></a> -In opposition to such an opinion, it is our duty to -state that several cases stand recorded<a id='r179' /><a href='#f179' class='c011'><sup>[179]</sup></a> in which -the detachment of the villous coat of the stomach and -intestines has taken place, without the slightest -ground to suspect the administration of poison, while -many vegetable poisons destroy life without occasioning -any inflammation in the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">primæ viæ</span></i>, and consequently -leave no traces of disorganization. But -there still remains another source of fallacy connected -with the present question which demands a full and -impartial inquiry, viz. that the gastric juice, by its -action upon the dead stomach, can occasion such -changes in structure, as may be mistaken for the effects -of a corrosive poison; these changes are according -to circumstances liable to vary in every possible -degree of intensity, from the slight erosion of the -interior villous coat of the stomach, as displayed by -the smooth, thin, and more transparent condition -of that viscus, to the destruction of all its membranes, -and the production of large perforations in its great -extremity. This phenomenon, the nature of which -was first explained by <i>Mr. John Hunter</i><a id='r180' /><a href='#f180' class='c011'><sup>[180]</sup></a>, depends -upon the gastric juice, which the stomach secreted -<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>during life, becoming its solvent after death. Amongst -the endless proofs which the history of the animal -economy affords of that universal law by which chemical -and vital forces are wisely preserved in a state -of perpetual hostility, there is no illustration more -striking and satisfactory, than that which is furnished -by the phenomenon in question. If animals, -or parts of animals, while possessed of the living -principle, be taken into the stomach, they are not in -the least affected by the solvent powers of its juices; -thence it is that we so constantly find animals of various -kinds living in the stomach, or even being hatched -and bred there; but no sooner do these animals lose -the living principle, than they become subject to the -digestive powers of the stomach, and are accordingly -dissolved, and assimilated. If it were possible, says -<i>Mr. Hunter</i>, for a man’s hand to be introduced into -the stomach of a living animal, and kept there for -some considerable time, it would be found that the -dissolvent powers of the stomach could produce no -impression upon it; but if the same hand were separated -from the body, and introduced into the same -stomach, we should then find that this organ would -immediately act upon it. <i>Spallanzani</i>, with a patience -that almost wearies his readers, made many -attempts at dissolving the stomach by its own juice, -but succeeded satisfactorily in none; he proved, however, -two important facts, <em>first</em>, that the process of -digestion, or more correctly speaking, of solution, -continues after death; and <em>secondly</em>, that the stomach -itself is digestible. The truth of the first he demonstrated -by introducing food into the stomach, after he -had killed his animal; and that of the second, by -giving the stomach of one dog to be devoured by -another. The fact then is clearly established, that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>the stomach, after death, may be dissolved by its own -juice<a id='r181' /><a href='#f181' class='c011'><sup>[181]</sup></a>; and this may exist in its cavity, or be -retained in the vessels which had secreted it. It -remains for us then to examine the circumstances -under which it is likely to occur, and the appearance -by which it may be distinguished; and we may -here be allowed to observe with an ingenious writer,<a id='r182' /><a href='#f182' class='c011'><sup>[182]</sup></a> -that were these points merely of a speculative -nature, or were their decision a matter of mere curiosity, -it would be idle to consume so much valuable -time in their discussion; but when we remember that -they are questions upon which the medical practitioner -may be called upon to deliver a solemn opinion, -in order to determine the fate of a criminal, -they undoubtedly demand the highest attention of -those who profess to aid the administration of Justice, -by the lights of science. We have, therefore, -first to inquire into <em>the circumstances under which this -natural erosion of the stomach is known to take place</em>. -<i>Mr. John Hunter</i><a id='r183' /><a href='#f183' class='c011'><sup>[183]</sup></a> details the history of three examples, -in which the stomach was considerably perforated. -Two of the men had died shortly after having -their skulls fractured, and the third was a man -who had been hanged, so that in each of these cases -the person had been deprived of life by violence; -whence <i>Dr. Adams</i><a id='r184' /><a href='#f184' class='c011'><sup>[184]</sup></a> inferred, that <i>Mr. Hunter</i> limited -<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>the action of the gastric juice on the stomach -to such as died from violent and sudden causes; and -many physiologists have, accordingly, supposed that -solution of the coats of the stomach never takes place, -except where the person has died suddenly; this, -however, is an inference, as <i>Mr. Burns</i><a id='r185' /><a href='#f185' class='c011'><sup>[185]</sup></a> has very -justly observed, “by no means warranted by the general -tenour of <i>Mr. Hunter’s</i> essay,” indeed he expressly -states, that “there are few dead bodies in -which the stomach is not, <em>at its great end</em>, in some -degree digested;” “and any one,” continues <i>Mr. -Hunter</i>, “who is acquainted with the art of dissection, -can easily trace the gradations from the smallest -to the greatest.” The consideration of the vast -importance of this fact, and frequent opportunities -of investigating the subject, induced <i>Mr. Burns</i> to -collect the observations which he had made during -the dissection of those bodies in which he found the -stomach digested; and these observations, he informs -us, have led him to conclude, that the phenomenon -in question is neither so rare in its occurrence -as some have imagined, nor confined to such subjects -as had been, previous to death, in a healthy condition; -they have also convinced him, that other parts -of the stomach, besides the large end, may be occasionally -acted on by the gastric juice. “That the digestion -of the coats of the stomach after death is not -a very rare occurrence, I think myself authorised to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>infer, from my having examined nine bodies in which -the solution had proceeded to such an extent as to -have made holes of considerable size through that -viscus; and, besides these nine instances in which -the digestion of part of the stomach was complete, I -have had occasion to see, in opening this viscus, various -degrees of dissolution of its villous coat.”<a id='r186' /><a href='#f186' class='c011'><sup>[186]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>In three of the instances alluded to by <i>Mr. Burns</i>, -the patients had been worn out by debilitating diseases; -and they were emaciated and anasarcous. -That the solution of the coats of the stomach in these -cases was properly attributed to the gastric juice is -very satisfactorily shewn by the relation of the following -instructive dissection. “I had occasion,” -says <i>Mr. Burns</i>, “two days after death, to open the -body of a very emaciated and anasarcous young girl, -who had died from scrofulous enlargement of the mesenteric -glands. On raising the coverings of the abdomen, -the stomach, which was empty, presented -itself to view, <em>with its front dissolved</em>.<a id='r187' /><a href='#f187' class='c011'><sup>[187]</sup></a> The aperture -was of an oblong shape, about two inches in its -long diameter, and an inch in its short, with tender, -flocculent, and pulpy edges. This I demonstrated to -the pupils attending my class; and I especially called -their attention to the fact, that the liver, which was -in contact with the hole, had no impression made on -it. Having proceeded thus far, I placed all the parts -<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>as they had been, stitched up the abdomen, and laid -the body aside in a cold situation for two days. Then -I opened it again, in presence of the same gentlemen, -and we found that, now, <em>the liver, where it lay -over the dissolved part of the stomach, was pulpy; its -peritoneal coat was completely dissolved, and its substance -was tender to a considerable depth</em>. At this time -the other parts of the liver were equally solid as before, -and as yet every part of the subject was free -from putrefaction; <em>the posterior face of the stomach, -opposite to the hole, was dissolved, all except the peritoneal -coat, at least the internal coats were rendered -pulpy and glutinous; the peritoneal covering had become -spongy and more transparent than it ought to have -been</em>.” These facts, in addition to the many other -important conclusions to which they will give rise, -admonish us, that in judicial investigations into the -cause of dissolution of the coats of the stomach, <em>the -appearances will vary, according to the period after -death at which the body is examined</em>. But the most -satisfactory case which has been reported, in proof -that the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">post mortem</span></i> solution of the stomach may -occur after a lingering disease, is that just published -by <i>Dr. Haviland</i>,<a id='r188' /><a href='#f188' class='c011'><sup>[188]</sup></a> where the patient died of fever -after an illness of 22 days; when upon opening the -body about 12 hours after death, the following appearances -were noticed: “On raising the stomach -and examining the little omentum, we were surprised -by the appearance of a dark-coloured fluid, which -seemed to escape from the former viscus. A most -careful search was now made, and a large opening -<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>was perceived in the stomach on the upper and back -part, near the cardia. The stomach was then detached, -with a portion of the œsophagus and duodenum, -when a large perforation of the diaphragm came -into view, in the muscular part, corresponding precisely -to, and communicating with, the hole in the -stomach; so that a portion of the contents of the latter -organ had escaped into the cavity of the chest. -This part of the diaphragm was next removed. A -careful examination of the other abdominal and thoracic -viscera did not lead to the detection of the -slightest diseased appearance. There was no where -the smallest evidence of previous inflammation, no -adhesions or ulcerations of any part of the viscera. -The fluid which had escaped appeared to be nothing -more than the contents of the stomach, of which the -wine and water<a id='r189' /><a href='#f189' class='c011'><sup>[189]</sup></a> formed a part, and probably gave -it its dark colour. The stomach, on being examined -after its removal from the body, afforded the following -observations. The mucous membrane appeared -to be more red and vascular than usual throughout -its whole extent, and, here and there, were small spots -of what seemed to be extravasated blood, lying below -the mucous coat—for these spots were not to be -washed off, nor to be removed by the edge of the -scalpel. There were two holes in the stomach, the -larger very near to the cardiac end of the small curvature, -and on the posterior surface: this was more -than an inch in length, and about half that breadth; -the other not far from the former, also on the posterior -surface, about the size of a sixpence. The edges -of these holes were smooth, well defined, and slightly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>elevated. The coats of the stomach were thin in -many other spots, and in one in particular nothing -was left but the peritoneum, the mucous and muscular -coats being entirely destroyed. The hole in the -diaphragm was through the muscular portion, where -it is of considerable thickness, and was large enough -to admit the end of the finger. There was no appearance -of ulceration or of pus adhering to the -edges of this perforation of the diaphragm.” We -have extracted a full account of this dissection, as -the case is in itself truly interesting. The symptoms -of the patient had been carefully watched, and no -pain, or uneasiness was ever heard of, throughout -the whole course of the disease, except in the head.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The powers of the stomach, as it would appear -from the report, had suddenly revived at about twelve -hours before his death, for “he asked for food, and -swallowed a few spoonsfull of calves’-foot jelly with -apparent relish.” May we not then conclude by observing, -that the facts above related very satisfactorily -<a id='cor'></a>corroborate the truth of the corollary deduced by -<i>Mr. Burns</i>, “that the digestion of the coats of the -stomach may take place under two very different conditions -of the body; that although such solution is -most frequent in those who have been suddenly deprived -of life, when in full health, that it is not confined -to those alone, but does, under certain circumstances, -occur in those who have died from lingering -diseases.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Having then shewn under what circumstances the -phenomenon in question may take place, we shall -now proceed to describe more minutely the appearances -which it may assume, and <em>first, with respect to -the part of the stomach, more usually acted upon by the -gastric solvent</em>. <i>Mr. Hunter</i> thought, that digestion -<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>of the stomach after death was occasioned by that -portion of the gastric juice <em>contained in the cavity</em> of -the stomach; consequently it followed, as a fair inference -from this doctrine, that the coats of this viscus -will only be acted on at that part on which the -contents of the stomach rested. In <i>Mr. Hunter’s</i> -cases, the great end of the stomach, which in the -supine position of the body is the most depending -part of this viscus, was found to be chiefly affected; -a fact which tended to corroborate and support his -opinion, and to render his conjecture extremely probable. -Other anatomists, however, have discovered -instances of solution of other parts of the stomach -than the great end, indeed we have already described -such an instance in the case of the emaciated and -anasarcous girl examined by <i>Mr. Burns</i>, where the -situation of the aperture was different from what it -had been in any of <i>Mr. Hunter’s</i> cases. It was -seated <em>on the fore-part</em> of the stomach, about an inch -distant from the pylorus, and mid-way between the -smaller and greater curvatures of this viscus; at a -part of the stomach with which the gastric juice <em>could -not have come into contact</em>, as the body had constantly -been in the supine posture. “If then,” asks <i>Mr. -Burns</i>, “the stomach was not acted on by the fluid -contained in its cavity, how came it to be dissolved?” -To us we confess his solution of the problem appears -sensible and satisfactory. “We cannot, with propriety, -ascribe the digestion of the stomach, in every -case, to the gastric juice which has been <em>poured into -the cavity</em> of that viscus; we are more properly in -some instances to refer it to the action of the fluid -<em>retained in the vessels</em> which had secreted it.” If this -be admitted as a correct explanation of the fact, we -shall cease to have any difficulty in accounting for -<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>the dissolution of other parts of this viscus besides -the large end. We shall learn that the part acted on -must vary, according to the place of the stomach -where the gastric juice is retained in the apparatus -which secreted it, and thus we shall be enabled to -explain some cases, which, at present, seem to be in -opposition to the observation of <i>Mr. Hunter</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>With respect to the appearances, which such erosions -assume, some difference of opinion has also -unfortunately existed. <i>Mr. Hunter</i> has asserted -that “there are very few dead bodies, in which the -stomach is not, <em>at its great end</em>, in some degree digested; -and the anatomist,” says he, “who is acquainted -with dissections can easily trace the gradations -from the smallest to the greatest. To be sensible -of this effect, nothing more is necessary than to -compare the inner surface of the great end of the -stomach, with any other part of the inner surface; -what is sound will appear soft, spongy, and granulated, -and without distinct blood-vessels, opaque, -and thick, while the other will appear smooth, thin, -and more transparent, and the vessels will be seen -ramifying in its surface; and upon squeezing the -blood which they contain, from the larger to the -smaller branches, it will be found to pass out at the -digested ends of the vessels, and appear like drops -on the inner surface.” This condition, however, of -the vessels does not invariably accompany such solution. -In three of the subjects dissected by <i>Mr. Burns</i>, -there was no appearance of vessels ramifying on the -coats of the stomach. To account for the absence of -this vascular appearance several explanations have -been attempted; “but we are not,” says <i>Mr. Burns</i>, -“to regard the cause of this deviation from <i>Mr. -Hunter’s</i> description, as depending upon the particular -<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>part of the stomach acted on in the different -cases; neither are we to imagine that the stage of the -process at which we examine the body will assist us -in this investigation; we are rather to obtain an explanation -of this fact, from contemplating the difference -of condition of the different individuals at the -time of death; the subjects, whose cases are detailed -by <i>Mr. Hunter</i>, were persons cut off by violence, in -the plenitude of health, their stomachs at the time -excited by the stimulus of food to vigorous action, -and the process of digestion at the instant of death -going on briskly, circumstances under which it is -reasonable to infer that all the blood-vessels would -be filled with blood, which it is evident, from the -nature of the causes depriving them of life, would be -detained in the veins. This being the state of his -subjects at the moment of death, we shall not wonder -that, when he afterwards opened the bodies, he -could squeeze the blood from the digested ends of the -vessels.” This is certainly an ingenious explanation, -and receives considerable support from the important -fact of the stomach presenting a very high degree of -vascularity, in cases of sudden death, as exemplified -by <i>Dr. Yelloly</i><a id='r190' /><a href='#f190' class='c011'><sup>[190]</sup></a> in his account of the appearances -found in the stomachs of several executed criminals -soon after they had undergone the sentence of the -law. So also has dissection disclosed the same phenomena, -in those cases where life has been suddenly -extinguished by a blow on the region of the stomach; -inflammation, in such instances, is necessarily out of -the question, for death is immediate; the red and -<a id='inf'></a>inflamed appearance therefore of the stomach can -alone be accounted for by regarding it as the effect of -the sudden cessation of the heart, producing an accumulation -<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>of the blood in the extreme arterial branches. -But what shall we say of <i>Dr. Haviland’s</i> case? so far -from the patient dying suddenly, and in the plenitude -of health, he expired after a lingering illness of three -weeks, and yet, upon dissection, the stomach was -found <em>highly vascular</em>. This is in direct opposition to -the theory of <i>Mr. Burns</i>, and, we must confess, is -not a little embarrassing. Where the gastric solution -has proceeded so far as to produce perforations -in its coats, <i>Mr. Hunter</i> states that, “the contents -of the stomach are generally found loose in the cavity -of the abdomen, about the spleen and diaphragm; -and that in many subjects this digestive power extends -much farther than through the stomach. I have often -found,” says he, “that after it had dissolved the stomach -at the usual place, the contents had come into -contact with the spleen and diaphragm, and had -partly dissolved the spleen, &c.” With respect to -the appearance of the gastric perforations, <i>Mr. -Hunter</i> characterises them as having “their edges apparently -half dissolved, very much resembling that -kind of dissolution which fleshy parts undergo when -half digested in a living stomach, viz. pulpy, tender, -and ragged.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>As certain corrosive poisons will occasionally produce -such organic lesions in the stomach, as lead to -perforations in its membranes, a question naturally -arises, <em>how are we to distinguish such disorganizations, -produced by causes acting during life, from those which -result from solution after death</em>? To this we may at -once return a general answer, that in a judicial investigation, -we ought not to attribute erosion of the -stomach to poison, except it be accompanied by evident -marks of previous inflammation and reaction, or -with gangrenous appearances; unless indeed the poisonous -<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>substance be found in the stomach, or the -symptoms, previous to death, be characteristic and -satisfactory. It has been stated that the edges of -the natural perforation are “pulpy, tender, and -ragged,” whereas those produced by the caustic action -of a poison will generally be found well defined, -and of the same thickness as any other part of the -stomach. But let it be remembered, that, after all, -it is upon the detection of poisonous matter in the -stomach, that the prudent physician will place his -great reliance. We have thus offered a review of the -different opinions which have been entertained upon -this important question, and in conclusion we may -observe, that there will necessarily exist in each particular -case, circumstances which no general views -can comprehend, and upon which the practitioner -must exercise his judgment and discretion. It is not -our intention at present to enter fully into the several -questions which were raised on the memorable trial -of <i>Charles Angus</i> for the murder of <i>Margaret Burns</i>, -but as we have already very frequently alluded to the -medical evidence delivered on this occasion, and as -we shall hereafter be called upon to notice some of its -more striking features, we have subjoined a report of -the trial, and of the unhappy and ill-conducted controversy -to which it has given origin.<a id='r191' /><a href='#f191' class='c011'><sup>[191]</sup></a> Whether -<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>the holes in the stomach were the effects of corrosive -poison or of that solvent action after death, which -we have just endeavoured to explain, must remain a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>matter of doubt, for the erosion in this case was so -considerable, and the inflammation so slight, that it -is impossible to assert that they both depended on the -same cause.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>With respect to the possibility of confounding the -appearances of gangrene, in the stomach, with those -of putrefaction, some notice is necessary in this place; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>and we cannot better illustrate the subject, than by -introducing the marks of discrimination which are -<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>considered by <i>Mahon</i><a id='r192' /><a href='#f192' class='c011'><sup>[192]</sup></a> as decisive upon such occasions. -The spots in the stomach, resulting from putrefaction, -says he, may be distinguished from those -which have resulted from violent causes, during life, -in the following manner. If the stomach retain its -natural colour, and the spots are mixed with a red -hue, or the ulcers have pale, or bright red edges, -such have been the effect of some violent impression -upon the living membrane; whereas, on the contrary, -if the stomach be pale, livid, or green, and -exhibit spots of the same colour, but of rather a -deeper hue, we may safely conclude that they are the -genuine phenomena of putrefaction. See the interesting -account of the dissection of <i>William Mitchell</i>, -p. 191.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span> - <h3 class='c013'>Q. 3. <i>Whether the rapid progress of putrefaction, in the body, generally, or in any particular part, is to be considered as affording presumptive evidence, in support of an accusation of poisoning?</i></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>There are few opinions more popular than that -which considers the speedy putrefaction of the body -as the universal and never failing consequence of poisoning. -To appreciate, however, the true value of -such an indication, and to avoid the fallacies with -which it is surrounded, it is essential to remember -that the body of a person dying suddenly, and in -what may be called full health, is very liable to run -rapidly into a state of decomposition. As far, however, -as our observations enable us to deduce any -conclusion, certain vegetable poisons appear to accelerate -such a change; for, very shortly after death, -the body, under such circumstances, will frequently -swell, become highly offensive, assume a black<a id='r193' /><a href='#f193' class='c011'><sup>[193]</sup></a> -appearance, and exhibit gangrenous spots on its surface. -No such appearances, however, it is said, -usually follow as the <em>specific</em> consequence of the fatal -operation of <em>mineral</em> poisons; <i>Dr. Jaeger</i> in an Inaugural -dissertation,<a id='r194' /><a href='#f194' class='c011'><sup>[194]</sup></a> which deserves to be better -<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>known, states, as the result of numerous experiments, -that the putrefaction of animal bodies, poisoned by -arsenic, whether buried or not, does not appear to -be either unusually accelerated or retarded; and he -moreover found that the generation of infusory animals, -the production of larvæ and subterraneous vegetation, -in and about the bodies of poisoned animals, -took place as usual; and he remarked that -“the immediate contact of an arsenical solution -seemed, in several instances, to retard, in some degree, -the putrefaction of the part to which it was -applied in sufficient quantity.” In the extraordinary -case examined by <i>Metzger</i>, in which the largest -quantity of arsenic ever, perhaps, taken into the stomach, -was found after death, the body was not opened -until eighteen days after dissolution, and yet, says -the anatomist, “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cadaver, quod mireris, sine ullo fœtore -aut putredinis signo erat, ut et absque maculis lividis, -si digitorum apices excipias</span></i>.” A case is also related -by <i>Dr. Yelloly</i>,<a id='r195' /><a href='#f195' class='c011'><sup>[195]</sup></a> in which death was occasioned -by arsenic, but where not the slightest appearance -of putrefaction was visible at the time of -examination, which did not take place until forty-nine -hours after death.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On the other hand, <i>Morgagni</i><a id='r196' /><a href='#f196' class='c011'><sup>[196]</sup></a> states that, on -dissecting a female who died from Arsenic, “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">facies -corporis posterior, ne suris quidem et calcibus exceptis, -tota erat nigra</span></i>.” And in the interesting -case of <i>William Mitchell</i>, as hereafter related, the -appearance of the body appears to have indicated that -decomposition had proceeded with more than ordinary -celerity.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The fact of accelerated, or retarded putrefaction, -therefore, cannot be received with any confidence as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>a collateral indication of poisoning. <i>Dr. Carson</i>, -however, in the trial of <i>Charles Angus</i>, adduced the -circumstance of its absence, as a negative proof that -the deceased had not been poisoned; and in the celebrated -Scotch trial of <i>Patrick Ogilvy</i>, and <i>Catharine -Nairne</i>,<a id='r197' /><a href='#f197' class='c011'><sup>[197]</sup></a> the same fact was forcibly urged in their -defence.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Gaspard à Reies</i>,<a id='r198' /><a href='#f198' class='c011'><sup>[198]</sup></a> and other writers, have maintained -that the discovery of <em>living</em> worms in the intestines -of a person, suspected to have died from poison, -ought to be received as a direct refutation of the -charge. We are, however, not disposed to concur -in such an opinion. With respect to the value of the -indication supposed to be afforded by the circumstance -of froth issuing from the mouth of the corpse, soon -after death, <i>Mr. Hunter</i> has given a very satisfactory -opinion, and to which we must refer the reader, see -<i>Appendix</i>, p. 273.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>Q. IV. <i>How far the absence of poison, or the inability of the chemist to detect it, in the body, or in the fluids ejected from it, is to be received as a negative to an accusation of poisoning?</i></h3> - -<p class='c014'>We have already stated, that of all the proofs -which can be adduced by the physician, in support of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>a charge of murder by poison, no one can be put in -competition with that which arises from the discovery -of the poisonous substance itself, in the stomach, or -in the contents of the matter ejected by vomiting or -purging. The law expects, therefore, that the professional -witness should be prepared to state, that -every experiment, calculated to detect the presence -of poison, has been scrupulously and faithfully performed; -and we may take this occasion to observe, -that the circumstance of advanced putrefaction can -rarely, in the present state of our chemical knowledge, -be admitted as a satisfactory plea for not having -proceeded to an anatomical inspection, as preliminary -to chemical inquiry; and, as to the danger of -such dissections, <i>Dr. Gordon Smith</i> has very truly -observed, “that much is placed to this account which -belongs merely to disgust.” Had an examination of -the body taken place in the case of <i>Ogilvy</i> and <i>Nairne</i>, -how many doubts would have been cleared away; -indeed, this omission afforded the prisoners a strong -ground of defence; they complained that the informer -had intentionally prevented the dissection of -the body, being conscious that the suspicions he had -raised, and the project he had formed for their ruin, -would, by such a measure, have been totally removed -and defeated. To this it was answered, that when -the informer (a younger brother of the deceased) arrived, -he did insist on the body being opened and -examined, as soon as a physician of eminence could -be present, which the prisoners did not then oppose; but -that when the physician arrived on the ensuing day, -he declared the body to be in such a putrid state, that -no certain conclusions could be drawn from outward -appearances, nor even from a dissection of the body, -which, besides, could not be performed with safety -<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>to the surgeon and attendants, and that he therefore -thought proper to decline the investigation. Fortunately -for the ends of justice, the circumstantial evidence -of guilt was too strong to be affected by this -culpable defect in the medical testimony, although -it has been often asserted that the prisoners should -have received the benefit of the omission by an acquittal. -See <i>Donellan’s</i> case in the <i>Appendix</i>, p. 243.</p> - -<p class='c000'>With respect to the mode of conducting a chemical -analysis upon these occasions, we have reserved our -directions, until we shall enter on the discussion of -poisons individually. We have, however, in this -place some remarks of a general nature to offer, to -which we are desirous of drawing the attention of -those, who, without much experience, may be called -upon to conduct such investigations. In the first -place, we are desirous of convincing him, that the -processes which he must institute, for the detection -of a mineral body, are by no means so elaborate and -embarrassing, as a superficial view of the subject may -lead him to conclude. During the progress of the -present work the author has repeatedly felt the truth -of the opinion which he is now expressing; for, like -<i>Becher</i>, he has laid down his pen, and taken up his -tests, and, by the most simple modes of manipulation, -has satisfied his own mind of the extreme delicacy of -the different processes which are recommended for -the detection of a poisonous mineral; in short, it is -very difficult to convince those whose chemical knowledge -is wholly theoretical, with how little trouble, -and with how much pleasure and profit, such experiments -may be conducted. If such then be the perfect -state at which our analytical knowledge has arrived, -the reader may perhaps conclude, that <em>in every -case of mineral poisoning the deleterious substance -<span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>should be found, and that the inability of the chemist to -detect its presence, should go far to negative the charge</em>. -Such an inference, however, is neither correct, nor -philosophical, for the poison may have been absorbed, -or eliminated, during life, it may have undergone -chemical changes, or it may have entered into combinations, -by which its characters are masked, or -wholly changed. To <i>Dr. Bostock</i> the judicial physician -is under many obligations, but there is no discovery -for which he is more deeply indebted to him, -than for that which has resulted from his satisfactory -experiments, in elucidation of the present question. -He has shewn, in the instance of <i>Corrosive Sublimate</i>,<a id='r199' /><a href='#f199' class='c011'><sup>[199]</sup></a> -that an animal may be suddenly killed by receiving -a metallic poison into the stomach, and yet that -the most delicate chemical re-agents may not be able -to detect any portion of such poison, after death, in -the contents of that viscus. <i>Dr. Henry</i>, in a letter -to <i>Dr. Duncan</i>,<a id='r200' /><a href='#f200' class='c011'><sup>[200]</sup></a> communicates the case of <i>Hannah -Tomlinson</i>, aged twenty, who died, under the care -of <i>Dr. Holme</i>, on the sixth day after a dose of -<i>Corrosive Sublimate</i>. In this case, although an -ounce of the mercurial salt had been swallowed, and -the fluid ejected from the stomach was examined, -only twelve hours afterwards, by <i>Drs. Henry</i> and -<i>Roget</i>, yet not the slightest trace of the poison could -be detected! More recently we have received from -the pen of <i>Mr. Alexander Murray</i>,<a id='r201' /><a href='#f201' class='c011'><sup>[201]</sup></a> surgeon of -Alford, some highly interesting cases of poisoning by -Arsenic, and which are so illustrative of the present -question, as well as several others that have fallen -under consideration, that no apology can be necessary -<span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>for introducing some account of them in this -place. A family of the name of <i>Mitchell</i>, and which -consisted of <i>William</i>, a robust man, aged 45, <i>James</i>, -æt: 52, <i>Mary</i>, æt: 50, and <i>Helen</i>, æt: 48, breakfasted -together on Sunday morning, (August 19, 1821) -on porridge, consisting of milk, salt, and meal. -<i>William</i> partook largely, but <i>James</i>, who perceived -“a sickening taste,” took less than common, while -the sisters had their usual quantity. <i>William</i> was -seized with sickness shortly afterwards, about 10 -<i>a. m.</i>, on his way to church, and then with thirst and -headache; and, on his return home, between three -and four in the afternoon, he was seized with vomiting, -which recurred often during the next four or -five days, especially on his attempting to quench his -thirst. In the early part of the week, he was heard -to complain of pain in his stomach, eyes, throat, -breast, and arms; he was observed to void his urine -frequently; and about this time, he pointed out to -one of his sisters a hollow<a id='r202' /><a href='#f202' class='c011'><sup>[202]</sup></a> between his breast and -belly, into which according to her expression, “she -could have laid her arm.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>His illness had scarcely at any time confined him to -bed. On the evening of Friday, the 24th of August, -he rode six miles, for the purpose of consulting <i>Mr. -Murray</i>, the surgeon, and reporter of the cases; on -Wednesday the 22d he had taken a dose of Epsom -salts which operated, and at the time <i>Mr. Murray</i> -first saw him he complained of the following symptoms:—pain -and heat in the region of the stomach -<span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>and lower part of the chest; occasional uneasiness -in the abdomen, and sometimes ineffectual efforts to -go to stool; thirst; difficulty of breathing; heat and -uneasiness of throat, with hoarseness; soreness of -eyes, which had the common appearance of inflammation; -shifting pains in his extremities, particularly -the arms, which had not their usual strength; great -restlessness; anxious expression of countenance; -pulse frequent, 100-110, not strong.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A blister was applied over the stomach and lower -part of the chest, and he took an opiate at bed time. -On the following day, (Saturday 25th) <i>Mr. Murray</i> -visited him at his own house, and found him nearly -as before, except that his countenance more strongly -exhibited a disturbed and anxious expression, and -the redness of the eyes, and the hoarseness were increased. -<i>Mr. Murray</i> also observed small roundish -white accuminated prominences, on the palate and -uvula, apparently as if the membrane covering the -palate bones and <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">velum pendulum</span></i>, was detached at the -parts by a whitish liquid. This day he took an ounce -of castor oil, which operated in the afternoon, his -illness was not observed to change during the evening, -and he retired at about eight o’clock to rest. At a -little past two in the morning, he rose in search of -water to drink, and on returning to bed he was heard -to utter a deep groan; after which he lay motionless -and quiet, and very soon was found to have expired. -The surgeon who saw the body, about 10 <i>a. m.</i>, states -that “<em>many bluish spots were observed on the inferior -extremities</em>.” <i>James</i>, <i>Mary</i>, and <i>Helen Mitchell</i> were -attacked the same forenoon with their brother -<i>William</i>, and with nearly similar symptoms; they -were all, however, fortunate enough to recover, although -a considerable period elapsed before their usual -<span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>strength returned, and in all of them a numbness of -the arms, or legs, occurred, together with a loss of -muscular power.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The body of <i>William Mitchell</i> was, owing to particular -circumstances, not opened until the 29th of -August, (3 days 8 hours after death) when the following -appearances presented themselves. “The -face had a natural, composed appearance; and the -rigidity of the body did not appear to be different -from what is common. The right ear, and corresponding -side of the face, as well as the scalp, exhibited -a deep clay-blue colour. On the chest and -belly, several spots and streaks, some green, others -blue, were observed; and the back, upon which the -body lay, was from head to foot of a livid colour; -while several roundish spots, of a still deeper hue, -gave to the shoulders and neck a mottled appearance. -The penis was much swollen and red. The -scrotum also was enlarged, and of a dark blue colour.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Upon opening the abdomen, the smell was not -unusually offensive, and its contents did not appear -to have undergone alteration after death, but several -ounces of a highly-coloured liquid were found in the -cavity. The surface of the jejunum and ilium presented -many purple spots, some of which were several -inches in circumference. The peritoneal surface -of the stomach, in a tract which extended from the -cardia, and occupied, for some distance downwards, -the whole circumference of that viscus, except the -small curvature, was of a clear, dark red colour; -and through this space dark lines, apparently veins, -were observed to ramify. This appearance, perhaps, -from 20 to 30 square inches in extent, was strongly -marked in contrast with the natural state of the inferior -extremity and small curvature. The substance -<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>connecting the stomach to the spleen, was, as well as -a small part of the transverse colon, of a red colour. -The spleen was gorged with blood; the liver healthy. -The duodenum, from a small distance below the pylorus, -almost to its inferior extremity, and round -nearly the whole intestine, was of a very dark purple -colour. Upon opening the stomach, the internal -surface of that part where the outward appearance, -already described, existed, was found of a bright -red colour, and over this lighter dots were thickly -scattered<a id='r203' /><a href='#f203' class='c011'><sup>[203]</sup></a>, making such an appearance as might -be produced by a red colour being dashed from a -painter’s pencil, upon a somewhat darker <em>ground</em>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The internal coats of the duodenum were very -dark coloured, with a slightly reddish hue, pulpy, -thickened, and easily separated from the peritoneal -covering, while in one roundish spot, of the size of a -crown piece, the villous and muscular coats were entirely -wanting. Red patches were observed on the -inner surface of the jejunum and ilium, the shape, -size, and situation of which were the same as those of -the appearances already noted as occurring on the -outside of these intestines. The stomach and duodenum -contained about a quart of a brown, semi-opaque, -thickish liquid; the jejunum and ilium were -empty, and coated with a yellow viscid matter. The -lungs and heart were quite healthy; but in the cavity -of the thorax were ten ounces of a reddish turbid -liquid, and about half that quantity in the pericardium. -The pharynx was of an <a id='unu'></a>unusually red colour. -The whole of the brain was healthy, and of -firm consistence.”</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span><i>Mr. Murray</i> concludes by stating that no part of -the salt and milk used on the sunday morning, was -to be found after he visited the family, and that although -the remainder of the meal, and also the contents -of <i>William Mitchell’s</i> stomach and duodenum -were examined by <i>Drs. Henderson</i> and <i>Fraser</i>, of -Aberdeen, as well as by <i>Mr. Craigie</i>, surgeon, who -assisted in the dissection, and <i>Mr. Alexander Murray</i>, -yet, “<em>no poisonous ingredient was detected in these -substances</em>.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The pathological and anatomical facts were, however, -in themselves, so striking and satisfactory, that -not the slightest doubt can exist as to the cause of -the sufferings and death of the deceased; while, as -<i>Mr. Murray</i> very justly states, the high probability, -arising from the separate symptoms of each individual, -is strengthened almost to certainty, by the simultaneous -occurrence of these in a whole family of four -persons; while no similar disease, indeed no epidemic -of any kind, prevailed at that time.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have only to add that the brother-in-law of this -family was, in October, 1821, tried before the Judiciary -Court at Aberdeen, for administering poison to -his four relations; when the testimony given by the -medical witnesses induced the judge and jury to consider -the abstract act of poisoning proved. The accused -afterwards confessed his guilt, and that he perpetrated -the crime by means of <em>Arsenic</em>, put among -the salt on the sunday morning on which the family -were taken ill.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The public, and the profession, are greatly indebted -to <i>Mr. Alexander Murray</i> for the details of -this instructive case; and the patient attention and -judgment with which he conducted the investigation, -deserve the highest commendation, and afford an example -<span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span>which we sincerely hope future practitioners -will endeavour to follow.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>Q. V. <i>What degree of information can be derived from administering the contents of the stomach of a person supposed to have been poisoned, to dogs, or other animals?</i></h3> - -<p class='c014'>It has from time immemorial been generally believed, -that no proof of poisoning is more satisfactory -than that which is furnished by the effects produced -upon dogs, by their swallowing the contents of -the stomach of persons who are supposed to have died -from poison. Writers on Forensic medicine have, -however, adduced several objections to the validity -of such a test; some of which are undoubtedly worthy <a id='of'></a>of -consideration, while others are the deductions of a -theory which receives no support from experience. -In the first place it has been stated, that substances -poisonous to man, will not always occasion deleterious -effects upon animals<a id='r204' /><a href='#f204' class='c011'><sup>[204]</sup></a>; this, to a certain extent, is -undoubtedly true; some of the <i>Ruminantia</i> appear to -be less sensible to the operation of narcotic plants, -than carnivorous animals. <i>Aloes</i> are injurious to dogs -and foxes. Oxen are said to eat the <i>Philandria Palustris</i>, -which is pernicious to horses; but we are -<span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span>very much inclined to believe that a poison sufficiently -powerful to destroy the life of a man, would if -administered in the same state of concentration, destroy -that also of an inferior animal. It is in smaller -doses only that the difference in the action of such bodies -upon various animals becomes evident and appreciable. -This opinion is confirmed by numerous -experiments. <i>Mr. John Hunter</i>, in his evidence<a id='r205' /><a href='#f205' class='c011'><sup>[205]</sup></a> -on the trial of <i>Donellan</i>, in answer to the question, -whether any certain conclusion can be drawn respecting -the poisonous operation of a substance upon man, -from its effects upon an animal of the brute creation, -replied, “<i>As far as my experience goes, which is not -a very confined one, because I have poisoned some thousands -of animals, they are very nearly the same; opium, -for instance, will poison a dog similar to a man; arsenic -will have very near the same effect upon a dog, as -it would have, I take it for granted, upon a man; I -know something of the effects of them, and I believe -their operations will be nearly similar.</i>” If any farther -confirmation of this opinion were required, how extensively -and satisfactorily has it been afforded by -the late experiments of <i>M. Orfila</i>.<a id='r206' /><a href='#f206' class='c011'><sup>[206]</sup></a> <i>Mr. Hunter</i> -also, on the memorable trial above mentioned, explained -a source of fallacy which attends such experiments -upon animals; he is asked “whether there -are not many things which kill animals almost instantaneously, -that will have no detrimental or noxious -effect upon a human subject, such, for instance, as -spirits?” He replies that a great deal depends upon -<span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span>the manner of conducting the experiment, and that -by forcing an animal to drink, the liquor often passes -into the lungs. See <i>Appendix</i>, <i>p.</i> 272. <i>Orfila</i>, in -his valuable work on poisons, instituted a series of -experiments upon this subject, with the intention of -determining the value of an experiment so generally -accredited; from which he <a id='is'></a>is led to conclude, 1st. -That the practitioner should never attempt by force -to make an animal swallow the suspected substance, -nor should he put it into his food; for by such a proceeding -he would not only run the hazard of losing -the greatest part of it, because the animal would reject -it, but the food with which it is combined might -exert upon it some chemical action, or so envelope it -as to protect the coats of the stomach from its contact; -besides which it would, says he, happen, at -least six times in ten, that a part of it would flow -through the larynx into the lungs, and the animal -will die of Asphyxia. 2d. The best method that can -be employed, consists in detaching the œsophagus, -perforating it with a small hole, introducing into it a -glass funnel, and pouring the liquid into the stomach; -that being done, the œsophagus is to be tied -below the opening. It would, observes <i>M. Orfila</i>, be -imprudent to prefer to this method, the use of an -elastic gum tube adapted to a syringe, for many bite -the tube, pierce it with holes, and the fluid then -flows out of the mouth; besides which, syringes of -tin might decompose certain poisonous fluids. The obvious -objection to such a mode of administration is anticipated -by this laborious experimenter with much ingenuity. -It may be asserted, says he, that the animal -perished from the operation of tying the œsophagus, -and not from the action of the poison thus -introduced into the stomach, but such an objection -<span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span>has no foundation in truth, for either the suspected -substance is in quantity sufficient to destroy the animal, -or it is not; in the first case death will take -place during the first forty-eight hours, and will be -preceded by symptoms more or less severe, a phenomenon -never observed in the simple ligature of the -œsophagus; in the second case, the experiment will -not be more conclusive, than if the œsophagus had -not been tied: and the author asserts, that the operation -of tying the œsophagus would not, of itself, produce -during the first forty-eight hours any other symptom -than a slight dejection, and that consequently all -other morbid phenomena that may be observed, upon -such trials, ought to be attributed to the poisonous -substance. To all this we reply, that we believe, -in the hands of <i>Orfila</i> who has made a thousand experiments, -that such results may be satisfactory, but -we feel no hesitation in declaring, that we should not -place the smallest reliance upon such an experiment -when conducted by a person unaccustomed to the -operations of experimental physiology. If there be -no other mode of employing an animal as a test for -poison, but by tying his œsophagus, we must, in a -judicial point of view, reject it altogether.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But there still remains another source of fallacy -connected with these experiments, to which considerable -importance has been attached. It has been -said that the acrid humours ejected from the stomach -of a person labouring under a <em>spontaneous</em> disease, -may kill an animal. <i>Morgagni</i><a id='r207' /><a href='#f207' class='c011'><sup>[207]</sup></a> relates a very remarkable -instance, in illustration of this fact. A -child having died of a fever was opened, when a -quantity of green bile was found in the stomach, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_197'>197</span>which changed the colour of the scalpel to violet; -having dipped the point of the knife into this bile, -two pigeons were wounded with it, and they soon -died in convulsions. The bile was then mixed with -some bread, and given to a cock, which also died in -the same manner. From this general view of the -subject before us, the forensic physician will be enabled -to appreciate its just value, and to apply the -indications it may furnish, in each particular case, -without the risk of error. In some instances such experiments -may prove nothing, in others they may afford -only equivocal results, but which may add something -to the general weight of circumstantial evidence; -while others, again, may furnish proofs so -unquestionable, as to leave no doubt upon the subject; -such was the case in the instance of <i>Michael -Whiting</i><a id='r208' /><a href='#f208' class='c011'><sup>[208]</sup></a>, who was convicted of administering corrosive -sublimate to his brothers-in-law, when it appeared -in evidence that a portion of the poisoned -dumpling was given to a sow, who in consequence -became sick, and remained ill for several days.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have now disposed of the several questions -connected with the subject of poisoning, which must -be regarded, in their forensic relations, as being of -the highest importance. In considering the subjects, -generally, there must necessarily remain doubts, -many of which will be considerably diminished, or -entirely removed, upon their application to particular -cases; still, however, the nature of medical evidence -upon such occasions must be frequently regarded -<span class='pageno' id='Page_198'>198</span>as only sustaining high probabilities, and the -professional witness may exclaim with <i>Hoffman</i><a id='r209' /><a href='#f209' class='c011'><sup>[209]</sup></a> -“<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ardua sane provincia ei imponitur cui determinandæ -ejusmodi quæstiones exhibentur.</span></i>”</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_199'>199</span> - <h2 class='c008'>ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF POISONS.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Poisonous substances have been very differently -arranged by different authors, each appearing to have -adopted a classification best suited to promote the -particular views and objects of his own pursuit; -thus, the botanist and chemist, engaged in the examination -of the physical characters by which poisons -may be individually distinguished and identified, have -very judiciously erected their system upon the basis -of natural history. The pathologist, whose leading -object is the investigation of the morbid effects which -follow the administration of these agents, with equal -propriety and justice prefers a classification deduced -from a generalization of the symptoms they are found -to occasion; while the physiologist, who seeks to ascertain -through what organs, and by what mechanism -they destroy life, may be reasonably expected to arrange -the different poisons under divisions corresponding -with the results of so interesting an inquiry.</p> - -<p class='c000'>To meet the comprehensive views of the forensic -toxicologist, an arrangement would seem to be required, -that should at once embrace the several objects -which we have just enumerated; for the data -from which the proof of poisoning is to be inferred, -are, as we have often stated, highly complicated in -their relations. No such classification, however, -can be accomplished, and we are therefore compelled -to select one which may approach the nearest to our -<span class='pageno' id='Page_200'>200</span>imaginary fabric. That which was proposed by <i>Fodéré</i>,<a id='r210' /><a href='#f210' class='c011'><sup>[210]</sup></a> -and adopted, with some trivial alteration in -the order of succession of the classes, by <i>Orfila</i>, in -his celebrated system of toxicology, although it has -many defects and some errors, nevertheless merits the -preference of the forensic physician; its basis is -strictly pathological, and yet it distributes the different -poisons, with some few and <a id='uni'></a>unimportant exceptions, -in an order corresponding with that of their -natural history.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The first two classes, for instance, present us with -substances of a mineral origin; the third and fourth, -with those which are principally of a vegetable nature; -and the sixth, with objects chiefly belonging -to the animal kingdom. The importance of acknowledging -a division, which has a reference to the three -great kingdoms of Nature, is perhaps greater than -the reader may anticipate; for in enumerating the -various experiments to be instituted for the detection -of poisons, we are, by such an arrangement, enabled -to bring together a connected series of processes, -nearly allied to, intimately connected with, and in -some respects, mutually dependant upon each other.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The following is the arrangement of <i>Fodéré</i> as modified -by <i>Orfila</i>: viz. Cl. I, <i>Corrosive</i>, or <i>Escharotic -poisons</i>. Cl. II, <i>Astringent poisons</i>. Cl. III, <i>Acrid</i> -or <i>Rubefacient poisons</i>. Cl. IV, <i>Narcotic</i> or <i>Stupefying -poisons</i>. Cl. V, <a id='nar'></a><i>Narcotico-Acrid poisons</i>. And -Cl. VI, <i>Septic</i> or <i>Putrefying poisons</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_201'>201</span>Class I. <span class='sc'>Corrosive</span> or <span class='sc'>Escharotic Poisons</span>. -Such as corrode and burn the textures to which they -are applied. When internally administered they give -origin to the following symptoms: violent pain accompanied -with a sense of heat and burning in the -stomach, and throughout the whole extent of the alimentary -canal; frequent vomitings, often sanguineous, -and alternating with bloody diarrhœa, with or -without tenesmus; the pulse hard, small, frequent, -and at length imperceptible; an icy coldness of the -body; cold sweats; a great anxiety and oppression -at the præcordia; and hiccup. Sometimes the heat -of the skin is intense, the thirst inextinguishable, -and the unhappy patient is tormented with Dysuria -and Ischuria, violent cramps in the extremities, and -horrid convulsions, which are relieved only by death. -Such are the general symptoms by which this species -of poisoning is characterised; the rapidity with which -the symptoms terminate their course, will depend -upon the violence of the dose, and the particular -species of poison which has produced them; there -are, moreover, other symptoms which will be more -conveniently described, when we come to speak of -the effects of corrosive poisons individually. In this -class are ranked the following substances. <span class='sc'>Metals.</span> -I. Arsenic—1. <i>Arsenious Acid</i>, or white oxide of Arsenic. -2. <i>Arsenites</i>, or combinations of that acid with -<i>salifiable bases</i>. 3. <i>Arsenic Acid.</i> 4. <i>Arseniates</i>, or -combination of the preceding acid with the bases. 5. -<i>Sulphurets of Arsenic</i>, or <i>Orpiment</i> and <i>Realgar</i>. -II. Mercury—1. <i>Corrosive Sublimate of Mercury</i>, or -<i>Oxy-muriate of Mercury</i>. 2. <i>Red Oxide of Mercury.</i> -3. <i>Red Precipitate</i>, or <i>Nitric Oxide of Mercury</i>. 4. -Other preparations of Mercury. III. Antimony—1. -<i>Tartarized Antimony</i>, or <i>Tartar Emetic</i>. 2. <i>Oxide</i> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_202'>202</span><i>of Antimony.</i> 3. <i>Antimonial Wine.</i> 4. <i>Muriate of -Antimony</i>, or <i>Butter of Antimony</i>. IV. Copper—1. -<i>Blue Vitriol</i>, or <i>Sulphate of Copper</i>. 2. <i>Verdegris.</i> -3. <i>Oxide of Copper.</i> 4. Other preparations of Copper. -V. Tin—1. <i>Muriate of Tin.</i> VI. Zinc—1. <i>Sulphate -of Zinc</i>, or <i>White Vitriol</i>. 2. <i>Oxide of Zinc.</i> VII. -Silver—1. <i>Nitrate of Silver</i>, or <i>Lunar Caustic</i>. The -Concentrated Acids—1. <i>Sulphuric.</i> 2. <i>Muriatic.</i> 3. -<i>Nitric.</i> 4. <i>Phosphoric</i>, &c. Hot Liquids—1. <i>Boiling -water.</i> 2. <i>Melted Lead.</i> The Caustic Alkalies—1. -<i>Potass.</i> 2. <i>Soda.</i> 3. <i>Ammonia.</i> The Caustic -Alkaline Earths—1. <i>Lime.</i> 2. <i>Baryta.</i> 3. <i>Muriate</i>, -and <i>Carbonate of Baryta</i>. Cantharides. Phosphorus.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Class II. <span class='sc'>Astringent Poisons.</span> They occasion -a remarkable and unrelenting constriction of the -great intestines, especially the colon, so as to resist -the operation of the most powerful cathartic remedies. -Violent cholics ensue, and partial paralysis; in the -end if the dose be sufficiently large, or if small doses -have been frequently repeated, they will excite inflammation -of the alimentary canal, but it is not succeeded -by that disorganization which generally characterises -the operation of poisons, belonging to the -preceding division. We rank under the present class -only the preparations of Lead, viz. 1, <i>Acetate of -Lead</i>, or <i>Sugar of Lead</i>; 2, <i>Oxides of Lead</i>; <i>Red -Lead</i>; <i>Litharge</i>; 3, Various Saturnine impregnations.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Class III. <span class='sc'>Acrid</span>, or <span class='sc'>Rubefacient Poisons</span>. -These poisons are known by their producing an acrid -taste, more or less pungent and bitter; a burning -heat, and considerable dryness in the mouth and -fauces; and a constriction, more or less painful, in -the throat. Acute pains are, after a short interval, -experienced in the stomach and bowels, which are -quickly followed by copious vomiting and purging, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_203'>203</span>and which continue, with the most painful efforts, -long after the alimentary canal has been completely -evacuated. A few hours after, phenomena are observed -which indicate a lesion of the nervous system, -such as vertigo, dilated pupils, dejection, insensibility, -laborious respiration, and death. The -lesions of texture, occasioned by the action of <i>Acrid</i> -poisons, have the greatest analogy to those produced -by <i>Corrosive</i> poisons; in fact, says <i>M. Orfila</i>, “we do -not hesitate to declare, that there exists a perfect -identity between the alterations of the digestive canal -produced by the poisons of these two classes, when -introduced into the stomach.” The substances included -under this class belong, for the most part, to -the vegetable kingdom, such as <i>Scammony</i>, <i>Camboge</i>, -<i>Black</i> and <i>White Hellebore</i>, <i>Bryony</i>, <i>Euphorbium</i>, -Seeds of the <i>Ricinus</i>, <i>Iatropa Curcas</i> (Indian nut), -<i>Croton Tiglium</i>, <i>Squill</i>, <i>Aconite</i>, &c. &c.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Class IV. <span class='sc'>Narcotic</span>, or <span class='sc'>Stupefying Poisons</span>. -Such as occasion stupor, drowsiness, paralysis, or -apoplexy, and convulsions. They do not produce -any change in the structure of parts to which they are -applied. <i>M. Orfila</i> has satisfactorily ascertained that -no alteration can be discovered, on dissection, in the -digestive canal of persons who have swallowed any -one of the poisonous substances of this class.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Class V. <span class='sc'>Narcotico-Acrid Poisons.</span> This division, -as its name implies, is intended to receive -such substances as produce the united effects of those -belonging to the two preceding classes, acting for -instance at the same time, as narcotics and rubefacients. -Amongst the articles of this class the following -may be enumerated, <i>Belladonna</i>, <i>Stramonium</i>, -<i>Tobacco</i>, <i>Foxglove</i>, <i>Hemlock</i>, <i>Nux Vomica</i>, <i>Camphor</i>, -<i>Cocculus Indicus</i>, certain <i>Mushrooms</i>, <i>Alcohol</i>, -&c. &c.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_204'>204</span>Class VI. <span class='sc'>Septic</span> and <span class='sc'>Putrefying Poisons</span>. -By this term are included those poisons which, according -to <i>Orfila</i>, “occasion a general debility, dissolution -of the humours, and syncope, but which do -not, in general, alter the intellectual faculties.” The -articles of this class belong almost entirely to the animal -kingdom, with the exception perhaps of a few -gaseous compounds, and the <i>Spurred Rye</i>, or <i>Ergot</i>, -viz. <i>venomous animals</i>; <i>animals whose fluids have been -depraved by antecedent disease</i>; <i>the poison of fishes</i>; -<i>substances in a state of putridity</i>; <i>Spurred Rye</i>, or -<i>Ergot</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Such is the classification which, for reasons already -stated, it is our intention to adopt on the present -occasion. We shall, however, in an additional -chapter, under the title of “<i>Aërial Poisons</i>,” treat -of those substances which are exclusively capable of -acting upon the body through the medium of the atmosphere, -or which require to be in a state of vapour, -or gas, to ensure their operation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>With regard to the classification of <i>Fodéré</i> and <i>Orfila</i>, -we must here observe that we follow it only conventionally, -and that, while we acknowledge it as being very -convenient for the consideration of poisons, in reference -to their forensic relations, yet we must not be -considered as insensible to its many defects and fallacies. -In the first place, it has little or no reference -to the enlarged views of the modern physiologist, respecting -the “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">modus operandi</span></i>” of poisons; nor indeed -is its construction susceptible of such modifications -and improvements, as can ever render its degree -of perfection progressive with the advancement of -science. In the next place, the classes are in many -particulars ill-defined, and indistinctly, if not erroneously, -divided. How questionable, for instance, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_205'>205</span>are the boundaries which separate <i>Corrosive</i> from -<i>Acrid</i> poisons? even the respective species of each -class are, in many instances, less allied to each -other than the great divisions to which they are subordinate. -As an exemplification of this fact we have -only to compare the physiological actions of <i>Arsenic</i> -and <i>Corrosive Sublimate</i>; the former of these substances -occasions death by being absorbed, and thus -acting as a vital agent, the latter, by its local action -as a caustic on the textures with which it comes in -contact. In the same manner, if we examine the individual -actions of the different species composing the -class of “<i>Acrid</i>” poisons, we shall find the same -want of uniformity; thus the <i>Spurge-flax</i>, and the -<i>Jatropa Curcas</i> act by occasioning a local inflammation, -while the <i>Hellebore</i>, being rapidly absorbed, -exerts a fatal action on the nervous system, and produces -only a very slight inflammation. The class of -Narcotic poisons is more absolute in its definition, -and more uniform in its physiological affinities, and -therefore less objectionable, than the divisions to -which we have just alluded; but the propriety of the -term “<i>Narcotico-Acrid</i>” may be very reasonably -questioned;<a id='r211' /><a href='#f211' class='c011'><sup>[211]</sup></a> even <i>Orfila</i> expresses his doubts upon -the subject, “because the narcotic or sedative effects -only follow the previous excitement.” Some of the -poisons, under this last mentioned class, are rapidly -absorbed, and act, through the medium of the circulation, -on the nervous system, without producing -any local inflammation; whilst others, again, merely -act upon the extremities of the nerves, with which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_206'>206</span>they come in contact, and without being absorbed, -occasion death by a species of sympathetic action.</p> - -<p class='c000'>These few objections, and many more might be -adduced, are sufficient to demonstrate the imperfection -of the classification under consideration, and -which would render it wholly unavailable to the pathologist -who must adopt his treatment according to -the physiological action of each poison. The author -has accordingly, in his “Pharmacologia”<a id='r212' /><a href='#f212' class='c011'><sup>[212]</sup></a> ventured -to propose an arrangement, in conformity -with such views; and the following sketch of it may -perhaps form a useful introduction to the general observations -which it will be hereafter necessary to offer -upon the “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">modus operandi</span></i>” of poisons.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_207'>207</span> - <h2 class='c008'>A CLASSIFICATION OF THE DIFFERENT MODES BY WHICH POISONS PRODUCE THEIR EFFECTS.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>† This mark denotes that the substance, against which it is placed, -may also act by being absorbed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>‡ Signifies that the article has also a local action.</p> - -<p class='c015'>I. BY ACTING THROUGH THE MEDIUM OF THE NERVES, -WITHOUT BEING ABSORBED, AND WITHOUT EXCITING -ANY LOCAL INFLAMMATION.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>a. <i>By which the functions of the nervous system are destroyed.</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='lg-container-b c003'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><b>Acrid.</b></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>Aconite.</div> - <div class='line'>Jatropa Curcas.</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line c003'><b>Narcotico-Acrid.</b></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>Alcohol.</div> - <div class='line'>Oil of Tobacco.</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line c003'><b>Narcotic.</b></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>Essential Oil of Almonds.†</div> - <div class='line'>Camphor.†</div> - <div class='line'>Opium†?</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>b. <i>By rendering the heart insensible to the stimulus of the blood.</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='lg-container-b'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>Infusion of Tobacco.</div> - <div class='line'><i>Upas Antiar.</i></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c015'>II. BY ENTERING THE CIRCULATION, AND ACTING THROUGH -THAT MEDIUM WITH DIFFERENT DEGREES OF FORCE, ON -THE HEART, BRAIN, AND ALIMENTARY CANAL.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><b>Corrosive.</b></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>Arsenic.</div> - <div class='line'>Emetic Tartar.</div> - <div class='line'>Muriate of Baryta.</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line c003'><b>Acrid.</b></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>Hellebore.</div> - <div class='line'>Savine.</div> - <div class='line'>Meadow Saffron.</div> - <div class='line'>Squill.</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line c003'><b>Narcotic.</b></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>Opium.‡</div> - <div class='line'>Lettuce.</div> - <div class='line'>Henbane.</div> - <div class='line'>Prussic acid.</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line c003'><b>Narcotico-Acrid.</b></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>Deadly Nightshade.‡</div> - <div class='line'>Hemlock.</div> - <div class='line'>Camphor.‡</div> - <div class='line'>Cocculus Indicus.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c015'>III. BY A LOCAL ACTION ON THE MUCOUS MEMBRANE OF -THE STOMACH, EXCITING A HIGH DEGREE OF INFLAMMATION.</p> -<div class='lg-container-b'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><b>Corrosive.</b></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>Corrosive Sublimate.†</div> - <div class='line'>Verdegris.</div> - <div class='line'>Muriate and</div> - <div class='line'>Oxide of Tin.</div> - <div class='line'>Sulphate of Zinc.</div> - <div class='line'>Nitrate of Silver.</div> - <div class='line'>Acids.</div> - <div class='line'>Alkalies.</div> - <div class='line'>Cantharides.†</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line c003'><b>Acrid.</b></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>Bryony.</div> - <div class='line'>Elaterium.†</div> - <div class='line'>Colocynth.†</div> - <div class='line'>Camboge.</div> - <div class='line'>Euphorbium.</div> - <div class='line'>Hedge Hyssop.</div> - <div class='line'>Croton Tiglium.</div> - <div class='line'>Ranunculi.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_208'>208</span>The preceding classification of poisons will not -only furnish the practitioner with a general theorem -for the administration of antidotes, but it will suggest -the different modes and forms of administration -of which each particular substance is susceptible; it -will shew, that certain poisons may occasion death -without coming into contact with any part of the alimentary -canal, and that others will produce little -or no effect, however extensively they may be applied -to an external surface. The first class comprehends -such poisons as operate, through the medium -of the nerves, upon the organs immediately subservient -to life; in the application of such agents it is -obvious that they cannot require to be introduced into -the stomach, they may convey their destructive influence -by an application to any part duly supplied -with nerves, and whose extremities are exposed to -their action; although at the same time, it may be -observed that, in general, poisons of this kind act -most powerfully when internally administered, owing -to the extensive sympathetic relations of this central -organ over every function of the living body. The -second class consists of poisons that are incapable of -producing any effect, except through the medium of -the circulation; whence we shall be enabled to explain -and appreciate the various circumstances which may -accelerate or retard their operation. Poisons of this -class may be applied externally to abraded parts, or -even to surfaces covered with cuticle, provided their -absorption be promoted by friction; and it may be -here observed, that the function of absorption is not -performed with the same force in every tissue; as a -general proposition it may be said to be energetic in -proportion to the number of lymphatics and veins, -although the late experiments of <i>M. Majendie</i> have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_209'>209</span>shewn how greatly it is influenced by the state of the -circulation.<a id='r213' /><a href='#f213' class='c011'><sup>[213]</sup></a> If these poisons be administered internally, -they find their way into the circulating current -either through the branches of the thoracic duct, or -those of the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">venæ portarum</span></i>; when, as if by a species -of election, each substance very frequently expends -its venom upon some one particular system of organs. -Many of the substances arranged under this second -division, have moreover a local effect upon the structure -with which they first come in contact; it is thus -with <i>Colocynth</i>, and some other bodies; while on the -contrary, several of those poisons which are distinguished -for their <em>local action</em>, are subsequently absorbed, -and are thus as it were enabled to ensure -their work of destruction by a double mode of operation. -We shall receive ample evidence of this truth, -as we proceed in the history of particular poisons. -The third class comprises such agents as inflict their -vengeance upon the mucous membrane of the stomach, -by actual contact, and destroy, by exciting -local inflammation.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c008'><i>MINERAL POISONS.</i></h2> -</div> -<p class='c010'>Under this head is included the greater proportion -of those substances which are employed as the instruments -of crime; for they are generally of easy access, -require but little preparation, and are so destructive in -small doses, and, at the same time, so little disgusting -in flavour, as to furnish the assassin with the sure and -secret means of destruction. Fortunately, however, -for the ends of justice, such agents are pre-eminently -the objects of successful analysis. In treating of the -history of the individual substances derived from this -<span class='pageno' id='Page_210'>210</span>kingdom, we shall consider, 1st. their <i>external characters</i>, -such as form, colour, odour, taste, specific gravity; -2d. their <i>chemical composition, and habitudes</i>; -3d. <i>the tests by which their presence may be recognised</i>; -<i>4th. the symptoms which they occasion</i>; <i>5th. -their physiological action</i>; <i>6th. their different modes -and forms of application</i>; <i>7th. the lesions of structure -they occasion</i>; <i>8th. the phenomena presented on dissection</i>.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>Cl. 1. CORROSIVE POISONS.</h3> -<h4 class='c016'>ARSENIC.</h4> - -<p class='c014'>The greek <a id='wor'></a>word Αρσενικον was employed by <i>Dioscorides</i>, -and other writers of that period, to denote a -particular mineral of a reddish colour, which <i>Aristotle</i> -had already described by the name of σανδαρακη,<a id='r214' /><a href='#f214' class='c011'><sup>[214]</sup></a> -and his disciple <i>Theophrastus</i>, by that of αρρενικον. -It was employed by the ancients both as a pigment -and as a medicine, and appears to have been a compound -of Sulphur, and a peculiar metal, to which -the name of <i>Arsenic</i> is now exclusively applied. At -what period this metal was first discovered seems -very doubtful; and although a process for obtaining -it is described in the Pharmacopœia of <i>Schroeder</i>, published -in 1649, yet its peculiar nature was examined, -for the first time by <i>Brandt</i>, in 1733.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The metal, Arsenic, is distinguished by the following -properties, viz.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_211'>211</span>It has a bluish-grey colour, not unlike that of steel, -and a considerable lustre; its texture is grained, and -sometimes scaly; its hardness not very considerable, -but its fragility is so great that it falls to pieces under -a moderate blow of the hammer, and admits of being -easily reduced to a very fine powder; according to -<i>Bergman</i> its specific gravity is 8·31. When cold, it -emits no sensible odour, but if heated, it yields a -strong <i>alliaceous</i>, or garlic-like smell, which is to be -considered as the most characteristic of its properties. -Its point of fusion is unknown, for it is the most volatile -of all the metals, and sublimes, before it melts, -at the temperature of 540° Fah., and if the process be -conducted slowly in close vessels, the metallic sublimate -will assume a <a id='tet'></a><i>tetrahedral</i><a id='r215' /><a href='#f215' class='c011'><sup>[215]</sup></a> form of crystallization; -if the air be admitted, and the temperature -still farther raised, it will burn with an obscure -bluish flame.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Arsenic is extremely susceptible of oxidation, and, -by mere exposure to the air, shortly loses its metallic -lustre; and yet it may be kept under the surface of -<em>cold</em> water, for any length of time without exhibiting -the signs of oxidation, or solution; a covering of -this fluid, or of alcohol, is therefore considered as -affording the best means of preserving the metal in a -state of integrity.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Arsenic is capable of combining with two proportions -of oxygen, and of forming two definite compounds, -which we shall hereafter consider under the -title of <i>Arsenious</i> and <i>Arsenic</i> acids. The substance -described by some authors as the <i>black oxide</i> of this -metal would seem to be an indefinite mixture of the -metal itself, and the arsenious acid.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_212'>212</span>Arsenic does not appear to possess any deleterious -properties, but it is almost impossible to reduce the -metal to powder, so as to adapt it for exhibition without -its becoming oxidized. <i>M. Renault</i> therefore, in -order to decide the question, had recourse to its alloys; -and he found that <i>Mispickel</i> (an alloy of Arsenic -and Iron), when given to the extent even of two -drachms, scarcely produced any effect; a result -which very satisfactorily accords with the conclusion -drawn by <i>Bayen</i>, in his work on Tin, and which -proves that the arsenic contained in that metal, need -not excite the least alarm, since it exists in a metallic -state. We have upon another occasion<a id='r216' /><a href='#f216' class='c011'><sup>[216]</sup></a> observed, -that the vapours characterised by an alliaceous odour -are probably less noxious than the arsenical fumes -which are inodorous; and that the little injury experienced -by workmen who solder silver filligree with -an arsenical alloy, may probably depend upon the deoxidized -state of its fumes.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'>ARSENIOUS ACID, or WHITE OXIDE OF ARSENIC.</h5> - -<p class='c014'>This is justly considered as the most fatal of all -mineral poisons, and is the one more frequently -selected than any other, as the instrument of assassination -and suicide; while its numerous applications -in medicine and the arts, by making it an article of -general and indiscriminate sale, have rendered it an -accidental as well as criminal source of suffering and -death.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is seldom prepared by the chemist, since it exists -in a native state, and is moreover procured abundantly -and economically, during the extraction of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_213'>213</span>other metals from their ores.<a id='r217' /><a href='#f217' class='c011'><sup>[217]</sup></a> In the commercial -world the substance is still known by the name of -<i>White Arsenic</i>; and continues to be expressed in popular -language, by the simple term <i>Arsenic</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It generally occurs in the form of white compact -masses, opaque on their exterior surface; transparent, -and presenting a vitrified aspect in the interior. Its -taste is acrid and corrosive, but not to a degree corresponding -with its virulence. <i>Specific gravity</i> 3·7. When -reduced to powder it bears a strong resemblance to refined -sugar, for which it has sometimes been fatally -mistaken, and with which it has been often mingled for -criminal purposes. At the temperature of 383° <i>Fah.</i> -it is volatilized, and is capable of crystallizing in -tetrahedrons with truncated angles, or rather in octohedrons; -by a strong heat, in close vessels, it is vitrified -and becomes pellucid, and acquires the specific -gravity 5·000<a id='r218' /><a href='#f218' class='c011'><sup>[218]</sup></a>; but when exposed to the air, it shortly -returns to its former appearance. <em>In the state of vapour -it is quite inodorous</em>, although the contrary is -positively asserted in several chemical works of high -authority, and it is stated to be characterised by a -smell like that of garlic; the fact is, that the <em>alliaceous -or garlic-like smell is wholly confined to metallic -arsenic in a state of vapour</em>; and whenever the arsenious -<span class='pageno' id='Page_214'>214</span>acid seems to yield such an odour, we may very -confidently conclude that its decomposition has taken -place, and that it has been reduced to its <em>metallic</em> -state. Such a reduction will generally happen when -it is projected upon ignited charcoal, or when heated -in contact with those metallic bodies which readily -unite with oxygen, such as <i>Antimony</i>, <i>Zinc</i>, &c. -It is stated by <i>Orfila</i> and other writers, that if it be -projected upon heated copper the alliaceous odour is -evolved. This assertion is undoubtedly true, but -the fact requires to be explained with more precision, -or we may fall into an important error respecting it. -The author has shewn by several experiments, already -published in his <i>Pharmacologia</i>,<a id='r219' /><a href='#f219' class='c011'><sup>[219]</sup></a> that the phenomenon -takes place only when the copper is in a state -of ignition, at which temperature its affinity for oxygen -enables it to reduce the arsenious acid, and consequently -to develope the metallic odour. We have -ascertained by repeated experiments that if a few -grains of arsenious acid be heated on a plate of copper, -by means of a spirit lamp or the blow-pipe, no -odour is perceptible; for, in this case, the whole of -the acid will be dissipated before the copper can -acquire a temperature sufficiently exalted to deoxidize, -and reduce it. If the arsenious acid be heated -on a plate of zinc, the smell will not be evolved -until the latter metal is in the state of fusion. If, -instead of the foregoing surfaces, we employ in our -experiments those of gold, silver, or platina, no alliaceous -smell whatever is produced, at any temperature, -provided every source of fallacy be carefully -avoided; but it deserves particular notice, that the -author has found the flame of the spirit lamp to be in -itself, capable of decomposing the arsenious acid, in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_215'>215</span>consequence, it is presumed, of the operation of its -hydrogen;<a id='r220' /><a href='#f220' class='c011'><sup>[220]</sup></a> a fact which is very likely to betray the -experimenter, as in the first instance it did the -author, into a belief that the arsenious acid does -actually yield the odour in question.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The term Arsenious <em>acid</em> was first bestowed upon -this substance by <i>Fourcroy</i>, since it was found to possess -many of the essential habitudes of an acid; as -for instance, that of combining with the pure alkalies -to saturation. It dissolves in water; but, according -to <i>Klaproth</i>, although it requires for its solution 400 -parts of that fluid, at the temperature of 60° <i>Fah.</i> it -requires not more than 13, at 212°; and it moreover -appears that if 100 parts of water be boiled on the arsenious -acid, and suffered to cool, it will retain 3 -grains in solution, and deposit the remainder in -crystals. This fact shews the great importance -of employing boiling water in every chemical examination -of substances supposed to contain arsenic. It -proves also that a fatal dose of the poisonous mineral -may be very easily administered in any watery vehicle, -a fact which was denied on the trial of <i>Ogilvy</i> -and <i>Nairne</i><a id='r221' /><a href='#f221' class='c011'><sup>[221]</sup></a> by <i>Dr. James Scott</i>, who deposed that -“Arsenic would not dissolve in warm water, but almost -instantly subside to the bottom of the vessel,” -although, at the same time, he acknowledged that -“if it were put into tea with milk and sugar, and -stirred about, it <em>might</em> be suspended long enough to -kill those who should drink the potion.” It is soluble -in alcohol, and in fixed oils, the former taking up -<span class='pageno' id='Page_216'>216</span>two per cent. By the addition of an alkali, an <i>arsenite</i> -of great solubility will result, and a solution of -extreme virulence may be thus effected. With <i>lime-water</i> -arsenious acid produces a white precipitate of -<i>arsenite of lime</i>, but which is soluble in an excess of -the acid. With <i>magnesia</i> it also forms a very soluble, -and extremely active, <i>arsenite</i>.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of Poisoning by the Arsenious Acid.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'><i>Hahnemann</i>, in his work on Arsenic, proposes a -classification of its effects founded on their relative -duration and violence, and which it is our intention -to adopt on the present occasion, without any other -alteration than that of reversing the order of the -classes.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Poisoning by Arsenic may accordingly be considered -as admitting of three degrees of intensity, viz. 1st. -Where the case, although attended with dangerous -symptoms, does not terminate fatally. 2d. Where -death does not follow until after a lapse of twenty-four -hours. 3d. Where death takes place within -twenty-four hours after the exhibition of the poison.</p> - -<p class='c000'>1. <i>Symptoms of the first and lowest degree.</i> In the -slighter cases in which the operation of arsenic is recorded -as producing poisonous effects, the symptoms -were, uneasiness of the præcordia; cholics; thickness, -redness, and stiffness of the palpebræ; soreness of -the gums; ptyalism; itching over the surface of the -body, sometimes attended with a slight eruption; -restlessness; cough; head-ache; strangury, and <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ardor -urinæ</span></i>. Where the dose of poison has been somewhat -greater, although still inadequate to the destruction -of life, violent vomiting is commonly the -first symptom, preceded in some instances with a -sense of heat and dryness in the fauces; in such -<span class='pageno' id='Page_217'>217</span>cases where the vomiting has very shortly succeeded -the ingestion of the Arsenic, and the stomach has at -the same time been filled with food, the patient may -owe his escape to the poison being discharged before -it had time to act. <i>Morgagni</i> relates a case of poisoning -at an Italian feast, where the dessert was intentionally -sprinkled with Arsenic instead of flour; -those who had previously eaten but little speedily perished, -but those who had eaten heartily were saved -by vomiting. Although in this degree of poisoning -the life of the patient may be spared, yet a variety -of <em>consecutive</em> symptoms may continue to harrass -him for a longer or shorter period, such as indigestion, -debility, partial paralysis, and epilepsy. The -history<a id='r222' /><a href='#f222' class='c011'><sup>[222]</sup></a> of the cases of <i>Mr. Turner</i> and his family, -of Chancery lane, for the poisoning of whom <i>Eliza -Fenning</i> was executed, will afford a striking illustration -of this fact. The hair of the head has also been -<a id='obs'></a>observed, in some cases, to fall off. <i>Dr. Male</i> is also -of opinion that the long protracted and injudicious -use of this mineral, as a medicine, will induce exostosis -and caries of the bones.</p> - -<p class='c000'>2. <i>Symptoms of the second degree.</i> In this case -where the patient lives two or three days, or perhaps -longer, as in the case of <i>William Mitchell</i> above described -(p. <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>), the earliest symptoms are heat and -thirst, or vomiting, and inexpressible uneasiness and -anxiety, the former of which is less frequently observed -than the two latter; purging, or sometimes a -repeated but ineffectual desire to go to stool; wandering -pains; quick, but feeble pulse; head-ache; distended -and painful abdomen; priapism; towards the -close of the scene the patient often becomes more tranquil -and is inclined to sleep, although, in some instances, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_218'>218</span>the pains, attended with convulsions, continue -to the latest moments. In general, death takes place -suddenly. In cases where the effects of the poison are -not immediately fatal, we must necessarily expect -the occurrence of many phenomena, indicative of the -re-action of the system, and which will be better -illustrated by a reference to the history of individual -cases, such for instance, as those of <i>William Mitchell</i>, -(p. <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>) and <i>Mr. Blandy</i>, (<i>Appendix</i>) than by any -general description which can be given in this place. -It is also worthy remark that in such cases, from the -length of time, there will necessarily occur a greater -opportunity for the co-operation of other contingent -causes, whether they be connected with previously -existing diseases, or the action of remedies; and the -intelligent practitioner will not neglect to appreciate -their influence in modifying the character of each -particular case. There are besides symptoms highly -characteristic when they do arise, but which are of -comparatively rare occurrence, such as the ulcerated -condition of the fundament, as in the case of <i>Mr. -Blandy</i>, and the inflamed eyes and state of the mucous -membranes, in that of <i>William Mitchell</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>3. <i>Symptoms of the third and highest degree.</i> Soon -after a large dose of Arsenic has been swallowed, an -austere taste, and a sense of heat and constriction of -the pharynx and œsophagus are perceived; in a short -period excruciating pains in the stomach and bowels, -accompanied with vomiting of the most violent character, -the matter voided being generally of a brown -colour, and not unfrequently mixed with blood; with -these symptoms are conjoined an inexpressible anxiety -about the præcordia, and frequent faintings; the -stomach at the same time acquires such a high degree -of irritability, as to reject the mildest fluids. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_219'>219</span>The alvine discharges now become frequent and painful, -and consist of dark and extremely fœtid matter, -frequently mixed with blood. The thirst is unquenchable, -and the heat of the surface becomes extreme. -The pulse is small, frequent, and irregular; -palpitations of the heart, violent cramps in the legs, -sometimes a painful strangury and bloody micturition -ensue. The powers of life begin to fail, respiration -becomes laborious, cold sweats break out, -hiccup occurs, the countenance assumes a singular -character of anxiety and distress, a livid circle appears -around the eyes, the pulse is imperceptible, -the body swells and sometimes becomes covered with -a species of miliary eruption, or with dark purple -spots. In some cases convulsions ensue, but delirium, -or loss of reason, is very rarely the consequence -of this species of poisoning, and the unfortunate -sufferer is conscious until a few moments before -the termination of his existence. Such are the general -symptoms, but it is rare to see them all united in -the same case; sometimes the greater part of them -are absent. <i>M. Chaussier</i> reports the case of a robust -middle aged man, who swallowed a quantity of -arsenious acid in large lumps, and died without discovering -any other symptom than slight syncope; other -cases are related where only vomiting and purging<a id='r223' /><a href='#f223' class='c011'><sup>[223]</sup></a> -have been observed, and the symptoms have been -mistaken for those of <i>cholera spontanea</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The practitioner is therefore not to withhold his -belief in a case of poisoning, on account of the absence -of several of those symptoms which are enumerated -in systematic works on Toxicology.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is only by the study of individual cases, that he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_220'>220</span>can learn to appreciate the just value of those pathognomonic -combinations which afford the least exceptionable -evidence upon such occasions.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>The different modes of Poisoning by Arsenious Acid.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>It has been proved by numerous experiments that -the life of an animal may be destroyed with equal -certainty by arsenious acid, whether it be <em>internally</em> -administered, or <em>externally</em> applied to abraded surfaces, -sores, or bleeding wounds; and it has been, -moreover, shewn, that in either instance the symptoms -will be analogous, except in the latter case they -will often be more rapid in their course.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Lionardo di Capoa</i> relates the case of a child killed -by the violent vomiting and purging arising from a -slight wound made in the head by a comb, wet with -oil in which arsenic had been infused for the purpose -of killing vermin; and we have numerous instances -on record, where the application of arsenical -cerates and ointments has been followed by violent -and dangerous symptoms. We also learn from the -different historians of the Plague of London, that the -arsenical amulets which were worn, as preservatives, -on that occasion, were sometimes attended with deleterious -consequences; <i>Crato</i><a id='r224' /><a href='#f224' class='c011'><sup>[224]</sup></a> observed an ulcer of -the breast produced by them. <i>Verzascha</i>, violent pains -and syncope. <i>Diemerbroeck</i>,<a id='r225' /><a href='#f225' class='c011'><sup>[225]</sup></a> and Dr. <i>Hodges</i>,<a id='r226' /><a href='#f226' class='c011'><sup>[226]</sup></a> -death itself. Amongst the foreign authors who have -related cases of poisoning by the external application -of arsenic we may mention <i>Desgranges</i>,<a id='r227' /><a href='#f227' class='c011'><sup>[227]</sup></a> who records -the history of a chambermaid, poisoned by having -<span class='pageno' id='Page_221'>221</span>rubbed her head with an arsenical ointment for -the purpose of destroying vermin; and <i>Roux</i>,<a id='r228' /><a href='#f228' class='c011'><sup>[228]</sup></a> who -confessed to have killed a girl of eighteen by an application -of the “<i>Pâte Arsenicale</i>” to a cancerous -breast. <i>M. Renault</i> has also given us the results of -his experiments upon Arsenic when applied externally -to dogs; when the skin was sound, it excited a -pustular eruption without inflammation; but, when -the skin was broken, more serious effects followed, -both general and local, and in some cases death.<a id='r229' /><a href='#f229' class='c011'><sup>[229]</sup></a>. -In an experiment performed by Mr. <i>Hunter</i>, -and Mr. <i>Home</i>, in which arsenic was applied to a -wound in a dog, the animal died in twenty-four hours, -and the stomach was found to be considerably inflamed. -Mr. <i>Brodie</i> repeated the experiment several -times, always with the precaution of tying a bandage, -to prevent the animal licking the wound; the results -were uniform; the stomach was, in every case, not -only more violently, but more rapidly, inflamed, than -when the poison had been internally administered, and -it even preceded any inflammatory appearance of -the wound. In the <cite>Journal de Medecine</cite>, the following -case is related of a woman who was killed by her -husband having insinuated powdered arsenic into the -vagina,<a id='r230' /><a href='#f230' class='c011'><sup>[230]</sup></a> at the moment of enjoying the conjugal -<span class='pageno' id='Page_222'>222</span>rites. “A woman at <i>Leneux, departement de l’Ourthe</i>, -aged forty, having died after a short illness, attended -with considerable tumefaction of the genital parts, -uterine hemorrhage, vomiting, and purging, the body -was inspected by order of the mayor, when the surgeons -reported that they found the vulva in a state -of gangrene, the abdomen much distended with air, -and the intestines inflamed and gangrenous. The -culprit was arrested, convicted, and executed.” In -the <cite>Acts of the Society of Copenhagen</cite>, a similar crime -stands recorded, and which was also committed by a -peasant; in this latter case, although some small -pieces of arsenic were found within the vagina, yet -some doubts arose respecting the possibility of such -a species of poisoning, and the magistrates accordingly -consulted the College of Medicine of Copenhagen, -who decided the question in the affirmative, -having first instituted a series of experiments upon -horses.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Death may also be produced by the introduction -of arsenic into the rectum; it is said that Sir <i>Thomas -Overbury</i>, after the failure of the various poisons<a id='r231' /><a href='#f231' class='c011'><sup>[231]</sup></a> -that were administered to him, was at last despatched -by an arsenical glyster.</p> - -<p class='c000'>With respect to the quantity of arsenic required -for the production of such effects it is difficult to offer -a decided opinion, as its operation must in every case -be liable to contingency; but a very few grains are -in general amply sufficient.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_223'>223</span> - <h6 class='c016'><i>Physiological action of Arsenious Acid.</i></h6> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>It had long been supposed that arsenic occasioned -death by inflaming the stomach; but Mr. <i>Brodie</i><a id='r232' /><a href='#f232' class='c011'><sup>[232]</sup></a> -has very satisfactorily proved, that its influence arises -from its being absorbed, and that it must be regarded -as a <em>vital</em> rather than as a <em>chemical</em> agent, and as having -a constitutional, not a local mode of operation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the first place, he has in many instances found -the inflammation of the stomach so slight,<a id='r233' /><a href='#f233' class='c011'><sup>[233]</sup></a> that on -a superficial examination it might have been easily -overlooked; and in most of his experiments with -arsenic, death took place in too short a period to be -considered as the mere effect of inflammation. In the -next place we have already shewn that in whatever -manner the poison is applied, whether <em>externally</em> to a -wound, or <em>internally</em>, to the alimentary canal, the -same inflammatory appearance will be visible in the -stomach; a fact which can only be explained by admitting -that the poison is absorbed, and that it acts -upon these organs through the medium of the circulation; -it acts at the same time upon the brain, and heart, -but with different degrees of force in different cases; so -that it is sometimes difficult to ascertain which of these -organs is the first to fail in its functions. According -then to these experiments and observations, inflammation -of the alimentary canal is not to be considered -as the general cause of death in poisoning by arsenic; -and yet cases will occur, where the local affection -<span class='pageno' id='Page_224'>224</span>may prove fatal, the animal having survived the effects -produced on the organs more immediately subservient -to life, as the brain and heart. Mr. <i>Henry Earle</i> -communicated to Mr. <i>Brodie</i> a case highly illustrative -of this fact, which occurred in St. Bartholomew’s hospital; -a woman had taken arsenic, and having recovered -from the alarming symptoms which first occurred, -died at the end of four or five days, when -upon dissection, there appeared extensive ulcerations -of the stomach and bowels. This then was evidently -a case of “<i>Consecutive</i>” poisoning.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The dissertation of <i>Dr. Jaeger</i>, to which we have -before alluded, contains the result of a very extensive -series of experiments, in illustration of the physiological -action of the arsenic. He diligently examined -its effects upon all classes of organized beings, as well -of the vegetable as of the animal kingdoms. The -general conclusions which he has drawn from his -experiments on vegetables are, that arsenic is in -most cases a rapidly destructive poison to them, -with the exception perhaps of a few of the simplest -forms of existence;<a id='r234' /><a href='#f234' class='c011'><sup>[234]</sup></a> and that their death was induced -by means of the gradual absorption and distribution -of the poison by the vessels and cellular membrane, -so that the parts died in succession, as the particles -of the poison reached them. <i>Dr. Jaegar</i> also -found that arsenic was a quick and destructive poison -to animals, and that death was preceded, in every -instance, from the infusory animalcula up to man, by -inordinate motions; and that the secretion was most -remarkably increased from the mucous membranes. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_225'>225</span>His experiments also proved that arsenic exerted the -most powerful effects, when it was injected into -the veins, or applied to a bleeding wound; next, -when it was introduced into the stomach; but less -so, when injected into the large intestines, which have -fewer absorbing vessels.<a id='r235' /><a href='#f235' class='c011'><sup>[235]</sup></a></p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Organic Lesions, discovered on Dissection.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>The examination of the bodies of persons poisoned -by arsenic, must not be expected to furnish constant -and uniform results, since they will be found to vary -very considerably in different cases. As we have -already considered the value of accelerated and retarded -putrefaction, as an indication of poisoning, -we shall at once proceed to the description of the -morbid phenomena which are presented by the internal -organs on dissection. The stomach and intestines -are the parts in which we may expect to find the most -decided marks of the ravages from arsenic. The -former viscus will be found more or less inflamed; -in some instances, the dusky redness will appear in -patches, interspersed with points and streaks of a -brighter hue; the villous coat of the stomach will be -almost always softened, and, as if macerated, can be -easily rubbed off in pieces with the fingers from the -coats beneath; actual ulceration and sloughing are, -according to the observations of <i>Mr. Brodie</i>, never -found unless where death is late in taking place, in -which case extensive ulceration of all the coats, -amounting to actual perforation, may be expected to -happen. This statement agrees with the observation -of <i>Ruysch</i>, who says that where there had been sufficient -time, he found the stomach ulcerated in those -<span class='pageno' id='Page_226'>226</span>who had died from the effects of arsenic, but that if -death supervened earlier, he only discovered bloody -points, distant from each other, throughout the viscus. -On the subject of sloughs upon such occasions, -our enlightened author remarks, that anatomists have -often been betrayed into a fallacy respecting their -true nature; on opening the stomach of a dog which -had taken a large quantity of arsenic, <i>Mr. Brodie</i> -observed a dark brown spot about an inch in diameter, -having all the appearance of a slough; on a closer -examination, however, it appeared that this spot was -no other than a very thin layer of coagulated blood, -of a dark colour, and adhering very firmly to the -surface of the mucous membrane, and having a few -particles of arsenic entangled in it. He states that -he has at several times observed a similar appearance -but occupying a less extent of surface; and he informs -us that, in the Hunterian museum, there is a human -stomach, which was preserved for the sake of exhibiting -what was considered a slough, produced by -the action of arsenic; but that, on examining the -preparation carefully, the dark coloured spot was -discovered to be simply a layer of coagulated blood, -similar to that before described. <i>Dr. Baillie</i> and <i>Dr. -Yelloly</i> have found the stomach thickened in several -parts, as if by coaguable lymph, and in one case the -thickening of the coats was the only alteration of -structure observable; and <i>M. Renault</i> relates a case, -where the arsenic was taken in large pieces, which -produced no other effect than slight syncope on the -approach of death; and that, upon opening the body, -the arsenic was found in the state it was swallowed, -but there was neither inflammation nor erosion of the -stomach. Where the arsenic has been swallowed in -substance, it will be generally found attached to the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_227'>227</span>membrane of the stomach by a peculiar glairy fluid; -if the poison should have been administered in solution, -the same organic lesions will be discovered, but -the presence of the arsenic in the stomach can scarcely -be expected, although the contents of the viscus, -as well as all the matter ejected from the body before -death, must be carefully examined by a chemical -process to be hereafter described. The duodenum, -like the stomach, generally affords evidence of the -same inflamed and disorganized condition; and the -whole track of the intestinal canal will be found more -or less affected, according to the quantity of arsenic -that has been administered, the period of time which -has elapsed before death, and other circumstances -which have been already enumerated as capable of -modifying the action of this destructive substance. -It however deserves notice that in many cases the -rectum appears to be more affected than the other -intestines; <i>Dr. Male</i><a id='r236' /><a href='#f236' class='c011'><sup>[236]</sup></a> states, that he has frequently -found it abraded and ulcerated, and even more inflamed -than the stomach itself; <i>Mr. Brodie</i> likewise -observed, in his physiological experiments upon this -substance, that the inflammation produced by it was -greatest in the stomach and the rectum. <i>Dr. Baillie</i> -has recorded several instances where a mortification -of the rectum followed as an effect of this poison; -and in the case of <i>Mr. Blandy</i>, detailed in the <i>Appendix</i>, -p. 237, <i>Dr. Addington</i> stated, that the extremity -of the rectum was extremely painful, and surrounded -by excoriations and ulcers.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Mr. Brodie</i> has stated, in the paper to which we -have so often alluded, that the organic lesions occasioned -by arsenic are confined to the stomach and <a id='int'></a>intestines, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_228'>228</span>and that he <em>never found any appearance of -inflammation in the pharynx or œsophagus</em>. This -statement, however, is at variance with a great weight -of authority; we have ourselves witnessed cases in -which dissection has demonstrated extensive inflammation -in these parts; indeed it would appear, that -this poison acts more particularly on the mucous -membranes; and it is reasonable therefore to conclude, -that those with which it comes in actual contact -will not escape its virulence. The serous membranes -which receive less blood, and more lymphatics, -are necessarily less affected by it.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the case of <i>William Mitchell</i>, as related at <i>page</i> -<a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, the patient complained of soreness of the eyes, -heat and uneasiness in the mouth and throat; and -the surgeon observed the membrane on the palate -and uvula to be detached; so in that, again, of <i>Mr. -Blandy</i>, <i>Dr. Addington</i> found on inspection that -“his tongue was swelled, and his throat inflamed -and excoriated; his lips, especially the upper one, -dry and rough, and having angry pimples on them; -the inside of his nostrils in the same condition, and -his eyes a little blood shot.” (<i>Append.</i> <i>l. c.</i>). In the -celebrated Scotch case of <i>Oglivy</i> and <i>Nairne</i> (<i>see -page</i> <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>) <i>Peter Meik</i>, surgeon of Alyth, deposed, -that, upon inspecting the body four or five days afterwards, -he found “the tongue swelled beyond its -natural size, and cleaving to the roof of the mouth, -which he had never observed after a natural death.” -Many more instances might be adduced to shew that -the fauces, pharynx, and œsophagus are very frequently -inflamed and excoriated by the ingestion of -arsenic. Mortification of the pudenda<a id='r237' /><a href='#f237' class='c011'><sup>[237]</sup></a> has been -<span class='pageno' id='Page_229'>229</span>said to be an effect peculiar to the action of arsenic; -certain it is that in males, priapism is sometimes a -symptom of this poison, and the penis is found swollen -and red after death, as was observed in the case -of <i>William Mitchell</i> (p. <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>). The scrotum was also -enlarged and of a dark colour. We have been long -aware that persons exposed to the fumes of arsenic, -or accustomed to handle any of its preparations, have -been liable to a peculiar affection of these parts, but -we have generally explained the fact by supposing -that the poison had in such cases, been locally applied -to them. The author has been lately informed by -his friend <i>Mr. Parkes</i>, that several persons in his -establishment were thus attacked, during the time -they were engaged in preparing an arsenical solution, -as a dye for the calico printers; and we have stated -on another occasion,<a id='r238' /><a href='#f238' class='c011'><sup>[238]</sup></a> that the smelters and workmen -engaged in the copper works, and tin burning -houses of Cornwall, are occasionally affected with a -cancerous disease in the scrotum, somewhat similar -to that which infests chimney sweepers. It is also -singular that <i>Stahl</i>, in describing the putrescent tendency -in the bodies of those who die from this poison, -mentions in particular the gangrenous appearances -of the parts of generation. The other organs of the -body do not exhibit any particular appearances, -which ought to be regarded as characteristic of death -by arsenic; we must necessarily expect to find the -traces of morbid action, especially where life has -been unusually protracted; and the serous effusions -found in the body of <i>William Mitchell</i>, are to be -referred to such a cause.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Mr. Brodie</i> has stated that, in animals killed by -arsenic, the blood is usually found fluid in the heart -<span class='pageno' id='Page_230'>230</span>and vessels after death; this agrees with the observation -of <i>Ruysch</i>, who says that he never found the -blood coagulated in the human body, after death occasioned -by this poison; as well as with that of <i>Dr. -Jaeger</i>, who describes the cavities of the heart, especially -of the right side, to be, upon these occasions, -turgid with blood, but that coagula are very seldom -found in them.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A question, of a very considerable importance in a -forensic point of view, has arisen with respect to the -means, by which we may distinguish whether arsenic, -found in the body, had been introduced into the digestive -canal during life, or after death. In general, -this fact is placed beyond suspicion by the testimony -of those to whose care the body had been confided, -previous to dissection. But cases have occurred -where a poisonous substance has been introduced into -the rectum of a dead body, with the diabolical intention -of accusing an innocent person of having been -the perpetrator of the poisoning. We are not aware -of any English case of this kind, but <i>M. Orfila</i> states -that in the proceedings of the Criminal Court of -Stockholm such a case stands recorded. Fortunately -there would not be much difficulty in detecting the -crime; for were the arsenic applied to the rectum -after death, the change of structure would not extend -beyond the part in actual contact with it, but -would be distinctly separated from the rest of the intestine -<em>by a well defined line of demarcation</em>, which can -never happen where the arsenic has acted during life; -for, in this latter case, the transition from the diseased -to the healthy structure will be gradual, and -the limits of each imperceptible.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Before we conclude our observations upon the organic -lesions occasioned by arsenic, we may caution -<span class='pageno' id='Page_231'>231</span>the anatomist not to confound the red or violet colour -which characterises inflammation, with that which -has been occasionally found to arise from the ingestion -of certain coloured drinks. The following case -related by <i>Foderé</i>, and cited by <i>Orfila</i>, may serve to -illustrate this subject. “A private person of Châlons -sur-Marne, who was in a state of convalescence from -a disease under which he had laboured, took a slight -purgative, and died very shortly afterwards. He was -believed to have been poisoned through some error in -the medicine, and in order to be assured of this, the -body was opened. The œsophagus and stomach were -found to be red, and in certain places livid, as if in a -state of gangrene. These appearances at first induced a -belief that the deceased had died from poison; but -<i>M. Varnier</i>, a physician of Châlons, concluded from -the appearances, that death was the consequence of -the disease, and that the apparent convalescence was -only an insidious respite. It became therefore necessary -to give some account of the state of the œsophagus -and stomach; and having learnt that the deceased -was in the habit of using a <em>strong infusion of red poppies</em>, -the idea immediately struck him that the extraordinary -colour of these organs might possibly depend -on this infusion. In order to determine the validity -of this explanation, he caused a dog to swallow, several -times, a similar infusion; when upon opening -its body, he discovered that the corresponding parts -of this animal had assumed the same colour as had -been observed in the stomach of the deceased above-mentioned, -and, moreover, that this violet red colour -was so firmly fixed that it resisted the action of repeated -washings.” <i>Tincture of Cardamoms</i> will also -be liable to occasion a coloured appearance in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_232'>232</span>stomach, as described in <i>Mr. Stanley’s</i> case of the -death of a woman by a dose of opium.<a id='r239' /><a href='#f239' class='c011'><sup>[239]</sup></a></p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Of the Chemical Processes, by which the presence of Arsenious Acid may be detected.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>This poison may either be submitted to the judicial -physician for examination, in its solid form, or in -that of solution; and in this latter state it may be -mixed with various alimentary substances, whose presence -will necessarily embarrass the inexperienced -operator, and multiply the apparent difficulties of his -task. It becomes our duty, therefore, upon this occasion, -to enter very fully and minutely into the history -of the various processes, which have been proposed -for the solution of the important problem under -consideration; to appreciate the relative value -of each, and to point out the sources of fallacy and -failure, to which they are severally exposed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Such a review of the subject would, moreover, appear -to be essentially necessary at the present period, -since the evidence, lately delivered on an extraordinary -trial,<a id='r240' /><a href='#f240' class='c011'><sup>[240]</sup></a> has, to a certain extent, very unjustly -shaken the public confidence in the tests of chemistry. -We shall therefore proceed to consider the processes -which are calculated to lead to the detection of -<i>Arsenic</i>, in relation to the different circumstances -under which it may be presented for investigation, -viz. 1, In a solid form; 2, In the simple state of solution; -and 3, In the state of combination with various -alimentary substances.</p> - -<p class='c000'>1. <i>The Arsenic is in a solid form.</i> This is the most -simple case which can occur, and the experiments by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_233'>233</span>which its presence is to be demonstrated, will constitute -the basis of the inquiry, which we shall be hereafter -called upon to institute, for the detection of the -same substance under other circumstances of mixture -and combination.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The order of succession to be observed in the different -experiments which we are about to describe, -must, in a great measure, be regulated by the quantity -of the material to be submitted to examination. -Should it be small, it will be prudent to reserve the -process of metallization, by which a considerable loss -must necessarily arise, until we have submitted it to -the various re-agents which are calculated to afford -indications of its nature. If, on the contrary, the -quantity of the substance exceed two or three grains, -it will be adviseable to proceed in its examination by -the following processes, reserving a portion for future -analysis.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A. <i>By its reduction to a metallic state.</i> Mix a portion -of the suspected substance in powder, with three -times its weight of <i>black flux</i><a id='r241' /><a href='#f241' class='c011'><sup>[241]</sup></a>; put the mixture -into a thin glass tube, about eight inches in length, -and a quarter of an inch in diameter, and which is -hermetically sealed<a id='r242' /><a href='#f242' class='c011'><sup>[242]</sup></a> at one end. Should any of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_234'>234</span>powder adhere to the sides of the tube it must be -carefully brushed off with a feather, so that the inner -surface of its upper part may be perfectly clean and -dry. The closed end of the tube, by way of security, -may be thinly coated with a mixture of pipe-clay -and sand<a id='r243' /><a href='#f243' class='c011'><sup>[243]</sup></a>; but this operation is not absolutely -necessary. The open extremity of the tube is -to be loosely plugged with a piece of paper. The -coated end must now be submitted to the action of -heat, by placing it in a chaffing dish of red hot coals, -for ten minutes, or a quarter of an hour; when, if -our supposition respecting the nature of the substance -has been correct, metallic arsenic will sublime, and -be found lining the upper part of the tube with a brilliant -metallic crust. The glass tube, when cold, -may be separated from its sealed end by the action -of a file, which will enable us to collect and examine -the metallic sublimate. If a portion of this brilliant -matter be laid on heated iron, it will indicate its nature -by exhaling in dense fumes, having a powerful -smell of garlic. Another portion should be reserved -for future experiments.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This method of detecting the presence of <i>Arsenious -acid</i> has been considered the most decisive, and -indeed the only unexceptionable one, but of this -we shall speak hereafter; at present we have only to -observe, that it is very far from being a minute test, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_235'>235</span>for <i>Dr. Bostock</i><a id='r244' /><a href='#f244' class='c011'><sup>[244]</sup></a> confesses that where less than -<em>three-fourths of a grain</em> were used, he could not say -that the metallic crust was clearly perceptible; and -<i>Dr. Black</i><a id='r245' /><a href='#f245' class='c011'><sup>[245]</sup></a> appears to have considered that <em>one -grain</em> was the smallest quantity which could be distinctly -recognised by such a process.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Chemists were formerly<a id='r246' /><a href='#f246' class='c011'><sup>[246]</sup></a> in the habit of at once -projecting any substance, supposed to be <i>Arsenic</i>, -on some burning body, in order to develope the -alliaceous odour; we have accidentally stumbled -upon an instance of this kind, in the fourth volume -of the <cite>London Medical and Physical Journal</cite>, -which may serve as an illustration; it is a case -communicated by <i>F. Thackeray, Esq.</i> of a child -poisoned by arsenic, in which the author says, -“<em>the inner surface of the stomach was very red, and -was studded throughout with a white powder, which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_236'>236</span>when exposed to the flame of a candle, yielded fumes, -and a garlic odour was emitted, proving it was arsenic; -of which there can be no doubt, as the girl afterwards -confessed that she had given arsenic to the infant</em>.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>After the facts we have offered with respect to the -<i>alliaceous odour</i> of arsenical fumes, it is only necessary -to state, in this place, that such a test, when conducted -in the manner just related, must be considered -as extremely equivocal.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Another method of identifying “<i>White Arsenic</i>,” -by metallization, is to form at the moment of its reduction, -an alloy with copper, which may be easily -effected in the following manner: Mix the suspected -powder with <i>black flux</i>, as in the former experiment, -and place the mixture between two polished plates of -copper; bind them tightly together by iron wire, and -expose them to a low red heat; if the included substance -contain arsenic, a silvery white stain will be -left on the surface of the copper, which is an alloy of -the two metals. In this, as in the former experiment, -the presence of an <i>alkali</i> in the flux is essential, -since it forms immediately an <i>arsenite of potass</i>, and -thereby fixes the arsenious acid, and prevents it -from being volatilized before the temperature is sufficiently -high to enable the charcoal to decompose it; -we therefore differ with <i>Dr. Bostock</i>, when he states -that <i>powdered charcoal</i> may be substituted for the -<i>black flux</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The property of <i>whitening</i> copper is regarded as a -very satisfactory test of the presence of arsenic; but -<i>Dr. Bostock</i> has pointed out some circumstances attending -it, which we shall here enumerate for the instruction -and satisfaction of the less experienced operator. -“It may be necessary,” says he, “in the first -<span class='pageno' id='Page_237'>237</span>place, to describe the phenomena that take place -when copper is heated according to the process that -is described above, but without the addition of the -arsenic. Two copper disks, of nearly an inch and a -half in diameter, scoured bright with sand, had one -grain of powdered charcoal, made into a paste with -oil, placed between them; they were bound together -with an iron wire, and then kept red hot for ten minutes. -When they were withdrawn from the fire, -the metal was found to have lost its former appearance, -and to have acquired the dull white colour of -lead or zinc; the insides of the disks were found to -present the same whitish appearance, except on the -spot where the charcoal was placed, a small part of -which still remained unconsumed. As the disks -cooled the whitish matter which covered them began -to separate, and fly off with some force, in the form -of small scales, leaving a clean surface of the proper -copper colour. The charcoal was rubbed off, and -the surface below it was found smooth and polished; -it had acquired a light colour, resembling that of -brass; and, near the centre, there was a small spot, -which approached to a steel grey. This appearance -still continued, after it had been rubbed with fine -sand. The above description,” concludes <i>Dr. Bostock</i>, -“will probably impress the Society<a id='r247' /><a href='#f247' class='c011'><sup>[247]</sup></a> with -the same idea, that, I confess, it gave to myself, that -if I had performed this experiment upon a substance, -which had been suspected to contain arsenic, and I -had not been aware of the appearance that I was to -meet with, I should have conceived that I had detected -its presence. Upon repeating the process, in -precisely a similar manner, except that one grain of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_238'>238</span>arsenic was added to the charcoal, the oxidation of -the copper took place as before, and a small part of -the charcoal remained unconsumed; but upon rubbing -it, the white stain was perfectly visible. However, -when these disks were compared with those in -which the former experiment had been made, the -difference between them seemed more in <em>degree</em> than -in <em>kind</em>; so that I should not choose to decide upon -the presence of arsenic, as indicated by this test, -unless the result were more obvious than we can ever -expect to find it, where the quantity of arsenic is so -small. It may be proper to observe, that copper, -whitened in this manner by arsenic, is very subject -to tarnish; in three days I could with difficulty distinguish -which of the disks had been employed in -these two experiments.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>In connection with the different modes of identifying -arsenic by metallization, we may relate a test -lately proposed by <i>Mr. A. Thomson</i>, which, as a -collateral proof, merits some attention. “Into any -solution, in which arsenic may be suspected, stir a -moderate quantity of charcoal powder; allow it to -settle; then pour off the clear supernatant liquor, or -filter the mixture; and when the powder which remains -on the filter is dry, sprinkle some of it on a red -hot poker; if the solution contain arsenic, the odour -of garlic will be rendered sensible. This effect becomes -more obvious if a few grains of dry sub-carbonate -of potass be added to the dried charcoal powder.”<a id='r248' /><a href='#f248' class='c011'><sup>[248]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>If, instead of <i>Black flux</i>, or charcoal, the arsenious -acid be heated in a glass tube with quick-lime, a sudden -ignition will take place, when one part of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_239'>239</span>white arsenic will be metallized, and the other -farther acidified, so as to produce an <i>arseniate of -lime</i>; in this case, therefore, a certain portion of the -arsenious acid is robbed of its oxygen to complete -the acidification of the rest.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The habitudes of arsenious acid with the <i>nitrates</i>, -as first observed by <i>Kunkel</i>, deserve also some attention. -If they be heated together, the former will be -oxygenated at the expense of the nitric acid, nitrous -acid vapour will be disengaged, and an <i>arseniate of -potass</i> remain. The forensic chemist may avail himself -of these facts, and obtain a very useful test, -which may be applied in the following manner.<a id='r249' /><a href='#f249' class='c011'><sup>[249]</sup></a> -Take a grain or two of the suspected powder, and -mix it with double the quantity of <i>Nitrate of Potass</i>; -introduce this mixture in a small glass tube, and apply -the flame of a spirit lamp under the powder; -when, if it contain arsenic, the nitrate will be decomposed, -nitric oxide and nitrous acid be evolved in -a gaseous form, and an arseniate of potass remain.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The acid vapour may be easily recognised by its -colour and smell, or by placing a piece of moistened -litmus paper within the tube. The <i>arseniate</i> may be -identified by the <i>brick-red</i> precipitate, produced in its -solution, by <i>Nitrate</i> of Silver. So small is the quantity -of arsenic required for this latter mode of trial, -that <i>Mr. Smithson</i>, in a late paper, observes “that a -drop of a solution of arsenious acid in water, which -at the height of 54·5 <i>Fah.</i> contains not more than -1/80th of the acid, put to nitrate of potass in a platina -spoon, and fused, affords a considerable quantity -of <i>arseniate</i> of silver. Hence when no solid particle -<span class='pageno' id='Page_240'>240</span>of oxide of arsenic can be obtained, the presence of -it may be established by infusing in water the matters -which contain it.”<a id='r250' /><a href='#f250' class='c011'><sup>[250]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>B. <i>By the application of certain re-agents, or tests, to its solutions.</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><i>a.</i> <i>Fused Nitrate of Silver, or Lunar Caustic.</i> For -this test we are indebted to <i>Mr. Hume</i>, who first -suggested its application in the <a id='phi'></a>Philosophical Magazine -for May 1809, (vol. xxxiii). His method of -using it is as follows: into a clean Florence flask introduce -two or three grains of the suspected substance, -in the state of powder, to which add about -eight ounces of rain or distilled water, and heat the -solution until it begins to boil; then while it boils -frequently shake the flask, and add to the hot solution -a grain or two of sub-carbonate of potass, agitating -the whole to make the mixture uniform. Pour into -a wine glass about two table spoonsful of the solution, -and touch the surface of the fluid with a stick of lunar -caustic. If arsenic be present, a beautiful yellow -precipitate will instantly proceed from the point of -contact, and settle towards the bottom of the glass as -a flocculent and copious precipitate. By this test the -60th part of a grain may be satisfactorily recognised -in two ounces of water. The presence of some alkali -is essential to the success of the experiment, since -arsenious acid is incapable, by the operation of simple -affinity, to decompose the <i>nitrate of silver</i>.<a id='r251' /><a href='#f251' class='c011'><sup>[251]</sup></a> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_241'>241</span>The validity of this test has been questioned on several -distinct grounds, and which the author has endeavoured -to answer in another work<a id='r252' /><a href='#f252' class='c011'><sup>[252]</sup></a>; such, however, -is the importance of the question in its judicial -consequences, that we shall re-consider it on the present -occasion.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='sc'>Objection 1.</span> <i>The alkaline Phosphates are found -to produce precipitates with silver, analogous in colour -and appearance to the arsenite of silver.</i> This constituted -one of the principal points in the evidence for -the defence, on the trial of <i>Donnall</i> for the murder -of <i>Mrs. Downing</i> (<i>see Appendix</i>, p. 299), and it must -be admitted as a valid objection, if the experiment -be performed in the manner just stated; but there -are other reagents which will immediately distinguish -these bodies, as we shall presently have occasion to -state, under the history of the <i>Ammoniuret of silver</i>, -as a test for arsenic. The author has also shewn -that there is a mode of so modifying the application of -the present test, that no error or doubt can arise in -the use of it, from the presence of any phosphoric -salt. This method consists in conducting the trial on -writing paper, instead of in glasses; thus—drop the -suspected fluid on a piece of white paper, making -with it a broad line; along this line a stick of <i>lunar -caustic</i> is to be slowly drawn several times successively, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_242'>242</span>when a streak is produced of a colour resembling -that known by the name of <i>Indian Yellow</i>; and -this is equally produced by the presence of arsenic, -and that of an alkaline phosphate, but the one from -the former is rough, curdy, and flocculent, as if effected -by a crayon, that from the latter is homogeneous -and uniform, resembling a water-colour laid smoothly -on with a brush; but a more important and distinctive -peculiarity soon succeeds, for, in less than two -minutes the phosphoric yellow fades into a <i>sad green</i>, -and becomes gradually darker, and ultimately quite -black; while, on the other hand, the arsenical yellow -remains permanent, or nearly so, for some time, -when it becomes brown. In performing this experiment -the sun-shine should be avoided, or the transitions -of colour will take place too rapidly. It would -be also prudent for the inexperienced operator to -perform a similar experiment on a fluid known to -contain arsenic, and on another with a phosphoric -salt, as a standard of comparison.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In this way the <i>nitrate of silver</i>, without the intervention -of any other test, is capable of removing -every ambiguity, and of furnishing a distinguishing -mark between the chemical action of arsenic and -that of the phosphates. <i>Mr. Hume</i><a id='r253' /><a href='#f253' class='c011'><sup>[253]</sup></a> states that -he has repeated this modification of his experiment -with entire satisfaction; and that, in a late unfortunate -case of poisoning, he derived considerable information -by its application. One of the great advantages -of this test is the very small quantity that is -required for examination, and which will therefore -never prevent our pursuing the subject through the -other channels of investigation.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='sc'>Objection 2.</span> <i>The muriates produce precipitates -<span class='pageno' id='Page_243'>243</span>with silver, so copious and flocculent, as to overcome -every indication which the presence of arsenic would -otherwise afford.</i></p> - -<p class='c000'>From the general use of common salt, the chemist -must be prepared to meet with a <i>muriate</i> in almost -every examination after arsenic, besides which this -latter substance is occasionally adulterated with the -<i>muriate of baryta</i> and by <i>sulphate of lime</i>. <i>Dr. Marcet</i> -proposes to obviate the difficulties which the presence -of a <i>muriate</i> must occasion, by adding to the fluid to be -examined dilute <i>nitric</i> acid, and then cautiously applying -the <i>nitrate of silver</i> until all precipitation ceases; in -this way the muriatic acid will be entirely removed, -while the arsenic, if present, will be retained in solution, -and may be afterwards rendered evident by the -affusion of ammonia, which will instantly produce -the yellow precipitate in its characteristic form. It -must, however, be confessed, that this mode appears -complicated, and, moreover, requires some chemical -address for its accomplishment; it should be also known -that the yellow precipitate thus produced is not always -permanent, for it is soluble in an excess of <i>ammonia</i>. -Under these circumstances, it is surely preferable to -precipitate at once from the fluid under examination, -all the substances which nitrate of silver can affect, -and then to expose the mixed and ambiguous precipitate, -so obtained, to a low heat, in a glass tube, -when the arsenious acid will be separated by sublimation. -In this way the presence of <i>muriates</i> and -even <i>phosphates</i>, may, in certain cases, be serviceable, -especially if the quantity of arsenic be very minute; -for, by increasing the bulk of the precipitate, we shall -decrease the difficulty of its examination.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='sc'>Objection 3.</span> <i>Chromate of potass produces with -nitrate of silver a yellow precipitate, which, when placed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_244'>244</span>side by side with one produced by arsenious acid, cannot -be distinguished by colour or appearance from it.</i> -This fact has lately been announced by Dr. Porter, -of the University of South Carolina (<cite>Silliman’s Journal</cite>, -<i>iii.</i> 355); but as the presence of <i>Chromate of -Potass</i> can never be suspected in any research after -arsenic, in cases of forensic interest, it is unnecessary -to enter into any details respecting it.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have stated above, that in consequence of the -inability of arsenious acid to decompose <i>nitrate of -silver</i> by simple elective attraction, the presence of -<em>some</em> alkali becomes indispensable in the examination; -and for this purpose <i>Dr. Marcet</i> suggested the -superior advantages which would attend the application -of <i>ammonia</i>, in all those cases where the arsenic -had not been previously combined with a fixed alkali; -since the former does not, when added singly, decompose -nitrate of silver; a circumstance which, in -using the fixed alkalies, is very liable to occasion -fallacy. This led <i>Mr. Hume</i> to improve his original -plan, by forming at once a compound,<a id='r254' /><a href='#f254' class='c011'><sup>[254]</sup></a> which he calls -the <i>Ammoniaco-nitrate of silver</i>, but which may with -more propriety be designated, as an <i>ammoniuret</i> of -that metal.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>b.</i> The <i>Ammoniuret of Silver</i>. This is an improvement -of considerable value; for, while it obviates the -necessity of ascertaining the exact proportion<a id='r255' /><a href='#f255' class='c011'><sup>[255]</sup></a> of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_245'>245</span>alkali required in each experiment, it possesses the -desirable property of not in the least disturbing the -solution of <i>phosphate of soda</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>c.</i> <i>Sulphate of Copper.</i> This test of arsenic is the -one discovered by <i>Scheele</i>; when added to the <i>arsenite -of potass</i> a beautiful green precipitate (constituting a -pigment known by the name of <i>Scheele’s green</i>) is -produced; “so decidedly,” says <i>Dr. Bostock</i>, “does -this phenomenon indicate the presence of arsenic, -that I thought it desirable to ascertain, as exactly as -possible, what were the best proportions in which -the ingredients should be employed, and in what way -they should be mixed, so as to exhibit the effect in -the most obvious manner. After a number of trials, -in which the substances were employed in various -quantities, and under different circumstances, I am -disposed to recommend that the proportions of the -<i>arsenic</i>, the <i>potass</i>, and the <i>sulphate of copper</i>, should -be to each other as the numbers <i>one</i>, <i>three</i>, and <i>five</i>, -respectively; for instance, if one grain of arsenic and -three grains of potass, be dissolved in two drachms -of water; and, in another equal quantity of water, -five grains of sulphate be dissolved, we have two -solutions, which are transparent, and nearly colourless; -but upon mixing them together, the whole is -converted into the most beautiful grass-green, from -which a copious precipitate of the same hue slowly -subsides, leaving the supernatant fluid nearly without -colour. If the same materials are employed, -in the same manner, but without the arsenic, a delicate -<i>sky-blue</i> is formed, which is so decidedly different -from the former colour as not to admit of the possibility -of error.” In this experiment then, as well as -in that with the nitrate of silver, it is necessary that -the arsenious acid should be combined with an alkaline -<span class='pageno' id='Page_246'>246</span>base; and for the same reason, in order to bring -the double elective attractions into play; <i>Mr. Hume</i> -has accordingly availed himself of the property of -ammonia, to form an <i>ammoniuret of copper</i>, which is -to be made according to the formula already given -for the preparation of the silver test.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>d.</i> <i>Ammoniuret of Copper.</i> In using this test care -must be taken that it be not too highly concentrated, -for in that state it will not produce precipitation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Notwithstanding the confidence with which <i>Dr. -Bostock</i> has supported the pretensions of the <i>Sulphate -of Copper</i>, as an infallible test for arsenic, -its validity has been lately called in question, and -it has been stated that a <em>decoction of onions</em> has the -property of imparting to the copper precipitate, produced -by a fixed alkali, a green colour and appearance -completely analogous to that which is occasioned -by the presence of arsenic. This opinion was boldly -advanced, and supported, on the trial of <i>Donnall</i>, before -alluded to, and of which we have given a very -ample report in the <i>Appendix</i>. Since this event an -opportunity occurred which enabled the author to -examine this alleged fact, by a fair and appropriate -series of experiments,<a id='r256' /><a href='#f256' class='c011'><sup>[256]</sup></a> the result of which has -<span class='pageno' id='Page_247'>247</span>satisfactorily proved that the opinion was grounded -on an optical fallacy, arising from the <em>blue</em> precipitate -assuming a <em>green</em> colour, in consequence of having -been viewed through a yellow medium.<a id='r257' /><a href='#f257' class='c011'><sup>[257]</sup></a> The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_248'>248</span>phosphoric salts may also, under similar circumstances, -be mistaken for arsenic; for the intense blue colour -of the <i>phosphate of copper</i> will, when viewed through -a yellow medium, necessarily appear green. Such -instances of optical fallacy are by no means uncommon -in the history of chemical reagents; thus <i>corrosive -sublimate</i> has been said to possess alkaline characters, -in consequence of appearing to turn the -syrup of violets green, whereas this apparent change -is to be solely attributed to the optical combination -of the yellow hue of the sublimate with the blue colour -of the violet.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Whenever therefore such a source of fallacy can -be suspected, the operator would do well to repeat -his experiment on white paper, in the manner we -have already pointed out, when treating of the silver -test; and let it be remembered that the results, when -obtained in glasses, should always be examined by -day light, and viewed by reflected, and not by transmitted -light. <i>Dr. Bostock</i> observes, that a weak -solution of the sulphate of copper, without any addition, -when held between the eye and the window, -frequently presents a greenish tinge. It should be -also known that the usual reaction of the <i>ammoniuret -of copper</i>, upon a diluted solution of arsenic, is prevented -by the presence of <i>tannin</i>; strong tea may -therefore render the test inefficient.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>e.</i> <i>Sulphuretted hydrogen.</i> This is a very delicate -test for arsenic, producing with its solution a beautiful -golden coloured liquor, which, after a short time, -lets fall a precipitate, and which will take place sooner -if a small quantity of acetic acid be added. By this -<span class='pageno' id='Page_249'>249</span>re-agent so small a quantity as 1/100000 may be detected -in solution. The test, however, is not, says -<i>Dr. Bostock</i>, sufficiently discriminative to be depended -upon alone; since <i>tartarized antimony</i> and -some other bodies, will produce phenomena that may -be mistaken for the effects of arsenic. It has, however, -the merit of not being affected by <i>tannin</i>, and -may therefore be conveniently employed for precipitating -arsenious acid, when dissolved in tea.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>f.</i> <i>Lime water</i> produces with the solution of arsenic -a beautiful white precipitate of <i>arsenite of lime</i>, which -easily dissolves in an excess of arsenious acid.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The precipitates occasioned by the foregoing reagents, -should be carefully collected, and treated -with <i>black flux</i>, in a glass tube, for the purpose of -obtaining the metallic sublimate, as above described.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We cannot quit this part of our subject without -directing the reader’s attention to the chemical evidence -given by <i>Dr. Addington</i>, on the trial of <i>Mary -Blandy</i> (<i>see Appendix, p.</i> 241) to prove that arsenic -was contained in a powder with which she was supposed -to have poisoned her father. To those in the -least acquainted with the habitudes of arsenious acid, -it must be evident, that no one of the appearances -described by <i>Dr. Addington</i> indicates the presence of -arsenic;<a id='r258' /><a href='#f258' class='c011'><sup>[258]</sup></a> and his evidence is only to be reconciled -upon the supposition that, instead of the arsenic itself, -he, in this case, detected the foreign substances with -which it had been adulterated; thus it has been before -stated that <i>white arsenic</i>, as sold by the druggists, -is often adulterated with <i>sulphate of lime</i>; and the -decomposition of this substance by the <i>sub-carbonate -<span class='pageno' id='Page_250'>250</span>of ammonia</i> (“<i>Spirit of sal-ammoniac</i>”) or by the -<i>sub-carbonate of potass</i> (“<i>Lixivium of tartar</i>”) would -occasion the precipitation of a white substance, as -stated in the evidence; it is however difficult to account -for the “considerable precipitation of a lightish -coloured substance” by muriatic acid (<i>spirit of -salt</i>) by the presence of any impurity likely to be -contained in the arsenic, or in the water employed -for its solution. If any lime were present, it would -probably give “white glittering crystals” of sulphate -of lime, by the addition of sulphuric acid -(<i>spirits of vitriol</i>). The only plausible evidence of -the presence of arsenic in the suspected powder is -“the alliaceous smell and white flowers” which <i>Dr. -Addington</i> describes as occurring when it was thrown -on red hot iron; it must however be confessed, that -from the fallacy of the other experiments, it is even -impossible to place any confidence in those last mentioned.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Arsenic does not blacken a knife by which it is cut, -as stated on the trial of <i>Eliza Fenning</i>; nor does it, -when mixed with dough, prevent its rising.<a id='r259' /><a href='#f259' class='c011'><sup>[259]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>We have now concluded our history of the different -tests which have been proposed for the detection -of arsenic. Much has been said and written upon -the relative degree of confidence to which they are -respectively entitled, and it has been asserted on several -occasions, that nothing short of the reproduction -of the metal ought to be received by the tribunals -of justice, as an unequivocal proof of the presence -of arsenious acid. (See <i>Dr. Neale’s Evidence -on the trial of Donnall</i>. <i>Appendix, p.</i> 297.) In taking -<span class='pageno' id='Page_251'>251</span>an impartial review of all the evidence which -the investigation of this subject can furnish, it must -appear to the most fastidious, that the <i>Silver</i> and -<i>Copper</i> tests, above described, are capable, under -proper management and precaution, of furnishing -striking and infallible indications; and that in most -cases they will be equally conclusive, and in some -even more satisfactory in their results, than the metallic -reproduction upon which so much stress has -been laid; and for this obvious reason, that unless -the quantity of metal be considerable, its metallic -splendour and appearance is often very ambiguous -and questionable. The author is personally acquainted -with a case, where the medical person, by no -means deficient in chemical address, actually ascribed -the presence of arsenic to that which was no -other than a film of finely divided charcoal: in this -state of doubt the last resource was to ascertain -whether it yielded, or not, upon being volatilized, -an alliaceous odour. Surely an unprejudiced judge -would prefer the evidence of <em>sight</em>, as furnished by -the tests, to that of <em>smell</em>, as afforded in the experiment -to which we allude; especially after the various -fallacies, which we have shewn in the course of the -present enquiry, to have occurred with regard to this -latter sense. But the question at issue may be easily -disposed of to the satisfaction of all parties; for let it -be remembered, that the application of chemical reagents -on solutions suspected to contain arsenic, so -far from throwing any obstacle in the way of the <em>metallic -reproduction</em> of that substance, are the very steps -which should be adopted as preparatory to the “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">experimentum -crucis</span></i>.” It is only necessary to collect -the precipitates, and to decompose them in the manner -already described; and this confirmation of our -<span class='pageno' id='Page_252'>252</span>results should never be neglected, for it is the bounden -duty of the forensic chemist, who is called upon -to decide so important a question as the presence of a -corrosive poison, to prosecute by the fullest enquiry -every point which admits of the least doubt; he -should also remember that in a criminal case, where -the life of a human being depends upon his testimony, -he has not only to satisfy his own conscience, but -that he is bound, as far as he is able, to convince the -public mind of the accuracy and truth of his researches.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>2. <i>The Arsenious Acid is mixed with various alimentary and other substances.</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>The detection of the presence of arsenic, amidst a -complicated mass of alimentary matter, has long been -a problem of interest and difficulty. In the directions -which have been already offered for the discovery -of arsenic in solution, we have in some measure -anticipated several of the resources, of which we are -now to avail ourselves. It has been seen how greatly -coloured fluids are capable of obscuring, and changing, -and even altogether preventing, the arsenical -indications. <i>M. Orfila</i>, with an assiduity and accuracy -which so eminently characterise all his toxicological -labours, has accordingly investigated the peculiar -appearances assumed by the arsenical precipitates -in different media, such as bile, tea, coffee, wine, -broth, jelly, &c. Since the publication of the great -work<a id='r260' /><a href='#f260' class='c011'><sup>[260]</sup></a> in which these phenomena are recorded, its -author has proposed a new method<a id='r261' /><a href='#f261' class='c011'><sup>[261]</sup></a> of removing its -<span class='pageno' id='Page_253'>253</span>difficulties and <a id='emb'></a>embarrassments, occasioned by the colouring -matter of the above media; which consists in -a previous application of <i>Chlorine</i>, so as to change -the colour to a shade, that will not offer any optical -impediment to the characteristic indications of the -tests in question. We are ready to admit that such -a mode of proceeding may, on certain occasions, assist -the accomplished chemist in his analysis; but in -the hands of a person less accustomed to chemical -manipulation, we hesitate not to declare that it is -subject to fatal fallacies; whereas, by collecting the -precipitate, and submitting it to the process of sublimation -we shall at once obtain the arsenious acid in a -pure form, and be enabled to test it, in distilled -water without the chance of error. Why then should -we attempt to pursue our game through the windings -of a labyrinth, when a direct road lies before us by -which we may drive it into the open plain?</p> - -<p class='c000'>We accordingly recommend the juridical chemist, -who suspects the presence of arsenious acid in broth, -coffee, or any coloured liquid, to add a solution of -<i>ammoniuret of silver</i>, and thus to precipitate indiscriminately -all the bodies which it may be capable of -so affecting. The precipitate may then be collected, -and submitted to heat in a glass tube, as before directed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But the <i>Arsenious acid</i> may perchance be so mixed -with various foreign matter as to render its separation -by filtration difficult; in such a case, after having -boiled it in distilled water, in order to procure all the -soluble matter from it, the residual mass may be evaporated -to dryness, care being taken that the heat -applied for such a purpose never exceeds 250° <i>Fah.</i> or -we shall lose the arsenic, should any be present, by -volatilization. The residue thus obtained may then be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_254'>254</span>submitted to a higher temperature in a subliming vessel, -in order to procure the arsenious acid in its pure -state. This process applies particularly to the examination -of the matter vomited, or the feculent evacuations -passed, by the patient. Should the arsenious -acid have, in the first instance, been dissolved in oil, -<i>Dr. Ure</i> proposes to boil the solution in distilled -water, and to separate the oil afterwards by the capillary -action of wick threads. If the arsenious acid -be mixed with resinous bodies, <i>Oil of Turpentine</i> may -be employed as their solvent, which will leave the -arsenic untouched. <i>Dr. Black</i> directed the application -of alcohol for this purpose, but this is obviously -improper, since arsenious acid is soluble in that fluid.</p> - -<p class='c000'>If the physician be called upon to investigate the -contents of the alimentary canal after death, and the -arsenious acid cannot be discovered amongst the -suspected matter, the stomach itself must be cut into -small pieces, and in compliance with the directions of -<i>Orfila</i>, boiled in ten or twelve times their weight of -distilled water, which should be renewed as fast as a -portion of it flies off in vapour; this liquor should be -cooled and decanted, in order to put a few drops of -it into the solutions of the different re-agents which -we have before described. If the precipitates should -indicate the presence of arsenic, we may proceed according -to the directions we have already laid down; -if, on the other hand, the fluid offers no indication -of poison, the mass exhausted by water should be -treated, according to the process suggested by <i>Rose</i>, -by boiling it for some time in a solution of potass, by -which means the stomach will be partly decomposed -and dissolved, and the arsenious acid, with which it -might have been combined, saturated by the alkali. -In this state the liquor is to be filtered, again boiled, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_255'>255</span>and nitric acid added, little by little, until it passes -from a dark to a clear yellow colour. The object of -the acid in this stage of the process being to decompose -and destroy the animal matter. The excess of -acid should be saturated with potass, when an <i>Arsenite -of Potass</i> will be formed, if there really existed -any arsenious acid in the stomach. This <i>M. Orfila</i> -recommends us to precipitate by the <i>Hydro-sulphuret -of Ammonia</i>, and a few drops of nitric acid; (<i>Rose</i> -prefers <i>lime water</i> for the same purpose); a yellow <i>sulphuret -of Arsenic</i> will be the result, from which the -whole of the metal may be obtained, by drying it -upon a filter, mixing it with an equal bulk of potass, -and melting it in a small glass tube.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This complicated mode of proceeding will rarely -be found necessary; but it should not be neglected, -where the presence of arsenic cannot be otherwise -detected in the alimentary canal of those who are -suspected to have died from its ingestion, especially -in the examination of a body where, from the length -of time it may have been under ground, there is reason -to suppose that the acid exists in a state of intimate -combination with the animal matter. And we -may take this opportunity to observe, that advanced -putrefaction, however disagreeable it may render -such researches, will not, in the case of arsenic, defeat -their success; let the forensic physician, then, -remember, that the length of time which may have -elapsed since the death of the body, ought never to -be urged as a plea for not having proceeded in its -dissection. The task may be personally disagreeable, -but it will be less painful than the reflections which -must attend a breach of duty; upon such an occasion -we would address the anatomist in the quaint but expressive -<span class='pageno' id='Page_256'>256</span>words of <i>Teichmeyer</i><a id='r262' /><a href='#f262' class='c011'><sup>[262]</sup></a>, “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Præstat enim -manus quam conscientiam cruentare et contaminare.</span></i>”</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Arsenic Acid</span>, and <span class='sc'>its Salts</span>.</h5> - -<p class='c014'>It has been stated, that the Metal Arsenic is susceptible -of two degrees of oxidizement, the result of -its first degree being Arseni<em>ous</em> acid, and that of its -second Arsen<em>ic</em> acid. This latter compound, of which -we are now to treat, may be obtained by the repeated -distillation of white arsenic with nitric acid. -In a solid state it is white, not crystallizable; of a -sour, and at the same time, metallic taste; its specific -gravity is 3·391; when exposed to the action of -heat in a close vessel, it does not become volatile, -but melts and vitrifies; thrown on burning coals, it -swells, parts with its water, and becomes opaque; if -the process of deoxidation be continued, it will, at -length, rise in vapours, like those of arsenious acid, -and which, like them, will yield an alliaceous odour, -or not, according to the circumstances already explained. -The <i>Arsenic acid</i> dissolves very readily in -water, and is even indeed deliquescent. With alkalies, -earths, and oxides, it constitutes a class of -salts, called “<i>Arseniates</i>,” all of which, as well as -the pure acid, are extremely active poisons; fortunately, -however, they are not much employed<a id='r263' /><a href='#f263' class='c011'><sup>[263]</sup></a> in -this country, and are not likely to become the instruments -of crime. These salts, like those of the arsenious -acid, are obedient to the different re-agents -<span class='pageno' id='Page_257'>257</span>which were enumerated under the consideration of -this latter substance, but with different results; thus -the <i>silver</i> test, instead of producing the yellow indication, -occasions an equally characteristic precipitate -of a red, or brick colour. The ammoniuret, and -acetate of copper, furnish a bluish-white precipitate. -The arsenic acid, in a solid form, or the arseniate, -mixed with black flux, will, like white arsenic, -furnish a metallic sublimate, when heated in a -glass tube.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>The Sulphurets of Arsenic.</span></h5> - -<p class='c014'>There are two Sulphurets of Arsenic: the yellow -variety known in commerce under the name of <i>Orpiment</i>, -and the red sulphuret, termed <i>Realgar</i>. The -bodies, as they occur <i>native</i>, do not appear to be endowed -with the virulent powers which distinguish -the other compounds of arsenic. <i>M. Renault</i><a id='r264' /><a href='#f264' class='c011'><sup>[264]</sup></a> gave -as much as two drachms of the native orpiment to -dogs of different sizes, from which they experienced -no inconvenience. <i>Hoffman</i><a id='r265' /><a href='#f265' class='c011'><sup>[265]</sup></a> also offers his testimony -of the inertness of this substance. The same -observations apply to the <i>Realgar</i>. It is not a little -singular that while these native sulphurets of arsenic -should be so harmless, those which are produced by -artificial fusions, are extremely virulent in very -small doses. <i>M. Renault</i> supposed that this remarkable -difference of effect was owing to the arsenic -being oxidized in the latter compound, and in its -metallic state in the former. This explanation, however, -is not considered as satisfactory by <i>M. Orfila</i>, -who states that it does not embrace all the varieties -<span class='pageno' id='Page_258'>258</span>of the case, for that the <i>sulphuret</i>, which is artificially -obtained by pouring the arsenious acid into a solution -of sulphuretted hydrogen, is as inert as the native -compounds; besides which, chemical analysis has -proved that there is no oxygen in any of these <i>sulphurets</i>, -and that they only differ from one another, by a -greater or less proportion of their two ingredients. -This apparent anomaly induced <i>M. Orfila</i> to institute -a series of experiments for its investigation, but the -results which he has obtained are too unsatisfactory -to enable him to decide the question.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The presence of an <i>Arsenical Sulphuret</i> is to be -sought for by calcination with caustic potass, in a small -glass tube. The sulphuret is decomposed in a few -seconds, yielding its sulphur to the potass, while its -metallic element is volatilized with the usual phenomena.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Mercury.</span></h4> - -<p class='c014'>Mercury, or Quicksilver<a id='r266' /><a href='#f266' class='c011'><sup>[266]</sup></a>, was known in the -earliest ages. Its external characters are too familiar -to require any particular description in this place. -Its specific gravity is 13·568.<a id='r267' /><a href='#f267' class='c011'><sup>[267]</sup></a> In its metallic state -it exerts no action on the living system, except that -which may depend upon its mechanical properties, -although a different opinion has been entertained, -(see <cite>Pharmacologia</cite>, art. Hydrargyrum.)</p> - -<p class='c000'>Several of the combinations of this metal are, however, -highly destructive in small doses, and are consequently -objects of forensic interest.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_259'>259</span> - <h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Corrosive Sublimate.</span></h5> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><i>Oxy-muriate of Mercury. Bi-chloride of Mercury.</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>This metallic salt is by far the most active of all the -mercurial preparations. According to the latest -views of Chemistry it is a compound of two proportionals -of chlorine, and one proportional of metallic -mercury, and is therefore a <i>bi-chloride of Mercury</i>. -It generally occurs in the form of a crystalline mass, -made up of very small prismatic crystals, which undergo -a slight alteration by exposure to air, becoming -opaque and pulverulent. Its taste is extremely -acrid, with a metallic astringency, occasioning a sensation -of obstruction in the throat which continues for -some time. Its specific gravity is 5·1398<a id='r268' /><a href='#f268' class='c011'><sup>[268]</sup></a>. When -pulverised and thrown upon burning coals, it is immediately -volatilized, giving out a thick white smoke, -of a very pungent smell, not at all resembling garlic, -but which irritates the mucous membranes extremely, -and is highly dangerous to those who breathe it. It -is soluble in eleven parts of cold, and in three of -boiling water; and this solubility may be farther increased -by the addition of a few drops of rectified spirit, -or of muriatic acid. When swallowed in small -quantities it acts as a most virulent poison.<a id='r269' /><a href='#f269' class='c011'><sup>[269]</sup></a></p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of Poisoning by Corrosive Sublimate.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>The effects, as well as the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">modus operandi</span></i>, of this -salt, will vary with the quantity swallowed. We -shall, therefore, first consider the acute symptoms -which supervene a dose sufficiently powerful to destroy -life in a few hours; and afterwards those which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_260'>260</span>may arise from its long continued use in small quantities, -and at different intervals.</p> - -<p class='c000'>1. <i>Symptoms which follow a large dose.</i> A most -painful burning and sense of constriction is experienced -in the fauces; dryness of the mouth and lips; -excruciating pain in the stomach and bowels, increased -by the slightest pressure, and generally attended -with considerable distention; excessive vomiting -and purging of frothy mucus; the countenance is -frequently red and swollen, and the eyes exhibit a -sparkling appearance, accompanied by contraction of -the pupils. The pulse is in general quick, small, -and hard; suppression of urine takes place, and -cold sweats; anxiety; universal pains; convulsions, -and death. If the patient survives long enough, a -violent ptyalism, and sloughing of the mouth and -gums may take place.</p> - -<p class='c000'>2. <i>Symptoms which are produced by the repetition of -small doses.</i> In this case the mercurial salt acts as -an “Accumulative Poison.” (<i>See page</i> <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>). The -most striking of the symptoms are those arising from -its specific action upon the salivary glands, in consequence -of which an increased flow of saliva takes -place, the gums become tender and sore, the breath -intolerably offensive, and if the use of the salt be not -discontinued, the teeth loosen, and even fall out, and -their loss is sometimes followed by that of the bones -of the palate, or maxillæ; at the same time other -evils, although perhaps less apparent, soon arise; -the strength and muscular powers of the body begin -to fail; emaciation proceeds rapidly; cardialgia, dyspepsia, -diarrhæa, and a train of morbid symptoms -succeed; violent pains are experienced in the muscles, -tendons, or joints; tremors of the limbs, and -even paralysis may result; and in some cases, pulmonary -<span class='pageno' id='Page_261'>261</span>consumption terminates the existence of the -unhappy sufferer. It has been asserted that <i>Corrosive -Sublimate</i>, when taken for a long time in small -quantities, will sometimes occasion all the symptoms -of debility above enumerated, together with hectic -fever, without producing salivation. This is a truth -which the author’s personal experience will enable -him to confirm. The Countess of Soissons, mother -of the celebrated Prince Eugene, was accused, at -the latter end of the seventeenth century, of having -destroyed her husband by these means. A question -of considerable importance has arisen, with regard -to the specific effects of mercury, which demands -some notice in this place. <i>Whether salivation, after -having entirely subsided, can ever return without a -fresh exhibition of Mercury?</i> Two instances are related -by <i>Dr. Mead</i> of the return of salivation, after -an interval of several months, when not a particle of -mercury had been administered, in any form, during -that period.<a id='r270' /><a href='#f270' class='c011'><sup>[270]</sup></a> <i>Dr. Male</i>, in his work on Juridical -Medicine,<a id='r271' /><a href='#f271' class='c011'><sup>[271]</sup></a> relates an analogous case which occurred -in his own practice: “In March, 1815,” says he, -“I gave a small quantity of triturated mercury to a -respectable woman in this town, who had been long -ill; she became suddenly and unexpectedly salivated. -She soon recovered, and enjoyed better -health than she had done for a considerable time. In -October, without (as she informed me) having taken -any medicine whatever, the salivation returned with -extreme violence, her mouth sloughed and mortified; -and in a few weeks she died.” <i>Dr. Hamilton</i>, the -Professor of Midwifery in Edinburgh, relates in his -lectures the case of a married lady, who had been -<span class='pageno' id='Page_262'>262</span>under the necessity of going through a course of mercury, -under the care of the late <i>Mr. Bennet</i>, who, -from motives of delicacy did not enquire very minutely -into the particular circumstances; but, according -to the rule of the day, gave his patient a sore -mouth. Four months afterwards she miscarried, and -salivation again came on. It was removed for a week, -at the end of which it returned, and harrassed her for -about twelve months.<a id='r272' /><a href='#f272' class='c011'><sup>[272]</sup></a> The author, in his <cite>Pharmacologia</cite>,<a id='r273' /><a href='#f273' class='c011'><sup>[273]</sup></a> -has cited a case from <cite>Hufeland’s Journal</cite>, -(vol. ix) wherein mercurial influence, after its -complete subsidence, had been renewed by doses of -opium. In the trial of <i>Miss Butterfield</i>, at the Croydon -assizes, for poisoning <i>Mr. Scawen</i>, in the year -1775, the merit of the case entirely hinged upon this -question. See vol. 1, p. 303.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Physiological action of Corrosive Sublimate.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>When this salt is introduced into the stomach in a -large dose, it immediately exerts a corrosive action -on that organ, in consequence of which the heart -and brain become sympathetically affected, and death -results from the suspension of their functions. For -this view of the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">modus operandi</span></i> of this mercurial salt -we are indebted to <i>Mr. Brodie</i>,<a id='r274' /><a href='#f274' class='c011'><sup>[274]</sup></a> whence it would -appear that its physiological action is very different -from that of arsenious acid; the former acting as a -simple <i>escharotic</i>, on the coats of the alimentary canal, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_263'>263</span>the latter requiring to be absorbed, before it can -display its energies. These observations, however, -apply only to those cases in which the quantity of -poison has been so considerable as to destroy life in a -few hours; where the dose has been small, and the -symptoms have arisen from its frequent repetition, -the salt produces its effects by a different mode of -operation. In this latter case it is absorbed, and -carried into the current of the blood, so as to be distributed -to every part of the living system; and it has -been asserted that, after the long continued and improper -use of mercury, it has been discovered in different -parts of the body, and even in the brain, in -the form of globules. In this way then deleterious -effects may arise from the external application of corrosive -sublimate, and numerous instances are recorded -where such consequences have followed the -injudicious use of lotions and plasters, into which it had -entered as an ingredient.<a id='r275' /><a href='#f275' class='c011'><sup>[275]</sup></a> In the <cite>Medical Repository</cite>, -for December, 1821, <i>Mr. Sutleffe</i> has communicated -the case of a girl of five years of age, who became -salivated, and died, in consequence of an application -made to the head for <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">tinea capitis</span></i>, consisting -of pomatum rubbed up with a few grains of <i>corrosive -sublimate</i>.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Antidotes to Corrosive Sublimate.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>After the view which we have taken of the operation -of this salt in large doses, it necessarily follows -that copious dilution is the very first object which we -have to accomplish, and then the ejection of the fluid -by vomiting. <i>Sydenham</i> relates an interesting case of -poisoning by this substance, which was successfully -treated by copious draughts of water, and repeated -<span class='pageno' id='Page_264'>264</span>vomiting.<a id='r276' /><a href='#f276' class='c011'><sup>[276]</sup></a> But it becomes a question of great -practical importance to enquire, whether there may -not exist some counterpoison or antidote which, by -decomposing the salt, will at once disarm it of its virulence? -This question has been investigated in a very -masterly style by <i>Orfila</i>, who has clearly proved by -experiment, that neither the <i>alkaline salts</i> and <i>earths, -the sulphurets of potass and of lime</i>, nor the <i>martial -alkaline tinctures</i>, as proposed by <i>Navier</i>,<a id='r277' /><a href='#f277' class='c011'><sup>[277]</sup></a> deserve -the least confidence; for although the salt may by -some of these bodies be decomposed, yet the resulting -oxide will prove as virulent as the original compound; -equally inefficient are the other substances which -have been proposed as counter-poisons, such as <i>sulphuretted -hydrogen</i>, <i>solutions of sugar</i>,<a id='r278' /><a href='#f278' class='c011'><sup>[278]</sup></a> <i>the infusions -of Peruvian bark</i>,<a id='r279' /><a href='#f279' class='c011'><sup>[279]</sup></a> and <i>metallic mercury</i>.<a id='r280' /><a href='#f280' class='c011'><sup>[280]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'><i>M. Orfila</i> having observed the facility with which -<i>albumen</i> decomposes corrosive sublimate, and gives -rise to a triple compound of albumen, muriatic acid, -and protoxide of mercury, induced him to ascertain -by experiments whether the <i>white of eggs</i> might not -<span class='pageno' id='Page_265'>265</span>prove an antidote to that poison; the result of his -inquiry has shewn that this is the case; and that by -mixing such albuminous matter, in <em>large quantities</em>, -with the diluents given to provoke vomiting, the -happiest effects may be anticipated. Many examples -are recorded of the success of this practice. In the -Transactions of the King and Queen’s College of -Physicians in Ireland, an interesting case of this kind -is related by <i>Dr. Lendrick</i>; it is, however, but justice -to state, that there are instances also of the failure -of this antidote. In the 41st volume of the <cite>London -Medical and Physical Journal</cite>, p. 204, the reader -will find the case of a girl who was poisoned by a -drachm of sublimate, and who, notwithstanding the -copious administration of albumen, died in ninety -hours afterwards.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It has lately been discovered that vegetable <i>gluten</i>, -as existing in wheat flour, is capable of producing -upon corrosive sublimate the same chemical decomposition, -as that which we have stated to arise from -the action of albumen; whence the administration of -wheat flour and water has been suggested as a ready -antidote. On the trial of <i>Michael Whiting</i>, for administering -poison (<i>corrosive sublimate</i>) to his brothers-in-law, -<i>George</i> and <i>Joseph Langman</i>, the housekeeper, -<i>Catharine Carter</i>, stated in evidence, that the -flour, (which was subsequently proved to contain -corrosive sublimate) could scarcely be made into -dumplings with milk<a id='r281' /><a href='#f281' class='c011'><sup>[281]</sup></a>; and another witness, <i>Mrs. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_266'>266</span>Hopkins</i>, a neighbour who took charge of the dumpling -that had not been boiled, described it as “<em>a comical -sort of paste; like glazier’s putty more than -paste, though not greasy</em>.” In order to ascertain the -correctness of this statement, we mixed powdered -sublimate with wheat flour, and proceeded to make it -into dough with milk; when the same difficulty as -that stated by the above witnesses, embarrassed the -process, and satisfied us of the truth of their testimony. -The phenomenon would appear to depend -upon the mutual chemical changes which arise in the -gluten and mercurial salt.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Organic Lesions discovered on Dissection.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>The œsophagus and stomach will be found inflamed, -and sometimes eroded, as in poisoning by -arsenic. <i>Salin</i> has asserted, that this salt never produces -perforation of the intestinal tube; this, however, -is not the fact; and we know not of any exclusive -appearances, by which the organic lesions inflicted -by this poison can be distinguished, unless -indeed it be the black appearance of the stomach, as -if it had been burnt, which occasionally presents -itself.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_267'>267</span> - <h6 class='c016'><i>Of the Chemical Processes by which the presence of Corrosive Sublimate may be detected.</i></h6> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>As the chemist, devoted to forensic enquiry, will -be required to identify this substance under very -different states of mixture and combination, we shall -proceed to enumerate the various obstacles that may -possibly oppose his researches; and, at the same -time, to suggest the expedients by which they may -be successfully evaded. Unlike arsenious acid, corrosive -sublimate is so readily decomposed by various -alimentary substances, that, when we attempt to demonstrate -its presence in such mixtures, we shall be -more frequently compelled to rest our proof upon -the products of the analysis, than upon the actual reproduction -of the salt.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We shall proceed to consider the best modes of -establishing the presence of this salt, in the different -forms in which it may occur, viz. 1, <i>In the solid -form</i>; 2, <i>Dissolved in water or spirit</i>; 3, <i>In various -coloured liquids</i>; 4, <i>In a state of mixture with various -solids</i>; 5, <i>Combined with solid or liquid aliments, by -which it undergoes decomposition</i>; 6, <i>In a state of combination -with the textures of the alimentary canal</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>1. <i>The sublimate is in its solid form.</i> The external -characters by which this salt is distinguished will go -far to establish its identity; but the fact should always -receive the support of a chemical proof; and -as this is to be derived from the phenomena afforded -by its solutions through the intervention of various -tests, it will meet with full consideration in the following -section, viz.</p> - -<p class='c000'>2. <i>The salt is in the state of solution, in water, or -spirit.</i> Let us then suppose that we have a solution -of some body in distilled water, which we suspect to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_268'>268</span>be corrosive sublimate, by what means are we able to -identify it?</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>a</i>) <i>By its metallization, through the agency of -galvanism.</i> We are indebted to <i>Mr. Sylvester</i> for first -suggesting the mode by which galvanic electricity -might be applied for the detection of minute quantities -of corrosive sublimate in solution. His method -is as follows. A piece of zinc or iron wire, about -three inches in length, is to be twice bent at right -angles, so as to resemble the greek letter π, the two -legs of this figure should be distant about the diameter -of a common wedding ring from each other, and the -two ends of the bent wire must afterwards be tied to -a ring of this description. Let a plate of glass, not -less than three inches square, be laid as nearly horizontal -as possible, and on one side drop some sulphuric -acid, diluted with about six times its weight of -water, till it spreads to the size of a halfpenny. At a -little distance from this, towards the other side, next -drop some of the solution supposed to contain corrosive -sublimate, till the edges of the two liquids become -joined; and let the wire and ring, prepared as -above, be laid in such a way, that the wire may touch -the acid, while the gold ring is in contact with the -suspected liquid. If the minutest quantity of corrosive -sublimate be present, the ring, in a few minutes, -will be covered with metallic mercury on the part -which touched the fluid.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The above experiment may be beautifully simplified -in the following manner<a id='r282' /><a href='#f282' class='c011'><sup>[282]</sup></a>. Drop a small quantity -<span class='pageno' id='Page_269'>269</span>of a solution, supposed to contain the salt in -question, on a piece of gold, and bring into contact -a key, or some piece of iron, so as to form a galvanic -circuit; when, if sublimate be present, the gold will -immediately be whitened.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A solution of <i>nitrate of silver</i> will, under similar -treatment, occasion on gold a white precipitate; but -as no amalgamation takes place, it is readily wiped -off, and cannot therefore occasion any fallacy.</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>b</i>) <i>By precipitating metallic mercury from its solution, -by the contact of a single metal.</i> It should be -generally known that, by virtue of superior affinity, -certain metals will decompose the solution of corrosive -sublimate, with different phenomena; in those -cases where the precipitating metal is capable of forming -a direct union with mercury, we shall find the -precipitates to consist of an amalgam of the metal -employed; where no such combination takes place, -the mercury may be frequently seen standing on the -surface as a metallic dew. This is particularly striking -when iron or steel has been employed. In the -evidence given on the trial of <i>Mary Bateman</i><a id='r283' /><a href='#f283' class='c011'><sup>[283]</sup></a>, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_270'>270</span>better known by the name of the “Yorkshire Witch,” -<i>Mr. Thomas Chorley</i>, surgeon at Leeds, stated that -he had received from his assistant, <i>Mr. Hammerton</i>, -a jar which he had carefully preserved in his possession, -and of the contents of which he gave the following -account. “Upon tasting a portion, it was -very acrid, styptic, and permanent upon the tongue; -I then took a small quantity of it upon a clean knife, -and rubbed it with my finger; a change of colour -immediately appeared; <em>further rubbing produced numerous -globules of quicksilver</em>, and the knife was, at -the same time, blackened by it; this change of colour -led me to suspect that it must be a mercurial composition, -and having made a solution of it, and subjected -it to a series of tests and experiments, it is my -opinion, that the mixture in the pot did contain <em>honey</em>, -and <i>corrosive sublimate of mercury</i>. In order, however, -more fully to satisfy myself upon this point, a -mixture was made of these ingredients, when it was -found to yield the same results.” In the above experiment, -the steel knife decomposed the sublimate, -forming a <i>chloride of iron</i>, while the mercury, thus -disengaged in its metallic form, being unable to amalgamate -with the iron, appeared in globules<a id='r284' /><a href='#f284' class='c011'><sup>[284]</sup></a> upon -<span class='pageno' id='Page_271'>271</span>its surface. At the same time the knife <em>became blackened</em> -owing to the precipitation of carbonaceous matter -from the steel.</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>c</i>) <i>Carbonate of Potass.</i> A saturated solution of -this salt, added to that of corrosive sublimate, will -produce a <i>deep brick coloured</i> sediment, which is -stated to consist of per-carbonate of mercury<a id='r285' /><a href='#f285' class='c011'><sup>[285]</sup></a>; -while a muriate of potass will be found to remain in -solution. The <i>sub-carbonate of potass</i> will occasion -a somewhat different precipitate, of a <i>clear brick</i> -colour, and consisting of a mixture of the carbonate, -and oxide of the metal.<a id='r286' /><a href='#f286' class='c011'><sup>[286]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>d</i>) <i>Ammonia.</i> A solution of the volatile alkali -produces a <i>white precipitate</i>, which is an insoluble -triple salt, composed of muriatic acid, ammonia, and -oxide of mercury; being heated it grows yellow; it -passes afterwards to red, and according to <i>Orfila</i> -gives out ammoniacal gas, nitrogen, calomel, and -metallic mercury. In this operation the oxide of -mercury is supposed to be deoxidized by the hydrogen -which results from a portion of the decomposed -ammonia.</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>e</i>) <i>Lime water.</i> This reagent may be said to decompose -corrosive sublimate more perfectly than any -alkaline body; occasioning a precipitate of a deep -yellow colour, which will be found to be a peroxide -of mercury; unless indeed the quantity of lime water -be very small, when it will be a sub-muriate of the -peroxide.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_272'>272</span>(<i>f</i>) <i>Nitrate of Tin.</i> According to <i>Dr. Bostock</i><a id='r287' /><a href='#f287' class='c011'><sup>[287]</sup></a> -this test is capable of detecting the three-millionth -part of a grain in solution. A single drop will produce -an immediate and copious dark-brown precipitation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>All the above precipitates, if rubbed on a bright -plate of copper, will render its surface silvery white, -in consequence of the amalgamation which takes -place.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Brugnatelli</i> has lately proposed a method of distinguishing -<i>corrosive sublimate</i> from <i>arsenic</i>, which -we have repeated to our satisfaction; but the experiment -requires some nicety of manipulation to secure -its success. Take a quantity of fresh wheat starch, -mix with water, and add a sufficient quantity of <i>iodine</i> -to give the liquid a blue colour; if either of the -above poisons be now introduced into it, the colour -will be destroyed, and assume a reddish tint; but -if the change has been effected by the latter substance, -a few drops of sulphuric acid will restore the -blue colour; whereas if it has been produced by the -former, it is not recoverable by such means.<a id='r288' /><a href='#f288' class='c011'><sup>[288]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>3. <i>It is dissolved in various coloured liquids.</i> Under -this subdivision we have to consider the corrosive -sublimate as existing in a state of solution, in liquids, -whose colour will be liable to obscure the characteristic -indications which the several reagents would -otherwise occasion. It has been proposed to obviate -such impediments by the previous addition of chlorine, -which will discharge the colour in question. -<i>Orfila</i> recommends such a process, where the salt -has been dissolved in wine. The same objections -which we urged against this mode of proceeding, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_273'>273</span>under the consideration of arsenic, appear to us to -apply to corrosive sublimate.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It will be preferable on these occasions to precipitate -the salt by an appropriate reagent, and then to -assay the precipitate for metallic mercury; or to -evaporate the solution, and to submit the matter so -obtained to the process of sublimation, when the sublimate -may be dissolved in distilled water, and examined -by the tests above described. This circuitous -process may, however, in many cases be rendered -unnecessary, by dropping the solution on the surface -of white paper, and in such a situation proceeding to -its examination by tests; when the colour of the -precipitate will rarely be exposed to any optical fallacy. -The Galvanic process of metallic reduction -will also furnish a satisfactory solution of the problem.</p> - -<p class='c000'>4. <i>It is mixed, or combined, with some medicinal -body in a solid form.</i> As persons have been poisoned -by empirical remedies, and other medicines containing -sublimate, <a id='acc'></a>accidentally or by design, it is necessary to -point out the readiest mode by which the investigation -may be pursued. If it should form part of a plaster, -it will be adviseable to cut it up in small pieces, and -boil them for a quarter of an hour in distilled water; -this fluid, after standing for some time, should be -filtered, and examined as we have before directed. -It is evident that, if the sublimate is neither decomposed, -nor strongly retained by the materials which -compose the plaster, it ought to be found in the -above solution; if, however, no such result can be -obtained, the solid portion should be dried in a capsule, -and mixed with potass; and in this state submitted, -in the usual manner, to the process of sublimation, -when the appearance of metallic globules -<span class='pageno' id='Page_274'>274</span>will announce the existence of the salt in question, -or, at least, of the presence of some mercurial preparation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>5. <i>It is united with alimentary substances which have -effected its decomposition.</i> It has been frequently -stated during the course of the present inquiry, that -corrosive sublimate is easily susceptible of decomposition, -and that various alimentary substances, of -animal as well as vegetable origin, have the power -of converting it into <i>calomel</i>.<a id='r289' /><a href='#f289' class='c011'><sup>[289]</sup></a> This important fact -was first noticed by <i>Chaussier</i><a id='r290' /><a href='#f290' class='c011'><sup>[290]</sup></a> and has been more -fully investigated and confirmed by <i>Orfila</i>.<a id='r291' /><a href='#f291' class='c011'><sup>[291]</sup></a> Where -the quantity of mercurial salt has been considerable, -we may generally obtain, on washing the alimentary -matter, a sufficient portion for experiment; but -where the dose has been small, or where it has been -ejected by frequent vomiting, the whole residue may -be decomposed; in which case we must seek to establish -the fact of poisoning, through the detection of -metallic mercury, by the processes of calcination and -sublimation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>6. <i>It is decomposed, and a part exists in intimate -combination with the membranes of the alimentary canal.</i> -If all the preceding experiments have failed in detecting -the presence of corrosive sublimate, it becomes -our duty to examine the textures with which -it may be supposed to have come in contact; the -coats of the canal should be cut into pieces, and -calcined with potass, when, if they have been acted -upon by sublimate, they will yield metallic mercury -<span class='pageno' id='Page_275'>275</span>by sublimation. “The alimentary canal,” says <i>M. -Orfila</i>, “acts upon the sublimate like all other animal -substances; muriatic acid is disengaged, and -muriate of mercury <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad minimum</span></i> (<i>calomel</i>) is formed, -which combines with the substance of the viscus.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It may be objected,” continues this distinguished -experimentalist, “that this chemical action does -not take place in the living animal; that our texture, -while endued with the vital principle, is not subservient -to the same laws as inorganic substances: I am -not ignorant of the extent to which this objection -is well-founded; but admitting the justice of it, the -conclusion is not less true, that if the stomach contains -corrosive sublimate at the moment of death, -this body will, from that moment, act on the texture -of the viscus itself. If the stomach contain a large -quantity of aliment, the effects of such an action -may be scarcely perceptible; but on the contrary, -they will be easily applicable, should the viscus be -empty, and especially if the examination of the body -takes place several days after death.”<a id='r292' /><a href='#f292' class='c011'><sup>[292]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>In conducting experiments upon this, and indeed -all other mineral poisons, the chemist must be prepared -to meet with anomalies depending upon the -impurities or adulterations of the substance under -examination.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Red Oxide of Mercury.</span> <i>Precipitate per se.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>We are not aware of any instance of death having, -from accident or design, taken place in consequence -of the administration of this substance; indeed its -red colour, insolubility in water, and comparative -<span class='pageno' id='Page_276'>276</span>rarity, will protect mankind sufficiently against mistake, -and at the same time render its secret administration -extremely difficult. It is, moreover, mild in -its effects, unless in large doses, or, under particular -circumstances of constitution. It may be identified -by its form, which is that of minute crystalline scales, -of a deep red colour, and by exposing it to heat in -a glass tube, by which it undergoes decomposition, -giving out metallic mercury, adhering to the sides of -the tube, and oxygen gas, which is disengaged.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Red Precipitate</span>, or <i>Nitric Oxide of Mercury</i>.</h5> - -<p class='c014'>This is, strictly speaking, a <i>sub-nitrate</i> of mercury, -and is much more poisonous than the preceding substance. -<i>Plouquet</i><a id='r293' /><a href='#f293' class='c011'><sup>[293]</sup></a> relates the case of a man, who -swallowed by accident some red precipitate, when -he immediately experienced violent colics, copious -vomitings, a trembling of his limbs, and cold sweats. -Its external characters will at once enable the chemist -to identify it.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Other Preparations of Mercury.</span></h5> - -<p class='c014'>The various saline compounds of this metal, as the -acetate, sulphate, and nitrate, are all highly poisonous, -but they do not appear to us to merit a separate consideration; -and more especially as we have already -explained the various processes by which every variety -of preparation may be identified. We may just -remark that the <i>sulphuret</i>, better known by the name -of <i>cinnabar</i>, or <i>vermilion</i>, has been known to occasion -deleterious effects. <i>Dr. Gordon Smith</i><a id='r294' /><a href='#f294' class='c011'><sup>[294]</sup></a> states, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_277'>277</span>upon the authority of <i>Mr. Accum</i>,<a id='r295' /><a href='#f295' class='c011'><sup>[295]</sup></a> that “Vermilion -has been detected as a poisonous ingredient in -cheese:” this may be very true, but he should have -stated at the same time, that the deleterious effects -produced by it, did not arise from the mercurial sulphuret, -but from the red lead with which it happened -to be adulterated; and it is necessary to acquaint the -forensic chemist, that such a fraud<a id='r296' /><a href='#f296' class='c011'><sup>[296]</sup></a> is by no means -uncommon; it may be very easily detected by burning -a small portion of the suspected sample on a piece -of bread in the candle, when metallic globules will -announce the presence of lead; for the oxide of mercury, -although revived by the process, will at the -same time be volatilized. The bread by combustion -affords the carbon by which the metallic reduction -is effected.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The presence of very minute quantities of <i>vermilion</i> -may, according to <i>Mr. Smithson</i>, be detected by the -following simple experiment. Boil a portion with -sulphuric acid in a platina spoon, and lay the sulphate -thus produced in a drop of muriatic acid, on a -piece of gold, and then bring a piece of metallic tin -in contact with both, when the white mercurial stain -will be produced.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Antimony.</span></h4> - -<p class='c014'>Although the ancients were entirely ignorant of -this metal, they were well acquainted with several of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_278'>278</span>its combinations,<a id='r297' /><a href='#f297' class='c011'><sup>[297]</sup></a> <i>Basil Valentine</i>, a German Benedictine -Monk, was the first who described the process -for obtaining it from its ore; to this work, originally -written in high Dutch, and known by the title of the -“<i>Currus Triumphalis Antimonii</i>,” which was published -towards the end of the 15th century, we are indebted -for almost all our knowledge respecting this metal.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Antimony is of a greyish white colour, having considerable -brilliancy; its texture is laminated, and -exhibits plates crossing each other in every direction; -its <i>specific gravity</i> is 6·7021; when rubbed upon the -fingers it communicates to them a peculiar taste and -smell; it is very brittle, and fuses at the temperature -of 809°, but does not appear to be volatile; when -fused, with the access of air, it emits white fumes, -consisting of an oxide of the metal, which formerly -was called <i>Argentine flowers of Antimony</i>. When -the metal is raised to a white heat, and suddenly -agitated, it enters into a state of combustion, and is -converted into the same white coloured oxide.</p> - -<p class='c000'>According to <i>Thenard</i>,<a id='r298' /><a href='#f298' class='c011'><sup>[298]</sup></a> antimony is susceptible -of no less than six different degrees of oxidation; -<i>Proust</i>, however, has shewn that they may all be reduced -to two, viz. <i>protoxide</i> and <i>peroxide</i>. The former -of which alone exerts any sensible activity upon -the human body; but this constitutes the basis of -several preparations, which although in common use -for medical purposes, are so extremely poisonous in -larger doses, as to render them objects of interest to -the forensic physician.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_279'>279</span> - <h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Emetic Tartar.</span><a id='r299' /><a href='#f299' class='c011'><sup>[299]</sup></a> <i>Tartarized Antimony.</i></h5> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>This saline body appears in the state of white -crystals, whose primitive figure is the regular tetrahedron, -although it assumes a variety of secondary -forms. Its chemical composition is still involved in -some obscurity; it is stated, in the different dispensatories, -to be a triple salt, consisting of tartaric acid, -oxide of antimony, and potass, and that it ought -therefore, according to the principles of the reformed -nomenclature, to be termed a <i>Tartrate of Antimony -and Potass</i>. The truth of these views, however, we -have already<a id='r300' /><a href='#f300' class='c011'><sup>[300]</sup></a> ventured to question; <i>Gay Lussac</i> -has stated that in the various metalline compounds -of which <i>Super-tartrate of Potass</i> is an ingredient, -this latter substance acts the part of a simple acid; -an opinion which receives considerable support from -the great solvent property of <i>cream of tartar</i>, and -from the striking fact that it is even capable of dissolving -various oxides which are insoluble in tartaric -acid, of which the protoxide of antimony is an example. -In such a state of doubt, a better name could -not be found than that of <i>tartarized antimony</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The salt, according to <i>Dr. Duncan</i>, is soluble in -three times its weight of distilled water at 212° <i>Fah.</i> -and in fifteen, at 60°.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When it is heated red hot in an earthen crucible, it -blackens, and undergoes decomposition like a vegetable -body, leaving a residuum of metallic antimony, -and slightly carbonated potass.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_280'>280</span> - <h6 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of Poisoning by Emetic Tartar.</i></h6> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>A question has arisen whether this salt can be considered -as a poison, capable of occasioning death? In -general where a large dose has been administered, it -is all rejected by the vomiting which it excites; we -accordingly find in the works of <i>Morgagni</i> and other -pathologists, the history of various cases in proof of -the innocence of this salt. <i>Hoffman</i>, however, relates -the case of a woman who experienced very -severe symptoms shortly after having taken tartar -emetic, and that she ultimately died,<a id='r301' /><a href='#f301' class='c011'><sup>[301]</sup></a> and there -are other similar instances recorded in the works of -<i>Foderé</i> and <i>Orfila</i>. It also deserves notice, that tartarized -antimony is very liable to produce deleterious -effects, where, from the insensibility of the nervous -system, the operation of vomiting cannot be excited, -as in apoplexy, drunkenness, and in that state of -coma, which follows the ingestion of narcotic vegetables. -<i>M. Cloquet</i> communicated to <i>Orfila</i> a case -highly illustrative of this fact, in which a person, -labouring under apoplexy, received into his stomach -more than forty grains of tartar emetic, without exciting -either nausea or vomiting. On opening the -body, independent of the morbid state of the brain, -which must be regarded as the immediate cause of -death, extensive organic lesions were discovered in -the alimentary canal, which could alone be attributed -to the action of the tartar emetic. This fact will -suggest a very important precaution to the practitioner, -who may be called upon to treat a person -labouring under a state of the system which will prevent -the act of vomiting.<a id='r302' /><a href='#f302' class='c011'><sup>[302]</sup></a>.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_281'>281</span>The symptoms produced by this salt will resemble -those of a corrosive poison; and where vomiting is -produced, it frequently happens that although the -patient may be eventually saved, an irritability of -stomach, so great as to cause the rejection of all aliments, -will remain for a considerable period; and -<i>Dr. Male</i> states that in the only case of poisoning by -this salt which he had ever seen, the person was -affected with violent convulsions, which returned at -intervals for several weeks after recovery from the -immediate effects of the poison.<a id='r303' /><a href='#f303' class='c011'><sup>[303]</sup></a> <i>M. Orfila</i>, after -detailing several cases of poisoning by emetic tartar, -concludes by saying that the general symptoms, upon -such occasions, may be reduced to the following: -a rough metallic taste; nausea; copious vomitings; -frequent hiccup; cardialgia; burning heat in the epigastric -region; pains of the stomach; abdominal colics; -inflation; copious stools; syncope; small, contracted -and accelerated pulse; skin cold, sometimes -intensely hot; breathing difficult; vertigo, loss of -sense, convulsive movements; very painful cramps in -the legs; prostration of strength,—death.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Sometimes to the above symptoms is joined a great -difficulty of swallowing; deglutition may be suspended -for some time. The vomiting and alvine evacuations -do not always take place, the necessary consequence -of which is an increase in the violence of the other -symptoms.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Antidotes.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>The great indication to be fulfilled in a case of this -description, is the ejection of the salt by vomiting. -<i>MM. Orfila</i> and <i>Berthollet</i> rely very confidently upon -<span class='pageno' id='Page_282'>282</span>the effects of <i>bark</i>, <i>strong tea</i>, <i>infusion of galls</i>, and -other <i>vegetable astringents</i>, which have undoubtedly -the power of decomposing the salt. They ought, -therefore, to be employed as diluents to assist vomiting, -but they are not to be considered as antidotes -which can render this latter operation less indispensable.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Physiological action of emetic tartar.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'><i>M. Majendie</i> has shewn by experiment, that if -<i>tartarized antimony</i> be injected into the veins of a dog, -the animal vomits, and has frequent stools; his -breathing becomes difficult; his pulse frequent and -intermitting; a great degree of disquietude, and -tremblings are the precursory signs of death, which -generally takes place within the first hour from the -injection of the emetic tartar. On opening the body -great alterations are perceived in the lungs; they are -found of an orange or violet colour, have no crackling, -are distended with blood, and of a tight texture. -The mucous membrane of the intestinal canal, from -the cardia to the extremity of the rectum is red, and -strongly injected.</p> - -<p class='c000'>If, instead of thus injecting the emetic tartar into -the veins, it be injected into the stomach, and the -œsophagus is tied to prevent vomiting, <i>M. Orfila</i> informs -us that the same alterations will be found after -death. The very same effects will also arise from the -application of the emetic tartar to the different absorbing -surfaces, such as the cellular substances, &c.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Mr. Brodie</i><a id='r304' /><a href='#f304' class='c011'><sup>[304]</sup></a> has also thrown considerable light -<span class='pageno' id='Page_283'>283</span>upon the action of this salt. He observes that the -effects of emetic tartar so much resemble those of -<i>arsenic</i>, which we have already described, and those -of <i>muriate of baryta</i>, which will form a future subject -of inquiry, that it would be needless to enter into a -detail of the individual experiments which he made -with it. When applied to a wound in animals which -are capable of vomiting, it usually, but not constantly, -operated very speedily as an emetic; in other respects -he found no material difference in the symptoms -produced in the different species of animals, -which he had been in the habit of employing as subjects -of experiment. The symptoms were paralysis, -drowsiness, and, at last, complete insensibility; the -pulse became feeble, but the heart continued to act -after apparent death, and was maintained in action -by means of artificial respiration; but never for a -longer period than for a few minutes. Whence it -would appear, that this poison acts by being absorbed, -and that it directs a sedative influence upon the -heart, as well as the brain, but that its principal action -is on the latter. The length of time which -elapses, from the application of the poison to the death -of the animal, varies; in some instances <i>Mr. Brodie</i> -found that it did not exceed three quarters of an -hour, but in others, it was two or three hours, or -even longer, before death took place. When a solution -of emetic tartar was injected into the stomach of -a rabbit, <i>Mr. Brodie</i> observed the same symptoms to -take place, as when it was applied to a wound.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Organic lesions discovered by dissection.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'><i>Mr. Brodie</i>, in his examination of animals poisoned -by <i>emetic tartar</i>, sometimes found the stomach -bearing the marks of inflammation, but at other -<span class='pageno' id='Page_284'>284</span>times, its appearance was perfectly natural. In no -case did he discover any traces of inflammation in the -intestines. The reader must compare this account -with that already given by <i>M. Majendie</i>, at p. <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'>1. <i>Tests for the detection of emetic tartar.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>1. <i>The poison is in a solid form.</i> Dissolve a portion -of the suspected salt in about fifteen times its -weight of boiling distilled water; if it be emetic tartar, -the following reagents will identify it, viz.</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>a</i>) <i>The hydrosulphurets</i> will occasion a reddish-yellow -precipitate, which is a combination of <i>oxygen</i> -and <i>antimony</i>, proceeding from the emetic tartar; -and of <i>hydrogen</i> and <i>sulphur</i>, from the reagent employed. -If it be dried on a filter, and mixed with -charcoal and the potass of commerce, it gives, by -the action of heat, a cake of metallic antimony.</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>b</i>) <i>Tincture of galls.</i> This is regarded as the most -sensible test of this salt, affording a precipitate of a -curdled, dirty white colour, inclining to yellow.</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>c</i>) <i>Lime water.</i> This reagent produces a white -precipitate, which is extremely thick, and is easily -redissolved by pure nitric acid. In this case the lime -forms an insoluble tartrate, and the tartrate of antimony, -thus rendered insoluble, subsides along with it.</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>d</i>) <i>Concentrated sulphuric acid</i> gives a white precipitate, -which consists of the oxide of antimony retaining -a small portion of the acid. It redissolves in -an excess of the precipitant.</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>e</i>) <i>Vegetable extractive</i>, occasions in the solution -of this salt, a reddish-yellow precipitate, which -has been found to consist of <i>oxide of antimony</i>, and a -portion of vegetable matter.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_285'>285</span> - <h6 class='c016'>2. <i>It is mixed with various alimentary substances.</i></h6> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>If our attempts should fail to procure a solution of the -salt by filtration, answering to the above reagents, -we must rely upon the proof of metallic reproduction. -Various circumstances may invalidate the action of -our tests, such, for instance, as the ingestion of some -vegetable infusion or decoction, especially that of -galls, or yellow bark.</p> - -<p class='c000'>With respect to the other preparations of antimony, -it is unnecessary to waste our time in their -consideration; the precepts already given will afford -the practitioner every requisite hint for the prosecution -of the enquiry.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Copper.</span></h4> - -<p class='c014'>This metal, with the exception of gold and silver, -and perhaps tin, was known earlier than any other -metal; but its applications were entirely confined to -the arts. It was first discovered by the Greeks in the -island of Cyprus, whence its name; and we learn -from <i>Homer</i>, that even during the Trojan war, the -combatants had no other armour but what was made -of bronze, which is a mixture of <i>copper</i> and <i>tin</i>.<a id='r305' /><a href='#f305' class='c011'><sup>[305]</sup></a>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The external characters of the metal are too well -known to require minute description. Its taste is -styptic and nauseous; and the hands when rubbed -for some time on it, acquire a peculiar and disagreeable -odour. When melted, its specific gravity is -8·667; but after being hammered it is 8·9. It is only -susceptible of two degrees of oxidation. If the protoxide -<span class='pageno' id='Page_286'>286</span>be <em>native</em>, it is red; if <em>artificial</em>, orange coloured. -The peroxide is black.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Copper, on exposure to a moist atmosphere, becomes -tarnished, absorbs a portion of its oxygen, and -passes into the state of an oxide, which shortly unites -with the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, and forms -a greenish carbonate of copper.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Metallic copper, perfectly pure, does not possess -any deleterious properties. We have already cited -instances<a id='r306' /><a href='#f306' class='c011'><sup>[306]</sup></a> sufficiently conclusive to establish this -fact. It becomes, therefore, a subject of no little interest -to enquire, under what circumstances it may -become poisonous by combination. <i>M. Orfila</i> observes -that it has been long maintained, that milk -heated, or allowed to remain in vessels of copper not -oxidized, dissolved a portion of this metal, and acted -as a poison. <i>Eller</i>, a philosopher of Berlin, has, -however, very clearly proved such an opinion to be -incorrect. He boiled in succession, in a kettle well -freed from verdegris, milk, tea, coffee, beer, and -rain water; after two hours boiling, he found it impossible -to discover, in any of these fluids, the least -vestige of copper. <i>M. Drouard</i> has also shewn that -distilled water, left for a month together on the -filings of this metal in a glass bottle, did not dissolve -an atom of it. The celebrated toxicologist above -cited, after relating these important facts, concludes -by observing, that the phenomena are very different, -if, instead of pure water, we substitute that which contains -a certain quantity of muriate of soda. <i>Eller</i> has -demonstrated the presence of a very small quantity of -copper in water, which contained 1/20th of its weight of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_287'>287</span>muriate of soda, and which had been boiled in a brass -kettle. This fact is of the highest importance, for it will -explain the reason why highly seasoned aliments have -proved deleterious, when cooked in vessels of copper. -But we are indebted to <i>Mr. Eller</i> for a still more important -discovery; he found that if, instead of heating -a simple solution of common salt in copper vessels, the -salt be previously mixed with beef, bacon, and fish, -the fluid resulting from it does not contain an atom -of copper.<a id='r307' /><a href='#f307' class='c011'><sup>[307]</sup></a> In relating this fact, <i>M. Orfila</i> observes, -“however astonishing it may appear, it is -quite correct, <i>M. Eller</i> was the first to announce it, -and I have several times ascertained the truth of it; -it is probable,” continues <i>Orfila</i>, “that the combination -of several kinds of aliments destroys the effect of -the solution of the muriate of soda; which consequently -ought to render the cases of poisoning by aliments -cooked in copper vessels, <em>which are not oxidized</em>, -extremely rare.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Copper combines with sulphur, and affords a black -sulphuret.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Oxide of Copper.</span></h5> - -<p class='c014'>By oxidation, copper becomes poisonous. The -substance may be easily recognised by the change of -colour which it produces in ammonia; this alkali will -dissolve it instantly, and assume a beautiful blue -colour. It is wholly insoluble<a id='r308' /><a href='#f308' class='c011'><sup>[308]</sup></a> in water. In oils -<span class='pageno' id='Page_288'>288</span>and fatty matter it is easily and copiously dissolved at -the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. Such -bodies also, when boiled in vessels of perfectly clean -copper, facilitate their oxidation, especially if left to -cool a few minutes before they are poured out.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Green Carbonate of Copper</span>—<i>Natural Verdegris</i>.</h5> - -<p class='c014'>This substance forms spontaneously on surfaces of -copper and brass; it differs from the oxide in its -green colour, and in effervescing with dilute sulphuric -acid; with ammonia, however, it demeans itself -in the same manner, and is likewise insoluble in -water. It is poisonous.</p> - -<p class='c000'>From the above history of these substances the medical -practitioner will easily perceive under what circumstances, -and by what bodies, metallic vessels of -copper may be rendered dangerous. The oxide and -carbonate, formed in them, will easily dissolve in acidulous -and oily aliments, whence it follows that all -preparations of such food, if conducted in vessels -whose surfaces have contracted this change will be -liable to prove deleterious.<a id='r309' /><a href='#f309' class='c011'><sup>[309]</sup></a> If the vessels be perfectly -clean, acid preparations may be safely boiled -in them, but they must be poured out immediately, -and not suffered to remain sufficiently long to allow -the copper to become oxidized. To the formation of -the oxide of copper, and to the acetic acid contained -in the wine, vinegar, beer, and cider, <i>M. Orfila</i> attributes -the production of the <i>acetate</i> which forms -<span class='pageno' id='Page_289'>289</span>about the corners of the cocks in vessels containing -these liquors. Upon the same principle the <i>soda -water</i> sold in this town, in a draught, from the pump, -is liable to metallic impregnation, as we have fully -satisfied ourselves.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Equally important is it for the forensic physician to -be acquainted with the various other sources from -which copper poison may be derived. In consequence -of the fact of the oxide of copper forming, with -the acids, compounds of a beautiful green colour, the -metal is often employed in cookery to impart a vivid -hue to various articles; the sale of pickles, for instance, -frequently depends upon the liveliness of -their green colour; whence we find, in works<a id='r310' /><a href='#f310' class='c011'><sup>[310]</sup></a> on -cookery, directions for ensuring such an effect, by -boiling the pickles with copper coin, or by suffering -them to stand for some time in vessels of that metal. -In the third volume of the <cite>Medical Transactions of -the College of Physicians</cite> we shall find an interesting -history, related by <i>Dr. Percival</i> of Manchester, of a -young lady who amused herself, whilst under the -hands of the hair-dresser, with eating pickled samphire, -of which she consumed two breakfast plates -full; she shortly afterwards complained of great -thirst, pain in the stomach, and a rash appeared -upon her hands and breast. After an illness of nine -days, during which she suffered severe vomitings, -and tormina of the bowels, she expired. Upon examining -the samphire, <i>Dr. Percival</i> found that it was -very strongly impregnated with copper. In the preparation -of confectionary, especially sugar-plums, -and sweatmeats of a green colour, copper is very generally -<span class='pageno' id='Page_290'>290</span>introduced, and many instances are recorded of -their having proved highly deleterious. Catsup is -also said to be occasionally impregnated with verdegris; -and vestiges of this metal have been detected -in the well known cordial, called <i>Shrub</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In order to prevent the <i>contingent</i> dangers attendant -upon copper vessels, they ought always to be <i>tinned</i>;<a id='r311' /><a href='#f311' class='c011'><sup>[311]</sup></a> -and it is a very curious and interesting fact, that -this latter metal, although it may cover the copper -surface only imperfectly, will nevertheless protect us -from its effects; for <i>M. Proust</i> has shewn that the superior -readiness with which <i>tin</i> is oxidized and acted -upon by acids, when compared with copper, will not -allow this latter metal to appropriate to itself a single -atom of oxygen.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But copper vessels, notwithstanding this fact, unless -well tinned, should be dismissed from the service of -the kitchen. The Senate of Sweden, in the year -1753, prohibited them entirely, and ordered that -none but such as were made of iron should be used -in their fleets and army.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Verdegris.</span> <i>Ærugo.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>The verdegris of commerce is a compound mass, -consisting of the acetate, and sub-acetate of copper, -carbonate of copper, and copper partly metallic, and -partly oxidized; it, moreover, contains the stalks of -grapes and other extraneous matter. Boiling water -dissolves it in part, and, at the same time, occasions -in it a chemical change, by transforming one portion -of the <em>sub</em>-acetate into the soluble acetate, and -another, into an oxide of copper, which is precipitated. -With cold water, verdegris demeans itself -very differently; the acetate is dissolved by it, whilst -<span class='pageno' id='Page_291'>291</span>that portion which is in the state of <em>sub</em>-salt remains -suspended in the form of a fine green powder. Vinegar -converts all the <i>ærugo</i> into a soluble acetate. -Sulphuric acid poured on its powder decomposes it -with effervescence, and vapours of acetic acid are -disengaged; a character by which this substance may -be easily identified.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Blue Vitriol.</span> <i>Sulphate of Copper.</i><br /><i>Blue Copperas—Roman Vitriol.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>This salt occurs in crystals of a deep rich blue colour, -and whose form is that of a rhomboidal prism; -their taste is harsh, acrid, and styptic; on exposure -to air they slightly effloresce, and assume a greenish -hue. When treated with sulphuric acid, no effervescence -occurs, a circumstance which at once distinguishes -this salt from <i>ærugo</i>.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of Poisoning by the Salts of Copper.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>The operation of these bodies, upon the human -system, is betrayed by an acrid, styptic, coppery -taste, in the mouth; nausea; head-ache; a dry and -parched tongue; vomiting; coppery eructations; a -cutaneous eruption; violent pains in the bowels; -very frequent alvine evacuations, sometimes green, and -often bloody and blackish; great and painful distention -of the abdomen; small and irregular pulse; heat -of skin; ardent thirst; difficult and laborious respiration; -hiccup; syncope; cold sweats; convulsions—death. -It does not, however, kill so speedily as -arsenic, or corrosive sublimate.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Organic Lesions discovered on Dissection.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>Where death has been speedily produced by a -cupreous poison, dissection will generally discover -<span class='pageno' id='Page_292'>292</span>inflammation, and even gangrene in the mucous membrane -of the alimentary canal. Like other poisons of -the corrosive class it will also be found to have occasionally -extended its inflammatory action to all the -coats of the canal, producing sloughs, easily detached, -and leaving perforations. <i>Dr. Male</i> has also remarked -that inflammation will sometimes be observed -in the brain; but that this is not an universal effect -of copper poison. It has been stated, that the fluids -contained in the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">primæ viæ</span></i> are, upon these occasions, -very frequently tinged with a green colour.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Chemical Tests by which the presence of the preparations of Copper may be detected.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>1. <i>The suspected body is in a solid form.</i>—We have -already pointed out the characters by which the principal -preparations of copper may be identified. Our -judgment, however, upon these occasions will require -that confirmation from experiment, which the following -processes are calculated to afford.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A. <i>By its reduction to a metallic state.</i> If the -copper presents itself in the form of an oxide, it may -be easily reduced by heating it, in the usual manner, -in contact with some carbonaceous matter; an earthen -crucible will furnish the most convenient vessel for -the occasion. If the substance has been scraped from -a surface of copper, it is probably in the state of carbonate, -(<i>natural verdegris</i>,) and may be calcined with -charcoal in order to procure the metal. Should the -substance in question be true <i>ærugo</i>, we may at once -heat it to redness in an earthen crucible, when, without -the aid of any carbonaceous matter, we shall obtain -metallic copper.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_293'>293</span>B. <i>By the application of certain reagents, or tests, to its solutions.</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>It may happen that the quantity of the above substances -is not sufficient to allow their metallic reduction -by calcination. In that case, we must proceed -to obtain a solution; but since neither the oxide, -nor the carbonate, is soluble in water, it will be -necessary to bring them in contact with concentrated -acetic acid, so as to obtain an acetate of copper; -which will furnish the following indications with the -respective tests.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>a.</i> <i>A surface of clean iron.</i> If dipped into the solution -will become coated with metallic copper, and -appear as if transmuted into that metal.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>b.</i> <i>Ammonia.</i> This test, when added in a quantity -more than sufficient to saturate any excess of -acid, will strike a beautiful blue colour; in the first -instance we shall obtain a deep blue precipitate, but -this will be redissolved by an excess of alkali. To -detect the presence of copper, therefore, in pickles, -it is only necessary to cut them into small pieces, and -to pour liquid ammonia, diluted with an equal bulk -of water, over them in a stopped phial: if the pickles -contain the most minute quantity of this metal, the -ammonia will assume a blue colour. In the same -manner cupreous impregnations may be discovered in -the various articles of confectionary above enumerated, -and in those foreign conserves which are imported -into this country, and usually sold in round -boxes.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>c.</i> <i>Sub-carbonate of Potass.</i> By this re-agent a -precipitate of a pale blue colour is produced.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>d.</i> <i>Arsenite of Potass</i> instantly occasions a copious -<span class='pageno' id='Page_294'>294</span>precipitate in the acetate of copper, which is of a -green colour, and is in fact an arsenite of the metal.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>e.</i> <i>Triple Prussiate of Potass.</i> This test gives a -brown precipitate with a solution of verdegris, -which is found to consist of prussiate of copper, -and prussiate of iron; while the liquor contains an -acetate of potass.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'>2. <i>The suspected poison is mixed and combined with various alimentary substances.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>We have in this case the same embarrassments to -encounter, as those already noticed under the consideration -of arsenic. Our tests may produce their -respective precipitates, but they will present different -colours according to the nature of the fluids with -which the substance happens to be mixed; whence -the circumstance of colour, so characteristic on other -occasions, cannot be received as a satisfactory indication. -In such a difficulty, we may collect the precipitates, -and calcine them in a crucible with charcoal, -in order to obtain the metal; or we may at once -evaporate the whole of the alimentary mass, and -submit it to a high temperature, by which means all -the vegetable and animal principles, which can form -a part of the liquor vomited, will be decomposed and -converted into several volatile productions, and into -charcoal; this combustible body will decompose the -oxide of copper, and reduce it to its metallic state.<a id='r312' /><a href='#f312' class='c011'><sup>[312]</sup></a>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Nor is this process without its fallacies; it is often -difficult to recognise the metal, dispersed as it necessarily -must be, in small quantity, through a considerable -mass of charcoal; in this case we are recommended -<span class='pageno' id='Page_295'>295</span>by <i>Orfila</i> to place the product of the calcination -in water, when in a short period, the copper, -from its superior specific gravity will subside from -the lighter particles of charcoal. But it would be -still better to pour nitric acid upon the product of -the calcination, and thereby to obtain a solution of -<i>nitrate of copper</i>, which by filtration might be immediately -prepared for the application of appropriate -re-agents.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It merits notice, however, that in certain cases of -poisoning by copper, no vestiges of the substance can -be found in the matters voided from the stomach. In -that case, <i>Orfila</i> directs that the mucous membrane of -the stomach, and of the intestines, should be scraped -off, dried, and submitted to the action of a strong -heat in a crucible. “I have,” says this distinguished -experimentalist, “twice obtained metallic copper, -by calcining in this manner a portion of the membranes -of the stomach of two dogs that I had poisoned -with verdegris. This effect particularly takes place -when the mucous membrane is of a bluish colour, -hard, and strongly adhering to the substance of the -stomach.”</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Tin</span> and its <span class='sc'>Muriate</span>.</h4> - -<p class='c014'>It is clearly established by the experiments of -<i>Bayen</i> and <i>Charlard</i>,<a id='r313' /><a href='#f313' class='c011'><sup>[313]</sup></a> as well as by those of -<i>Proust</i>,<a id='r314' /><a href='#f314' class='c011'><sup>[314]</sup></a> that this metal possesses no poisonous -properties. Its muriate, however, has been shewn -by <i>Orfila</i> to possess highly corrosive properties. It -excites violent vomiting, great depression, and death, -without convulsions. Its antidote is milk, which it -speedily coagulates; and by chemical combination -<span class='pageno' id='Page_296'>296</span>with it, the poison is rendered inert. On dissection, -the stomach is said to have been found corrugated -and indurated, and has been compared to tanned -skin, but its colour is not altered.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As this substance is never likely to become an -object of forensic interest, in this kingdom, we shall -pass it over without farther notice.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Zinc.</span></h4> - -<p class='c014'>The ancients were acquainted with a mineral to -which they gave the name of <i>Cadmia</i>,<a id='r315' /><a href='#f315' class='c011'><sup>[315]</sup></a> from Cadmus, -who first taught the Greeks to use it. They -knew that when melted with copper it formed brass; -and that when burnt, a white spongy kind of ashes -was volatilized, which they used in medicine.<a id='r316' /><a href='#f316' class='c011'><sup>[316]</sup></a> -This mineral contained a good deal of zinc; and yet -there is no proof remaining that the ancients were -acquainted with that metal. It has a brilliant white -colour, with a shade of blue, and is composed of a -number of thin plates adhering together; its specific -gravity is 7·1. When strongly heated in a crucible, -it quickly goes into fusion, absorbs the oxygen of -the atmosphere, and burns with a beautiful white -flame, inclining to green, and extremely brilliant. -The oxide of zinc thus formed, is diffused through the -atmosphere, and is there condensed into extremely -light flakes of a beautiful white appearance. This -oxide was formerly known under the fanciful names -of <i>nihil album; lana philosophorum, &c.</i></p> - -<p class='c000'>In its metallic state it is quite inert; but late experiments -by <i>Vauquelin</i> and <i>Deyeux</i>, have proved -that it is very easily acted upon by water, the weakest -<span class='pageno' id='Page_297'>297</span>vegetable acids, some saline substances, and butter; -a fact which is hostile to the proposal of employing -this metal for the manufacture of culinary utensils.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>White Vitriol.</span> <i>Sulphate of Zinc.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>This salt occurs in masses, consisting of crystals -which are four-sided prisms, terminated by four-sided -pyramids. Their taste is styptic, metallic, and -slightly acidulous. They are soluble in 2·5 times their -weight of water at 60°, and in less than their own -weight of boiling water, but <a id='the'></a>they are quite insoluble in -alcohol. Thus dissolved they redden the tincture of -tournesol.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of Poisoning by Sulphate of Zinc.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>This salt, like tartarized antimony, from the high -degree of emetic virtue which it possesses, generally -proves its own antidote; still, however, it must be -considered as a poison; for several cases are on record, -where the most alarming symptoms, and indeed -death itself, have been the effect of its ingestion. -<i>Metzger</i><a id='r317' /><a href='#f317' class='c011'><sup>[317]</sup></a> mentions the case of a woman, who accidentally -ate a trifling quantity of a cake, into which -<i>White Vitriol</i> had been introduced for the purpose of -shortening the days of an old man. The woman died; -but the intended victim escaped, after severe vomiting. -<i>M. Orfila</i> has also related several cases of poisoning -by this salt. The symptoms which presented -themselves on these occasions were, an astringent -metalline taste, a sense of constriction in the fauces, -so distressing as even to excite in the patient a fear of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_298'>298</span>suffocation; frequent vomitings; copious stools; -pains in the epigastric region, extending afterwards -over the whole abdomen; difficulty of breathing; -frequency of pulse; paleness of the countenance, and -coldness of the extremities.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have lately heard of a case in which a noble -lord swallowed a solution of white vitriol, which had -been sent to him by mistake, for Epsom salts, to -which it bears some analogy. Fortunately, however, -the violent emetic effect which followed removed the -poison from the stomach, and obviated any farther -injury.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Organic lesions discovered on Dissection.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>We have no well authenticated dissection of a -human being who had died from the ingestion of this -poison. The examination of animals<a id='r318' /><a href='#f318' class='c011'><sup>[318]</sup></a> who have -been so killed has shewn nothing more than an inflammation, -not very severe, of the membrane with which -it had come in contact; sometimes dark blood is observed -to be extravasated upon the muscular coat of -the stomach and intestines.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Chemical processes for the detection of Sulphate of Zinc.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>The chemist must remember that the <i>White Vitriol</i> -of commerce always contains sulphate of iron, and -sometimes sulphate of copper. When dissolved in -distilled water it may be identified by the following -re-agents; <i>viz.</i></p> - -<p class='c000'><i>a.</i> <i>Potass</i>, and <i>Ammonia</i>, precipitate an oxide of a -greenish white colour, easily soluble in an excess of -the latter of these alkalies. The oxide obtained by -potass, being washed and dried, and calcined with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_299'>299</span>charcoal, is revived, provided the temperature be -very much elevated. It should be known, that if the -salt has been previously purified, the above tests will -occasion a <i>white</i> precipitate.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>b.</i> <i>Prussiate of Potass</i> produces a precipitate of a -rather deep blue colour; which, consists of a mixture -of the prussiates of zinc and iron. If the salt has been -divested of all impurity, the precipitate will be -white.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>c.</i> <i>The Hydro-sulphurets</i> instantly occasion a -blackish precipitate, which, like the former, will be -found to be a mixture of zinc and iron, in the state of -an hydro-sulphuret. If the salt, however, is pure, its -colour will be white with a tinge of yellow.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Silver.</span></h4> - -<p class='c014'>This metal does not exert any influence on the -living body; but its oxide in combination with nitric -acid constitutes one of the most corrosive of all the -metallic salts.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Lunar Caustic.</span> <i>Nitrate of Silver.</i><br /><i>Lapis Infernalis.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>The usual state in which this substance occurs is -in that of small cylinders, having been cast into -moulds for the purpose of imparting to it a form best -adapted for the purposes it is designed to answer.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Its action on animal matter is highly caustic, and -when introduced in any considerable quantity into -the stomach, will induce death by corroding the -texture with which it may come in contact. At the -same time there is reason to believe that the whole, -or part of its composition, may be absorbed; for we -have many instances on record where the frequent -<span class='pageno' id='Page_300'>300</span>repetition of this metallic salt, in small doses, has -imparted a blue tinge to the skin, which can only be -explained on the supposition that the oxide of the -metal has been actually deposited in the rete mucosum<a id='r319' /><a href='#f319' class='c011'><sup>[319]</sup></a>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We are not aware that there is any modern case of -poisoning by this salt<a id='r320' /><a href='#f320' class='c011'><sup>[320]</sup></a>. The medical practitioner, -however, ought to know, that common salt, is its true -antidote; indeed so completely does it decompose -and separate it from water, that if a saturated solution -of nitrate of silver be filtered through common -salt, it may be afterwards drunk with impunity. <i>M. -Orfila</i>, by a series of experiments, has shewn that if -the <i>muriate of soda</i> be administered a very short time -after the ingestion of lunar caustic, it will disarm it -of its virulence by transforming it into an insoluble -muriate, possessing no power of acting on the animal -œconomy.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Chemical processes for the detection of Lunar Caustic.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>If a small portion of the salt can be procured it -may be dissolved in distilled water, and immediately -identified by the following tests.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>a.</i> <i>Muriatic acid, or any soluble Muriate</i>, will precipitate -the muriate of silver, which is white, curdled, -very heavy, insoluble in water, or nitric acid; but -soluble in liquor ammoniæ; when exposed to the air -it acquires a black colour.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_301'>301</span><i>b.</i> <i>Potass</i>, <i>Soda</i>, and <i>Lime water</i>, will occasion a -precipitate of the oxide, of a deep brown colour.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>c.</i> <i>Ammonia.</i> This alkali will form an <i>ammoniuret -of silver</i>, and in consequence of the solubility of this -new product, little or no disturbance is occasioned by -the test.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>d.</i> <i>Arsenite of Potass.</i> As all re-agents must be -considered as reciprocal in their operation, it is -hardly necessary to state that this is one of the best -tests for nitrate of silver. See the history of its effects -at p. <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>If it should be necessary to discover the nitrate of -silver amongst the fluids vomited, or those contained -in the stomach of the deceased, we are very properly -directed by <i>M. Orfila</i> to filter, and then assay by the -appropriate tests; if, however, the different aliments -should disguise the characteristic colour and appearance -of these precipitates, we must proceed to desiccate -and calcine them in order to obtain the silver in -a metallic state.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>The Concentrated Acids.</span></h4> - -<p class='c014'>These must be regarded as the most terrible of all -corrosive poisons. Their action is so immediate and -energetic, as generally to destroy the membranes of -the stomach, before their peculiar antidotes can be -applied. Notwithstanding the obvious suffering -they must occasion, and the facility with which they -may be detected, such bodies have frequently, especially -in France, been the instruments of suicide -and murder; whilst in this country, we have had -many lamentable illustrations of their deadly force, -by their ingestion from fatal carelessness. In conformity -with our general plan we shall proceed to -consider the individual substances included under -<span class='pageno' id='Page_302'>302</span>this general class, although the symptoms do not -materially differ in the different kinds, nor are the -indications of cure peculiar to any of them. There -are however chemical characters which exclusively -belong to each acid, with which the forensic physician -must be accurately acquainted, in order that he -may be enabled to detect their presence.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Oil of Vitriol.</span> <i>Sulphuric Acid.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>This acid, when perfectly pure, exists in the form -of a colourless liquid, without smell, and of an oily -consistence; whence its popular name. Its specific -gravity is 1·85, so that, in round numbers, it may be -stated that an ounce, by measure, will weigh fourteen -drachms. It acquires a brown tinge from the smallest -portion of carbonaceous matter; mere exposure to -the atmosphere is sufficient to effect this change, in -consequence of the acid disorganizing and carbonating -the vegetable and animal matter suspended in the -air. This fact sufficiently explains why we generally -find the acid of commerce of a brown colour.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Its taste is highly acid and caustic. So powerful -is its affinity for water, that upon its admixture with -this fluid, a heat, sufficiently great to boil water, may -be produced. When exposed in its concentrated -state to the air, it will imbibe at least seven times its -own weight of water, and so rapidly as to have its -weight doubled in a month. Straw, wood, and all -vegetable substances, when immersed in the sulphuric -acid, without heat, are disorganized, softened, and -blackened, and there is separated from them a certain -portion of charcoal. Like the other mineral acids, -the <i>Oil of Vitriol</i> has never been obtained in an -insulated state without water; according to the latest -<span class='pageno' id='Page_303'>303</span>views of <i>Sir H. Davy</i>, the composition of the strongest -acid may be expressed as follows. Sulphur 30, -oxygen 45, water 17.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of Poisoning by Oil of Vitriol.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>An extremely austere, acid, and burning taste; a -painful heat in the fauces and throat, along the œsophagus, -and in the stomach; excruciating pain; -nausea, and excessive vomiting; at one time the -fluid vomited is as black as ink, at another reddened -by arterial or venous blood, producing in its passage -through the throat, the most intense pain, accompanied -with a sensation of bitterness quite intolerable; -if, by chance, a portion of it should fall on the -hearth or pavement, or on any other calcareous substance, -it will denote its true nature by an effervescence; -constipation, or sometimes bloody stools; -gripes and excruciating pains over the abdomen, with -a tenderness of these regions, so exquisite as not to -allow the slightest pressure without torment; pains -of the breast; difficulty of breathing; extreme anxiety; -the pulse becomes frequent, small, contracted, -and irregular; shiverings; great restlessness, dejection, -and agitation; convulsive motions of the countenance; -sometimes a cutaneous eruption betrays -itself. Amidst all these symptoms, the intellectual -powers remain unobscured. The parts about the -fauces, the uvula, &c. having lost their vitality, -slough, and become detached, which occasion an indescribable -fetor of the breath, while they produce a -perpetual cough, and the voice becomes so altered, -that it resembles the sounds of a person labouring -under croup.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_304'>304</span> - <h6 class='c016'><i>Organic lesions discovered on Dissection.</i></h6> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>As this substance destroys life by simply acting as -an escharotic, it is not difficult to anticipate the disorganization -which dissection will display. The -extent of the lesion, however, must in every case -depend upon the quantity and degree of concentration -of the acid, the state of the stomach in relation -to its alimentary contents, and other incidental circumstances -not to be exactly appreciated. The -mucous membrane of the mouth, the tongue, and -œsophagus, will in general be found destroyed, and -converted into a pulp.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Antidotes.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>The great indications to be fulfilled in this distressing -case, is the immediate dilution, saturation, and -expulsion of the poison. Copious draughts of water, -holding calcined<a id='r321' /><a href='#f321' class='c011'><sup>[321]</sup></a> magnesia in suspension, should -be administered without any loss of time. If this is -not in readiness, soap and water should be administered; -mucilaginous drinks, milk, and even warm -or cold water, in the absence of more eligible potations, -should not be neglected. It must be never -forgotten, exclaims <i>Orfila</i>, that success upon these -occasions depends upon the activity of the practitioner; -the delay of a few moments will entirely -change the fate of the patient, as the sulphuric acid -destroys the texture of the organs with a fearful -celerity. After having thus neutralized the caustic, -it will be our duty to obviate the effects it may be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_305'>305</span>likely to occasion; the lancet must be used with boldness, -and the detraction of blood repeated at short -intervals; at the same time emollient clysters may be -advantageously injected.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Chemical processes for the detection of Oil of Vitriol.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>In the pure state, there can exist no difficulty in -identifying it; its specific gravity, and its action on -vegetable matter, will, without any other tests, be -quite sufficient to fulfil our object. If heated with -metallic mercury, it will disengage sulphurous acid -gas; and if united with lime, a sulphate of lime will -be produced, which the chemist may easily recognise -by dissolving a portion in distilled water, and assaying -the solution by <i>muriate of baryta</i>, which will produce -with the sulphate a precipitate, insoluble in -nitric acid. By the last mentioned tests we shall be -enabled to detect the presence of sulphuric acid, in -whatever state of complication it may happen to -exist with alimentary matter.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Nitric Acid.</span></h5> - -<p class='c014'>This acid, when pure, assumes the form of a limpid -fluid, emitting white fumes of a suffocating odour; -its taste is highly acid, and corrosive; and it is at -once distinguished from all other acids, by its tinging -the skin indelibly yellow. When of the specific -gravity 1·5 it contains 74·895 per cent of dry acid, -(whose ultimate elements are one proportional of nitrogen, -and five of oxygen) the complement 25·105 -parts, is water.<a id='r322' /><a href='#f322' class='c011'><sup>[322]</sup></a> It is decomposed with violent -action by all combustibles, and when mixed with volatile -oils it causes their inflammation.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_306'>306</span>From the facility with which this acid undergoes -decomposition, it is rarely found in commerce in a -colourless condition; indeed the action of light is -sufficient to impart a tawny tinge to it; when this -change has proceeded to such an extent as to render -the acid orange coloured, it is called <i>Nitrous acid</i>, -or, in the language of the arts, <i>aqua fortis</i>, although -in a chemical point of view, such a nomenclature -is incorrect, for it is nothing more than nitric -acid, holding nitrous acid gas loosely combined.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of Poisoning by Nitric Acid.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>This acid has been so frequently swallowed in France, -for the purpose of committing suicide, that it has -enabled the pathologists of that country to afford a -very satisfactory account of its operation, and effects. -To <i>M. Tartra</i> we are particularly indebted for a very -full and interesting investigation of the subject, and -we shall avail ourselves upon the present occasion, of -the many facts and observations with which his treatise<a id='r323' /><a href='#f323' class='c011'><sup>[323]</sup></a> -abounds. In describing the symptoms occasioned -by the ingestion of this acid, <i>M. Tartra</i> establishes -four different gradations, viz. 1. When the -death is speedy, for it is never sudden, it commonly -takes place from the <i>primary</i> effects in about twenty-four -hours, varying from six to forty-eight hours. -2. When it proves fatal from its <i>secondary</i> effects, at -different intervals, from fifteen days to several years. -3. When death does not take place, but the recovery -is imperfect. 4. When a perfect cure is sooner or -later obtained. The first case is illustrated by the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_307'>307</span>following example, which will serve to convey a very -just idea of the progress and intensity of the symptoms. -“A man, driven by distress to commit suicide, -under the greatest agitation of mind, and upon -an empty stomach, swallowed, at a draught, two ounces -of concentrated nitric acid. Instantly he was seized -with the most excruciating pains and agitation, and -could not lie in bed, but rolled himself upon the -floor. Vomiting came on, accompanied by a general -sensation of coldness, especially in the extremities. -Every time he vomited, the matter effervesced upon -the pavement. A solution of soap and oil was administered -to him, and in two hours he was brought to -the hospital, often having vomited, and stopped on -the road to drink. On his arrival, he had emollient -drinks, especially linseed tea, in great abundance. -He was in continual agitation, and his countenance -was greatly altered. He now vomited every instant -a blackish glairy matter; he opened his mouth easily, -and his tongue was white, with a tinge of yellow; he -complained of acute pains in his mouth, along the -œsophagus, and in his stomach. His belly, slightly -tense, could not bear the slightest pressure, without -great torment. The surface of the body was cold; -the pulse small and frequent; he had hiccup, and -the respiration was laborious.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His symptoms increased. He uttered sighs and -lamentations; his limbs became icy; a cold sweat -covered his whole body; his pulse was scarcely -perceptible; the pain was constant; still he could -rise and make continual but useless efforts to quench -his thirst, and satisfy his urgent desire to void urine, -and go to stool. He continued in this state during -the night; the matters vomited became more clear, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_308'>308</span>and of a yellow colour. He at last made a few drops -of urine. The shocking appearance of his body -already resembled that of a corpse, but he retained -his senses, and was speaking when he expired, nineteen -hours after swallowing the acid.” The burning -heat and pains which are commonly the immediate -effects of the ingestion of this acid are very variable -in their intensity and duration, and <i>M. Tartra</i> observes -that, in general, they are not in proportion to -the quantity or strength of the acid swallowed. It -often happens that persons who have taken only a -small dose, are seized with the most excruciating -and dreadful pains, and some of those who have -swallowed a great quantity, two or three ounces for -example, have had scarcely any suffering, but remained -very tranquil. In the first case, the patients -either recover, or survive a long time; in the second, -speedy death is almost always the consequence; thus -a young man of twenty died in twenty hours, without -any agitation or signs of acute pains. On opening -the body, the highest degree of disorganization appeared, -perforations of the stomach, and great effusion -of its contents into the abdomen. The second -variety of the progress and termination of poisoning -by nitric acid, exhibits, at first, the same phenomena -as the preceding; but less alarming symptoms succeed -by degrees; after some months, the inner membrane -of the alimentary canal detaches itself in portions, -the patient falls into a marasmus, and dies. -We are here presented with a case of <i>consecutive</i> poisoning, -see <i>page</i> <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The third termination is in imperfect recovery. A -slow and progressive amendment ensures the safety -of the patient; but there still remains some complaint; -obscure pains in the throat, and especially in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_309'>309</span>the epigastric region; habitual constipation, occasional -vomiting, and increased sensibility of the -stomach, so that it can only support light nourishment -and bland liquors; in short, they continue invalids -during the rest of their lives; they are subject -to repeated and even habitual indispositions, and -sometimes to pain and insupportable heat of the stomach; -but they are able to follow their occupations, -and long survive their poisoning.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The total disappearance of the symptoms produced -by swallowing nitric acid; or complete and absolute -recovery without leaving any consequences, is the -last variety of termination.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Organic lesions discovered on Dissection.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'><i>Tartra</i> has furnished us with the following interesting -account of the dissection of those who have -died of the primary effects of nitric acid. The external -appearance of the body presents no alteration; -every part is sound and natural, and possesses, in a -certain degree, the firmness and freshness of life. -The epidermis of the margins of the lips has commonly -an orange colour, more or less deep. It seems -burnt and easily separates. Sometimes yellow spots -are discovered on the hands and other parts of the -body, caused by the contact of the acid. A yellow -fluid, in some cases very abundant, flows from the -mouth and nostrils, and the belly is considerably distended -with air. The alimentary canal is remarkably -affected. All the internal membrane of the mouth is -burnt, and has sometimes a white colour, but is more -commonly yellow; it is separate in some places, and -adheres in others. The teeth are often loose, and -have a very marked yellow colour at their <em>crown</em>. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_310'>310</span>The mucous membrane of the pharynx exhibits the -same change, or is in a state of inflammation of a -dirty red colour. The whole extent of the œsophagus -is lined with a dense mass of a fine yellow colour, dry -on its surface, unctuous and greasy to the touch, and -which seems to be formed both of the mucous membrane, -altered in a particular manner, and of the -albumen contained in the viscid fluid which exudes -from the membrane of the œsophagus, solidified by -the nitric acid. This lining adheres in very few points, -and is easily detected from the other membranes of -the œsophagus, which are brown and blood-shot. -When the stomach is not perforated, it has commonly -a considerable size; externally, its membranes are -slightly and partially inflamed, but very much towards -the pylorus and beginning of the duodenum. -Its colour is faded, livid, of a yellowish green, with -large gangrenous spots. It adheres every where to -the neighbouring parts, the diaphragm, liver, spleen, -and transverse arch of the colon, by means of a concrete -lymphatic exudation; its sides, which are thin -and yellow in some places, and thick and black in -others, exhibit net-work of dilated blood-vessels -filled with black coagulated blood. Often there are -several points of the stomach dissolved, and ready to -burst with the slightest touch; it contains a great -quantity of gas, which has a peculiar smell, resembling -that of bitter almonds; it also very commonly -contains a great quantity of yellow matter, of a -pultaceous consistence; the substance of the stomach -is generally swelled in some places, and deeply -marked with black, without being dissolved; this -effect is most remarkable at the great end, into which -the acid seems to fall by its weight; the rugæ of the -stomach are very brown, and are reduced to a mucilaginous -<span class='pageno' id='Page_311'>311</span>consistence. The other parts of the alimentary -canal exhibit the same organic lesions, although -the phenomena have less intensity in proportion as -the part is more distant from the stomach.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In those cases where the stomach is found perforated, -its bulk is very small; the holes commonly -occur in the large and small extremities; their form -is circular, and their edges thin, and as if dissolved. -The urinary bladder contains no urine, although the -patient have not discharged any.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The appearances upon dissection of those who die -of the <i>secondary</i> effects are entirely different from -those above described. It would be difficult to find -an example of greater emaciation, more advanced -consumption, or more disgusting form. Nothing is -equal to the degree of withering, and decrepitude of -the whole organs; their colour is faded; the internal -cavities do not contain the usual serum; the cellular -and muscular systems are almost annihilated; the -bones become dry, as in persons of advanced age, -and break with extraordinary facility; but these -changes are general and secondary, and depend upon -local organic derangement of the alimentary tube. -The stomach and whole intestinal canal are contracted -to an extremely small size; the intestines are not -larger than the little finger, sometimes not exceeding -a thick writing quill; their coats are very thick, their -cavity almost obliterated, and containing only a little -mucosity. The stomach, which often resembles a -portion of a small intestine, appears sound externally, -and only presents some adhesions to the neighbouring -viscera; internally, the most remarkable change is -the contraction of the pylorus, the passage through -which will scarcely admit a probe; and the membranes -of the stomach itself are so thickened and compacted -<span class='pageno' id='Page_312'>312</span>around it, that they have lost all their natural -suppleness. On the internal surface, there are irregular -spots, or rather smooth and red places, which -seem to be covered with a regenerated mucous membrane, -less villous than that which had been destroyed -by the action of the acid; these cicatrices are -particularly large and numerous in the great end of -the stomach, and around the circumference of the -pylorus.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Chemical processes by which the presence of Nitric Acid may be discovered.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>If the acid be in any quantity, and without mixture, -there cannot exist any difficulty in demonstrating -its presence. If added to copper filings, there -will be a copious disengagement of orange-coloured -fumes, and a nitrate of copper of a blue colour will -remain, as the product. If it be saturated with potass, -we shall at once obtain by due evaporation the -well known substance, nitre; this salt will announce -its nature by deflagrating with charcoal or sulphur. -This latter test is the one we must employ for the detection -of nitric acid, when mixed with vinegar, and -other liquids. Where the acid has combined with -the animal matters with which it may have come into -contact, they must be boiled for an hour in a solution -of pure potass, when the solution will assume a reddish -appearance; this must be filtered, and evaporated -in a capsule of porcelain, when the mass so -obtained will leave a residuum of nitrate of potass.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Dr. Marcet</i>, in a paper just published in the <cite>Philosophical -Transactions</cite>,<a id='r324' /><a href='#f324' class='c011'><sup>[324]</sup></a> on the composition of sea -<span class='pageno' id='Page_313'>313</span>water, employed a new mode of assaying the solution -for nitric acid, and for which he acknowledges himself -indebted to <i>Dr. Wollaston</i>. Having concentrated -the <i>bittern</i> in a glass vessel, until it began to -deposit solid matter, he added sulphuric acid and -gold leaf, and boiled the mixture; the gold leaf was -not in the least acted upon, nor was any smell of nitric -acid perceived; but on adding the smallest quantity -of nitre to the same mixture, the gold was dissolved, -and the smell of <i>aqua regia</i> instantly perceived. The -rationale of the experiment is obvious, gold, although -insoluble in muriatic acid, is instantly dissolved on -the addition of nitric acid, in consequence of the developement -of chlorine.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Spirit of Salt.</span> <i>Muriatic Acid.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>The liquid acid, of which we are about to treat, is -a solution of muriatic acid gas in water; when of the -specific gravity 1·16, according to <i>Davy</i>, it contains -32·32 per cent. of the gas, which recent experiments -have proved to be a compound of <i>Chlorine</i> (oxy-muriatic -acid) and <i>hydrogen</i>, in equal volumes. It has -accordingly received a name expressive of its composition, -and is called <i>Hydro-chloric acid</i>. Its odour is -strong and peculiar; when exposed to the air it emits -white fumes; its taste is intensely sour and caustic; -it is, however, the weakest of the three mineral acids, -and no remarkable elevation of temperature is produced -by dilution. It readily combines with potass, -soda, &c. and furnishes a class of salts which may -be easily recognised by their characters.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of Poisoning by Muriatic Acid.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>As the effects of muriatic acid do not differ from -those which have been described, as the consequences -<span class='pageno' id='Page_314'>314</span>of poisoning by the other mineral acids, it will be unnecessary -to enumerate them. <i>Orfila</i>, however, remarks, -that the patients who have swallowed a certain -quantity of it, emit, in the first moments of the accident, -a thick smoke of a white colour, and very pungent -smell.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Chemical processes for the detection of Muriatic Acid.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>This acid, in its free state, immediately announces -its nature by the fumes which it emits. When the -acid, however, exists in a more questionable shape, -as in the matter vomited by the patient, or in that -found in the digestive canal after death, it will be -necessary to saturate the liquid part with pure potass, -and to boil it for some time, when we shall obtain a -fluid, from which the nitrate of silver will throw down -a dense precipitate. By evaporation, we shall obtain -a crystallized muriate, which may be identified by the -following tests: 1, When concentrated sulphuric -acid is poured upon it, a brisk effervescence is immediately -occasioned, and the muriatic acid is disengaged -in the form of white vapours, which are thick, -and of an excessively pungent smell. 2, If instead -of employing concentrated sulphuric acid, this acid -be used in a state of dilution, and the muriate be -mixed with some substance which easily yields its -oxygen, the muriatic acid will be decomposed, its -hydrogen, combining with the oxygen so as to form -water, while the chlorine will be disengaged, and by -its pungent and peculiar odour at once announce the -nature of the acid under examination.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_315'>315</span> - <h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Oxalic Acid.</span> <i>Acid of Sugar.</i><a id='r325' /><a href='#f325' class='c011'><sup>[325]</sup></a></h5> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>This salt occurs in small crystals, whose form is -that of a four sided prism. It is extremely acid to -the taste, so that by applying the tongue to one of -its crystals, its nature may be immediately discovered. -It dissolves in twice its weight of cold, and in an -equal weight of hot water; it is also soluble in -boiling alcohol which takes up about half its weight; -the solutions act powerfully on the vegetable -colours, and at once denote their acid properties. -On account of the strong resemblance which the crystals -of this acid bear to those of sulphate of magnesia, -or <i>Epsom</i> salts, many fatal accidents have occurred. -We are not aware that it is ever purchased, in retail, -for any other purpose than as a detergent, to clean -the tops of boots; in the large way, it is an article of -extensive trade with the calico printers. Its salts<a id='r326' /><a href='#f326' class='c011'><sup>[326]</sup></a> -are likewise employed for various purposes in the arts.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Amongst the many schemes which have been proposed -to secure the public against the possibility of -mistaking this acid for Epsom salts, there does not -appear to be one which admits of successful application; -nor are we able to propose any test of discrimination -which is not far inferior in accuracy and convenience, -to that which is afforded by the mere taste -of the crystal; indeed we cannot understand how so -<span class='pageno' id='Page_316'>316</span>acid a solution can be swallowed, without an immediate -discovery.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of Poisoning by Oxalic Acid.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>From the history of the many cases on record, it -appears that this acid produces all the grievous -symptoms, which characterise the action of a corrosive -poison; its operation upon the stomach is similar -to that of any other powerful acid; and dissection -displays the same destruction of parts, as that we -have already described under the consideration of -the mineral acids.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Antidotes.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>We should endeavour to form as quickly as possible -an insoluble oxalate of lime; copious draughts -of lime water, or magnesia and water, should be -administered; and vomiting immediately excited.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Chemical tests for the detection of Oxalic Acid.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>If any of its crystals can be obtained, we shall be -immediately able to identify them. They dissolve -very readily in water, and since the oxalic has a -greater affinity for lime, than any other acid, and -forms an insoluble salt with it, we have thus a ready -test of its presence, for it will decompose all the calcareous -salts, not even excepting the sulphate.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Boiling Water.</span></h4> - -<p class='c014'>Many cases are recorded of the death of children -from the ingestion of boiling water; an accident -which will be always liable to occur, as long as the -peasant allows his family to quench their thirst by -drinking the cold water through the spout of the tea -kettle. It has been very generally supposed that fatal -<span class='pageno' id='Page_317'>317</span>effects have, on these occasions, supervened the high -state of inflammation produced in the æsophagus and -stomach by the boiling liquid. <i>Dr. Marshall Hall</i> -has, however, lately published a very interesting paper -on this subject, in the twelfth volume of the <cite>Medico-Chirurgical -Transactions</cite>; from which it would -appear, that the patient, under these circumstances, -actually dies of suffocation as in croup; and that the -boiling water is arrested in its progress to the stomach -by the convulsive action of the muscles of the pharynx. -In passing, however, to the posterior part of the -mouth, it scalds the <i>epiglottis</i>, and <i>glottis</i>, which afterwards -become more and more swollen, until at length -the <i>rima glottidis</i>, or orifice into the larynx, becomes -completely obstructed. Here then we have a new instance -in which the operation of laryngotomy, or of -tracheotomy, may be performed with the effect of -preventing impending suffocation, and perhaps of saving -life. <i>Dr. Marshall Hall</i> relates four cases in -illustration of this interesting fact; of which one recovered -from imminent suffocation immediately after -screaming<a id='r327' /><a href='#f327' class='c011'><sup>[327]</sup></a>; two died from suffocation, one 10, the -other 17 hours, after the accident; the fourth was -completely relieved by the operation of tracheotomy, -and survived 34 hours, but died, exhausted by the -irritation produced by the primary affection.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Melted Lead.</span></h4> - -<p class='c014'>An instance stands recorded in the history of the -destruction of the Eddystone-light house, by fire, -where a quantity of melted lead fell into the mouth, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_318'>318</span>and was swallowed by a person who was attentively -watching the conflagration. It is very singular, that -this man lived many days after the accident; a fact -which at least shews what extensive injury the stomach -will occasionally sustain, without the immediate -destruction of life. The lead taken out of the stomach -after death, in this case, weighed exactly seven -ounces, five drachms, and eighteen grains.<a id='r328' /><a href='#f328' class='c011'><sup>[328]</sup></a></p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>The Caustic Alkalies.</span></h4> - -<p class='c014'>These bodies are distinguished by a highly corrosive -and peculiar taste; they change the blue<a id='r329' /><a href='#f329' class='c011'><sup>[329]</sup></a> juices -of vegetables to a green, and the yellow to a brown; -they are soluble in water, and have the power of -imparting the same property to oils, by combining -with them, and thus forming saponaceous compounds. -With the different acids they constitute peculiar salts. -When applied to the flesh of animals they act as powerful -caustics, destroying its texture, and ultimately -dissolving it; they are accordingly arranged with -great propriety under the head of corrosive poisons.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There are three<a id='r330' /><a href='#f330' class='c011'><sup>[330]</sup></a> alkalies—<i>potass</i>, <i>soda</i>, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_319'>319</span><i>ammonia</i>. To the two former the epithet <i>fixed</i> has -been applied, since they require a very high temperature -for their sublimation; while to the third, -that of <i>volatile</i> has been assigned, because, when uncombined, -it exists in a state of gas. <i>Potass</i>, as it -was considered the product of vegetation, has received -the name of the <i>vegetable</i> alkali, while <i>soda</i>, as the -base of rock salt, has been distinguished by that of -<i>mineral</i> alkali. The distinctions, however, originally -established by <i>Avicenna</i>, must now be abandoned, -for they have not the slightest foundation in -truth; <i>potass</i>, so far from being the exclusive product -of vegetation, exists as a constituent part of the -<i>Granite</i>, which forms the foundation of our globe; it -has also been discovered in the <i>Pumice stone</i>; in some -minerals of the <i>Zeolite</i> family; in the <i>Leucite</i>; in the -aluminous ores of <i>La Tolfa</i>, &c. and, although potass -is undoubtedly procured by lixiviation from the ashes -of burnt wood, and other vegetable substances, yet -there is ample grounds for supposing that the living -plant receives it from the soil in which it vegetates.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Potass</span>, or <i>Potash</i>—</h5> - -<p class='c017'><span class='sc'>Liquor Potassæ</span>—<span class='sc'>Potassa Fusa</span>, or <i>Kali Causticum</i>—<i>Lapis -Infernalis</i>—<i>Causticum commune acerrimum</i>. -<span class='sc'>Potassa cum Calce</span>—<span class='sc'>Potassæ Sub-carbonas</span>, -or <i>Salt of Tartar</i>—<i>Potash</i>—<i>Pearl ash</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Potass is rarely met with in a pure form, except in -the laboratory of the philosophical chemist, and is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_320'>320</span>therefore not likely to become an object of judicial -enquiry; but in various states of mixture, as presented -in the different preparations above enumerated, -it may become the accidental, as well as criminal -means of poisoning; we shall therefore consider -the chemical history of these different preparations -separately, and then describe the symptoms -which they generally occasion.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Liquor Potassæ.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>This may be considered as a nearly pure solution -of potass, although, as it is usually prepared, -it contains small portions of <i>muriate</i> and <i>sulphate -of potass</i>, <i>silica</i>, and <i>lime</i>. It is a limpid, dense, -colourless solution; when rubbed between the fingers -it feels soapy, in consequence of a partial solution -of the cuticle. As it constitutes a medicine in common -use, and, moreover, forms the basis of many -<i>quack medicines</i>, as well as of those preparations -which are sold under the name of <i>Depilatories</i>, it may -readily become the accidental instrument of mischief.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Chemical Tests for its detection.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>There cannot exist any difficulty in this investigation; -its highly alkaline characters will be immediately -announced by its effects on the vegetable test -papers, and by its power of saturating acids; while -the particular species of alkali may be readily identified -by the following reagents.</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>a</i>) <i>Carbonic acid; or water saturated with the gas.</i> -This will not produce any<a id='r331' /><a href='#f331' class='c011'><sup>[331]</sup></a> disturbance in the solution -<span class='pageno' id='Page_321'>321</span>of potass; a fact which at once serves to distinguish -this alkali from the earths, <i>baryta</i> and <i>lime</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>b</i>) <i>Deuto-muriate of Platina</i> occasions a canary-yellow -precipitate, consisting of the deutoxide of -platina, potass, and muriatic acid; as this precipitate -is, to a certain extent, soluble in water, the test -may fail through dilution. With soda, this reagent -will not occasion any precipitate, a fact which depends -upon the solubility of the triple salt formed, -and affords an easy method of distinguishing the fixed -alkalies from each other.</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>c</i>) <i>Tartaric acid.</i> If an excess of this acid be -added, we shall obtain crystals of a <i>bi-tartrate</i>; a -phenomenon which will not take place if soda be the -alkali employed.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Potassa Fusa</i>, or <i>Kali Causticum</i>.</h6> - -<p class='c014'>This substance, which occurs in sticks, or cylinders, -is an extremely caustic and deliquescent substance; -it is principally employed in surgery, to -establish an ulcer; or, instead of incision, to open a -tumour. See <cite>Pharmacologia</cite>. As it differs from potass, -only in the degree of purity, it is unnecessary -to offer any farther remarks.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Potassa cum Calce.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>This is a mixture of the preceding substance with -lime, which is added with a view to diminish the deliquescent -property of the alkali, and thus to render -it more manageable as an escharotic. There will be -no difficulty in separating these ingredients. Their -different solubilities will furnish an easy mode of -effecting it to a certain extent, and we may then precipitate -<span class='pageno' id='Page_322'>322</span>the remaining portion of lime, by carbonic -acid.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Sub-carbonate of Potass</i>—<i>Salt of Tartar</i>—<i>Pearl-ash</i>—<i>Potash</i>.</h6> - -<p class='c014'>Although potass becomes comparatively mild, by -its union with carbonic acid; yet the present preparation -retains so much causticity as to render it poisonous, -if administered in any considerable dose. -<i>Plenck</i> reports a case of this kind, where a patient -having swallowed an ounce of <i>salt of tartar</i>, was -shortly afterwards seized with a violent vomiting, -which continued for forty-eight hours, followed by a -violent inflammation of the stomach; from which, -however, he ultimately recovered.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of Poisoning by any of the above preparations of Potass.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>A styptic, urinous, and caustic taste; a severe heat -in the throat; violent vomiting, generally of alkaline -matter, turning the syrups of violets green, and where -the alkali has been in the state of <i>carbonate</i>, effervescing -with acids; sometimes the matter thus ejected is -mixed with blood; copious alvine evacuations; severe -pain in the epigastric region; excruciating tormina -of the bowels; depravation of the intellectual -faculties, and death. It will be easily perceived that -the above symptoms merely indicate the operation of -a corrosive poison. They offer no characteristic peculiarities -which can enable us to decide upon the -particular substance that has been swallowed, unless, -indeed, the matter vomited can be submitted to examination.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_323'>323</span> - <h6 class='c016'><i>Antidotes.</i></h6> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>From the experiments of <i>Orfila</i>, it appears that -vinegar, diluted with water, is the remedy which can -be administered with the greatest success, where any -preparation of this alkali has been swallowed in a -poisonous dose.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Organic lesions discovered on dissection.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>In consequence of the peculiar action of this alkali -upon animal matter, we shall generally find the stomach -perforated, and its coats extensively dissolved. -We shall moreover discover the usual indications of -violent inflammation in this viscus, as well as in the -intestines.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Soda.</span></h5> - -<p class='c014'>We have already stated by what chemical reagents -this alkali may be distinguished from <i>potass</i>; it only remains -for us to observe that its physiological action, the -symptoms arising from its ingestion, and the organic -lesions discovered on dissection, are strictly analogous -to those we have described as the effects of potass.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Ammonia</span>, and its <span class='sc'>Carbonate</span>.</h6> - -<p class='c014'>Ammonia, in its uncombined state, exists in the -state of gas, and is incapable of application; its affinity, -however, for water, enables it to combine with -that fluid, and to form liquid ammonia, (<i>Liquor Ammoniæ</i>) -in which state it is useful in medicine, and in the -arts. This solution is colourless; its taste extremely -caustic; and its odour strong, pungent, and peculiar. -Exposed to the action of heat, the ammoniacal gas -<span class='pageno' id='Page_324'>324</span>is driven off, and may be recognised by its characteristic -odour, as well as by its effects upon moistened -<i>turmeric</i> paper. When brought into contact with -muriatic acid, it will form dense white vapours, consisting -of <i>muriate of ammonia</i>. A most elegant and -sensible test for ammoniacal gas is afforded by a -mixed solution, consisting of arsenious acid and nitrate -of silver; these substances when mixed in solution -do not occasion the least disturbance in each -other, for reasons already explained, (see page <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>) -but upon spreading a portion of the liquid upon glass -or paper, and bringing ammoniacal gas into contact, -a beautiful yellow cloud immediately diffuses itself -over the surface of the solution.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Sub-carbonate of ammonia</i> occurs in solid, white, -semi-transparent masses, of a highly pungent and ammoniacal -odour. Its chemical composition has been -found to vary materially according to the circumstances -under which it has been prepared; <i>Mr. R. -Phillips</i>, who has made some highly interesting experiments -upon this subject, considers the <i>sub-carbonate</i> -to be a <i>sesqui</i>-carbonate, composed of 3 atoms -of carbonic acid, 2 atoms of ammonia, and 2 of water. -By long exposure to the air, its pungency is lost, and -it is converted into an inodorous carbonate.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of poisoning by Ammonia.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>Cases wherein death has been produced in a few -minutes, from the ingestion of liquid ammonia, stand -recorded on the authority of <i>Martinet</i>, <i>Huxham</i>, <i>Haller</i>, -and other physiologists. In such cases the lips, -tongue, and fauces are described as being burnt by -the causticity of the fluid; while hemorrhage of the -intestines marks the organic lesions which it occasions. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_325'>325</span>The nervous system would appear also to -suffer greatly, at the same time that the abdominal -organs are affected with violent inflammation.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>The Caustic Alkaline Earths.</span></h4> - -<p class='c014'>Under this division, we have to consider the two -earths, <i>Lime</i> and <i>Baryta</i>; both of which are highly -corrosive, although they essentially differ from each -other in their physiological action. In this respect -they may be compared to <i>corrosive sublimate</i> and -<i>arsenic</i>, and offer an additional illustration of the imperfection -of the present classification; for while -<i>lime</i> acts as a local caustic upon the parts with which -it comes in contact, <i>baryta</i> will require, for its action, -to be absorbed and carried into the current of the -circulation.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Quick Lime.</span></h5> - -<p class='c014'>This earth is of a white colour, and of a hot caustic -taste; with acids it forms peculiar salts; a fact which -we shall shew affords the most decisive means of identifying -its presence. It changes vegetable blues to a -green, and reddens <i>turmeric</i>; it is capable of fusion; -so great is its affinity for water, that it will absorb -and solidify one third of its weight of that fluid, and -yet remain perfectly dry. The heat, therefore, that -is evolved in the process of slacking lime, evidently -proceeds from the water, which yields its caloric, as -it passes from the liquid to the solid state.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of poisoning by Lime.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>It is perhaps the least energetic of the corrosive -poisons; and yet, when taken in any quantity, it will -<span class='pageno' id='Page_326'>326</span>produce nausea, vomiting, colics, frequent stools, -and all the symptoms which characterise, or are complicated -with, inflammation of the stomach and intestines.<a id='r332' /><a href='#f332' class='c011'><sup>[332]</sup></a> -Lime in combination with carbonic acid -is not considered as poisonous.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Organic lesions discovered on dissection.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>In examining the body of an animal that has been -killed by caustic lime, we shall find the mucous membrane -of the stomach reddened, and evincing marks -of inflammation in those parts which have been in -contact with it.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Tests for the detection of Quick-lime.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>We may proceed, if the substance be free from -mixture, to obtain a solution of the earth in distilled -water, and to assay it by the following reagents.</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>a</i>) <i>Carbonic acid, and the soluble alkaline sub-carbonates</i> -produce a copious white precipitate, which is -soluble in an excess of carbonic acid. The <i>carbonate -of lime</i>, of which this precipitate consists, is also decomposed -by muriatic acid, with effervescence, a -soluble muriate remaining.</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>b</i>) <i>Oxalic acid, and oxalate of ammonia.</i> They -precipitate lime-water of a white colour, and the resulting -<i>oxalate</i> is not soluble in an excess of acid.</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>c</i>) <i>Sulphuric acid.</i> This acid does not precipitate -lime water, since the <i>sulphate of lime</i> formed does not -require more than 300 parts of water to dissolve it. -Whereas, says <i>M. Orfila</i>, the smallest quantity of an -exceedingly diluted solution of <i>baryta</i> becomes instantly -turbid on the addition of that acid, because -<span class='pageno' id='Page_327'>327</span>the <i>sulphate of baryta</i> is insoluble in several thousand -times its weight of water. By this test, therefore, we -are at once enabled to distinguish lime-water, from -barytic water.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Baryta, and its Salts.</span></h5> - -<p class='c014'><i>Baryta</i>, like lime, is a solid, heavy, alkaline earth, -having an acrid and peculiar taste; and turning the -syrup of violets <i>green</i>, and the juice of turmeric <i>red</i>. -When perfectly calcined, it absorbs water very rapidly, -disengaging at the same time a quantity of -caloric; the phenomenon is similar to that of <i>slacking -lime</i>, and admits of the same explanation. It dissolves -in about 20 parts of water, at the temperature of 60°; -but boiling water will dissolve half its weight of this -earth, part of which will crystallize on cooling.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='sc'>Muriate of Baryta.</span> This salt crystallises in -square plates, or four-sided prisms; its taste is acrid -and pungent. It dissolves in 2½ parts of distilled -water at 60° <i>Fah.</i> The solution is limpid and colourless, -and has been employed in medicine, as a remedy -in scrofula, cancer, some forms of syphilis, and in -hectic fever connected with ulceration. <i>Dr. Johnstone</i> -says that he has seen a delicate female take as -much as thirty drops of a saturated solution of this -salt, <em>repeatedly</em>, without nausea; whence he concludes -that it would require at least 2 or 3 drachms -to do mischief.<a id='r333' /><a href='#f333' class='c011'><sup>[333]</sup></a></p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of poisoning by Baryta.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>All the soluble compounds of this earth are poisonous, -especially the <i>muriate</i>; which, whether injected -<span class='pageno' id='Page_328'>328</span>into the veins, introduced into the stomach, or externally -applied to an abraded surface, will occasion -death in a very short period. We are not aware -that any case stands recorded of poisoning by baryta. -<i>Orfila</i><a id='r334' /><a href='#f334' class='c011'><sup>[334]</sup></a> and <i>Brodie</i><a id='r335' /><a href='#f335' class='c011'><sup>[335]</sup></a> have, however, investigated -the symptoms which this poison produces on animals, -and they appear to be analogous to those occasioned -by the ingestion of arsenic. The muriate, on account -of its greater solubility, would appear to be much -more active than the pure earth, or its carbonate.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Physiological action of Baryta.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>Barytic poisons require to be absorbed before they -act on the system; they may therefore destroy by external -application, although it would appear that, -unlike arsenic, they act sooner when internally administered. -<i>Mr. Brodie</i> thinks that the <i>muriate of -baryta</i> occasions death by acting upon the brain and -the heart; at the same time it exerts a local action, -and corrodes the viscus with which it comes into -contact.</p> - -<h6 class='c016'><i>Antidotes.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>It has been shewn by the experiments of <i>Orfila</i>, -that the soluble sulphates, as <i>Glauber</i> or <i>Epsom salts</i>, -by converting the <i>baryta</i> into an insoluble <i>sulphate</i>, -will act as antidotes to its virulence. In the first instance, -therefore, it will be prudent to produce this -chemical decomposition in the poison, and then to -expel it, as quickly as possible, by emetics.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_329'>329</span> - <h6 class='c016'><i>Chemical tests for the detection of Baryta.</i></h6> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>Where the pure earth, <i>baryta</i>, or its solution in -water, is presented for our investigation, it may be -identified by the following reagents.</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>a</i>) <i>Sulphuric acid, and the soluble sulphates.</i> These -bodies precipitate from the barytic solution, a white -<i>sulphate</i> of the earth, insoluble in water, and nitric -acid.</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>b</i>) <i>Carbonic acid gas, and the alkaline sub-carbonates</i>, -produce in it a white <i>carbonate of baryta</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>c</i>) <i>Muriatic acid</i> combines with baryta, and furnishes -a salt which is capable of being identified by -numerous reagents. <i>M. Orfila</i> has furnished us with -the following satisfactory compendium of its habitudes. -“A salt which does not redden the tincture -of tournesol, which does not turn the syrup of violets -green, which is not precipitated by the alkaline hydro-sulphurets,<a id='r336' /><a href='#f336' class='c011'><sup>[336]</sup></a> -nor by ammonia; but which, on -the contrary, is precipitated by the sub-carbonate of -ammonia, soda, or potass; which is not soluble in -concentrated alcohol; which furnishes, with the sulphate -of potass, or the sulphuric acid, a white precipitate -insoluble in water and in the nitric acid, and -which gives with the nitrate of silver a curdled precipitate -of muriate of silver, likewise insoluble in the -nitric acid, <i>can be no other than the muriate of baryta</i>.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>But it may happen, that the above salt is so mixed -with alimentary matter, as to defy the action of the -tests; in this case we must endeavour to obtain from -it the pure earth, by precipitating the suspected fluids -<span class='pageno' id='Page_330'>330</span>by the sub-carbonate of ammonia; when a <i>carbonate -of baryta</i> will fall down, which must be dried on a -filter, and calcined with charcoal.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Cantharides.</span> <i>Spanish Flies</i>—<i>Blistering Flies</i>. (<i>Cantharis Vesicatoria</i>, Sp. 1, of Latreille.)<a id='r337' /><a href='#f337' class='c011'><sup>[337]</sup></a></h4> - -<p class='c014'>Cantharides are imported into this country in their -entire state, and are so kept in the shops; their form -and general appearance are too well known to require -description, and they will rarely become the -objects of inquiry; in powder, however, they may be -presented to us for investigation, and it is therefore -essential that the forensic physician should be acquainted -with the appearances which they assume in -the state of disintegration. This powder has a greenish -colour, tinged with grey, and abounding with -shining points of a very beautiful green colour, and -which may be recognised in whatever state of division -the powder may exist, even after it has passed through -a silken sieve. Its odour is acrid and nauseous; when -thrown on burning coals it emits that peculiar -smell, which generally attends the destruction of animal -matter by heat. The chemical history of <i>cantharides</i> -is still involved in some obscurity; according to -<i>Robiquet</i>, who has furnished us with the most satisfactory -analysis, they contain various fatty principles; -the phosphates of lime, and magnesia; and the -acetic and uric acids; together with a peculiar crystalline -principle, in which the vesicatory properties -wholly reside, and to which the name of <i>cantharidin</i> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_331'>331</span>has been given by <i>Dr. Thomson</i>.<a id='r338' /><a href='#f338' class='c011'><sup>[338]</sup></a> It may be obtained -in plates, having a micaceous lustre; when -perfectly pure it is insoluble in water, but it is rendered -soluble in that fluid, by the presence of a yellow -matter which exists in native combination with it; -it is very soluble in oils.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of poisoning by Cantharides.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>As this substance forms an article of the materia -medica it may become an accidental source of poisoning; -whilst a general belief in its aphrodisiac -powers may induce a trial of its efficacy, to goad the -exertions of exhausted nature, or to incense the passion -of females, whose seduction is meditated. In -the annals of crime in this country, we are acquainted -with but few instances in which cantharides -have been given with the view of destroying -life; we have already referred<a id='r339' /><a href='#f339' class='c011'><sup>[339]</sup></a> to the case of -<i>Vaux</i>, who was executed for poisoning with cantharides; -there is also that of <i>Sir Thomas Overbury</i>, -who, on the confession of the person who gave -it to him, is said to have taken it, mixed with -his sauces. Cantharides may be administered in -the form of powder, infusion, or tincture. The following -may be considered the more prominent symptoms -which will follow the ingestion of a large dose. -Violent retching; copious alvine evacuations, frequently -bloody; very severe colics; active inflammation -of the stomach and intestines; sometimes universal -convulsions, attended with a horror of liquids, -resembling that which occurs in hydrophobia; furious -<span class='pageno' id='Page_332'>332</span>delirium, &c. But the affections of the urinary passages, -and organs of generation, may be regarded, -κατεξοχην, as the peculiar symptoms of poisoning by -cantharides; such as heat in the bladder, bloody micturition; -horrible strangury; painful and obstinate -priapism; <i>satyriasis</i>, &c. If the dose has not been -sufficient to occasion speedy death, it may produce -marasmus.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Organic lesions discovered on dissection.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>Where the poison has been administered internally, -we shall find the stomach and intestines presenting -an appearance of inflammation, very similar to that -which we have described as the general result of -corrosive poisons. Marks of inflammatory action, -and sometimes ulceration, will be also discovered in -the urinary and genital organs; especially in those -cases where the person dies shortly after the ingestion -of the poison.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Methods of detecting the presence of Cantharides.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>Where the poison has been administered in substance, -we shall generally discover some of its particles -mixed with the ejected matter; or, after death, -adhering to the coats of the stomach, or to the folds -of the intestines, and which may be easily identified -by their peculiar green and brilliant hue. If the poison -should have been administered in the form of infusion, -or tincture, our chemical resources will fail -us, and we must rely alone upon the evidence furnished -by the symptoms, and organic lesions.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_333'>333</span> - <h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Phosphorus.</span></h4> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>This singular substance was accidentally discovered -by <i>Brandt</i>, a chemist of Hamburgh, in the year 1669,<a id='r340' /><a href='#f340' class='c011'><sup>[340]</sup></a> -as he was attempting to extract from human -urine a liquid capable of converting silver into gold. -It was also subsequently discovered by <i>Kunkel</i> and -by <i>Boyle</i>, without these latter chemists having, in -any way, participated in the researches of each other.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Phosphorus, when pure, is semi-transparent and -of a yellowish colour; but when kept some time in -water, it becomes opaque externally, and then has a -great resemblance to white wax. Its consistence is -nearly that of wax; it may be cut with a knife. Its -mean specific gravity is 1·770. It generally occurs in -sticks. When exposed to the air, provided the temperature -be not lower than 43°, it emits a white -smoke, which has the smell of garlic, and is luminous -in the dark. This smoke is more abundant, the -higher the temperature is, and is occasioned by the -gradual combustion of the phosphorus. When heated -to 148° it takes fire, and burns with a very bright -flame, and gives out a great quantity of white smoke, -which is phosphoric acid. Oils dissolve phosphorus, -provided the temperature be a little raised. Water -has no effect upon it, unless it be aerated, when it -renders the surface of the phosphorus opaque and -white, which in a short time becomes red. This -change depends upon oxidation.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of poisoning by Phosphorus.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>This substance, whether introduced into the stomach -in its pure form, or dissolved in oil, will occasion -<span class='pageno' id='Page_334'>334</span>the most violent symptoms, from its escharotic -action,<a id='r341' /><a href='#f341' class='c011'><sup>[341]</sup></a> It has been employed in medicine,<a id='r342' /><a href='#f342' class='c011'><sup>[342]</sup></a> in a -state of minute division, in the dose of one-fourth of -a grain, and is said by <i>Leroi</i> to be very efficacious in -restoring and establishing the force<a id='r343' /><a href='#f343' class='c011'><sup>[343]</sup></a> of young persons -exhausted by sensual indulgence, and of even prolonging -the life of the aged.<a id='r344' /><a href='#f344' class='c011'><sup>[344]</sup></a> It has also been -given as a stimulant in local fevers. We are, however, -greatly inclined to question the safety of such a -practice, notwithstanding the diminutiveness of the -dose. The reader will find some interesting cases -of poisoning by phosphorus, translated from the -German work of <i>Weickard</i>, in <i>Hooper’s</i> Medical -Dictionary, under the consideration of that article. -Should such a case present itself for the investigation -of the forensic physician, he will not find any difficulty -in identifying the substance; its external character, -its smell, and, above all, its peculiar property -of yielding luminous vapour, are too palpable -and distinctive, to admit the possibility of error.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Mechanical Poisons</span>—<i>Powdered glass</i>—<i>Enamel powder</i>—<i>Chopped hair, &c. &c.</i></h4> - -<p class='c014'>We have already examined the pretensions of these -bodies to the rank of corrosive poisons, (<i>page</i> <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>) -and we should have not reverted to the subject, but -from a wish to introduce the account of “<i>a case of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_335'>335</span>Schirrus in the intestines, arising from hairs remaining -in the canal</i>,” as related in the <cite>Edinburgh Medical -Journal</cite>,<a id='r345' /><a href='#f345' class='c011'><sup>[345]</sup></a> by <i>Dr. Burrell</i>, and which had, on the -former occasion, escaped our notice. The subject of -this history, <i>Laurence Harding</i>, æt. 35, being a private -soldier, was admitted into the regimental hospital, -for an unrelenting constipation of the bowels; -but it appears also that he had been affected with -dyspeptic symptoms, and pain in his abdomen, for several -years; which pain was aggravated by the ingestion -of solid food. He received but little benefit from -the remedies that were administered, his strength -gradually declined, and, about a month after his admission, -he expired.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“On laying open the abdomen, the stomach was -found much thickened throughout its whole substance, -and the pylorus very much contracted, which contraction -continued down the duodenum. Through -all the intestines this thickening and gristly appearance -was observed. The colon was prodigiously enlarged -in its calibre, until where it forms its sigmoid -flexure; at which point there were three distinct -holes ulcerated through the coats of the intestine, -and forming a communication with the abdominal cavity. -Beyond the sigmoid flexure the intestine was -contracted in its diameter, so as hardly to admit the -little finger to pass downwards. On cutting open the -pylorus and small intestines, the internal coats were -found to be covered with a soft substance, which resembled -size. The internal coats of the colon were -of a dark colour, and in general were completely -ulcerated, and hanging in shreds. The colour of the -colon was of a dark lurid red. At the sigmoid flexure -<span class='pageno' id='Page_336'>336</span>there was much contraction, and the thickening was -so great on one side, and the valve found so considerable, -as hardly to admit a common bougie through -it. The portion forming the sigmoid flexure was cut -out; and on laying it open, and removing some -hardened fæces, <em>five or six hog’s brittles were seen distinctly -crossing each other in different directions</em>; they -were partially invested in the villous coat, which had -grown over them, and which had retained them in -the different positions in which they were placed; -and so firmly were they kept down by those partial -coverings, that it required some force to draw them -out. The mesenteric glands were of a cartilaginous -appearance; the liver was suffused with blood, and -the gall-bladder full of bile. The spleen was very -small, and compressed into an oblong shape, probably -arising from the pressure of the colon when distended -with feculent matter.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This man had formerly been a shoemaker. There -was no evidence as to the period at which he swallowed -these hairs; but, from the derangement which -always existed in the bowels, and the pain referred -to the sigmoid flexure, little doubt can be entertained -but that these hairs were the cause of all his complaints, -and ultimately of his death.”</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>CL. II. ASTRINGENT POISONS.</h3> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Lead.</span></h4> - -<p class='c014'>This metal appears to have been known in the earliest -ages; and is mentioned several times by <i>Moses</i>.<a id='r346' /><a href='#f346' class='c011'><sup>[346]</sup></a> -It has a bluish-white colour; is very brilliant -when first cut with a knife, but soon tarnishes by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_337'>337</span>exposure to air; when rubbed violently, it emits a -peculiar smell; it is malleable and ductile, but possesses -very little tenacity. It is scarcely sonorous; -being the softest of all the metals, it yields readily to -the hammer. Its specific gravity is 11·35; it melts at -612°. According to the experiments of <i>Dr. Thomson</i>,<a id='r347' /><a href='#f347' class='c011'><sup>[347]</sup></a> -it is susceptible of four degrees of oxidation, presenting -us with four distinct, and well defined oxides, -viz.</p> - -<table class='table0' summary=''> - <tr> - <td class='c018'>Yellow</td> - <td class='c018'>(<i>protoxide</i>)</td> - <td class='c018'>contains of lead</td> - <td class='c018'>91·5</td> - <td class='c018'>oxygen</td> - <td class='c019'>8·5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c018'>Yellow</td> - <td class='c018'>(<i>deutoxide</i>)</td> - <td class='c018'>contains of lead</td> - <td class='c018'>90·5</td> - <td class='c018'>oxygen</td> - <td class='c019'>9·5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c018'>Red</td> - <td class='c018'>(<i>tritoxide</i>)</td> - <td class='c018'>contains of lead</td> - <td class='c018'>88·</td> - <td class='c018'>oxygen</td> - <td class='c020'>12·</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c018'>Brown</td> - <td class='c018'>(<i>peroxide</i>)</td> - <td class='c018'>contains of lead</td> - <td class='c018'>80·</td> - <td class='c018'>oxygen</td> - <td class='c020'>20·</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c000'>Lead, in its metallic state, does not exert any action -on the living system; but, when oxidized, or in -the state of salt, its virulence is very considerable, -producing a train of symptoms, so peculiar to itself, -as to justify our placing its preparations in a separate -class, under the title of <i>astringent</i> poisons, as explained -at page <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Metallic lead, although <i>per se</i> inert, may occasion -deleterious effects when introduced into the stomach, -in consequence of its meeting with acids in the <i>primæ -viæ</i>; from the same cause, liquids which are liable to -become in any degree acidulous, if kept in leaden vessels, -may be productive of much danger to those who -drink them. Pure water, provided the air be excluded, -does not appear to exert any sensible action -upon this metal; but the combined influence of -these agents converts the lead into a carbonate: a fact -which is at once exemplified by the white line which -is so constantly visible at the surface of the water preserved -<span class='pageno' id='Page_338'>338</span>in leaden vessels. So well acquainted were -the ancients with this fact, that we find frequent allusions -in their works to the dangerous property of -leaden utensils. <i>Vitruvius</i><a id='r348' /><a href='#f348' class='c011'><sup>[348]</sup></a> published a very strong -remonstrance against leaden pipes, when used for the -purpose of conveying water; and <i>Galen</i> cautions us -continually, not to employ water that has flowed -through pipes of this metal; since he had observed -that the <i>sediment</i> of such water, (υποσταθμη του τουιουτου υδατος) -rendered such as swallowed it, δυσεντερικους, subject to -disorders in the intestines.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Dr. Lambe</i>, to whom we are indebted for an important -work<a id='r349' /><a href='#f349' class='c011'><sup>[349]</sup></a> upon this subject, states, that there -is a great diversity in the corrosive powers of different -waters; in some places the use of leaden pumps has -been in part discontinued, from the expense entailed -upon the proprietors by the perpetual want of repair;<a id='r350' /><a href='#f350' class='c011'><sup>[350]</sup></a> -and if any acidity be communicated to the water, -from the accidental intrusion of decayed leaves or -other vegetable matter, its power of dissolving this -metal will be increased to a very dangerous extent. -The noted colic of Amsterdam is said by <i>Tronchin</i>, -who has written a history of the epidemic, to have -been occasioned by leaves falling and putrefying in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_339'>339</span>leaden cisterns, filled with rain water. <i>Van Swieten</i><a id='r351' /><a href='#f351' class='c011'><sup>[351]</sup></a> -has also related an instance of a whole family who -were afflicted with colic from a similar cause; and -<i>Dr. Lambe</i><a id='r352' /><a href='#f352' class='c011'><sup>[352]</sup></a> entertains no doubt but that the very -striking case recorded in the Medical Commentaries,<a id='r353' /><a href='#f353' class='c011'><sup>[353]</sup></a> -proceeded more from some foulness in the cistern -than from the solvent power of the water; in this instance, -the officers of a packet vessel used water out -of a leaden cistern; the men also drank the same -water, except that the latter had been kept in wood; -the consequence was, that all the officers were seized -with colic, while the men remained healthy. <i>Sir -George Baker</i> has furnished the following striking -illustration of the subject. “The most remarkable -case that now occurs to my memory, is that of <i>Lord -Ashburnham’s</i> family, in Sussex; to which, spring -water was supplied from a considerable distance in -leaden pipes. In consequence, his lordship’s servants -were every year tormented with colic, and some of -them died. An eminent physician of Battle, who -corresponded with me on the subject, sent up some -gallons of that water, which were analysed by <i>Dr. -Higgins</i>, who reported that the water had contained -more than the common quantity of carbonic acid; and -that he found in it lead in solution, which he attributed -to the carbonic acid. In consequence of this -representation, <i>Lord Ashburnham</i> substituted wooden -for leaden pipes; and from that time his family have -experienced no particular complaints in their bowels.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>But the most extensive and dangerous source of -poisoning by lead, is the presence of this metal in various -wines, and acescent drinks, and meats, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_340'>340</span>which may arise either from accident or design. A -knowledge of the different avenues, through which -this poison may gain admittance into the human body, -is therefore of great importance to the forensic physician, -and we shall accordingly proceed to the investigation -of the subject.</p> - -<p class='c000'>That certain wines were occasionally liable to -produce endemic colics, is a fact which has been long -known; although the disease was universally ascribed -to a mistaken origin, until the publication of the -elaborate researches<a id='r354' /><a href='#f354' class='c011'><sup>[354]</sup></a> of <i>Sir George Baker</i>, into the -cause of the Devonshire colic; which, like the same -disease observed in other countries, was attributed to -the acidity of the liquor so abundantly drunk<a id='r355' /><a href='#f355' class='c011'><sup>[355]</sup></a> in -these districts. This celebrated physician, however, -was early led to entertain doubts with respect to the -truth of this doctrine: “when I consider,” says he, -“that this colic of Devonshire is precisely the same -disease as that which is the specific effect of all saturnine -preparations, and that there is not the least -analogy between the juice of apples and the poison -of lead, it seems to me very improbable that two -causes, bearing so little relation to one another, -should make such similar impressions on the human -body.” The investigation of the subject completely -<span class='pageno' id='Page_341'>341</span>established the justness of these views; and no doubt -remains, but that the endemic colic, which harrassed -the cyder drinkers in Devonshire for some years, was -the effect of saturnine impregnation, derived from the -lead used in the construction of the apple mills and -cyder presses; and in some cases, from the pernicious -practice of introducing a leaden weight into the cask, -or even racking the cyder into leaden cisterns, where -the liquor fretted too much, and was thereby in -danger of becoming acetous. <i>Sir G. Baker</i> also states -that the custom of boiling the <i>must</i> in vessels capped -with lead, affords another source of saturnine impregnation; -and he informs us that, a few years ago, -this very practice produced the <i>Devonshire colic</i> in -the county of Kent. Some cyder, which had been -made in a gentleman’s family, being thought too -sour, was boiled with honey in a brewing vessel, -capped with lead. All, who drank this liquor, were -seized with this disease; some more, others less violently; -one of the servants died very soon in convulsions: -several others were cruelly tortured a long -time. The master of the family, notwithstanding all -the assistance which art could give him, never recovered -his health; but died miserably, after having -for nearly three years languished under a tedious -and incurable malady. <i>Dr. Lambe</i> observes, that -the saturnine colic is not endemial in Devonshire, or -the other cyder countries, during the whole year, but -is confined to those months when the liquor is still -new, crude, and the fermentation incomplete. When -the liquor becomes fine, the noxious matter in a great -measure separates, and is carried to the bottom of -the vessel, as the feculencies subside. Tartar is generated -during the vinous fermentation, the acid of -which, uniting with the lead, forms a salt, scarcely, if -<span class='pageno' id='Page_342'>342</span>at all, soluble in water; and hence the purification -which the liquor receives. But although this new -salt is insoluble in water, it is otherwise in regard to -vinegar; for this acid dissolves a small quantity, and -forms a triple compound, an <i>aceto-tartrate of lead</i>;<a id='r356' /><a href='#f356' class='c011'><sup>[356]</sup></a> -and since no cyder, or perhaps wine, is wholly destitute -of vinegar, it necessarily follows that if the -liquor has been once contaminated during the first -stages of fermentation, it is impossible for it ever to -become entirely pure, except by processes which -would render it unfit for drinking.<a id='r357' /><a href='#f357' class='c011'><sup>[357]</sup></a> It has very -lately been discovered, that <i>Gallic acid</i> and <i>tannin</i> -are capable of combining with lead in solution, -and of forming a perfectly insoluble substance, which -falls to the bottom of the cask; hence all liquors -which have been kept in oak casks, for a certain -time, must be freed from lead. This explains a fact -with respect to the effect of new rum in the West -Indies, of some importance. This spirit, when newly -distilled, is found to contain traces of lead, derived -from the leaden rims of the coppers, and the leaden -worm, used for its condensation; but, by keeping -about twelve months in oaken casks, it loses its deleterious -properties, and no longer exhibits any traces -of this metal.<a id='r358' /><a href='#f358' class='c011'><sup>[358]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>Another source, from which acescent liquids may -contract saturnine impregnation, is afforded by the -metallic glazing of earthenware<a id='r359' /><a href='#f359' class='c011'><sup>[359]</sup></a>; that for instance -<span class='pageno' id='Page_343'>343</span>of the common <i>cream coloured</i> ware is composed of an -oxide of lead,<a id='r360' /><a href='#f360' class='c011'><sup>[360]</sup></a> and is accordingly easily acted -upon by vinegar, and saline compounds; jars and -pots of this description ought therefore never to be -used for preserving pickles, jellies of fruits, marmalade, -and similar conserves. For the same reason, -<i>Sir George Baker</i> protests against the custom of baking -fruit tarts in such ware.<a id='r361' /><a href='#f361' class='c011'><sup>[361]</sup></a> <i>Stone ware</i> is glazed -with muriate of soda, and is therefore not liable to -such an objection.<a id='r362' /><a href='#f362' class='c011'><sup>[362]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_344'>344</span>The custom which prevails in some parts of England -of keeping milk in leaden vessels, is extremely -improper; <i>Dr. Darwin</i><a id='r363' /><a href='#f363' class='c011'><sup>[363]</sup></a> has illustrated this subject -by the following case; “A delicate young girl, -the daughter of a dairy farmer, who kept his milk in -leaden cisterns, used to wipe off the cream from the -edges of the lead, and frequently, as she was fond of -cream, licked it from her finger. She was seized -with the saturnine colic, and semi-paralytic wrists, -and sunk from general debility.” We are informed -by <i>Mr. Parkes</i>,<a id='r364' /><a href='#f364' class='c011'><sup>[364]</sup></a> that in Lancashire the dairies are -furnished with milk-pans made of lead; and that when -he expostulated with some individuals on the danger -of this practice, he was told that <i>leaden</i> milk pans -throw up the cream much better than vessels of any -other kind.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There is, says <i>Dr. Darwin</i>, a bad custom in almost -all families, and public houses, of washing out their -wine bottles by putting a handful of shot corns into -them, and by shaking them about forcibly to detach -the super-tartrate of potass from their sides; that such -a practice may occasionally give origin to serious -consequences, will become evident by the relation of -the following case.<a id='r365' /><a href='#f365' class='c011'><sup>[365]</sup></a> “A gentleman who had never -in his life experienced a day’s illness, and who was -constantly in the habit of drinking half a bottle of -Madeira after his dinner, was taken ill three hours -after dinner with a serious pain in the stomach and -violent colic, which gradually yielded within twelve -hours to the remedies prescribed by his medical -attendant. The day following he drank the remainder -of the same bottle of wine which was left the preceding -<span class='pageno' id='Page_345'>345</span>day, and within two hours afterwards he was -again seized with the most violent pains, head-ache, -shiverings, and great pain over the whole body. His -apothecary becoming suspicious that the wine he had -drunk might be the cause of the disease, ordered the -bottle, from which it had been decanted, to be -brought to him, with a view that he might examine -the dregs, if any were left. The bottle happening to -slip out of the hand of the servant, disclosed a row of -shot, wedged forcibly into the angular bent-up circumference -of it. On examining the beads of shot, they -crumbled into dust, the outer crust (defended by a -coat of black lead with which the shot is glazed) -being alone left unacted on, whilst the remainder of -the metal was dissolved. The wine, therefore, had -become contaminated with <i>lead</i>, and perhaps <i>arsenic</i>, -for in order to form shot the former metal is alloyed -with the latter.”<a id='r366' /><a href='#f366' class='c011'><sup>[366]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>But we have, hitherto, only directed the reader’s -attention to the different sources from which wine, -and acescent liquors, may <em>accidentally</em> derive saturnine -impregnation. We have now to state that such -liquors have, in different ages and countries, been -fraudulently adulterated with lead. It appears to -have been early discovered, that wines which have -become morbidly acescent may be corrected by the -addition of lead; whence, in those countries where -Rhenish, Moselle, and other similar wines are drunk, -the saturnine colic has been endemic. The celebrated -colic which raged in the province of <i>Poitou</i>, towards -the end of the sixteenth, and in the beginning of the -seventeenth century, was evidently the effect of such -<span class='pageno' id='Page_346'>346</span>adulteration.<a id='r367' /><a href='#f367' class='c011'><sup>[367]</sup></a> We find that, in the year 1487, -there was a <i>Recessus Imperii</i> promulgated at Rotenberg; -and, in the year 1498, at Friberg; which was -enacted, in the year 1500, at Tubingen; and, in the -year 1508, at Frankfort; and, in the year 1577, in -the same place. By which decrees it was made a capital -crime to adulterate wines with <i>litharge</i>, or to -use <i>bismuth</i> in the fumigation of them; it having -been, at several periods, represented to the Emperors, -that great mischief had accrued from such -adulterations; and that they had been the cause of -insuperable and mortal diseases. It should seem, -that these laws were not carried into strict execution; -and, indeed, that in the latter end of the seventeenth -century, it was hardly known in Germany that such -laws existed. In consequence of which, an epidemic -colic arose, which was at length traced to the effects -of lead in the wines.<a id='r368' /><a href='#f368' class='c011'><sup>[368]</sup></a> A representation of this -fact having been made to the <i>Duke of Wirtemberg</i>, -it was ordained a capital crime to mix litharge with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_347'>347</span>wine, or even to sell it in the shops, by a decree, -bearing date March 10, 1696. But, notwithstanding -the severity of this law, we are informed by <i>Zeller</i>, -that in the year 1705, the same dangerous experiments -were repeated in the circle of <i>Zwaabe</i>, with a -view to correct the acidity of the weaker wines. -<i>Bishop Watson</i><a id='r369' /><a href='#f369' class='c011'><sup>[369]</sup></a> informs us that, in the year 1750, -the <i>Farmers general</i> in France being astonished at the -great quantities <i>de vin gaté</i> which were brought into -Paris, in order to be made into vinegar, redoubled -their researches to find out the cause of the great increase -in that article; for nearly thirty thousand -hogsheads had been annually brought in for a few -years preceding the year 1750, whereas the quantity -annually brought in forty years before, did not exceed -1200 hogsheads. They discovered that several -wine merchants, assuming the name of vinegar merchants, -bought these sour wines, and afterwards, by -means of litharge, rendered them potable, and sold -them as genuine wines.<a id='r370' /><a href='#f370' class='c011'><sup>[370]</sup></a> <i>Dr. Warren</i><a id='r371' /><a href='#f371' class='c011'><sup>[371]</sup></a> has related -the cases of thirty-two persons in the <i>Duke of -Newcastle’s</i> family, who were residing in Hanover in -June, 1752, and were seized with the <i>Colica Pictonum</i>, -after having used, as their common drink, a -small white wine that has been adulterated with lead. -Nor has the English vintner been less regardless of the -health of his employer. In a popular work on wine -making by <i>Graham</i>,<a id='r372' /><a href='#f372' class='c011'><sup>[372]</sup></a> which has gone through six -editions, and may therefore be supposed to have done -<span class='pageno' id='Page_348'>348</span>some mischief, we find under the article of <i>vintner’s -secrets</i>, the following receipts.—</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>“<i>To hinder wine from turning</i>,</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>“Put a pound of melted lead, in fair water, into a -cask, pretty warm, and stop it close.”</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>“<i>To soften green wine</i>,</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>“Put in a little vinegar, wherein litharge has been -well steeped, and boil some honey to draw out the -wax. Strain it through a cloth, and put a quart of -it into a tierce: and this will mend it, in summer -especially.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have already alluded to the presence of lead<a id='r373' /><a href='#f373' class='c011'><sup>[373]</sup></a> -in the <em>new</em> rum of the West Indies, as the cause -of the disease known in that country by the name of -the <i>dry belly-ache</i>; it remains for us to state that the -excise officers frequently avail themselves of the peculiar -power of the <i>sub-acetate of lead</i> to precipitate -colouring matter, in order to remove from seized -Holland gin, the colour which it obtains by being -long kept in the tubs in which it is smuggled over. -A practice which it is said renders the gin liable to -gripe.</p> - -<p class='c000'>According to the important experiments of <i>Proust</i>,<a id='r374' /><a href='#f374' class='c011'><sup>[374]</sup></a> -it appears, that if lead be associated with tin, it -will be incapable of furnishing to acids any saturnine -impregnation. The following are the interesting conclusions -at which this philosopher has arrived, viz.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“That the <i>tinning</i>, which contains even so large a -proportion as an equal part of lead, cannot be dangerous; -since it is sufficient that the lead should be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_349'>349</span>combined with tin, in order to prevent it from being -dissolved, either in lemon juice, or vinegar, the two -acids most to be feared. The tin, being more oxidable -than the lead, dissolves exclusively in these -acids, and prevents the second from being attacked. -<i>The lead cannot appropriate to itself an atom of oxygen, -but the tin would carry it off in an instant.</i>”</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Sugar of Lead</span>—<i>Saccharum Saturni</i>—<i>Cerussa Acetata</i>—<i>Plumbi Super-acetas</i>.</h4> - -<p class='c014'>This salt of lead, to whose presence the numerous -accidental maladies above enumerated are to be chiefly -attributed, occurs in commerce in the form of irregular -masses resembling lumps of sugar, being an aggregation -of acicular four-sided prisms terminated by -dihedral summits; its taste is sweet and astringent. -It is soluble in 25 parts of water, hot, or cold; when -common spring water, however, is employed for -such a purpose, a white precipitate occurs from the -presence of a certain proportion of <i>sulphates</i> and <i>carbonates</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When this salt is exposed to the action of heat, it -undergoes aqueous fusion, then dries, and at length -is decomposed, leaving a globule of metallic lead, -mixed with the yellow protoxide, and an acid product -of a fetid smell. This decomposition is similar -to that which vegetable substances undergo when -heated for some time. The quantity of metallic lead, -thus obtained, will be more considerable if the salt -has been previously mixed with charcoal, and particularly -if it be submitted for a long time to the action -of a powerful heat. The strong sulphuric acid of -commerce, when poured upon <i>sugar of lead</i> in powder, -decomposes it with effervescence, and disengages -vapours of acetic acid.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_350'>350</span>This must be considered as an active preparation, -and may, when administered in doses of a few drachms, -speedily occasion death. At the same time, like -other poisons, it may by judicious administration, -become a valuable remedy. See <cite>Pharmacologia</cite>, art. -<i>Plumbi Super-acetas</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In consequence of the sweet taste of this salt, -children have been induced to swallow it.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Goulard’s Extract.</span> <i>Liquor Plumbi Sub-acetatis.</i></h4> - -<p class='c014'>This liquor is a saturated solution of the <i>sub-acetate -of lead</i>. Spring water, from the salts which it -contains, produces with it a very milky and turbid -appearance; and even when <em>distilled</em>, in consequence -of the carbonic acid diffused through it, it will occasion -precipitation. It is principally used as an external -application to diminish inflammation, an effect -which it probably produces by paralysing the nerves -of the part. Cases have occurred where this lotion -has been accidentally swallowed, and the usual symptoms -of saturnine poisoning have supervened. How -far its external application may be capable of occasioning -mischief, will form a subject of inquiry under -the consideration of the physiological action of the -preparations of lead.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>White Lead.</span> <i>Sub-Carbonate of Lead.</i> <i>Cerusse.</i></h4> - -<p class='c014'>The substance, known in commercial language by -the name of <i>White Lead</i>, has received at different -times, very various appellations, in consequence of -the fluctuating opinions which have prevailed respecting -its composition. Thus it has been successively -styled a <i>sub-acetate</i>, an <i>oxide</i>, and a <i>sub-carbonate</i>; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_351'>351</span>of which the last is unquestionably the correct name. -In the large way it is prepared by exposing sheets of -metallic lead to the fumes of vinegar. The sub-carbonate -so produced appears as a white, brittle, and -scaly substance, on the surface of the lead; which is -scraped off, and afterwards ground in mills fitted for -the purpose. Formerly, it was ground dry, and the -workmen suffered severely from the operation; it is -now ground in water, and the sub-carbonate is afterwards -dried in earthen pans placed in stoves, heated -by means of flues; still, however, persons employed -in grinding white lead, as well as painters<a id='r375' /><a href='#f375' class='c011'><sup>[375]</sup></a> who -are constantly using it, occasionally suffer severely, -from the want of cleanliness in not washing their -hands before eating, by which some of the white lead -is introduced into the stomach with their food.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Litharge.</span> <i>Semi-vitrified Oxide of Lead.</i></h4> - -<p class='c014'>This is a yellow protoxide of lead, which has been -melted, and left to crystallize by cooling. It is in -the form of small reddish, or yellowish scales, which -are brilliant and vitrified. Its character is so peculiar -that it cannot easily be mistaken. It is employed for -various purposes in the arts, and is the saturnine preparation -more usually selected for the purpose of removing -acidity from wines, as above related.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When treated with a muriatic salt, and submitted -to a high temperature, a <i>muriate of lead</i> is produced, -of a bright yellow colour, the brilliancy of which may -be much heightened by grinding it as usual with oil. -In this state it forms the pigment known by the name -<span class='pageno' id='Page_352'>352</span>of <i>Turner’s yellow</i>, or <i>patent yellow</i>.<a id='r376' /><a href='#f376' class='c011'><sup>[376]</sup></a> It is very -poisonous.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Red Lead.</span> <i>Minium.</i></h4> - -<p class='c014'>This red oxide of lead is easily distinguished by its -colour, weight, and the facility with which it yields -metallic lead, when heated with carbonaceous matter. -Common red wafers, which derive their colour from -this oxide, afford a striking illustration of this fact, -for if burnt in a candle, globules of metallic lead will -be observed to flow from them. It is poisonous; -and we have already alluded to a case where Gloucester -cheese<a id='r377' /><a href='#f377' class='c011'><sup>[377]</sup></a> occasioned deleterious effects, in -consequence of its adulteration with <i>red lead</i>. (p. <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>) -It is destructive also to inferior animals, apparently -in very small quantities; red wafers prove poisonous -to birds who may pick them up; and the same paste -is sold for the purpose of destroying beetles, in which -it succeeds very effectually. Since it is employed as -a pigment, it may on many occasions prove an accidental -cause of poisoning; there is indeed one very -common and dangerous source, mentioned by <i>Sir -George Baker</i>,<a id='r378' /><a href='#f378' class='c011'><sup>[378]</sup></a> which deserves to be particularized -in this place, viz. the practice of painting toys with -<i>red lead</i>, and other poisonous substances; children, -observes this distinguished physician, are apt to carry -every object which gives them delight to their mouths, -the painting of toys, therefore, with poisonous colours, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_353'>353</span>is a practice which ought to be abolished, and -is the more open to censure, as it is of no real utility.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of poisoning by the different preparations of Lead.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>The effects of this poison will vary considerably -according to the quantity swallowed, and the circumstances -under which it is taken. We shall, therefore, -first consider its operation, in doses sufficiently -large to occasion at once violent effects; and then -describe its agency as an <em>accumulative</em> poison, where -it is introduced into the system gradually, and in -small quantities, so as to act slowly and imperceptibly, -and to lay the foundation of irreparable mischief, -before any alarm is occasioned.</p> - -<p class='c000'>1. <i>Symptoms which follow a large dose.</i> Where a -salt of lead has been taken in a considerable dose, the -patient soon experiences excruciating pains in the -abdomen, accompanied with sickness and vomiting; -the colic increases to a violent degree, but admits of -temporary alleviation by pressure, a circumstance -which at once distinguishes it from the effects of corrosive -poison. Although it is necessary to observe, -that inflammatory symptoms may afterwards occur, -where the dose has been very considerable, and the -consequences direct and speedy.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The patient describes the pain as if produced by a -boring instrument, and the abdominal muscles become -knotted, and sometimes painfully retracted with -all the contents of the abdomen towards the spine.<a id='r379' /><a href='#f379' class='c011'><sup>[379]</sup></a> -The sphincter muscles of the bladder and anus are -<span class='pageno' id='Page_354'>354</span>always affected; sometimes strangury and tenesmus -are the consequences; at other times, a total incapacity -of making any water at all, and so great a contraction -of the sphincter ani that a clyster can hardly -be introduced. After suffering these torments for a -period of an indefinite duration, delirium and cold -sweats may supervene, and the patient die in convulsions. -If, however, the treatment has been prompt -and judicious, and the quantity of poison has not -been excessive, he may recover from its immediate -effects, and live to testify the severity of the consecutive -phenomena. A most inveterate constipation of -the bowels will continue for a considerable period, -and there will be an occasional recurrence of colic; -at length a peculiar species of palsy will supervene in -the upper extremities, especially affecting the muscles -of the fore arm, and wrist,<a id='r380' /><a href='#f380' class='c011'><sup>[380]</sup></a> <i>Citois</i> has given -us a striking description of this stage of the saturnine -disease. “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Per vicos, veluti larvæ, aut arte progredientes -statuæ, pallidi, squalidi, macilenti conspiciuntur, -manibus incurvis et suo pondere pendulis, nec nisi -arte ad os et cæteras supernas partes sublatis, ac pedibus -non suis, sed crurum muculis, ad ridiculum, ni -miserandum, incessum compositis, voce clangosa et -strepera.</span></i>” It does not appear that the train of symptoms -above described has ever been excited by any -other external cause than the one here assigned. -Whenever we meet with colic, attended with paralytic -symptoms of the extremities, we may at once -conclude that it has arisen from the influence of lead.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The disease has been described by authors under -<span class='pageno' id='Page_355'>355</span>the name of the <i>colic of Poitou</i>,<a id='r381' /><a href='#f381' class='c011'><sup>[381]</sup></a> or <i>colica Pictonum</i>,<a id='r382' /><a href='#f382' class='c011'><sup>[382]</sup></a> -from the circumstance of its having raged with such -epidemic fury in that province, in consequence of the -adulteration of its wines with lead. It is also mentioned -as the painter’s colic, since this class of artists -is very commonly visited by the disease, in consequence -of the <i>white lead</i> contained in their pigments. -At the Lead Hills, it is known to the miners, under -the provincial name of <i>milreek</i>; and in Derbyshire, -under that of <i>belland</i>.<a id='r383' /><a href='#f383' class='c011'><sup>[383]</sup></a></p> - -<h6 class='c016'>2. <i>Symptoms arising from the introduction of lead into the system, by small and repeated doses.</i></h6> - -<p class='c014'>The effects produced upon various artists by the -imperceptible operation of lead, sufficiently shew the -power which this metal possesses of accumulating in -the human system, and it is probable, says <i>Sir George -Baker</i>, that from an observation of such slow, but -certain effects of lead, the French and Italians derived -the hint of preparing their celebrated poisons, -called “<i>Poudres de Succession</i>;”<a id='r384' /><a href='#f384' class='c011'><sup>[384]</sup></a> the basis of -which has been supposed to have been some preparation -of that mineral. <i>Zeller</i> mentions a certain chemical -operator, near the confines of Bohemia, who, -after having diligently applied himself to the composition -of poisons, did, by means of lead, combined -with some more volatile and corrosive substance, -prepare a most slow poison, which given to dogs and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_356'>356</span>other animals, had the power of destroying them, -without producing any violent symptoms, after several -weeks, or even months.<a id='r385' /><a href='#f385' class='c011'><sup>[385]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>The following-curious case,<a id='r386' /><a href='#f386' class='c011'><sup>[386]</sup></a> communicated by -<i>Dr. Wall</i>, of Worcester to <i>Sir George Baker</i>, will -serve to illustrate the present subject, and to shew -that lead may gain admittance into the human body, -unobserved, and even unsuspected. “A gentleman -of Worcester was the father of a numerous offspring, -having had one and twenty children, of whom eight -died young, and thirteen survived their parents. -During their infancy, and indeed until they had -quitted the place of their usual residence, they were -all remarkably unhealthy; being particularly subject -to disorders of the stomach and bowels. The father, -during many years, was paralytic; the mother, for -as long a time, subject to colics and bilious obstructions. -She died at last of an obstinate jaundice. This -disease had been several times removed by the use of -the Bath water; but it always came on again soon -after her return to Worcester; and at last eluded -every method and medicine which was tried. After -the death of these parents, the family sold the house -which they had so long inhabited. The purchaser -found it necessary to repair the pump. This was -made of lead; and, upon examination, was found -to be so corroded, that several perforations were observed -in the cylinder, in which the bucket plays; -and the cistern in the upper part was reduced to the -thinness of common brown paper, and was full of -holes like a sieve. The waters of this town are remarkably -<span class='pageno' id='Page_357'>357</span>hard. It is then more than probable that -the water of this pump, thus impregnated with lead, -occasioned the unhealthiness of the family who drank -it. I have been just informed by the plumber,” adds -<i>Dr. Wall</i>, “that he had several times repaired the -pump in question; and that he had done so not -more than three or four years before the gentleman’s -death; when he found it nearly in the same -state as it has been described; so that the corrosion -was effected in a short time; and consequently -the water must have been very strongly impregnated -with the noxious quality of the metal.”</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Organic lesions discovered on dissection.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>The reports of the dissection of those who have been -destroyed by saturnine poisons are far from being satisfactory. -Where the person has died from the primary -effects of a large dose of the acetate of lead, the -stomach has betrayed a state of inflammation, similar -to that which results from the action of a corrosive -poison; black points and spots, from venous extravasation, -have been also observed in the interior of -this viscus; <i>M. Orfila</i> states that he has seen in the -stomach of animals who have taken a large dose of -the acetate of lead, and have not vomited, a membraneous -lining tolerably thick, of an ash colour, -easily detaching in small pieces; the origin of which -appeared to be owing to the decomposition of a part -of the acetate of lead by the mucous, bilious, and -other fluids, contained in this viscus. The mucous -membrane lying under this lining, was of a dark grey -colour throughout its whole thickness, and appeared -to have exercised the same action on the acetate of -lead. The case is very different in those who have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_358'>358</span>died from the slow action of this metal; all anatomists -agree in reporting, that in the <i>colica pictonum</i>, the -digestive canal exhibits no vestige of inflammation;<a id='r387' /><a href='#f387' class='c011'><sup>[387]</sup></a> -but the diameter of the large intestines, especially -that of the colon, is generally contracted; thus displaying -the effects of that operation, which is supposed -to be characteristic of the compounds of lead, -and which has bestowed upon them the peculiar designation -of <i>astringent</i> poisons. <i>Foderé</i> states that the -mesentery and its glands; and the lacteal and lymphatic -vessels, are inflamed and obstructed, and the thoracic -duct almost obliterated; the liver, spleen, pancreas, -and lungs often inflamed, tumefied and purulent, -and even the heart shrivelled;<a id='r388' /><a href='#f388' class='c011'><sup>[388]</sup></a> and the -whole body, in consequence of the constriction of -the chyliferous vessels, in a state of complete marasmus. -Upon this passage <i>Orfila</i> makes the following -observation. “We are under the necessity of declaring, -that almost all these signs are wanting in the -majority of the cases of simple colic of lead, terminated -by death.” <i>Fourcroy</i>, in a note to his translation -of <i>Ramazzini</i>, “<cite>De Morbis Artificum</cite>,” observes -that the intestines have, in these cases, been discovered -distended by air, parched, and slightly altered -in colour; and that in the larger ones, balls of dry, -dark coloured, excrementitious matter, have been -found.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Physiological action of Lead Poisons.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>The preparations of lead seem to act upon the nervous -system, destroying its energy, and thereby producing -paralysis. Whether this is effected through -<span class='pageno' id='Page_359'>359</span>the medium of the circulation, or whether they produce -their effects without being absorbed, appears to -us to be a question which has not hitherto received a -satisfactory answer. It must, however, be admitted -that they act upon the alimentary canal, by coming -into contact with its nerves; and in some cases, -where the dose of the <i>acetate</i> has been large, it may -have produced death by the local injury which it inflicted. -<i>Dr. Lambe</i> observes upon this subject, that -“certain facts render it probable that lead does not -operate entirely through the medium of the circulation, -nor by nervous sympathy; but also topically, -affecting the part to which it is applied more than the -other parts of the body.” This latter position is -clearly established by the beneficial effects occasioned -by the topical application of lead to inflamed surfaces; -nor can any doubt exist as to the fact of such applications -having produced local paralysis. There is a -paper in the third volume of the <cite>Medical Transactions</cite> -by <i>Dr. Reynolds</i>, in which the case of a gentleman -is detailed, who brought on a temporary paralysis of -the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sphincter ani</span></i>, by freely using <i>Goulard’s</i> lotion for -the cure of piles. Foreign writers have also maintained -that saturnine applications have frequently occasioned -impotence; for further information upon -this subject the reader may refer to <cite>Istitutione di Medicina -Forens: di Tortosa</cite>, <i>vol.</i> 1, <i>p.</i> 58; also <cite>Fritze -Compend: sopra i Malat. Vener.</cite> <i>p.</i> 189; and <cite>Monteggia -Annotat. sopra i Mali Venerei</cite>, <i>p.</i> 36. <i>Sir -George Baker</i> states that he has some reason to doubt, -whether <i>litharge</i>, the common basis of our plasters, -when used for the purpose of dressing issues, has not, -in certain irritable constitutions, produced some of -the ordinary effects of saturnine preparations taken -internally. There have been instances of children -<span class='pageno' id='Page_360'>360</span>thrown into convulsions, by <i>cerusse</i>, sprinkled on -excoriated parts. <i>Zeller</i> quotes, on the authority of -<i>Molingius</i>, a remarkable instance of the pernicious -effects of <i>litharge</i>, externally applied.<a id='r389' /><a href='#f389' class='c011'><sup>[389]</sup></a> <i>Sir George -Baker</i> met with a most violent and obstinate colic, -which seemed to have been occasioned by some -litharge, mixed in a cataplasm, and applied to the -<i>vagina</i>, with a view to allay a troublesome itching; -and he says that he was informed by <i>Dr. Petit</i> that -<i>Goulard’s poultice</i> applied for some time to a patient’s -knee, in St. George’s hospital, occasioned violent -pain in the bowels, which did not cease until the -poultice had been removed; nor are authorities deficient -to prove, that the fashionable application of -<i>cerusse</i> to the skin has been followed by obstinate colics, -pains, and tremors. We have been desirous of -laying before our readers the above authorities, in -proof of the constitutional effects which may be occasionally -produced by the external application of lead, -since the fact has been questioned, and is still considered -by many as involved in doubt and uncertainty. -<i>Dr. Lambe</i> is inclined to believe, that “to the production -of the saturnine colic, it is necessary that the -metal should be applied <em>immediately</em> to the stomach -and intestines.” If this hypothesis be just, he excludes -nervous sympathy, as well as absorption, as a -proximate cause of saturnine colic; and, consequently, -no dependence can be placed on the accounts given -by the above pathologists with regard to the production -<span class='pageno' id='Page_361'>361</span>of such an effect by lotions and cataplasms of -lead.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Of the chemical processes, by which the presence of lead may be detected.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>These will necessarily vary according to the different -states of combination in which it may be supposed -to exist; we shall, therefore, proceed to consider the -modes of establishing its presence, 1, In solution in -<i>water</i>; <i>wine</i>; <i>spirit</i>; and <i>oils</i>. 2. In a state of mixture -with <i>various solids</i>. 3. Combined with <i>solid or -liquid aliments</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>1. <i>The lead exists in some unknown state of combination -in solution in water.</i> We are greatly indebted -to <i>Dr. Lambe</i><a id='r390' /><a href='#f390' class='c011'><sup>[390]</sup></a> for the able directions which he has -afforded us for ascertaining the presence of minute -portions of lead in water; and we recommend the -practitioner, who may be engaged in such an investigation, -to peruse his work with attention. The following -are the reagents through which our analysis -must be conducted.</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>a</i>) <i>Sulphuretted hydrogen.</i> A solution of this gas -in distilled water is a very delicate test for lead, -throwing down a precipitate of a very dark brown colour, -approaching to black. The competency, however, -of this test to the discovery of very minute -quantities of lead, in certain states of combination, -has been questioned by <i>Dr. Lambe</i>; who was enabled -to detect the presence of this metal, by other methods, -in water that manifested no indication with -<i>sulphuretted hydrogen</i>. He detected it, for instance, -in the precipitate occasioned in such water by the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_362'>362</span>carbonate of potass or soda. In operating on these -waters, he noticed the following appearances.</p> - -<p class='c015'>1. <i>The precipitate, produced as above stated, when -re-dissolved in nitric acid, formed a dark cloud -with sulphuretted hydrogen.</i></p> -<p class='c015'>2. <i>Although the sulphuretted hydrogen formed no -cloud, the precipitate itself became darkened by -it.</i></p> -<p class='c015'>3. <i>The precipitate re-dissolved in nitric acid</i>, (as -in 1) <i>formed, with sulphuretted hydrogen, a -white cloud.</i></p> -<p class='c015'>4. <i>Sulphuretted hydrogen neither formed a cloud, -nor darkened the precipitate.</i></p> -<p class='c015'>5. <i>In the cases 2, 3, 4, if the precipitate be heated -to redness, in contact with an alkaline carbonate; -and after dissolving out the carbonate, it be redissolved -in nitric acid; then sulphuretted hydrogen -will form a dark cloud with the solution.</i> -In these experiments it is necessary that the -acid used to redissolve the precipitate be not -in excess; if it should so happen, the excess -must be saturated, before the test is applied. -It is better to use so little, that some precipitate -may remain undissolved. The nitric acid, -used in these experiments, should be perfectly -pure; and the sulphuretted hydrogen test -should be recently prepared by saturating distilled -water with the gas.</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>b</i>) <i>Sulphate of soda, or potass.</i> This test will produce -a white precipitate in water, containing one -hundred-thousandth of its weight of lead; and is considered -by <i>Dr. Thomson</i> as the most unequivocal reagent -<span class='pageno' id='Page_363'>363</span>of that metal which we possess. “The precipitate -is a fine dense powder, which speedily falls to -the bottom, and is not re-dissolved by nitric acid; -no other precipitate can be confounded with it, except -<i>sulphate of baryta</i>, and there is no chance of the -presence of baryta in solution in water.”<a id='r391' /><a href='#f391' class='c011'><sup>[391]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>c</i>) <i>Muriate of soda.</i> One of the methods of analysis -proposed by <i>Dr. Lambe</i>, consists in precipitating -the lead by common salt; but as the <i>muriate of -lead</i> is partly soluble in water, this test cannot be applied -to small portions of suspected water. The precipitate -must, therefore, be collected from two or -three gallons, and heated to redness with twice its -weight of carbonate of soda. The alkaline carbonate -is then to be dissolved out, and nitric acid added, in -order to saturate any superfluity; the <i>sulphuretted -hydrogen</i> test will then produce its indication.</p> - -<p class='c000'>(<i>d</i>) <i>Reduction of the metal.</i> This is undoubtedly -the most satisfactory of all the tests; and, except the -trouble of collecting a large quantity of precipitate, is -not embarrassed with any difficulty. The precipitate -may be mixed with its own weight of alkaline carbonate, -and exposed either with, or without, the addition -of a small proportion of charcoal, to a heat sufficient -to melt the alkali. On breaking the crucible, a -small globule of lead will be found reduced at the -bottom. The precipitate from about fifty gallons of -water yielded <i>Dr. Lambe</i> about two grains of lead.</p> - -<p class='c000'>2. <i>The lead is dissolved in wine.</i> For the detection -of this dangerous fraud, the reagent invented by <i>Dr. -Hahnemann</i> affords a ready and convenient test. It -consists of water saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen -<span class='pageno' id='Page_364'>364</span>gas, and acidulated with muriatic acid;<a id='r392' /><a href='#f392' class='c011'><sup>[392]</sup></a> this -latter ingredient is added for the purpose of preventing -the precipitation of any iron, which the wine -might accidentally contain. This liquor will, if -added in the proportion of one part to two of wine, -produce with the smallest quantity of lead, a dark -coloured, or black precipitate; which, if collected, -dried, and fused before the blow-pipe on a piece of -charcoal, will yield a globule of metallic lead. Or -we may modify the experiment by passing a current of -sulphuretted hydrogen gas through the wine, having -previously acidulated it with muriatic acid, to prevent -the precipitation of the iron.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A farther proof of the presence of lead in wines is -the occurrence of a precipitate, on adding a solution -of the sulphate of soda.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The most satisfactory proof, however, is derived -by distilling off the alcohol, and calcining the residuum -with charcoal, in order to obtain the metallic -lead.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The quantity of lead which has been detected in -sophisticated wine, may be estimated at forty grains -of the metal in every fifty gallons,<a id='r393' /><a href='#f393' class='c011'><sup>[393]</sup></a> but this will of -course be liable to vary with the degree of acidity it -was intended to correct.</p> - -<p class='c000'>3. <i>The lead is dissolved in oils.</i> In this case the -lead may be detected by shaking, in a stopped phial, -one part of the suspected oil, with two or three parts -<span class='pageno' id='Page_365'>365</span>of water, impregnated with <i>sulphuretted hydrogen</i>. -This test will announce the presence of the deleterious -metal, by occasioning a dark brown, or black -colour.</p> - -<p class='c000'>4. <i>The lead is mixed with alimentary matter.</i> <i>M. -Orfila</i> has furnished us with the following directions -for assaying the matter vomited, or that which may -be found in the digestive canal, after death. “After -having expressed the fluid portion through a piece of -fine linen, it must be assayed by the <em>tests</em>, which have -been already enumerated as being capable of detecting -the salts of lead; and if the precipitates obtained -are of a nature to induce a belief, that the fluid contains -some preparation of this kind, it must be evaporated -to dryness, and calcined with charcoal in a crucible; -when, at the expiration of three quarters of an -hour, metallic lead will be obtained. If all the experiments -made on the fluid portion of the matter vomited, -for the discovery of this poison, should be -fruitless, the whole of the solid portions, previously -dried, should then be calcined with potass and charcoal, -by which means metallic lead will be obtained.”</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_366'>366</span> - <h4 class='c016'>VEGETABLE POISONS.</h4> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The poisons of which we are about to offer the -physiological and chemical history, although more -numerous than those which belong to the mineral -kingdom, are, notwithstanding, of far less importance -in a forensic point of view. With the exception -of opium, and some few others, they must be considered -as objects of accidental, rather than of criminal -poisoning; and even with respect to the former -narcotic, it may be said to afford more frequently the -means of destruction to the suicide, than to the -assassin.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The sensible qualities of smell, taste, and sometimes -colour, which so eminently characterise deleterious -plants, must necessarily render them ill calculated -to favour that secresy, which constitutes the -indispensable companion of crime; while their bulk, -and the pharmaceutical preparation which they require, -are alike inconsistent with the hope of concealment.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Thus we receive, as it were, from Nature, that -protection which art can no longer supply; and the -commission of crime is either prevented or discovered, -in cases where the powers of chemistry would -fail in its detection.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The objects which constitute the vegetable kingdom -differ from every species of mineral matter, not only in -their peculiar organized structure, but in the chemical -arrangement of their elements; those of inorganic -matter are generally combined in very simple proportions, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_367'>367</span>as one and one, or one and two, &c. whereas -in organized bodies, their proportions are much -more complicated; and <i>Dr. Ure</i> observes,<a id='r394' /><a href='#f394' class='c011'><sup>[394]</sup></a> that -such substances derive the peculiar delicacy of their -chemical equilibrium, and the consequent facility -with which it may be subverted and new modelled, -to the multitude of atoms grouped together in a compound; -hence too, as <i>Mr. Children</i><a id='r395' /><a href='#f395' class='c011'><sup>[395]</sup></a> has observed, -is one reason of our utter inability to reproduce even -the simplest body of this class, when once its elements -have been separated; it is not in the diversity -of these elements, but in the manner in which they -are grouped, that this peculiarity consists, for, continues -the accomplished chemist last mentioned, “vegetable -substances seldom contain, as essential, more -than three principles—<i>oxygen</i>, <i>hydrogen</i>, and <i>carbon</i>, -and sometimes <i>azote</i>. With four simple elements -then, a brief alphabet for so comprehensive a history! -has a bountiful Omnipotence composed the beautiful -volume of the living world, where, turn to what page -we may, fresh loveliness meets the eye, fresh cause -of admiration and delight.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The analysis of vegetable bodies resolves itself into -two parts, each of which constitutes an equal object -of interest to the forensic physician; who, it will be -shewn, may occasionally derive important information -from both. The first relates to the discovery of the -<i>proximate</i> principles of a vegetable substance. The -second, to that of its <i>ultimate</i> elements. By the <i>proximate</i>, -or, as they are sometimes termed, the <i>immediate</i> -principles, we mean those compound substances -which exist in the living plant in a state identical -<span class='pageno' id='Page_368'>368</span>with that, under which chemical processes exhibit -them, and are chiefly separable by the action of different -solvents. The number of these principles is -considerable, as <i>gum</i>, <i>starch</i>, <i>sugar</i>, <i>gluten</i>, <i>extractiue</i>, -<i>tannin</i>, <i>oils</i>, <i>acid</i>, <i>&c. &c.</i> By the <i>ultimate</i> elements, -we understand those, of which the <i>proximate</i> -are composed, as <i>oxygen</i>, <i>hydrogen</i>, <i>carbon</i>, and -<i>azote</i>. In submitting a plant to destructive analysis, -for the purpose of obtaining its ultimate elements, we -shall derive compounds, which formed no part of the -vegetable structure, and which result from a new -arrangement of the elements composing it; <i>acetic</i> and -<i>carbonic acids</i>, for example, are obtained by the destructive -distillation of several vegetable substances, -in which neither of these acids existed ready formed, -but only their elements.<a id='r396' /><a href='#f396' class='c011'><sup>[396]</sup></a> It may easily be imagined -to what numerous fallacies such a law of composition -must have given origin, in the earlier periods -of chemical inquiry; and it is equally evident, -that the utmost refinement of chemical science, and -the most rigorous methods of analysis, will be required -to enable us to deduce any satisfactory conclusion -with respect to the quality of a plant, from -these data. Such perfection, indeed, has not hitherto -been attained, but the period is probably not far distant, -when our most sanguine anticipations upon this -point may be realised. We have only to trace the -history of this branch of chemistry for the last century, -to become satisfied of its gradual and important -progress towards such an epoch, and of the improvements -of which this department of vegetable analysis is -farther susceptible; let us, for the sake of illustration, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_369'>369</span>only compare the rude results obtained by the -academicians of Paris, at about the commencement of -the seventeenth century, with those of <i>MM. Gay-Lussac</i> -and <i>Thenard</i><a id='r397' /><a href='#f397' class='c011'><sup>[397]</sup></a>, or with those, very lately -instituted in this country by <i>Dr. Ure</i>,<a id='r398' /><a href='#f398' class='c011'><sup>[398]</sup></a> and we -shall perceive that while the former of these experimentalists, -by the aid of heat, were unable to form -the slightest distinction between the most inert, and -the most poisonous species of plants, the latter, by -means of the same agent, aided by the modern doctrine -of equivalent ratios, has succeeded in establishing -the proportions in which the elements of each -vegetable body combines; and with such accuracy, as -to discriminate between substances, which bear the -greatest analogy to each other; as between the varieties -of sugar, and those of oil; and even between -common flax, and the same substance prepared according -to the improved process of <i>Mr. Lee</i>. This -statement is sufficient to show the capability of ultimate -analysis, on certain occasions, to identify vegetable -bodies; but we are, at present, scarcely advanced -far enough in such an investigation, to make -it subservient to the detection of vegetable poisons. -Nor has our knowledge with regard to proximate -analysis, been less successfully advanced. The late -researches of the French and German chemists have -demonstrated the existence of several new alkaline -bodies in the class of vegetable poisons, to which -some of these plants appear to be exclusively indebted -for their activity, as the <i>poppy</i>, <i>hellebore</i>, -<i>colchicum</i>, <i>&c.</i>; and whose characters are so distinct -and striking, as to enable the chemist to recognise -<span class='pageno' id='Page_370'>370</span>their presence by appropriate re-agents. In other -cases, the virulence of a plant would appear to depend -upon the combination of several<a id='r399' /><a href='#f399' class='c011'><sup>[399]</sup></a> proximate -principles; while in some few instances there exist in -the same individual vegetable, two distinct elements -of activity, as illustrated by the interesting history of -tobacco.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In cases of vegetable poisoning it will occasionally -occur, that some remains of the plant may be collected; -and seeds, portions of the fungi, and leaves, may be -found in the contents of the stomach; whence a knowledge -of botany becomes indispensable. This branch -of science is, moreover, important to the toxicologist, -as enabling him to pursue the study of plants with -greater precision; for experience has shewn that -there is a wonderful analogy between the structure of -those plants which resemble each other in medicinal -operation. Thus those which, from their dismal and -dusky appearance, have been arranged under the -title of <i>Luridæ</i>, are in general highly poisonous; -they also possess a very peculiar and disagreeable -smell, so that Nature has, upon this occasion, kindly -given us notice of approaching danger, by means of -our senses.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Of equal importance with the knowledge of the -generic and specific characters, is that of their sensible -qualities, and the changes which these latter -undergo by pharmaceutical preparation.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_371'>371</span> - <h3 class='c013'>Cl. III. ACRID, or RUBEFACIENT POISONS.</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>Most of the subjects of this class constitute articles -of Materia Medica; so that ignorance on the one -hand, and accident on the other, may render them -the unexpected source of mischief. With respect to -the physiological action of these bodies, the reader -has only to refer to our classification at page <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, to -perceive that it will not admit of generalization; for -each division, it will be observed, contains individuals -which belong to the class of acrid poisons.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As the history of most of these articles is to be -found in works on Materia Medica, we shall not -enter so fully into their properties, as we might -otherwise have considered necessary.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Camboge</span> or <span class='sc'>Gamboge</span>.</h4> - -<p class='c014'>This beautiful gum-resin is obtained by making -incisions in the leaves and young sprouts of the <i>Stalagmitis -Cambogioides</i><a id='r400' /><a href='#f400' class='c011'><sup>[400]</sup></a> (Polygamia Monæcia—<i>Nat. -ord.</i> Tricoccæ. <i>Wild</i>:) It is first collected, in the -kingdoms of Siam and Ceylon, in cocoa-nut shells, -and is thence transferred into large earthen jars, -where it remains until it is nearly dried to a cake, -when it is formed into rolls, and wrapped up in -leaves. It is imported into Europe<a id='r401' /><a href='#f401' class='c011'><sup>[401]</sup></a> in cases and -boxes. Its deep yellow colour, which is so materially -brightened by being wetted, and its shining -fracture, are characters sufficiently striking to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_372'>372</span>enable the practitioner to identify it; and when we -add to these the history of its habitudes with different -menstrua, the chemist will have no difficulty in -detecting its presence, viz. when triturated with -water, two-thirds of its substance are speedily dissolved, -and a turbid solution results; alcohol dissolves -nine-tenths, and forms a yellow transparent tincture, -which is rendered turbid by the addition of water; -sulphuric ether dissolves six-tenths of the substance; -it is also soluble in alkaline solutions, and the resulting -compound is not rendered turbid by water, but is -instantly decomposed by acids, and the precipitate so -produced is of an extremely brilliant yellow colour, -and soluble in an excess of acid.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Its action upon the animal œconomy is that of a -powerfully drastic purge. We are, however, not -acquainted with any case in which death followed its -administration. From the experiments made upon -animals, it would appear to produce its effects by a -local action on the textures, with which it comes in -contact, and it will accordingly be found in the third -class of our physiological classification, (page <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>.)</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>White Hellebore.</span><a id='r402' /><a href='#f402' class='c011'><sup>[402]</sup></a><br /> <br /><i>Veratrum Album.</i> (Polygamia—Monæcia—<i>Nat. Ord.</i> Coronariæ. <i>Linn.</i>—Junci. <i>Juss.</i>)</h4> - -<p class='c014'>This is undoubtedly the true hellebore of the ancients. -It is a native of the mountainous parts of -Greece, Italy, Switzerland, and Russia. Those specimens -which are cultivated in our gardens flower in -July. The root is the only part employed in medicine, -but every part of the plant is extremely acrid -and poisonous. Upon the animal œconomy it acts as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_373'>373</span>a violent cathartic and emetic; producing bloody -stools, excessive vomitings, great anxiety, vertigo, -tremors, sinking of the pulse, syncope, cold sweats, -convulsions, and death. There are many cases on record, -where such effects have followed the ingestion -of this plant. <i>Helmont</i> reports that a royal prince -died in the course of three hours after taking a scruple -of this poison, which induced convulsions; and <i>Vicat</i><a id='r403' /><a href='#f403' class='c011'><sup>[403]</sup></a> -relates the case of a tailor, his wife, children, and -workmen, who having taken soup, in which, through -mistake, the root of white hellebore had been introduced -instead of pepper, were seized with a universal -coldness, and such extreme debility, as to become -nearly insensible. At the expiration of two hours, -the eldest child, who was not four years of age, began -to vomit copiously, but with considerable straining; -the rest were shortly after in the same condition. -<i>Vicat</i>, who was called in at this critical period, ordered -them to take a considerable quantity of warm -water and oil; shortly after which he administered an -infusion of mallow sweetened with honey; by which -means, we are informed, they were relieved, and -ultimately restored. According to the testimony of -various physiologists, as well as from the experiments -of <i>Orfila</i>, it appears that this plant, if externally applied, -will produce the same effects. <i>Etmuller</i> says, -that the external application of the root to the abdomen -will produce vomiting; and <i>Schroeder</i> observed -the same phenomenon to take place in a case where it -was used as a suppository; the juice of the plant has -been also applied to the purpose of poisoning arrows. -It must, therefore, act by being absorbed into the -circulating current, thereby destroying the <a id='ene'></a>energy -<span class='pageno' id='Page_374'>374</span>of the nervous system. It accordingly finds a place -in the second division of our classification. Late experiments -upon this substance have shewn that its -activity depends upon a peculiar alkaline principle, to -which the name of <i>veratria</i><a id='r404' /><a href='#f404' class='c011'><sup>[404]</sup></a> has been given; and -that it exists in native combination with an excess of -gallic acid, (<i>super-gallate of veratria</i>).</p> - -<p class='c000'>When taken internally, as a poison, the most effectual -antidote is said to be a very strong infusion of -nut-galls.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Black Hellebore.</span> <i>Melampodium.</i><br /> <br /><i>Christmas-rose.</i> (Polyandria Polygynia. <i>Nat. Ord.</i> Multisiliquæ, <i>Linn.</i> Ranunculaceæ, <i>Juss.</i>)</h4> - -<p class='c014'>This plant, which has derived its name from the -dark colour of the root, is a native of Austria, the -Apennines, and Italy; it has, however, obtained a -place in our gardens,<a id='r405' /><a href='#f405' class='c011'><sup>[405]</sup></a> and from the circumstance of -its flowering from December till March, it has acquired -the name of the christmas rose. The fibres of -the roots are the parts employed in medicine; their -odour is fœtid, and their taste bitter and acrid. Its -action upon the animal œconomy is similar to that of -the preceding species. <i>Morgagni</i> relates the history -of a person who took half a drachm of black hellebore, -and expired eight hours afterwards. <i>M. Orfila</i> -states that inflammation of the rectum is a constant -occurrence, where the animals who have taken -this root, have survived its administration for a few -hours.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_375'>375</span> - <h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Fœtid Hellebore.</span> <i>Helleborus Fœtidus.</i> <i>Helleboraster.</i></h4> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>This plant is a native of England, growing in shady -places, on a chalky soil, and flowering in March and -April. Like the former species of hellebore, it is -capable of producing fatal effects. A case is related -in the <i>London Chronicle</i>, 1768, no. 1760, of a child -who died in consequence of taking the root of this -plant in the pulp of an apple.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Elaterium.</span> <i>Wild</i>, or <i>squirting Cucumber</i>.<br /> <br /><i>Momordica Elaterium</i> (Monæcia Monadelphia. <i>Nat. Ord.</i> Cucurbitaceæ.)</h4> - -<p class='c014'>This plant is a perennial native of the south of Europe, -flowering in June and July; it is cultivated in -England, but does not survive the severity of our -winters. The fruit (<i>poma</i>) has the appearance of a -small oval cucumber, of a greyish colour, and covered -with prickles. When fully ripe it quits the peduncal, -and casts out the seed and juice, with great force, and -to a considerable distance, through the hole in the -base where the foot-stalk is inserted, whence the -name of <i>squirting</i> cucumber. The author has instituted -numerous experiments upon this plant, the results -of which will be found fully detailed, under its -history, in the fifth edition of his Pharmacologia.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The plant appears, from the testimony of <i>Dioscorides</i>, -and other writers, to have been employed by -the ancient physicians with much confidence and success -as a cathartic; all the parts of the plant were -considered as purgative, although not in an equal degree; -thus <i>Geoffroy</i>, “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">radicum vis cathartica major -<span class='pageno' id='Page_376'>376</span>est quam foliorum, minor vero quam fructuum</span></i>.” This -question, however, has been very lately set at rest, -by the valuable experiments of <i>Dr. Clutterbuck</i>,<a id='r406' /><a href='#f406' class='c011'><sup>[406]</sup></a> -which prove that the active principle of this plant -resides more particularly in the juice which is lodged -in the centre of the fruit. The forensic physician, -however, will scarcely be liable to meet with a case -of poisoning by the fruit of this plant. It is from that -preparation of the juice, which is admitted into our -Pharmacopœia, under the title of <cite>Extract of Elaterium</cite>, -that we may expect to meet with mischief.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This substance subsides spontaneously from the -juice of the fruit; and occurs in commerce in little thin -cakes, or broken pieces, bearing the impression of -the muslin upon which it is dried; its colour is greenish, -its taste bitter, and somewhat acrid; and when -tolerably pure it is light, pulverulent, and inflammable. -Notwithstanding its extreme activity, it -does not, according to our experiments,<a id='r407' /><a href='#f407' class='c011'><sup>[407]</sup></a> contain -more than a tenth part of active matter, which -is a vegetable proximate principle, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sui generis</span></i>, and -to which we have given the name of <span class='sc'>Elatin</span>. By -treating the Elaterium with alcohol, this principle -may be obtained; it imparts to the spirit a most brilliant, -and beautiful grass green colour—but see our -experiments upon this subject. The action of elaterium -is that of a most violent drastic cathartic, especially -affecting the rectum. It destroys life by its -local action, and consequently finds a place in the -third division of our classification.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_377'>377</span> - <h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Colocynth.</span> <i>Coloquintida</i>; <i>Bitter Apple</i>.</h4> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>This is the fruit of the <i>Cucumis Colocynthis</i> (Monœcia -Monodelphia, <i>Nat. Ord.</i> Cucurbitaceæ) an -annual of Turkey and Nubia. It is of the size of an -orange, of a yellowish-white colour, devoid of smell, -round, dry, light, spongy, and smooth on the outside, -when ripe; it is trilocular, each cell containing -many ovate, compressed, whitish seeds, enveloped -by a white spongy pulp. It is imported into this -country, after having been peeled, and dried in a stove. -Its taste is extremely bitter and acrimonious. It acts -upon the human body as a powerfully drastic purgative. -<i>Fordyce</i>,<a id='r408' /><a href='#f408' class='c011'><sup>[408]</sup></a> relates the case of a woman who -was subject to colics for the space of thirty years, in -consequence of having taken an infusion of this fruit -in beer. <i>Tulpius</i><a id='r409' /><a href='#f409' class='c011'><sup>[409]</sup></a> has also furnished us with an -account of the tremendous effects produced by an -overdose of the same article; and <i>Orfila</i> has shewn, -with his usual accuracy, that it acts not only locally -upon the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">primæ viæ</span></i>, but by being absorbed, and carried -into the circulation.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Euphorbium.</span> <i>Euphorbia Officinarum</i> (Dodecandria Trigynia. <i>Nat. Ord.</i> Tricoccæ Lin. Euphorbiæ <i>Juss.</i>)</h4> - -<p class='c014'>This gum resin is imported from Barbary, in drops, -or irregular tears; its fracture is vitreous; it is inodorous, -but yields a very acrid, burning impression -on the tongue. Its acrid constituent resides exclusively -in that portion which is soluble in alcohol. -This poison has been sometimes administered imprudently -<span class='pageno' id='Page_378'>378</span>as a purgative when it has produced vomiting, -and bloody stools. <i>Lamotte</i> speaks of a clyster prepared -with it, which proved fatal. It acts as a caustic -upon the textures with which it comes in contact, and -thus destroys life by a local action; indeed its nature -is so acrid that when applied to the hair, or to warts, -it causes them to fall off. <i>Scopoli</i> mentions the case -of a person who, having the eye-lids closed, allowed -them to be rubbed with the juice of this plant; in -consequence of which inflammation followed, and -the sight was lost. In pulverizing the gum-resin, -the parmaceutist should take the precaution of previously -moistening it with vinegar, or the powder -will rise, excoriate his face, and excite violent inflammation -of the eyes. There are many species<a id='r410' /><a href='#f410' class='c011'><sup>[410]</sup></a> -of <i>Euphorbium</i>, or <i>spurge</i>, which are highly poisonous; -and, being indigenous, they have frequently proved -the cause of mischief; during the last summer the -author was consulted on the occasion of a family of -children having been seized with a violent inflammation -of the eyes, and eruption on the face, when the -phenomenon was very satisfactorily traced to the -action of the <i>Euphorbia peplus</i>, which was growing -very luxuriantly in the garden where the children -had been playing.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Savine.</span><br /> <br /><i>Juniperus Sabina.</i> (Diæcia Monadelphia—<i>Nat. Ord.</i> Coniferæ.)</h4> - -<p class='c014'>This shrub is a native of the south of Europe and -the Levant; but has been long cultivated in our gardens. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_379'>379</span>The leaves and tops of the plant have a strong, -heavy, disagreeable odour, and a bitter, hot taste, -with a considerable degree of pungency; qualities -which depend upon the presence of an essential oil. -Upon the animal system it acts as a very powerful -stimulant, and has been received into the list of the -materia medica, as an active emmenagogue; while it -has long enjoyed, amongst the vulgar, the reputation -of being capable of producing abortion.<a id='r411' /><a href='#f411' class='c011'><sup>[411]</sup></a> Upon -this point we have only to observe, that it does not -exert any specific action on the uterus; but as a violent -medicine, acting upon the general system, it -might, in common with other stimulants, produce so -much disturbance as to be followed by abortion. The -experiments of <i>Orfila</i> have shewn that savine exerts -a local action, but that its effects depend principally -on its absorption, through which medium it acts on -the nervous system, the rectum, and the stomach.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Aconite.</span> <i>Monkshood.</i><br /> <br /><i>Aconitum Napellus</i> (Polyandria Trigynia—<i>Nat. Ord.</i> Multisiliquæ, <i>Linn.</i> Ranunculaceæ, <i>Juss.</i>)</h4> - -<p class='c014'>There are several species of aconite, all of which -are poisonous. The <i>monkshood</i> is a well known plant, -met with in our gardens, and when swallowed in any -quantity will produce the symptoms, characteristic of -vegetable poisons. All the parts of aconite, in the -fresh state, when chewed, produce a sense of heat, -and shortly afterwards a sensation of numbness in the -lips and gums, which does not subside for several -hours.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_380'>380</span>In ancient authors, we frequently meet with <i>aconite</i> -as a poison, but it has been fairly questioned whether -any particular plant was designated by the term<a id='r412' /><a href='#f412' class='c011'><sup>[412]</sup></a>; -like that of <i>cicuta</i>, it seems to have been a word expressive -of poisons generally. The most powerful -form in which this vegetable poison exists is in that -of extract, or inspissated juice<a id='r413' /><a href='#f413' class='c011'><sup>[413]</sup></a>, and, if prepared according -to the improved process of <i>Mr. Barry</i>,<a id='r414' /><a href='#f414' class='c011'><sup>[414]</sup></a> it -will prove highly dangerous in small doses. <i>M. Orfila</i> -relates several fatal accidents from the ingestion of -this plant; his experiments have also shewn that it -will produce its effects by an external application. -We agree, however, with <i>Mr. Brodie</i> in considering -that it acts, without being absorbed, on the brain, -through the medium of the nerves; and we have accordingly -placed it in the first division of our classification.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The plants already enumerated are sufficient to -illustrate the symptoms and physiological action of -the acrid poisons of the vegetable kingdom. We -shall, therefore, conclude the history of this class -with some account of the <i>nitrate of potass</i>, which has -been ranked both by <i>Fodéré</i> and <i>Orfila</i> under this division -of their classification.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_381'>381</span> - <h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Nitre.</span> <i>Nitrate of Potass.</i></h4> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The sensible qualities of this salt are too well -known to require any description. It generally occurs -crystallized in six-sided prisms, terminated by -dihedral summits. It is composed of one proportional -of nitric acid, and one proportional of potass. It -dissolves in seven parts of water at 60°, and in its own -weight at 212° <i>Fah.</i> Its solution is attended with a -great reduction of temperature. It is permanent in -the air, melts when exposed to a moderate heat; and, -when cast into moulds, constitutes what is known in -commerce by the name of <i>sal prunelle</i>. When mixed -with inflammable matter it undergoes, in a strong -heat, a rapid species of combustion, which, in chemical -language, is termed <i>deflagration</i>. Concentrated -sulphuric acid, when poured upon this salt in powder, -decomposes it at the ordinary temperature, and -disengages vapours of nitric acid, which are white, -and not very abundant.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of poisoning by Nitre.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>This salt, when taken in a large dose, acts violently -on the stomach and bowels, and occasions -syncope and death. There are several cases recorded -of its having been taken by mistake for <i>Glauber’s salt</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On these occasions, the patients have been seized -with violent vomiting and purging of blood, attended -with severe pains in the bowels, and a sense of burning -heat, referred to the chest and stomach; cold extremities, -fluttering pulse, laborious breathing, syncope, -and death. The above effects have been produced -by an ounce and a half of nitre; although, as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_382'>382</span><i>Dr. Gordon Smith</i> has observed, the same quantity of -this salt has been inadvertently swallowed <em>without</em> the -production of such tremendous consequences.</p> - -<p class='c000'>From the experiments of <i>Orfila</i>, it appears that if -this salt be inserted into a wound, it occasions a fatal -gangrene. Its action is undoubtedly the effect of its -acrid nature, destroying the vitality of the textures -with which it comes in contact. It is not absorbed.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Organic lesions discovered by dissection.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>In those recorded cases of death from the ingestion -of nitre, the stomach has been found red, scattered -over with blackish spots, and its mucous membrane -disorganized.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Chemical processes for the detection of Nitre.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>The property which this salt possesses of deflagrating -with combustible bodies, affords a ready indication -of its presence. The process also, which we have -described under the history of nitric acid, (p. <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>) as -the one suggested by <i>Dr. Wollaston</i>, and adopted by -<i>Dr. Marcet</i> in his examination of sea water, furnishes -an elegant mode of ascertaining the presence of a -nitric salt.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>Cl. IV. NARCOTIC POISONS.</h3> - -<p class='c014'>These constitute a class of vegetable poisons, less -extensive, perhaps, but of far greater importance and -interest, than the one we have already considered. -It would not be easy to enumerate the various purposes -to which the active imagination of man has applied -the tribe of narcotic plants. Medicines, poisons, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_383'>383</span>intoxication, and madness, lie concealed beneath -their juices. They have, in their turn, arrested the -pangs of disease, and inflicted death upon the unsuspecting -object of hatred and revenge; they have animated -the courage of the warrior, inspired the enthusiasm -of the poet, soothed the sorrows of the wretched, -and furnished the debauchee with a daily source of sensual -gratification; effects which, although apparently -incompatible with each other, may be commanded by -the same substance, in a different dose. It would be -foreign to the plan of this work to enter into a physiological -inquiry into the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">modus operandi</span></i> of these -extraordinary agents; and the author relinquishes -the labour with less regret, as he has already, in -another work,<a id='r415' /><a href='#f415' class='c011'><sup>[415]</sup></a> very fully considered the several -theories which have been advanced for its explanation.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Opium</span>, and its <span class='sc'>Preparations</span>.</h4> - -<p class='c014'>This well known drug is the inspissated juice of the -<i>Papaver Somniferum</i> (Polyandria Monogynia. <i>Nat. -Ord.</i> Rhoedææ, <i>Linn.</i> Papaveraceæ <i>Juss.</i>) obtained by -making incisions in the half ripe capsules, at sun-set, -when the night dews favour the exudation of the -juice, which is collected in the morning by old women -and children, who scrape it from off the wounds with -a small iron scoop, and deposit the whole in an -earthen pot, where it is worked by wooden spatulas -in the sun-shine, until it attain a considerable degree -of spissitude. It is then formed by the hand into -cakes, which are laid in earthen basins to be further -exsiccated.<a id='r416' /><a href='#f416' class='c011'><sup>[416]</sup></a> Two kinds are found in commerce, -distinguished by the names of <i>Turkey</i>, and <i>East Indian</i> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_384'>384</span>opium. The latter kind is regarded as being -inferior to the former.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Turkey</i> opium occurs in flat pieces, of a solid compact -texture, possessing considerable tenacity; its -specific gravity is 1·336, so that, when compared with -concrete juices of other plants, it is heavy, being exceeded -only in this respect by opoponax and gum -arabic. It is of a reddish-brown, or fawn-colour, -and has a peculiar, heavy, and narcotic odour; its -taste is acrid, bitter, and hot. By long exposure to -the air, it becomes hard, and breaks with a glimmering -fracture, owing to the presence of a few saline -particles. It is plastic, and when worked with the -fingers is adherent to them. When brought near a -lighted candle it inflames, and burns with a brilliant -light, but its odour at that time is not narcotic. It -is partially soluble in water, alcohol, æther, wine, -vinegar, and lemon-juice. When triturated with hot -water, five parts in twelve are dissolved, six suspended, -and one part remains perfectly insoluble, -and resembles the gluten of wheat, but is of a dark -colour. The alcoholic is more highly charged with -its narcotic principle than the aqueous solution; but -spirit, rather below proof, is its best menstruum.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Few vegetable substances have been more frequently, -or more ably submitted to analysis; and -the history of the successive steps by which our knowledge -respecting its composition has advanced, must -encourage us in hoping that we shall shortly be enabled -to identify, by chemical tests, the presence of -opium, with as little difficulty and as great precision -as we are already capable of recognising a metallic -poison.</p> - -<p class='c000'>According to the latest chemical views respecting -the composition of this body, it may be stated to consist -<span class='pageno' id='Page_385'>385</span>of the following principles, viz. resin, gum, -bitter extractive, sulphate of lime, gluten, and the -three lately discovered bodies, <i>narcotine</i>, <i>morphia</i>, -and <i>meconic acid</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the year 1803, <i>Derosne</i> first obtained from -opium a crystalline substance, which he found to dissolve -in acids, but he does not appear to have instituted -many experiments, for the elucidation of its -nature and properties. In 1804 <i>Seguin</i> discovered -another crystalline body, and although he described -many of its properties, what appears very extraordinary, -he never even hinted at its alkaline nature. -<i>Sertuerner</i>, at Eimbeck in Hanover, had at the same -time as <i>Derosne</i> and <i>Seguin</i>, obtained these crystalline -bodies, but it was not until the year 1817, that -he first proclaimed the existence of a vegetable alkali, -and attributed to it the narcotic powers which distinguish -the operation of opium; to this body, he gave -the name of <i>Morphia</i>, and it would appear to be the -same as the essential salt of <i>Seguin</i>. The salt of <i>Derosne</i> -was also at first mistaken for the same principle, -but the experiments of <i>Robiquet</i> have pointed -out its distinctive properties, and it has received the -name of <i>Narcotine</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Morphia</i>, upon which the soporific powers of -opium depend, appears to exist in native combination -with a peculiar acid, to which the name of <i>meconic</i> -acid has been bestowed. The following are the -essential characters of this alkaline body, when procured -in a state of purity.<a id='r417' /><a href='#f417' class='c011'><sup>[417]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>It crystallizes in fine, transparent, truncated pyramids, -the bases of which are either squares or rectangles, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_386'>386</span>occasionally united base to base, and thereby -forming octohedra. It is sparingly soluble in boiling -water, but dissolves abundantly in heated alcohol, -giving rise to an intensely bitter solution; in æther -it is far less soluble. It has also the characters of an -alkali; affecting test papers tinged with tumeric or -violets, uniting with acids and forming neutral salts, -and decomposing the compounds of acids with metallic -oxides. It unites with sulphur by means of heat, -but the combination is no sooner formed than it is decomposed. -It fuses at a moderate temperature, when -it resembles melted sulphur, and like that substance -crystallizes on cooling; it is decomposed by distillation, -yielding carbonate of ammonia, oil, and a black -resinous residue, with a peculiar smell; when heated -in contact with air, it inflames rapidly, and like vegetable -matter, it leaves a carbonaceous residue. -When analyzed by means of the deutoxide of copper, -it yields carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the atomic -proportions of which have not yet been ascertained. -The nitric acid of commerce, when dropped on <i>morphia</i>, -communicates to it a beautiful red colour. <i>Sertuerner</i> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_387'>387</span>has given us an account of the effect of the -alcoholic solution of <i>morphia</i> on himself, and three -of his pupils; he found that repeated small doses of -half a grain produced at first decided excitation; -then weakness, numbness, and tendency to fainting; -after swallowing vinegar while in this condition, violent -vomiting was excited; in one delicate individual, -profound sleep intervened, and on the following day -he suffered from nausea, vomiting, head-ache, anorexia, -constipation, and heaviness.<a id='r418' /><a href='#f418' class='c011'><sup>[418]</sup></a> This case is -sufficient to shew, that although <i>morphia</i> possesses the -characteristic powers of opium, its strength is by no -means commensurate with its supposed state of concentration. -When uncombined, it exerts little or no -action, in consequence of its insolubility in water, -and in the fluids of the stomach. When, however, it -is combined with an acid, particularly the acetic, or -the <i>meconic</i>, with the latter of which we have before -stated that it exists in opium, it displays its properties -in a very eminent degree. It is also very soluble -in oil; and, according to the experiments of <i>M. Majendie</i>, -the compound acts with great intensity.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The <i>meconic acid</i>, when separated from the residuum -of the magnesian salt, as described in the process -for the preparation of morphia (<i>note p.</i> <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>) does -not appear to possess any medicinal activity. Its distinguishing -<em>chemical</em> character is, that it produces an -intensely red colour in solutions of iron, oxidized <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad -maximum</span></i>; and a deep blue, with solutions of the -salts of gold. <i>Narcotine</i> is the salt originally obtained -by <i>Derosne</i>, and is supposed by <i>MM. Majendie</i> -and <i>Robiquet</i> to be the peculiar principle which -produces the excitement experienced by those who -<span class='pageno' id='Page_388'>388</span>take small doses of opium. It may be entirely removed -by macerating the extract of opium in sulphuric -æther.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of poisoning by Opium.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>In considerable doses, the primary action of this -substance, as a powerful and diffusible stimulant, is -not apparent; for the powers of life are immediately -depressed, drowsiness and stupor succeed, and these -are followed by delirium, stertorous breathing, cold -sweats, convulsions, and apoplectic death.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The quantity of opium necessary for the production -of such effects must be regarded as <em>relative</em>. In no -two cases can we ensure a similar result, by the administration -of the same dose. But, of all the circumstances -capable of modifying the power of this drug, -habit is the most remarkable; in illustration of which -we have only to adduce the history of the opium -eater, or laudanum drinker; a species of debauchee -by no means uncommon, as every London chemist -can testify, for he frequently experiences considerable -doubt and difficulty in distinguishing persons, to -whom habit has rendered large doses of opium necessary, -from such as purchase it with a view to suicide.<a id='r419' /><a href='#f419' class='c011'><sup>[419]</sup></a> -The lowest fatal dose, to those unaccustomed to -it, seems to be about four grains; but the Turk will -take three drachms in the morning, and repeat the -same dose at night, without any other effects than that -of cheerfulness and exhilaration. This temporary -impunity, however, is dearly purchased by years of -suffering and sorrow. The effects of opium, says -<i>Russel</i>, on those who have been addicted to it, are at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_389'>389</span>first obstinate costiveness, succeeded by diarrhœa and -flatulence, with loss of appetite, and a sottish appearance; -their memories soon fail, they become -prematurely old, and then sink into the grave objects -of scorn and pity.<a id='r420' /><a href='#f420' class='c011'><sup>[420]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>Where a person has, from accident, or design, -swallowed a large dose of pure opium, or laudanum, -the symptoms produced are so characteristic and -striking, that the practitioner, who may be summoned -to render assistance, will have no difficulty in -ascertaining their cause.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Insensibility, with a scarcely perceptible respiration, -although in some cases it is attended with an -apopletic stertor; the countenance is livid and cadaverous; -the skin cold; and the muscles of the limbs -and trunk in a state of extreme relaxation. The pupils -are insensible to the impression of light, and the -pulse is almost imperceptible. In some stages, the -patient, by being strongly shaken, may be roused for -a few moments from the lethargy; there is generally -a narcotic odour distinguishable in the breath. Vomiting -may also take place upon the first impression -of the laudanum upon the stomach; although after -its action has been displayed upon the brain, it will -be difficult to excite emesis by the most powerful -means; the reason of which may be very satisfactorily -deduced from the ingenious experiments of <i>M. Majendie</i> -on the mechanism of vomiting; by which he -proves, that without the influence of the brain, the -muscles, whose actions constitute an essential part of -the operation, are incapable of performing their duty, -and that vomiting therefore cannot take place. This -is a very important doctrine, inasmuch as it suggests -<span class='pageno' id='Page_390'>390</span>to the pathologist several expedients, by which he -may be enabled to occasion vomiting, by recalling -the excitability of the brain. The period which will -elapse, between the ingestion of the poison, and the -death of the sufferer, may be stated to be from six to -twenty-four hours; but it will in each case be liable -to vary, not only from the quantity of opium swallowed, -but from the habit and peculiar circumstances -of the individual submitted to its operation.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Physiological action of Opium.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>It is still a question for the decision of future physiologists, -whether the narcotic principle of opium -destroys the functions of the nervous system by a local -impression upon the stomach,<a id='r421' /><a href='#f421' class='c011'><sup>[421]</sup></a> or by being absorbed,<a id='r422' /><a href='#f422' class='c011'><sup>[422]</sup></a> -and brought into contact with the brain in -the course of the circulation. We are inclined to -adopt this latter opinion, and have therefore placed -<i>opium</i> in the second division of our classification; at -the same time, we think that it may occasionally -produce an effect upon the nervous extremities of the -stomach, and we have accordingly placed an <i>asterisk</i> -against the word, by which we denote this double -mode of operation. But, by whatever medium it -may act, it is evident that it occasions death by destroying -the functions of the brain; in consequence -of which the muscles of respiration, no longer supplied -<span class='pageno' id='Page_391'>391</span>with nervous energy, cease to contract, and the -animal dies in a state of suffocation.<a id='r423' /><a href='#f423' class='c011'><sup>[423]</sup></a></p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Of the treatment in cases of poisoning by Opium.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>The first object is the evacuation of the stomach by -vomiting; for which purpose, the patient should be -made to swallow from fifteen grains to a scruple of -<i>sulphate of zinc</i>; or, from five to ten grains of <i>sulphate -of copper</i> dissolved in water; and the vomiting -should be kept up for a considerable time, and urged -by irritation of the fauces. Where the act of vomiting -cannot be established, in consequence of the paralysed -state of the nervous system, cold affusion, -applied by means of a shower bath, has been said to -restore the energy of the brain, and thus to render -the patient susceptible of the stimulus of an emetic.<a id='r424' /><a href='#f424' class='c011'><sup>[424]</sup></a> -Venesection has also, under the same circumstances, -been greatly extolled; and, as vascular congestion -in the brain is one of the effects of this poison, it is -reasonable to conclude that, by unloading the vessels -of this organ, we may restore its lost sensibility. -<i>Tissot</i> has strongly recommended the practice,<a id='r425' /><a href='#f425' class='c011'><sup>[425]</sup></a> and -the experiments of <i>Orfila</i> have shewn that it never -aggravated the symptoms of poisoning by opium, nor -accelerated the moment of death; but on the contrary, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_392'>392</span>that in some instances he found that it restored -the animals which would have died, if it had -not been put in practice. Where the operation is -performed, the blood should be drawn from the jugular -vein, in preference to any other. Should these -means prove insufficient to provoke vomiting, <i>M. -Orfila</i> asks, whether one or two grains of <i>tartarized -antimony</i>, dissolved in one or two ounces of water, -might not be injected into the veins? It was formerly -proposed by <i>Boerhaave</i> to empty the stomach -of its poisonous contents, by the introduction of a -syringe; an operation which, it is said, has been -lately performed with success.<a id='r426' /><a href='#f426' class='c011'><sup>[426]</sup></a> Vinegar and vegetable -acids were long considered as <i>antidotes</i> to opium; -but the experiments of <i>M. Orfila</i> have clearly established -that, as long as any portion of the opium -remains in the stomach, these potations, so far from -relieving, aggravate the symptoms of poisoning by -this narcotic, in consequence of the power which -they possess of dissolving it. Where, however, the -opium has been expelled by vomiting, these acid -drinks possess the property of <em>diminishing the consecutive -symptoms</em>, and of thus realising the expectations -which <i>Virgil</i><a id='r427' /><a href='#f427' class='c011'><sup>[427]</sup></a> has so poetically raised,</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line in12'>----“<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">quo non præsentius ullum</span></i></div> - <div class='line'><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Auxilium venit, ac membris agit atra venena</span></i>.”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>The powers of the habit should, at the same time, -be supported by brandy, strong coffee, and cordials. -The sufferer should be kept awake; and, if possible, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_393'>393</span>in a continued gentle motion. <i>Dr. Currie</i><a id='r428' /><a href='#f428' class='c011'><sup>[428]</sup></a> has -recommended the affusion of warm water at 106°, or -108°, for removing the stupor.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A case is recorded by <i>Dr. Marcet</i>, in the first volume -of the Medico-chirurgical Transactions, where -six ounces of laudanum were taken by a young man, -and remained for five hours in the stomach before -any remedies were applied for its removal; a strong -dose of sulphate of copper, however, provoked vomiting, -and by judicious treatment he eventually -recovered.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Organic lesions discovered on dissection.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>It has been very truly remarked that although -the instances in which opium has proved fatal to -human life have been very numerous, yet that -the accounts which we have received of the appearances -of the body <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">post mortem</span></i>, are by no means -so satisfactory as we could desire. <i>M. Orfila</i> asserts -that no alteration can be discovered on dissection, in -the digestive canal of persons who have swallowed -any narcotic poison; and that if facts contrary to this -assertion be met with in various authors, it is because -there have been administered irritating substances capable -of producing inflammation.<a id='r429' /><a href='#f429' class='c011'><sup>[429]</sup></a> The lungs, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_394'>394</span>however, frequently exhibit morbid phenomena; -their colour is sometimes violet, and frequently a -deeper red than in the natural state. Their texture -is also more dense, and less crepitating; and they are -marked by livid spots. The blood contained in the -ventricles of the heart, and in the veins, is said to be -found in a liquid state; but <i>Orfila</i> advances a diametrically -opposite opinion, and asserts that it is frequently -coagulated. The brain and its membranes -often exhibit a state of vascular congestion; in the -case recorded by <i>Mr. Stanley</i>, in the sixth volume -of the <cite>Transactions of the College of Physicians</cite>, the -cellular tissue of the pia mater was found to contain -water.<a id='r430' /><a href='#f430' class='c011'><sup>[430]</sup></a></p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Of the detection of Opium.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>There is no mode of identifying opium, whether in -a liquid or solid form, so satisfactory as that which -is at once afforded by its powerful and highly characteristic -odour. In fatal instances, we shall always -meet with it in the contents of the alimentary canal, -and in such quantities as will leave no doubt as to its -nature. The chemist may also proceed to a farther -examination, by obtaining <i>morphia</i> from its solution, -by a process which we have already described under -the chemical history of opium.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_395'>395</span> - <h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Black Henbane.</span> <i>Hyoscyamus Niger.</i><br /> <br />(Pentandria Monogynia. <i>Nat. Ord.</i> Luridæ <i>Linn.</i> Solaneæ <i>Juss.</i>)</h4> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>Henbane is an indigenous annual, frequent on -waste grounds, and at the sides of roads, particularly -on a calcareous soil, flowering in July. The whole -of the plant is poisonous when eaten; and in the -recent state the odour of the leaves occasions stupor -and delirium. The root of this plant when in full -vegetation is very powerful; and there are several -cases on record, where it has been eaten in mistake -for parsnips,<a id='r431' /><a href='#f431' class='c011'><sup>[431]</sup></a> which it strongly resembles in its -sweet and agreeable flavour. Its operation is very -analogous to that of opium; producing sickness, -stupor, delirium, and coma, with <a id='dil'></a>dilation of the -pupils.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The pulse, at first hard, gradually becomes weak -and tremulous; petechiæ frequently make their appearance, -and death ensues. Late experiments have -shewn that a peculiar alkaline body constitutes the -active principle of this plant, and it has accordingly -received, from its discoverers <i>MM. Meissner</i> and -<i>Brandes</i>, the name of <i>Hyoscyama</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Boerhaave</i> experienced a trembling and drunkenness, -in consequence of having prepared a plaister, -into whose composition <i>henbane</i> entered as an ingredient; -and the experiments of <i>M. Orfila</i> have shewn -that it acts nearly in the same manner, whether applied -upon the cellular texture, introduced into the -stomach, or injected into the veins. Hence it follows -that the active principle of this plant is carried into -the circulation, and exerts a remarkable action on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_396'>396</span>the brain and nervous system, producing an extraordinary -state of delirium, which is succeeded by stupefaction. -The physician will never probably be -called upon to investigate a case of wilful poisoning -by this narcotic; and should he be summoned to attend -a person who, through mistake or accident, had -swallowed it, we can hardly anticipate any peculiar -mystery which requires elucidation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There are several other species of henbane, as <i>hyos. -alb. aureus</i>, <i>physaloides</i>, all of which are poisonous, -although not in the same degree as the <i>hyoscyamus -niger</i>, whose history we have just considered.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Prussic Acid.</span> <i>Hydro-cyanic Acid.</i></h4> -<h5 class='c016'>The <span class='sc'>Laurel</span> (<i>Prunus lauro-cerasus</i>) and its distilled water. <span class='sc'>Bitter Almonds</span>, and their essential oil.</h5> - -<p class='c014'>Hydro-cyanic acid exists in a great variety of native -combinations in the vegetable kingdom, and -imparts to them peculiar qualities, which have been -long known. It is, however, only within a few -years, that this singular body has been obtained in -its separate and independent form<a id='r432' /><a href='#f432' class='c011'><sup>[432]</sup></a>; indeed it was -not until the publication of the celebrated memoir of -<i>Gay-Lussac</i> upon this subject, in the year 1815, that -its chemical composition was fully understood. In -this memoir, it was clearly shewn to consist of a peculiar, -gaseous, and highly inflammable compound -of carbon and nitrogen, to which the name of <i>cyanogene</i> -has been assigned, and hydrogen; the latter -<span class='pageno' id='Page_397'>397</span>body acting as the acidifying principle; whence the -term <i>hydro-cyanic acid</i> is very happily contrived to -express its composition.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When obtained in its most concentrated form, by -the process of <i>M. Gay Lussac</i>,<a id='r433' /><a href='#f433' class='c011'><sup>[433]</sup></a> it has the following -characteristic properties, viz. At ordinary temperatures, -it is liquid, colourless, and transparent; -possessing an extremely powerful odour, very analogous -to that of the blossom of the peach, or bitter -almond tree; its taste is, at first, bland and sweetish, -but afterwards pungent, bitter, and peculiar. -Its extreme volatility is such, that when a drop of it -is exposed to the air, on the end of a glass rod, it is -rapidly crystallized. The same phenomenon takes -place, if a drop be suffered to fall on a sheet of paper. -Its specific gravity is ·7055; but, when in a concrete -form it is only ·9, while that of its vapour is ·947. -If inhaled, it produces almost immediate pain in the -head, with deafness, unless very largely diluted with -air or water.<a id='r434' /><a href='#f434' class='c011'><sup>[434]</sup></a> It is decomposed by a high temperature; -and by the action even of light it is, in the -course of a very short time, resolved into carbonic -acid, ammonia, and carburetted hydrogen, a carbonaceous -matter remaining behind.<a id='r435' /><a href='#f435' class='c011'><sup>[435]</sup></a> When brought -near a body in a state of combustion, it instantly -inflames and burns with a blue light. In water it is -sparingly soluble; alcohol dissolves it copiously.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_398'>398</span>The “<i>medicinal Prussic acid</i>,” as it has been called, -as being the preparation lately introduced into medicine,<a id='r436' /><a href='#f436' class='c011'><sup>[436]</sup></a> -differs only from that we have just described, -in its degree of concentration. It is, in fact, the -Prussic acid of <i>Scheele</i>, and may be considered as -equivalent to the preparation of <i>Gay-Lussac</i> diluted -with six times its volume, or eight times and a half -its weight, of distilled water.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The <i>hydro-cyanic acid</i> has been discovered, in a -state of perfect formation, in a variety of vegetables, -whose peculiar odour at once announces its presence; -such are bitter almonds; the kernels of apricots, -cherries, particularly the <i>Cerasa Juliana</i>, and -several plums; the leaves of laurel; and peach blossoms; -and the bark of the <i>prunus padus</i>, or bird-cherry -tree. The only mineral substance, in which -hydro-cyanic has yet been detected is the <i>Fer Azuré</i> -of Hauy.<a id='r437' /><a href='#f437' class='c011'><sup>[437]</sup></a> Animal substances, although they do not -contain it ready formed, yet, when treated with an -alkali at a high temperature, they yield it in great -abundance, in consequence of the combination of its -elements.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Action of hydro-cyanic Acid as a Poison.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>The experiments which have been instituted with -a view to ascertain the exact effects of this substance -upon animal life, very clearly prove that the acid of -<i>Gay-Lussac</i> is one of the most active poisons in nature; -and that the various vegetable bodies, into -whose composition it enters, exert an energy, corresponding -<span class='pageno' id='Page_399'>399</span>with the quantity of this constituent, and -the degree of concentration, in which it exists. The -experiments of <i>M. Orfila</i> were made with Prussic -acid, prepared according to the process of <i>Scheele</i>, -and consequently containing a great proportion of -water, as we have already explained; and yet the -effects which followed its administration were extremely -energetic. From the <cite>Annales de Chimie</cite>, for -October 1814, we learn that a professor of chemistry, -having inadvertently left on his table a phial filled -with a solution of Prussic acid in alcohol, a female -servant, who had been seduced by its agreeable smell, -drank a small glass-full of it, and fell dead at the -end of a few minutes, as if struck by apoplexy.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The following case is quoted by <i>Dr. Granville</i>, -from <i>Hufeland</i>. <i>D. L.</i> a robust and healthy man, -aged 36 years, while about to be seized as a thief by -the police officers, snatched a small sealed phial from -his pocket, broke off the neck of it, and swallowed -the greatest part of its contents. A strong smell of -bitter almonds soon spread around, which almost -stupefied all present. The culprit staggered a few -steps; then, without a groan, fell on his knees, and -sunk lifeless down to the ground. Medical assistance -being called in, not the slightest trace of pulse -or breathing could be found. A few minutes afterwards, -a single and violent expiration occurred, -which was again repeated in about two minutes. The -extremities were perfectly cold, the breast and abdomen -still warm, the eyes half open and shining, clear, -lively, full, almost projecting, and as brilliant as -those of the most ardent youth under violent emotion. -The face was neither distorted nor convulsed, but -bore the image of quiet sleep. The corpse exaled a -strong smell of bitter almonds, and the remaining liquid, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_400'>400</span>being analysed, was found to be a concentrated -solution of Prussic acid in alcohol. Cases also stand -recorded where, from imprudent exposure to the vapours -of the Prussic acid, persons have exhibited all -the appearances of being poisoned. Some writers -assert that <i>Scheele</i> himself, who died suddenly, while -engaged in some inquiries into the nature and formation -of this acid, was affected by its deleterious qualities. -<i>Orfila</i> relates that <i>Scharinger</i>, Professor at -Vienna, prepared some pure concentrated Prussic -acid, and having diffused a certain quantity of it -upon his naked arm, he died a short time afterwards. -The professor, however, did not die in consequence -of this accident; it appears, upon inquiry, that he -was seized with apoplexy while sitting in a coffee -house in the evening.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The distilled water of the <i>cherry laurel</i><a id='r438' /><a href='#f438' class='c011'><sup>[438]</sup></a> has been -proved, by numerous awful examples, to be a most -energetic poison; and from the fatal effects to which -the officinal preparation of it gave rise, it was early -expunged from the Pharmacopœia of the London -College. In the <cite>Philosophical Transactions</cite> for the -year 1731, we shall find the history of its effects upon -a woman of the name of <i>Boyce</i>, who, with a view to -disprove an allegation, that one <i>Mary Whaley</i> had -died in consequence of drinking a small quantity of -laurel water, swallowed three spoonsful, and, afterwards, -two more of the same liquid; after which she -died in a very short time, without making the least -complaint, and without any convulsion.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Foderé</i> informs us that during the period he was -pursuing his studies at Turin in 1784, the chambermaid -<span class='pageno' id='Page_401'>401</span>and man servant of a noble family of that town, -for the purpose of regaling themselves, stole from -their master a bottle of distilled laurel water; fearful -of being surprised, they hastily swallowed several -mouthsful of it; but they soon paid the price of -their dishonesty, having almost instantly expired in -convulsions. Works on Toxicology also abound -with the relation of experiments, made by numerous -physiologists on different animals, with this deleterious -liquid. Amongst the experimentalists we may -enumerate the names of <i>Madden</i>, <i>Mortimer</i>, <i>Browne</i>, -<i>Langrish</i>, <i>Nicholls</i>, <i>Stenzelius</i>, <i>Heberden</i>, <i>Watson</i>, -<i>Vater</i>, <i>Rattrai</i>, the <i>Abbé Rozier</i>, <i>Duhamel</i>, <i>Fontana</i>, -and <i>Orfila</i>. In this country we have had several -fatal cases of poisoning by laurel water. In the -year 1782, <i>Dr. Price</i>, of Guildford, having professed -to have converted mercury into gold, offered -to repeat his experiments before a competent tribunal, -but the unfortunate philosopher put a period to -his existence before the day appointed for his exhibition, -by a draught of laurel water; a mode of death -which had been, no doubt, suggested by the celebrated -trial of <i>Donellan</i>, for the murder of <i>Sir Theodosius -Boughton</i>, that had taken place in the preceding -year, and left a strong impression upon the public -mind; and whose details, it has been justly observed, -are not more important from the elucidation of the -effects of this poison, than from the strange display -of professional testimony to which it gave origin, (see -<i>Appendix</i>, page 243.) There are those who still -profess to believe that the prisoner was unjustly convicted -upon that occasion; <i>Dr. Male</i> states, without -the least reserve, that it was neither proved that the -deceased was poisoned, nor that any poison had -<span class='pageno' id='Page_402'>402</span>existed.<a id='r439' /><a href='#f439' class='c011'><sup>[439]</sup></a> We feel no difficulty in declaring that -we hold a directly opposite opinion; and we consider -that many of the weaker points of professional evidence -delivered on the trial, have received powerful -support and elucidation from the experiments and observations -of later physicians.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Nor are the leaves of this plant wholly free from danger; -it is true that they have, for many years, been in -general use among cooks, to communicate an almond -or kernel-like flavour to custards, puddings, creams, -<i>blanc-mange</i>, and other delicacies of the table; but -the custom has not always been harmless; a fact -with which it behoves the forensic physician to be -acquainted. In some parts of the continent milk is -boiled with one or two leaves of the cherry-laurel in -it, and <i>Ingenhouz</i> states that he saw people much -affected by it. In the <i>Literary Chronicle</i> (no. xxii, -p. 348, 1819) we find the following illustrative case: -“Several children at a boarding-school, in the vicinity -of Richmond, having partaken of some custard -flavoured with the leaves of the cherry-laurel, four of -them were taken severely ill in consequence. Two -of them, a girl of six, and a boy of five years of age, -fell into a profound sleep, out of which they could -not be roused for ten hours, the other two complained -of severe pains in the epigastric region. By proper -medical treatment, they all recovered, after an illness -of three days.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The essential oil of <i>bitter almonds</i> is equally poisonous; -and the water distilled from them is highly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_403'>403</span>dangerous if incautiously taken. <i>Duvignau</i> and <i>Parent</i> -instituted some experiments upon themselves to -ascertain this fact; they commenced by taking six -<a id='dro'></a>drops of the water distilled three times, in an appropriate -vehicle, without producing any other than a -transient impression. On taking <i>eighteen</i> drops, however, -vertigo was experienced, and a disposition to -sleep, accompanied with a tingling of the ears and -dimness of sight. When the dose was increased to -<em>twenty-two</em> drops, alarming symptoms followed, such -as convulsions, and vomiting; which, although the -experimenters succeeded in allaying by antispasmodics, -cured them completely of any ulterior wish -to ascertain how far this substance might be deleterious. -A drachm of the distilled water of bitter almonds -has killed a moderate sized dog. The <i>essential oil</i> is -proportionally more active; <i>Mr. Brodie</i><a id='r440' /><a href='#f440' class='c011'><sup>[440]</sup></a> found -that one drop, when applied to the tongue of a cat, -killed it in five minutes; no sooner did the poison -come in contact with the organ than the animal was -seized with convulsions. When two drops of the -same oil were injected with half an ounce of water -into the rectum of a cat, it was not seized for two -minutes, but it died, as in the former experiment, -after the expiration of five minutes. While engaged -in this inquiry, <i>Mr. Brodie</i> dipped the blunt end of a -probe into the essential oil, and applied it to his -tongue, with the intention of tasting it, and not having -the least suspicion that so small a quantity could -produce any of its specific effects on the nervous system; -but scarcely had he applied it, when he experienced -a very remarkable and unpleasant sensation, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_404'>404</span>which he referred chiefly to the epigastric region, but -the exact nature of which he could not describe, because -he knew nothing similar to it. At the same -time there was a sense of weakness in his limbs, as if -he had not the command of his muscles; and he -thought that he should have fallen. The fascinating -liqueur noyau, <i>créme de noyau</i>, is indebted for its -flavour to the essential oil of the bitter almond, or -peach; and is undoubtedly deleterious if taken in -excess. In the <cite>Journal des Debats</cite>, for 1814, we -find that the late <i>Duke Charles de Lorraine</i> had -nearly lost his life from swallowing some drops of -<i>eau de noyau</i> too strongly impregnated with the essential -oil of peach kernels.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The bitter almond itself, in consequence of the -manner in which its deleterious principle is modified -by the natural state of combination in which it exists -with sweet oil and albumen, does not produce an -effect corresponding with the proportion of essential -oil which it yields. The experiments of <i>Orfila</i>, however, -prove that the almond, in doses of a drachm, -is destructive to cats; and there can be no doubt but -that it would be equally deleterious to the human -species; but the quantity required for the production -of such an effect must ever prevent the bitter almond -from becoming either the accidental or criminal instrument -of death.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Physiological action of Prussic acid.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>The numerous experiments, which have been made -with this poison, have clearly established that its action -is upon the nervous system, whose energies it -would seem to extinguish without any ostensible injury -to respiration and circulation; for in all those -<span class='pageno' id='Page_405'>405</span>animals which were killed by it, in the experiments -of <i>Orfila</i>, <i>Brodie</i>, and others, the heart was found -acting regularly, and circulating dark coloured -blood, and in some cases this phenomenon was visible -for many minutes after the animal was in other respects -apparently dead. <i>Orfila</i> considers that he has -fully demonstrated that these effects depend on the -absorption of the poison, and its transmission to the -brain through the medium of the circulation. We -have accordingly placed Prussic acid in the second -division of our classification. The essential oil of -bitter almonds would, according to the experiments -of <i>Mr. Brodie</i>, appear to act through the medium of -the nerves, and it has accordingly been referred to -our first division. This is undoubtedly an anomaly, -which it is not easy to reconcile; the experiments, -however, which led <i>Mr. Brodie</i> to the conclusion appear -to us to warrant such a deduction; the instantaneousness -with which the poisonous effects were produced, -and the fact of its acting more speedily when -applied to the tongue, than when injected into the -intestines, although the latter presents a better absorbing -surface, seem to oppose the idea of the oil -requiring to be absorbed, before it can display its -energies. <i>M. Vogel</i>, of Munich, has lately discovered -some facts respecting the composition of this -oil, which may perhaps hereafter lead to the true -explanation of this apparent anomaly; this distinguished -chemist succeeded in separating the Prussic -acid from the volatile oil with which it is combined, -by agitating the whole in a concentrated solution of -potass, and distilling to dryness; the oil volatilized -together with the water, while the residuum in the -retort was found to contain <i>cyanide of potassium</i>. -The oil, thus separated from the Prussic acid, is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_406'>406</span>without odour, and heavier than water; its taste is -extremely acrid and burning; in order to discover -whether it was still poisonous, <i>M. Vogel</i> put a drop -of it on the tongue of a sparrow, when it died in a -few seconds, after a very violent convulsion; he also -poisoned a dog, two months old, with four drops of -it; whence he concludes that the volatile oil, divested -of its hydro-cyanic acid is still a poison, -although less energetic than that which has not -undergone such a change. Do there exist then two -independent principles of activity in the <i>bitter almond</i>? -If such a fact were established it would not -be solitary, for we shall hereafter shew that the energies -of <i>tobacco</i> are dependant upon an analogous -arrangement; and that our ignorance of the fact, at -first, occasioned apparent anomalies, as embarrassing -as those which at present involve the physiological -history of the oil of almonds.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Antidotes.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'><i>Orfila</i>, in his celebrated Toxicology, informs us that -vinegar, or the vegetable acids; coffee; a solution of -chlorine in water; camphor; emollient drinks; and -bleeding, have been successively, but not <a id='suc'></a>successfully -recommended.<a id='r441' /><a href='#f441' class='c011'><sup>[441]</sup></a> With respect to the first of these -pretended <i>antidotes</i>, it deserves notice, that instead -of palliating the symptoms, it actually quickens, and -gives more energy to the action of the poison. Coffee, -as far as it may stimulate, might be employed with -advantage; but its powers are not sufficient to meet -the exigency of the case. Bleeding seems decidedly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_407'>407</span>a fatal measure. The authors of the paper on Prussic -acid, inserted in the <i>American Recorder</i>, consider at -length the claims of every substance which has been -proposed as an antidote to it; and they conclude by -saying that, we are entirely ignorant of a counter-agent -of this poison. There is every reason, says -<i>Dr. Granville</i>, to believe that the Prussic acid taken -in large quantities, and in its concentrated state, is -partially, if not wholly absorbed ere it <em>reaches the -stomach</em>;—else how happens it that scarcely a minute -after its exhibition, I have, in common with others, -been unable to detect its presence within that organ. -If so, then all chemical attempts must be nugatory, -no decomposition, or fresh combinations can be produced -to render it harmless; nor will an emetic, although -so much recommended, be of much more service -in freeing the system of its presence. But -although chemical remedies are thus shewn to be of -no avail, we may derive from the class of vital agents -some powerful antidotes; all medicines taken from -the class of diffusible stimuli will be useful in supporting -the powers of the system against the sedative -influence of the poison. Hot brandy and water, with -ammonia, camphor, and other similar stimulants, -are the resources to which we should fly upon such -occasions.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Organic lesions discovered on Dissection.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>The recorded dissections of persons, who have -been poisoned by Prussic acid, are too few and vague -to furnish any satisfactory generalization. In the -case related by <i>M. Foderé</i>, of two servants who died -after a draught of laurel-water, the dead bodies were -carried to the University at Turin, and examined, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_408'>408</span>when the stomach was found slightly inflamed, but -the other parts were in a sound state. We feel much -hesitation in giving credit to this report, the death -was too immediate to allow the access of inflammation; -we are rather disposed to consider the appearances -of the stomach to have arisen from that species -of sanguineous congestion, which we have before -alluded to, as sometimes occurring in cases of sudden -death. In other cases the coats of the stomach are -said to have been black and relaxed; the vessels of -the brain injected; the lungs have also been described -as presenting unnatural congestions, and purple -spots; and the smell of Prussic acid seemed as if it -pervaded the whole system, and was embodied, as it -were, with the very substance of the muscles. In -other cases, again, not the slightest trace of any morbid -appearance could be discovered. Some authors -have stated that in cases of death by this poison the -cornea of the eye does not collapse, but retains its fulness, -and even its lustre, for a considerable period.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Chemical processes by which the presence of hydro-cyanic acid may be ascertained.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>The strong odour yielded by the body on dissection, -will furnish a satisfactory proof of the presence -of this poison. Instances may occur, when the practitioner -will be called before a tribunal to answer, -from his professional knowledge, whether a particular -case of death can have happened from the action of -the hydro-cyanic acid, or any of the compounds in -which it may enter as an ingredient; it therefore becomes -an object of great importance to inquire -whether any farther tests might be made subservient -to our purpose. <i>Dr. Granville</i>, who has directed a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_409'>409</span>great share of his attention to the history of this poison, -has given some directions upon this point, which -appear to us to be useful and judicious; we shall, -therefore, present them to our readers. “After collecting -the blood contained in the ventricles of the -heart, a portion of the contents of the stomach, and -of the superior intestines, together with a certain -quantity of any fluid which may chance to be present -within the cavity of the head, chest, or abdomen; -and having agitated the mixture for some time in distilled -water, and filtered the liquid, taking care to -keep the whole at a low temperature, proceed to the -following experiments.</p> - -<p class='c015'>A. To a small quantity of the liquid add a few -drops of a solution of caustic potass in alcohol.</p> -<p class='c015'>B. To this, a few drops of a solution of sulphate -of iron must be added, when a cloudy and reddish -precipitate, of the colour of burnt <i>Terra-Sienna</i> -will fall down.</p> -<p class='c015'>C. Some sulphuric acid is now to be introduced -into the tube, when the colour of the precipitate -will instantly change to that of a bluish-green, -which by a permanent contact with the -atmosphere, becomes gradually of a beautiful -blue, assuming at the same time a pulverulent -aspect.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c021'> - <div>OR</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c015'>A. Treat the filtered liquid with carbonate of -potass.</p> -<p class='c015'>B. Add a solution of sulphate of iron with a -small quantity of alum: a precipitate, as in -the former method, will fall down, which if -treated by free sulphuric acid, will also become -<span class='pageno' id='Page_410'>410</span>blue and pulverulent. During this latter -part of the experiment, there is a disengagement -of carbonic acid.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Evidence may be pushed still farther, and the -existence of the Prussic acid proved in a most positive -manner by decomposing the precipitate, above -described, and which is a true Prussian blue, so as -to separate the acid. For this purpose, heat the -precipitate with an equal quantity of tartaric acid, in -a glass retort, at the temperature of 150°, when the -hydro-cyanic vapours will soon exhale from the mixture, -and may be received in water.”<a id='r442' /><a href='#f442' class='c011'><sup>[442]</sup></a></p> - -<h3 class='c013'>Cl. V. NARCOTICO-ACRID POISONS.</h3> - -<p class='c014'>We have already stated our objections to this division, -and our apology for adopting it. <i>See page</i> <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Deadly Nightshade.</span> <i>Atropa Belladonna.</i><br /> <br />(Pentandria Monogynia. <i>Nat. Ord.</i> Luridæ <i>Linn.</i> Solanaceæ. <i>Juss.</i>)</h4> - -<p class='c014'>This plant is an indigenous perennial, found in -many parts of Great Britain, particularly in shady -places where the soil is calcareous, in large ditches, -and on the edge of hilly woods; flowering in June, -and ripening its berries in September. Every part -of the plant is poisonous; and numerous instances -have occurred where children, and the ignorant, or -those suffering from hunger, allured by the beautiful -and tempting appearance of the berries, have fallen -victims to their deadly power. The root of this plant -<span class='pageno' id='Page_411'>411</span>partakes also of the same qualities as the leaves and -berries, but is perhaps less virulent.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“Or have we eaten of the <i>insane root</i>,</div> - <div class='line'>That takes the reasoner prisoner.”—<i>Macbeth.</i></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>The inspissated juice (<i>Extractum Belladonnæ -Pharm. Lond.</i>) is also extremely poisonous, when -properly prepared; but, as usually met with in -commerce, it is of very variable strength; when prepared -according to the improved process of <i>Mr. -Barry</i>, its activity is so considerable that a dose of -two grains is followed by unpleasant effects. (<i>See an -account of its effects in the Pharmacologia</i>, <i>vol.</i> 2, <i>p.</i> -199.) <i>M. Brandes</i> has lately ascertained that the -active principle of this plant is a peculiar alkaline -body, to which he has assigned the name of <i>atropia</i>.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of poisoning by Belladonna.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>Shortly after the ingestion of the berries, leaves, -or root, of this plant, the patient complains of extreme -dryness of the lips, tongue, palate, and throat; -the deglutition becomes difficult, and the pupil of the -eye immoveably dilated; nausea, rarely followed by -vomiting; symptoms of intoxication succeed, accompanied -with fits of laughter, dreadful ravings, violent -gestures of the body, and continual motion of the -hands and fingers; sometimes the patient sinks into a -state of fatuity, but rarely of stupor; redness and -tumefaction of the face, a low and feeble pulse, paralysis -of the intestines, livid spots on different parts -of the body, profuse sweats, convulsions, and death. -In the cases where recovery has taken place, there -has been an insensible restoration to health and -reason, without any recollection of the preceding -state.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_412'>412</span> - <h5 class='c016'><i>Physiological action of Belladonna.</i></h5> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The results of the experiments of <i>Orfila</i> authorise -us to arrange the nightshade under the second division -of our classification; for it is evidently absorbed, -carried into the circulation, and is thus enabled to act -upon the nervous system, and particularly on the brain. -At the same time it exerts a local action upon the -stomach, although less violent than that occasioned -by the acrid poisons. It, moreover, appears on -some occasions to act directly through the medium of -the nerves, like those substances which constitute -our first class; or else how shall we explain the fact -of the pupil of the eye becoming permanently dilated, -by the contact of the belladonna with the tunica conjunctiva? -It would, therefore, appear that this plant -unites within itself all the three great modes of action, -upon which we have attempted to found our physiological -arrangement of poisons, as expressed by the -tabular classification at page <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Organic lesions discovered on dissection.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>The bodies of those who have perished by belladonna, -are extremely prone to decomposition; they -soon putrefy, swell remarkably, and are covered -with livid spots; blood flows from the mouth, nose, -and eyes, and the stench is insufferable. The stomach -and intestines will sometimes display extensive -marks of inflammation, extending in some cases to -the mesentery and liver; and several cases are recorded -in which the stomach appeared ulcerated. The -lungs are usually found livid, gorged with venous -blood, and studded with black spots; the heart has -been also observed to be livid.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_413'>413</span> - <h5 class='c016'><i>Modes of detecting the presence of Belladonna.</i></h5> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>Where the berries of this plant have been swallowed, -we shall generally detect them in the matter -vomited; or, in the event of death, in the stomach, -on dissection, for they would appear to be very indigestible; -in a case of poisoning by this plant, recorded -in the history of the French Academy for the year -1706,<a id='r443' /><a href='#f443' class='c011'><sup>[443]</sup></a> the stomach was found to contain some berries -of the belladonna crushed, and some seeds. -Where the quantity of the plant is sufficient, we may -proceed to identify it, by obtaining <i>atrophia</i><a id='r444' /><a href='#f444' class='c011'><sup>[444]</sup></a> from -it. For this purpose, the leaves, or the crushed -berries, or any other part of the suspected plant, -must be boiled in distilled water; the decoction must -then be pressed out, and filtered; after the albumen -has been thrown down by a little sulphuric acid, potass -must be added as long as any precipitate is produced; -when the precipitate is to be washed in pure water, -re-dissolved in muriatic acid, and re-precipitated by -ammonia. This last result will be <i>atropia</i>. It is -white, and collects in acicular crystals, insipid, little -soluble in cold water, or even in alcohol, but very -soluble in this latter fluid at a boiling temperature, -from which, however, it is deposited on cooling.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Stramonium.</span> <i>Thorn-Apple.</i> <i>James-town Weed.</i><br /> <br /><i>Datura Stramonium</i> (Pentandria Monogynia. <i>Nat. Ord.</i> Solanaceæ, <i>Linn.</i> Solaneæ, <i>Juss.</i>)</h4> - -<p class='c014'>The thorn apple is an annual plant, a native of -America, which gradually diffused itself, from the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_414'>414</span>south to the north, and is now naturalized to this -country, and is to be found very commonly about -London growing on dunghills, and by road sides. It -flowers in July and August. Every part of this plant -is a strong narcotic poison, producing vertigo, and -most of those <a id='sym'></a>symptoms which we have described as -the effects of belladonna, although the former plant -appears to excite the brain more violently. <i>Dr. Barton</i> -mentions the case of two British soldiers, who ate -it by mistake, for the <i>chenopodium album</i>; one became -furious, and ran about like a madman; and the -other died, with the symptoms of genuine tetanus. -In the fifth volume of the <cite>Edinburgh Medical and -Philosophical Commentaries</cite>, two cases are related by -<i>Dr. Fowler</i>; and others are to be found in the writings -of <i>Haller</i>, <i>Krause</i>, <i>Sproegel</i>, <i>Gmelin</i>, and <i>Orfila</i>, -illustrative of the effects of this plant upon the -human species. There is reason to believe that this -plant has been long known, and that it has been very -generally used by uncivilized nations, on account of -the narcotic effects which it occasions.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Tobacco.</span> <i>Nicotiana Tabacum.</i><br /> <br />(Pentandria Monogynia. <i>Nat. Ord.</i> Luridæ, <i>Lin.</i> Solaneæ, <i>Juss.</i>)</h4> - -<p class='c014'>Tobacco is an annual plant, a native of America, -from whence it was imported into Europe. We learn -from <i>Humboldt</i> that it has been cultivated from time -immemorial by the native people of the Oroonoko; -and was smoked all over America at the time of the -Spanish conquest. <i>Hermandez de Toledo</i> sent it into -Spain and Portugal in 1559, when <i>Jean Nicot</i><a id='r445' /><a href='#f445' class='c011'><sup>[445]</sup></a> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_415'>415</span>was Ambassador at the court of Lisbon, from Francis -II, and he transmitted, or carried either the seed, or -the plant to <i>Catherine de Medicis</i>, as one of the wonders -of the new world, and which, it was supposed, -possessed virtues of a very extraordinary nature. -This seems to be the first authentic record of the -introduction of this plant into Europe. In 1589 the -Cardinal <i>Santa Croce</i>, returning from his nunciature -in Spain and Portugal to Italy, carried thither with -him tobacco; and we may form some notion of the -enthusiasm with which its introduction was hailed, -from a perusal of the poetry which the subject inspired. -It is said that the smoking tobacco was first -introduced by <i>Sir Walter Raleigh</i> on his return from -America; and the avidity with which the custom was -immediately adopted is shewn by the philippic written -against it by King James, entitled the “<cite>Counterblaste -to Tobacco</cite>.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>As an object of Medical Jurisprudence, its claims -to our attention are numerous and important; not -only as having occasionally been the means of destroying -human life, but as furnishing, in its most -romantic history, a striking illustration of the triumph -of popular opinion over a series of legislative enactments<a id='r446' /><a href='#f446' class='c011'><sup>[446]</sup></a> -which had no other origin than that of ignorance -and prejudice.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_416'>416</span>Tobacco was at one period of our history raised to -a considerable extent in Yorkshire; but the cultivation -of it for the purposes of trade have been long -prohibited; and this country, as well as the greater -part of Europe, is chiefly supplied from Virginia, -where the plant is cultivated in the greatest abundance. -The recent leaves do not possess any considerable -odour, nor have they much flavour; when -dried, however, their odour becomes strong, narcotic, -and somewhat fœtid; their taste bitter, and extremely -acrid. We have stated, upon another occasion,<a id='r447' /><a href='#f447' class='c011'><sup>[447]</sup></a> -that tobacco would appear to contain two independent -elements of activity, an essential oil, and a -proximate principle, of an acrid nature, to which -<i>Vauquelin</i> has bestowed the name of <i>Nicotin</i>. The -essential oil is an extremely virulent poison. <i>Mr. -Barrow</i>, speaking of the use which the Hottentots -make of it for destroying snakes, says, “A Hottentot -applied some of it from the short end of his wooden -tobacco-pipe to the mouth of a snake, while darting -out his tongue. The effect was as instantaneous as -an electric shock; with a convulsive motion that was -momentary, the snake half untwisted itself, and never -stirred more; and the muscles were so contracted, -that the whole animal felt hard and rigid, as if dried -in the sun.” The author has ventured a conjecture in -his <cite>Pharmacologia</cite>,<a id='r448' /><a href='#f448' class='c011'><sup>[448]</sup></a> with respect to this virulent -<span class='pageno' id='Page_417'>417</span>oil, which he takes this opportunity of repeating, that -“<i>the juice of cursed hebenon</i>,” by which, according to -<i>Shakspeare</i>, the King of Denmark was poisoned, was -no other than the essential oil of tobacco.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line in6'>----“Sleeping within mine orchard,</div> - <div class='line'>My custom always of the afternoon,</div> - <div class='line'>Upon my secure hour thy uncle stole,</div> - <div class='line'>With juice of <em>cursed hebenon</em> in a vial,</div> - <div class='line'>And in the porches of mine ears, did pour</div> - <div class='line'>The leperous <em>distilment</em>.”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>In the first place, the learned commentator <i>Dr. -Gray</i> observes, that the word here used (<i>hebenon</i>) was -more probably designated by a <i>metathesis</i>, either of -the poet or transcriber, for <i>henebon</i>, i. e. henbane. -Now it appears from <i>Gerarde</i> that <i>tabaco</i> was commonly -called “<i>henbane of Peru</i>” (Hyoscyamus Peruvianus); -and when we consider how high the prejudice -of the court ran against this herb, as so strikingly -evinced by the ‘<i>Counterblaste</i>’ of King James, it seems -very likely that <i>Shakspeare</i>, who was fond of playing -the courtier, should have selected it, as an agent of -extraordinary malignity, upon such an occasion. No -preparation of the <i>hyoscyamus</i> with which we are -acquainted, would produce death by an application -to the ear; whereas the essential oil of tobacco might, -without doubt, occasion a fatal result. The term -<i>distilment</i> has also called forth a remark from <i>Steevens</i>, -which is calculated to add a little farther weight<a id='r449' /><a href='#f449' class='c011'><sup>[449]</sup></a> -to our conjecture; “surely” says he, “this expression -signifies, that the preparation was the result of -a <i>distillation</i>.”</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_418'>418</span> - <h5 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of poisoning by Tobacco.</i></h5> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The leaves of tobacco, whether whole, or reduced -to powder, as they are daily met with in commerce, -or in the form of infusion in water or wine, or in the -state of smoke, are endued with poisonous properties -of extreme energy. Their administration is shortly -followed by vertigo; severe nausea; vomiting; a general -tremor of the body, which is rarely the result -of any other poison; cold sweats; syncope; and -death. The author remembers witnessing a lamentable -exemplification of the action of tobacco upon a -person labouring under a strangulated hernia. The -patient had been under the care of a medical practitioner -in the vicinity of London, who after repeated -and fruitless efforts to return the intestine, injected -an infusion of tobacco into the rectum, and sent him -in a carriage to the Westminster hospital, for the -purpose of undergoing the operation; but the unfortunate -man expired very shortly after his arrival, in -consequence of the effects of the tobacco clyster. -The external application of tobacco, in the form of -cataplasm, or infusion, will occasion all the effects -above related. A woman applied to the heads of -three children afflicted with <i>tinea capitis</i>, a liniment -consisting of powdered tobacco and butter, soon after -which they experienced vertigo, violent vomiting, -and fainting.<a id='r450' /><a href='#f450' class='c011'><sup>[450]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>It was formerly a practice to inject the smoke of -tobacco into the anus, by means of a bellows of a peculiar -construction, in cases of suspended animation, -with a view to <i>stimulate</i> the rectum, and thereby to -revive the vital powers; we have already commented -<span class='pageno' id='Page_419'>419</span>upon this most dangerous and mistaken notion, (<i>see -page</i> <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.)</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the process of <em>smoking</em> tobacco, the oil is separated, -and being rendered empyreumatic by heat, it -is thus applied to the fauces in its most active form; -whence vertigo, nausea, and all its characteristic -symptoms speedily arise upon that occasion; although -the system becomes easily habituated to the action of -this narcotic, and we continually see a large portion -of the community using it daily, in various ways, and -in great quantities, as a luxury, without experiencing -any other bad effect than that which arises from their -inability to relinquish the habit.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The well known errhine, <i>snuff</i>, is prepared from -the dried leaves of tobacco, and possesses all the -powers of the plant. The celebrated <i>Santeuil</i> experienced -vomiting and horrible pains, amidst which he -expired, in consequence of having drank a glass of -wine, into which some Spanish snuff had been introduced.<a id='r451' /><a href='#f451' class='c011'><sup>[451]</sup></a></p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Physiological action of Tobacco.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>The deleterious effects of this plant appear to depend -on an especial action upon the nervous system; -but farther experiments are required to establish -through what medium its powers are conveyed to the -sensorium. <i>Orfila</i> concludes that the active part of -the plant is absorbed, and carried into the circulation. -<i>Mr. Brodie’s</i> experiments, however, would lead to -the conclusion that it operates through the medium -of the nerves; and, what is extremely singular, they -shew that the <i>essential oil</i> operates very differently -<span class='pageno' id='Page_420'>420</span>from the <i>infusion</i> of tobacco; for that while the former -appears to act exclusively on the brain, leaving -the power of the circulation unimpaired, the latter -acts on the heart at once, suspending its action even -before the animal ceases to respire, and kills by producing -syncope. This apparent anomaly at first led -<i>Mr. Brodie</i>, as he has since informed the author, to -suspect the accuracy of his experiments; but their -careful repetition rendered this impossible. We suggested -to him, whether a probable explanation might -not be found in the late chemical results respecting -the composition of tobacco, which seemed to shew -that this plant possesses two active elements.<a id='r452' /><a href='#f452' class='c011'><sup>[452]</sup></a></p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Hemlock.</span> <i>Cicuta.</i><a id='r453' /><a href='#f453' class='c011'><sup>[453]</sup></a><br /> <br /><i>Conium<a id='r454' /><a href='#f454' class='c011'><sup>[454]</sup></a> Maculatum</i> (Pentandria Digynia. <i>Nat. Ord.</i> Umbellatæ.)</h4> - -<p class='c014'>Hemlock is a biennial, umbelliferous, indigenous -plant, growing very commonly about the sides of -fields, under hedges, and in moist shady places. It -is at once distinguished from other umbelliferous -plants, with which it may be confounded, by its <em>large</em> -and <em>spotted</em> stem, the dark and <em>shining colour of its -lower leaves</em>, and their <em>disagreeable smell</em>; which, -when fresh and bruised is said to bear a strong resemblance -to that of the urine of a cat. Many<a id='r455' /><a href='#f455' class='c011'><sup>[455]</sup></a> cases of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_421'>421</span>persons who have been poisoned by this plant are to -be found in the writings of different toxicologists. -The extract, if properly prepared, is a very energetic -substance, and gives rise, in large doses, to all -the symptoms which we have so often described as -the result of narcotic poisons. In those fatal cases, -where the bodies have been examined, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">post mortem</span></i>, -inflammation of the stomach, and sanguineous congestion -in the brain, have been the most prominent phenomena. -It would appear that the active element of -this plant is absorbed and carried into the circulation, -through which medium it exerts its action on the nervous -system, and more particularly on the brain. At -the same time it seems to excite a local irritation, capable -of producing an inflammation more or less violent. -The best antidote is vinegar, after the stomach -has been evacuated, and the cerebral excitement reduced -by bleeding and purging.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The <i>Cicuta Virosa</i>, or <i>water hemlock</i>, with which -the <i>conium maculatum</i> has been often confounded, is -still more virulent; it is however to be distinguished -from the latter, by having its hollow roots always -immersed in water, while those of the <i>conium</i> never -are. <i>M. Orfila</i> has related several cases of poisoning -by the <i>water hemlock</i>.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Nux Vomica.</span><br /> <br />This is the seed of the <i>Strychnus Nux Vomica</i> (Pentandria Monogynia, <i>Nat. Ord.</i> Apocyneæ, <i>Juss.</i>)</h4> - -<p class='c014'>The tree<a id='r456' /><a href='#f456' class='c011'><sup>[456]</sup></a> which produces these seeds grows in -Ceylon, upon the coast of Coromandel, and in Malabar. -The nux vomica is round and flat, about an -inch broad, and nearly a quarter of an inch thick, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_422'>422</span>with a prominence in the middle on both sides, of a -grey colour, covered with a kind of woolly matter, -but internally hard and tough. The kernel discovers -to the taste a considerable bitterness, but makes little -or no impression on the organs of smell. There is a -popular belief that this substance is poisonous to all -animals, except man. Instances, however, are not -wanting to illustrate its deleterious effects upon the -human species. It proves fatal to dogs in a very -short period; it has also poisoned hares, foxes, -wolves, cats, rabbits, and even some birds. <i>Loureiro</i> -relates that a horse died in four hours after taking -a drachm of the seed in an half roasted state. Its -effects, however, on different animals, and even on -those of the same species, are somewhat uncertain, -and not always in the proportion to the quantity -given. With some animals it produces its effects -almost instantaneously: with others, not until after -the lapse of several hours, when laborious respiration, -followed by torpor, tremblings, coma, and convulsions -usually precede the fatal spasms, or <i>Tetanus</i>, -which so especially distinguishes the operation of this -poison. <i>Hoffman</i> reports the case of a young girl of -ten years of age, who, labouring under an obstinate -quartan fever, took, at two doses, fifteen grains of -nux vomica, and died very shortly afterwards. <i>MM. -Pelletier</i> and <i>Caventou</i> have discovered in these -seeds, a peculiar proximate principle, to which their -virulence is owing; it was originally named <i>Vauqueline</i>, -in honour of the celebrated French philosopher, -but in deference to the opinion of the French Academy -of Sciences, the discoverers have substituted -the name <i>Strychnia</i>,<a id='r457' /><a href='#f457' class='c011'><sup>[457]</sup></a> because “a name dearly -loved, ought not to be applied to a noxious principle!”</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_423'>423</span><i>Strychnia</i> is highly alkaline, and crystallizes in -very small four-sided prisms, terminated by four-sided -pyramids; its taste is insupportably bitter, -leaving a slight metallic flavour, and is so powerful -as even to be perceptible when a grain is dissolved in -eighty pounds of water;<a id='r458' /><a href='#f458' class='c011'><sup>[458]</sup></a> it has no smell. So extreme -is its activity upon the animal system, that in -doses of half a grain it occasions serious effects, and -in larger ones, convulsions and death. It is, perhaps, -the most powerful, and, next to <i>hydro-cyanic -acid</i>, the most rapid of poisons. <i>M. Majendie</i> has -killed a dog with one-eighth of a grain; and the -editor of the <cite>Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal</cite> -has seen one die in two minutes after the injection -of one-sixth of a grain into the cavity of the -pleura.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Nux vomica is supposed by <i>Orfila</i> to exert a specific -action on the spinal marrow, thereby producing -tetanus, immobility of the thorax, and consequently -asphyxia, of which the animal dies. That this effect -is produced by the absorption of the poison, and its -passage into the circulation, is clearly established by -the interesting and important experiments of <i>M. -Majendie</i>.<a id='r459' /><a href='#f459' class='c011'><sup>[459]</sup></a></p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Cocculus Indicus.</span></h4> - -<p class='c014'>This is the fruit of a shrub (<i>Menispermum Cocculus</i>) -which grows naturally in the sand, in the midst -of the rocks, on the coast of Malabar, in the island -of Ceylon, and in other parts of the East Indies. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_424'>424</span>The berries are imported into this country in a dry -and shrivelled state. In India they are employed -for killing fish, which they intoxicate and poison, -when thrown into fish ponds. <i>M. Goupil</i>, -a physician of Nemours, communicated to the Society -of Medicine some interesting facts on the subject -of this poison;<a id='r460' /><a href='#f460' class='c011'><sup>[460]</sup></a> and he has shewn that it is -not only destructive to fishes, but also to different -carnivorous quadrupeds, and, very probably, to man. -He also states that the poisonous principle of this -substance is not sensibly changed by the gastric -juices, and the vital action of the organs of digestion; -but, on the contrary, that it passes into the -absorbent system with all its properties unimpaired; -and that the flesh of those fishes which have eaten it, -irritates the stomach and bowels of the animals to -which it is given, nearly in the same manner as the -<i>Cocculus Indicus</i> itself. All the fishes who eat it do -not die in an equal space of time. <i>Roach</i>, <i>pollard</i>, -<i>breme</i>, <i>perch</i>, <i>tench</i>, and <i>barbel</i>, are affected in an order -corresponding with that in which they are here arranged; -the <i>roach</i> is killed the easiest of all; the -<i>barbel</i> is the last to die, and is moreover said to be, -of all fish, the one whose flesh the most frequently -occasions accidents in those animals who eat it; probably, -says <i>M. Goupil</i>, because these fish, taking a -longer time to die, the poison is longer subjected to -the action of the digestive juices, and a considerable -quantity of it is consequently absorbed.<a id='r461' /><a href='#f461' class='c011'><sup>[461]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c000'>Late experiments<a id='r462' /><a href='#f462' class='c011'><sup>[462]</sup></a> have shewn that the active -principle of the <i>cocculus Indicus</i> is an alkaline body, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_425'>425</span>crystallizable, bitter, and extremely poisonous; to -this principle, <i>M. Boullay</i> has given the name of -<i>picrotoxine</i>, and the experiments of <i>M. Orfila</i> have -confirmed the idea of its constituting the only active -element of the seeds.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Poisonous Mushrooms.</span></h4> - -<p class='c014'>The common mushroom, or champignon, (<i>Agaricus -Campestris</i>) has been long esteemed an article of epicurean -delicacy; and is eaten in its fresh state either -stewed or boiled; and as a preserve, in the form of -pickle or powder. Its juice, moreover, furnishes the -sauce so well known by the name of <i>ketchup</i>,<a id='r463' /><a href='#f463' class='c011'><sup>[463]</sup></a> or -<i>catsup</i>. <i>Mr. Miller</i> informs us that the true eatable -mushroom may be easily distinguished from the poisonous -and unpleasant species by the following characters. -“When young, it appears of a roundish -form, smooth, like a button; which together with -its stalk, is white, especially the fleshy part of -the button; the gills within, when broken, are -livid. As it grows larger, it expands its head -by degrees into a flat form; the gills underneath -are at first of a pale flesh-colour, but become -blackish on standing.” There are besides a vast -number of species which may be eaten with perfect -impunity; the Agaricus <i>Procerus</i>, or tall mushroom, -is sometimes exposed for sale in Covent Garden market, -and is quite harmless; although, when preserved -in pickle, it is very apt to run into the vinous -fermentation. With equal safety the Agaricus -<i>Pratensis</i>, or Scotch bonnet, as it has been called, -may be eaten; it occurs in those patches which are -<span class='pageno' id='Page_426'>426</span>well known by the popular name of <i>fairy rings</i>. The -Agaricus <i>deliciosus</i> is considered by <i>Withering</i> to -have been the mushroom which formed the vehicle -of poison to <i>Claudius Cæsar</i>, as related at page <a href='#Page_134'>134</a> -of this volume, and which has been celebrated by the -satiric pen of <i>Juvenal</i>, and the epigrammatic muse of -<i>Martial</i>; a species of mushroom, observes <i>Withering</i> -which is still highly esteemed in modern Italy, as it -was in ancient Rome. <i>Schæfer</i> and <i>Clusius</i>, however, -consider the plant in question to have been the -Agaricus <i>Xerampelinus</i>, a species which although -esculent, has a strong, and by no means an agreeable -flavour. The common champignon has never, as far as -we can learn, produced any mischief, although a popular -opinion prevails that soil, shade, and other -local circumstances, may render it virulent. If any -unpleasant symptoms were to follow its ingestion, we -should be inclined to regard them as the result of the -peculiar idiosyncrasy of the individual, rather than as -the consequence of an <em>absolute</em> poison; indeed a question -has been raised how far such an explanation -may not apply to all the cases of poisoning from this -tribe of plants; for it has been observed that in many -parts of Europe several of those species of mushroom -are eaten with impunity, that are regarded by us as -most virulent poisons; of this number we may reckon -the Agaricus <i>Piperatus</i>, or <i>Pepper Agaric</i>, which is -eaten in great quantity by the Russians, who fill -large vessels with them in the autumn, seasoning -or pickling them with salt, and then eating them in the -ensuing lent.<a id='r464' /><a href='#f464' class='c011'><sup>[464]</sup></a> There is, however, too much direct -evidence in favour of the existence of an acrid poison -in certain <i>Agarics</i>, to allow the supposition of their -<span class='pageno' id='Page_427'>427</span>being <em>relative</em><a id='r465' /><a href='#f465' class='c011'><sup>[465]</sup></a> in their operation, as exemplified -in the history of the <i>Agaricus Muscarius</i>, or <i>Bugagaric</i>, -which is so called from its power in destroying -these insects; and for which purpose the inhabitants -of the north of Europe infuse it in milk, and -set it in their windows. It constitutes the <i>Mouchomore</i> -of the Russians, Kamtschadales, and Koriars, -who use it for the sake of intoxication; upon some -occasions they eat it dry, but generally it is steeped -in a liquor made with the <i>Epilobium Angustifolium</i>; -upon drinking which, they are seized with -convulsions in all their limbs, followed by raving delirium: -an effect which renders it a desirable potation<a id='r466' /><a href='#f466' class='c011'><sup>[466]</sup></a> -to those who intend to accomplish any desperate -act, or premeditated assassination. It is also -stated that those who drink the urine of persons intoxicated -by this agaric, experience the effects of the -mushroom. <i>Withering</i>,<a id='r467' /><a href='#f467' class='c011'><sup>[467]</sup></a> who has been very assiduous -in the display of this species, acknowledges ten -varieties, all of which are natives of Britain. The -<i>Agaricus Semi-globalus</i> of this botanist, and which is -identical with the A. <i>Glutinosus</i> of Curtis, is extremely -poisonous, and has proved fatal in several instances -in this country. There are a great many other species -equally destructive, but notwithstanding the labour -that has been bestowed upon this branch of natural -knowledge, much remains to be explained. -The ancients appear to have taken considerable pains -in discriminating between esculent and poisonous -fungi; among the moderns, <i>Clusius</i> has furnished a -mass of information. <i>Withering</i> has described with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_428'>428</span>great botanical minuteness and accuracy the different -species and varieties of this extensive genus of the -cryptogamia; but he has failed in pointing out the -poisonous, from the esculent and harmless species. -<i>Orfila</i>, in his late lessons on Poisons,<a id='r468' /><a href='#f468' class='c011'><sup>[468]</sup></a> has bestowed -considerable labour with a view to establish a practical -distinction, and has enriched his work with highly -illustrative engravings. Upon the present occasion, -it is scarcely necessary to observe, that it would be -foreign to the plan of this work to enter into such botanical -details as the full elucidation of this subject -would require; the research would, in itself, occupy -a quarto volume; we must therefore rest satisfied -with general observations. The following indications -should excite a suspicion of mushrooms. A marshy -and shady locality; an ugly or lurid physiognomy; -a glairy or moist surface; a change of colour when -cut, and a soft, porous, and moist texture; a virulent -smell; a bright colour, or a combination of distinct -colours. We ought also to reject as dangerous -all those which have bulbous and soft stems, or -which have fragments of skin glued to their surface.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of poisoning by Mushrooms.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>Exhilaration of spirits, laughter, vertigo, sickness, -griping pains, vomiting, and purging, suffusion -of the eyes, stupor, cold sweats, syncope, convulsions, -death. Numerous records of sickness and -death might be adduced in illustration of this subject. -The celebrated musician, <i>Schobert</i>, and, with -the exception of one child, his whole family, together -with a friend and a physician who dined with him, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_429'>429</span>were all fatally poisoned by a dish of mushrooms, -which he had himself gathered in the fields of Saint -Gervais, a village in the environs of Paris. It is not -known to what species the plants belonged. In the -<cite>Gazette de Santé</cite>, for August 1812, we have the following -narrative. “<i>M. Dufour</i>, a physician of Montargis, -gathered in the neighbouring forest some -mushrooms, which were stripped of their skin, and -their stem, cut into pieces, and cooked in their juice -with butter and fine herbs, under a camp oven. They -were served up at table. The servant girl, aged -twenty years, who had eaten the greatest quantity, -very shortly complained of confusion of the head, -giddiness, and a slight heaving of the stomach; her -face was red and inflamed, the eyes starting and -lively, the pulse full and undulating. The eldest -daughter of <i>M. Dufour</i> experienced the same symptoms -without any nausea. A little child, eighteen -months old, that had only eaten some bread dipped -in the gravy, slept quietly for sixteen hours, contrary -to his usual custom, and exhibited no other remarkable -phenomenon. The other child, aged eleven -years, complained of confusion of the head and intoxication; -the parents did not experience any ill effects. -Upon investigation it was discovered that two mushrooms -of the <i>Agaricus Muscarius</i>, having been confounded -with the proper one, had entered into the -composition of the dish.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Amongst the cases which have occurred in this -country, we may particularize that related by <i>Mr. E. -Brande</i>, in the third volume of the <cite>London Medical -and Physical Journal</cite>, p. 41, “J. S. gathered early -in the morning of the third of October, in the Green -Park, what he supposed to be small mushrooms; -these he stewed with the common additions in a <i>tinned -<span class='pageno' id='Page_430'>430</span>iron</i><a id='r469' /><a href='#f469' class='c011'><sup>[469]</sup></a> saucepan. The whole did not exceed a -tea-saucer full, which he, and four of his children ate -the first thing, about eight o’clock in the morning, as -they frequently had done without any bad consequence; -they afterwards took their usual breakfast of tea, -&c., which was finished about nine, when <i>Edward</i>, -one of the children (eight years old) who had eaten a -large proportion of the fungi, was attacked with fits -of immoderate laughter, nor could the threats of his -father or mother restrain him. To this succeeded -vertigo, or stupor; the pupils of his eyes were, at -times, dilated to nearly the circumference of the cornea, -and scarcely contracted at the approach of a -strong light; his breathing was quick, his pulse very -variable, at times imperceptible, at others too frequent -and small to be counted, latterly very languid; -his feet were cold, livid, and contracted; he -sometimes pressed his hands on different parts of his -abdomen, as if in pain, but when roused and interrogated -respecting it, he <a id='ans'></a>answered yes, or no, evidently -without any relation to what was asked. About -the same time the father, aged forty, was attacked -with vertigo, and complained that every thing appeared -black, then wholly disappeared; to this -succeeded loss of voluntary motion and stupor; in -about ten minutes he gradually recovered, but complained -of universal numbness and coldness, with -great dejection, and a firm persuasion that he was -dying; in a few minutes he relapsed, but recovered -as before, and had several similar fits during three or -four hours, each succeeding one being less violent, -and with longer intermission than that <a id='pre'></a>preceding. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_431'>431</span><i>Harriet</i>, twelve years old, who had eaten but a very -small quantity, was also attacked at the time with -slight vertigo. <i>Charlotte</i>, a delicate little girl, ten -years of age, who had eaten a considerable quantity, -was suddenly attacked in the presence of <i>Dr. Burges</i> -and myself, with vertigo and loss of voluntary motion. -<i>Martha</i>, aged eighteen, who had eaten a small -proportion, was attacked with similar symptoms.” -By judicious treatment they all recovered. Upon investigation -<i>Mr. Sowerby</i> determined the mushroom -to have been a variety of the A. <i>glutinosus</i> of Curtis -(<i>Flora Londinensis</i>) the same with <i>Dr. Withering’s</i> -A. <i>semi-globatus</i>; and yet no notice of its deleterious -properties is taken by either of these botanists.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A less fortunate case of poisoning by <i>Fungi</i> is related -in the twentieth volume of the same journal by -<i>Mr. Parrott</i>, surgeon of Mitcham, of which the following -is a sketch. The subject of the history was a -family of six persons, viz. <i>William Attwood</i>, ætat. -45; <i>Eliza</i>, his wife, 38; and their daughters, <i>Mary</i>, -æt. 14; <i>Hannah</i>, 11; <i>Sarah</i>, 7; <i>Eliza</i>, 5. They all -ate stewed champignons, at one o’clock, on Monday -the 10th of October, which stew was made in an iron -vessel, and consisted of the articles already mentioned -with the addition of butter and flour, pepper, salt, -and water only; and each of the parties (<i>Hannah</i> -excepted) was supposed to have eaten more than half -a pint. Within ten minutes after they had eaten -their meal, they felt their spirits exhilarated, and -the eldest daughter said to her mother “<em>how funny -you look</em>.” All the parties continued cheerful till -about six o’clock, when having taken their tea, they -were attacked with stupor, which was soon succeeded, -by severe pains in the bowels, accompanied with violent -vomiting, and copious purging, which continued -<span class='pageno' id='Page_432'>432</span>till the following afternoon, when the parents became -alarmed and sent for the surgeon. The treatment -which was pursued appears to have been, in every -respect, judicious, and <i>Mary</i> had so far recovered on -the following day (Wednesday) that she walked into -the village about a quarter of a mile from home; in -the evening, however, the symptoms returned; on -Thursday evening she became convulsed, and died on -Friday morning at two o’clock. <i>Eliza</i> did not complain -much of her sufferings, but became convulsed -at the same time as her sister, and died half an hour -after her. <i>Sarah</i> never complained of pain in the -head, but was continually suffering under extreme -pain in the bowels, which was aggravated by pressure, -but no tension existed; she died on Saturday -morning, in the same convulsed state as her sisters. -A dog which had partaken of the stew died on the -Wednesday night, apparently in great agony. The -father recovered, the mother, who was two months -advanced in pregnancy, miscarried, but ultimately -became convalescent. <i>Mr. Wheeler</i>, of St. Bartholomew’s -hospital, a gentleman who has been long -known to the profession as an eminent botanist, no -sooner heard of the event than he repaired to the -spot where the mushrooms had been gathered, when -he immediately recognised the <i>Agaricus semi-globatus</i>, -which had nearly proved fatal in the instance -related by <i>Mr. E. Brande</i>, and which, upon being -shewn to the father, he instantly pronounced to be -similar to those, of which the family had so unfortunately -eaten.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_433'>433</span> - <h5 class='c016'><i>Organic Lesions discovered on Dissection.</i></h5> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>In the above case of the family of <i>Attwood</i>, the -body of <i>Mary</i> was examined, but no morbid appearance -whatever could be discovered. In collecting the -different phenomena exhibited in other recorded -cases, they may be reduced to the following: “violet -coloured spots over the integuments; abdomen extremely -bulky; the <i>tunica conjunctiva</i> of the eye as -if it were injected; the pupil contracted; stomach -and intestines inflamed, and scattered over with gangrenous -spots; and, in some cases, they have exhibited -very considerable contractions, so much so as -almost to obliterate the canal. In no case have any -remains of the mushroom been found. The lungs -have been observed inflamed, and gorged with black -blood.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>There cannot, however, be any doubt but that the -different species of poisonous agarics act very differently.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Antidotes.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>In all cases, the first object is to evacuate the offensive -matter by emetics. After which, stimulants, especially -<i>ammonia</i>, will be found highly serviceable.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Alcohol.</span></h4> - -<p class='c014'>In treating of the action of this substance upon the -human body, it may be considered as a slow, or -quick poison; as one which, according to the circumstances -of its administration, may either implant the -seeds of disease and death, by an insidious, and -scarcely perceptible operation, or extinguish the -principle of animation in the space of a few hours.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_434'>434</span>Its effects as an <em>accumulative</em><a id='r470' /><a href='#f470' class='c011'><sup>[470]</sup></a> poison are principally -interesting to the physician in their relations to -therapeutics, although their history may perhaps suggest -some few points of interest to the founders of -medical police.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We shall, therefore, observe, with regard to the -habitual use of fermented liquors, that the bodily -evils which arise from the custom rather depend upon -the quality, or, in other words, the state of combination -in which the alcohol exists in such liquors, -than on the absolute quantity of the libation, or the -frequency with which it is repeated. Daily experience -convinces us that the same quantity of alcohol -applied to the stomach under the form of wine, and -in a state of mixture with water, will produce very -different effects upon the living body, as well with -reference to the immediate symptoms, as to the remote -consequences of the potation; it has, for instance, -been clearly demonstrated that port, madeira, -and sherry, contain from one-fourth to one-fifth -their bulk of alcohol;<a id='r471' /><a href='#f471' class='c011'><sup>[471]</sup></a> so that a person who takes a -bottle of either of these wines, will thus take nearly -half a pint of pure alcohol, which is equivalent to a -pint of brandy! The remote consequences too of -alcohol in these different states, are as striking and -distinct as their immediate effects. It is well known -that diseases of the liver are the most common, and -the most formidable of those produced by the use of -<i>ardent</i> spirits; it is equally certain that no such disorders -follow the intemperate use of wine that is perfectly -<i>pure</i>; let it be remembered that the greater -<span class='pageno' id='Page_435'>435</span>proportion of that which is drunk in this country -contains uncombined brandy, purposely added to -meet the demand of the British market; and <i>Dr. -MacCulloch</i> thinks that it is to the unwitting and concealed -consumption of this uncombined spirit, that we -ought to attribute the prevalence of those hepatic -affections which are comparatively little known to -our continental neighbours. But although wine, in -a state of purity, may be thus fairly excluded from -the general obloquy which attaches to spirituous potations, -it must not be regarded as entirely free from -imputation. “The effects of wine,” says <i>Rush</i> “like -those of tyranny in a well formed government, are -first felt in the extremities; while spirits, like a bold -invader, seize at once upon the vitals of the constitution.” -And even with respect to ardent spirits, although -they can only be regarded as diluted alcohol, -still each species appears to possess a peculiarity of -operation; owing, no doubt, to the modifying influence -of the other elements of the liquid; thus <i>brandy</i><a id='r472' /><a href='#f472' class='c011'><sup>[472]</sup></a> -is said to be cordial and stomachic; <i>rum</i> more -heating and sudorific; <i>gin</i> and <i>whiskey</i>, diuretic; -and <i>arrack</i>, styptic, heating, and narcotic. It seems -also that a modified effect is produced by the addition -of various other substances, such as sugar and acids; -which latter bodies, besides their anti-narcotic powers, -appear to act by favouring a more perfect combination -and mutual penetration of the particles of spirit -and water. The effects also which are produced by -the habitual use of fermented liquors differ essentially -<span class='pageno' id='Page_436'>436</span>according to the kind that is drunk; thus ale -and porter, in consequence of the nutritive matter, -and perhaps the invigorating bitter with which they -are charged, and the comparatively small proportion -of alcohol which they contain, dispose to plethora, -which is sometimes terminated by apoplexy.<a id='r473' /><a href='#f473' class='c011'><sup>[473]</sup></a></p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of Poisoning by Alcohol.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>The ordinary effects of an excessive dose of any -spirituous liquor are too well known to require description; -and generally pass off without the necessity -of professional interference. In cases, however, -where the draught has been very large, the person -has suddenly fallen down in a state of complete insensibility, -and has exhibited all the phenomena of apoplexy; -or, in some instances, he has expired almost -immediately. The insensibility of the patient may -render it difficult for the practitioner to distinguish -the immediate cause of the symptoms; although -his history for the last few hours, and the spirituous -odour of his breath, will generally announce -the true nature of his situation. <i>Mr. Brodie</i> observes -that there is a striking analogy between the symptoms -arising from the ingestion of spirits, and those produced -by injuries of the brain; concussion of the -brain, which may be considered the slightest degree -of injury, occasions a state of mind resembling intoxication; -pressure on the brain, which is a more -severe injury than concussion, produces loss of motion, -insensibility, dilation of the pupils, laborious -and stertorous respiration, and death.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_437'>437</span> - <h5 class='c016'><i>Physiological Action of Alcohol.</i></h5> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>We shall not enter into the history of the slow -operation of repeated doses of spirit upon the human -body; but limit our present inquiry to the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">modus -operandi</span></i> of this agent, as a quick and destructive -poison.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Large draughts of liquids containing alcohol, -would appear to destroy, at once, the functions of -the brain, without occasioning that previous stage of -excitement, which is produced by smaller quantities -of spirit—whence coma and insensibility are the immediate -consequences; and the nervous energy being -no longer conveyed to the muscles of respiration, the -breathing becomes laborious, and the patient dies, -as he does in apoplexy, for want of those changes in -the blood which are produced by the respiratory -functions.<a id='r474' /><a href='#f474' class='c011'><sup>[474]</sup></a> In the greater number, however, of -fatal cases of inebriety, life has been destroyed by -circumstances purely accidental; such as improvident -<span class='pageno' id='Page_438'>438</span>exposure to cold, as explained at <i>page</i> <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, or suffocation -from an imperfect act of vomiting, during -which a portion of the contents of the stomach are -forced into the trachea, (<i>see page</i> <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>,<a id='r475' /><a href='#f475' class='c011'><sup>[475]</sup></a>.) It having -then been clearly established that the brain is the -organ principally affected by a large dose of alcohol, -it remains to be explained in what manner, and -through what medium such an effect is produced; -upon this question we are inclined to concur with -<i>Mr. Brodie</i>, and to consider that alcohol acts sympathetically -on the brain by means of the nerves of the -stomach; for it has been observed that animals -which die under such circumstances, exhibit a decided -inflammation of the stomach; and, in the next -place, the effects produced by this agent are too instantaneous -to admit the possibility of absorption, -while repeated instances have shewn that vomiting -will often restore the intoxicated individual to his -senses. At the same time, we think it very probable -that, upon some occasions, the alcohol passes into -the current of the circulation, and is thus carried to -remote organs. <i>Dr. Cooke</i><a id='r476' /><a href='#f476' class='c011'><sup>[476]</sup></a> has related a case, on -the authority of <i>Sir A. Carlisle</i>, of a person who was -brought dead into the Westminster hospital, in consequence -of having drunk a quart of gin for a wager, -at a draught; and that upon examination, a considerable -quantity of a limpid fluid was found within -the lateral ventricles of the brain, <em>distinctly impregnated -with gin</em>. We well remember this case, for it -occurred during the period that the author of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_439'>439</span>present work held the situation of physician to that -hospital. See <cite>Pharmacologia</cite>, vol. 1, p. 138.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Treatment of Persons in a State of Inebriety.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>In the first instance we should endeavour to evacuate -the stomach; for which purpose a brisk emetic -of sulphate of zinc, or tartarised antimony may be administered. -Blood should also be taken from the jugular -vein, or temporal artery; more especially if there -appear a considerable determination of blood to the -head. The head should be also washed with cold -water, or some evaporating lotion.</p> - -<p class='c000'>For reasons which we have already explained, the -patient should be carefully preserved in a warm atmosphere; -and his body should be placed in an easy -reclining posture, and be disencumbered of all tight -bandages. These precautions are of the utmost moment, -for many of those cases of inebriety which -stand recorded in our journals, have terminated -fatally, for want of attention to them.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_440'>440</span> - <h4 class='c016'>ANIMAL POISONS.</h4> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>This extensive kingdom of Nature presents us -with a variety of objects destructive to human life; -their agency, however, is on many occasions involved -in impenetrable obscurity, and we are not even able -to discover whether their deleterious effects depend -upon certain definite principles, or upon the combination -of circumstances connected with the individuals -upon whom they act; and which thus render -many substances <em>relatively</em> poisonous, that are innocuous -to the general mass of mankind. With regard -to the chemical laws by which animal compounds are -governed, and the principles upon which their analysis -may be conducted, the same observations will -apply as those with which we introduced the consideration -of vegetable poisons.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>Cl. IV. SEPTIC POISONS.</h3> -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>The Bites of Venomous Animals.</span></h4> - -<p class='c014'>Of the whole class of serpents, which according to -<i>Linnæus</i> contains 132 species, <i>Plenck</i> assures us -that only 24 are venomous. Of these, Europe has -only 5, and England but 2; all of which are vipers, -viz. <i>Coluber Aspis</i>; <i>C. Chersea</i>; <i>C. Prester</i> (<i>black -viper</i>, peculiar to England); <i>C. Illyricus</i> (inhabits the -mountains of Sclavonia); <i>C. Berus</i>, (the common -viper of Germany, Spain, Italy, and England.)</p> - -<p class='c000'>The venom of the viper is contained in a bag situated -on both sides of the head, beneath the muscle -<span class='pageno' id='Page_441'>441</span>of the superior jaw; it is secreted from the blood by -a gland which lies just behind the orbit of the eye; -from which a duct proceeds to the above-mentioned -bag; in the upper jaw are situated two moveable -teeth, very sharp towards the point, and hollowed -nearly throughout their length. When the animal -intends to bite, he presses the bag by means of the -muscle, the venom comes out, arrives at the base of -the tooth, passes through the sheath which envelopes -it, and enters into its cavity by a hole which is found -at this base; then it flows along the hollow of the -tooth, and issues into the wound by the opening -which is near its end, for the point itself is solid and -sharp, in order that it may better penetrate the flesh -of its victim. If these fangs be removed, or their -structure destroyed, the viper is necessarily rendered -harmless; whence <i>Galen</i> has observed that the mountebanks -used to stop these perforations of the teeth -with some kind of paste, whenever they suffered the -vipers to bite them before spectators.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Symptoms occasioned by the Bite of a Viper.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>Acute pain in the wounded part, attended with -almost immediate tumefaction; the part appears -first red, and then livid; the local affection extends -itself, and the surrounding skin becomes similarly -affected. The pulse is small, frequent, and irregular; -the respiration is disturbed; the patient complains -of great debility, and faintness which often -amounts to syncope; vomiting takes place; pain is -felt in the umbilical region, and he becomes jaundiced; -and, in fatal cases, the wound assumes a malignant -character, and gangrene takes place.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_442'>442</span>In this country the affection is rarely mortal,<a id='r477' /><a href='#f477' class='c011'><sup>[477]</sup></a> although -the circumstances of constitutional debility, -unusual heat of season, and injudicious treatment, -have in several instances led to a fatal issue.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Physiological action of the Poison of Vipers.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>The result of numerous experiments justify us in -referring this poison to the second division of our classification. -The symptoms which it produces evidently -depend on its absorption, and its passage into -the circulation, when it exerts its peculiar action on -the blood. It is somewhat singular that this poison -should be perfectly inert when taken into the stomach; -a fact, however, which appears to have been -well known from the earliest periods; whence such -wounds were commonly sucked<a id='r478' /><a href='#f478' class='c011'><sup>[478]</sup></a> with impunity; -and we learn that when <i>Cato</i> marched the remains of -<i>Pompey’s</i> army through Africa, he very wisely informed -the soldiers, who, although dying from thirst, -feared to drink the waters which contained serpents, -that no evil could arise from such indulgence.<a id='r479' /><a href='#f479' class='c011'><sup>[479]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='lg-container-b'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“Noxia Serpentum est admisto sanguine Pestis,</div> - <div class='line'>Morsu Virus habent, et Fatum Dente minantur,</div> - <div class='line'>Pocula Morte carent”----</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>Among the insects of Britain some will be found to -possess fluids highly stimulant, and sometimes, although -rarely, occasioning death. These British -insects, however, cannot be compared in virulence -with the <i>Furia Infernalis</i>, <i>Pulex Penetrans</i>, the -<i>Scorpion</i>, and the <i>Tarantula</i>; but their natural history -<span class='pageno' id='Page_443'>443</span>is nevertheless interesting, and the instances of -mischief arising from an application of their venom -are not unimportant. Of the genus <i>Vespa</i> we have -three species, each of which possesses the property of -producing violent and painful inflammation, sometimes -followed by considerable danger, where the -injury has been inflicted on parts of great sensibility, -and in irritable habits, viz. Vespa <i>Crabro</i>, the <i>hornet</i>; -V. <i>Vulgaris</i>, <i>common wasp</i>; C. <i>Coarctata</i>, <i>small -wasp</i>. Instances are recorded of the wasp, having -been introduced into the mouth with fruit, and produced -by its sting on the <i>velum palati</i> a sudden swelling -which has so intercepted the respiration as to occasion -suffocation.<a id='r480' /><a href='#f480' class='c011'><sup>[480]</sup></a> Of the <i>Apis</i> there are seven -British species; the most remarkable of which are the -Apis <i>Rufa</i>, or <i>small field bee</i>; A. <i>Mellifica</i>, <i>the common -hive bee</i>; A. <i>Terrestris</i>, <i>humble bee</i>; and A. -<i>Subterranea</i>, or <i>great humble bee</i>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The sting of a single bee cannot be regarded as attended -with danger, except in certain constitutions; -but there are many instances of men and animals having -suffered most terribly, and even fatally, by an -attack of a swarm of these insects.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The supposed poison of the toad is a subject which -we have already disposed of, under the literary history -of poisons, <i>page</i> <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</p> - -<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Putrescent Animal Matter.</span></h4> - -<p class='c014'>A question has long since arisen, how far the ingestion -of animal matter, in a state of putrefaction, -is liable to affect the health? On the one hand it has -<span class='pageno' id='Page_444'>444</span>been maintained that the custom of eating game, venison, -and other species of animal food, in a state of -incipient putrescence, has never been attended with -any inconvenience; but appears, on the contrary, to -afford a repast of easier digestion, than the flesh of -recently killed animals. On the other hand, it has -been asserted by <i>Foderé</i>,<a id='r481' /><a href='#f481' class='c011'><sup>[481]</sup></a> and corroborated by the -testimony of others, that corrupted meat, fish, and -eggs, are undoubted poisons; if, through inadvertence, -necessity, or extreme hunger, they are taken -in any quantity. The same distinguished writer relates -that, during the siege of Mantua, several persons -who were shut up in the town were seized with -gangrene of the extremities, and scurvy, in consequence -of having been driven to the alternative of -eating the half putrid flesh of horses. In <i>Crantz’s</i> -history of Greenland we read an account of the death -of thirty-two persons, at a missionary station, called -Kangek, shortly after a repast upon the putrid brains -of a Walrus.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It would appear that under circumstances not -hitherto understood, certain parts of animal bodies -become poisonous; and the <i>virus</i> would not seem to -be connected with any stage of putrefaction, nor with -any previous disease in the animal. As far as our -limited experience upon this subject will allow us to -generalize, the brain and the viscera would appear to -be particularly susceptible of such a change. Some -curious and highly interesting observations have -lately been published by <i>Dr. Kerner</i>, of Wurtemberg, -respecting the probable existence of a species -of animal poison not hitherto known. He informs -us that the smoked sausages, which constitute so -<span class='pageno' id='Page_445'>445</span>favourite a repast to the inhabitants of Wurtemberg, -often cause fatal poisoning. The effects of the -poison occasionally manifest themselves in the spring, -generally in the month of April, in a degree more or -less alarming. He states that out of <em>seventy-six</em> persons, -who became sick from having eaten such sausages, -<em>thirty-seven</em> died in a short time, and that several -others remained ill for years. Upon these -occasions it has been observed, that the most virulent -sausages were made of liver. <i>M. Cadet</i>, of Paris, -analysed all the meats, examined all the vessels in -which they had been prepared; and inspected the matters -vomited, or found in the stomach after death, without -being able to trace the vestige of any known poison; -nor was there the slightest evidence in these -cases of malevolence or negligence. Similar accidents -have occurred at different periods in Paris; upon -which occasions, the police officers visited the pig -dealers, and were perfectly assured that the animals -had never been fed with unwholesome food; the use -of poison for rats, with which these places abound, -was interdicted, and every precaution taken. What -then, asks <i>M. Cadet</i>, is this poison found in sausage -meats—is it Prussic acid—is it a new matter? It is -evidently not the effect of putrefaction, since it exists -in meats perfectly well preserved. To the above -queries of <i>M. Cadet</i>, the author of the present work -begs to add one more—may not the skin enclosing -the sausage meat be the part in which the poison resides? -It is well known that the bodies of animals -who die of various diseases, are capable of communicating -fatal diseases to the human species; and experience -has shewn that such animal poison is particularly -energetic in those parts that are commonly -called the <i>offals</i>, in which term are included the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_446'>446</span>intestines; in the history of <i>fish-poison</i>, which will -hereafter offer itself to our notice, we shall find -numerous instances of dogs, cats, hogs, and birds, -dying from eating these parts, while persons, who -have partaken of the fish to which these <i>offals</i> belonged, -remained uninjured. But to account for -the deleterious change of which these parts appear -to be occasionally susceptible, it does not appear necessary -to suppose that the animal died in a state of -disease. <i>Captain Scoresby</i>, in his “Account of the -Arctic regions,”<a id='r482' /><a href='#f482' class='c011'><sup>[482]</sup></a> states that although the flesh of the -bear is both agreeable and wholesome, the liver of -that animal is poisonous; sailors who had inadvertently -eaten it, were almost always sick afterwards, -and some actually died; while in others the -cuticle has peeled off their bodies. The ancients appear -to have entertained a fear with regard to the -wholesomeness of the viscera of certain animals, and -of the fluids which they secrete. <i>Pliny</i> says that the -gall of a horse was accounted poison; and, therefore, -at the sacrifices of horses in Rome, it was unlawful -for the <i>Flamen</i> (priest) to touch it. <i>Mr. Brodie</i> has -lately favoured the author with the communication of -a fact, which goes far to support the theory we have -offered with respect to the possible source of poison -in sausages. He states that he has twice met with -evidence of the acrid and poisonous nature of “<i>dog’s -meat</i>,” as sold in the streets of London, which manifested -itself by producing ulcerations, of a peculiar -character, on the hands, and swelling in the axillæ, -of the venders! May we venture to ask whether the -prosecution of this inquiry might not possibly lead to -some new and important conclusions respecting the -origin of hydrophobia?</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_447'>447</span>Where animals have died from disease, their flesh has -undoubtedly produced affections by external contact, -as well as by its ingestion. At the Somerset assizes in -1819, a case was tried, whose merits wholly turned -upon the question now under discussion. A cow, having -died of some disease, was thrown into the river -Yeo, and several cattle that afterwards drank of the -water died of a similar complaint. An action was accordingly -brought against the owner of the cow for damages. -The defendant, however, obtained a verdict, -apparently from the evidence of a medical person, who -asserted that animal matter in a state of putrefaction -will not communicate contagion. But we must here -beg to observe that this is quite another and distinct -question; the merits of which we have already considered.<a id='r483' /><a href='#f483' class='c011'><sup>[483]</sup></a> -The physiological question involved in -the preceding case, is whether the carcase of an animal, -whose fluids have been depraved by antecedent -disease, is capable, or not, of producing morbid and -fatal affections in the living animals with which it -may come in contact? The facts collected by <i>MM. -Enaux</i> and <i>Chaussier</i>, in their work entitled “<cite>Methode -de traiter les Morsures des Animaux enragés</cite>,” -prove in a very satisfactory manner that the <i>Anthrax</i>, -or <i>Malignant Pustule</i>, has for its cause a <i>septic virus</i> -engendered in diseased animals, and transmitted to -man.<a id='r484' /><a href='#f484' class='c011'><sup>[484]</sup></a> The following are amongst the more striking -examples cited from these authors by <i>Orfila</i>. “A -shepherd bled one of his sheep, which had just died -suddenly; he carried it home on his shoulders; but -the blood penetrated his shirt, and was rubbed upon -his loins. Two days after, a <i>malignant pustule</i> appeared -upon this spot.”</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_448'>448</span>“A boy employed in skinning an ox which had -been killed at an inn at <i>Gatinais</i>, because it had been -sick, put the knife into his mouth. Shortly after -which the tongue swelled; he experienced a tightness -of the chest; the whole body was covered with -pustules, and he died on the fourth day, in a state of -general gangrene. The inn-keeper, who was pricked -in the middle of the hand by a bone of the same animal, -suffered great pain; gangrene seized the arm, -and he expired on the seventh day. The servant -girl received on her right cheek a few drops of the -blood of the same ox, which produced inflammation, -followed by gangrene.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>In this country, a case has occurred highly illustrative -of the present subject. A pupil of the veterinary -college accidentally inoculated himself, during -his dissection, with the matter of a <i>glandered</i> horse; -the student soon experienced the usual symptoms of -a septic poison; abscesses formed in various parts of -his body, and he sank under the disease. Upon inoculating -a healthy horse with some of the matter -from the abscesses, the animal was attacked with the -glanders.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This subject necessarily leads us to the notice -of those effects which are frequently produced in -the anatomist, by a puncture made during dissection. -From the history of those cases which stand recorded, -it does not appear that the poisonous effects are either -connected with the putrefactive state of the body -under dissection, or with the peculiar disease of -which it died; but rather with the depraved state of -the operator’s health; for it has been repeatedly remarked -that those students who enjoy high health -universally escape the evil, however repeatedly they -may have been exposed to its causes.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_449'>449</span> - <h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Poisonous Fishes.</span></h4> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The number and validity of recorded cases establish -the fact, beyond dispute, that certain fish, especially -the muscle, (<i>Mytilus Edulis</i>) and others of the shell -tribe, have occasionally proved fatal to those who -have eaten them; but it has been doubted whether -such effects have arisen from a specific poison, or -from the peculiar state of the stomach,<a id='r485' /><a href='#f485' class='c011'><sup>[485]</sup></a> or <a id='idi'></a>idiosyncrasy -of constitution, in the persons affected. In -other words, ought we to consider the fish, so circumstanced, -as an <em>absolute</em> or <em>relative</em> poison? Each -of these theories has met with its advocates, and many -striking facts and illustrations have been adduced in -their support. The weight of authority, however, -as well as of argument, strongly inclines in favour of -the existence of a specific virus, generated under circumstances -which we are at present unable to appreciate. -At the same time, it would be vain to deny, -that certain fishes are more obnoxious to the stomach -of one individual than to that of another; there are, -for instance, those persons who are disordered whenever -they eat a muscle; others who are incapable of -taking an oyster without considerable disturbance of -the digestive functions. This is obviously <i>Idiosyncrasy</i>, -and must not be confounded with those cases -where a number of persons have been simultaneously -affected from a particular food, which, on all former -occasions, had been eaten by the same individuals -with perfect security. We must, therefore, at the -very outset of our inquiry, admit the occasional action -<span class='pageno' id='Page_450'>450</span>of these articles of diet as <em>relative</em> poisons; -although it is evident to demonstration, that an <em>absolute</em> -virus is generated in particular fishes, by the operation -of causes hitherto unknown.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As a subject, highly important in its relations to -maritime œconomy, the history of fish-poison constitutes -an interesting branch of naval hygiene; instructions, -therefore, for its investigation, ought always -to be given to the naturalists and chemists who may -be appointed to attend voyages of discovery. The -notice of the scientific men who accompanied <i>Peyrouse</i> -was officially directed to this important object; -but the unhappy fate of that celebrated adventurer -rendered the commission fruitless. The obscurity -which attends this branch of toxicology has in many -cases occasioned a corresponding degree of credulity; -and sailors, as well as others, entertain an unfounded -prejudice against various fish, that are not only -innocuous, but even useful as articles of food. It -would, however, appear that those which are harmless -in one latitude may prove poisonous in another; -it may be stated generally, that fish are more deleterious -within the tropics, than in other seas. -In torrid regions the softest kinds are the most susceptible -of that change which renders them poisonous, -and hence the policy of the Hebrew legislator -becomes apparent; “<em>whatsoever has no fins nor scales -in the waters, that shall be an abomination unto you.</em>” -Levit. c. xi, v. 12, and Deut. cxiv, v. 9, 10.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The most complete history of this intricate subject, -and of the dissertations to which it has given rise, is -to be found in the <cite>Edinburgh Medical and Surgical -Journal</cite>,<a id='r486' /><a href='#f486' class='c011'><sup>[486]</sup></a> by <i>Dr. Chisholm</i>, who has brought together, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_451'>451</span>and cited a great number of authorities, biblical -and classical, foreign and domestic, for its illustration. -An interesting paper is also published on -the same subject in the <cite>Medical Repository</cite>,<a id='r487' /><a href='#f487' class='c011'><sup>[487]</sup></a> by -<i>Dr. Burrows</i>. To the above sources we must beg to -refer the reader who is desirous of farther information -than can be afforded him by the present work.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Symptoms of Fish-poisoning.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>Nausea; thirst; tormina of the bowels; vomiting; -an eruption on the skin, resembling the nettle-rash; -tumefaction of the face; head-ache; difficult respiration; -distention of the abdomen; sometimes <i>cholera -morbus</i>; vertigo; delirium; cold sweats; convulsions; -death. Such is the train of symptoms, liable -of course, to variation in the order of succession, -which are produced by the ingestion of fish-poison, -as occasionally existing in salmon, herrings, eels, -mackarel, many of the testaceous and most of the -crustaceous fish of this country; and in a great number -of fish<a id='r488' /><a href='#f488' class='c011'><sup>[488]</sup></a> inhabiting the tropical seas.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The species of fish, from which deleterious effects -have more commonly arisen in this country, are the -<i>Mytilus Edulis</i>, or muscle. <i>Dr. Burrows</i> has given -us an account of two cases of death from eating these -fish, which occurred at Gravesend, under the care of -<i>Mr. Rogers</i>, surgeon of that place, upon whose -<span class='pageno' id='Page_452'>452</span>authority the statement is drawn up.<a id='r489' /><a href='#f489' class='c011'><sup>[489]</sup></a> The subjects -of the history were two youths of the ages of -nine and fourteen, who had each eaten about a dozen -of small muscles, which they had picked from the -side of a fishing smack, in a dead and tainted state. -In the <cite>Gazette de Santé</cite>,<a id='r490' /><a href='#f490' class='c011'><sup>[490]</sup></a> and in the works of <i>Fodéré</i>,<a id='r491' /><a href='#f491' class='c011'><sup>[491]</sup></a> -and <i>Behren</i>,<a id='r492' /><a href='#f492' class='c011'><sup>[492]</sup></a> similar cases are recorded. -<i>Vancouver</i>,<a id='r493' /><a href='#f493' class='c011'><sup>[493]</sup></a> in his voyage to the coast of America, -relates that several of his men were ill from eating -some muscles which they had collected and roasted -for breakfast; in an hour after which they complained -of numbness of the face and extremities, sickness, and -giddiness. Three were more affected than the others, -and one of them died.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><i>Origin of Fish-poison.</i></h5> - -<p class='c014'>If we admit that the symptoms which are occasionally -produced by the ingestion of certain fish, depend -upon the presence of poison, we have next to inquire -into its nature and origin. <i>Dr. Burrows</i> considers -that all the opinions which have been advanced upon -this subject may, for the greater perspicuity and facility -of discussion, be arranged under seven heads, viz. -does the poison exist—1. <i>In the skin?</i>—2. <i>In the -stomach and intestinal canal?</i>—3. <i>In the liver or gall -bladder?</i>—4. <i>In the entire substance of the fish?</i>—5. -<i>In the food of fishes?</i>—6. <i>Is it a morbid change in the -system of the fish?</i>—7. <i>Is it a poison, sui generis?</i></p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_453'>453</span>Upon these several questions <i>Dr. Burrows</i> has -offered some observations. There do not appear to -be any facts which can induce us to consider that the -poison resides only in the skin.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Experience has shewn that the <i>virus</i> is particularly -energetic in the viscera, commonly called the <i>offals</i>; -and yet there are no grounds for concluding that it -exclusively belongs to these parts. <i>Captain Cook</i>, -and <i>Messrs. Forster</i> were poisoned by eating a piece -of the liver only of a species of <i>tetrodon</i>; yet they -who ate of its substance were also poisoned.</p> - -<p class='c000'>An opinion has long prevailed that the poisonous -principle is derived from the substances upon which -the fish feeds; and that of muscles, in particular, -from copper; this latter hypothesis has received the -sanction of <i>Dr. Chisholm</i>. We however agree with -<i>Dr. Burrows</i> in considering that it has neither the -support of observation or analogy. <i>Dr. Beune</i> has -supposed that the acrid principle is no other than the -spawn of the <i>stella marina</i>, an insect which very commonly -lodges in the muscle. It seems, however, -more probable that it is a product of decomposition, -but which requires the concurrence of certain circumstances -for its developement.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Before we conclude the history of septic poisons, -there appears to be a species of death, particularly -noticed by <i>Dr. Gordon Smith</i>,<a id='r494' /><a href='#f494' class='c011'><sup>[494]</sup></a> which merits our -attention, as having some relation to this class of -agents—the fact of persons having been “<em>eaten to -death by maggots</em>!” Such a death has been assigned -to <i>Sylla</i>, by <i>Plutarch</i>; and to <i>Antiochus Epiphanes</i>, -by <i>Josephus</i>, and the writer of the book of Maccabees. -The fate of <i>Herod</i> is ascertained by Scripture. In -<span class='pageno' id='Page_454'>454</span>modern history we have similar instances in <i>Charles</i> -IX of France, and <i>Philip</i> II of Spain.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Numerous cases are recorded, in different medical -works,<a id='r495' /><a href='#f495' class='c011'><sup>[495]</sup></a> of the generation of maggots, <i>i. e.</i> the <i>larvæ</i> -of different species of fly, not only in external sores -and excoriations, but in the internal cavities of the -human body. <i>Dr. Lempriere</i><a id='r496' /><a href='#f496' class='c011'><sup>[496]</sup></a> has related the -case of an officer’s lady, who had gone through an -acute fever, but in whom these maggots were produced, -which burrowed, and found their way by the -nose through the <i>os cribriforme</i>, into the cavity of the -cranium, and afterwards into the brain itself, to -which she owed her death. But of all the cases of -this kind, that related by <i>Dr. Gordon Smith</i> is of the -most revolting kind. “In the month of July 1809, -a man was found near Finglas, in Ireland, lying -under the wall of a lime-kiln, at an early hour in the -evening, with his face on the ground, apparently -dead. On turning him on his back to ascertain the -real state of the case, it was discovered that he was -yet alive, but under the most appalling circumstances. -On removing his coat, the whole surface -of his body appeared to be a moving mass of worms. -His face was considerably injured as if from a fall, or -bruises; his eyes were dissolved, and their cavities, -as well as those of the ears, nose, and mouth, were -filled with a white living mass, from which such innumerable -quantities of maggots were continually -pouring out, that the skull seemed to be filled with -nothing else. After some time he recovered strength -enough to walk, and regained recollection and voice -sufficient to tell who he was, where he lived, and how -<span class='pageno' id='Page_455'>455</span>he had been brought into that situation. It appeared -that he was returning home upon a car the evening -before; having drank to excess, he fell off, and remained -in a state of insensibility until he was discovered. -He could neither account for the wounds in -his head, nor for his being so far from the road; but -it appeared probable that he had received the contusion -from the fall, and had insensibly crawled to the -place where he lay. It was conjectured that the state -of the atmosphere, as to humidity and temperature, -had brought on a solution of the solids in the bruised -parts, already disposed to putrescency, and now in -close contact with the moist earth. In these, the eggs -of innumerable insects being deposited, their generation -proceeded with rapidity under circumstances so -favourable. Every attention was paid to the unfortunate -individual; he was removed to shelter, -the parts were washed with spirits and vinegar, and -the loathsome objects removed, as far as was possible. -Cordials were poured down his throat, but he swallowed -with difficulty; and in a very short time spasms -took place which prevented him from swallowing -altogether. The putrescence advanced; in a short -time he became insensible; and about noon the following -day he died, in a state of total <i>putrisolution</i>.”</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_456'>456</span> - <h4 class='c016'>AERIAL POISONS.</h4> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>Under this division we include all those deleterious -substances which can be administered through the -medium of the atmosphere.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Those gases, the respiration of which occasions -death by the negative operation of excluding oxygen, -are not ranked under the class of poisons, for the history -of such bodies involves physiological views peculiar -to themselves, and belongs more correctly to -the subject of suffocation, under which head it has -already met with full consideration, <i>vol.</i> 2, <i>p.</i> 48.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Aërial poisons</i> are of very undefined extent, and -their history is involved in considerable obscurity. -Every poison, capable of volatilization, may be admitted -into the division; and even those substances -which are generally regarded as fixed, may be mechanically -suspended in the air, and thus produce their -effects on the living system, through the medium of -the lungs, stomach, or nerves. In the present state -of our knowledge, we have, perhaps, only an imperfect -idea of the distinction between a fixed and a volatile -body. A very interesting paper on this subject -was read before the Royal Academy of Berlin, by -<i>Professor Hermbstaed</i>,<a id='r497' /><a href='#f497' class='c011'><sup>[497]</sup></a> in which he observes that, -generally speaking, we might consider all bodies as -volatile, as it is most probable that, could we produce -a sufficient degree of heat, no substance could -resist it. The professor also states that many bodies, -hitherto considered as fixed, are actually volatilized -at the temperature of boiling water; such he found to -be <i>lime</i>, <i>baryta</i>, <i>strontia</i>, and <i>potass</i>. We apprehend, -however, that the professor has, in these instances, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_457'>457</span>mistaken a phenomenon for <i>volatility</i>, which it is -highly important to distinguish from it, viz. <em>the elevation -of a certain portion of a fixed body, by the carrying -power of a vapour</em>; thus, fixed oil may, in a minute -proportion, be carried up with the steam of -water. Certain bodies, however, which have been -long considered as perfectly fixed at the ordinary -temperature of the atmosphere, have been lately discovered -to undergo a slow and almost imperceptible -evaporation under such circumstances; and the discovery -has led to a very satisfactory solution of several -problems which were previously unintelligible. -We shall adduce a striking exemplification of this -truth, under the consideration of mercurial vapours.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The substances, included under the head of <i>Aërial -poisons</i>, may be conveniently arranged in two orders, -viz.</p> - -<p class='c015'>I. Those, whose particles exist mechanically suspended -in the atmosphere.</p> -<p class='c015'>II. Those, which are presented to us in a <i>vaporous</i> -or <i>gaseous</i> form.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Of the first division the various arts will furnish -ample illustration, as for instance the occupations -of the colour-maker, plasterer, cotton-spinner, dry-grinder,<a id='r498' /><a href='#f498' class='c011'><sup>[498]</sup></a> -stone-cutter, hatter, furrier, miller, &c. -&c. In all of which a subtle matter is given off, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_458'>458</span>which becoming mechanically suspended in the air, -penetrates the structure of the pulmonary organs, and -excites disease, and even death.<a id='r499' /><a href='#f499' class='c011'><sup>[499]</sup></a> In illustration -of the second division, we have the trades of water-gilders, -acid manufacturers, night-men, bleachers, -and various others, many of which have been already -noticed under the medical and chemical consideration -of nuisances, <i>vol.</i> I, <i>p.</i> 330.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the present chapter we cannot attempt an enumeration -of every substance which may act as an -aërial poison; we shall confine our attention to the -history of a few bodies which are calculated to afford -general elucidation, and are likely to become objects -of forensic interest.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Mercurial Vapours.</span></h5> - -<p class='c014'>It is not the least interesting fact in the history of -aërial poisons, that substances, which are found to -be extremely slow in their action, or even quite -inert, when administered in their solid or liquid state, -exert a very rapid and energetic operation when -they are presented to the human body in the attenuated -form of vapour. This fact is well illustrated by -the subtlety and activity of metallic mercury <em>in the -state of vapour</em>; a substance which, according to the -highest authorities, is quite inactive when introduced -in its grosser form into the stomach. It is thus that -the workmen employed in gilding, silvering looking-glasses, -constructing barometers, &c. experience such -dreadful effects; that such effects arise from the <i>metal</i> -in a state of vapour, and not, as some have supposed, -from the <i>oxide</i>,<a id='r500' /><a href='#f500' class='c011'><sup>[500]</sup></a> is a fact capable of demonstration, for -<span class='pageno' id='Page_459'>459</span>the artists at Birmingham affix an apparatus in their -chimneys as a system of economy, in order to collect -the mercury, which is always found in its <i>metallic</i> -state.<a id='r501' /><a href='#f501' class='c011'><sup>[501]</sup></a> From the late interesting experiments of -<i>Mr. Faraday</i>,<a id='r502' /><a href='#f502' class='c011'><sup>[502]</sup></a> it appears that <i>mercury</i> rises in vapour -at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere; -the knowledge of which fact will afford a very satisfactory -explanation of several phenomena, which -were previously unintelligible. <i>Dr. Hermbstaed</i>, in -the memoir, above mentioned, “on the volatility of -substances hitherto considered as fixed bodies,” relates -the following curious fact with regard to the -volatility of mercury. “At the Royal Manufactory -of looking-glasses in Berlin, during a severe winter, -the artificers who worked in a room, which had originally -served for the process of <i>silvering</i> the glasses, -lighted a fire, and thus heated the apartment to between -86° and 96° <i>Fah.</i> In a few days the whole of them -were, to their great surprise, affected by a strong salivation, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_460'>460</span>as there was no trace of mercury in, or near -the room. They consulted on the subject, and suspecting -the real cause of the event, had the flooring -of the room taken up, when about 40 lbs of the metal -were found spread about in different parts, where it -had fallen at various times during the operation of -silvering, which had been executed in that room before.” -With such facts before us, we shall no longer -be unable to explain the effects which were produced -on board his majesty’s ship <i>Triumph</i>, off Cadiz, in -April 1809, by the bursting of leathern bags containing -quicksilver, and the consequent dispersion of -not less than three tons of the metal through the vessel. -The interest excited by this case has been very -great, and as the facts, involved in its history, are of -high medical importance, we were induced to apply -for permission to search the journals of the ship; and, -through the kindness of <i>Dr. Burnett</i>, one of his majesty’s -commissioners for victualling the navy, and -the assistance of <i>Mr. Plowman</i>, who held the situation -of surgeon to the <i>Triumph</i>, we have been enabled -to obtain a correct and detailed history of the -event. Previous to the circumstances we are about to -describe, “the ship’s company had been tolerably -healthy, when unfortunately a quantity of quicksilver -was received on board, and diffused over the ship in -consequence of the bursting of the leathern bags, in -which it had been enclosed; when its effects were -soon displayed upon the crew, by occasioning ptyalism, -partial paralysis, affections of the bowels; so -that in three weeks, no less than two hundred men -were in a state of salivation. In consequence of -which two transports were taken up as hospital ships, -in which the slighter cases soon recovered; but as many -fresh cases occurred daily, <i>Vice-Admiral Pickmore</i> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_461'>461</span>ordered a survey on the ship, and ship’s company, by -the surgeons of the squadron, on the third of May, -who reported the necessity of sending the ship into -port, in order to clear her hold, change part of her -provisions, into which the quicksilver had insinuated -itself, and to purify her by means of ablution. This -was accordingly done; but on stowing the hold -afresh, every man so employed, as well as those engaged -in the steward’s room, were attacked with -ptyalism. Fresh cases happened daily, until they -took their departure from Cadiz on the 13th of June; -after which but few occurred, which was attributed -by the surgeon to the coldness of the weather, the -fresh breezes from the north-east, from the men having -been kept constantly on deck, and not allowed to -sleep on the orlop, and from not suffering those affected -with ptyalism to lie on the lower deck; as -well as from the constant attention paid in the ventilation -of the ship by means of wind-sails. But, notwithstanding -all these precautions, the ship had -not been more than ten days at sea, when many -of the men became worse, and it was found necessary -to send twenty-four seamen on board the <i>Goshawk</i>, -and two transports. On the arrival of the -<i>Triumph</i> in Cawsand Bay, on the 5th of July, there -did not remain one case of ptyalism on their list. -During this extraordinary visitation two men died -from excessive ptyalism, one of them at Cadiz, having -previously lost his teeth, and both cheeks at the -time of his decease being in a state of sphacelation; -the other, who died at Gibraltar, had lost the whole -of his teeth, two-thirds of his tongue, and, at the -time of his death, the lower lip was in a state of gangrene. -To the interesting facts above related, <i>Mr. -Plowman</i> adds, that the interior of the ship was covered -<span class='pageno' id='Page_462'>462</span>with a black powder, and that the copper bolts -displayed the mercurial influence. The mercurial -vapours proved fatal to the living stock on board, for -nearly all the poultry, sheep, pigs, mice,<a id='r503' /><a href='#f503' class='c011'><sup>[503]</sup></a> goats, -cats, a dog, and even a canary bird, died from its -influence.”</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Sulphuretted Hydrogen Gas.</span></h5> - -<p class='c014'>This gas is transparent and colourless; it has the -property of inflammability, and when set on fire in -the open air, burns with a bluish flame, and deposits -a certain portion of sulphur. It is distinguished by -an excessively fœtid smell, which has been aptly compared -to that of rotten eggs. Its habitudes with -other gases are interesting and important; by admixture -with <i>chlorine</i>, it immediately undergoes decomposition, -yielding its hydrogen, so as to form <i>hydro-chloric -acid</i> (<i>muriatic acid</i>), and consequently depositing -its sulphur; with <i>ammoniacal gas</i> it combines, -and forms an <i>hydro-sulphuret of ammonia</i>; when -mingled with <i>sulphurous acid gas</i>, the hydrogen of -the former combines with the oxygen of the latter, -and the sulphur of both is precipitated; when passed -over ignited charcoal it is converted into carburetted -hydrogen gas, and sulphur is deposited.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is soluble in water, and the solution precipitates -the different metals from their saline solutions, in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_463'>463</span>form of sulphurets; a property which at once distinguishes -this gas from every other.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It has been long considered a very energetic poison, -and it would, at the same time, appear to be a very -insidious one; for sensibility is quickly destroyed by -it, without any previous suffering. We are acquainted -with a chemist who was suddenly deprived of -sense, as he stood over a pneumatic trough, in which -he was collecting the gas. It would seem to act upon -the nervous system through the medium of the blood, in -which it is extremely soluble. It constitutes the particular -gas of privies, and is the immediate cause of -those accidents which we have already described in a -former part of this work, <i>vol.</i> 1, <i>page</i> 100; since the -printing of which we have heard of the death of four -persons from emptying a privy at Brompton. This -gas will be sometimes developed during the imperfect -combustion of wet coals<a id='r504' /><a href='#f504' class='c011'><sup>[504]</sup></a>; and it was probably -owing to its presence, or to that of <i>carburetted hydrogen</i>, -that the accident arose which is recorded -by <i>Mr. Sutleffe</i> in the <cite>Medical Repository</cite>. “He -was hastily summoned to a neighbouring family -at bed-time, where he found a female domestic labouring -under a shrill, laborious inspiration; she -had taken up from a good kitchen fire, a panful of -live coals, from which a sudden suffocating blast -seized her.”</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_464'>464</span> - <h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Carburetted Hydrogen Gas.</span></h5> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>This gas is developed by several chemical processes. -We have just stated that if, during the -burning of charcoal, moisture be present, it is evolved -in abundance. It appears to be particularly fatal -to animal life. <i>Dr. Beddoes</i> made many experiments -upon the subject, from which it would seem to destroy -life by rendering the muscular fibre inirritable -without producing any previous excitement. In -order to decide this question, <i>Sir Humphry Davy</i><a id='r505' /><a href='#f505' class='c011'><sup>[505]</sup></a> -ventured to take three inspirations of the gas produced -from the decomposition of water by charcoal. -“The first inspiration produced a sort of numbness -and loss of feeling in the chest, and about the pectoral -muscles; after the second,” says he, “I lost all -power of perceiving external things, and had no distinct -sensation, except a terrible oppression on the -chest; during the third expiration, this feeling disappeared; -I seemed sinking into annihilation, and -had just power enough to drop the mouth-piece from -my unclosed lips. There is every reason to believe, -that if I had taken four or five inspirations, instead of -three, they would have destroyed life immediately, -without producing any painful sensation.”</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Chlorine</span>—<i>Oxy-muriatic Acid Gas</i>.</h5> - -<p class='c014'>This gas, which is now considered as an elementary -body, has received from <i>Sir Humphry Davy</i> the -name of <i>chlorine</i>, from the green colour which characterises -<span class='pageno' id='Page_465'>465</span>it. Its odour is so penetrating and insupportable -that it is impossible to respire it, even when -considerably diluted with atmospheric air, and yet it -will support combustion. It discharges vegetable -colours, whence it forms the basis of various bleaching -preparations. According to the experiments<a id='r506' /><a href='#f506' class='c011'><sup>[506]</sup></a> -of <i>M. Nysten</i>, this gas is not absorbed when respired -pure, but appears to act only by irritating the bronchiæ -locally; and so energetic is its action, that the -animal dies before there is sufficient time for asphyxia -to take place from the circulation of black blood. -When it is respired in a dilute form, it produces a -severe cough, and, according to <i>Fourcroy</i>, it occasions -a phlegmonic inflammation of the bronchial -membranes. The death of the ingenious and indefatigable -<i>Pelletier</i> was occasioned by his accidentally -inhaling a proportion of this gas; a consumption -was the consequence, which in a short time proved -fatal. In the <cite>London Medical and Physical Journal -for November, 1821</cite>, a case of a person is recorded -who was poisoned by bleaching liquor.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><span class='sc'>Sulphurous Acid Gas.</span></h5> - -<p class='c014'>The gas is generated by the combustion of sulphur. -It is colourless; has a pungent smell, resembling -that of burning sulphur, and is very soluble in water. -It would appear to destroy life by a peculiar action -on the blood.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_466'>466</span> - <h2 id='c14' class='c008'>OF HOMICIDE BY MISADVENTURE OR ACCIDENT.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>If a physician gives a person a potion without any -intent of doing him any bodily hurt, but with an intent -to cure or prevent a disease, and contrary to the -expectation of the physician it kills him, this is no -(culpable) homicide, and the like of a chirurgeon; -<i>1 Hale</i>, <i>P. C.</i> 429; <i>4 Bl. Comm.</i> 197. But query if -he were not a regular physician or surgeon? on this -there appears to be some difference of opinion; it was -anciently holden that if one, that is not of the mystery -of a physician or surgeon, take upon him the -cure of a man, and he dieth of the potion or medicine, -this is covert felony. <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Si un que nest physition -ou surgeon emprent sur luy un cure, que murrust in -sa main, que cest felonie</span></i>; <cite>Stanford’s Pleas of the -Crown</cite>, <i>cap.</i> 9; <i>Fitzherbert</i>, <i>tit. coron.</i> <i>p.</i> 311; <i>Briton</i>, -<i>fol.</i> 14; <i>Lombard</i>, <i>Eiren. tit. Felonie</i> saith thus; that -<i>Thorpe</i>, <i>43 Ed. 3</i>, 33, saith he knew one to be indicted -accordingly. <i>Dalton</i>, <i>p.</i> 470, queries this case, -as it is difficult to determine the actual cause of -death, and there appeareth no will to do harm, but -rather to do good, and “the <i>34 Hen. 8</i>, <i>c.</i> 8, leaveth -so great a liberty of such practice to unskilful persons, -that it will be hard now to make it felony.” Now -the statute of <i>Henry the eighth</i> applies only to the -cure of certain diseases or sores, particularly specified, -and others like to the same, by external applications, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_467'>467</span>and to drinks for the stone, strangury, or -agues, provided (if the preamble may be relied on) -“the said persons have not taken any thing for their -pains or cunning, but have ministered the same to the -poor people only, for neighbourhood, and God’s sake, -and of pity, and charity;” in such sense the act is reasonable -even to this day, much more then, when from -the scarcity of regular practitioners, the charitable -in the country were frequently called upon to administer -on emergencies, where no medical aid could be -procured; but surely this act can never have been -intended to warrant the administration of dangerous -medicines, arsenic, corrosive sublimate, or cantharides, -such indeed as may be fairly classed as absolute -poisons, except when in skilful hands, nor the -performance of surgical operations. <i>Dalton</i> indeed -adds “But if a smith or other person (having skill -only in dressing or curing the diseases of horses or -other cattle) shall take upon him the cutting, or -letting blood, or such like cure of a man, who -dieth thereof, this seemeth to be felony; for the -rule is, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">quod quisque norit, in hoc se (non) exerceat</span></i>.” -And if it were otherwise, great evils might arise; for -persons intending to commit murders, need only cover -their design by a pretence of administering medicine;<a id='r507' /><a href='#f507' class='c011'><sup>[507]</sup></a> -thus in <i>Vaux’s</i> case, the professed purpose -of administering the cantharides, was not illegal, yet -the prisoner was found guilty of murder. In <i>Donellan’s</i> -case, what would a plea have availed, that the -chemical principle of laurel water was, in the prisoner’s -opinion, a cure for consumption, with which <i>Sir -<span class='pageno' id='Page_468'>468</span>Theodosius Boughton</i> was threatened, and that it had -been administered to cure, and not to kill him; or -on the death of <i>Mr. Scawen</i>,<a id='r508' /><a href='#f508' class='c011'><sup>[508]</sup></a> that his mistress had -infused or dissolved corrosive sublimate in all his -drinks and medicines, to cure him of an ulcer, with -which he was afflicted; and that she had done it -secretly, because he had an avowed aversion to mercurial -medicines. Yet such pleas would continually -be made, if the doctrine of allowing all persons however -ignorant and unqualified to tamper with medicines, -should be admitted. On the other hand there -is very considerable weight of authority; <i>Sir. Wm. -Blackstone</i> follows <i>Sir Mathew Hale</i> in his opinion, -that this doctrine, that if any die under the hand of an -unlicenced physician it is felony, is apocryphal, and -fitted to gratify and flatter doctors and licentiates in -physic; though it may have its use to make people -cautious, and wary, how they take upon themselves -too much in this dangerous employment; <i>1 Hales</i>, -<i>P. C.</i> 429, 430; <i>4 Bl. Com.</i> <i>c.</i> 14, <i>p.</i> 197; it is difficult -to imagine how caution is to be enforced by taking -away the liability to punishment. Mr. Serjeant -<i>Hawkins</i> takes a different ground; “Also it hath -been anciently holden, that if a person, not duly -authorised to be a physician or surgeon, undertake -a cure and the patient die under his hand, he is -guilty of felony;” but inasmuch as the books -wherein this opinion is holden (<i>Stamford</i>, <i>P. C.</i> 16; -<i>Pulton</i>, 22; <i>Crom.</i> 27; <i>43 Ed. 3</i>, 33; <i>Fitz H. Cor.</i> -163; <i>Britt.</i> <i>c.</i> 5; and <i>4 Inst.</i> 251) were written before -the statutes of <i>23 Hen. 8</i>, which first excluded -<span class='pageno' id='Page_469'>469</span>such felonious killing, as may be called wilful murder -of malice prepense, from the benefit of clergy, it may -be well questioned whether such killing shall be said -to be of malice prepense within the intent of that -statute; however it is certainly highly rash and presumptuous -for unskilful persons to undertake matters -of this nature; “<em>and indeed the law cannot be too severe -in this case</em>, in order to deter ignorant people -from endeavouring <em>to get a livelihood</em> by such practice, -which cannot be followed without the manifest -hazard of the lives of those who have to do -with them;” <i>1 Hawk. P. C.</i> 131. This doctrine -does not by any means go as far as <i>Sir Mathew Hale</i>; -for as the supposed alteration of the law is referred -to the operation of the statute, which takes away -the benefit of clergy from murders, that is to say -from felonious killing with malice prepense, it does not -apply to manslaughter, to which the benefit of clergy -was still allowed. But there yet remains a question, -whether in the case of a person illegally taking -upon himself the administration of dangerous medicines, -for profit, (and it must be observed that the -greater number of nostrums are, from the powerful -nature of their ingredients, highly dangerous) does -not subject himself to a charge of murder if any die -under his hands; for “if a man does such an act, of -which the probable consequence may be, and -eventually is, death, such killing may be murder, -although no stroke is struck;” <i>4 Bl. Com.</i> 197. -What then if a man for profit administer dangerous -preparations of mercury to persons necessarily exposed -to change of temperature, and inclemency of -weather; nay, delusively hold out to them, that no -mercury is employed, by which they are induced to -neglect the most ordinary precautions; if death ensue -<span class='pageno' id='Page_470'>470</span>is not this equally murder, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">in foro conscientiæ</span></i>, as -killing with the sword? Malice may be implied in -law, as well as apparent; it may be general, as well -as particular; and whenever a man has evinced, whether -from avarice, cruelty, or wantonness, such disregard -for the lives and safeties of mankind, as warrants -the imputation of general malice, it is not necessary -that individual malice be proved towards the -party who has become his victim.<a id='r509' /><a href='#f509' class='c011'><sup>[509]</sup></a> <i>1 Easts. P. C.</i> -231. “So too if a man hath a beast that is used to -do mischief, and he knowing it, suffers it to go -abroad, and it kills a man, even this is manslaughter -in the owner: but if he had purposely <em>turned it -loose</em>, though barely to frighten people, and make -what is called sport, it is with us (as in the Jewish -law) as much murder as if he had incited a bear or -dog to worry them;” <i>4 Bl. Com.</i> 197. And <i>Hale</i> -says, <i>1 P. C.</i> 431, I have heard that the owner was -hanged for it. Is there much difference, whether the -mischief be done by a dangerous beast, or a poisonous -drug? to us it appears that the man who vends or -administers the one, is as guilty as he who is convicted -of turning out the other. If <i>A</i> give purging comfits -to <i>B</i> to make sport and not to hurt him, and <i>B</i> -dies thereof, it is a killing by <i>A</i>, but not murder, -but manslaughter; 1, <i>II. P. C.</i> 431; <i>Dalt.</i> <i>cap.</i> 93. -Here <i>A</i> is not supposed cognisant of the dangerous -nature of the comfits.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_471'>471</span>With every deference therefore to the very high -authorities, which have supported a contrary opinion, -we cannot but conclude, that the unlawful administration -of medicine for profit, by which death -ensues, may constitute wilful murder in some cases, -manslaughter in most, and a high misdemeanor in -all, according to the quantity of general malice, ignorance, -and presumption, evidenced in each case; -under what class each individual instance may fall, is -a proper subject for a jury. If the law be defective -on this point it cannot be too soon amended, and we -must express our sanguine hope, that the consideration -of revenue, as arising from the stamp duties on -patent medicines, will not be allowed to influence the -legislature in a matter vitally important to the public -health, and to the lives of his majesty’s subjects, more -especially as the evil principally operates on the -class, whose personal vigour constitutes the strength -and sinews of the country. And yet in candour we -must admit the difficulties and embarrassments with -which the subject is beset: the multiplication of restraints -in a free country is very naturally regarded -with extreme jealousy, and however anxiously we -may desire to crush those harpies of society, who -scatter poison and death around, under the pretence -of affording relief, yet the object must not be purchased -by the infringement of civil liberty.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Doctor <i>Goodall</i>, in his historical account of the -college’s proceedings against empiricks, published in -1684, mentions many cases in which death has ensued -from unlawful administration of medicine; in some -of these cases, the college punished the offenders -according to their jurisdiction; some by fine and imprisonment, -for mala praxis; others they sued at -law, for the penalty of five pounds per month for unlicensed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_472'>472</span>practice. But in those instances which appeared -to require greater severity of punishment, -they consigned the accused to the ordinary course of -justice. See <i>Humphrey Beven’s</i> case, <i>Goodall’s Pro.</i> -425—<i>John Hope’s</i> case, for giving two apples of coloquintida -to a man as a purge, of which he died. -<i>Ibid.</i> 441.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c022'> - <div>END OF VOL. II.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>London: Printed by William Phillips, George Yard, Lombard Street.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c008'>Footnotes</h2> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f1'> -<p class='c010'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. “But there is a particular kind of manslaughter proper to be considered -here, from which the benefit of the clergy is taken away by <i>Ja.</i> -1, <i>c.</i> 8.” “Where any person shall stab or thrust any person or persons -that hath not then first striken the party which shall so stab or thrust, -so as the person or persons so stabbed or thrust, shall thereof die within -the space of six months then next following, although it cannot be -proved that the same was done of malice forethought.” See 1 <i>Hawk. -P. C.</i> This statute was passed in consequence of the numerous murders -committed by the Scots, who with their dirks stabbed before an ordinary -weapon could be drawn.</p> - -<p class='c000'>For an extraordinary case on this statute, and much learning on the -subject, see the trial of <i>William Chetwynd</i> for the murder of <i>Thomas -Rickets</i>. 18 <i>How St. Tri. p.</i> 290.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f2'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. Od. Lib. v. lin. 757.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f3'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. Tractat. de Peste Lib. iv. Hist. 85.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f4'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. In returning, the ship was cast away on the island of Zante, when -this unfortunate philosopher perished from hunger.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f5'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. <i>Bruhier, John</i>, a physician at Paris, in the middle of the seventeenth -century; he was author of many works, but his principal celebrity -rested on his warnings against burying persons, supposed to be -dead, too early. “Dissertation sur l’Incertitude des signes de la Mort -et l’abus des enterremens, et embaumemens precipites.” Paris, 1742. -He was at the pains of collecting histories of persons who had revived -after being supposed to be dead, some of whom had been buried. Bodies -ought not to be interred, he says, until putrefaction has commenced. -“Memoire sur la necessité d’un Reglement general au sujet -des enterremens.” 1745. No one should be buried until the fourth day -from their dying. “Addition aux Memoires,” &c. in which he adds to -the number of examples of persons who had been buried alive, or had -revived after being interred. These works have passed through numerous -editions, and have been translated into several other European -languages.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f6'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. Horrible as it may appear, it was a custom in Persia, at the time -that <i>Herodotus</i> wrote, of <em>burying alive</em>; and this historian was informed -that <i>Amestris</i>, the wife of <i>Xerxes</i>, when she was far advanced in age, -commanded fourteen Persian children of illustrious birth to be interred -alive, in honour of the Deity whom they supposed to exist under the -earth.—<i>Polyhymnia</i>, c. xiv.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f7'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. “A Dissertation on the <i>Disorder of Death</i>, or that state of the frame -under the signs of Death, called Suspended Animation,” by the Rev. -<i>Walter Whiter</i>, Rector of Hardingham. Norwich, 1819. 8vo.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f8'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. <i>Plin.</i> Nat. Hist. Lib. vii, c. 52; see also <i>Valer. Maxim.</i> Lib. 1, c. -8. For extraordinary histories of persons roused from the tomb, see -<i>Diemerbroeck</i>, Lib, ii; <i>Joannes Mathæus</i>, Quæst. Med.; <i>Hildanus</i> Cent. -2. Obs. 95, 96; <i>Phillip Salmuth</i> Cent. 2, Obs. 86, 87, 95. <i>Maximilian -Misson</i> relates in his voyages many curious cases of this kind. “<i>Nouveau</i> -Voyage d’Italie.” But the works of <i>Bruhier</i>, before mentioned, -contain the greatest collection of such anecdotes.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f9'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. Thus in the Greek, the most philosophically constructed language -with which we are acquainted, the <i>alpha</i> and <i>omega</i>, the first and last acts -of life, are conveyed in the verb αω <i>spiro</i> compounded of those letters. -In Latin we also find <i>spiro</i> and <i>spiritus</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f10'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r10'>10</a>. Lettres sur la certitude des signes de la mort.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f11'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r11'>11</a>. Recherches Physiologiques sur la Vie et la Mort.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f12'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r12'>12</a>. Phil. Trans. 1811.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f13'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r13'>13</a>. Phil. Trans. 1667, vol. ii, p. 539.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f14'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r14'>14</a>. <i>Hunter</i> on the Blood, p. 54.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f15'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r15'>15</a>. Medical Reports, p. 75.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f16'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r16'>16</a>. Zoonomia, vol. 1, p. 40.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f17'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r17'>17</a>. An Essay on Respiration by <i>J. Bostock</i>, M. D.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f18'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r18'>18</a>. A question has arisen, says <i>Mr. Brodie</i>, (<cite>Manuscript Notes</cite>) whether -the whole of the brain is essential to the function of respiration, -or whether the power of calling the respiratory muscles into action may -not reside in some particular part of that organ? It has been stated by -<i>Le Gallois</i> that if you expose the cavity of the cranium, and remove the -upper part of the brain, the muscles of respiration continue to act as -usual; if, however, the dissection be continued, as soon as that portion -of the <i>Medulla Oblongata</i> is removed which corresponds to the <i>Corpora -Olivaria</i>, their action is immediately suspended. The theory which such -an experiment naturally establishes has received no inconsiderable support -from the history of a fœtus, published by <i>Mr. Lawrence</i> in the Medico -Chirurgical Transactions: in this monster the <i>Cerebrum</i> and <i>Cerebellum</i> -were entirely absent, but the <i>Medulla Spinalis</i> was continued for about -an inch above the <i>Foramen Magnum</i> of the occiput, so as to form an imperfect -<i>Medulla Oblongata</i>, and to give origin to several nerves. Death -did not take place immediately after birth, as in other instances of cerebral -deficiency, but the child breathed for four days after it had been -expelled from the uterus.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f19'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r19'>19</a>. <i>Lower</i>, as early as the year 1667, shewed that if the nerves which -go to the diaphragm in a dog be divided, he breathes “like a broken-winded -horse.” <cite>Phil. Trans.</cite> vol. ii, p. 544.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f20'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r20'>20</a>. While this work was in progress we have read an account of a -person who, being in a state of debility, died suddenly from the shock -of a shower bath at Brighton. In this case Syncope was probably occasioned -in the same manner as by a blow on the head.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f21'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r21'>21</a>. <i>Trance.</i> Although this term is extremely familiar, it does not appear -that any precise meaning is attached to it; the popular notion is -that the body may for a time be abandoned by the soul, and remain for -a certain period in a deep sleep, during which the exercise of the vital -functions is so obscure, that the individual is reduced to a state of close -simulation of death.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f22'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r22'>22</a>. A great question has arisen upon this subject, whether rupture -of the heart ever takes place in the sound state of that organ? And it -has been answered by several pathologists in the affirmative. Fischer’s -case from the <span class='sc'>Journal der Practischen Heilkunde</span>, may be seen in -the <span class='sc'>Medical Repository</span>, Vol. 11, p. 427, and Vol. 12, p. 164. -<span class='sc'>Harvey</span> found in a male subject a rupture in the aortic ventricle, -capable of admitting a finger, and remarked that the parietes of the -cavity possessed their natural strength and thickness (Exercitat III. -De Circulo Sanguinis, T. p. 1. 281.) <span class='sc'>Bohn</span> also gives a case of a man -who had died suddenly, when a fissure was discovered in the <i>Ostium -Aortæ</i>. <span class='sc'>Portal</span> has informed us, that in a rupture of the basis of the -heart, which he examined, the structure of the organ was as firm and -compact as in the natural state, and that in another case the parietes of -the heart displayed their natural solidity. (Memoires de l’Academie -des Sciences, a Paris, 1784, p. 51.) <span class='sc'>Soemering</span> considers it as having -been very correctly remarked by Portal, that the Aortic ventricle -commonly bursts without any previous weakening of the substance of -the heart. (See Soemering’s German Translation of Baillie’s Morbid -Anatomy, with Additions.) <span class='sc'>Dr. Whytt</span> has likewise seen the heart -burst from protracted grief, and therefore does not regard the term, -“<span class='fss'>BROKEN HEART</span>,” in the light of a mere metaphor. On the contrary, -<span class='sc'>Boerhaave</span> has recorded two cases, and believes that the rupture was -occasioned by the morbid accumulation of fat; <span class='sc'>Kreysig</span> suspects that -in most of these cases of ruptured heart an insidious inflammation had -been established, and he considers that the quantity of adipose substance -in which ruptured hearts are so commonly found enveloped, furnishes -an evidence of this inflammatory state (Sopra i Malattée del cuore.) -We are decidedly of opinion that such ruptures take place in consequence -of a morbid state of the heart capable of diminishing the cohesive -power of its fibres. See a Treatise on the Diseases of the Chest by <i>R. -T. H. Laennec, M. D.</i> translated by <i>J. Forbes, M. D.</i> London, 1821.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f23'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r23'>23</a>. Recueil Periodique de la Societé de Medicine de Paris. T. LXI. p. 87</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f24'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r24'>24</a>. Medico-Chirurg. Trans. vol. 1, p. 157. Analogous cases to those -related by <i>Mr. Chevalier</i> will be found in <i>Bonetus</i> Sepulchr. Anat. vol. 1, -p. 383; and <i>Morgagni</i> Epist. 48, Art. 44; see also a communication by -<i>Dr. Ozanam</i> in the Recueil Periodique de la Societé de Medicine de Paris, -tom. 61, p. 87.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f25'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r25'>25</a>. A young animal may not so soon perish as an older one; and a -strong and healthy individual may survive during a longer period than -a creature that is in a state of debility. By filling the lungs with air a -person may also be enabled to dispense with the act of respiration for a -longer period; <i>Mr. Kite</i> made a very deep inspiration of 300 cubic -inches, and was thus enabled to retain this quantity for 72 seconds, -without a fresh inspiration; and divers in the pearl fisheries, inspire -deeply before they descend. It has been, moreover, established by -numerous experiments that the demand for oxygen in the lungs is materially -influenced by the nature of the ingesta received into the stomach; -<i>Mr. Spalding</i>, the celebrated diver, observed, that whenever he used a -diet of animal food, or drank spirituous liquors, he consumed in a much -shorter time the oxygen of the atmospheric air in his diving-bell; and -therefore he had learned from experience to confine himself to a vegetable -diet, and water, when following his avocation. And the priest, -or conjurer (<i>Pillal Karras</i>, in the Malabar language) who attends the -divers in the pearl fisheries of the east, enjoins, as a religious duty, an -abstinence from all food, before he plunges into the ocean.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Muscular exertions, as in the act of struggling, will without doubt contribute -to the expenditure of oxygen, and increase the demand for it, and -therefore in its absence such movement must accelerate death by suffocation; -this physiological fact will be hereafter more fully elucidated.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f26'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r26'>26</a>. We anticipate the objections that will be urged against the truth -of this assertion. It will be asked how it can be reconciled with the accounts -of persons who have recovered after an asphyxia of a much -longer duration? It may be inquired how the statement can be reconciled -with the ordinary histories of divers, who have become so expert -in the art which they profess, as to be capable of remaining beneath the -water for twenty minutes, or even for a longer period: we are bound -to consider such statements as no better than extravagant fables; not -more authentic, says <i>Mr. Brodie</i> (Manuscript Notes), but certainly less -poetical and elegant, than those of the nymphs and mermaids, whose ordinary -residence is in grottos beneath the waves of the sea; or than -those Arabian fictions which have amused and astonished our youthful -imaginations with the description of the Princes who govern the submarine -nations, and pass their lives in palaces of crystal at the bottom of -the ocean—but of this we shall speak more fully hereafter.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f27'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r27'>27</a>. Although the term <span class='sc'>Asphyxia</span> merely signifies the absence of the -pulse, yet the name is erroneously applied to every apparent loss of vitality.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f28'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r28'>28</a>. <span class='sc'>De Haen</span> thought that death was produced in drowning by the -water flowing into the lungs, and thus stopping the passage of the blood -in the arteries. This belief gave origin to the very erroneous and mischievous -practice, which still continues amongst the more ignorant, of -suspending drowned persons by the heels, or of rolling them over barrels.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f29'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r29'>29</a>. <i>Mr. Coleman</i> examined the lungs of a cat which had been drowned, -by placing a ligature on the trachea, removing the lungs from the -thorax, and then making an opening in the trachea under water, so as -to collect the air which issued from the orifice; the whole quantity of -air thus obtained, amounted only to half a drachm; yet the same lungs -when inflated, required as much as two ounces of air, by measure, for -their distention. Nor would the presence of water appear to be immediately -fatal, when introduced into the lungs; Dr. <i>Goodwyn</i> poured two -ounces of water into the lungs of a cat, through an opening made between -the cartilages of the trachea; the animal had an immediate difficulty -of breathing, and a feeble pulse, but lived several hours afterwards -without much apparent inconvenience; it was at length strangled, -and the water was found in the lungs. From which it would appear, -that the admission of a certain portion of water, does not tend -to hasten death. The author of this note was present at an experiment -made by Mr. <i>Brodie</i>, in which he drowned a guinea pig, whose trachea -had been previously perforated; so that in this case, no spasm of the -glottis could arrest the ingress of the water into the pulmonary air -cells; but this produced no modification of the usual symptoms; nor -did it prevent the resuscitation of the animal, which was afterwards -effected by the appropriate methods.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f30'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r30'>30</a>. An animal also dies sooner by drowning, than by simple strangulation; -Mr. <i>Brodie</i> considers that the abstraction of heat in the former -case is quite sufficient to account for this difference.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f31'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r31'>31</a>. <i>Foderè</i>, 90.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f32'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r32'>32</a>. <i>Walther</i>, de Morbis Peritonai, et Apoplexia. 3 <i>Foderè</i>, p. 106.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f33'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r33'>33</a>. See the Reports of the Edinburgh colleges, in the case of Sir -<i>James Standsfield</i>, as printed in the Appendix, p. 225, also Extracts from -Medical Evidence in the case of <i>Spencer Cowper</i>, Esq. for the murder of -<i>Sarah Stout</i>, ibid. p. 230. 3 <i>Foderè</i>, p. 93. 100. 108. The case of -<i>Servin</i>, ib. 125. of <i>Paulet</i>, ib. 126.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f34'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r34'>34</a>. Medicine Légale, vol. iii. p. 85.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f35'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r35'>35</a>. During such a state of the body there would be but a feeble call -for oxygen; it is muscular action which so rapidly expends this important -principle.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f36'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r36'>36</a>. In an experiment with a drowned cat, Mr. <i>Brodie</i> found less than -a drachm of water in the bronchial vessels. Other physiologists have -ascertained the same fact by drowning animals in different coloured -fluids.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f37'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r37'>37</a>. See a very curious paper upon this subject by Mr. <i>Robertson</i>, in the -Philosophical Transactions, 1757, vol. 1. p. 30; from which it appears -that the author made ten experiments, in which, with the exception of -one person, he found all the men <em>specifically lighter</em> than water, and hence -he concludes that drowning might be avoided, if the person who falls -into the water were not deprived of his presence of mind.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f38'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r38'>38</a>. <i>Franklin’s</i> Art of Swimming.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f39'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r39'>39</a>. Vide <cite>Valent. Pand. Med. Leg.</cite> 297. “De reperto sub aqua Cadavere,” -and 299 “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Submersorum morte sine pota aquæ.</span>”</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f40'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r40'>40</a>. We say, “<em>generally</em>” because the comparative size of bone, on -the one hand, or the quantity of fat on the other, will make a very -considerable difference in the specific gravity of different parts of the -human body.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f41'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r41'>41</a>. See <i>Southey’s</i> Life of Nelson; and the New Monthly Magazine -for January, 1821.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f42'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r42'>42</a>. This was the opinion of <i>Boerhaave</i> and <i>Morgagni</i>. <i>M. Portal</i> also -coincides with them, and observes that the examination of the bodies -of executed criminals formerly carried to him at the <i>Jardin des Plantes</i> -for his lectures, has confirmed him in this idea.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f43'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r43'>43</a>. See 3 <i>Foderè</i>, 130.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f44'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r44'>44</a>. See several cases cited by <i>Foderè</i>, T. 3. p. 134.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f45'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r45'>45</a>. Memoires de l’Academie Royale, &c. 1704.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f46'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r46'>46</a>. State Trials, vol. xii.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f47'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r47'>47</a>. In consequence of plants, in the absence of the sun, giving off nitrogen -and carbonic acid gases, the custom of sleeping with flowers in the -bed chamber is deleterious, and may even, under certain circumstances -prove fatal; a melancholy proof of this occurred in October, 1814, at -Leighton-Buzzard, in Bedfordshire. “<i>Mr. Sherbrook</i> having frequently -had his pinery robbed, the gardener determined to sit up and watch. -He accordingly posted himself with a loaded fowling piece, in the -green-house, where it is supposed he fell asleep, and in the morning -was found dead upon the ground, with all the appearance of suffocation, -evidently occasioned by the discharge of <i>Mephitic</i> gas from the -plants during the night.” <cite>Observer</cite> of 16th, and <cite>Times</cite> of 17th October, -1814; see also <i>Currie’s</i> “Observations on Apparent Death,” &c. p. 181.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f48'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r48'>48</a>. <i>Rozier</i> and <i>Sir Humphrey Davy</i> conclude from their experiments -that carbonic acid kills by exciting a spasmodic action, in which the -epiglottis is closed, and the entrance of this fluid into the lungs altogether -prevented. <i>Dr. Babington</i> appears to entertain a different opinion, -(see “a case of exposure to the vapour of burning charcoal,” -Medico-Chirurg. Trans. vol. 1, p. 83,) and asks how we shall explain -the fact, that the loss of irritability in the muscles of animals which have -been destroyed by immersion in noxious airs, is comparatively greater -than in such as are hanged or drowned, unless we suppose that the carbonic -acid exerts a deleterious influence on the nervous and muscular -systems? The farther consideration of this subject will be more properly -entertained under the head of poisons.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f49'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r49'>49</a>. Comparative anatomy would furnish us with a variety of beautiful -arguments, if it were necessary, to support these views. The bird -whose muscular exertion is so great during its flight, is provided with a -more than ordinary extent of pulmonary apparatus; and amongst insects -we find that many of the <i>coleopterous</i> species disclose avenues of air, -in the act of flying, which, in their quiet state, are closed by the cases -of their wings, thus procuring for themselves a larger supply of oxygen, -at a period when from their exertions they most require it. Flat fish -who, having no swimming bladder, remain at the bottom, and possess -but little velocity, have gills that are quite concealed, while those who -encounter a rude and boisterous stream, as trout, perch, or salmon, -have them widely expanded. For further observations upon this subject, -the author begs to refer to his paper in the 10th vol. of the Linnean -Transactions, entitled “On the Physiology of the Egg,” by <i>J. A. Paris, -M. D.</i> &c.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f50'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r50'>50</a>. This was the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">peine fort & dure</span></i> of our ancient law, which was inflicted -on prisoners who stood mute out of malice, or who feigned themselves -mad, or challenged peremptorily more than the number of Jurors -allowed by law, thus refusing their legal trial. “The manner of inflicting -this punishment may be best found from the Books of Entries and -other law books, all of which generally agree, that the prisoner shall -be remanded to the place from whence he came, and put into some -low dark room, and there laid on his back without any manner of -covering, except for the privy parts, and that as many weights be laid -upon him as he can bear and more, and that he shall have no manner -of sustenance but the worst bread and water, and that he shall not eat -the same day in which he drinks, nor drink the same day on which he -eats, and that he shall so continue till he die.” Some authorities say -till he answers. See 2 <i>Hawk. P. C.</i> 330. <i>c.</i> 30. § 16. 4 <i>Bl. Com.</i> <i>p.</i> 319. -<i>Jac.</i> Law Dict. tit. Mute. The memory of this barbarous punishment -remains “as a monument of the savage rapacity with which the lordly -tyrants of feudal antiquity hunted after escheats and forfeitures,” for -when the criminal died mute, the lord in some cases lost his escheat; -(see 4 <i>Bl. Com.</i> 323). But its execution is no longer permitted by our -laws. By Stat. 12 <i>Geo.</i> 3. c. 20, sentence may be passed on those who -stand mute as if they had been found or pleaded guilty.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f51'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r51'>51</a>. This, however, can but rarely occur; and it seems to have been -wisely ordained by Nature, that the stomach should lose the power of -rejecting its contents, whenever the brain loses its sensibility. See <i>Paris’s</i> -Pharmacologia, edit. 5, vol. 1, p. 150.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f52'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r52'>52</a>. Manuscript Notes.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f53'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r53'>53</a>. <i>Dr. Badenoch</i> has very satisfactorily shewn that the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Coup de Soleil</span></i> -kills by producing apoplexy.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f54'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r54'>54</a>. This does not hold universally, for <i>Beccaria</i> mentions the case of -a man whose body became exceedingly stiff, very shortly after having -been struck dead by lightning;—and in one of Mr. <i>Brodie’s</i> experiments, -the muscles of a Guinea pig killed by electricity became stiff.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f55'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r55'>55</a>. Manuscript Notes.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f56'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r56'>56</a>. <i>Mayer</i> directed his attention very particularly to the appearances -which were thus produced, and had drawings made of them. It would -appear that they most commonly passed in the direction of the spine.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the First Volume of the Philosophical Transactions, there is an -account of the dissection of a man killed by lightning, but it contains -nothing remarkable.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f57'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r57'>57</a>. See also an account of a thunder-storm, by Mr. <i>Brydone</i>, in the -77th vol. of Phil. Trans.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f58'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r58'>58</a>. <i>Morgagni</i> de Sedibus et Causis Morb. Epist. 68. No. 6 and 7.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f59'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r59'>59</a>. <i>Hippocrat.</i> Aphor. 13. Sect. 2.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f60'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r60'>60</a>. Osservaz: intorno agli Anim. viventi, etc. No. 3 et 4.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f61'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r61'>61</a>. This event occurred during the period of the author’s studies at -Cambridge; and he can therefore offer his testimony to the truth of -the statement; he visited the woman soon after her disinterment.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f62'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r62'>62</a>. See Vol. i. p. 369.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f63'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r63'>63</a>. Starving to death was a punishment inflicted by the people of -Aragon, some years ago; and it is reported by <i>Tavernier</i>, that the chief -ladies in the kingdom of Tonquin, are at this day starved to death for -adultery. The severity of the Roman law on an unchaste Vestal has -often exercised the pencil of the artist. An account of its execution on -<i>Rhea</i>, marked as it always was by circumstances of peculiar horror and -solemnity, is to be found in <i>Plutarch’s</i> Life of <i>Numa</i>; the offender, conducted -by a mute procession across the Forum to the place of her interment -near the Colline gate, was made to descend a ladder into the sepulchre, -and left there with a lamp, a loaf of bread, and a cruse of -water, the opening being immediately closed with earth and stones.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f64'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r64'>64</a>. Corsican Gazette, and London Med. & Phys. Jour. March, 1822.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f65'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r65'>65</a>. The siege of Jerusalem by the Romans will at once occur to -the reader; and of which <i>Josephus</i> has left us so tragic a history: -amongst other atrocities, an unhappy woman, reduced to the last extremity -by pinching hunger, sacrifices the feelings of a mother to the -voracious calls of appetite, butchers her child, and feeds upon the body!</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f66'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r66'>66</a>. See “Naufrage de la Frégate la Méduse, faisant partie de l’Expedition -du Sénégal en 1816,” par <i>F. B. Savigny</i>, ex Chirurgien de la -Marine, et <i>Alexandre Corréard</i>, Ingénieur-Geographe. Paris, 1817.—A -very interesting account of this narrative may be found in the Quarterly -Review, for October, 1817.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f67'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r67'>67</a>. That which we call duration is in fact a feeling of succession, and -is computed by the number of ideas that pass through the mind; whenever -an event occurs which powerfully excites the attention of an observer, -he watches the most minute change, whence he believes that the -time which elapses before the whole event is completed, appears to be -unusually prolonged. When the infidel sultan of Egypt refused to believe -that Mahomet could have ascended into the seven heavens, and have -held some thousand conferences with the Almighty in the space of a few -minutes, the learned mussulman, who was consulted on the occasion, -endeavoured to turn his Majesty to a more strict faith, by demonstrating -to him that a short period of time became converted into a long one, -when a great multitude of important events were crouded into it.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f68'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r68'>68</a>. In a tract entitled “Observations on Animal Life and Apparent -Death, by <i>John Franks</i>, surgeon, 8vo. London, 1790,” the author says -that “when the late <i>Mr. Justamond</i> (Surgeon to the Middlesex hospital) -lived on the terrace, Palace yard, Westminster, a boy who had been -drowned in the Thames was brought to him; he made an opening into -the wind-pipe, in order to inflate the lungs; but the discharge of blood -which ensued was such as gave him no chance of succeeding in the recovery; -for he could not prevent the blood from pouring down into the -lungs.” Although, says <i>Dr. Currie</i>, nothing is said in this case about -the pulse, yet from the blood flowing so copiously, there is reason to -believe that the heart had begun to act; and therefore to conclude, that -life was in fact <em>destroyed</em> by this operation, which <em>might</em> have been saved -without it. See “Observations on Apparent Death from Drowning, -Hanging, Suffocation by noxious vapours, &c.” by <i>James Currie</i>, M.D. -London, 1815.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f69'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r69'>69</a>. The first body galvanised in this country was that of the malefactor -<i>George Foster</i>, who was executed in January 1803, before Newgate, for -the murder of his wife and infant daughter, by drowning them in the -Paddington Canal; the experiment was conducted under the direction -of <i>Aldini</i>, the nephew of <i>Galvani</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f70'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r70'>70</a>. <cite>Medico-Chirurg. Trans.</cite> vol. 1, p. 26.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f71'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r71'>71</a>. Elements of Juridical or Forensic Medicine.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f72'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r72'>72</a>. Newgate Calendar.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f73'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r73'>73</a>. See <cite>Maclaurin’s Crim. Ca.</cite> <i>p. 71.</i> where this circumstance is alluded -to.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f74'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r74'>74</a>. By the Scottish law, in part founded on that of the Romans, a -person against whom the judgment of the Court has been executed, -can suffer no more in future, but is thenceforward totally exculpated; -and it is likewise held, that the marriage is dissolved by the execution -of the convicted party. <i>Margaret Dickson</i> then, having been convicted -and executed, as above mentioned, the king’s advocate could prosecute -her no farther, but he filed a bill in the high court of Judiciary against -the sheriff, for omitting to fulfil the law. The husband of this revived -convict, however, married her publicly a few days after her resuscitation; -and she strenuously denied the crime for which she had suffered.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f75'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r75'>75</a>. The Lord Chief Justice of the King’s Bench is the principal -Coroner in the kingdom, and may, if he pleases, exercise the jurisdiction -of a coroner in any part of the Realm. 4 <i>Rep.</i> 57.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f76'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r76'>76</a>. Except in case of persons dying in jail, the Coroner must not hold -unnecessary inquests on the bodies of those who have died in the ordinary -course of nature. “And the Court of King’s Bench, on two -several occasions within my own memory, blamed the Coroners of -Norfolk and Anglesea, for holding repeated and unnecessary inquests, -for the sake of enhancing their fees, on bodies and parts of bodies -which were cast up by the sea shore, without the smallest probability -or suspicion of the deaths happening in any other manner than by the -unfortunate perils of the sea.” 1 <i>East. P.C.</i> 382. See <i>ib.</i> the case of -<i>Rex v. Harrison</i>, for extorting money for <em>not</em> holding an inquest.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f77'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r77'>77</a>. For this purpose the Coroner issues a precept to the constable of -such townships to return a competent number of jurors, viz. not less -than twelve. 2 <i>Hale, P.C.</i> 59. 62. 1 <i>East. P.C.</i> 380.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f78'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r78'>78</a>. But this power should be used with discretion. On a late occasion, -the Judge severely reprobated the conduct of a magistrate, who -had committed a poor lad to await the assizes, in company of notorious -thieves and other desperate characters, because he had been the innocent -witness of a felony, and was too poor to find recognizance.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f79'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r79'>79</a>. Thus in the case of Sir <i>Edmondsbury Godfrey</i>, much blood might -have been spared, and much political controversy avoided, if it had -been possible to determine whether the murder had taken place in the -field where the body was found, or at Somerset House, as charged -by witnesses who afterwards confessed their perjury.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f80'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r80'>80</a>. “It is true that the statute does in terms only require the coroner -to put in writing <em>the effect</em> of the evidence. But this must not be taken -to give him a latitude, such as hath been but too often taken by persons -of this description to the great perversion of truth and justice, of -putting down, not the words of the witnesses, but his own conception -of their tendency. It is doubtless the meaning of the act, that the examination -of the witnesses should be taken down with the greatest -possible accuracy as to all material points of the inquiry: otherwise -one great benefit of the act, which is to enable the Court to compare -the examination with the evidence, must be defeated. <em>The effect</em> mentioned -therein, means the true and genuine sense of the evidence, as -delivered in detail, not indeed in letters, syllables, or even words; -though these should not be needlessly departed from; but the fair and -obvious meaning of the words spoken, and not the final result of the -evidence. Complaints have in my own memory been made by judges -on the circuits of the culpable neglect of coroners in this respect, and -threats of exemplary punishment holden out to them, to prevent a -repetition of the same abuse in future.” 1 <i>East. P.C.</i> 384.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f81'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r81'>81</a>. It must be on the actual view of the body, the coroner and his -party seeing it together. 2 <i>Hale</i> 60. 1 <i>East.</i> 380. <i>King v. Ferrand.</i> 2 -<i>Barn. & Ald.</i> 260.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was evidently the original intention of the Legislature, that the -coroner should view the body on the spot where it was found; that he -and his jury might judge as well by inspection of the body, as by an -examination of surrounding objects, whether the deceased had died by -violence. And Sir <i>William Blackstone</i> says, “He must also sit at the -<em>very</em> place where the death happened,” 1 <i>Com.</i> 348. and this should -certainly be done in all possible cases, for the state of surrounding -objects most frequently will testify more strongly than any other evidence. -Modern fastidiousness has introduced the custom of removing -the body to some public-house, even where the death had happened in -an ordinary dwelling; this if not illegal, is at least improper.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f82'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r82'>82</a>. See also the proceedings on the Oldham inquest, and the subsequent -judgment in the Court of King’s Bench. <i>A.D.</i> 1818, 1819. The -<i>King against Ferrand</i>, 2 <i>Barn & Ald.</i> 260.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f83'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r83'>83</a>. This was publicly disputed on a late occasion; it is well to question -all extra-judicial dicta, which may be delivered during the heat of -political controversy.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f84'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r84'>84</a>. The evidence must be on oath; <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide ante</span></i> <i>p.</i> <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f85'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r85'>85</a>. In <i>Scorey’s</i> case, <i>Leach C. L.</i> 50. the coroner refused to take the -evidence of a man who had accompanied the accused in search of -deer-stealers, and only admitted the man who was with the deceased. -The coroner, on the testimony of this man, told the jury, that the -crime was murder, but they refused to find any other verdict than -<i>Accidental death</i>; which verdict the coroner recorded, and then by his -warrant sent <i>Scorey</i> to the county goal for murder.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Scorey</i> being now brought up by Habeas Corpus—The Court, on full -affidavit of the fact, admitted him to bail, and granted a rule against -the coroner to shew cause why an information should not be filed -against him.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f86'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r86'>86</a>. There are many cases in which there is no substance which can -be made the subject of deodand; as in death by poison or by explosions -in mines, either from inflammable gas, or the powder used in blasting. -The first of these cases calls for immediate remedy; as the instances of -fatal substitution of poison for medicine occur continually, notwithstanding -the repeated warnings published on the subject. Nor are -accidents in mines less worthy of attention; ordinary precaution might -have prevented many which have lately taken place. The Safety lamp -of Sir <i>H. Davy</i> is so firmly established in reputation, that no doubts -can be entertained of its efficacy; some late inventions also have secured -the miner from the numerous disasters to which he is liable in -the dangerous operation of blasting. When the conductors of mines -neglect these ordinary and well-known precautions, they become morally -responsible for any mischief which may consequently occur; we -have only to lament that they are not legally answerable for their -criminal neglect.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f87'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r87'>87</a>. With respect to a second inquest, the law is thus laid down -(3 <i>Barn. & Ald.</i> 266.) So also he (the coroner) may dig up the body, -if the first Inquisition be quashed. <i>Str.</i> 533. But it must be by order -of the Court of King’s Bench, on motion, <i>Str.</i> 167. And the judges -will exercise their discretion, according to the <em>time</em> and circumstances, -whether he shall or shall not do it. <i>Salk.</i> 377. <i>Str.</i> 22. 533. 2 <i>Mod.</i> 16.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f88'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r88'>88</a>. It is not for us in this place to argue the question whether excessive -severity of punishment does or does not defeat its punishment; as -more injury is done by inducing that illegal mercy which is here complained -of, than benefit is derived by terror of the unexecuted sentence -of the law: the subject is in abler hands; we shall, therefore, content -ourselves with suggesting, that coroners should be far more strict in -their examination of the bodies of persons supposed to be <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">felo de se</span></i>; nay, -that anatomical inspection of the great cavities should be absolutely required -in all cases. We will not maintain with a French author on Medical -Jurisprudence, that the signs of insanity can often be discovered -on dissection; though we can imagine some cases, as where there has -been an excessive determination of blood to the brain, in which this inspection -may be satisfactory; (See vol. 1, p. 327). <i>Fourcroy</i> and <i>Durande</i> -have also found, on dissecting persons who had committed suicide, -hardness of the liver, and gall stones; and <i>Foderé</i> observes that, in failure -of other evidence, such appearances deserve to carry some weight. -But benefit would still result from the practice; first from the general -horror in which dissection is held, for if the dread of an ignominious -burial, however remote the chance of its infliction, can be supposed -to discourage this offence, under the existing law, the certainty of -personal mutilation would operate in the proposed alteration. It is related, -that when suicide had become so frequent among the Roman -ladies, as to threaten ill effects to the commonwealth, the Senate decreed -that the bodies of all who died by their own hands should be exposed -naked in the public ways.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The effect of the decree was an immediate cessation of the crime; -possibly the same result might be produced by the dread of dissection.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f89'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r89'>89</a>. Al sessions al Newgate post natalem dom. 1604, 2 <i>Jac.</i> Le case -fuit que en home et se feme ayant longe temps vive incontinent ensemble, -le homme ayant consume son substance et cressant en necessity, dit -al feme que il fuit weary de son vie, et qu’il voiloit luy m occider, a que -la feme dit que donques el voiloit auci moryer ove luy: per que le -home praya la feme que el voiluit vaar et acheter ratisbane, et ils voilont -ceo beber ensemble, le quel el fist, et el ceo mist en le drink, et ils -bibe ceo, mes la feme apres prist sallet oyle, per que el vomit et fuit recover, -mes le home morust: et le question fuit si ceo fuit murther en la -feme. <i>Montague</i> recorder cause l’especial matter d’estre trove: <i>quære</i> le -resolucion. <i>F. Moore</i>, 754.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f90'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r90'>90</a>. Vide ante, tit. Coroner’s Inquest.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f91'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r91'>91</a>. Decency and public policy require that burials should not be delayed, -and it may not be amiss here to observe that the old notion of arresting -a body for debt, is now utterly exploded, as contrary not only -to the civil and canon law, (see <cite>Wood’s Civ. Law</cite>, 148; 2 <i>Domat</i> 628: -<i>Lindw.</i> 278,) but to reason and the law of the land. Vide ante, Vol. 1. -p. 100.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f92'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r92'>92</a>. It is said that to act upon the mind by terror, continual griefs or -vexations, though with the intent to kill, is not murder, unless there -be some personal violence, 1 <i>East. P. C.</i>, <i>p.</i> 225: but query this, the proof -of the crime may be difficult, but its perpetration is far from impossible. -To act on the mind of a pregnant woman by extreme terrors, and so -produce abortion and death of malice prepense, would certainly be -murder in its most atrocious form; it might require some ingenuity in -framing the indictment; but our law is fertile in fictions on less worthy -occasions, and ought not to allow its just vengeance to be avoided. In -cases of murder by starvation there may be no actual violence, yet the -law reaches this offence; sometimes indeed imprisonment forms a part -of the crime, but this may not always be the case; for if the deceased -were confined to his bed by disease, so that he could not seek his own -food, and those who were bound to supply him maliciously neglected -their duty, it would be murder by omission without any personal -violence committed. <i>See</i> <i>Self’s</i> case, 1 <i>East. P. C.</i> 226: 1 <i>Leach, C.C.</i> -163, and authorities there. So in an indictment for starving a servant, -<i>Lawrence</i>, J. intimated, that he thought the indictment insufficient, in -not alleging <em>that Elizabeth Williams was a girl of tender years, and under -the dominion and controul of the defendant</em>. <i>Rex v. Eliz. Ridley</i>, 2 <i>Camp. R.</i> -650. See also <i>Regina v. Gould. Salk.</i> 381.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f93'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r93'>93</a>. “Such also was the case of the parish officers who shifted a child -from parish to parish, till it died for want of care and sustinence.” 1 -<i>East. P. C.</i> 226, and authorities there. Unfortunately this species of -crime is not of very rare occurrence; numerous instances might be cited -where the death of a pauper has been caused by the barbarous custom of -removing the poor, without the slightest regard to their age, disease, -or infirmity.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f94'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r94'>94</a>. As we are not aware of the existence of any poisonous filth so -noxious as to destroy by its mere stench, we shall not enlarge on this -head; we have indeed heard of an attempt to kill by the smoke of burning -Euphorbium, but without believing in its power. <i>Vide ante tit. -Nuisance, et post, Aerial poisons.</i></p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f95'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r95'>95</a>. In this case it is not necessary that there should be any signs or -even suspicion of violence; the bare fact that they died in gaol is enough.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f96'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r96'>96</a>. One half of the jury should be of the prisoners, 1 <i>East P. C.</i> 383, -for they are most likely to know if any unnecessary hardship had been -inflicted on the deceased.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f97'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r97'>97</a>. The learned Reporter does not appear to have adverted to the -distinction between epidemic and contagious distempers. See vol. 1, -p. 105.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f98'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r98'>98</a>. It is to be feared that grand juries will discontinue their salutary -custom of visiting the prisons, in consequence of a recent decision that -they have no right to demand admission. As the propriety of their inspection -is generally granted, we may venture to hint a wish that some -enactment may pass on this subject, and that the temporary political -objection, arising out of the seclusion of state prisoners, may not be -permitted to operate as a general and permanent obstacle. It is to the -zeal of individuals in tracing abuses, rather than to legislative enactment -for their prevention, that we look for the still necessary improvements -of our prison discipline; for no government, however vigilant, -can guard against the secret misconduct of its obscurer agents; all it -can do, is to encourage enquiry, whenever the first hint of delinquency -or even of suspicion is communicated. The subject is now under legislative -consideration, and we may therefore hope that a due system may -be adopted, one which shall equally steer clear of the wasteful expenditure -of the Millbank Penitentiary, and the enormities imputed to -Ilchester: that prisons may be made places of confinement, coercion, -and punishment; but not of torture, contagion, and despair.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The improvement in morals, order, and cleanliness introduced into -some prisons by the exertions of a benevolent individual (<i>Mrs. Fry</i>) -deserves our notice; her attention indeed has been mainly directed to -the mental and religious instruction of female prisoners, but this mental -improvement is not without its effect on their bodily health; order, -temperance, and cleanliness, will always produce a physical as well as -moral improvement on the minds and persons of the lower orders.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f99'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r99'>99</a>. A similar calamity occurred in Dublin in 1776, when the sheriff, -several counsellors, and others, fell victims to this disease. Gents. -Mag. The death of the late Judge <i>Osborne</i> also is attributed to an ill-ventilated -court.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f100'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r100'>100</a>. The law does not appear to have made any sufficient provision -for the (not improbable) contingency of a highly infectious disorder -breaking out in any prison, yet it is evidently unjust that a prisoner for -a debt of <em>one shilling!</em> or any other sum, should be exposed to the hazard -of his life by remaining in contact with the infected, (see <i>Buxton’s</i> -Inquiry.) Formerly the writ of <i>Habeas Corpus</i> was granted on such occasions, -but abuses having arisen it was ultimately referred to the judges -to consider the legality of this application of the writ, who decided -against it; adding, however, that in case of great infection some house -in some good town might be assigned for the warden of the Fleet, and -the like for the marshal of the King’s Bench, where they might keep -their prisoners <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sub arcta et salva custodia</span></i>. <i>Hutt.</i> 129. But query, how far -this course would be applicable to other prisons?</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f101'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r101'>101</a>. The learned <i>Jacob Bryant</i> lost his life from mortification in his leg, -originating in the slight circumstance of a rasure against a chair, in the -act of reaching a book from a shelf.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f102'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r102'>102</a>. See “An account of a case of recovery, after an extraordinary -accident, by which the shaft of a chaise had been forced through the -thorax.” by William Maiden; London, 1812.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f103'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r103'>103</a>. Memoires de l’Acad. Royale. 1705.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f104'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r104'>104</a>. Med. Polit. P. 1. C. 1.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f105'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r105'>105</a>. <i>Hebenstreit</i> observes that if a man is wounded by two different persons, -one of whom stabs in the side, the other in the belly, it becomes -necessary after death to ascertain of which wound the deceased died, in -order that the actual murderer may be punished. By the law of England -this question can never arise.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f106'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r106'>106</a>. The bites of venomous animals will be considered under the head -of Poisons.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f107'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r107'>107</a>. This trial is the more remarkable as forming one of the numerous -persecutions to which the prisoner claimant of the Annesley Peerage -was subjected by the rancour of his opponent; for the other proceedings -<i>see State Trials</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f108'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r108'>108</a>. Poisoning, in war, is even considered by the law of nations as -more odious than assassination, of this <i>Grotius</i> (lib. iii. c. 4.) has enlarged. -It was a maxim of the Roman senate, that war was to be carried on by -arms, and not by poison (<i>Aul. Gell. Nat. Altico.</i> lib. iii. c. 8.). Even <i>Tiberius</i> -rejected the proposal made by the Prince of the Catti, that if poison -was sent to him, he would destroy <i>Arminius</i>; he received for answer, -that the Roman people chastised their enemies by open force, without -having recourse to wicked practices and secret machinations (<i>Val. Max.</i> -1. iv. c. 5.)</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f109'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r109'>109</a>. See also 4 <i>Co. R.</i> case of <i>Vaux</i>, who was executed for poisoning -with Cantharides. “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Persuadebat eundem Nichol’ recipere et bibere -quemdam potum mixtum cum quodam veneno vocat cantharides, affirmans -et verificans eidem Nichol’ quod præd’ potus sic mixtus cum -præd’ veneno vocat’ canth’ non fuit intoxicatus</span> (Anglice poisoned) -<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sed quod per reception’ inde præd’ Nich’ exit’ de corpore dictæ Margaretæ -tunc uxoris suæ procuraret et haberet.</span>” It is to be hoped that -the age of Philtres and love powders is passed.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f110'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r110'>110</a>. At Warwick Assizes, 18 <i>Eliz.</i> <i>John Saunders</i> and <i>Alexander Archer</i> -were indicted for the wilful murder of <i>Eleanor Saunders</i>, an infant of 3 -years of age, daughter of the first prisoner. <i>Saunders</i> wishing to get rid -of his wife consulted <i>Archer</i>, by whose advice he gave her (being ill) -a roasted apple, with which he had mixed <i>arsenic</i> and <i>roseacre</i>. She ate -a small part of it, and in his presence gave the remainder to the infant, -for which <i>Saunders</i> reprehended her, saying apples were not good for -such children, but he permitted the child to swallow the poison, lest he -should be suspected. He was condemned and executed, but a point -was reserved as to the guilt of his accomplice <i>Archer</i>, for which, see -<i>Plowden’s Rep.</i> 474.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f111'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r111'>111</a>. The study of poisoning appears to have been of considerable antiquity. -<i>Ulysses</i> sought poison for his weapons from <i>Ilus</i>, “φαρμακον ανδροφονον” -Od. 1. 1. v. 261; but the conscientious pharmacopolist refused -to furnish his dangerous preparations to the wily chief.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f112'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r112'>112</a>. Taciti Annal: Lib: iv. c. 8.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f113'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r113'>113</a>. Hist: Plant. Lib: ix. c. 16, p. 189.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f114'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r114'>114</a>. Lib: viii, c. 18.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f115'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r115'>115</a>. For the ingenious mode in which this poison was administered, -see <i>Tacitus</i>. The prince having called for a cup of wine, it was purposely -presented too hot; he desired cold water to be added to it, and -the opportunity was then taken to infuse the poison. By this stratagem -the taster (“calida gelidæque minister.” <i>Juv. Sat.</i> v. <i>v.</i> 63.) escaped its -effects, in which he must otherwise have participated with <i>Britannicus</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f116'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r116'>116</a>. The reader will find a very interesting account of this diabolical -woman in <cite>Labat’s Travels through Italy</cite>, and also in <cite>Beckman’s History of -Inventions</cite>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f117'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r117'>117</a>. <i>Hoffman</i> Medicin. Rational.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f118'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r118'>118</a>. This story, if we mistake not, suggested to the successful author -of Kenilworth, the tragic death of his Alchymist.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f119'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r119'>119</a>. The belief in the possibility of poisoning by the vestments is very -ancient, as is shewn by the fabled death of Hercules.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line in12'>----“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Capit inscius heros:</span></div> - <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Induiturque humeris Lernææ virus Echidnæ.</span></div> - <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">-----------------------------------------</span></div> - <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">-----------------------------------------</span></div> - <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Incaluit vis illa mali; resolutaque flammis;</span></div> - <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Herculeos abiit late diffusa per artus.</span>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='c006'><i>Ovid. Metam. Lib.</i> ix. <i>v.</i> 157.</div> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f120'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r120'>120</a>. Quæst. Med. Leg.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f121'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r121'>121</a>. <i>Sir Edward Coke in the trial of Sir John Hollis.</i></p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f122'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r122'>122</a>. <i>Bacon’s</i> works, vol. ii. p. 614.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f123'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r123'>123</a>. “επιφερεν οιδηματα σωματος, μετα ωχροτητος επιτεταμενης. δυσπνοειν και δυσωδια οδωδεναι το στομα, και λυγμος αυτοις επεται, ενιοτε δε και σπερματος απροαιρετος εκκρισις.”</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f124'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r124'>124</a>. 1. κωφος η αφθογγος; 2. φωνητικος.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f125'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r125'>125</a>. Instit. Mater. Medic. p. 176.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f126'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r126'>126</a>. <cite>Manuale di Tossicologia</cite>, p. 79. 245.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f127'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r127'>127</a>. See also <cite>Istituzioni di Med. For. di G. Tortosa</cite>, vol. 2. p. 67, and -authorities there cited.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f128'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r128'>128</a>. This fact may be illustrated by ancient as well as modern records; -from the poisoned tunic of the Centaur Nessus, to the treacherous powders -of the diabolical <i>Mary Bateman</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f129'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r129'>129</a>. <span class='sc'>Theophrast.</span> <i>Hist. Plant.</i> lx. c. 16. <span class='sc'>Strabo</span> mentions the action -of the <i>Lauro-cerasus</i>, as a poison, and observes that it occasions a death -like that of Epilepsy.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f130'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r130'>130</a>. All these substances were found in the casket of <i>Saint Croix</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f131'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r131'>131</a>. <i>Gerarde</i>, in his Herbal, considers the <i>Cymbalaria</i> to be the Pennywort -of which he describes two varieties, viz. the Wall-pennywort, and -the Water-pennywort; and he blames the “ignorant apothecaries,” -for using the latter instead of the former, as extremely dangerous and -destructive to life. Modern botanists consider it as an <i>Antirrhinum</i>,—A. -Cymbalaria. Lin. i. e. Ivy-leaved Toad-flax. We are not aware of -any part of this genus being poisonous. The <i>A. Linaria</i>, common Toad-flax, -appears to be the only one to which any medicinal virtues have -been ascribed. <i>Linnæus</i>, however, says (Flor. Suec.) that this plant is -used as a poison to flies.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f132'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r132'>132</a>. Man. de Toxicol.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f133'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r133'>133</a>. Hist. General de Venen. mineral.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f134'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r134'>134</a>. <span class='sc'>Boerhaave</span> gives us the following definition. “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Venenum dico omne -illud quod ingestum vel applicatum corpori, talem in corpore humano mutationem -excitat, quæ per ipsam eam mutationem non superatur. Medicamentum præterea -in eo differt, quod ipsa, quam facit mutatio, in sanitatem tendat, venenum vero -corpus mutat, ut ex sano ægrum fiat, aut cadaver.</span></i>” (Prælect. Acad. T. vi, p. -283.) <span class='sc'>Hoffmann</span> has furnished us with a definition less exceptionable -than the foregoing, but still inferior to that of <i>Gmelin</i>. “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alit natura res, -quæ exigua mole et summa partium tenuitate, brevi tempore, concentum atque ordinem -motuum vitalium pervertunt, vel plane destruunt; et hæ vocari solent Venena.</span></i>” -(M.R.S.T. II. p. 88.)</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f135'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r135'>135</a>. We have adopted this term, as one that has been in previous use, -although we are by no means satisfied that a more expressive word -might not be found.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f136'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r136'>136</a>. This case is detailed in his ‘Pharmacologia,’ under the article -<i>Cupri Sulphas</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f137'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r137'>137</a>. See an interesting paper by Dr. <i>Marcet</i>, in the 12th volume of the -Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, entitled, “<cite>Account of a man who lived -ten years after having swallowed a number of clasp knives.</cite>”</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f138'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r138'>138</a>. In the reign of <span class='sc'>Louis xiv</span>, <i>Henrietta</i>, Duchess of Orleans, is said -to have been poisoned by diamond-dust mixed with powdered sugar. -The same substance is enumerated among other extraordinary poisons, -as having been administered in the case of <i>Sir Thomas Overbury</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f139'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r139'>139</a>. Old women in the country recommend the same remedy for the -destruction of worms; probably the medicine and the poison may be -equally effective.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f140'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r140'>140</a>. Saggi Scientif. e letter dell’ Accademia di Padova. T. III. p. 11, p. 1.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f141'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r141'>141</a>. Chylologia.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f142'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r142'>142</a>. De Venenis.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f143'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r143'>143</a>. Comment. super Homicid. p. 177.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f144'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r144'>144</a>. Ratio Medendi. Part VI, p. 60.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f145'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r145'>145</a>. Hist. General de Venenis Mineral.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f146'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r146'>146</a>. Med. Leg. Tom. II. p. 170.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f147'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r147'>147</a>. Tom. II. p. 346.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f148'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r148'>148</a>. Man. de Toxicol.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f149'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r149'>149</a>. Fragmenta Chirurg. et Med. p. 66.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f150'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r150'>150</a>. Pharmacologia, Edit. v. vol. I. p. 324.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f151'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r151'>151</a>. See Medical Facts and Observations, Vol. v.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f152'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r152'>152</a>. See M. <i>Pouqueville’s</i> “Voyage de Morée,” also Mr. <i>Thornton’s</i> Travels; -and Notes to Lord <i>Byron’s</i> Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f153'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r153'>153</a>. M. R. S. T. iv. Part iii, p. 278.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f154'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r154'>154</a>. For the purpose of propitiating the favour of heaven, the alchymist -stamped the figure of the cross upon the vessel, in which he expected -to obtain the long sought prize that was to convert the baser metals -into gold, whence the term <i>Crucible</i> derived its origin. And when -the experiments of chemistry began to be considered as the true tests of -philosophical truth, the expression of “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Experimentum crucis</span></i>” was adopted -to signify the highest degree of proof of which a subject is susceptible.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f155'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r155'>155</a>. <i>Sydenham</i> considered the occurrence of cholera, as a disease in -England, to be confined to the month of August, at which time, says -he, it appears as certainly as swallows in the early spring, or cuckows -at the approach of summer; but he himself observed it to appear sometimes -towards the end of summer, when the season was unusually -warm; and that the violence of the disease was in proportion to the -degree of heat. <i>Note. Mrs. Downing</i> died in November, and <i>Miss -Burns</i>, whose case is so frequently alluded to in this work, in March.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f156'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r156'>156</a>. Youths and adults are more generally affected than children and -old persons.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f157'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r157'>157</a>. <i>Sydenham</i> describing the violent symptoms of cholera concludes by -observing, “and such like symptoms as frighten the by-standers, and -kill the patient in 24 hours.” Syd. Sect. iv, c. 2. It must be remembered -that <i>Sydenham</i> is here describing an extreme case. The unfortunate <i>Mrs. -Downing</i> (see Appendix, p. 277) died in fourteen hours!</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f158'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r158'>158</a>. See the case of <i>Mr. Robert Turner</i>, poisoned by <i>Eliz. Fenning</i>, as -related by <i>Mr. Marshall</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f159'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r159'>159</a>. See <i>Baillie’s</i> Morbid Anatomy.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f160'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r160'>160</a>. Opera Omnia Ch. iv, p. 34.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f161'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r161'>161</a>. De Causis et Signis. Lib. 1, c. 7.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f162'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r162'>162</a>. De Abdit. rerum Causis. Lib. ii, c. 15.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f163'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r163'>163</a>. De Sedibus, &c. Epist. 59, n. 16.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f164'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r164'>164</a>. Anthropolog: Forens. p. 523.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f165'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r165'>165</a>. De Signis Veneni dati Diagnosticis, n. 8.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f166'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r166'>166</a>. M. R. S. T. iv, p. 3, c. 8.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f167'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r167'>167</a>. Med. Forens. p. 169.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f168'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r168'>168</a>. Cours de Med. Leg. p. 248.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f169'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r169'>169</a>. Nouveau Ellem. de Therapeutiq. T. 1, p. 408.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f170'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r170'>170</a>. Med. Leg. T. 2, p. 225</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f171'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r171'>171</a>. Med. Leg. T. ii, p. 260.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f172'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r172'>172</a>. Œuvres de Medecine, T. 1, p. 69.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f173'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r173'>173</a>. De Cholica Pictonum, p. 37.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f174'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r174'>174</a>. See also <i>Sloane MSS.</i> Brit. Mus. 330: 9135. “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Venenum potest generari -in corpore.</span></i>”</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f175'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r175'>175</a>. Observations on Apparent Death from Drowning, &c. by <i>James -Currie</i>, M.D. p. 156.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f176'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r176'>176</a>. We are informed by <i>Tortosa</i> (Istituzioni di Med. For. vol. ii, p. -62) that a work has been published by a celebrated physician of Verona, -Rotario, in which the author attempts to establish a diagnosis by which -these symptoms may be distinguished. (Opere Med. p. 116.) We have -not been so fortunate as to obtain a sight of this work.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f177'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r177'>177</a>. Those who are desirous of becoming farther acquainted with the -history of this opinion may consult the “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Recherches et Considerations Medicales, -sur l’acide Hydro-cyanique, son radical, ses composés, et ses antidotes</span></i>,” par -<i>J. Coullon</i>, D. M. 1 vol. 8vo. 1819. <i>Dr. Granville</i> has also in his Treatise -on Hydrocyanic acid (edit. 2d 1820) alluded to this opinion, and to the -different authors who have supported it, p. 24. The reader will also find -a case by <i>Fourcroy</i>, (Annales de Chimie, tom. 1, p. 66) of a woman, of -about thirty years of age, who in consequence of protracted grief, laboured -under a nervous and melancholic affection; she became extremely -emaciated, and her livid paleness, and universal langour seemed to indicate -a depressed state of vitality, and a decomposition of the animal -fluids; after a few days she was seized with faintings and convulsions, -which were followed by the discharge of drops of blood from the edge -of the eye-lids, the nostrils, and the ears. The linen with which the -blood was wiped was marked with spots of a beautiful blue. Fourcroy -examined this matter, and concluded that the blood contained Prussiate -of iron.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f178'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r178'>178</a>. Anthropolog. Forens. p. 526.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f179'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r179'>179</a>. Edinburgh Medical Essays.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f180'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r180'>180</a>. Phil. Trans. A. D. 1772, “<cite>On the Digestion of the Stomach after -Death</cite>,” by <i>John Hunter</i>, F. R. S. and Surgeon to St. George’s Hospital.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f181'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r181'>181</a>. This phenomenon is frequently exhibited, in a very satisfactory -manner, by inferior animals who die suddenly. <i>Mr. Hunter</i> noticed it -particularly in fish.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f182'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r182'>182</a>. We allude to a highly interesting paper, to which we shall have -frequent occasion to refer in the progress of the present inquiry, entitled -“<cite>Observations on the Digestion of the Stomach after Death</cite>,” by <i>Allan -Burns</i>, Lecturer on Anatomy and Surgery in Glasgow. Edinburgh Med. -and Surg. Journ. for April, 1810.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f183'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r183'>183</a>. <i>Hunter’s</i> Observations on Digestion, p. 185.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f184'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r184'>184</a>. <i>Adams’s</i> Observations on Morbid Poisons, edit. 2, p. 30, where -he says “but for this purpose, <i>Mr. Hunter</i> saw that the animal must be -in health immediately before death, otherwise neither the quantity nor -quality of the secretion would be equal to the purpose; he was confirmed -in this by the instances in which he saw the stomach digested; -both were men who had died from a violent death; both had been previously -in sufficient health to eat a hearty meal. The fair inference -from these was, that when men die of disease, the appetite usually -ceases, and probably the secretion of the gastric juice also.”</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f185'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r185'>185</a>. <i>Burns</i>, loco citato.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f186'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r186'>186</a>. “It will generally be found that, where the coats of the stomach -are softened by the gastric juice, the vessels are unable to resist the -force of the syringe in injecting the body. In such subjects, therefore, -we find the cavity of the stomach filled with wax, and we likewise see -masses of it collected between the coats of the viscus.”</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f187'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r187'>187</a>. Mark this circumstance, for we shall have occasion to revert to -it, when we come to consider <em>the part</em> of the stomach which undergoes -solution from the action of the gastric juice.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f188'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r188'>188</a>. A case of extensive solution of the Stomach by the Gastric fluids, -after Death. By <i>John Haviland</i>, M. D. Regius Professor of Physic in -the University of Cambridge. Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical -Society, vol. 1, part ii, p. 287.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f189'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r189'>189</a>. He had taken, at intervals, a small quantity of port wine and -water.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f190'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r190'>190</a>. Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vol. iv.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f191'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r191'>191</a>. 1. “The trial of <i>Charles Angus, Esq.</i> for the murder of <i>Margaret -Burns</i>, taken in short hand by <i>William Jones</i>, jun. 8vo.” Liverpool, -pp. 1808, 288. Also</p> - -<p class='c000'>2. “A vindication of the opinions delivered in evidence by the medical -witnesses for the crown, on a late trial at Lancaster for murder, -8vo.” 1803.</p> - -<p class='c000'>3. “Remarks on a late publication, entitled “A Vindication of the -Opinions delivered in Evidence by the Medical witnesses for the Crown, -on a late trial at Lancaster.” By <i>James Carson, M.D.</i>”</p> - -<p class='c000'>4. “An Exposure of some of the false statements contained in <i>Dr. -Carson’s</i> pamphlet, entitled “Remarks, &c.” in a letter to that gentleman, -by <i>James Dawson</i>, Surgeon.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The suspicion against the prisoner, <i>Charles Angus</i>, was, that he had -endeavoured to procure a premature delivery, or abortion, by means of -an instrument resembling a long trochar, and that he had administered, -or been privy to the administration of certain drugs, which had occasioned -such effects upon the stomach of the deceased, as in the end produced -her death. The prisoner was a retired merchant, with two or -three children, with whom the deceased had lived as housekeeper and -governess. It appeared in evidence that improper familiarities had -been noticed between them, and that Miss <i>Burns</i> had, for some time, -appeared out of health, and that her abdomen was much increased in -size at the period when she was attacked with the symptoms which -preceded her death, and which, as we learn from the witnesses on the -trial, presented the following history.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The deceased was seen by the servants of the family at about six -o’clock, on Wednesday morning, the 23d of March, 1808, at which -time she was in her usual state of health; but replied to one of them, -who remarked her having risen earlier than usual, that she could -not sleep. She was next seen by the servants at a quarter before nine, -sitting at breakfast with <i>Mr. Angus</i>, but apparently very ill; after -breakfast she was lying on a sofa complaining of a pain in her bowels, -but she was not then sick. On moving about afterwards, she held by -the chair, as if from pain, and about an hour and a half after breakfast, -she ordered some water gruel, of which she drank nearly three quarts in -the course of the day, being very <a id='thi'></a>thirsty, and in considerable pain, and -so sick as to reject the gruel almost as soon as it was taken. The matter -vomited was described by the house-maid as being, at first, very -black, but becoming, towards the last, of a green colour; the kitchen -maid, however, described it as being in the first instance of a green colour, -<a id='wit'></a>with yellow pieces in it resembling the inside of an orange, or the -yolk of an egg, and as turning blacker after it ceased to be green. -While thus retching, <i>Miss Burns</i> observed to the house-maid, “Oh, -Betty, what bile comes off my stomach! I wish I had taken an emetic -long since.” On the servants going to bed that night, she seemed very -poorly, but did not complain to them.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On Thursday morning, at six o’clock, she was lying, as she had been -left the night before, on the sofa, with pillows under her head; she complained -that she was very thirsty; said she was tired of gruel, and had -some water posset, and a little warm beer. She also complained that -she was badly hurt to make water; but was relieved by sitting on a -sliced onion, with some boiling water poured over it. Her vomiting -was now of a blacker colour, and she continued sick and vomiting all -day, till towards evening, when the sickness went off, and she appeared -better, and could stir more about.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On Friday morning, at four o’clock, the house-maid went into the -room, and thought her much worse, as she breathed quicker than before. -She was seen again at six in much the same state, and lying in the same -posture on the sofa; she asked for some warm beer, which settled on her -stomach, and she also took about a pint of gruel; she said that the pain -had left her. Her vomiting had ceased, but was succeeded by a “<i>lax</i>,” -which continued all the morning. A little before ten, the house-maid -was sent out for some Madeira, <i>Miss Burns</i> having expressed a wish for -some. Between the hours of ten and eleven, the kitchen maid was in -the room, and received orders about dinner; and <i>Miss Burns</i> said she -would have some barley water. On the return of the house-maid, -about eleven, she went straight into the parlour, where <i>Miss Burns</i> was -found lying dead in the corner, by the door, with her face against the -wall, “<em>cowered of a lump</em>,” her elbows upon her knees, and one foot -“<em>crudled</em>” under her; <i>Mr. Angus</i>, who had nursed her throughout, sitting -in an arm chair, apparently so fast asleep that he was not roused -without difficulty. During the whole course of her illness, she did not -go to bed, but remained in the parlour, generally lying on a sofa. She -refused to have medical assistance; but <i>Mr. Angus</i> said that he had given -her seven drops of laudanum on one night, and ten on another, and -that on the morning of her death he had given her some castor oil, in -spirit, but that it came up immediately.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>REPORT OF THE DISSECTION.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>On Sunday the 27th of March, 1808, at noon, <i>Dr. Rutter</i> was desired -by the Coroner of Liverpool to take with him an experienced surgeon to -the house of <i>Mr. Charles Angus</i>, and there to examine the body of a -young lady who had died suddenly.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The examination was made at two o’clock the same day, by <i>Mr. Hay</i>, -a surgeon in Liverpool, with his apprentice, in company with <i>Dr. Rutter</i> -and <i>Dr. Gerard</i>; and the following report on the subject was presented -to the coroner in writing.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“On our arrival at the house, we were introduced into a parlour, -where we found <i>Mr. Angus</i>, with some other persons to us unknown; -and we delivered to him the note from the coroner as the authority -under which we acted. Upon perusing it, he expressed perfect willingness -that the examination should be made. We were then introduced -into the room up stairs, were the body of the deceased was laid. After -having removed the body, a small stain of blood was observed on the -sheet of the bed on which it had laid; and the pillow was stained with -a fluid which had issued from the head. The body being laid on a table, -a large quantity of a thin yellowish fluid poured out from the nostrils, -and was collected in vessels. No marks of external violence were discovered -on the body; nor was there any appearance of commencing putrefaction. -The nails of the fingers were of a bluish colour; and the -veins on the external surface of the <i>abdomen</i> or belly appeared to be much -enlarged. At this period we were joined by <i>Mr. Christian</i>, surgeon. -On opening the <i>abdomen</i>, a considerable quantity of fluid was found to -have been effused into that cavity, similar in colour and smell to that -which issued from the nostrils, but more turbid. Marks of inflammation -were found on the external or peritoneal coat of different portions -of the small intestines; but the large intestines were free from it. The -external coat of a part of the smaller curvature of the stomach was also -inflamed; and a similar appearance of inflammation was observed on a -small portion of the anterior edge of the liver, directly over the smaller -curvature of the stomach. On raising up the stomach, an opening -through its coats was found in the anterior and inferior part of its great -curvature; and from this opening a considerable quantity of a thick -fluid of a dark olive colour issued; of which fluid some ounces were -collected and preserved. The natural structure of the coats of the stomach -for a considerable space around this opening was destroyed; and -they were so soft, pulpy, and tender, that they <a id='tor'></a>tore with the slightest -touch. Around this part of the coats of the stomach, there were no -traces of inflammation whatever. The stomach was then taken out of -the body; and its inner surface was carefully washed; and the contents -washed out were preserved. A quantity, about three ounces, of a fluid -resembling that in the stomach, but not quite so thick, was also taken -out of one of the small intestines, and preserved.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“On examining the womb, it was found to be very considerably -enlarged, and, on its inner surface, the part to which the <i>Placenta</i>, or -after-birth, had adhered, was very plainly discernible. This part was -nearly circular, and occupied a space of about four inches in diameter. -The mouth of the womb was greatly dilated. In a word, the appearances -of the womb were such as might have been expected a few hours -after the birth of a child nearly full grown.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“The fluid taken out of the stomach and intestines, and cavity of the -<i>Abdomen</i>, as well as that collected from the nostrils, was taken away: -and, afterwards, in the course of the same day, examined, and subjected -to various trials, with a view to discover the presence of such mineral -substances as were likely to produce appearances or effects similar -to those which were found in the stomach of the deceased. In this examination, -we thought it right to request the assistance of <i>Dr. Bostock</i>. -The contents of the stomach were, as has already been mentioned, of a -dirty olive colour, thick, and of an acid smell. A considerable number -of large globules of a dark coloured, dense, oily fluid, floated upon -them; but no particular smell that we could discover. We could not -discover, in the contents of the stomach, by the smell, the presence of -any known vegetable substance, capable of producing deleterious effects -when introduced into it. The fluid contained in the stomach deposited -no sediment; nor was any but a mucous sediment found in the water -with which the inner surface of the stomach was washed. Upon subjecting -the contents of the stomach, in the state in which we found them, -to such tests as are deemed sufficient to detect the presence of any active -preparation of Mercury or Arsenic, we could not detect either of these -substances. The contents of the stomach were then filtered, and subjected -to the same trials, but with the same result. These trials were -made at <i>Dr. Bostock’s</i>, in the presence of <i>Dr. Gerard</i> and <i>Dr. Rutter</i>.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The substance of this report was afterwards delivered, in evidence, -on the trial; and the following additional circumstances stated.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“The preternatural opening in the stomach was larger than a crown -piece; but <i>Mr. Hay</i> thinks he may have increased it in drawing down -the stomach, as it was nearly in the centre of the disorganized portion, -where the coats were thin, soft, and semi-transparent. The stomach -was nearly full of the fluid described, but not distended. The intestines -also contained a great deal of a similar fluid; and the internal villous -coat of the duodenum was slightly inflamed, while its external coat -was also more inflamed than that of the other intestines.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>In consequence of the suspicious circumstances attending the death of -<i>Miss Burns</i>, <i>Charles Angus</i> was indicted for her murder; but, after a -trial which occupied the court from eight o’clock on Friday morning, -until three on Saturday, the 2d of September, 1808, the prisoner was -acquitted.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The medical defence, conducted by <i>Dr. Carson</i>, and which savoured -more of the ingenuity of the forensic pleader, than the justice of the -honest inquirer after truth, rested upon the following grounds, viz. 1. -The appearances of the stomach upon dissection are to be reconciled upon -the supposition of the dissolution of its coats having taken place, <em>after death</em>, -in consequence of the action of the gastric fluid. 2. The symptoms which -preceded death were not such as accompany corrosive poisoning. 3. -No poisonous substance was detected in the body. 4. The appearance -of the uterus does not justify the conclusion that a delivery had recently -taken place; such a dilated state of the organ, had it lately parted with -a placenta, must have occasioned death by hemorrhage, or it must -have been found gorged with coagulated blood. 5. The appearances -may be reconciled by supposing that an expulsion of hydatids had taken -place.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We must not omit to state, that in consequence of the intense interest -excited by this trial, the ovaria were subsequently examined, when a -<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">corpus luteum</span></i> was discovered.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We cannot conclude this account without expressing a regret that several -important sources of information should have been neglected. The -omitting to inspect the appendages of the uterus, to examine the œsophagus, -the chest, and the head, and to analyse the membranes of the stomach, -are instances of inattention, for which it is not easy to find an -excuse. May they furnish a salutary lesson for future anatomists.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f192'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r192'>192</a>. Med. Leg. vol. ii, p. 315.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f193'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r193'>193</a>. This appearance is particularly mentioned by <i>Juvenal</i> as an effect -of poison.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Per famam et populum <em>nigros</em> efferre maritos.</span>”—<i>Sat.</i> i, <i>v.</i> 72.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>The reader will remember, that we have already stated our opinion, -that the poisons of the ancients were of a vegetable origin.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f194'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r194'>194</a>. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dissertatio Inauguralis de effectibus Arsenici in varios Organismos, -nec non de Indicus quibusdam Veneficii ab Arsenicoillati. Quam præside</span> -<i>C. F. Kielmayer</i> publicé defendet, Jan. 1808, Auctor <i>Georg</i>: <i>Fred</i>: <i>Jäeger</i>, -Stuttgardianus. A very full analysis of this Essay was published by Dr. -<i>Siegwart</i> in <i>Gehlen’s</i> Chemical and Physical Journal; and which afterwards -found its way into the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, -no. xxv, Jan. 1811.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f195'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r195'>195</a>. Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journal, no. <span class='fss'>XX.</span></p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f196'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r196'>196</a>. Epist. lix, 3.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f197'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r197'>197</a>. <i>Patrick Ogilvy</i> and <i>Catharine Nairne</i> were indicted for incest, and -the murder, by Arsenic, of <i>Thomas Ogilvy</i>, brother of the said <i>Patrick</i>, -and husband of the said <i>Nairne</i>. This celebrated Scotch trial commenced -at Edinburgh, on Monday the 12th of August at seven in the morning, -and the court continued setting until about two on Tuesday morning, -when the Jury being inclosed, it adjourned until Wednesday at four -o’clock in the afternoon. They were both found guilty. After several -respites <i>Ogilvy</i> was executed. <i>Nairne</i> escaped from prison, and was -never afterwards heard of.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f198'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r198'>198</a>. Camp: Elys:</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f199'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r199'>199</a>. Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. no. xvii.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f200'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r200'>200</a>. Ibid. no. xxvi.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f201'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r201'>201</a>. Ibid. no. lxxi, for April, 1822.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f202'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r202'>202</a>. <i>Mr. Marshall</i>, in his account of the symptoms of <i>Mr. Robert Turner</i>, -who was poisoned by <i>Eliza Fenning</i>, states, “On examination I discovered -a very remarkable irregularity of surface, occasioned by the -spasmodic contractions of the muscles of the abdomen, and even of the -viscera; this unevenness extended from the epigastric region to the -pubes, and to the right and left hypochondrium.”</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f203'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r203'>203</a>. Nothing can be more strikingly illustrative of the characteristic -appearances which distinguish the effects of violence during life, from -those which result from putrefaction as described at page <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f204'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r204'>204</a>. The author refers the reader to the first volume of his <cite>Pharmacologia</cite>, -page 124, <i>note</i>. In addition to what he has there observed it may -be stated, that many fallacies have arisen in pharmacology, from deducing -conclusions respecting the effects of remedies upon inferior animals. -One example will suffice.—Several substances have gained the reputation -of Styptics, from the effects which have followed their application -to the wounded and bleeding vessels in the extremities of the horse and -ass; whereas the fact is that the blood-vessels of these animals possess a -power of contraction which does not exist in those of man, and to which -the cessation of the hemorrhage, fallaciously attributed to the styptic, -is to be wholly attributed.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f205'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r205'>205</a>. See Appendix, page 272.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f206'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r206'>206</a>. <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Toxocologie Générale considérée, sous les Rapports de la Physiologie, -de la Pathologie, et de la Medicine légale</span>. Paris, 1815. This -work has been faithfully translated into English by <i>John Walker</i>, in two -volumes. London, 1817.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f207'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r207'>207</a>. De Sed. et Caus. Morb. per Anat. indag. Epist. 59, 18.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f208'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r208'>208</a>. See the interesting trial of <i>Michael Whiting</i>, for administering poison -to <i>George</i> and <i>Joseph Langman</i>, of Downham, in the Isle of Ely, at -the Assizes holden at Ely on Wednesday, March 4th, 1822, before -<i>Edward Christian, Esq.</i> Chief Justice of the Isle. The prisoner was convicted -and executed.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f209'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r209'>209</a>. M. R. S. T. iv, P. iii, p. 278.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f210'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r210'>210</a>. “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Nous adoptons la division suivante, en six classes, de tous les -poisons connus, et de toutes les manières possibles par lesquelles les substances -vénéneuses peuvent nuire au corps humain: <span class='sc'>Poisons Septiques</span>—Poisons -<span class='sc'>Stupefians</span>, ou <span class='sc'>Narcotiques</span>—Poisons <span class='sc'>Narcotico-Acres</span>—Poisons -<span class='sc'>Acres</span>, ou <span class='sc'>Rubefians</span>—Poisons <span class='sc'>Corrosifs</span>, ou <span class='sc'>Escarotiques</span>—Poisons -<span class='sc'>Astringens</span></span>.”</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f211'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r211'>211</a>. <i>Belloc</i> surmises that where acrid poisons have been administered, -narcotics may have been taken to relieve pain; and thus that a sort of -combination of the symptoms of both classes may be produced.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f212'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r212'>212</a>. <span class='sc'>Pharmacologia.</span> Edit. 5th, vol. i, page 225, c. <i>Antidotes</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f213'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r213'>213</a>. Journal de Physiologie Experimentale, (1er numero Janvier 1821.)</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f214'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r214'>214</a>. The adoption of this term led to a very extraordinary error in -medicine—the application of Arsenic in the form of vapour, together -with the fumes of frankincense, myrrh, and other gums, in a paroxysm -of Asthma! This frightful practice arose from confounding the gum -Juniper, or Vernix of the Arabians, which by their medical writers was -prescribed in fumigations, under the name of Sandarach, for the -Σανδαρακη of the Greeks.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f215'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r215'>215</a>. <i>Orfila.</i> Toxicolog. General.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f216'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r216'>216</a>. Pharmacologia, edit. v, vol. 2, art. <i>Arsenici Oxydum</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f217'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r217'>217</a>. A very large quantity is annually prepared from the sublimate -which collects in the chimneys and flues of the smelting works and burning -houses in Cornwall. We have examined samples prepared according -to the improved process of Dr. <i>Edwards</i>, and found them to be perfectly -free from foreign admixture: a fact of much greater importance -than the reader may at first imagine. Those who require farther information -upon this subject may consult a paper in the first volume of the -<cite>Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall</cite>, by <span class='sc'>J. H. Vivian</span>, -Esq. entitled “<cite>Observations on the processes for making the different preparations -of Arsenic, which are practised in Saxony</cite>.”</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f218'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r218'>218</a>. <i>Bergman</i> ii, 286. We are, however, upon the authority of <i>Mr. -Richard Phillips</i>, inclined to consider this statement of its specific gravity -incorrect. He found that when transparent it did not exceed 3·715, and, -when opaque, 3·260.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f219'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r219'>219</a>. Vol. ii, p. 86.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f220'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r220'>220</a>. The chemist may satisfy himself of this fact by heating some arsenious -acid on a piece of platina foil, and then alternately raising and -depressing it into the blue flame of the spirit, when corresponding -changes in odour will take place in the fumes.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f221'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r221'>221</a>. See page <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, Note.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f222'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r222'>222</a>. See <i>Mr. Marshall’s</i> Remarks, &c.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f223'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r223'>223</a>. See the case reported by <i>Dr. Yelloly</i>, in the 5th volume of the -Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journal.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f224'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r224'>224</a>. Epist. 168.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f225'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r225'>225</a>. De Pest. Hist. 99. Annot.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f226'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r226'>226</a>. De Peste Lond. p. 239.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f227'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r227'>227</a>. Recueil Periodique de la Societé de Med. de Paris, tom. vi. p. 22.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f228'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r228'>228</a>. Nouveaux Elemens de Med. operat. par <i>J. P. Roux</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f229'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r229'>229</a>. Nouvelles Experiences sur les Contre-Poisons de l’Arsenic. Par -<i>Casimir Renault</i>. A. Paris. A. 9, pp. 119.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f230'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r230'>230</a>. A belief in this mode of poisoning appears to be of very -ancient origin. <span class='sc'>Calpurnius Bestia</span> was said by <i>Pliny</i> (Hist. Nat. -Lib. 27. Cap. 2.) to have been particularly skilled in such a process, -and to have murdered many of his wives when asleep, by -bathing the parts of generation with the juice of Aconite; and Dr. -<i>Gordon Smith</i>, in his work on Forensic Medicine, relates, on the authority -of <i>Schenckius</i>, the tragical death of <i>Ladislas</i>, or <i>Lancelot</i>, surnamed the -Victorious and the Liberal, who succeeded to the contested throne of -Naples in 1386, and died at the age of thirty-eight in great pain, in -consequence of having been poisoned by the daughter of a physician, -of whom he was passionately fond, <i>per concubitum</i>. Sir <i>Thomas Brown</i>, -in his <i>Vulgar Errors</i>, alludes to an ancient story of an “Indian king -that sent unto <i>Alexander</i> a fair woman, <em>fed with Aconites</em>, and other poisons, -with the intent that she either by converse or <em>copulation</em> might -destroy him.”</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f231'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r231'>231</a>. See page <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f232'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r232'>232</a>. <cite>Philosophical Transactions.</cite> 1811.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f233'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r233'>233</a>. M. <i>Orfila</i> observes that there are many cases of poisoning by arsenious -acid introduced into the stomach, in which we are unable to -discover the slightest appearance of erosion or inflammation in the alimentary -canal; such cases are recorded by <i>Chaussier</i>, <i>Etmuller</i>, <i>Marc</i>, -<i>Sallin</i>, and <i>Renault</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f234'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r234'>234</a>. We well remember performing some experiments at Cambridge, -many years ago, upon mildew, which as far as they went corroborate -this assertion of <i>Jaegar</i>, for its propagation was not prevented by -arsenic. See also “The effects of Arsenical fumes,” vol. I, p. 332.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f235'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r235'>235</a>. See Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journ. for January 1, 1811.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f236'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r236'>236</a>. Elements of Juridical Medicine, p. 76.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f237'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r237'>237</a>. Prestwich on Poisons.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f238'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r238'>238</a>. Pharmacologia, Edit. 5. vol. ii. p. 89.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f239'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r239'>239</a>. Medical Transactions, vol. vi, p. 414.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f240'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r240'>240</a>. See Appendix, page 277.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f241'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r241'>241</a>. This substance may be said to consist of Charcoal, in a state of -extremely minute division, and the sub-carbonate of Potass. It is prepared -by deflagrating, in a crucible, two parts of Super-tartrate of -Potass with one part of Nitrate of Potass.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f242'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r242'>242</a>. In order to close the end of the tube, where a blow-pipe is not to -be procured, (which, says <i>Dr. Bostock</i>, we may suppose upon these occasions -will often be the case) the end is to be placed in a common fire -until it is completely softened, and a pair of small tongs being at the -same time made red hot, the tube is to be withdrawn from the fire, and -the heated end pinched by the tongs, and at the same time bent up at -an acute angle, so as to be brought parallel to the body of the tube. The -tube is then to be heated a second time, and being again firmly pinched -by the hot tongs, the end will be found to be completely impervious.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f243'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r243'>243</a>. <i>Dr. Bostock</i> states that the best proportions for this coating are, -one part of common pipe clay, to three parts of fine sand; which are to -be well kneeded together, and reduced to such a state of tenacity, that -the lute will readily adhere to the tube, and its different parts unite -without forming a visible seam. “<cite>Observations on the different methods recommended -for detecting minute portions of Arsenic, by J. Bostock, M.D.</cite>” Read -before the Liverpool Medical Society, and published in the Edinburgh -Med. and Surg. Journ. April, 1809.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f244'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r244'>244</a>. See the paper above quoted.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f245'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r245'>245</a>. <i>Black’s</i> Lectures, v. ii, p. 430.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f246'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r246'>246</a>. <i>Foderé</i> recommends this process, <cite>Traité de Med. Leg.</cite> t. iv, p. 153; -and Dr. Jaeger, in his Thesis, before quoted, observes that he has been -enabled to recognise the tenth of a grain of arsenious acid, although -mixed with sugar, by its odour, when thrown upon burning coals! -We must be allowed to question this fact; Dr. Jaeger, no doubt, believed -that he recognised the alliaceous odour, but it must have been -the sole effect of the imagination. Dr. Bostock states that such a test is -not to be depended upon; for, unless the arsenic be in considerable -quantity, the odour is not sufficiently perceptible; and if it be mixed -with either an animal or a vegetable substance, the smoke and smell -arising from these bodies, when heated, will altogether prevent our recognising -the peculiar odour of the arsenic. When a quantity of arsenic -is mixed with an equal weight of flour, and placed upon iron at a -low red heat, so as not to cause the flour to inflame, the suffocating -smoke that arises from the latter can be alone perceived; nor is it possible -to discover that any thing has been mixed with it. <cite>Edinb. Med. -Journ.</cite> <i>l. c.</i> This last objection of Dr. Bostock is true in fact, although -it admits of a different explanation, for at a low temperature the arsenious -acid will be volatilized <em>without decomposition</em>; in which case no alliaceous -odour can be developed.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f247'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r247'>247</a>. The paper was read before the Liverpool Medical Society.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f248'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r248'>248</a>. London Dispensatory. Edit. 3, p. 176.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f249'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r249'>249</a>. See a letter from <i>Mr. Hume</i> on the subject, to the Editors of the -Medical and Physical Journal. July, 1810.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f250'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r250'>250</a>. On the detection of very minute quantities of Arsenic and Mercury. -By <i>James Smithson</i>, Esq. F.R.S. <cite>Annals of Philosophy</cite>, August, -1822.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f251'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r251'>251</a>. If any trifling opacity occur in a simple solution of arsenic, when -assayed by the nitrate of silver, it may be considered as the effects of -some casual impurity; this may be farther demonstrated by bringing -over the surface of the arsenical liquid, a piece of blotting paper, or a -stopper moistened with a solution of ammonia, when there will instantly -form a copious yellow precipitate of arsenite of silver. If this -experiment be performed by spreading the mixed solutions of arsenious -acid and nitrate of silver over a surface of glass, laid upon white -paper, the result will be most striking and beautiful, for on slowly -bringing the ammoniacal test over it, the yellow cloud will gradually -diffuse itself over the surface.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f252'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r252'>252</a>. Pharmacologia. Edit. 5, vol. ii, p. 96.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f253'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r253'>253</a>. London Medical and Physical Journal, January, 1818.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f254'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r254'>254</a>. The following is the formula for its preparation. Dissolve ten -grains of <i>lunar caustic</i>, in ten times its weight of distilled water; to this -add, <i>guttatim</i>, liquid ammonia, until a precipitate is formed; continue -cautiously to add the ammonia, repeatedly agitating the mixture until -the precipitate is nearly redissolved. The object of allowing a small -portion to remain undissolved is, to guard against an excess of ammonia. -Wherever the test is used, the liquid to which it is added ought -to be quite cold.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f255'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r255'>255</a>. This is very important, for an excess of ammonia redissolves the -yellow precipitate, and therefore defeats the object of the test. The -fixed alkalies, in excess, have not such a property.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f256'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r256'>256</a>. The great impression made upon the public mind in Cornwall by -the above trial, produced a disposition to regard every sudden death -with more than usual jealousy. In consequence, therefore, of a report -having arisen that a young woman had died after an illness of forty-eight -hours, and been hastily buried at Madron, near Penzance, the -magistrates of that district issued their warrant for the disinterment of -the body, and requested the author’s attendance at the examination. -The dissection was accordingly conducted in the church, when it appeared -that the immediate cause of death had been an inflammation of the -intestines; the stomach was found to contain a considerable portion -of liquid, which was carefully collected and examined; no solid matter -could be <a id='dis'></a>discovered in it, nor were any particles found to be adhering -to the coats of the stomach. The fluid appeared to consist principally -of the remains of a quantity of pennyroyal tea, which had been the last -thing administered to the deceased. This was divided into several -distinct portions, and placed in separate wine glasses, and submitted, -in the presence of the High Sheriff, and some other gentlemen whose -curiosity had been excited by the late trial of <i>Donnall</i>, to a series of experiments, -amongst which the following may be particularized, as -bearing upon the present question, and as affording an important elucidation -of it.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A few drops of a solution of <i>sub-carbonate of potass</i> were added to the -liquid, in one of the glasses, when its colour, which was originally of a -light hazel, was instantly deepened into a reddish yellow; the sulphate -of copper was then applied, when a precipitate fell down, which every -one present simultaneously pronounced to be of a “<em>vivid grass green</em>” -hue; but, on pouring off the supernatant liquid, and transferring the -precipitate upon a sheet of white paper, it assumed the blue colour -which is so characteristic of the <i>carbonate of copper</i>. The explanation of -the phenomenon, and the fallacy to which it gave rise, became obvious; -the yellow colour imparted to the liquid by the alkali, was the effect -of the latter body upon the vegetable extractive matter of the infusion. -The other portions were then strictly examined, but no indications -of arsenic or any other metallic poison were discovered.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f257'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r257'>257</a>. This explanation applies equally to the objection lately advanced -by <i>Dr. Porter</i>, of the University of South Carolina, who, in his observations -on the tests of arsenic, remarks, that an appearance similar to -“<i>Scheele’s Green</i>,” is produced by the carbonate of potass, when added -to a solution of the sulphate of copper in coffee, but without arsenic, -more striking than if even a weak solution of arsenic were used. -<cite>Silliman’s Journal</cite>, iii. 865.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='sc'>Fodere</span> reports a case, in which an erroneous conclusion respecting -the presence of arsenic was drawn, evidently owing to the same source -of fallacy. The Society of Medicine at Marseilles, in consequence of a -girl having been poisoned by a quack medicine, appointed a scientific -person to examine the composition of the <i>Nostrum</i>; this person, strongly -prepossessed with the opinion that it contained arsenic, applied the -<em>copper test</em> above described, and having obtained by means of it, a <em>green -precipitate</em>, reported, without any further inquiry, that the medicine in -question was an arsenical solution. <i>Foderé</i>, however, suspected the -correctness of the conclusion, in consequence of the residue not yielding -by combustion, any alliaceous odour; a new analysis was therefore -made, which proved the nostrum to be nothing more than a very -strong alcoholic tincture of colocynth. <cite>Médecine Légale, tom. iv. p.</cite> 137.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f258'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r258'>258</a>. It is hardly necessary to observe that neither the carbonate of -ammonia or of potass, or sulphuric or muriatic acid, produce any -effect whatever in a pure solution of white arsenic.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f259'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r259'>259</a>. Corrosive sublimate, however, produces both these effects, from -causes which we have fully explained under the consideration of that -poison.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f260'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r260'>260</a>. <cite>Toxicologie Générale</cite>, supra citat.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f261'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r261'>261</a>. See <cite>Leçons de Médecine Légale</cite>, a Paris, 1821. “Experiences chimiques -propres à decouvrir les poisons minéraux qui ont été mêlés avec -du thé, du café, du vin, ete.” <i>Trente-unieme Leçon.</i> <i>p.</i> 415.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f262'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r262'>262</a>. Chirurg. Med. p. 185.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f263'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r263'>263</a>. The <i>arsenite of potass</i>, which has been long known under the -name of the “<i>arsenical salt of Macquer</i>” has been used in medicine, and -the Dublin Pharmacopœia contains a process for the preparation of “<i>arsenias -kali</i>.”</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f264'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r264'>264</a>. Nouvelles Experiences, &c., op. sup. cit.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f265'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r265'>265</a>. Opera Omnia de Venenis, 1761.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f266'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r266'>266</a>. Υδραργυρος of the Greeks from its fluidity and colour. Quicksilver. -<i>Quick</i>, in the old Saxon tongue signified living: an epithet derived -from its mobility.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f267'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r267'>267</a>. <i>Cavendish.</i></p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f268'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r268'>268</a>. <i>Hassenfratz</i> Ann. de Chim. xxviii, 12.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f269'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r269'>269</a>. Hence it was called by the alchymists the <i>Dragon</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f270'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r270'>270</a>. <i>Mead</i> on Poisons, edit. 4, p. 196.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f271'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r271'>271</a>. Second edition, p. 89.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f272'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r272'>272</a>. For the report of the above satisfactory case we are indebted to -<i>Dr. Gordon Smith</i>, who has related it in his work on Forensic Medicine, -p. 114.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f273'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r273'>273</a>. Edit. 5, vol. 1, p. 260.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f274'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r274'>274</a>. “Further experiments and observations on the action of Poisons -on the animal system.” Phil. Trans. 1812.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f275'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r275'>275</a>. For a history of the different quack medicines which contain -mercury, see Pharmacologia, vol. ii, p. 239.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f276'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r276'>276</a>. Opera Medica. Epist. i, p. 200.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f277'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r277'>277</a>. Contre-poisons de l’Arsenic, du sublimé corrosif, &c.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f278'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r278'>278</a>. Proposed by <i>M. Duval</i>, “Dissertation sur la Toxicologie.”</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f279'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r279'>279</a>. <i>M. Chausarel.</i> “Observations sur diverses substances Vénéneuses,” -p. 47.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f280'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r280'>280</a>. We find in an ancient epigram of Ausonius, that a woman gave -to her husband some metallic mercury, with the design of increasing -the energy of a certain poison, which she administered to him. But -instead of producing this effect, the mercury, on the contrary, entirely -re-established the health of the person poisoned. The celebrated <i>Goethe</i> -upon asking the Professor <i>Doebereiner</i> of Jena, his opinion upon the -above case, received in reply, that the poison must have been corrosive -sublimate, since, of all the known poisons, it was the only one whose -power was weakened by mercury.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This story induced <i>Orfila</i> to ascertain the truth by experiment, and he -has shewn <span class='fss'>THAT METALLIC MERCURY IS NOT AN ANTIDOTE TO CORROSIVE -SUBLIMATE</span>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f281'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r281'>281</a>. <i>Mr. Hart.</i> “What did you do with the flour and pork?</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>C. Carter.</i> I made it into four dumplings, two with pork, and two -without, and tied the two largest, with pork in them, up in bags.</p> - -<p class='c000'>---- With what did you mix the flour?</p> - -<p class='c000'>---- With milk.</p> - -<p class='c000'>---- When you were making these dumplings, did you observe -any thing?</p> - -<p class='c000'>---- They made different to any thing which I had ever made -before.</p> - -<p class='c000'>---- Explain that difference?</p> - -<p class='c000'>---- They broke and crumbled all into little bits. I had to -knock them in a stant like when we make butter. They would not -hold together.</p> - -<p class='c000'>---- Had you more or less difficulty than usual?</p> - -<p class='c000'>---- More trouble than I ever had before.”</p> - -<div class='c006'><i>Extract from the trial.</i></div> - -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f282'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r282'>282</a>. We have been informed that, by this simple and beautiful test, -Mr. Archdeacon <i>Wollaston</i> identified the presence of corrosive sublimate -in the dumplings by which <i>Michael Whiting</i> attempted to poison his -brothers-in-law, at Ely, as stated in the preceding page, as well as at -<a href='#Page_197'>197</a>. Although in the report of the trial in our possession, the professor -does not appear to have furnished the court with any account of the -process by which he discovered the poison.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f283'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r283'>283</a>. Trial of Mary <i>Bateman</i> for the wilful murder of <i>Rebecca Perigo</i>, -at the York Assizes, 1809. As we have on several occasions alluded -to this trial, it may perhaps be satisfactory to give a short sketch of -the case in this place.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This diabolical woman, under the pretext of possessing the art of witchcraft, -committed numerous frauds, and worked with so much success -upon the credulity of her victims, as to obtain considerable sums of -money, and reduce them to the extremes of poverty; while, in order to -conceal the frauds, she consigned whole families to the grave by her poisons. -Her detection was brought about by the robbery of a family of the -name of <i>Perigo</i>, from whom she obtained the sum of seventy pounds, besides -cloathes and furniture, under the pretence of engaging a Miss <i>Blythe</i> -to relieve <i>Perigo’s</i> wife from the effects of an “evil wish,” under which -she was supposed to labour; when the appointed time arrived for the -restoration of the property, and the promised cure of the wife, <i>Mary -Bateman</i> sent a powder (<i>Arsenic</i>) which she directed them to add to their -pudding, and advised them, should they be ill after eating it, to take a -spoonful of prepared honey with which she supplied them. The wife -ate the pudding, and soon afterwards died; the husband, however, -very narrowly escaped: for this murder she was tried and convicted; -and thus was a system of robbery and murder, scarcely equalled in the -annals of crime, happily exposed and ended.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f284'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r284'>284</a>. In the Philosophical Magazine for December, 1821, a communication -is to be found from a Mr. <i>Murray</i>, which would have been too -ridiculous to require notice, had it not involved a question connected -with the habitudes of corrosive sublimate and iron, which might possibly -occasion error. After stating that certain metallic solutions may be -decomposed through the agency of magnetism, he says, a solution of -corrosive sublimate may be thus made to yield metallic mercury, by introducing -into it a bar of magnetised iron! He had not the wit to inquire -whether unmagnetised iron might not prove equally powerful -as a decomposing agent.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f285'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r285'>285</a>. <i>Orfila</i>, l. c.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f286'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r286'>286</a>. <i>Orfila</i>, l. c.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f287'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r287'>287</a>. Edinburgh Med. & Surg. Journal, v.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f288'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r288'>288</a>. Ann. de Chimie et Phys. iv. 334.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f289'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r289'>289</a>. Tartarized Antimony, administered as an emetic, may decompose -the salt in the stomach.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f290'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r290'>290</a>. Consultation Medico-legale sur une Accusation de l’empoisonnement -par le <i>Muriate de Mercure sur-oxydé</i>. p. 146.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f291'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r291'>291</a>. L. C.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f292'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r292'>292</a>. The above passage is quoted from <i>Waller’s</i> translation of <i>Orfila’s</i> -Treatise on Poisons, vol. i, p. 73.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f293'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r293'>293</a>. Comment: Med. in Processus Criminales.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f294'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r294'>294</a>. Principles of Forensic Medicine, p. 113.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f295'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r295'>295</a>. <i>Accum</i> on culinary poisons, or “Death in the Pot.” As this is -the last occasion which we shall have to mention the above work, -we may observe by the way, that this <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad captandum</span></i> title is not original -with <i>Mr. Accum</i>, for there is a dissertation by <i>Mauchart</i>, entitled “<span class='sc'>Mors -in Olla</span>.”</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f296'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r296'>296</a>. Many of the preparations lately presented by <i>Dr. Baillie</i> to the -College of Physicians have become black, in consequence of the vermilion, -with which they are injected, having been adulterated with red -lead.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f297'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r297'>297</a>. Upon this subject, the reader may consult the Historical Introduction -to the Pharmacologia, page 87.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f298'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r298'>298</a>. Annal. de Chem. xxxii. 255.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f299'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r299'>299</a>. We have upon this, as well as on similar occasions, preferred adopting -the name by which the substance is known in common parlance, to -that which might more strictly accord with our scientific views of its -composition.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f300'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r300'>300</a>. Pharmacologia, Edit. v. vol. 2. p. 65.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f301'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r301'>301</a>. F. Hoffmanni Op. om. T. 1. par. ii. c. v. p. 219.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f302'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r302'>302</a>. This subject is treated very copiously in the first volume of -the Pharmacologia, page 152. To this work the author must refer the -reader, for the limits of the present volume will not allow more than a -mere enunciation of the fact.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f303'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r303'>303</a>. Elements of Juridical Medicine, edit. 2, p. 96.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f304'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r304'>304</a>. “Further experiments and observations on the Action of Poisons -on the Animal system, by <i>B. C. Brodie, Esq.</i> F. R. S. Communicated to -the Society for the improvement of Animal Chemistry, and by them to -the Royal Society.” <cite>Phil. Trans.</cite> for 1812, vol. 102, p. 205.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f305'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r305'>305</a>. To those who are curious upon this subject, we recommend the -perusal of an interesting essay, entitled “Observations on the Tin trade -of the Ancients in Cornwall, and on the Ictis of Diodorus Siculus,” by -Sir <i>Christopher Hawkins</i>, Bart. F.R.S. &c.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f306'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r306'>306</a>. See page <a href='#Page_144'>144</a> of this volume; and article <i>Cupri Sulphas</i> in Pharmacologia, -vol. 2, p. 167, <i>note</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f307'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r307'>307</a>. We have long considered that the process of salting meat is something -more than the mere saturation of the animal fibre with muriate of -soda; some unknown combinations and decompositions take place, -which future experiment will probably discover.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f308'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r308'>308</a>. Water may thus be preserved in copper cisterns, without contracting -any metallic impregnation, even should the surface of the -cistern be coated with the oxide and carbonate of copper.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f309'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r309'>309</a>. <i>Dr. Johnson</i>, in his Essay on Poison, relates the history of three -men being poisoned, after excruciating sufferings, in consequence of -eating food cooked in an unclean copper vessel, on board the Cyclops -frigate; and, besides these, thirty-three men became ill from the same -cause.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f310'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r310'>310</a>. See the Ladies Library, vol. ii, p. 203; Modern Cookery, or the -English Housewife, edit, 2, p. 94; and the English Housekeeper, p. 352, -354.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f311'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r311'>311</a>. This practice is of ancient origin, thus <i>Pliny</i> “Stannum, illinitum -æneis vasis, saporem gratiorem facit, et compescit æruginis virus.” Lib. -xxxiv, cap. 17.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f312'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r312'>312</a>. <i>Orfila</i>, l. c.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f313'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r313'>313</a>. Recherches Chimiques sur l’Etain par <i>Bayen et Charlard</i>, 1781.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f314'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r314'>314</a>. Annales de Chimie.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f315'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r315'>315</a>. See <i>Thomson’s</i> System of Chemistry.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f316'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r316'>316</a>. Plinii Lib. xxxiv. cap. 2, 10.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f317'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r317'>317</a>. We extract the notice of this case from Dr. <i>Gordon Smith’s</i> work, -not having a copy of Metzger’s Principles of Judiciary Medicine at -hand.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f318'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r318'>318</a>. <i>Orfila</i>, l. c.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f319'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r319'>319</a>. Pharmacologia, vol. ii. art. <i>Argenti Nitras</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f320'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r320'>320</a>. <i>Boerhaave</i> relates the instance of a student in pharmacy having -swallowed some lunar caustic, in consequence of which the most serious -symptoms resulted, such as excruciating pains, gangrene, and -sphacelus of the primæ viæ. <i>Metzger</i> also mentions a case, where a piece -of lunar caustic was accidentally dropped into the throat of a person -while applying it to an ulcer, but that the patient was saved by drinking -copious draughts of milk.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f321'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r321'>321</a>. In the neutralization of acid poisons in the stomach, it is a great -object to avoid <i>carbonated</i> alkalies and earths, on account of the large -volume of carbonic acid, thus given off, proving highly distressing.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f322'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r322'>322</a>. Pharmacologia, vol. ii, art. <i>Acid Nitric</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f323'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r323'>323</a>. Traité de l’Empoisonment par l’Acide Nitrique; par <i>A. E. Tartra</i>, -Médecin. à Paris 1802.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f324'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r324'>324</a>. Some experiments and researches on the saline contents of sea-water, -undertaken with a view to correct and improve its chemical -analysis. By <i>A. Marcet</i>, M.D. F.R.S. in the Phil. Trans. for the year -1822. part 2.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f325'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r325'>325</a>. It is known in commerce by this name, since it is prepared on a -large scale, by distilling sugar with nitric acid. It derives the term -<i>oxalic</i> acid, from the plant which so abundantly contains it, viz. <i>oxalis -acetosella</i>, or wood sorrel.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f326'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r326'>326</a>. <span class='sc'>Essential Salt of Lemons.</span> “The preparation sold under -this name, for the purpose of removing iron moulds from linen, consists -of cream of tartar, and super-oxalate of potass, or <i>salt of sorrel</i>, in -equal proportions.” <cite>Pharmacologia.</cite></p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f327'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r327'>327</a>. The parents of this child suppose that the violence of the screaming -ruptured the vesicles by which the breathing was impeded, and thus -proved an unexpected means of cure.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f328'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r328'>328</a>. See “An account of the case of a man who died of the effects of -the fire at Eddystone Light-house,” by Mr. <i>Edward Spry</i>, Surgeon, at Plymouth. -<span class='sc'>Phil. Trans.</span> vol. xlix, part 2, p. 477, A. D. 1756.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f329'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r329'>329</a>. There are some exceptions to this law; for instance, the tincture -of litmus, and litmus paper, are always rendered more intensely blue, -by the addition of alkalies. There are also other bodies, besides alkalies, -which change the yellow colour of turmeric to a brown. Upon -this subject see an interesting paper in the 26th number of the Journal -of Science and the Arts, p. 315, by <i>Mr. Faraday</i>, entitled “On the -changing of vegetable colours as an alkaline property, and on some bodies -possessing it.” By this communication we are informed that even -the strong acids redden turmeric paper, and that a very weak nitric -acid gives it a tint exactly like that produced by an alkali. Different -metallic salts are characterised by similar effects.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f330'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r330'>330</a>. A new alkali has been lately discovered in a mineral called <i>Petalite</i>, -by <i>M. Arfwedson</i>, a young Sweedish chemist, but as the extreme rarity -of the substance will prevent its ever becoming an object of forensic -interest, we shall pass it over without further notice. Some new alkaline -principles have also been developed by the French and German -chemists, in the analysis of certain vegetables, but as these bodies have -a physiological action, which is wholly independent of their alkalinity, -they will be more properly noticed under the history of the vegetables -which contain them.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f331'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r331'>331</a>. Should the solution contain a small portion of lime, as may occasionly -happen, the cloud will be very slight, and cannot give origin to -any important fallacy.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f332'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r332'>332</a>. <i>Orfila</i>, vol. i, p. 404.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f333'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r333'>333</a>. Essay on Poisons, page 143.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f334'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r334'>334</a>. <i>Orfila</i>, Lib. Cit.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f335'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r335'>335</a>. <i>Brodie</i>, Phil. trans. 1812.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f336'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r336'>336</a>. This is an important characteristic, since all the metallic poisons -yield an abundant precipitate, either black, yellow, or red, on the addition -of one or other of the alkaline hydro-sulphurets.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f337'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r337'>337</a>. “<span class='sc'>Genera Crustaceorum et Insectorum</span>,” tom. 2, p. 220. -The London College in their present pharmacopœia refer this insect to -the genus <span class='sc'>Lytta</span>, an error which will be corrected in the future -edition.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f338'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r338'>338</a>. System of Chemistry, edit. 5, vol. iv. p. 436. See also Ann. de -Chim. lxxvi. p. 308.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f339'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r339'>339</a>. Page <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <i>note</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f340'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r340'>340</a>. <i>Homberg</i>, Mem. Par, 1692.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f341'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r341'>341</a>. Ann. de Chim. xxvii, 87.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f342'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r342'>342</a>. The earliest account we have of this substance having been used -in medicine is to be found in the seventh volume of <i>Haller’s</i> collection of -Theses, relating to the history and cure of diseases. The original dissertation -is entitled “<i>De Phosphori loco Medicamenti adsumpti virtute medica, -aliquot casibus singularibus confirmata,” Auctore J. Gabi, Mentz</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f343'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r343'>343</a>. Memoirs of the Society of Emulation at Paris.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f344'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r344'>344</a>. See <i>Nicholson’s</i> Journal iii, 85.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f345'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r345'>345</a>. For July, 1813.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f346'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r346'>346</a>. Numb. xxxi, 22.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f347'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r347'>347</a>. System of Chemistry, 4th edit. 1, 274-277.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f348'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r348'>348</a>. De Architectura, lib. viii, c. 7.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f349'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r349'>349</a>. Researches into the Properties of Spring water, with Medical -cautions against the use of Lead, by <i>W. Lambe</i>, M.D. &c.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f350'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r350'>350</a>. A case is recorded, wherein a legal controversy took place, in -order to settle the disputes between the proprietors of an estate and a -plumber, originating from a similar cause—the plumber being accused -of having furnished a faulty reservoir; whereas the case was proved to -be owing to the chemical action of the water on the lead. <i>Dr. Lambe</i> -states an instance where the proprietor of a well, ordered his plumber -to make the lead of a pump of double the thickness of the metal usually -employed for pumps, to save the charge of repairs; because he had observed -that the water was so hard, as he called it, that it corroded the -lead very soon.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f351'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r351'>351</a>. <i>Van Swieten</i> ad <i>Boerhaave</i> Aphorism. 1060 Comment.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f352'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r352'>352</a>. Libro supra citato, p. 24.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f353'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r353'>353</a>. <i>Duncan’s</i> Med. Comment. Dec. 2, 1794.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f354'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r354'>354</a>. See the papers by Sir George <i>Baker</i>, in the first volume of the -Medical Transactions of the College of Physicians, viz. “<cite>An Inquiry -concerning the Cause of the Endemial Colic of Devonshire</cite>,” p. 175.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“<i>An Examination of several means by which the</i> <span class='sc'>Poison of Lead</span> <i>may be -supposed frequently to gain admittance into the human body, unobserved, and unsuspected</i>,” -p. 257.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“<i>An attempt towards an historical account of that species of Spasmodic Colic, -distinguished by the name of the Colic of</i> <span class='sc'>Poitou</span>,” p. 139.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f355'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r355'>355</a>. See a work by Dr. <i>William Musgrave</i>, which contains the earliest -account of the Devonshire colic, entitled “<cite>Dissertatio de Arthritide symptomatica</cite>,” -1703; and also Dr. <i>Huxham’s</i> work on the “<cite>Morbus Colicus -Damnoniorum</cite>.”</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f356'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r356'>356</a>. Annales de Chimie, vol. 1, p. 76.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f357'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r357'>357</a>. See <i>Fourcroy</i>, Memoire sur la nature du Vin lithargyré, in the -“Histoire de l’Academie Royale,” for 1817.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f358'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r358'>358</a>. Sir <i>George Baker</i> considered that the dry belly ache, which is common -to the drinkers of <em>new</em> rum, in the West Indies, ought to be wholly -referred to its contamination with lead.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f359'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r359'>359</a>. The art of glazing earthenware with lead is of modern invention; -that part of the old earthenware, preserved in the British museum, -which is supposed to have been of Roman manufacture, is not glazed. -The vessels, which are called Etruscan, and which are supposed to -be of greater antiquity than the Roman, have indeed a paint or polish -on their surfaces; but that does not appear to resemble our modern saturnine -vitrification.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f360'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r360'>360</a>. The workmen who are employed at the glazing tub are subject to -colics and paralysis.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f361'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r361'>361</a>. The frequency with which the inhabitants of Madrid, and of a -great part of New Castille in Spain, were harrassed with colic, as recorded -by <i>M. Thierry</i>, received a satisfactory explanation from the fact -of glazed earthenware having been universally used in that country for -culinary vessels.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Sir G. Baker</i> in a paper entitled “<cite>Further Observations on the Poisons -of Lead</cite>,” Med. Trans. vol. 2, p. 419, mentions the practice of drinking -cyder out of glazed earthen vessels as dangerous. Dr. <i>Watson</i>, junior, -saw several instances of the Devonshire colic, during the time of harvest, -apparently from this cause. And a similar instance fell under the -notice of Dr. <i>Charleston</i>, where six persons became, at one time, paralytic, -by drinking cyder, brought to them while at harvest work, in a -new earthen pitcher, the inside of which was glazed. That the glazing -was dissolved by the liquor appeared not only by the effects which it -produced, but from its having given, as these persons informed Dr. -<i>Charleston</i>, that astringent sweetish taste to the liquor, by which the solutions -of this metal are so peculiarly distinguished.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f362'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r362'>362</a>. As it is very desirable to exclude the use of <i>lead</i> altogether, the -Society for the promotion of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, has -offered a premium for a substitute for this metallic glaze. For an account -of several new glazes, as substitutes for <i>lead</i>, see <i>Parkes’s Chemical -Essays</i>, vol. iii, p. 193-576.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f363'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r363'>363</a>. <i>Darwin’s</i> Zoonomia, vol. 3, cl. 1, 2, 4, 8.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f364'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r364'>364</a>. Chemical Essays, vol. v, p. 193.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f365'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r365'>365</a>. Philosophical Magazine, 1819, no. 257, p. 229.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f366'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r366'>366</a>. The use of the arsenic is to render the lead more brittle, and to -dispose it to run into spherical drops.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f367'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r367'>367</a>. <i>Francis Citois</i>, the historian of this celebrated epidemic, published -his “<cite>Diatriba de novo et populari apud Pictones, dolore colico bilioso</cite>,” A.D. -1617. In which he states that the “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">dolor colicus Pictonicus</span></i>” was a new -epidemic in the province of Poitou, about the year 1572; and after having -prevailed in that province about 60 or 70 years, it became milder, -less untractable, and by degrees was translated to other parts of France. -The supposition, however, says Sir <i>George Baker</i>, that the colic of Poitou -was a new disease, about the time when Citois lived, is not true; the -disease was even mentioned by our countryman <i>John of Gaddesden</i>, who -appears to have written his <i>Rosa Anglica</i> early in the fourteenth century. -If we consult authors posterior to <i>Citois</i>, we find this species of colic -mentioned in almost every practical book. We have an account in <i>Sennertus</i> -of its having prevailed epidemically, all over Silesia, in the year -1621. <i>Baglivi</i> even affirms that “nihil facilius colicæ supervenit, quam -paralysis.” None of these authors, however, appear to have entertained -the slightest suspicion of the true source of the malady.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f368'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r368'>368</a>. <span class='sc'>Ephemerides Germanicæ</span>, Ann. 4.—Observ. 60 by <i>Cockelius</i>.—Obs. -92 by <i>Brunnerus</i>.—Obs. 100 by <i>Wicarius</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f369'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r369'>369</a>. Chemical Essays, vol. 3, page 369, edit. 3.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f370'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r370'>370</a>. Exam. Chy. de Differ. Subs. par M. Sage, p. 157.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f371'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r371'>371</a>. Medical Transactions of the College of Physicians, vol. ii, p. 86.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f372'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r372'>372</a>. The art of making wines, from fruits, flowers, and herbs; all -the native growth of Great Britain, by <i>William Graham</i>, late of Ware in -Hertfordshire.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f373'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r373'>373</a>. See “<cite>Some experiments made upon Rum, in order to ascertain the cause of -the colic, frequent among the Soldiers in the island of Jamaica, in the years 1781, -and 1782</cite>”; by <span class='sc'>John Hunter</span>, M.D. In the Medical Transactions, vol. -3, p. 227.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f374'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r374'>374</a>. Annales de Chimie, tom. lvii, p. 84. Memoire de <i>M. Proust</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f375'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r375'>375</a>. <i>Cerusse</i> was in great request among the Roman ladies as a -cosmetic.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f376'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r376'>376</a>. The manufacture of this colour was long kept secret; but its -consumption has lately been greatly lessened by the introduction of the -artificial <span class='sc'>Chromate of Lead</span>, which is a yellow of much greater brilliancy -than the muriate of that metal.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f377'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r377'>377</a>. See Repository of Arts, vol. viii, no. 47, p. 262.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f378'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r378'>378</a>. Med. Trans. vol. 2, p. 445.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f379'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r379'>379</a>. See a paper in the Medical Transactions, vol. 2, p. 68, “Of the -Colica Pictonum,” by <i>R. Warren</i>, M.D. &c.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f380'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r380'>380</a>. <i>Paulus Ægineta</i> is the first writer who has described a species of -Colic terminating in Paralysis. (Lib. iii, c. 18, 43.)</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f381'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r381'>381</a>. Poitou, this late province in France was divided at the revolution -into the three departments of Vendée, Vienne, and the Two Sevres.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f382'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r382'>382</a>. Pictones—<i>Cæs.</i> People of France, whose chief city is Pictavium, -now called Poictiers.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f383'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r383'>383</a>. <i>Percival’s</i> Essays, vol. 1, p. 458.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f384'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r384'>384</a>. See our remarks upon this subject at page <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>. See also <i>Teichmeyer</i>, -Inst. Med. For. p. 164.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f385'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r385'>385</a>. Upon the subject of slow poisons we have already expressed the -latitude of our belief, see page <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f386'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r386'>386</a>. Medical Transactions, vol. 2, p. 420.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f387'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r387'>387</a>. Transactions of Medical Society of London.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f388'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r388'>388</a>. Med. Legale, iv, § 921.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f389'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r389'>389</a>. “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Lithargyrio quoque mihi narravit, matronam quandam nobilem -pulverem ejus in rubore faciei, postquam hic ipsi tanquam singulare -et certissimum arcanum deprædicatus fuisset, in petia ligatum, axillis -bis vel ter die aspersisse cum præsentaneo effectu; verum exinde -subsecuta fuisse dyspnæam, lipothymiam, dolores vagos in abdomine, -vomituritionem, et nauseam.</span>”</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f390'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r390'>390</a>. See his “Researches into the Properties of Spring water.” 8vo. -London. <i>Johnson.</i> 1803.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f391'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r391'>391</a>. Observations on the Water with which Tunbridge is supplied for -domestic purposes.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f392'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r392'>392</a>. The following is the method of preparing the test. Expose equal -parts of sulphur and powdered oyster shells to a white heat for fifteen -minutes; and, when cold, add an equal quantity of cream of tartar; -these are to be put into a strong bottle with common water to boil for -an hour; and the solution is afterwards to be decanted into ounce phials, -adding twenty drops of muriatic acid to each.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f393'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r393'>393</a>. <i>Lambe</i>, op. sup. cit. page 175.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f394'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r394'>394</a>. On the ultimate Analysis of Vegetable and Animal Substances, -by <i>Andrew Ure</i>, M.D.F.R.S. Phil. Trans. for 1822, part. 2.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f395'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r395'>395</a>. Essay on Chemical Analysis, by <i>J. G. Children, Esq.</i></p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f396'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r396'>396</a>. Where a compound is merely separated it is called an <span class='sc'>Educt</span>; -but where it arises from a new combination of the elements it is distinguished -by the term <span class='sc'>Product</span>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f397'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r397'>397</a>. Recherches Physico-Chimiques.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f398'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r398'>398</a>. On the ultimate Analysis of Vegetable and Animal Substances, -by <i>Andrew Ure</i>, M.D.F.R.S. Phil. Trans, for 1822, part 2.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f399'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r399'>399</a>. The author has already in the fifth edition of his Pharmacologia, -entered so fully into the philosophy of medicinal combination, that he -can scarcely feel regret at the limits of the present work not allowing -him to dwell upon the subject.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f400'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r400'>400</a>. The Cambogia <i>Gutta</i> Lin. (Polyandria Monogynia) and several -species of Hypericum; Chelidonium, &c. also yield a similar juice.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f401'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r401'>401</a>. The Dutch appear to have first introduced it into Europe about -the middle of the seventeenth century.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f402'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r402'>402</a>. Ελλεβορος λευκος of Dioscorides.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f403'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r403'>403</a>. Histoire des Plantes Vénéneuses de la Suisse.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f404'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r404'>404</a>. The same alkali has been discovered in the seeds of the <i>Veratrum -Sabadilla</i>, and in the root of the <i>Colchicum Autumnale</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f405'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r405'>405</a>. It was first cultivated by <i>Gerarde</i> in 1596.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f406'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r406'>406</a>. See London Medical Repository, vol. xii, no. 67.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f407'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r407'>407</a>. Pharmacologia, vol. ii, art. <i>Extract. Elaterii</i>, p. 204.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f408'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r408'>408</a>. Fragmenta Chirurg. et Med. p. 66.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f409'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r409'>409</a>. Obs. Lib. iv, c. xxvi, p. 208.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f410'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r410'>410</a>. The juice of every species of <i>spurge</i> is so acrid, that it corrodes and -ulcerates the body wherever it is applied. Warts or corns, annointed -with the juice presently disappear; hence this tribe of plants has derived -the popular name of <i>wart weed</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f411'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r411'>411</a>. One of the supposed proofs of the guilt of <i>Charles Angus</i> in the -case of <i>Margaret Burns</i>, as stated at page <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, rested upon the fact, that -on searching the prisoner’s bed room, three bottles were found in the -wardrobe, viz. one marked “<i>poison water</i>;” a second “<i>Jacob’s water</i>;” -and a third “<i>Savine oil</i>.”</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f412'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r412'>412</a>. The roman poets constantly use it in the plural number, which -evidently shews that it was meant to denote other kinds of poisons, or -poisons in general; thus <span class='sc'>Juvenal</span> in the first satire, v. 156.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Qui dedit ergo tribus patruis <span class='sc'>Aconita</span>, vehetur</span></div> - <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pensilibus plumis,——</span>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>So again <i>Ovid</i> in the first book of Metamorph, v. 47.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lurida terribiles miscent <span class='sc'>Aconita</span> novercæ.</span>”</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f413'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r413'>413</a>. <i>Theophrastus</i> tells us that a poison may be prepared from <i>aconite</i> -so as to occasion death within any definite period; see page <a href='#Page_183'>183</a> in the -present volume.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f414'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r414'>414</a>. See an account of this process of preparing extracts <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">in vacuo</span></i>, in -Medico-Chirurg. Trans. vol. x, p. 240; and for a history of their superior -powers, the author begs to refer the reader to an account of the articles -in his Pharmacologia.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f415'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r415'>415</a>. Pharmacologia, vol. 1, p. 136.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f416'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r416'>416</a>. Med. Observ. and Inquiries, vol. v. p. 317.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f417'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r417'>417</a>. It may be obtained from opium by the following process, invented -by <span class='sc'>Robiquet</span>. Three hundred parts of pure opium are to be -macerated during five days, in one thousand parts of common water; -to the filtered solution, fifteen parts of perfectly pure magnesia (carefully -avoiding the <i>carbonate</i>) are to be added; boil this mixture (A) for -ten minutes, and separate the sediment (B) by a filter, washing it with -cold water until the water passes off clear; after which, treat it alternately -with hot and cold alcohol (12, 22. Bé) as long as the menstruum -takes up any colouring matter; the residue is then to be treated -with boiling alcohol (22, 32, Bé) on cooling, the solution will deposit -the <i>Morphia</i> in crystals.</p> - -<p class='c000'><i>Rationale of the process.</i> A soluble <i>meconiate of magnesia</i> is, in the first -place, formed; (A) while the sediment (B) consists of <i>morphia</i>, in the -state of mixture, with the excess of magnesia; the boiling alcohol, with -which this residuum is treated, exerts no action upon the magnesia, but -dissolves the <i>morphia</i>, and, on cooling, surrenders it in a crystalline state.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f418'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r418'>418</a>. Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. tom. v.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f419'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r419'>419</a>. “Confessions of an English opium-eater.” London, 1822.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f420'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r420'>420</a>. History of Aleppo.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f421'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r421'>421</a>. <i>Orfila</i> states that animals, on which the section of the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">par vagum</span></i> -of both sides has been performed, die at the end of two or three hours; -after having experienced intoxication, somnolency, and convulsions. -<cite>Bulletin de la Soc. Philomatique, Mai 1808</cite>, <i>t.</i> 1, <i>p.</i> 143.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f422'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r422'>422</a>. <i>Toriosa</i> (<cite>Istituzioni di Med. For.</cite>) has remarked that opium may act -mortally without losing much of its weight in the stomach. We are -very sceptical upon this point.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f423'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r423'>423</a>. The reader is requested to refer to our chapter “On the Physiological -causes and phenomena of sudden death,” p. <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f424'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r424'>424</a>. See “Cases illustrating the decided efficacy of cold affusion in -the treatment of poisoning by opium, by <i>S. Wray</i>.” <cite>London Medical and -Physical Journal</cite>, for September 1822.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“A case of poisoning by opium, in which the cold affusion was successfully -employed; with observations on the medical management of -similar occurrences, by <i>J. Copland</i>, M. D.” <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -<p class='c000'>“On the most efficacious means of remedying the effects of opium, -when taken in poisonous doses, by <i>J. H. Sprague</i>.” <i>Ibid.</i></p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f425'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r425'>425</a>. Avis au <i>peuple</i>, tom. ii, § 535, p. 280, 7th edit.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f426'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r426'>426</a>. “On the common syringe, with a flexible tube, as applicable to -the removal of opium, and other poisons, from the stomach, by <i>F. -Bush</i>.” <cite>London Med. and Phys. Journ.</cite> for September, 1822.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“New means of extracting opium, &c. from the stomach, by <i>E. -Jukes, Esq</i>.” <i>Ibid.</i> for November, 1822.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f427'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r427'>427</a>. See Pharmacologia, vol. 1, p. 234.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f428'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r428'>428</a>. Reports on Water, 1, 80.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f429'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r429'>429</a>. A very high degree of vascularity is often found in the stomach -and alimentary canal of those who have been suddenly deprived of life. -The reader may consult <i>Dr. Yelloly’s</i> paper in the <cite>Medico-chirurgical -Transactions</cite>, vol. iv, respecting the appearances found in the stomachs -of several executed criminals.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A case of poisoning by opium is given in the foreign department of -the London Medical Repository, for November 1820; in which two -drachms of solid opium had been swallowed, and on dissection a general -congestion of blood was found in the internal organs.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f430'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r430'>430</a>. The stomach in this case was observed to be red, but the colour -was traced to the tincture of cardamoms, which the deceased had taken.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f431'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r431'>431</a>. Philosophical Transactions, vol. xl, p. 446.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f432'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r432'>432</a>. It was discovered by <i>Scheele</i>, but <i>Gay-Lussac</i> first succeeded in -depriving it of a very great quantity of the water with which it was -combined, when prepared according to the process of its discoverer. -See <cite>Annales de Chimie</cite>, tom. lxxvii, p. 123.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f433'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r433'>433</a>. By the decomposition of muriatic acid, and the cyanuret of -mercury.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f434'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r434'>434</a>. <i>Dr. Majendie</i> has informed us that, in consequence of some carelessness, -he breathed a portion of the vapour, while preparing the acid -for the purpose of experiment; and that he suffered very violent pains -in the chest, accompanied by feelings of oppression, which endured for -several hours.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f435'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r435'>435</a>. “En conservant cet acide dans des vases bien fermés, même sans -quil ait le contact de l’air, il se decompose quelquefois en moins d’une -heure.” <i>Gay-Lussac.</i></p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f436'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r436'>436</a>. See “An Historical and Practical Treatise on the Internal use of -hydro-cyanic (Prussic) acid, by <i>A. B. Granville</i>, M.D.” Second edit. -London, 1820.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f437'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r437'>437</a>. See, however, an account of “A new substance found accompanying -Welsh Culm, by <i>J. A. Paris</i>, M.D.” in the first volume of the -Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f438'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r438'>438</a>. The poisonous properties of this plant are alluded to by <i>Strabo</i>, -who says that the <i>Lauro-cerasus</i> produces a mode of death, similar to -that of epilepsy.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f439'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r439'>439</a>. The merits of this case are to be found very fully discussed in a -pamphlet, entitled “Considerations on the criminal proceedings of this -country; on the danger of convictions on circumstantial evidence, and -on the case of <i>Mr. Donellan</i>.” By a barrister of the Inner Temple, -London, 1781.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f440'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r440'>440</a>. “Experiments and Observations on the different modes in which -Death is produced by certain vegetable poisons.” Phil. Trans. vol. 101, -for the year 1811.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f441'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r441'>441</a>. To those who may wish to gain further information upon this -subject, we beg to recommend the perusal of <i>Dr. Granville’s</i> work above -quoted.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f442'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r442'>442</a>. Treatise on Prussic acid, sup. citat. p. 96.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f443'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r443'>443</a>. Journal General de Médecine, 1. xxiv, p 224.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f444'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r444'>444</a>. Annals of Philosophy, vol. i, p. 2, <i>new series</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f445'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r445'>445</a>. From this person the plant received its generic name, <i>Nicotiana</i>; -the specific appellation being taken from <i>Tabac</i>, the name of an instrument -used by the natives of America in smoking the herb.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f446'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r446'>446</a>. In 1624 Pope Urban the VIII, published a decree of excommunication -against all who took snuff in the church. Ten years after this, -smoking tobacco was forbidden in Russia, under the pain of having the -nose cut off. In 1653 the Council of the Canton of Appenzel cited -smokers before them, whom they punished; and they ordered all inn-keepers -to inform against such as were found smoking in their houses. -The police regulations of Berne, made in 1661, were divided according -to the ten commandments, in which the prohibition of smoking stood -immediately beneath the command against adultery. This prohibition -was renewed in 1675, and the tribunal instituted to put it into execution—viz. -“<span class='sc'>Chambre au Tabac</span>,” continued to the middle of the -eighteenth century. Pope Innocent the XII, in 1590 excommunicated -all those who were found taking snuff, or using tobacco, in any manner, -in the church of St. Peter at Rome; even so late as 1719 the Senate of -Strasburgh prohibited the cultivation of tobacco, from an apprehension -that it would diminish the growth of corn. Amurath the IV published -an edict which made the smoking tobacco a capital offence; this was -founded on an opinion that it rendered the people infertile.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f447'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r447'>447</a>. Pharmacologia, vol. 1, 228, and vol. 2, art. Tabaci Folia.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f448'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r448'>448</a>. Vol. ii, p. 404.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f449'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r449'>449</a>. We are, however, by no means disposed to assign greater weight -to this expression that it can fairly sustain; it may perhaps refer to the -operation of dropping the poison into the ear, and not to the poison -itself—thus <i>Juvenal</i>, “<i>stillavit</i> in aurem.”</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f450'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r450'>450</a>. Ephemerides des Curieux de la Nature, Dec. ii, An. i, p. 46.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f451'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r451'>451</a>. <i>Orfila</i>, Toxicol.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f452'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r452'>452</a>. Pharmacologia, vol. 1, p. 228.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f453'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r453'>453</a>. Pliny informs us that the word <i>cicuta</i> amongst the ancients, was -not indicative of any particular species of plant, but of vegetable poisons -in general. We have already made the same remark with respect -to Aconite.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f454'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r454'>454</a>. Κωνειον of Dioscorides.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f455'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r455'>455</a>. In the London Medical and Physical Journal, vol. 14, p. 425, we -shall find a case wherein the hemlock was eaten through mistake for -common parsley. Similar accidents are also recorded in <i>Miller’s</i> Dictionary.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f456'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r456'>456</a>. It is figured in the Hortus Malabaricus under the name of <i>Canirum</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f457'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r457'>457</a>. Annales de Chimie, t. 8 to 10.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f458'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r458'>458</a>. Ibid. t. x, 153.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f459'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r459'>459</a>. Journal de Physiologie Experimentale, 1<sup>er</sup> numeroJanvier -1821, in a paper entitled “<cite>Memoire sur le Méchanisme de l’Absorption</cite>.”</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f460'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r460'>460</a>. We avail ourselves of this report, as given by <i>Orfila</i> in his System -of Toxicology.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f461'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r461'>461</a>. Bulletin de la Société de Med. Nov. 1807.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f462'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r462'>462</a>. Analyse Chimique de la Coque du Levant. Paris, 1812.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f463'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r463'>463</a>. We have already stated that this sauce has been occasionally rendered -poisonous by the presence of copper, p. <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f464'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r464'>464</a>. <i>Haller</i>, Helvet. hist.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f465'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r465'>465</a>. We have explained, at page <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, the sense in which we wish -these terms to be received.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f466'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r466'>466</a>. Krascheminckow, Histoire Naturel du Kamtschatka, p. 209.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f467'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r467'>467</a>. Systematic arrangement of British Plants, vol. iv, p. 181.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f468'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r468'>468</a>. Leçons, faisant partie du Cours de Medecine Legale de <i>M. Orfila</i>. -Paris, 1821.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f469'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r469'>469</a>. This fact is particularized, as some persons have supposed the -symptoms which have arisen from the ingestion of these fungi, may -have been the effect of copper derived from the cooking utensils.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f470'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r470'>470</a>. Let it be remembered that this term is to be received conventionally; -we merely intend it to express certain phenomena, without -any reference to their cause.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f471'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r471'>471</a>. <i>Mr. Brande.</i> Phil. Trans. 1811 and 1813.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f472'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r472'>472</a>. “I apprehend that the peculiar flavour of <i>cogniac</i> depends upon -the presence of an æthereal spirit, formed by the action of tartaric, or -perhaps acetic acid upon alcohol. It is on this account that nitric æther, -when added to malt spirits gives them the flavour of brandy.” Pharmacologia, -vol. 2, p. 396.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f473'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r473'>473</a>. Pharmacologia, vol. 2, p. 397.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f474'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r474'>474</a>. See our chapter on “<cite>the Physiological causes and Phenomena of Sudden -Death</cite>,” page <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the course of the present work we have frequently recommended -the artificial inflation of the lungs, in cases where life is liable to be extinguished -by suffocation, (<i>page</i> <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>); but we have not yet hinted at the -possibility of employing such a resource with success in cases of narcotic -poisoning, wherein the death may be physiologically considered as -analogous to that occasioned by suffocation. <i>Mr. Brodie</i> was the first -philosopher who ventured to propose such an expedient, and in an experiment -carefully performed on an animal under such circumstances -its life was preserved.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The success of the process will depend upon our being able to keep -up an artificial breathing, until the effects of the narcotic have passed -away, and the energy of the brain is restored. As during this interval -the generation of animal heat appears to be in a great measure suspended, -it will be necessary to maintain a sufficient temperature by art.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f475'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r475'>475</a>. We have just received from <i>Mr. Alcock</i> a history of the particular -circumstances of the interesting case alluded to at page <a href='#Page_58'>58</a> of the present -volume, and we shall give insertion to it in our chapter on Anatomical -Dissection.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f476'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r476'>476</a>. Treatise on Nervous Diseases, vol. 1, p. 221.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f477'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r477'>477</a>. Case of a woman bitten by a viper, <cite>Med. and Phy. Journ.</cite> vol. ii, -p. 481.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f478'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r478'>478</a>. Celsus Medicin. lib. 5, c. 27.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f479'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r479'>479</a>. Lucan Pharsal, c. 9.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f480'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r480'>480</a>. See our remarks on the effects produced by the accidental ingestion -of boiling water, page <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>, and which will apply to the circumstances -of the present case.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f481'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r481'>481</a>. Med. Legale, t. iv, 835.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f482'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r482'>482</a>. Vol. 1, p. 519.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f483'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r483'>483</a>. See volume 1 of the present work, p. 95.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f484'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r484'>484</a>. See <i>Orfila</i>, vol. 2.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f485'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r485'>485</a>. See <i>Dr. Stone</i> on the Diseases of the Stomach, p. 80. We also beg -to direct the attention of the medical reader to a paper entitled “On -the effects of certain articles of food, especially oysters, on women after -child-birth, by <i>John Clarke</i>, M. D.” Med. Trans. vol. v, p. 109.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f486'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r486'>486</a>. For October, 1808, vol. iv, p. 393.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f487'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r487'>487</a>. For June, 1815, vol. 3, p. 445.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f488'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r488'>488</a>. <i>Dr. Burrows</i> has given us a list of them in the paper above alluded -to; the most poisonous of which is the yellow-bill’d sprat, (<i>Clupea -Thryssa</i>.) Indeed, says this author, it has rarely occurred that <em>immediate</em> -death has ensued between the tropics from the virus of any other -fish. <i>M. Orfila</i> observes that the action of this fish is so rapid, that it -has been often seen at <i>St. Eustatia</i> that persons have expired while still -eating it.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f489'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r489'>489</a>. Med. Rep. vol. 3, p. 445.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f490'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r490'>490</a>. Gazette de Santé, Ire Mars, 1812, p. 51.—Ibid. 21 Mars, 1813.—Ibid. -1, Octob. 1812.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f491'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r491'>491</a>. Tom. iv, p. 85.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f492'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r492'>492</a>. <i>Behren’s</i> Dissert. de Affect. a comest Mytil.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f493'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r493'>493</a>. Voyage of Discovery, vol. 2, p. 286, 287.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f494'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r494'>494</a>. The Principles of Forensic Medicine, <i>page</i> 191.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f495'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r495'>495</a>. See Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journal, for Jan. 1811, p. 41.—<i>Bateman</i> -on Cutaneous Diseases, art. <i>Prurigo</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f496'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r496'>496</a>. Observ. on the Diseases of the Army in Jamaica, vol. ii, p. 182.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f497'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r497'>497</a>. Giornale di Fisica, &c. Secondo Bimestre, 1817.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f498'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r498'>498</a>. There is no trade more immediately destructive of health than dry -grinding steel; the workmen are usually attacked by what is called the -grinder’s asthma at twenty-five or thirty years of age, and few of them -live to forty. The Society of Arts have long offered a reward for the -invention of some mode of securing the workmen from this dreadful -calamity, and in 1822 awarded their gold medal to <i>Mr. J. H. Abraham</i>, -of Sheffield, for his Magnetic Guard for Needle-pointers, (see Transactions -for 1822.) The contrivance is likely to answer its intended purpose, -provided the obstinacy and prejudice of the workmen can be overcome -by the perseverance of the master manufacturers, who are morally -bound to adopt every probable means of securing the health of those -employed under them, even though their servants should themselves -neglect it.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f499'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r499'>499</a>. <i>Diemerbroeck</i>, lib. ii, p. 443.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f500'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r500'>500</a>. The oxide of mercury is not volatile.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f501'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r501'>501</a>. Where mercury is sublimed, it will usually assume the appearance -of a black powder, in consequence of the extreme state of division -it has undergone. This appearance has no doubt deceived the superficial -observer, and given origin to many erroneous statements.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f502'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r502'>502</a>. “A small portion of mercury was put through a funnel into a -clean dry bottle, capable of holding about six ounces, and formed a -stratum at the bottom not one-eighth of an inch in thickness; particular -care was taken that none of the mercury should adhere to the upper -part of the inside of the bottle. A small piece of leaf-gold was then -attached to the under part of the stopper of the bottle, so that when the -stopper was put into its place, the leaf-gold was enclosed in the bottle. -It was then set aside in a safe place, which happened to be both dark -and cool, and left for between six weeks and two months. At the end -of that time it was examined, and the leaf-gold was found whitened by -a quantity of mercury, though every part of the bottle and mercury remained, -apparently, just as before. This experiment has been repeated -several times, and always with success. The utmost care was taken -that mercury should not get to the gold, except by passing through -the atmosphere of the bottle. I think therefore it proves that at common -temperatures, and even when the air is present, mercury is always -surrounded by an atmosphere of the same substance.”—<cite>On the vapour of -mercury at common temperatures, by M. Faraday, Chemical Assistant at the -Royal Institution.</cite> Journal of Science and the Arts, vol. 10, p. 354.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f503'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r503'>503</a>. <i>Mr. Plowman</i> has since stated, in conversation, that he has seen -five or six mice, in one day, come into the ward-room, leap up a considerable -height, and fall down dead on the deck. He also stated that -the food for the use of the canary bird was kept in well closed bottles, -so that it was impossible for it to have contracted any metallic impregnation.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f504'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r504'>504</a>. The gases given off by burning coal, will vary very much according -to the activity of the combustion, and the degree of moisture present; -so that we may expect to receive sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphurous -acid, carbonic oxide, carbonic acid, and carburetted hydrogen.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f505'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r505'>505</a>. Researches Chemical and Philosophical, chiefly concerning nitrous -oxide, &c. London, 1800.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f506'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r506'>506</a>. Recherches de Physiologie et de chimie, p. 144, an. 1811.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f507'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r507'>507</a>. See the case in <i>Valentini</i>, <i>P. M. L.</i> p. 538, of a woman wilfully -killed by continual and excessive doses of sulphuric acid, administered -to her under pretence of medicine.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f508'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r508'>508</a>. See the trial of <i>Jane Butterfield</i> for the murder of <i>Wm. Scawen</i>, Esq. -published from the short hand writer’s notes, London 1775. <i>Miss Butterfield</i> -was acquitted, the case is therefore put supposititiously.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f509'> -<p class='c000'><a href='#r509'>509</a>. Such was the case of the ignorant man who went out at night -with the intention of shooting a ghost, which was supposed to haunt -the village of Hammersmith; he actually shot a bricklayer’s labourer -who was returning from his work; this was held to be murder, and the -prisoner was convicted; he was not indeed a fit subject for execution, -and was therefore pardoned; but this should not be extended into a -doctrine, that gross ignorance, producing death, is always a pardonable -offence.</p> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c022'> - <div>Transcriber’s Note</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>This book uses inconsistent spelling and hyphenation, which were retained -in the ebook version. Ditto marks and dashes used to represent repeated text have -been replaced with the text that they represent. Some corrections have been made to the text, including -correcting the errata noted in Volume 1 of this work, normalizing punctuation. Diacritics were left off Greek words since they were -used inconsistently and when they were used they were often incorrect. -Further corrections are noted below:</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#res'>6</a>: proved the means of resucitating -> proved the means of resuscitating</div> - <div class='line'>Anchor position for <a href='#r8'>Footnote 8</a> assumed</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#cad'>14</a>: whereas the <i>cadeverous</i> stiffness -> whereas the <i>cadaverous</i> stiffness</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#sus'>24</a>: in cases of supended animation -> in cases of suspended animation</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#bec'>30</a>: in such cases it become a question -> in such cases it becomes a question</div> - <div class='line'><a href='#f21'>Footnote 21</a>: <i>Tranee.</i> Although this term -> <i>Trance.</i> Although this term</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#sie'>28</a>: killed at the seige of Osen -> killed at the siege of Osen</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#sec'>37</a>: there is asecond period of danger -> there is a second period of danger</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#qua'>41</a>: until a sufficient quanity of air -> until a sufficient quantity of air</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#str'>46</a>: 3. BY MANUAL STRAGULATION. -> 3. BY MANUAL STRANGULATION</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#per'>58</a>: no doubt but that persous -> no doubt but that persons</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#whe'>75</a>: cases were life is suddenly arrested -> cases where life is suddenly arrested</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#in'>85</a>: are founded n error -> are founded in error</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#ena'>87</a>: animal will be enable to perform -> animal will be enabled to perform</div> - <div class='line'>Anchor position for <a href='#r72'>Footnote 72</a> assumed</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#sca'>110</a>: it is scarely necessary; -> it is scarcely necessary;</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#thr'>116</a>: 1. <i>Absolutely mortal.</i> 2. <i>Dangerous.</i> 8. <i>Accidentally mortal.</i> -> <i>Absolutely mortal.</i> 2. <i>Dangerous.</i> 3. <i>Accidentally mortal.</i></div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#foo'>120</a>: footnote marker removed for which no footnote was printed: destroy the patient, by hemorrhage.</div> - <div class='line'>Anchor position for <a href='#r152'>Footnote 152</a> assumed</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#its'>154</a>: our idea of it importance -> our idea of its importance</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#all'>162</a>: with numerous alledged difficulties -> with numerous alleged difficulties</div> - <div class='line'><a href='#f187'>Footnote 187</a>: the stomach which undergeos solution -> the stomach which undergoes solution</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#cor'>171</a>: satisfactorily corrobrate the truth -> satisfactorily corroborate the truth</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#inf'>174</a>: the red and inflammed appearance -> the red and inflamed appearance</div> - <div class='line'><a href='#thi'>Footnote 191</a>: being very thirsy, and in considerable pain -> being very thirsty, and in considerable pain</div> - <div class='line'><a href='#wit'>Footnote 191</a>: wlth yellow pieces in it -> with yellow pieces in it</div> - <div class='line'><a href='#tor'>Footnote 191</a>: that they torn with the slightest -> that they tore with the slightest</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#unu'>191</a>: was of an unusally red colour -> was of an unusually red colour</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#of'>193</a>: which are undoubtedly worthy consideration -> which are undoubtedly worthy of consideration</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#is'>195</a>: from which he his led to conclude -> from which he is led to conclude</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#uni'>200</a>: some few and unimportannt exceptions -> some few and unimportant exceptions</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#nar'>200</a>: Cl. V, <i>Narotico-Acrid poisons</i> -> Cl. V, <i>Narcotico-Acrid poisons</i></div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#wor'>210</a>: The greek work Αρσενικον -> The greek word Αρσενικον</div> - <div class='line in14'>σανδαραχη -> σανδαρακη</div> - <div class='line in14'>αρρενιχον -> αρρενικον</div> - <div class='line'><a href='#f214'>Footnote 214</a>: Σανδαραχη -> Σανδαρακη</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#tet'>211</a>: will assume a <i>tretrahedral</i> form -> will assume a <i>tetrahedral</i> form</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#obs'>217</a>: the head has also been observd -> the head has also been observed</div> - <div class='line'><a href='#f230'>Footnote 230</a>: at the age of thirth-eight -> at the age of thirty-eight</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#int'>227</a>: confined to the stomach and ntestines -> confined to the stomach and intestines</div> - <div class='line'><a href='#f245'>Footnote 245</a>: <i>Black’c</i> Lectures, v. ii, p. 430. -> <i>Black’s</i> Lectures, v. ii, p. 430.</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#phi'>240</a>: application in the Philosophial Magazine -> application in the Philosophical Magazine</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#dis'>248</a>: no solid matter could be dicovered in it -> no solid matter could be discovered in it</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#emb'>253</a>: difficulties and embarassments, occasioned by -> difficulties and embarrassments, occasioned by</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#acc'>273</a>: containing sublimate, accidently or by design -> containing sublimate, accidentally or by design</div> - <div class='line'><a href='#f296'>Footnote 296</a>: having been adulterated with red red -> having been adulterated with red lead</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#the'>297</a>: but their are quite insoluble -> but they are quite insoluble</div> - <div class='line'><a href='#f359'>Footnote 359</a>: supposed to have been of Roman manafacture -> supposed to have been of Roman manufacture</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#ene'>373</a>: thereby destroying the energ of the nervous system -> thereby destroying the energy of the nervous system</div> - <div class='line'><a href='#f426'>Footnote 426</a>: New means of extractiug opium -> New means of extracting opium</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#dil'>395</a> with dilalation of the pupils -> with dilation of the pupils</div> - <div class='line'><a href='#f431'>Footnote 431</a>: Philosophical Taansactions, vol. xl, p. 446 -> Philosophical Transactions, vol. xl, p. 446</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#Page_400'>400</a>: footnote marker after <i>Foderé</i> removed since there was no corresponding footnote</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#dro'>403</a>: taking six dops of the water -> taking six drops of the water</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#suc'>406</a>: but not succesfully recommended -> but not successfully recommended</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#sym'>414</a>: most of those symytoms which we have described -> most of those symptoms which we have described</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#ans'>430</a>: he answed yes, or no -> he answered yes, or no</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#pre'>430</a>: longer intermission than that preceeding -> longer intermission than that preceding</div> - <div class='line'><a href='#f469'>Footnote 469</a>: which have arisen form the ingestion -> which have arisen from the ingestion</div> - <div class='line'><a href='#f474'>Footnote 474</a>: in cases were life is liable to be -> in cases where life is liable to be</div> - <div class='line'>Anchor position of <a href='#r482'>Footnote 482</a> assumed</div> - <div class='line'>p. <a href='#idi'>449</a>: or idosyncrasy of constitution -> or idiosyncrasy of constitution</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Medical Jurisprudence, Volume 2 (of 3), by -John Ayrton Paris and John Samuel Martin Fonblanque - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, VOLUME 2 *** - -***** This file should be named 63830-h.htm or 63830-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/8/3/63830/ - -Produced by Sonya Schermann and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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