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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #63456 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/63456)
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Andreas Vesalius the Reformer of Anatomy, by 
-James Moores Ball
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Andreas Vesalius the Reformer of Anatomy
-
-Author: James Moores Ball
-
-Release Date: October 14, 2020 [EBook #63456]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANDREAS VESALIUS--REFORMER OF ANATOMY ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by deaurider, Stephen Hutcheson, and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-    [Illustration: _And. Vesalius_]
-
-
-
-
-                                ANDREAS
-                                VESALIUS
-                                  THE
-                          Reformer of Anatomy
-
-
-                                   BY
-                        JAMES MOORES BALL, M. D.
-
-    [Illustration: Ornamental block]
-
-                              SAINT LOUIS
-                         MEDICAL SCIENCE PRESS
-                                MDCCCCX
-
-                           Copyrighted, 1910
-                          By James Moores Ball
-                         _All rights reserved_
-
-                             TO THE MEMORY
-                        OF THOSE ILLUSTRIOUS MEN
-                                  WHO
-                   OFTEN UNDER ADVERSE CIRCUMSTANCES
-                                  AND
-                      SOMETIMES IN DANGER OF DEATH
-                 SUCCEEDED IN UNRAVELLING THE MYSTERIES
-                  OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN BODY,
-                       TO THE FATHERS OF ANATOMY
-                                  AND
-                        TO THE ARTIST-ANATOMISTS
-                               THIS BOOK
-                              IS DEDICATED
-
-    [Illustration: Ornamental block]
-
-
-
-
-                                PREFACE
-
-
-    [Illustration: Illuminated capital]
-
-In the annals of the medical profession the name of Andreas Vesalius of
-Brussels holds a place second to none. Every physician has heard of him,
-yet few know the details of his life, the circumstances under which his
-labors were carried out, the extent of those labors, or their
-far-reaching influence upon the progress of anatomy, physiology and
-surgery. Comparatively few physicians have seen his works; and fewer
-still have read them. The reformation which he inaugurated in anatomy,
-and incidentally in other branches of medical science, has left only a
-dim impress upon the minds of the busy, science-loving physicians of the
-nineteenth and twentieth centuries. That so little should be known about
-him is not surprising, since his writings were in Latin and were
-published prior to the middle of the sixteenth century. His books, which
-at one time were in the hands of all the scientific physicians of
-Europe, are now rarely encountered beyond the walls of the great medical
-libraries of the world. They are among the _incunabula_ of the medical
-literature. That English-speaking physicians know little of Vesalian
-literature is due to the fact that no extensive biography of the great
-anatomist has appeared in our language. Most of the Vesalian literature
-which has been written by English and American authors has been in the
-form of brief articles for the medical press; these oftentimes have been
-incorrect and unillustrated. Perhaps the best example of this class is
-the article by Mr. Henry Morley which appeared originally in _Fraser’s
-Magazine_, in 1853, and later was published in his _Clement Marot and
-Other Studies_, in 1871. The chief data for Vesalius’s biography are to
-be found in his own writings, in the archives of the Universities in
-which he taught, and in the controversial literature of the period.
-Extensive as are these sources they leave much to be desired. A vast
-mass of Vesalian literature was printed, chiefly in the Latin language,
-during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Much of it is based on
-insufficient evidence or on national prejudice. The Germans, the French,
-the Dutch and the Italians have all taken a turn at it. In modern times
-the monumental work of Roth, _Andreas Vesalius Bruxellensis_, Berlin,
-1892, has served to epitomize this literature and to make clear many
-points which formerly were not understood. I have taken Roth’s book as a
-basis for this monograph, without using the voluminous references which
-are found in the work of this thorough historian.
-
-The man who overthrew the authority of Galen; revolutionized the
-teaching of the structure of the human body; started anatomical,
-physiological, and surgical investigation in the right channels; first
-correctly illustrated his dissections; destroyed ancient dogmas, and
-made many new discoveries—this man, Andreas Vesalius of Brussels,
-deserves the name which Morley has given him, “the Luther of Anatomy.”
-
-At long intervals a bright particular star appears in the intellectual
-horizon, endowed with genius of such a superlative order as seemingly to
-comprise within itself the whole domain of an entire science. These men
-do not belong to any particular epoch in the development of the human
-mind. They are the eternal symbols of progress, and their history is the
-history of the science which they profess. Such men were Bacon, Galileo,
-Descartes, Newton, Lavoisier, and Bichat; and such also was Andreas
-Vesalius the anatomist. Young, enthusiastic, courageous and diligent,
-Vesalius dared to contradict the authority of Galen, corrected the
-anatomical mistakes of thirteen centuries and before his thirtieth year
-published the most accurate, complete, and best illustrated treatise on
-anatomy that the world had ever seen. His industry, the success which
-crowned his efforts, the jealousies which his discoveries aroused in the
-breasts of his contemporaries, the honors which were conferred upon him
-by Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second, his pilgrimage to the Holy
-Land, and his tragic death—these are events which deserve to be
-chronicled by an abler pen than mine.
-
-The year 1543 marks the date of a revolution which was won, not by force
-of arms but by the scalpel of an anatomist and the hand of an artist.
-The whole of human anatomy, as a study involving correct descriptions of
-the component parts of the body and accurate delineations thereof, may
-be said to have been founded by Andreas Vesalius and Jan Stephan van
-Calcar. As light pouring into a prism attracts little notice until it
-emerges in iridescent hues, so it was with anatomy: after passing
-through the brain of Vesalius it bore rich fruit which has been gathered
-by many hands. To turn from the writings of Galen, Mondino, Hundt,
-Peyligk, Phryesen, and Berengario da Carpi to the beauties of Vesalius’s
-_De Humani Corporis Fabrica_ is like passing from darkness into
-sunlight. To both anatomists and artists this book was a revelation. For
-more than a century after its appearance the anatomists of Europe did
-little more than make additions to, and compose commentaries upon the
-conjoint triumph of Vesalius and van Calcar. For more than two centuries
-the osteologic and myologic figures of the _Fabrica_ formed the basis of
-all treatises on Art-Anatomy.
-
-                                                      JAMES MOORES BALL.
-
-  Saint Louis,
-  MDCCCCX.
-
-    [Illustration: Ornamental block]
-
-    [Illustration: Ornamental block]
-
-
-
-
-                           TABLE OF CONTENTS
-
-
-                                                                    PAGE
-  INTRODUCTION                                                      1-16
-      The Study of Medical History—The General Renaissance—The
-          Anatomical Renaissance.
-  ANATOMY IN ANCIENT TIMES                                         17-28
-      Anatomy in Egypt and in Greece—Hippocrates and the
-          Asclepiadae—Alcmaeon, Empedocles and Aristotle—Early Roman
-          Medicine—The Alexandrian University—Herophilus and
-          Erasistratus—Claudius Galenus—The School of
-          Salernum—Frederick II.
-  MONDINO, THE RESTORER OF ANATOMY                                 29-36
-      Life of Mondino—He restores the Study of Practical Anatomy—His
-          Book on Anatomy.
-  MONDINO’S SUCCESSORS                                             37-51
-      Gabriel de Zerbi—John Peyligk—Magnus Hundt—Laurentius
-          Phryesen—Alexander Achillinus—Berengario da Carpi—John
-          Dryander—Charles Estienne.
-  VESALIUS’S EARLY LIFE                                            52-55
-      Origin of the Vesalius Family—Early Life of the
-          Anatomist—Vesalius enters the University of Louvain.
-  SOJOURN IN PARIS                                                 56-69
-      Vesalius goes to Paris to study Medicine—Celebrated Parisian
-          Physicians of the Sixteenth Century—Jacobus
-          Sylvius—Joannes Guinterius—Jean Fernel—Philosophy of
-          Pierre de la Rameé—State of Anatomy at this Period.
-  VESALIUS RETURNS TO LOUVAIN                                      70-72
-      Vesalius returns to Louvain—He conducts a Course in
-          Anatomy—Secures a Skeleton.
-  PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY IN PADUA                                    73-80
-      Vesalius goes to Venice, thence to Padua—Receives the Degree
-          of Doctor of Medicine—He is appointed Professor of
-          Anatomy—His method of Teaching—Lectures also in Bologna.
-  FIRST CONTRIBUTION TO ANATOMY                                    81-83
-      Vesalius issues a Series of Anatomical Plates under the title
-          “Tabulae Anatomicae”—His Plates are extensively pirated.
-  PUBLICATION OF THE FABRICA                                       84-94
-      The Manuscript and Illustrations for the Fabrica are
-          transported to Basel—Joannes Oporinus, the noted Printer
-          and Greek Scholar—Publication of the Fabrica—Beauty of the
-          Illustrations—Who was the unnamed Artist?—The Plates were
-          erroneously ascribed to Titian—Christoforo Coriolano—Jan
-          Stephan van Calcar—Popularity of the Illustrations among
-          Artists and Anatomists.
-  PUBLICATION OF THE EPITOME                                       95-97
-      Publication of the Epitome—Reasons for its
-          Publication—Character of the Work.
-  CONTENTS OF THE FABRICA                                         99-113
-      General Plan of the Book—A brief Review of its Contents—The
-          First Book, on Osteology—Vesalius’s Contributions to the
-          Anatomy of the Bones—The Second Book, on Ligaments and
-          Muscles—Excellence of this Part of the “Fabrica”—The Third
-          Book, on the Veins and Arteries—The Fourth Book, on the
-          Nerves—The Fifth Book, on the Organs of Nutrition—The
-          Sixth Book, on the Heart—Vesalius’s Idea of the
-          Circulation—Quotation from his Book—The Seventh Book, on
-          the Brain and the Organs of Sense—Conclusion.
-  CONTEMPORARY ANATOMISTS                                        114-125
-      The publication of the Fabrica is followed by great activity
-          among Anatomists—Bartholomeus Eustachius—Realdus
-          Columbus—Gabriel Fallopius—John Philip Ingrassias.
-  COMMENTATORS AND PLAGIARISTS                                   126-129
-      Plagiarism in Medicine—William Cowper and Bidloo’s
-          Plates—Pirated editions of the “Tabulae Anatomicae”—Thomas
-          Geminus’s editions of the “Fabrica”—The Microcosmographia
-          of Helkiah Crooke—John Banister’s Book—Juan Valverde di
-          Hamusco’s work on Anatomy—Best editions of the “Fabrica”.
-  THE COURT PHYSICIAN                                            130-132
-      Vesalius is appointed Archiatrus to Charles the Fifth—He
-          follows the Emperor in his Journeys—Abdication of
-          Charles—Vesalius is appointed Archiatrus to Philip the
-          Second.
-  PILGRIMAGE AND DEATH                                           133-136
-      Vesalius leaves Madrid—He visits Venice, then goes to Cyprus,
-          and passes on to Jerusalem—Reason for the Pilgrimage—Death
-          of Vesalius.
-
-    [Illustration: Ornamental block]
-
-    [Illustration: Ornamental block]
-
-
-
-
-                         LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
-
-
-  Andreas Vesalius—from the “Epitome”, 1543                 Frontispiece
-                                                                    PAGE
-  Andreas Vesalius—van Kalker p.; I. Troijen s.—from an old
-          copperplate engraving                                   XVIII.
-  Initial Letter—from the “Fabrica”, 1543                             16
-  Hippocrates                                                         17
-  Aristotle                                                           19
-  Alexander the Great                                                 20
-  Ptolemy Soter                                                       21
-  Galen                                                               24
-  Mondino’s Diagram of the Heart                                      31
-  Anatomical Demonstration in 1493                                    33
-  Title-page of Mondino’s Anatomy by Melerstat                        34
-  Colophon of the Anatomy of Mondino                                  36
-  Anatomical Plate by Ricardus Hela, 1493                             38
-  Peyligk’s Diagram of the Heart, 1499                                39
-  Anatomical Figure from Magnus Hundt, 1501                           40
-  Anatomical Figure from Laurentius Phryesen, 1518                    41
-  Alexander Achillinus                                                42
-  Dissection by Berengario, 1535                                      43
-  Skeleton by Berengario, 1523                                        44
-  Muscles by Berengario, 1521                                         45
-  Muscles by Berengario, 1521                                         46
-  Dryander                                                            47
-  Anatomical Figure by Estienne, 1545                                 48
-  Skeleton by Estienne, 1545                                          49
-  Skull by Dryander, 1541                                             51
-  The Old University of Louvain                                       54
-  Sylvius                                                             57
-  Winter of Andernach                                                 62
-  Jean Fernel                                                         64
-  Ramus                                                               66
-  Vivisection of a Pig—from the “Fabrica”, 1543                       69
-  Instruments used in Dissection—from the “Fabrica”, 1543             74
-  Initial Letter—from the “Fabrica”, 1543                             80
-  View of the City of Basel in the Sixteenth Century                  83
-  Joannes Oporinus                                                    85
-  Mark of Oporinus—from the “Fabrica”, 1543                           86
-  Jan Stephan van Calcar—from Sandrart’s “Teutsche Academie”, 1685    88
-  Second Vesalian Plate of the Muscles—from the “Fabrica”, 1543       90
-  Ninth Vesalian Plate of the Muscles—from the “Fabrica”, 1543        92
-  A Human Skull resting on the Skull of a Dog—from the “Fabrica”,
-          1543                                                        94
-  Title-page of Vesalius’s “Epitome”, 1543                            96
-  Skeleton by Vesalius—from the “Fabrica”, 1543                       98
-  Fifth Vesalian Plate of the Muscles—from the “Fabrica”, 1543       100
-  Deep Muscles of the Back by Vesalius—from the “Fabrica”, 1543      102
-  Part of the First Text-page of the “Fabrica”, 1543                 103
-  Plate of the Arterial Tree by Vesalius—from the “Fabrica”, 1543    104
-  Dissection of the Abdomen by Vesalius—from the “Fabrica”, 1543     106
-  Dissection of the Heart by Vesalius—from the “Fabrica”, 1543       107
-  Initial Letter—from the “Fabrica”, 1543                            113
-  Brain and Nerves by Eustachius                                     116
-  Muscles by Eustachius                                              117
-  Title-page of Columbus’s Anatomy                                   120
-  Gabriel Fallopius                                                  122
-  Ingrassias                                                         125
-  Charles the Fifth                                                  131
-  Philip the Second                                                  133
-
-    [Illustration: Ornamental block]
-
-    [Illustration: _I. van Kalker p.    I. Troÿen s._
-    ANDREAS VESALIUS
-    (From an old copperplate engraving)]
-
-    [Illustration: Ornamental block]
-
-
-
-
-                              INTRODUCTION
-
-
-    [Illustration: Illuminated capital]
-
-The intelligent student of medical history has at his command an
-unfailing source of pleasure. To learn the successive steps by which
-Medicine has advanced from a priest-ridden and secret art practiced with
-mysterious rites in the Greek temples, passing through the schools of
-Greek philosophy into the light of publicity, is his privilege. To hunt
-through musty and worm-eaten volumes for facts regarding the great
-physicians of antiquity is his delight; and to communicate the knowledge
-thus obtained to others, who have not the time or the facilities for
-such research, is his duty. In every period are events and incidents of
-interest, but to the Middle Ages a peculiar fascination attaches; for it
-was during this period that Europe, emerging from an intellectual
-darkness of ten centuries’ duration, awoke to the Renaissance, and
-Medicine, as ever has been the case, kept pace with the general advance
-of knowledge.
-
-The present book deals with the life of a master whose work was an
-essential factor in the evolution of the Anatomical Renaissance. In
-order to understand the New Birth of Anatomy it is necessary to know
-something of the scope and influence of the General Renaissance.
-
-
-The General Renaissance
-
-This, the Revival of Learning, includes an indefinite time in European
-history. The seeds of the new movement were planted in the Middle Ages,
-but they bore no fruit until the time had arrived for an apparently
-“spontaneous outburst of intelligence”. Definitions of the Renaissance
-will vary with the point of view. Artists and sculptors will say it was
-a revolution which was created by the recovery of ancient statues;
-littérateurs and philosophers look upon it as a radical change due to
-the discovery of the writings of the classical authors; astronomers and
-physicists will cite the names of Copernicus, Galileo, and Torricelli;
-geographers will point to the discovery of a New Continent; historians
-will name the extinction of feudalism and the capture of Constantinople
-by the Turks; inventors will recall the changed conditions of warfare
-brought about by gunpowder, the multiplication of books by the invention
-of printing, and the advent of new methods of engraving; and anatomists
-will sound the praises of Leonardo da Vinci and of Andreas Vesalius. All
-will agree that the Renaissance meant Revolution—revolution in thought,
-in conduct, in creed, and in conditions of existence. To no one fact can
-the Renaissance be attributed; nor can its scope be limited to any one
-field of human endeavor. The Renaissance was, and is, and will continue
-to be, as long as the race progresses.
-
-The new movement began in Italy and grew rapidly. When, toward the end
-of the sixteenth century, the lamp of learning began to get dim in
-Italy, it was relighted by the nations of northern Europe—the Germans,
-the Hollanders, and the English—and by them was transferred to us. The
-Revival consisted largely in the recovery of the buried writings of the
-ancient Greek and Roman authors, together with comments on what they had
-written, and the production of books which were modeled after their
-works. But it was broader than this. It included all branches of
-learning, although more progress was made in some lines than in others.
-
-Italy, a country divided into numerous small States, and so-called
-Republics, offered great opportunities for individual development and
-became famous in those paths in which individualism has gained its
-greatest triumphs. Thus in literature, in law, in medicine, in painting
-and in sculpture, the Italians were preëminent. In architecture and in
-the drama they reached no such heights as were attained by the French,
-the Germans and the English. It was in the northwest part of Italy, in
-the province of Tuscany, that the Renaissance gained its greatest
-victories. Among the earliest of the leaders of the New Learning was the
-Florentine poet, Dante Alighieri (1265-1321). “To Dante”, says Symonds,
-“in a truer sense than to any other poet, belongs the double glory of
-immortalising in verse the centuries behind him, while he inaugurated
-the new age”. His _Vita Nuova_ (New Life) and _Divina Commedia_ (Divine
-Comedy) are essentially modern in thought, but ancient in the manner in
-which the thought is expressed.
-
-Petrarch may be said to fairly open the new era. Like Dante, he was a
-Florentine. He was the apostle of Humanism, that system of philosophy
-which regarded man “as a rational being apart from theological
-determinations” and perceived that “classic literature alone displayed
-human nature in the plenitude of intellectual and moral freedom”. To a
-revolt against the despotism of the Church, it added the attempt to
-unify all that had been taught and done by man. Petrarch was a poet, a
-lawyer, an orator, a priest, and a philosopher. He lived between the
-years 1304-1374. He was a great traveler, and visited the leading
-continental cities in order to converse with learned men. Petrarch
-delighted in the study of Cicero, in collecting manuscripts, and in
-accumulating coins and inscriptions for historic purposes. He advocated
-public libraries and preached the duty of preserving ancient monuments.
-He opposed the physicians and astrologers of his day, and ridiculed the
-followers of Averröes.
-
-Boccaccio, who has been called the Father of Italian Prose, and is most
-widely known as the author of the _Decameron_, did not spend all of his
-time in describing the escapades of the knights and ladies of old.
-Influenced potently by Petrarch, Boccaccio regretted the years he had
-wasted in law and trade, when he should have been reading the classics.
-Late in life he began the study of Greek that he might read the _Iliad_
-and the _Odyssey_. What he lacked in genuine scholarship he made up in
-industry. He continued the work begun by Petrarch of hunting for lost
-manuscripts of the ancient Greek and Roman authors. Many of these
-precious documents were stored in the conventual libraries, where, too
-often, they were either wantonly destroyed or were mutilated, the words
-of the author being erased from the parchment to make way for new
-prayers. Boccaccio tells of a visit which he made to the Benedictine
-Monastery of Monte Cassino near the city of Salernum. He wished to see
-the books and found them in a room without door or key. Many of them
-were mutilated. On making inquiry as to the cause, the monks answered
-that they had sold some of the sheets, having first erased the original
-words, replacing them with psalters. The margins of the old pages were
-made into charms and were sold to women.
-
-It was owing to the unselfish labors of such men as Petrarch and
-Boccaccio that the works of Livy, Cicero, Quintilian, Terence, and
-others of the ancient authors, were preserved. In this enterprise they
-were encouraged by the rulers. Thus Cosimo de’ Medici in Florence,
-Alfonso the Magnanimous in Naples, and Nicholas V. in Rome, to say
-nothing of the despots of the smaller cities, rivaled one another in
-their zeal in unearthing and multiplying the manuscripts of the ancient
-writers. They spared neither time nor money to increase their store of
-manuscript books. They surrounded themselves with learned men who lived
-in high esteem, and who were supported by salaries paid by the State or
-by private pensions.
-
-The fifteenth century, which was one of the most remarkable epochs in
-history, was rich in accomplishment. Almost all of the great events
-which have influenced European commercial and intellectual development
-can be traced to that period. The invention of printing, the discovery
-of America, the fall of the Roman Empire in the East, the birth of the
-Reformation, and the rise of art in Italy, all belong to this wonderful
-century. In this period, when almost every city in Italy was a new
-Athens, the Italian poets, historians, and artists vied with the eminent
-men of the ancient world in carrying the lamp of learning. The Italian
-cities—Florence, Bologna, Milan, Venice, Rome and Ferrara—fought with
-one another, not for the spoils of the battlefield but for the victories
-of science and of art; not so much for the profits of commerce as for
-the wealth of genius and of learning. The intellectual development which
-occurred in northern Italy under the rule of the house of Medici, and
-particularly under the auspices of Lorenzo the Magnificent, forms one of
-the most interesting periods in European history.
-
-It is impossible in the present work to trace the steps by which the
-exquisite taste of the ancients in works of art was revived in modern
-times. Nevertheless, a few words may be devoted to this subject. While
-much must be credited to those Greek artists who had left their country
-and had settled in the Italian peninsula, it must be conceded that many
-of the works of art of the native Italians were not the less
-meritorious. The same circumstances which favored the revival of
-letters, operated to further the cause of art; and the same individuals,
-who were interested in the preservation of the manuscripts of the older
-authors, also busied themselves with the collection of ancient statues,
-paintings, gems and tapestry. The freedom of the Italian Republics
-permitted the minds of men to expand to full fruition; and the
-encouragement which was given by its rulers to artists, sculptors and
-artisans, made the city of Florence, in the fifteenth century, a not
-less renowned centre of culture than Athens had been in ancient times.
-
-The revival of art dates from the time of Cimabue (1240-1300) and Giotto
-(1276-1336). The former is known as the Father of Modern Painters; the
-latter constructed the Campanile at Florence. To Giovanni Cimabue, scion
-of a noble Florentine family, is usually given the credit of being the
-restorer of art in Italy. He is thought to have been the first painter
-to throw expression into the human countenance. His work, if judged by
-present standards, would be called crude, rude and incomplete. Much of
-the fame of this painter is to be attributed to his being the first
-person whom Vasari chronicled in his _Lives of the Painters_. For more
-than a century after the time of Cimabue and Giotto, painters displayed
-only a smattering of anatomical knowledge.
-
-Early in the fifteenth century two Flemish artists, Hubert van Eyck
-(1365-1426) and his brother John (1385-1441), in their polyptych of the
-Adoration of the Lamb, boldly struck out along new lines and committed
-the unheard-of deed of painting nude figures. Italy, however, was the
-real birthplace of Art-Anatomy. While the Flemings and others of the
-North painted everything that they saw, including the nude, the Italians
-were the first men of the Renaissance who thought of painting the nude
-figure before draping it. Leo Battista Alberti (1404-1472), in his works
-on painting, insists that the bony skeleton must first be drawn and then
-clothed with its muscles and flesh. This was an important step in
-advance, since it shows that the Florentine artists were progressing
-towards realism and were breaking away from the symbolism of the early
-Christian painters and mosaic-workers. The new movement in art found a
-worthy champion in Antonio Pollaiuolo (1432-1498). In his knowledge of
-the anatomy of the human figure he surpassed all of the artists of his
-day; and as a result of his labors he may justly be named the founder of
-the scientific study of the nude. His knowledge of anatomy was so
-accurate, and so extensive, that it could have been gained only in the
-dissecting room.
-
-Under the patronage of Lorenzo de’ Medici and the guiding mind of
-Pollaiuolo, there occurred a revival of pseudo-paganism in Art. The old
-Church subjects were largely neglected; mythological subjects again
-became the fashion; draperies were either modified or were laid aside;
-and the scientific study of anatomy, both as regards the nude figure and
-the dissection of the individual parts, became the necessary training of
-the student. Of all the masters of this period, the palm for excellence
-in drawing the naked figure must be awarded to Luca Signorelli
-(1442-1524), from whose work Michael Angelo is known to have profited.
-
-The alliance between skilled anatomists and master artists was of
-reciprocal benefit. The anatomical studies which were made conjointly by
-Leonardo da Vinci and the celebrated teacher of anatomy, Marc Antonio
-della Torre, were lost to the world by the untimely death of the latter,
-before he had finished a magnificent treatise on human anatomy.
-Leonardo’s anatomical sketches, if they had been published during his
-lifetime, would have revolutionized anatomy both as regards discoveries
-in the body and the teaching of the structure of man. These masterpieces
-of anatomical illustration long remained hidden from the world; they
-were published only in the year 1902. Even now their cost is so great
-that only a few wealthy libraries can possess them. Leonardo’s long
-unpublished drawings show him to have been a most accurate anatomist. At
-the same time, he constantly kept in view the aim of fine art, which, in
-so far as practical anatomy is concerned, needs a knowledge of only the
-bones and the muscles.
-
-Nor was Leonardo the only artist who made dissections. Raffaello Santi,
-Michael Angelo, Bartholomaus Torre, Luigi Cardi or Civoli, Jan Stephan
-van Calcar, Giuseppe Ribera, Arnold Myntens, and Pietro da Cortona
-studied practical anatomy. Rubens’s long-lost sketch-book[1], which was
-published one hundred and thirty-three years after his death, shows with
-what care he had studied human anatomy. Albrecht Dürer’s _Treatise on
-the Proportions of the Human Body_ is also worthy of mention.
-
-In the number and fame of her Universities, Italy showed supremacy. At
-the end of the fifteenth century she could boast of sixteen seats of
-learning, a number equal to that of the combined institutions of
-Britain, France, Germany, Hungary, Bohemia and Bavaria.
-
-This digression has led us away from the Humanists. Their list is a long
-one. Among them were Poggio Bracciolini, who discovered the manuscript
-of the _Institutions_ of Quintilian and the writings of Vitruvius;
-Poliziano, the first poet of the fifteenth century, and the translator
-of the works of Hippocrates and Galen; Pontanus, whose _De Stellis_ and
-_Urania_ were much admired by Italian scholars; Sannazzaro, whose epic
-on the birth of Christ cost him twenty years of labor; Vida, whose
-_Christiad_ and other poems were much admired; and Fracastoro, whose
-_Syphilis_ was hailed as a divine poem.
-
-From the viewpoint of the medical historian an important event occurred
-in the year 1443, when Thomas of Sarzana, later known as Pope Nicholas
-V., discovered a manuscript copy of the _De Medicina_ of Aulus Cornelius
-Celsus. This classic, which had been lost for many centuries, was one of
-the first medical books to pass through the press. It gave physicians an
-insight into Hippocratic medicine without the disadvantage of an
-imperfect translation. Physicians took an active part in the
-Renaissance. Thus Nicholas Leonicenus, of Ferrara, translated the
-_Aphorisms_ of Hippocrates and the _Natural History_ of Pliny; and
-Winter of Andernach did similar labor for the writings of Galen,
-Alexander, and Paulus Aegineta. Their efforts seem insignificant in
-comparison with those of Anutius Foesius, a humble practitioner of Metz,
-who spent forty years of his life in preparing a complete Greek edition
-of the works of Hippocrates. The New Learning was brought to England by
-two physicians, Thomas Linacre and John Kaye (Caius).
-
-Some of the Humanists were printers. The history of printing in Italy
-naturally forms a part of the history of the Renaissance. In 1462,
-Maintz was pillaged by Adolph of Nassau and its printers were scattered
-over Europe. Two of them wandered into Italy, living in a village in the
-Sabine mountains, where, in October, 1465, the first book was printed
-from an Italian press. It was a Latin edition of Lactantius. Six years
-later a press was established in Florence. In 1478, Mondino’s
-_Anathomia_ was printed in Pavia. It has been estimated that before the
-first year of the sixteenth century, five thousand books had been
-printed in Italy. In those days the editions were small, 265 copies
-being considered one edition. An immense amount of labor was required to
-get out a new edition. First, the manuscripts of the ancient author had
-to be collected, compared and corrected, this work being done by learned
-men who resided in the home of the publisher. The corrections were made
-without the aid of dictionaries, grammars, or book-helps of any kind.
-The proof was read aloud to the assembled scholars and the final
-corrections were added. In time, Venice came to be the most noted of the
-Italian cities in the publishing business, owing chiefly to the family
-of Aldo. This family of printers became famous for finely printed Greek
-and Latin books, which are still called Aldine editions. Nine years
-after the printing of the first book in Italy, the art was practiced in
-England by Caxton.
-
-Humanism in Italy began to decline toward the close of the fifteenth
-century. Long before this time it had degenerated into Paganism. The
-scholars influenced all life, customs and thought. Although the nation
-remained Catholic, it was such only in name. Everyone bowed before the
-shrine of classical literature. Even in the christening of children the
-Christian name was sacrificed to paganism. The saints were forgotten,
-and the names most frequently chosen were those from heathen mythology.
-The polite authors described scenes, events and actions in their
-writings in terms which long since have been banished from good society.
-A spade was called by its true name. Bembo, the secretary of Leo X.,
-could write a hymn to Saint Stephen or a monologue for Priapus with
-equal ease and elegance. The amours of the high and the low were
-flaunted in print. The nation degenerated into an intellectual and
-sensual state which involved even the Popes. Scholars and rich men alike
-vied with one another in returning to those pursuits, habits, and
-methods of thought which had ruled ancient Rome in her most corrupt
-days.
-
-Such a condition could not exist forever. The turning-point came in
-1527, when Charles the Fifth, engaging in war with Pope Clement VII.,
-captured and sacked the city of Rome. After that event everything was
-changed. Not only had the scholars lost their influence, but many of
-them had lost their lives. Valeriano, who returned to Rome after the
-siege, pathetically exclaims: “Good God! when first I began to enquire
-for the philosophers, orators, poets and professors of Greek and Latin
-literature, whose names were written on my tablets, how great, how
-horrible a tragedy was offered to me! Of all those lettered men whom I
-had hoped to see, how many had perished miserably, carried off by the
-most cruel of all fates, overwhelmed by undeserved calamities; some dead
-of plague, some brought to a slow end by penury in exile, others
-slaughtered by a foeman’s sword, others worn out by daily tortures;
-some, again, and these of all the most unhappy, driven by anguish to
-self-murder”. Such was the end of the men who made the Italian
-Renaissance. The Spaniards, the Inquisition, and the changed policy of
-the Church prevented a second revival of Humanism.
-
-While the sack of Rome marks the end of the Humanists, the Revival in
-Medicine continued to grow in vigor and extent. Many of the greatest
-discoveries in anatomy were made, and most of the important books on
-this subject were written, in the middle and latter part of the
-sixteenth century. Italian history is rich in contradictions. While
-peace, ease and comfort are generally considered to be necessary to the
-development of science and culture, Italy offers the strange spectacle
-of the steady increase in medical knowledge in spite of wars and alarms.
-The Inquisition, which had been introduced from Spain in 1224, was given
-a new and horrible impetus when, in 1540, Paul III. appointed six
-cardinals to add to its tortures. One of them, Caraffa, became Pope Paul
-IV. in 1555, and four years later originated the _Index Expurgatorius_.
-Torn by civil and foreign wars, and terrorized by the Inquisition, which
-was not abolished until late in the eighteenth century, Italy gradually
-lost her commercial and intellectual supremacy. That she should have
-accomplished so much under such unfavorable circumstances, is now a
-matter of wonderment.
-
-The origin of the Renaissance in Italy was due to many causes. The early
-Roman civilization was not entirely blotted out by the invasion of the
-barbarians of the North. And in the matter of language the Italians
-possessed an advantage, since the transition from Latin to Italian was
-easier than from Latin to Spanish, French, English or German. The
-fertility of the country; the mildness of the climate; the division into
-semi-independent states; the infusion of new northern blood into the
-veins of the Italians; the removal of the papal court to Avignon in
-1309; and the gradual rise of a powerful middle class, whose members
-included the devotees of the professions of law and medicine, were
-factors which determined that Italy, rather than France or Spain, should
-be the field for the Revival of Letters.
-
-To Italy, then, belongs the glory of having been the first to free
-herself from the trammels of ancient scholasticism and the fetters of
-mediaeval theology. She abandoned the wordy dialectics and metaphysical
-gymnastics of the philosophers of old. In place of mortification,
-penance and solitary confinement in cloistered monasteries and convents,
-she began to have a proper conception of the dignity of man and his
-relation to nature.
-
-Italy, in the time of her freedom, received the torch of learning from
-Greece; Italy revived its brilliancy, and, when her time of adversity
-and ruin arrived, she passed it on to the nations of Northern Europe.
-They in turn have transferred it to America, to Australia, to India, and
-to the uttermost parts of the earth.
-
-
-The Anatomical Renaissance
-
-Italy in the sixteenth century was the fount from which issued a
-ceaseless stream of anatomical discoveries. The ancient and illustrious
-Universities of Bologna, Pavia, Padua, Pisa and Rome, eclipsed the
-schools of Paris and Montpellier, of Toulouse and Salamanca; and the
-Italian peninsula, which, in early mediaeval times, had gloried in the
-skill of the physicians of Salernum, a second time became the medical
-centre of Europe. Vesalius and his pupil, Fallopius, taught at Padua;
-the ancient fame of Bologna was supported by Arantius and Varolius;
-Vidius, returned from establishing the anatomical school at Paris,
-taught at Pisa; Eustachius was at Rome, Ingrassias lectured at Naples,
-and the fame of the New Anatomy spread throughout the world. The Italian
-cities were filled with students from foreign lands. Padua had more than
-one thousand new students every year, salaries were paid to her one
-hundred professors, and medicine was looked upon as a noble profession.
-
-While the Italians were the leaders in progress, the Germans were still
-lecturing on Galen and Avicenna, the English had done almost nothing,
-and the Collége de France was not established until 1530.
-
-Legalized by imperial authority and sanctioned by the Church, dissection
-was no longer regarded as a crime. A bull by Pope Boniface VIII., issued
-in the year 1300, forbidding the evisceration of the dead and the
-boiling of their bodies to secure the bones for consecrated ground, as
-was done by the Crusaders, was wrongly interpreted as forbidding
-anatomical dissection. Two centuries later the Popes, standing in the
-vanguard of science, permitted dissections to be made in all the Italian
-medical schools, and paved the way for the Anatomical Renaissance.
-
-Great things were done in the sixteenth century. Under the scalpel and
-pen of Vesalius, anatomy was revolutionized. Surgery was guided into new
-paths by Ambroise Paré; and obstetrics, thanks to the labors of
-Eucharius Rhodion and Jacques Guillemeau, began to assume its legitimate
-place among the medical sciences. Servetus, visionary and argumentative,
-correctly described the pulmonary circulation in a theological work
-which was burned with its author. Eustachius, Columbus and Fallopius
-widened the path which had been blazed by Vesalius. Arantius,
-Caesalpinus and Fabricius added materially to anatomical science. The
-labors of all these great masters prepared the way for the greatest
-event occurring in the seventeenth century, namely, William Harvey’s
-discovery of the circulatory movement of the blood.
-
-    [Illustration: INITIAL LETTER BY VESALIUS
-    (From the “Fabrica”, 1543)]
-
-
-
-
-                             CHAPTER FIRST
-                        Anatomy in Ancient Times
-
-
-    [Illustration: Illuminated capital]
-
-Egypt and Greece were the sources of the medical learning of the ancient
-world. Although the Egyptians and early Greeks possessed a certain
-amount of anatomical knowledge, which was gained in the one instance by
-the practice of embalming and in the other by an examination of the
-bones, no real progress could be made because of the laws, customs and
-prejudices of those ancient peoples. Thus we find the Egyptians stoning
-the operator who opened the abdomen in order that the body might be
-embalmed; and the Greeks inflicted the death penalty on those of their
-generals who, after a battle, neglected to bury or burn the remains of
-the slain.
-
-    [Illustration: HIPPOCRATES]
-
-In the time of Hippocrates, whose life extended approximately over the
-period between 460-377 B.C., Greek medicine emerged from the domination
-of the Asclepiadae, or priests of Aesculapius, who had followed it as an
-hereditary and secret art. Prior to this time in the numerous Asclepia,
-or Temples of Aesculapius, votive offerings had been accepted, some of
-which were of anatomical interest. Thus the Temple at Athens received a
-silver heart and gold eyes. Pausanias states that Hippocrates gave to
-the Temple of Apollo, at Delphos, a skeleton which was made of brass.
-Possibly, as Moehsen[2] believes, this was a metallic figure
-representing a man who was much emaciated by the ravages of disease. In
-the Hippocratic writings, some of which are undoubtedly spurious, are
-few references to the opening of a dead body; and these examinations
-concern the investigation of the thorax and abdomen in order to
-determine the cause of death. While the Greek physicians knew little of
-the human muscles, of the nervous system and of the organs of sense,
-they were well acquainted with the anatomy of the bones. Their
-dissections were held upon the lower animals.
-
-It is impossible to determine whether or not the Greek physicians of the
-Hippocratic period dissected the human body. “It has long been a matter
-of debate”, says John Bell[3], “whether the ancients were, or were not,
-acquainted with anatomy, and the subject, with its various bearings, has
-been much and keenly agitated by the learned. If anatomy had been much
-known to the ancients, their knowledge would not have remained a subject
-of speculation. We should have had evidence of it in their works; but,
-on the contrary, we find Hippocrates spending his time in idle
-prognostics, and dissecting apes, to discover the seat of the bile.”
-
-Galen[4] states that the ancient physicians did not write works on
-anatomy; that such treatises were at that time unnecessary, because the
-Asclepiadae—to which family Hippocrates belonged—secretly instructed
-their young men in this subject; and that opportunities were given for
-such study in the temples of Aesculapius.
-
-    [Illustration: ARISTOTLE]
-
-The first systematic dissections seem to have been made by the
-Pythagorean philosopher Alcmaeon, who lived in the sixth century B. C.,
-but it is uncertain whether he dissected brutes or men. The cochlea of
-the ear and the amnios of the foetus were named by Empedocles of
-Agrigentum, in the fifth century B. C. The nerves were first
-distinguished from the tendons by Aristotle, (384-322 B. C.), the most
-celebrated zoötomist of antiquity, who has been called the Father of
-Comparative Anatomy. For twenty centuries his views of natural phenomena
-were held in high esteem.
-
-For a long period the early inhabitants of Rome were practically without
-physicians. During severe epidemics they had recourse to oracles, to the
-health deities of the Greeks, and to their native gods. As early as the
-fifth century B. C., during a pestilence, a temple was erected to Apollo
-as Healer. The worship of Aesculapius was introduced into Rome in the
-year 291 B. C. Livy relates that the god of medicine in the guise of a
-serpent was transported from Epidaurus, in Greece, to the Isle of the
-Tiber where a temple was built in his honor.
-
-The Romans, like the Greeks, were accustomed to leave votive offerings,
-or donaria, in their temples. Such gifts included surgical instruments,
-pharmaceutical appliances, painted tablets representing miraculous
-cures, and great numbers of images of various parts of the human frame
-shaped in metal, stone or terra-cotta. Among the remains of Roman
-anatomical art is the marble figure which was unearthed in the villa of
-Antonius Musa, the favorite physician of the Emperor Augustus. It is a
-human torso; the front of the chest and abdomen has been removed so as
-to expose the viscera. The heart is placed vertically in the middle of
-the thorax, thus corresponding to the position of this organ as
-described by Galen who made his dissections on apes. It is a human
-thorax with simian contents. The figure is supposed to have been
-constructed for the purposes of a teacher of anatomy.
-
-    [Illustration: ALEXANDER THE GREAT]
-
-It was in the famous Alexandrian University that human anatomy was first
-studied systematically and legally.
-
-Alexander the Great, after the fall of Tyre (332 B. C.) and the siege of
-Gaza, ordered his fleet to sail up the Nile as far as Memphis while he
-proceeded overland with the army. It was probably on this march, while
-viewing the pyramids and other marvelous works of the ancient Egyptians,
-that he conceived the grand idea of founding a city upon the banks of
-the Nile, which should be a model of architectural beauty, a centre of
-intellectual life and a lasting monument of his own greatness and
-magnificence. The foundation of Alexandria was laid by the warrior whose
-name it bears; but the credit of instituting the Library belongs to one
-of his lieutenants, Ptolemy Soter.
-
-    [Illustration: PTOLEMY SOTER]
-
-The new city which for centuries was the intellectual and commercial
-storehouse of Europe, Africa and India, was of oblong form. Lake
-Mareotis washed its walls on the south, while the Mediterranean bathed
-its ramparts on the north. Provided with broad streets, it was adorned
-with magnificent houses, temples and public buildings. At the centre of
-the city was the Mausoleum in which was deposited the body of Alexander,
-embalmed after the manner of the Egyptians. Alexandria was divided into
-three parts: the _Regio Judaeorum_ or Jews’ quarter, in the northwest;
-the _Rhacotis_, or Egyptian section, on the west, containing the
-Serapeum with a large part of the Library; and on the north, the
-_Bruchaeum_, or Greek portion, containing the greater part of the
-Library, the Museum, the Temple of the Caesars and the Court of Justice.
-The population was cosmopolitan in character; the statues of the Greek
-gods stood by the side of those of Osiris and of Isis; the Jews forgot
-their language and spoke Greek; and under the Ptolemies, who were of
-Greek descent, Alexandria became a centre of intellectual life and
-culture.
-
-To the medical historian the most interesting feature of Alexandria was
-the Museum or University. Here were assembled the intellectual giants of
-the earth: Archimedes and Hero, the philosophers; Apelles, the painter;
-Hipparchus and Ptolemy, the astronomers; Euclid, the geometer;
-Eratosthenes and Strabo, the geographers; Manetho, the historian;
-Aristophanes, the rhetorician; Theocritus and Callimichus, the poets;
-and Erasistratus and Herophilus, the anatomists, all of whom labored in
-quiet upon the peaceful banks of the Nile. The early Christian church
-drew from “the divine school at Alexandria” such eminent teachers as
-Origen and Athanasius. Here were a chemical laboratory, a botanical and
-zoölogical garden, an astronomical observatory, a great library, and a
-room for the dissection of the dead.
-
-In the Alexandrian school of medicine Erasistratus and Herophilus taught
-the science of organization from actual dissections. The generosity of
-the Ptolemies not only furnished them with an abundance of dead
-material, but condemned malefactors were used for human vivisection.
-Celsus[5] states that the Alexandrian anatomists obtained criminals,
-“for dissection alive, and contemplated, even while they breathed, those
-parts which nature had before concealed.”
-
-Herophilus made many anatomical discoveries. He traced the delicate
-arachnoid membrane into the ventricles of the brain, which he held to be
-the seat of the soul; and first described that junction of the six
-cerebral sinuses opposite the occipital protuberance, which to this day
-is called the _torcular Herophili_. He saw the lacteals, but knew not
-their use, and regarded the nerves as organs of sensation arising from
-the brain; he described the different tunics of the eye, giving them
-names which are still retained; and first named the duodenum and
-discovered the epididymis. He attributed the pulsation of arteries to
-the action of the heart; the paralysis of muscles to an affection of the
-nerves; and first named the furrow in the fourth cerebral ventricle,
-calling it _calamus scriptorius_.
-
-Erasistratus gave names to the auricles of the heart; declared that the
-veins were blood-vessels; and the arteries, from being found empty after
-death, were air-vessels. He believed that the purpose of respiration was
-to fill the arteries with air; the air distended the arteries, made them
-beat, and in this manner the pulse was produced. When once the air
-gained entrance to the left ventricle, it became the vital spirits. The
-function of the veins was to carry blood to the extremities. He is said
-to have had a vague idea of the division of nerves into nerves of
-sensation and of motion; to the former he assigned an origin in the
-membranes of the brain, while the latter proceeded from the cerebral
-substance itself. He recognized the use of the trachea as the tube which
-conveys air to the lungs. A catheter, the first invented, which was
-figured in ancient surgical works, bore the name of the catheter of
-Erasistratus. He gravely tells us, as the result of his anatomical
-studies, that the soul is located in the membranes of the brain.
-
-The practice of human dissection did not long exist in the city of its
-origin, and after the second century was unknown. Then science underwent
-a retrogression; observations and experiments were replaced by useless
-discussions and subtle theories. The decline of the Alexandrian
-University was due to a series of disasters which began with the Roman
-domination and reached their climax with the capture of the city by the
-Arabs.
-
-    [Illustration: GALEN]
-
-Claudius Galenus, the celebrated Roman physician whose writings were for
-centuries accepted as authority and whose reputation was second only to
-that of Hippocrates, was obliged to base his anatomical treatises
-largely upon the dissection of the lower animals. He advised his pupils
-to visit Alexandria, where he had studied, in order that they might
-examine the human skeleton. He complained that the physicians of his
-time—in the reign of Marcus Aurelius—had entirely neglected anatomical
-knowledge and had degenerated into mere sophists. He appreciated the
-importance of anatomy, particularly to a surgeon who is called upon to
-treat wounds and injuries. Hence he has endeavored in the four books,
-_De Anatomicis Administrationibus_, to cover this part of anatomy as
-exhaustively as possible.
-
-Galen’s voluminous writings form a precious monument of ancient
-medicine. The works of the Alexandrian anatomists having been destroyed,
-we know of their labors chiefly from what Galen has said of them. His
-treatises show a remarkable familiarity with practical anatomy, although
-his dissections were made upon the lower animals. Galen’s knowledge of
-osteology was extensive. He described the bones of the skull, the
-cranial sutures, and the essential features of the malar, maxillary,
-ethmoid and sphenoid bones. He divided the vertebrae into cervical,
-dorsal and lumbar classes. He knew that both arteries and veins were
-blood-carrying vessels; he described the valves of the heart, and
-recognized this organ as the source of pulsation. He erroneously taught
-that the interventricular septum presents foramina through which the two
-kinds of blood become mixed.
-
-In myology Galen made numerous advances. “Previous to his
-investigations”, says Fisher[6] “much confusion existed as to what
-constituted a single muscle; he adopted the general rule of considering
-each bundle of fibers that terminates in an independent tendon to be one
-muscle. He was the first to describe and give names to the platysma
-myoides, the sterno- and thyro-hyoides, and the popliteal. He described
-the six muscles of the eye, two muscles of the eyelids, and four pairs
-of muscles of the lower jaw—the temporal to raise, the masseter to draw
-to one side, and two depressors, corresponding to the digastric and
-internal pterygoid muscles. He described also the brachialis anticus,
-the biceps flexor cubiti, the sphincter and levator ani, and the
-straight and oblique muscles of the abdomen. In short, he described the
-greater portion of the muscles of the body, his treatise differing
-chiefly from a modern one in the minute account of these organs and in
-the omission of some of the smaller muscles.” Galen studied the brain
-and named the corpus callosum, the septum lucidum, the corpora
-quadrigemina and the fornix; but erroneously stated that the nerves of
-sensation arise from the brain, and those of motion from the spinal
-cord. He denied the decussation of the optic nerves. He described the
-pneumogastric and sympathetic nerves; seven pairs of cerebral and thirty
-pairs of spinal nerves; and claimed the discovery of the ganglia of the
-nervous system. He located the seat of the soul in the brain, which also
-is the source of the rational mind; the heart to him was the source of
-courage and of anger, and the liver was the seat of desire. Many of
-Galen’s anatomical statements show that he derived his knowledge from
-comparative dissections.
-
-The Galenic era was followed by that long period of ignorance, of
-slumber and of inaction which is justly known as the Dark Ages. While a
-few Greek and Arab writers, who came after Galen, contributed to the
-literature of medicine and surgery, they did nothing for anatomy. After
-the end of the fifth century even the works of Galen were forgotten. At
-this period, when medicine was chiefly in the hands of the Jews, the
-Arabs and the bigoted clergy, nothing was done for science or for art.
-The whole influence of Christianity was exerted against the schools of
-philosophy. Illustrious apostles of the Church pronounced anathemas
-against the reading of the ancient classics;[7] and eminent
-ecclesiastics regarded disease as a divine penalty or as an invaluable
-aid to saintly advancement. Art and anatomy were practically forgotten.
-Their Renaissance occurred almost simultaneously.
-
-During the period from the seventh to the fourteenth centuries the
-school of Salernum was for medicine what Bologna became for law and
-Paris for philosophy. Here, for eight hundred years, medicine was taught
-to thousands of students and the impress of the profession was so potent
-that the city called itself _Civitas Hippocratica_, and thus its seals
-were stamped. Here medical diplomas were first issued to waiting
-students who took a sacred oath to serve the poor without pay. Here with
-a book in his hand, a ring on his finger and a laurel wreath on his
-head, the candidate was kissed by each professor and was told to start
-upon his way. Here women were professors and vied with men in spreading
-the doctrines of our art.
-
-For a period of several hundred years anatomy was taught at Salernum
-from dissections made upon pigs. Copho, one of the Salernian professors
-of the early part of the twelfth century, wrote a treatise, _Anatomia
-Porci_, which gives minute directions regarding the manner in which the
-animal is to be dissected. Another anatomical work of later date,
-written by a member of the Salernian faculty, is entitled _Demonstratio
-Anatomica_; it also deals only with comparative anatomy. In the
-thirteenth century (A. D. 1231) Frederick II., Emperor of Germany and
-King of the Two Sicilies, and the author of a treatise which contained a
-complete anatomy of the falcon, decreed that a human body should be
-anatomized at Salernum at least once in five years. Physicians and
-surgeons of the kingdom were required to be present at the dissection.
-So far as is known, no record has been kept of these demonstrations.
-Creditable as was this anatomic decree, the great Hohenstaufen in other
-respects was not free from the errors of his age. A firm believer in
-_Medicina Astrologica_, he did not decide upon any undertaking until the
-stars had been consulted.
-
-It was not alone at Salernum that dissection was legalized in the
-thirteenth century. A document of the year 1308, of the Maggiore
-Consiglio of Venice, shows that a medical college located in that city
-was authorized to dissect a body once a year. This, and other isolated
-examples, indicate that the time was approaching when anatomy should be
-taught from human dissections. The credit of reinaugurating the teaching
-of this useful department of science belongs to Mondino dei Luzzi of
-Bologna.
-
-    [Illustration: Ornamental block]
-
-
-
-
-                             CHAPTER SECOND
-                    Mondino, the Restorer of Anatomy
-
-
-    [Illustration: Illuminated capital]
-
-In the year 1315, in the old Italian city of Bologna, an event occurred
-which marks an important epoch in the history of medicine. A wondering
-crowd of medical students witnessed the dissection of a human
-cadaver—one of the few procedures of the kind that had occurred since
-the fall of the Alexandrian University. Acting under royal authority
-Mondino, a man far in advance of the age, placed the body of a female
-upon a table where for many centuries before only the cadavera of apes,
-of swine and of dogs had been studied.
-
-Mondino, known also as Mundinus, Mundini, Raimondino, or Mondino dei
-Luzzi, was descended from a prominent Italian family. Little is known of
-his life. The year of his birth is disputed; probably 1276 was near the
-time. He was graduated in medicine in 1290 and in 1306 he became a
-professor in the University of Bologna, holding his chair with credit
-until his death in 1326. Like that of the illustrious Homer, Mondino’s
-nativity has been claimed by several rival cities. Guy de Chauliac,
-writing in 1363, states that Mondino was a Bolognese: _Mundinus
-Bononiensis_ is Chauliac’s expression.
-
-Mondino’s method of teaching anatomy is known from Chauliac’s
-testimony:—“Mundinus of Bologna, wrote on anatomy, and my master,
-Bertruccius, demonstrated it many times in this manner:—The body having
-been placed on a table, he would make from it four readings; in the
-first the digestive organs were treated, because more prone to rapid
-decomposition; in the second, the organs of respiration; in the third,
-the organs of circulation; in the fourth the extremities were treated.”
-The innovation so auspiciously begun was not continued, and after the
-death of Mondino human dissections were made only at long intervals. The
-few instances in which, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the
-ecclesiastical and civil authorities granted the right to make
-dissections only prove the contention, that the practical study of human
-anatomy did not gain recognition until the sixteenth century.
-
-When Mondino began his dissections the epoch of Saracen learning had
-ended, but the influence of Arab medicine exerted by the writings of
-Albucasis, Avicenna and Rhazes had not declined. The Arabian physicians
-had accomplished little for anatomy. In this line the influence of Galen
-was still potent, and was rarely questioned until the publication of the
-_Fabrica_ of Vesalius in 1543. During a long period the little treatise
-of Mondino held full sway in the mediaeval schools. Medicine was taught
-in the University of Bologna, which as early as the twelfth century was
-celebrated for its departments of literature and of law. These studies
-were free of the difficulties which beset medicine. The prejudice
-against dissection was so great that for nearly a century after his
-death few men dared to repeat the acts of Mondino.
-
-In 1316 Mondino issued his book which remained in manuscript form for
-more than one hundred and fifty years, the first printed edition bearing
-the date 1478. Small and imperfect as it was, it marks an era in the
-history of science. By command of the authorities this book was read in
-all the Italian Universities. The work of Mondino contained no new
-facts; it was compiled largely from the writings of Galen and of
-Avicenna. The descriptions, to use the words of Turner, “are corrupted
-by the barbarous leaven of the Arabian schools, and his Latin is defaced
-by the exotic nomenclature of Ibn-Sina and Al-Rasi”. Mondino divided the
-body into three cavities, of which the upper contains the animal
-members, the lower the natural members, and the middle the spiritual
-members. Many of his names are borrowed from the Arab writers. Thus, he
-calls the peritoneum _siphac_, the omentum _zyrbi_, and the mesentery
-_eucharus_. His description of the heart is much nearer accuracy than
-would be expected. He resorted to vivisection, and tells us that when
-the recurrent nerves of the larynx are cut the animal’s voice is lost.
-In his book we find the rudiments of phrenology. He states that the
-brain is divided into compartments, each of which holds one of the
-faculties of the intellect.
-
-    [Illustration: MONDINO’S DIAGRAM OF THE HEART, 1513]
-
-Mondino did not himself make the dissections which are credited to him.
-According to an ancient custom which lasted until the time of Vesalius,
-the actual cutting was done by a barber who wielded a knife as large as
-a cleaver. The professor of anatomy sat upon an elevated seat and
-discoursed concerning the parts, while a demonstrator, who also did not
-soil his fingers, pointed to the different structures with a staff.
-Originally Mondino’s book contained no figures; when the art of wood
-engraving was introduced in the latter part of the fifteenth century, a
-few rude woodcuts appeared which represent Mondino and his method of
-teaching. In the _Fasciculus Medicinae_ of Joannes de Ketham, published
-at Venice in 1493, Mondino’s book is printed with an illustration
-showing a demonstration in anatomy.
-
-According to Mondino the heart is placed in the centre of the body. The
-valves he considers “wonderful works of nature”. He describes a right,
-left and middle ventricle. The right ventricle has thinner walls than
-the left, because it contains blood; the left one contains the vital
-spirit, which passes through the arteries to the body; and the middle
-ventricle consists of many small cavities “broader on the right side
-than on the left, to the end that the blood, which comes to the left
-ventricle from the right, be refined, because its refinement is the
-preparation for the generation of vital spirit, which should be
-continually formed”. Mondino describes five bones of the head, separated
-by three sutures—coronal, sagittal and occipital. The brain has two
-membranes: dura and pia. There are three cerebral ventricles—anterior,
-posterior and middle—and in these he locates the various intellectual
-qualities. He describes the cerebral nerves: olfactory, optic, motor
-oculi, facial, vagus, trigeminal, auditory and hypoglossal. He calls the
-innominate bone _os femoris_: the femur, _canna coxae_; the humerus, _os
-adjutori_; while the bones of both leg and forearm are named _focilia_
-major and minus.
-
-    [Illustration: ANATOMICAL DEMONSTRATION IN 1493
-    (Joannes de Ketham)]
-
-    [Illustration: TITLE-PAGE OF MONDINO’S ANATOMY BY MELERSTAT
-    (Printed before 1500)]
-
-Like many anatomists who succeeded him, Mondino mingled surgical ideas
-with his anatomical statements. A break in the _siphac_ causes hernia
-and a swelling in the _mirach_. He treated ascites by puncture and
-evacuation, making a valve-like opening. Wounds of the large intestines
-must be sutured; if the wound be in the small intestines he advises that
-“you should have large ants, and, making them bite the conjoined lips of
-the wound, decapitate them instantly, and continue until the lips remain
-in apposition and then reduce the gut as before”. He gives an
-explanation of the length and convolution of the intestines; “for if it
-were not convoluted the animals would have to be continuously ingesting
-food and continuously defecating, which would impede engagement in the
-higher occupations”. Digestion is aided by black bile from the spleen
-and by red bile from the liver. The kidneys he regards as glands in
-which urine is extracted from the blood. The renal veins expand and form
-a fine membrane like a sieve through which the urine is filtered but
-blood cannot pass. He mentions renal calculi: if small they pass through
-the ureter; if large they are incurable except by incision, and this is
-to be avoided. The uterus and breasts are connected by veins, hence the
-sympathy between these organs. Inguinal hernia is to be operated upon;
-the spermatic cord and testicle may or may not be dissected out, or the
-hernia may be treated by the application of a caustic. An incision in
-the neck of the bladder will heal, because this part is muscular; but a
-cut in the body of the organ will not heal. He describes the operation
-for stone:—The patient being in proper position, the stone is conducted
-to the neck of the bladder by the finger in the rectum; an incision is
-made and the stone is pulled out with an instrument called
-_trajectorium_.
-
-Mondino’s book passed through not less than twenty-three editions
-between the years 1478-1580. The only manuscript extant is in the
-National Library at Paris.
-
-The first printed edition of the _Anathomia Mundini_, Pavia, 1478, is a
-folio of twenty-two leaves. The Strassburg edition, 1513, is a small
-octavo volume of forty leaves. It contains a diagram of the heart and an
-astrological figure, a cadaver with the thorax and abdomen opened,
-surrounded by the signs of the zodiac. Such was the volume which for
-more than two hundred years was supposed to contain all that was to be
-said of human anatomy!
-
-    [Illustration: COLOPHON OF THE ANATOMY OF MONDINO, 1513]
-
-So numerous are the abbreviations in Mondino’s book, so barbarous is his
-style, that the making of a translation is a difficult task. His reasons
-for writing are these:—“A work upon any science or art—as saith Galen—is
-issued for three reasons; _First_, that one may help his friends.
-_Second_, that he may exercise his best mental powers. _Third_, that he
-may be saved from the oblivion incident to old age”.
-
-
-
-
-                             CHAPTER THIRD
-                          Mondino’s Successors
-
-
-    [Illustration: Illuminated capital]
-
-For two hundred years anatomists used Mondino’s book as a text for their
-lectures and for the same period anatomical writers did little more than
-comment upon this treatise. The new art of wood engraving was turned to
-anatomical use and crude illustrations of the various parts of the body
-were put into circulation. Some of these pictures were in the form of
-_Fliegende Blätter_, or flying leaves. A set of anatomical plates of
-this type was issued by a certain Ricardus Hela, a physician of Paris,
-as early as the year 1493. They were printed at Nuremberg. Their
-character may be judged by the accompanying illustration of the osseous
-system.
-
-
-Gabriel de Zerbi
-
-One of Mondino’s commentators was Gabriel de Zerbi (1468-1505), of
-Verona, who taught medicine, logic and philosophy in the Universities of
-Padua, Bologna and Rome. His book, _Anatomia Corporis Humani_, appeared
-at Venice in 1502. Zerbi imitated Mondino in style, abbreviations and
-language. The work, however, contains some original observations
-regarding the Fallopian tubes, the puncta lachrymalia and the lachrymal
-gland. From the fact that Zerbi describes two lachrymal glands in each
-orbit, it is known that many of his dissections were made upon brutes.
-
-    [Illustration: ANATOMICAL PLATE BY RICARDUS HELA, 1493]
-
-Zerbi’s reputation, which extended to all parts of Europe, was the cause
-of his death. The Venetians received from Constantinople the request for
-a skillful physician who should treat one of the principal Seigniors of
-Turkey. The Republic turned its eyes to Zerbi who went to
-Constantinople, apparently cured the Seignior, and, loaded with
-presents, started on the return voyage for Venice, Unfortunately the
-patient suddenly died after a debauch. The infuriated Turks overtook the
-ship on which Zerbi and his son were passengers and carried them back to
-Constantinople, where both the anatomist and his son were quartered
-alive.
-
-    [Illustration: PEYLIGK’S DIAGRAM OF THE HEART, 1499]
-
-
-John Peyligk
-
-Among the German anatomists of this period was John Peyligk, a Leipsic
-jurist, whose _Philosophiae Naturalis Compendium_, printed at Leipsic in
-1499, contains crude anatomical illustrations.
-
-
-Magnus Hundt
-
-Far more important was the _Antropologium_ of Magnus Hundt (1449-1519),
-of Magdeburg, which appeared at Leipsic in 1501. It contains four large
-and several small woodcuts which are among the earliest of anatomical
-illustrations. One of these shows the trachea on the right side of the
-neck, passing downward to the lungs; on the left side the oesophagus is
-represented. In the thorax are seen the lungs and the heart, the latter
-resembling the figure of this organ as presented on old playing cards.
-The pericardium has been opened, and the stomach and intestines are
-crudely figured. The diaphragm is absent.
-
-    [Illustration: ANATOMICAL FIGURE FROM MAGNUS HUNDT, 1501]
-
-
-Laurentius Phryesen
-
-Early in the sixteenth century a Holland physician, Laurentius Phryesen
-(_Phries_, _Friesen_), residing in the German city of Colmar and later
-at Metz, wrote a popular book on medicine, _Spiegel der Artzny_, which
-was published at Strassburg in 1518. It contains two anatomical
-illustrations cut in wood, dated 1517, and supposedly made after the
-drawings of Waechtlin, a pupil of the Elder Holbein. These pictures tell
-their own story; they show a marked improvement over the figures which
-Hundt published in 1501. The other anatomical plate in Phryesen’s book
-is devoted to the skeleton.
-
-    [Illustration: ANATOMICAL FIGURE FROM LAURENTIUS PHRYESEN, 1518]
-
-
-Alexander Achillinus
-
-The Italian physician Alexander Achillinus (1463-1525), professor of
-philosophy and medicine in Bologna, is deserving of mention for his
-anatomical knowledge. Zealously devoted to the Arab medical authors,
-Achillinus made numerous discoveries which are set forth in his general
-anatomy, _De Humani Corporis Anatomica_, Venice, 1516; and in a
-commentary upon Mondino’s book, _In Mundini Anatomiam Annotationes_,
-Venice, 1522. He discovered the duct of the sublingual gland, usually
-credited to Wharton; two of the auditory ossicles, the malleus and
-incus; the labyrinth; the vermiform appendix; the caecum and ileo-caecal
-valve; and the patheticus nerve. Portal credits him with a better
-knowledge of the bones and of the brain than was possessed by his
-predecessors.
-
-    [Illustration: ALEXANDER ACHILLINUS]
-
-
-Berengario da Carpi
-
-    [Illustration: DISSECTION BY BERENGARIO, 1535]
-
-Giacomo Berengario, Jacobus Berengarius Carpensis, also known as Carpus,
-was born in the small town of Carpi, in the Duchy of Modena, in the year
-1470. His father, who was a surgeon, directed his studies, and for a
-time he was placed under the instruction of the learned Aldus Manutius.
-Graduating in medicine from the University of Bologna, Berengario became
-noted for his skill in surgery and anatomy. He taught these branches in
-Pavia, and was a member of the Bologna faculty from 1502 to 1527. Then
-he practiced for a time in Rome, where he amassed a fortune by the
-treatment of the victims of syphilis. The last twenty years of his life
-were spent in Ferrara, where he died in 1550. Berengario was one of the
-restorers of anatomy. His first dissection is said to have been made in
-the house of Albert Pion, Seigneur de Carpi. This demonstration was
-given publicly upon the body of a pig. Soon the anatomist turned his
-attention to human subjects, of which it is said that more than a
-hundred passed beneath his scalpel.
-
-Berengario’s later years are said by Brambilla to have been made
-miserable by the machinations of the agents of the Inquisition, who
-objected to some of his opinions regarding the organs of generation. He
-was unjustly accused of dissecting living men—an accusation which arose
-from his statement that the surgeon should observe the anatomy of the
-living body whenever it was opened by wounds or accidents.
-
-    [Illustration: SKELETON BY BERENGARIO, 1523]
-
-Berengario determined to improve Mondino’s book by making corrections in
-the text, and by adding suitable illustrations. No illustrations were to
-be found in the early editions of Mondino, and those which were added by
-later editors of the work were untrue to nature. To Berengario must be
-given the credit of furnishing some of the first anatomical
-illustrations that were published, and that were made from actual human
-dissections. These appeared in his “Commentaries of Carpus upon the
-Anatomy of Mundinus”, (_Carpi Commentaria super_ _Anatomia Mundini_),
-which was published at Bologna in 1521. The volume contains twenty-one
-plates which were cut in wood. They have been credited to the celebrated
-artist, Hugo da Carpi. While the drawing is somewhat coarse, the
-illustrations are true to nature and show a distinct advance over
-preceding pictures of this class. Berengario states that his plates will
-be of value not only to physicians and surgeons but also to artists (_et
-istae figurae etiam juvant pictores in lineandis membris_). Some of his
-figures are schematic; for example, those showing the abdominal muscles.
-So much better are his illustrations than those of his predecessors that
-it may fairly be claimed that Berengario was the first author to produce
-an illustrated anatomy.
-
-    [Illustration: MUSCLES BY BERENGARIO, 1521]
-
-Berengario also wrote a “Short Introduction to the Anatomy of the Human
-Body”, _Isagogae Breves in Anatomiam Humani Corporis_; and a work on
-Fracture of the Skull.
-
-He was the first anatomist who described the basilar part of the
-occipital bone, the sphenoidal sinus and the tympanic membrane.
-Meryon[8] credits him with the “first correct description of the great
-omentum (gastrocolic) and transverse mesocolon; of the caecal appendix
-vermiformis, of the valvulae conniventes of the intestines; of the
-relative proportions of the thorax and pelvis in man and woman; of the
-flexor-brevis-pollicis; of the vesiculae seminales; of the separate
-cartilages of the larynx; of the membranous pellicle in front of the
-retina (attributed to Albinus); of the tricuspid valve, between the
-right auricle and ventricle of the heart; of the semilunar valves at the
-commencement of the pulmonary artery; of the inosculation between the
-epigastric and mammary arteries, and an imperfect account of the cochlea
-of the ear”. He was the first of the mediaeval anatomists to deviate
-from the Galenic teaching in regard to the structure of the heart. He
-diplomatically states that in the human subject the foramina in the
-cardiac septum are seen only with great difficulty (_sed in homine cum
-maxima difficultate videnter_).
-
-    [Illustration: MUSCLES BY BERENGARIO, 1521]
-
-
-John Dryander
-
-John Dryander, a German physician, whose true name was Eichmann, called
-himself Dryander in accordance with the custom of adopting names derived
-from the Latin or Greek languages. He was born about the year 1500 in
-the Wetterau in Hesse. After obtaining proficiency in mathematics and
-astronomy, he went to Paris where he studied medicine for several years.
-Returning to Germany, he engaged in the study of practical anatomy and
-became a professor in Marburg, in which city he died in the year 1560.
-He is said to have conducted the first dissections that were made in
-Marburg, where he taught anatomy for twenty-four years, or from 1536 to
-1560.
-
-    [Illustration: DRYANDER]
-
-Dryander, although he was a partisan of Mondino and da Carpi, and was a
-fierce and sometimes an unfair opponent of Vesalius, deserves to be
-regarded as one of the restorers of anatomy. He made several
-observations upon the distinction between the cortical and the medullary
-portions of the brain; and was one of the earliest practical anatomists
-of the sixteenth century to furnish anatomical illustrations. He made
-important astronomical observations and was the inventor of several
-useful instruments. He was the author of three medical works of which
-two were upon anatomy. His _Anatomia Mundini_, which was published at
-Marburg in 1541, contains forty-six plates, many of which have been
-copied from Berengario’s work.
-
-    [Illustration: ANATOMICAL FIGURE BY ESTIENNE, 1545]
-
-
-Charles Estienne
-
-    [Illustration: SKELETON BY ESTIENNE, 1545
-    (Reduced one-half)]
-
-Charles Estienne, better known by the name of _Carolus Stephanus_, was a
-French anatomist whose work is worthy of remembrance. Born in the early
-part of the sixteenth century, he was given an excellent education. He
-belonged to a noted Huguenot family of scholars and printers who have
-made the Estienne name famous. Robert Estienne, the brother of Charles,
-became the victim of religious persecution; he was obliged to flee to
-save his life, and for a time the publishing business was conducted by
-Charles Estienne. The latter also suffered for his faith; he was thrown
-into a dungeon, where he died in the year 1564. Charles Estienne wrote
-numerous books on literature, history, forestry and botany. His
-anatomical treatise, _De Dissectione Partium Corporis Humani_, appeared
-at Paris in 1545 with sixty-two full page plates which combine
-anatomical clearness, beauty of form, and artistic representation. A
-French translation of Estienne’s Anatomy was published in 1546. This
-work was printed as far as the middle of the third book as early as the
-year 1539: some of the plates are dated as early as 1530. The
-illustrations have been excellently cut in wood; many of them show the
-entire body, with much ornamentation, so that the proper anatomical part
-seems small and irrelevant. Some of the plates show the subject in
-picturesque and even loathsome attitudes. The text of this work is
-especially valuable for the history of anatomical discovery. Although he
-was an ardent Galenist, Estienne made numerous original observations in
-anatomy. He described the synovial glands, a discovery which has been
-credited to Clopton Havers. Estienne was the first anatomist to discover
-the canal in the spinal cord; he described the capsule of the liver, a
-tissue which bears Glisson’s name; and differentiated the eight pair
-from the sympathetic nerves. He was the first anatomist to see and
-describe the valves in the veins, which he called _apophyses venarum_—
-discovery which has been claimed for Jacobus Sylvius, Cannanus, Amatus
-and Fabricius.
-
-The question of priority in the discovery of the valves of the veins
-gave rise to much controversy. It is reasonable to assume that these
-structures were noticed independently by all of the anatomists whose
-names are mentioned above.
-
-    [Illustration: SKULL BY DRYANDER, 1541]
-
-
-
-
-                             CHAPTER FOURTH
-                         Vesalius’s Early Life
-
-
-    [Illustration: Illuminated capital]
-
-Andreas Vesalius, or Wesalius as the family name was inscribed prior to
-the year 1537, was born in Brussels on the last day of the year 1514.
-From astrological observations made by Jerome Cardan we learn that this
-event occurred about six o’clock in the morning, and under favorable
-stellar auspices. The placenta and caul, to which popular belief
-ascribed remarkable powers, were carefully preserved by the mother.
-
-The Vesalius family originally was named Witing, (_Witting_, _Wytinck_,
-_Wytings_, according to various authorities) and adopted the name
-Wesalius from the town of Wesel, (_Wesele_, _Vesel_), in the Duchy of
-Cleves, which the family claimed as their native place. The three
-weasels (_Flemish_—“Wesel”), found in the Vesalian coat of arms, testify
-to this origin.
-
-It may be said with truth that medical learning ran in the blood of the
-Vesalius family. Andreas’s great-great-grandfather, Peter Wesalius,
-wrote a treatise on some of the works of Avicenna and at great cost
-restored the manuscripts of several medical authors. Peter’s son, John
-Wesalius, held the responsible position of physician to Mary of
-Burgundy, the first wife of Maximilian the First; in his old age John
-taught medicine in the University of Louvain. From that time the
-Vesalius family was closely associated with the Austro-Burgundian
-dynasty. Eberhard, son of John Wesalius, served as physician to Mary of
-Burgundy; he died before attaining his thirty-sixth year, and was long
-survived by his father. Eberhard, who was the grandfather of Andreas,
-wrote commentaries upon the books of Rhazes and on the _Aphorisms_ of
-Hippocrates. He was also noted as a mathematician. Eberhard’s son
-Andreas, the father of the anatomist, was apothecary to Charles the
-Fifth and to Margaret of Austria. He accompanied the great Emperor upon
-his numerous journeys and military expeditions. In 1538 he presented
-Andreas’s first anatomical plates to the Emperor, and thus opened the
-way to the court to his son. The father remained in the imperial service
-until the day of his death, which occurred in 1546. Andreas’s mother,
-Isabella Crabbe, exercised a great influence upon the youth whom she
-believed to be destined to accomplish great things. She it was who
-preserved the manuscripts and books of the Vesalian ancestors. Isabella
-happily lived long enough to see the _Fabrica_, to witness the
-intellectual triumph of her son, and to know of his activity at the
-Spanish court.
-
-    [Illustration: THE OLD UNIVERSITY OF LOUVAIN
-    (Erected early in the Fourteenth Century. The New Building dates
-    from 1680)]
-
-Little is known of the youth of Vesalius. The traditions of his
-ancestors, their accomplishments in the field of letters and in
-medicine, and their loyalty to their sovereigns, were themes which his
-mother must have recounted with pleasure. At an early age Andreas was
-sent to the neighboring city of Louvain, whose University, founded in
-the year 1424, in the early part of the sixteenth century eclipsed many
-institutions of greater age, and in the number of its students ranked
-second only to the University of Paris. The theologians of Louvain were
-noted for their orthodox Catholicism; from the very first days of
-religious controversy they had battled strongly against the rising tide
-of the Reformation. Her professors of jurisprudence and of philosophy
-were men of eminent talents. Within the University were four literary
-schools which were named _Paedagogium Castri_, _Porci_, _Lilii_, and
-_Falconis_, from their insignia:—a fort, a pig, a lily, and a falcon.
-Here also was the _Collegium trilingue Buslidianum_, which was founded
-by Hieronymus Busleiden (+1517) for teaching the Greek, Hebrew and Latin
-languages. Vesalius selected the _Paedagogium Castri_ which he fondly
-mentions in laudatory terms in his _Fabrica_. Here, and in the
-Busleidinian College, he obtained that thorough knowledge of ancient
-languages which, in later years, astonished his hearers and served him
-well in numerous literary controversies. The names of Vesalius’s
-teachers are unknown, although Adam[9] states that John Winter of
-Andernach was his professor of Greek. Vesalius speaks scornfully of one
-of his teachers, a theologian, who, in trying to explain Aristotle’s _De
-Anima_, used a picture of the _Margarita Philosophica_ to show the
-structure of the brain. Among Vesalius’s school companions were
-Gisbertus Carbo, to whom the anatomist presented the first skeleton
-which he articulated (_Fabrica_, 1543, page 162); and the younger
-Granvella, who later was Chancellor to Charles the Fifth.
-
-At an early age Vesalius possessed a desire to study the structure of
-the human body. His powers of observation were precociously developed.
-When a boy, learning to swim by the aid of bladders filled with air, he
-noted the elasticity of these organs, and he referred to the incident in
-his _Fabrica_ (1543, page 518). When little more than a child, he tired
-of dialectics and tried to learn anatomy from the scholastic writings of
-Albertus Magnus and of Michael Scotus. He soon discovered that the true
-road to anatomical science led, not through books but through the actual
-handling of the dead tissues. He began the practical study of anatomy by
-dissecting the bodies of mice, moles, rats, dogs and cats.[10]
-
-
-
-
-                             CHAPTER FIFTH
-                            Sojourn in Paris
-
-
-    [Illustration: Illuminated capital]
-
-One thought was uppermost in the mind of Vesalius, and that was to
-follow the profession of his ancestors, just as in ancient Greece the
-sons of the Asclepiadae naturally adopted the vocation of their fathers.
-Andreas possessed an excellent preliminary education and was especially
-proficient in the Greek and Latin languages; he also knew something of
-Hebrew and much of Arabic. It was in the year 1533 that the young
-Belgian travelled to Paris for the purpose of obtaining a medical
-education. At that time the French capital was the Mecca of the medical
-world—Paris, that city where classical medicine first secured support
-(_ubi primum medicinam prospere renasci vidimus_)[11]. In Paris, under
-the leadership of Budaeus, Humanism had enjoyed a rapid growth; and here
-Petrus Brissotus, after gaining the doctor’s cap in the year 1514,
-produced a revolution by delivering his lectures from the books of Galen
-in place of the treatises of Averröes and of Avicenna. At his own
-expense Brissotus published Leonicenus’s translation of Galen’s _Ars
-Curativa_, in order that his pupils might not be misled by the incorrect
-text of the Arab authors. It will be recalled that, long before this
-time, classical Greek and Latin medical literature had passed through
-the distorting crucible of Saracenic translations. At this period
-medical science, purified from Arabic dross, was taught in a splendid
-manner in Paris by such eminent professors as Jacobus Sylvius, Jean
-Fernel, and Winter of Andernach. At their feet sat young men from the
-remotest parts of Europe.
-
-The most popular of the Paris teachers was Jacobus Sylvius, or Jacques
-Dubois, whose Latinized name is perpetuated in anatomical nomenclature.
-He was born at Louville, near Amiens, in 1478. In his early years he was
-noted for his scholarly attainments in the Greek, Latin and Hebrew
-languages and was the author of a French grammar. His anatomical
-knowledge was gained under Jean Tagault, a famous Parisian practitioner
-and surgical author.
-
-    [Illustration: SYLVIUS]
-
-Sylvius was noted for his industry, for his eloquence, and above all for
-his avarice. It was the inordinate desire for money which led him to
-abandon philology for medicine. While studying under Tagault he began a
-course of medical lectures, explanatory of the works of Hippocrates and
-Galen, with such success that the Faculty of the University of Paris
-protested on the score that Sylvius was not a graduate. He then went to
-Montpellier, whose medical professors had long held a high position,
-where, according to Astruc, he received the doctor’s cap at the end of
-November, 1529. He was then above fifty years of age. Armed with this
-degree, he returned to Paris and immediately entered the lists as an
-independent medical teacher, but was again halted by the Faculty who
-ruled that he must first receive the Bachelor’s degree. This he gained
-on June 28, 1531. Sylvius then resumed his lectures with such success
-that his classes in the Collége de Tréguier numbered from four to five
-hundred, while Fernel, who was a professor in the Collége de
-Cornouailles, lectured to almost empty benches. In 1550, Henry the
-Second named Sylvius Professor of Medicine, as the successor of Vidus
-Vidius, in the recently established Collége de France. Sylvius died
-January 13, 1555, and was interred in the paupers’ cemetery as he had
-wished.
-
-Sylvius was not only an eloquent lecturer but he was also a
-demonstrative teacher. He was the first professor in France who taught
-anatomy from the human cadaver. In his lectures on botany he used a
-collection of plants to elucidate the subject. His chief fault was a
-blind reverence for ancient authors. He regarded Galen’s writings as
-gospel; if the cadaver presented structures unlike Galen’s description,
-the fault was not in the book but in the dead body, or, perchance, human
-structure had changed since Galen’s time! In one of his early books[12],
-Sylvius declared that Galen’s anatomy was infallible; that Galen’s
-treatise, _De Usu Partium_, was divine; and that further progress was
-impossible!
-
-The character of Sylvius was contemptible. He was a man of vast learning
-and at the same time was rough, coarse and brutal. His avarice led him
-to endure the cold winters of Paris without the benefit of a fire; in
-severe weather he would play at football, or engage in other violent
-exercise in his room, to save the cost of fuel. Once, and once only, did
-his friends find him hilarious; they wondered and asked the cause.
-Sylvius said he was happy because he had dismissed his “three beasts,
-his mule, his cat and his maid”. He was notoriously rigid in exacting
-his fees from students, and on one occasion he threatened to stop his
-lectures until two delinquents should pay their dues. Although he was
-supposed to have amassed great wealth, little of it was found after his
-death, and these sums were secreted in secluded places. In 1616, when
-his former residence in the _rue Saint-Jacques_ was demolished, numerous
-gold pieces were found. His reputation for miserliness followed him
-beyond the grave, as witness his epitaph:
-
-  _Sylbius hic situs est, gratis qui nil dedit unquàm,_
-  _Mortuus et gratis quod legis ista dolet._
-
-  “Sylvius lies here, who never gave anything for nothing:
-  Being dead, he even grieves that you read these lines for nothing.”
-
-In controversies he was violent and vindictive—a pastmaster in the use
-of bitter language. Jealous of the fame of other anatomists, he was
-particularly enraged when, in later years, he was opposed by Vesalius.
-Sylvius spoke of him not as Vesalius, but as _Vesanus_, a madman, who
-poisoned Europe by his impiety and clouded knowledge by his blunders.
-Such was the man who, in the mid-part of the sixteenth century, filled
-the position of highest honor in the Medical Faculty of the Collége de
-France[13].
-
-Sylvius rendered valuable service in naming the muscles which, prior to
-his time, were designated by numbers. These, says Northcote[14] “were
-differently applied by almost every author; so that it was the
-description, and not the name, that must lead one to know what part was
-meant by such authors; and this required a previous thorough knowledge
-of anatomy”. He is the first writer who mentions colored injections and
-is supposed to have discovered this useful adjunct of anatomical study.
-He was the first anatomist who published satisfactory descriptions of
-the pterygoid and clinoid processes of the sphenoid bone, and of the os
-unguis. He gave a good account of the sphenoidal sinus in the adult but
-denied its existence in the child, as had been affirmed by
-Fallopius[15]. Sylvius also wrote intelligently concerning the vertebrae
-but incorrectly described the sternum. His observation concerning the
-valves in the veins gave rise to much discussion; the honor of priority
-in the discovery, however, belongs to other anatomists—Estienne and
-Cannanus. His discoveries in cerebral anatomy have caused his name to be
-attached to the _aqueduct_, the _fissure_ and the _artery of Sylvius_.
-
-The manner in which Sylvius conducted his anatomical course is known to
-us by his own writings, by the testimony of Moreau[16], and by that of
-Vesalius[17]. Thus the course for the year 1535 began with the reading,
-by Sylvius, of Galen’s treatise _De Usu Partium_. When the middle of the
-first book was reached, Sylvius remarked that the subject was too
-difficult for his students to understand and that he would not plague
-his class with it. He then jumped to the fourth book, read all to the
-tenth book, discussed a part of the tenth and omitting the eleventh,
-twelfth and thirteenth, he took up the fourteenth and the remaining
-three books. Thus he omitted all that Galen had said concerning the
-extremities. A second Galenic work which Sylvius used was the
-anatomico-physiologic treatise, _De Musculorum Motu_. Not infrequently
-the professor was unable to demonstrate in dissection the parts on which
-he had lectured. Thus, on one occasion, the students succeeded in
-finding the pulmonary and aortic valves which Sylvius had failed to find
-on the preceding day.
-
-
-Joannes Guinterius of Andernach
-
-Another famous member of the Paris Faculty of this period, and a man
-whose life-story reads like a romance, was Joannes Guinterius, the
-beggar of Deventer. Guinterius (Gonthier, Guinther, Guinter, Winter, or
-Winther), who is often called John Winter of Andernach, from the name of
-the town in which he was born, lived between the years 1487-1574, and
-rose to eminence in both the literary and the medical worlds. Born of
-humble parents, he was sent at an early age to the University of
-Utrecht. Leaving this institution because of his poverty, he went to
-Deventer where he was reduced to the necessity of begging in the
-streets. He drifted to the University of Marburg, and here displayed
-such brilliant talents that he soon obtained employment as a teacher in
-the small town of Goslar, in Brunswick. His growing reputation for
-learning led to his appointment to the chair of Greek in the noted
-University of Louvain.
-
-    [Illustration: WINTER OF ANDERNACH]
-
-Desiring to study medicine, Guinterius went to Paris in 1525; he
-received the Bachelor’s degree in 1528, and the full medical title two
-years later. He passed a brilliant examination which won for him the
-commendation of the most eminent professors. Remaining in Paris, he
-engaged in practice and in teaching, and rapidly rose to eminence. In
-addition to conducting courses in anatomy, he translated into Latin the
-writings of the most noted Greek medical authors of antiquity—the books
-of Galen, of Oribasius, of Paul of Aegina, of Caelius Aurelianus, and of
-Alexander of Tralles—all of which were held in high esteem in the
-sixteenth century. His fame reached far beyond the boundaries of France.
-Christian III., the enlightened king of Denmark, who was noted for his
-love of literature, sought to attach him to the Danish court, but the
-honor was refused. Having become a convert to the religious views of
-Luther, Guinterius found that his life was in danger; he left Paris and
-resided for a time in Metz. He soon removed to Strassburg, where he was
-received with distinguished honors and was appointed to a professorship
-in the University. Owing to the activity of his enemies, his position
-became insecure; accordingly, he resigned his chair and spent a
-considerable time in travelling throughout Germany and Italy. In the
-year 1562, Ferdinand I., in appreciation of the great merits of
-Guinterius, raised him to the highest distinction by placing him among
-the nobles of the land; and thus the beggar of Deventer became a
-nobleman of Strassburg. His life ended October 4, 1574.
-
-Like Sylvius, Guinterius was a teacher of men who became greater than
-himself—Vesalius, Servetus and Rondelet sat upon his benches. Like
-Sylvius, he placed his faith in Galen and failed to grasp the great
-truth that anatomical science is based, not on the writings of the
-Fathers but on dissection of the dead body.
-
-
-Jean Fernel
-
-    [Illustration: JEAN FERNEL]
-
-The third bright star of the Paris constellation was Jean Fernel
-(1485-1558), of Amiens, who was regarded as the ablest physiologist of
-his time and was physician-in-ordinary to Henry the Second. Fernel
-dipped deeply into philosophy, geometry and mathematics. Before entering
-the medical profession he issued three books on mathematic and geometric
-subjects. He received the medical degree in 1530, but continued his
-study of mathematics with such ardor that he was almost ruined
-financially. On the advice of his friends he entered upon the practice
-of medicine in Paris and met with remarkable success. He was skilled in
-anatomy and surgery and accompanied his sovereign upon numerous military
-expeditions. His medical writings are contained in many volumes and
-concern a variety of subjects, such as physiology, therapeutics,
-surgery, pathology, the treatment of fevers and the venereal diseases.
-
-Fernel’s medical views were powerfully influenced by the teachings of an
-unfortunate French philosopher, Pierre de la Rameé, or Ramus, who, like
-many other Protestants, lost his life on Saint Bartholomew’s Night.
-Brutally assassinated, his body was dragged through the streets of Paris
-and then was thrown into the Seine; but his system of philosophy
-survived and exercised a potent influence until it was eclipsed by the
-doctrines of Descartes.
-
-Ramus, who was an uncompromising opponent of the Aristotelian
-philosophy, pointed out the defects and suggested the reforms in the
-system of University education. He compared the teaching of medicine
-with that of theology, much to the disparagement of the latter:—“The
-reason”, said he, “why medicine is better taught, and the lectures are
-better attended than in theology is, that those who teach it know it,
-and practice it, and their disputations are chiefly on the books of
-Hippocrates and Galen; whilst the theologians observe a strict reticence
-on questions of the Old Testament, which they read in Hebrew, as well as
-of the New, which they read in Greek, but display their learning in
-subtle questions respecting the pagan philosophy of Plato and
-Aristotle”.[18] Ramus endeavored to withdraw the minds of both
-physicians and medical students from the authoritative dogmas of the
-ancient physicians and to substitute therefor the intelligent study of
-Nature. The practical trend of his mind is shown in his suggestion that
-institutions should be arranged for clinical teaching.
-
-    [Illustration: RAMUS]
-
-Just as Ramus had become an Eclectic in philosophy, so Fernel sought the
-best from various sources and different medical systems. Like Ramus, he
-cast off the yoke which authority had placed upon him; and proposed
-carefully planned principles which should lead to the discovery of
-truth. Like Ramus, Fernel presented his views in a clear style and in
-better order than was to be found in the writings of his predecessors.
-Like Ramus, he adopted the good and rejected the bad, regardless of
-whether it had been said by Aristotle, or by Galen, or by Hippocrates.
-Fernel was a reformer who stood for freedom of thought, which, up to his
-time, had suffered from the despotism of the scholastics. Although many
-of Fernel’s physiologic and pathologic ideas seem ridiculous when viewed
-in the light of modern knowledge, yet he deserves praise for daring to
-oppose ancient dogmas, and for pointing the road to progress. In breadth
-of view, Fernel was far superior to Sylvius and Guinterius.
-
-The anatomical teaching in Paris in the early part of the sixteenth
-century was far from satisfactory. There was too much lecturing and
-theorizing from Galen’s texts, and too little of actual dissection.
-Vesalius, who was not backward in his criticisms, says that the
-dissections were made by ignorant barbers, and during the whole time
-that he was in Paris he never saw Guinterius use a knife upon a cadaver.
-Only at rare intervals was a human body brought into the amphitheatre,
-and then the dissection lasted less than three days. It comprised only a
-superficial study of the intestines and abdominal muscles; no other
-muscles were studied. The bones, veins, arteries and nerves were almost
-wholly ignored. The great lights of the Paris profession were totally
-unfit to give to the young Belgian what was his heart’s desire. They
-were ignorant and knew it not. It is not surprising that, on more than
-one occasion, Vesalius brushed the ignorant prosectors aside, took the
-knife into his own hands, and carried out the dissection in a systematic
-manner. His zeal and learning won the admiration of Guinterius who spoke
-of Vesalius and Servetus in loving terms;—“first Andreas Vesalius, a
-young man, by Hercules! of singular zeal in the study of anatomy; and
-second, Michael Villanovanus (Servetus), deeply imbued with learning of
-every kind, and behind none in his knowledge of the Galenic doctrine.
-With the aid of these two, I have examined the muscles, veins, arteries
-and nerves of the whole body, and demonstrated them to the
-students”.[19]
-
-Vesalius must have had many blue days in Paris—days when he longed to
-have a free hand in dissection. A weaker character than his would have
-fitted peacefully into the established order of things, but not of such
-stuff was Andreas made. The difficulties which beset his path only
-stimulated him to work the harder; he firmly resolved to devote his
-energy, his talents and his life to anatomical study and teaching. He
-decided to secure the opportunity to dissect the human body and to rival
-the ancient Alexandrian professors who taught the subject. “Never”, he
-says, “would I have been able to accomplish my purpose in Paris, if I
-had not taken the work into my own hands”. The Book of Nature which
-Sylvius lauded, but kept his pupils from studying, was now opened by
-Vesalius. He dissected numerous dogs and studied the only part of human
-anatomy that was available, namely, the bones. In his search for
-materials for a skeleton he haunted the Cemetery of the Innocents. On
-one occasion, when he went to Montfauçon, the place where the bodies of
-executed criminals were deposited and bones were plentiful, Vesalius and
-his fellow-student were attacked by fierce dogs. For a time the young
-anatomist was in danger of leaving his own bones to the hungry
-scavengers. By such dangers he gained what the Paris professors could
-not supply. He became a master of the osseous system, so much so that,
-when blindfolded, he was able to name and describe any part of the
-skeleton which was placed in his hands. His talents were recognized by
-both professors and students; and at the third anatomy which he attended
-in Paris he was requested to take charge of the dissection. To the
-satisfaction of the students, as well as to the astonishment of the
-barbers, he made an elaborate dissection of the abdominal organs and of
-the muscles of the arm.
-
-    [Illustration: VIVISECTION OF A PIG
-    (From the “Fabrica”, 1543)]
-
-
-
-
-                             CHAPTER SIXTH
-                      Vesalius Returns to Louvain
-
-
-    [Illustration: Illuminated capital]
-
-In the latter part of the year 1536, owing to the outbreak of the third
-Franco-German war, Vesalius returned to the University of Louvain.
-During this period he secured a human skeleton by secret means.
-Accompanied by his faithful friend, Regnier Gemma, known as a
-mathematician as well as a physician, Vesalius visited the gallows
-outside the walls of Louvain in order to search for bones. Here he found
-a skeleton which was held together simply by the ligaments and still
-possessed the origins and insertions of the muscles. Morley states that
-the body was that of “a noted robber, who, since he deserved more than
-ordinary hanging, had been chained to the top of a high stake and
-roasted alive. He had been roasted by a slow fire made of straw, that
-was kept burning at some distance below his feet. In that way there had
-been a dish cooked for the fowls of heaven, which was regarded by them
-as a special dainty. The sweet flesh of the delicately roasted thief
-they had preferred to any other; his bones, therefore, had been
-elaborately picked and there was left suspended on the stake a skeleton
-dissected out and cleaned by many beaks with rare precision. The
-dazzling skeleton, complete and clean, was lifted up on high before the
-eyes of the anatomist, who had been striving hitherto to piece together
-such a thing out of the bones of many people, gathered as occasion
-offered”.
-
-Such a prize could not be lost. With Gemma’s assistance Vesalius climbed
-the gallows and secured the skeleton which he secretly conveyed to his
-home. The treasure, however, was not complete; one finger, a patella and
-a foot were missing. To this extent was Vesalius the owner of a human
-skeleton. In supplying the missing parts Vesalius was obliged to incur
-new dangers. He stole out of the city in the nighttime, climbed the
-gallows unaided, searched through the mass of decaying bodies, and,
-having found the coveted bones, he stole into the city by another gate.
-These secret expeditions, however, soon became unnecessary, for the
-Burgomaster of Louvain generously furnished an abundance of material for
-Vesalius’s students.
-
-It was at this period—late in the year 1536 or early in 1537—that
-Vesalius conducted the first public anatomy that had been held in
-Louvain in eighteen years. He performed the dissection and lectured at
-the same time, which was an innovation. Some remarks he made concerning
-the seat of the soul caused him to be critised by the theologians. A
-further cause for suspicion was his association with such firm
-Protestants as Guinterius and Sturm of Paris; and his friendly relations
-with the publisher Rescius, and the physician Velsius. Fortunately the
-suspicion of heresy did not lead to any formal charges, but the affair
-seems to have rankled in his memory and some years later, in his
-_Fabrica_, he sought to clear his name of even the appearance of heresy.
-
-Vesalius began his career as an author by issuing a paraphrase, or free
-translation, of the ninth book of the _Almansor_ of the celebrated
-Rhazes[20]. This book, _liber ad Almansorem_, or work dedicated to the
-Caliph Al-Mansûr, was written by a learned Arab physician who lived
-between the years 860-932. The _Almansor_ consists of ten books and was
-designed by the author for a complete body or compendium of Physic. The
-first book treats of anatomy and physiology; the second, of
-temperaments; the third, of food and simple medicines; the fourth, of
-means for preserving health; the fifth, of skin diseases and cosmetics;
-the sixth, of diet; the seventh, of surgery; the eighth, of poisons; the
-ninth, of treatment of all parts of the body; the tenth, or last book,
-deals with the treatment of fevers. The ninth book, which Vesalius
-translated from the barbarous version into a readable form, was so
-highly prized in mediaeval times that it was read publicly in the
-schools and was commentated by learned professors for more than a
-hundred years. By this publication Vesalius furnished a valuable
-contribution to medical literature. The numerous marginal and
-interlinear notes, which he supplied, show his intimate acquaintance
-with classical literature as well as with materia medica. Vesalius
-emphasizes the fact that the book of Rhazes contains many remedies which
-were unknown to the Greeks. The value of his edition was increased by
-the presence of original drawings of the plants mentioned in the text.
-
-
-
-
-                            CHAPTER SEVENTH
-                     Professor of Anatomy in Padua
-
-
-    [Illustration: Illuminated capital]
-
-Shortly after the publication of his _Paraphrasis in nonum librum
-Rhazae_, Vesalius journeyed into Italy. It was in the year 1537 that he
-entered the prosperous and enlightened city of Venice. Here the study of
-anatomy not only was not tabooed, but was encouraged, particularly by
-the Theatin monks who devoted themselves to the care of the sick. At the
-head of this order stood two remarkable men: J. Peter Caraffa, who later
-ascended the papal throne as Paul IV.; and Ignatius Loyola, the founder
-of the Jesuits. It is a strange circumstance that two strong characters
-so dissimilar as were Vesalius and Loyola should meet as co-workers in
-the same field. The one was filled with a thirst for anatomical
-knowledge, and was dreaming of the day when his _opus magnum_ should
-revolutionize an important science; the other was enthused with visions
-of the world-wide acceptance of the doctrines of Catholicism. They met
-again, in 1543—the year which marks two important events, namely, the
-publication of the _Fabrica_, and the full recognition of the Jesuits by
-the Pope.
-
-In Venice the young anatomist entered into various lines of activity. He
-experimented with a new remedy, the China root, and besought his
-acquaintances to observe its effects in cases of pleurisy. He solicited
-anatomical material and possibly may have conducted a public
-demonstration in anatomy, although this is uncertain. He practiced minor
-surgery; he leeched and opened veins, particularly the popliteal vein
-which the barbers of that day did not venture to touch. In Venice he
-fortunately met his countryman, Jan Stephan van Calcar, who was soon to
-furnish the drawings for Vesalius’s first anatomical plates.
-
-    [Illustration: INSTRUMENTS USED IN DISSECTION
-    (From the “Fabrica”, 1543)]
-
-In order to gain all the rights and privileges of a full-fledged
-physician, Vesalius settled in Padua. On the 6th day of December, 1537,
-shortly after having received his degree as Doctor of Medicine, Andreas
-Vesalius of Brussels was appointed Professor of Surgery with the right
-to teach Anatomy in the famous University of Padua. This, says Fisher,
-“was the first purely anatomical chair ever instituted”.
-
-From his own writings and from the manuscript notes of his loyal
-student, Vitus Tritonius, a fairly good idea of Vesalius’s teaching can
-be given. The first act of the young Paduan professor was to improve the
-course in anatomy. Here, as he had done previously at Louvain, Vesalius
-discharged the entire duties of the professorship. He acted as lecturer,
-demonstrator and dissector. Dissatisfied with the ignorant barbers, he
-ignored them and employed his students as assistants. He resorted to all
-possible means to obtain anatomical material, much of which was secured
-by stealth.
-
-The aula in which Vesalius conducted his course was built of wood and
-was capable of holding five hundred persons. In the centre of the room
-was a table under which was a receptacle containing bones and joints. An
-articulated skeleton was placed in an upright position at one end of the
-table. In this elegantly appointed room, before an audience of
-distinguished laymen and students, the instruction in anatomy was given.
-The course was a strenuous one, occupying practically the entire day for
-a period of three weeks, and comprising not only human but also much
-comparative anatomy. The vivisection of dogs, pigs, and rarely of cats,
-was a regular part of the course. Drawings were used to elucidate the
-relations between the skeleton and the soft parts; and frequently
-Vesalius marked the outlines of the joints upon the skin of the subject.
-He also marked the cranial sutures with ink. His anatomical charts were
-the work of his own hand; at times he drew the pictures in the presence
-of his audience. His dissections were made with extreme neatness and
-dexterity. He used but few instruments and these were of the simplest
-kind: knives of different shapes, hooks, cannula, catheter, sounds,
-bristles, hammer, saw, needles, thread and a sponge. Forceps and
-injection apparatus were not used; he rarely used scissors. Much of the
-actual separation of tissues was done by the aid of the finger-nails. A
-vivisection board completed the list _de instrumentis quae anatomes
-studioso debent esse ad manum_.
-
-Let us now follow one Vesalius’s public courses in anatomy. It is the
-month of December, in the year 1537. The report has spread that the
-young Belgian professor will begin his course. Long before the hour set
-for the lecture, every available seat has been taken and many persons
-are standing. An audience comprising the professors of the University,
-the students of medicine, officials of the city of Padua, and learned
-persons of all ranks, including members of the clergy, numbering more
-than five hundred persons, has assembled to do honor to the professor of
-anatomy.
-
-Vesalius comes into the arena and walks to the table which is closely
-surrounded by his auditors. He wastes no time; after a few preliminary
-remarks on the importance of anatomy and the methods of acquiring a
-knowledge of this science, he launches into the practical demonstration.
-After rapidly pointing out the divisions of the body, and demonstrating
-the skin, joints, cartilages, ligaments, glands, fat and muscles, he
-passes to the more complex parts, all of which are shown upon the
-skinned body of a dog or of a lamb, in order to conserve the human
-material. Now the human cadaver is placed on the table; all eyes are
-turned upon it, for such a demonstration occurs only at long intervals.
-Vesalius speaks first of the difference in the structure of joints at
-different ages and in different sexes, illustrating his remarks by means
-of drawings and by an abundant supply of bones of man and of the lower
-animals.
-
-Now comes the dissection. This is made rapidly and in regular order. Its
-course depends upon the amount of material at hand; if the professor
-resorts to two bodies, as in the year 1538, the demonstration is handled
-in grand style. Vesalius uses the first body for a comprehensive
-examination of the muscles, ligaments and viscera; whilst the second
-cadaver is devoted to the relations of the veins, arteries, nerves and
-viscera. The text of the _Fabrica_ is written according to this plan of
-public dissection.
-
-At times Vesalius attempted to teach the whole of anatomy on one
-cadaver. In this event, osteology was followed by the dissection of the
-abdominal muscles layer by layer, the demonstration closing with an
-examination of the entire contents of the abdomen. The pelvic organs
-were reached by incision and separation of the symphysis pubis. If the
-cadaver was that of a female, the dissection began with the mammary
-glands and then passed to the inferior venter. In pregnancy the foetal
-membranes were removed intact, and were placed in a vessel filled with
-water. The foetus was opened and its anastomosing vessels were found.
-For demonstrating the cotyledons, the uterus of a sheep or goat was
-used. After the thorax had been raised by means of a log or brick,
-Vesalius passed to the face and the anterior part of the neck, freely
-exposing the muscles on one side and the vessels and nerves on the
-other. Then followed the unilateral preparation of the muscles of the
-shoulder and back, then those of the mouth, which were approached by
-means of division of the lower jaw; and, finally, the pharynx and the
-larynx were exposed. The rectus anticus muscle was next brought into
-view, whereupon Vesalius detached the head from the vertebral column.
-Decapitation was followed by an examination of the cranium; the
-skull-cap was sawed and the brain was dissected in its natural position.
-Then came the examination of the eye, which Vesalius dissected in two
-ways: either by a complete section, or layer by layer from without
-inwards.
-
-The ear and the cavities of the frontal and sphenoidal bones were next
-opened, provided these bones were not needed for the setting up of a
-skeleton. Finally he took up the extremities, demonstrating the muscles
-of an arm and a leg on one side, and the nerves and vessels on the
-other. The anatomy lesson ended with the introduction of numerous
-vivisections.
-
-Vesalius could not entirely escape disputations, but he gave to them a
-close anatomic basis. Theoretical physiology was repugnant to him; for
-him physiology was not speculation but the sequel of anatomic research.
-If he at times gave free reign to his views, he indicated them as mere
-theories. He did not ignore pathologic conditions, but he handled them
-as briefly as possible. Fearing to tire his audience with too much
-variety, he confined his students closely to the structure of the human
-body.
-
-The merit of Vesalius’s public dissections, and the impression which
-they made upon his auditors, can be appreciated only by comparison with
-similar demonstrations made by his predecessors. The large and
-enlightened audience remained day by day for a period of three or four
-weeks. He says not a word about the physical and mental strain incident
-to such a strenuous course, in which his entire time was employed. The
-courses brought great financial profit to the professor.
-
-On two occasions, probably in the years 1539 and 1540, Vesalius was
-called from Padua to Bologna to conduct public dissections. This was a
-great honor, for Bologna was the city in which Mondino had revived the
-practical teaching of anatomy. These courses were conducted by Vesalius
-in a wooden building erected for that particular purpose. Here, as in
-Padua, the professor acted as demonstrator and lecturer, remaining in
-this ancient city for a period of several weeks. On the first occasion
-he was supplied with three human bodies and was enabled to handle the
-subject in grand style. At the first séance he engaged with the
-celebrated Professor Matthaeus Curtius, whose acquaintance he had made
-in 1538 while on a vacation trip, in a deep study of the question of
-venesection. Before a large and select assembly he demonstrated in all
-three bodies that Galen’s description of the vena azygos was incorrect.
-On the second convocation Vesalius seems to have disposed of more
-bodies. He reviewed Galen’s work on the joints, and by numerous
-specimens, which were prepared by the students, he demonstrated the
-difference in the ancient knowledge of the skeleton. On this occasion he
-undertook the complete dissection of an ape and presented its skeleton,
-as well as that of a man, to Professor John Andreas Albius, who held the
-chair of Hippocratic medicine in Bologna.
-
-Little is known of the way in which Vesalius taught surgery. The first
-year he was in Padua, he began with Avicenna’s treatise on tumors.
-According to the fragmentary notes in the college book of his ardent
-pupil, Vitus Tritonius, Vesalius compared Avicenna’s teachings with the
-classical works of Hippocrates, Galen, Paul of Aegina, and Aetius,
-explaining and correcting them.
-
-    [Illustration: INITIAL LETTER BY VESALIUS
-    (From the “Fabrica”, 1543)]
-
-
-
-
-                             CHAPTER EIGHTH
-                     First Contribution to Anatomy
-
-
-    [Illustration: Illuminated capital]
-
-Like all great teachers, Vesalius was ever mindful of the interests of
-his students. Soon after accepting the chair of Anatomy in Padua, he
-articulated a human skeleton for use in his class room. His next work
-was the preparation of a set of anatomical plates, _Tabulae Anatomicae_,
-which were intended to pave the way to anatomy for beginners. For the
-further benefit of his class, he edited an edition of Guinterius’s
-_Institutionuin Anatomicarum_, which was issued in April, 1538.
-
-
-Tabulae Anatomicae
-
-The _Tabulae Anatomicae_ were in the form of _Fliegende Blätter_, or
-loose leaves, and consisted of six plates which are now among the rarest
-of medical works. They bore the following title:
-
-        _Tabulae Anatomicae. Imprimebat Venetiis B(ernardinus).
-               Vitalis Venetus sumptibus Joannis Stephani
-                 Calcarensis Prostrant verò in officina
-                        D. Bernardini. a. 1538._
-
-In the preface Vesalius says that no one can learn either botany or
-anatomy from figures alone, but illustrations are a valuable means
-toward the imparting of knowledge. In publishing these plates he hopes
-to benefit those persons who had attended his public dissections. Not a
-line in these pictures is unnatural; all has been reproduced just as he
-had shown in his demonstrations. He gives due credit to van Calcar, the
-artist who made the drawings of the three skeletons. The other pictures
-were made by the author himself.
-
-The _Tabulae Anatomicae_ were arranged in the following order:—
-
-  I.—The Portal System and the Organs of Generation;
-  II.—The Venae Cavae and Chief Veins;
-  III.—The Great Artery—Arteria Magna—and the Heart;
-  IV.—The Skeleton in its Anterior View;
-  V.—The Skeleton in its Side View;
-  VI.—The Skeleton in its Posterior View.
-
-The plates are of large dimensions, measuring over sixteen inches in
-length, and were cut in wood. Like those in the _Fabrica_, they were
-made in Italy. Owing to their transient use by medical students, the
-_Tabulae_ were soon destroyed, although unauthorized editions were
-printed in several cities. The book was dedicated to Narcissus of
-Parthenope (Narciso Verdunno, or Vertuneo) who, in 1520, was first
-physician to the crown of Naples, and later, in 1524, was physician and
-councilor to Charles the Fifth. It is noteworthy that three of these
-plates deal with the skeleton, a subject to which Vesalius had given
-much attention. The absence of a plate showing the nervous system is
-also to be noted. Vesalius had such a plate prepared, and it appeared in
-a pirated edition of the _Tabulae_ which was published at Cologne in
-1539. The large size of these plates, their fidelity to nature, and the
-skill with which they were cut in wood, were features which showed to
-the world that a real master of anatomy had been born. The original
-drawings were made by Jan Stephan van Calcar, who probably also was the
-engraver.
-
-Only two copies of the _Tabulae Anatomicae_ are known. A fine edition of
-these plates, reproduced by photography, was privately issued in 1874 by
-Sir William Stirling-Maxwell, the talented author of the _Annals of the
-Artists of Spain_.
-
-    [Illustration: VIEW OF THE CITY OF BASEL IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY]
-
-
-
-
-                             CHAPTER NINTH
-                       Publication of the Fabrica
-
-
-    [Illustration: Illuminated capital]
-
-On the first day of August, 1542, after three years of strenuous labor,
-Vesalius completed the _Fabrica_, and twelve days later he wrote the
-last word of the _Epitome_. The blocks for the _Fabrica_, and also those
-for the _Epitome_, were made in Italy. In the summer of 1542 they were
-conveyed to Basel by a merchant named Danoni and were safely delivered
-to the printer, Oporinus. They were accompanied by a long Latin letter,
-written by Vesalius to his friend, “Joannes Oporinus, professor of Greek
-letters in Basel”. He begs Oporinus to take the greatest care that the
-printed illustrations shall correspond with the proofs which accompany
-the blocks. “Every detail must be distinctly visible, so that each cut
-shall have the effect of a picture”. Early in the following year
-Vesalius went to Basel to superintend the printing of his books. While
-there, he conducted a demonstration in anatomy—the first which had
-occurred in that city since 1531—and presented the articulated skeleton
-of the subject to the University. Part of this skeleton exists today. It
-is thought to be the oldest anatomical preparation in existence.
-
-
-The Fabrica
-
-The heart of Vesalius must have filled with joy when he saw the final
-page of his book turned from the press. The treatise which founded
-modern anatomy bears this title:—
-
-            _Andreae Desalii Brurellensis, Scholae medicorum
-               Patabinae professoris, de humani corporis
-                    fabrica Libri septem. Basileae._
-                                MDXLIII
-
-A fortune was lavished upon the illustration and publication of this
-grand work. To use the words of Fisher, “it was and is a glorious book,
-a rare and precious monument of genius, industry and liberality”. It
-abounds with curious initial letters bearing quaint and interesting
-anatomical conceits, each one teaching its lesson. One of these, reduced
-in size, introduces the present chapter; and it was this letter that
-Vesalius used in his opening sentence: _Os caeterarum hominis partium
-est durissimum & ardissimum, maximaque terrestre & frigidum, & sensus
-denique praeter solos dentes expers._
-
-    [Illustration: JOANNES OPORINUS]
-
-The first edition of the _Fabrica_ is a folio volume with magnificent
-illustrations on wood, all carefully printed by Joannes Oporinus
-(1507-1568) of Basel.
-
-The title-page is a beautiful engraving which represents Vesalius at
-work dissecting a female subject. He is surrounded by interested
-spectators who crowd the amphitheatre. The abdomen of the subject is
-opened. Vesalius has raised his left hand; his right hand grasps a small
-rod which rests on the viscera. The great teacher is talking to his
-pupils. Placed at the head of the dissecting table is an upright
-skeleton which grasps a long staff with its right hand. In the audience
-are many persons of different rank. To the left a naked man is climbing
-a pillar, while to the right, and below, a dog is being brought into the
-arena. To the left, and below, is a monkey which appears to enjoy the
-demonstration. Above, in the architecture, we see the monogram of the
-publisher, Oporinus; in the centre, on a shield, are the three weasels
-of the Vesalius family, and below, is a shield which bears the
-privilegium. This old engraving is one of the most spirited and
-elaborate to be found in the whole range of medical literature. In the
-1725 edition, for which Jan Wandelaar made copperplate reproductions of
-the original figures, the title-page is altered:—the monogram of
-Oporinus is absent and the architecture is slightly changed.
-
-    [Illustration: MARK OF OPORINUS]
-
-Who was the unnamed artist? It is noteworthy that Vesalius does not
-state who drew the illustrations, or who cut them in wood, for his
-_Fabrica_. He only states that this book has cost him a monstrous amount
-of labor in the preparation of the dissections, and in the directing of
-the eye, the hand, and the intelligence of the artist. He complains
-bitterly of the obstinacy of the artist, who, at times so tormented him
-that he—Vesalius—considered himself more unfortunate than the criminal
-whose body had been dissected[21]. It was probably owing to this
-unpleasant experience that Vesalius omitted the artist’s name. The great
-anatomist speaks regretfully of the large sums which he was obliged to
-pay, in order to induce skilled artists to undertake this class of work.
-He states that they were much more interested in painting Venus and The
-Graces than in drawing pictures of skinned and foul smelling bodies.
-Moehsen[22] assumes that Vesalius had Titian in mind when he penned
-these thoughts, but this is questionable. It is not surprising that
-eminent artists should have disliked anatomical drawing, at a time when
-antiseptic injections and preserving fluids were not known. Foul odors
-had no terrors for the great Belgian, who haunted cemeteries for
-anatomical material and often kept parts of cadavers in his bedchamber
-for weeks at a time.
-
-For a period of two centuries the Vesalian pictures were ascribed to
-Titian, but on insufficient grounds. The famous Venetian painter was
-over sixty years of age at the time of the publication of the _Fabrica_;
-his services were much in demand, and he was signally honored by the
-Spanish emperor, Charles the Fifth. His powers remained undiminished
-until shortly before his death, which occurred in 1576. He had the
-ability to make the Vesalian illustrations, but it is doubtful if he had
-the time. Although Titian may have taken an interest in these anatomical
-plates, it is not now believed that he drew them.
-
-    [Illustration: JAN STEPHAN VAN CALCAR]
-
-The Vesalian pictures have been attributed to Christoforo Coriolano; but
-he could not have been the artist, since his earliest work dates from
-1568. He is known to have furnished the drawings for Jerome
-Mercurialis’s _De Arte Gymnastica_, and for Vasari’s _Lives of the
-Painters_. Roth is of the opinion that Vesalius himself made most of the
-illustrations; but such a view would credit the comparatively short and
-busy life of the great anatomist with too much accomplishment.
-
-I conclude that the illustrations for the _Fabrica_, like the osseous
-figures in the _Tabulae Anatomicae_, which Vesalius issued in 1538, were
-made by Jan Stephan van Calcar (+1546), the favorite pupil of Titian.
-Sandrart[23] states that van Calcar made the drawings for the _Fabrica_;
-that he went to Venice in 1536 or 1537; that he studied under Titian;
-and that his paintings were of such merit that they were often mistaken
-for those of Titian, Raphael, and Rubens.
-
-Van Calcar was a Fleming, a native of Kalcker in the Duchy of Cleves.
-The date of his birth is not known. His death occurred at Naples in
-1546. He was highly esteemed by Vesalius who speaks of him as ranking
-“with the divine and happy wits of Italy”. The anatomical plates which
-Vesalius issued in 1538 were made, he states, by van Calcar:—_sumptibus
-Joannis Stephani Calcarensis_. These plates, which appeared in the form
-of pictorial broad sheets, or _Fliegende Blätter_, may be likened to the
-Herald who goes in advance to announce the coming of the King. They were
-engraved on wood, and, like their companion pictures in the _Fabrica_,
-they were unprecedented in magnitude and in minuteness.
-
-    [Illustration: SECOND VESALIAN PLATE OF THE MUSCLES
-    (From the “Fabrica”, 1543. Reduced one-half)]
-
-The Vesalian plates vary greatly in merit. The most satisfactory ones
-are those depicting the undissected body and the bones and muscles. The
-artist was not at his best in drawing the nervous system, although it is
-claimed that Vesalius had prepared his neurologic specimens with great
-care. For the use of artists, the best plates are the three skeletons
-and the four entire myologic figures in the _Fabrica_. The first
-myologic figure, showing a man who has been divested of all skin, fat,
-and superficial fascia, presents the muscles of the anterior portion of
-the body beautifully delineated. Vesalius took much pride in this plate,
-and directed the attention of artists to it. The second plate, which is
-constructed along similar lines, shows the body in its lateral aspect.
-The head is thrown slightly backward, the right hand pointing to the
-earth and the left raised towards the horizon, and the whole attitude of
-the subject calls to mind the position which an orator would assume when
-addressing an audience. The third myologic plate is similar to the first
-one, but the muscles of the face are exhibited to better advantage and
-the aponeuroses, absent in the first plate, are here present. The fourth
-plate, which is the ninth in Vesalius’s work (_nona musculorum tabula_),
-presents the muscles of the posterior part of the body. The other
-myologic figures show the deeper muscles, layer by layer, and are of
-value to an artist who wishes to study the effect of their action upon
-the superficial parts of the body. Hence many of these figures have been
-reproduced in works on art-anatomy. The artist who studies these plates
-should remember that the figures in question are divested of skin, fat,
-and superficial veins—all of which must be supplied, in order to avoid
-giving too great prominence to the muscles. The two naked figures
-contained in the _Epitome_ are properly clothed in skin and are of great
-artistic merit. They also are to be seen in numerous works on
-art-anatomy. Thus, in one of the earliest books on anatomy for the use
-of artists (_Abrégé d’anatomie accommodé aux arts de peinture et de
-sculpture._ Paris, 1667, 1668), Rogers de Piles and François Tortebat
-have used the three skeletons and seven myologic figures taken from the
-_Fabrica_ and the _Epitome_. In the preface of his book, de Piles says
-that he does not think it is possible to produce better figures than
-those found in the works of Vesalius. That he was not alone in this
-opinion is shown by the fact that many other artists, who have composed
-treatises on art-anatomy, have drawn freely from the Vesalian
-storehouse. An Italian, Giacomo Moro, in his anatomy for the use of
-artists, (_Anatomia ridotta ad uso de’ pittori e scultore._ Venice
-1679), reproduced nineteen of Vesalius’s figures in copperplate.
-
-    [Illustration: NINTH VESALIAN PLATE, OF THE MUSCLES
-    (From the “Fabrica”, 1543. Reduced one-half)]
-
-The popularity of Vesalius’s anatomical figures among painters was due,
-not only to the intrinsic worth of these illustrations, but also to the
-erroneous belief that the original drawings were the work of Titian.
-This opinion found expression on the title-pages of several works on
-art-anatomy. For example, in 1706, Moschenbauer, of Augsburg, issued a
-folio volume illustrated with Vesalian figures cut in wood, with this
-title:—_Andreae Vesalii, Bruxellensis, des ersten besten Anatomici,
-Zergliederung des menschlichen Körpers auf Mahlerey, and Bildhauer-Kunst
-gerichtet, die Figuren von Titian gezeichnet_. An anonymous book,
-_Notomia di Titanio_, appeared in Italy about the year 1670.
-
-The Vesalian figures of the skeleton were also issued in single sheets
-with moralistic verses appended. Moehsen cites one of these with the
-inscription printed in French:
-
-  “De cet objet affreux tu parois rebutté,
-  Est c’est ce que dans peu cependant tu dois étre:
-  Apprens, mortel, a te connoître
-  Ce miroir est le seul, ou tu n’est point flatté”.
-
-Another legend reminds the reader that he is only dust, and to dust he
-must return:—“_Vous estes poudre, & vous retournéres en poudre_”.
-
-    [Illustration: A HUMAN SKULL RESTING ON THE SKULL OF A DOG
-    (From the “Fabrica”, 1543)]
-
-
-
-
-                             CHAPTER TENTH
-                       Publication of the Epitome
-
-
-    [Illustration: Illuminated capital]
-
-Upon the thirteenth day of August, 1542, Vesalius finished the _Epitome_
-of his great book. The text and illustrations for it were forwarded to
-Basel by the same merchant who conveyed the manuscript and drawings of
-the _Fabrica_. The title of the lesser work is as follows:—
-
-            _Andreae Vesalii Bruxellensis, Scholae medicorum
-            Patavinae professoris, suorum de Humani corporis
-             fabrica librorum Epitome. Basil., et officina
-               Joannis Oporini, Anno, 1543, mense Junio._
-
-This work is extremely rare. It belonged to the class of _Fliegende
-Blätter_ and was issued unbound. Perfect copies of it are rarely found.
-The first twelve sheets are printed on both sides; the two last leaves
-are printed on one side only, in order that they might be cut out and
-pasted together to show two complete figures. Hence these sheets are
-often lacking. The _Epitome_ appeared in the same year and in the same
-month as the _Fabrica_, but the latter work was printed first.
-
-The _Epitome_ is dedicated to Philip, the son of Charles the Fifth, who,
-after his father’s abdication, was known as Philip the Second of Spain.
-The title-page is printed from the same plate as the larger work; and
-Vesalius’s portrait also is present. From the fact that the dedication
-bears the inscription: _Patavii, idibus Augusti 1542_, the erroneous
-opinion arose that this work preceded the _Fabrica_.
-
-    [Illustration: TITLE-PAGE OF VESALIUS’S “EPITOME”, 1543]
-
-Among the illustrations found in the _Epitome_ are seven that are not in
-the large book; namely, five myologic plates, and the figure of a naked
-man and one of a woman. The myologic figures in the _Epitome_ differ
-from those in the _Fabrica_ in this respect: the muscles are drawn in
-their natural position, group, and order, so that the surgeon, in
-treating wounds and in performing operations, may have the correct
-relations of the parts in mind. Also, the one side of the figure differs
-from the other: the one showing the superficial muscles, while the other
-exhibits the deeper musculature. The muscles in the _Fabrica_, with the
-exception of four complete myologic figures, are represented as they
-appear in anatomical demonstrations, particular attention being given to
-their origins and insertions. For the purpose of the artist, the best
-figures are the three skeletons and the four complete myologic figures
-which are found in the _Fabrica_.
-
-Two beautiful copies of the _Epitome_, printed on vellum, are in
-existence. One is in the British Museum and is thought to be the copy
-which was owned by the celebrated Dr. Richard Mead; the other one is in
-the possession of the University of Louvain.
-
-Vesalius speaks modestly of the _Epitome_, which he regards as an index
-or appendix of the _Fabrica_, and is for the use of beginners in
-anatomy.
-
-    [Illustration: SKELETON BY VESALIUS
-    (From the “Fabrica”, 1543. Reduced one-half)]
-
-
-
-
-                            CHAPTER ELEVENTH
-                        Contents of the Fabrica
-
-
-    [Illustration: Illuminated capital]
-
-The reputation of Vesalius rests securely upon the _Fabrica_. This grand
-book, which is dedicated to Charles the Fifth, consists of six hundred
-and fifty-nine folio pages of text; thirty-four pages of index, disposed
-in three columns to the page; six pages of preface; and two pages of a
-letter which is addressed to “Joannes Oporinus, the renowned professor
-of Greek letters in Basel”. The work is printed in excellent style. The
-printed page measures 8 by 12½ inches, including the marginal notes.
-There are fifty-seven lines to a page, averaging twelve words to a line,
-or approximately seven hundred words to a page. This was written, amid
-many duties and distractions, in the short period of three years. It is
-truly a monument of diligence.
-
-The text of the _Fabrica_ is clear and concise; it describes what has to
-be described and does it well. The errors which Vesalius rectified, and
-the improvements which he made in anatomy, are so numerous that
-references can be made to only a few of them. His anatomical writings
-are of such bulk that they cannot be reviewed adequately within the
-limits of the present chapter. As regards the _Fabrica_, we may say,
-with Richardson, that “The dissections and the plates are the book”.
-
-    [Illustration: FIFTH VESALIAN PLATE OF THE MUSCLES
-    (From the “Fabrica”, 1543. Reduced one-half)]
-
-The _Fabrica_ contains the rudiments of anthropology as well as the
-first illustrations of comparative anatomy. Vesalius portrays a human
-skull resting upon the skull of a dog. He also shows a simian and a
-canine sacrum and coccyx, to prove his contention that Galen’s anatomy
-was derived from dissection of the lower animals. The _Fabrica_ is more
-than an anatomy. Throughout the work physiology goes hand in hand with
-the anatomical description. The use and function of each part of the
-body is given in short, clear sentences.
-
-The _Fabrica_ is built upon a practical plan. It treats of anatomy in a
-logical manner and is composed of seven books, which deal with the
-following subjects: (1)—Bones and Cartilages; (2)—Ligaments and Muscles;
-(3)—Veins and Arteries; (4)—Nerves; (5)—Organs of Nutrition and
-Generation; (6)—Heart and Lungs; and (7)—Brain and Organs of Sense.
-
-
-The First Book
-
-Vesalius devotes one hundred and sixty-eight pages to the bones and
-cartilages, treating these structures with a thoroughness that amazed
-his contemporaries. He was the first author who correctly described the
-osseous system as a whole. In numerous instances Vesalius places himself
-in direct opposition to the opinions of Galen. He denied the existence
-of the intermaxillary bone in adults, and showed that the inferior
-maxilla does not consist of two pieces, as has been asserted by Galen.
-The seven bones of the sternum were reduced to three by Vesalius. He
-denied Galen’s statement that the bones of the symphysis pubis separate
-during parturition. He was the first anatomist to give an accurate
-description of the sphenoid bone. A small aperture at the root of the
-pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone is called _foramen Vesalii_.
-Vesalius proved the existence of marrow in the bones of the hand, which
-had been denied by Galen. In all respects, he wrote more intelligently
-of the bones than any anatomist who had preceded him.
-
-    [Illustration: DEEP MUSCLES OF THE BACK BY VESALIUS
-    (From the “Fabrica”, 1543. Reduced one-half)]
-
-    [Illustration: PART OF THE FIRST TEXT-PAGE OF THE “FABRICA”]
-
-
-The Second Book
-
-Vesalius devotes one hundred and eighty-eight pages to a description of
-the ligaments and the muscles. This part of his treatise, while it
-contains a few errors and does not reach the high plane of the first
-book, is superior to any work of its kind that had preceded it. Vesalius
-was the first writer to describe the internal pterygoid muscle. He
-denied the existence of a general muscle of the skin, and stated that
-the intercostal muscles merely separate the ribs without expanding or
-contracting the thorax. He held the view that nerves and muscles do not
-stand in any relation of proportionate strength to one another, large
-nerves often being distributed to small muscles. He also held that the
-tendons are similar in structure to the ligaments.
-
-    [Illustration: PLATE OF THE ARTERIAL TREE BY VESALIUS
-    (From the “Fabrica”, 1543. Reduced one-half)]
-
-Vesalius’s plates of the superficial muscles are among the most
-beautiful that have ever appeared. They have been copied in practically
-all later treatises on anatomy, and have been used extensively by
-art-anatomists. His plates of the deeper muscles, while naturally not so
-pleasing to the eye, are wonderfully near accuracy. The different
-muscles are drawn to show function as well as structure.
-
-
-The Third Book
-
-The third part of the _Fabrica_, comprising sixty pages, is devoted to
-the veins and arteries. Vesalius begins with the definition of a vein,
-and describes the structure of these vessels in general. The term
-“artery” is treated in like manner. He introduces several small
-illustrations which serve to elucidate this part of the text. His first
-large plate in this section is devoted to the venae portae. This is
-followed by a full-page picture of the entire venous system. The
-arterial system is fully described and elaborately illustrated. To these
-is added another plate, in which both arteries and veins are represented
-in their natural order. In other plates he shows the special
-circulations—cerebral, portal, and pulmonary.
-
-    [Illustration: DISSECTION OF THE ABDOMEN BY VESALIUS
-    (From the “Fabrica”, 1543)]
-
-Vesalius described the valve which guards the foramen ovale in the
-foetus, and also noticed the valve-like fold which guards the entrance
-of each hepatic vein into the inferior vena cava. He also gave an
-admirable description of the vena azygos. Blinded by the ancient theory
-of the movement of the blood—a sort of flux and reflux in the veins, he
-overlooked the function of the venous valves. He described them as
-eminences, or projections, or accidental rugosities, which in no way
-interfere with the flux and reflux of the blood.
-
-    [Illustration: DISSECTION OF THE HEART BY VESALIUS
-    (From the “Fabrica”, 1543)]
-
-
-The Fourth Book
-
-Vesalius devotes forty pages to the cerebral and spinal nerves. The
-anatomy of the brain is treated in the seventh book. His representations
-of the nerves are very creditable. He mentions eleven pairs of cranial
-nerves: the olfactory, the optic, the motores oculorum, the trifacial,
-the abducens, the portio dura, the portio mollis, the glosso-pharyngeal,
-the pneumogastric, and the spinal accessory.
-
-His account of the brain—contained in the seventh book—is elaborately
-minute considering the time when it was written. His illustrations and
-description of this organ surpass those of scores of later authors.
-Vesalius fully describes the position of the brain; the membranes which
-cover it; the cavities, or ventricles, within it; the divisions of
-cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla; the anatomy of the base, and the
-origins of the cerebral nerves. These structures are illustrated from
-different points of view.
-
-
-The Fifth Book
-
-The fifth book, comprising more than one hundred pages, is devoted to
-the organs of nutrition. Here we find an admirable account of the
-peritoneum, the mesentery, the omentum, the stomach and intestines, the
-liver, the spleen, and the genito-urinary tract—all of which structures
-are described and fully illustrated. In this book Vesalius also
-describes the foetus in utero.
-
-
-The Sixth Book
-
-In less than fifty pages Vesalius describes the contents of the thorax.
-He writes intelligently of the membrane lining the thorax, and then
-gives an account of the arteria aspera, as the trachea was formerly
-named. Passing on to the lungs, he next takes up the anatomy of the
-heart. He describes its position, form, and structure in better terms
-than had been done by preceding anatomists. The auricles, ventricles,
-and valves are carefully examined. His illustrations of both lungs and
-heart are excellent.
-
-In the 1543 edition of the _Fabrica_, Vesalius adopts the erroneous view
-of Galen that openings exist in the septum of the heart. In the second
-edition of his book, published in 1555, he says that influenced by the
-views of Galen, he believed that the blood passes from the right to the
-left ventricle of the heart, through the septum, by means of the pores.
-Vesalius immediately adds that the septum of the heart is as dense and
-compact as the rest of this organ, and that not the smallest quantity of
-blood passes through the septum.
-
-His account of this subject is best given in his own words:—“In
-recounting as above the structure of the heart, and the use of its
-different parts, I have followed in the main the doctrines of Galen; not
-that I regard them in all particulars as consonant with the truth, but
-because, in attributing new functions and uses to a number of parts, I
-am still distrustful of myself, and not long ago should hardly have
-ventured to differ from that Prince of Physicians by so much as a
-finger’s breadth. As for the dividing wall, or septum, between the
-ventricles forming the right side of the left cavity, the student of
-anatomy should consider carefully that it is equally thick, compact, and
-dense, with all the rest of the cardiac substance enclosing the left
-ventricle. And accordingly, notwithstanding what I have said about the
-pits in this situation, and at the same time not forgetting the
-absorption by the portal vein from the stomach and intestines, I still
-do not see how even the smallest quantity of blood can be transfused,
-through the substance of the septum, from the right ventricle to the
-left”.
-
-Vesalius and other anatomists knew of the hepatic circulation, or at
-least believed in some communication between the portal and hepatic
-veins:—“The branches of this vein”—vena cava—“distributed through the
-body of the liver, come in contact with those of the portal vein; and
-the extreme ramifications of these veins inosculate with each other, and
-in many places appear to unite and be continuous”.
-
-Vesalius knew that in several particulars the accepted physiology of the
-vascular system was wrong. If he could have lived a few years longer, it
-is possible that he might have solved the great problem which was made
-clear by William Harvey. In the light of our present knowledge some of
-Vesalius’s words are suggestive:
-
-“When these matters are taken into account, many things at once present
-themselves in regard to the arterial system, which deserve careful
-consideration; especially the fact that there is hardly a single vein
-going to the stomach, the intestines, or even the spleen, without its
-accompanying artery, and that nearly every member of the portal system
-has a companion artery associated with it in its course. Again, the
-arteries going to the kidneys are of such size that they can by no means
-be affirmed to serve merely for regulating the heat of these organs; and
-still less can we assert that so many arteries are distributed to the
-stomach, intestines and spleen for that purpose alone. And there is,
-furthermore, the fact, which we must for many reasons admit, that there
-is through the arteries and veins a mutual flux and reflux of materials,
-and that within these vessels the weight and gravitation of their
-contents has no effect”.
-
-
-The Seventh Book.
-
-In the seventh book, consisting of less than sixty pages, Vesalius fully
-describes the anatomy of the brain, of the cranial nerves, and of the
-organs of sense. His description of the eye is not as near accuracy as
-might be expected. He places the crystalline lens in the centre of the
-globe. His description of the organ of vision was only slightly better
-than that which was given by Galen. Vesalius showed, however, that the
-optic nerve is not a hollow tube, and that it does not enter the eyeball
-exactly in the antero-posterior axis.
-
-
-Conclusion
-
-Considering the time in which he lived, Vesalius was remarkably free
-from errors. Although to him the arteries were carriers of vital
-spirits, the veins were the true blood vessels, and, according to the
-first edition of his great book, the septum of the heart was filled with
-foramina; yet, we must say with Baas, “these are all mere shadows
-necessary to the brilliancy of the picture”.
-
-Vesalius was more than an anatomist. As a practical physician he had the
-highest reputation among his contemporaries. He was an accomplished
-scholar and was thoroughly conversant with the weaknesses of human
-nature, as is evident from many satirical touches in his writings.
-Although his great work contains many errors that a tyro of the present
-day would laugh at, it laid the foundations of our knowledge. Vesalius
-overthrew the idol of authority in anatomy and taught us to look at
-Nature with our own eyes.
-
-Portal[24] has paid a splendid tribute to Vesalius. “Vesalius”, he says,
-“appears to me one of the greatest men who ever existed. Let the
-astronomers vaunt their Copernicus, the natural philosophers their
-Galileo and Torricelli, the mathematicians their Pascal, the geographers
-their Columbus, I shall always place Vesalius above all their heroes.
-The first study of man is man. Vesalius has this noble object in view,
-and has admirably attained it; he has made on himself and his fellows
-such discoveries as Columbus could make only by travelling to the
-extremity of the world. The discoveries of Vesalius are of direct
-importance to man; by acquiring fresh knowledge of his own structure,
-man seems to enlarge his existence; while discoveries in geography or
-astronomy affect him but in a very indirect manner”.
-
-Like Harvey, Vesalius was obliged to defend his writings from fierce
-attacks. The most desperate of his opponents was his old master, Jacobus
-Sylvius, who was so wedded to the Galenic teachings that he asserted
-that since Galen’s time the thigh bones had changed their shape. He
-spoke of Vesalius as a “madman, Vesanus, whose pestilential breath
-poisons Europe”. Ponderous discussions were carried on between the
-friends and opponents of the great anatomist. The complete overthrow of
-the Galenists resulted.
-
-If Vesalius had remained professor of anatomy in Padua, instead of being
-appointed physician to Charles the Fifth, at Madrid, in 1544, it is
-probable that the circulation of the blood would have been discovered by
-him.
-
-In recent years attempts have been made to show that it was not
-Vesalius, but Leonardo da Vinci, who was the founder of modern anatomy.
-A considerable amount of controversial literature has accumulated on
-this subject. For our purpose it may suffice to quote the conclusions of
-McMurrich[25]:—“Leonardo was the first to create a new anatomy, but he
-created it for himself alone; Vesalius demonstrated a new anatomy to the
-world. It was the publication of Vesalius’s _Fabrica_ that
-revolutionized anatomy, while Leonardo’s drawings were lying
-unpublished, at first the cherished possessions of his favorite pupil
-Melzi, later in the Ambrosian Library in Milan, and still later
-forgotten in the Royal Library at Windsor. We must credit Leonardo as
-being the forerunner of the new anatomy, but Vesalius must be recognized
-as its founder”.
-
-    [Illustration: INITIAL LETTER BY VESALIUS
-    (From the “Fabrica”, 1543)]
-
-
-
-
-                            CHAPTER TWELFTH
-                        Contemporary Anatomists
-
-
-    [Illustration: Illuminated capital]
-
-Shortly after the publication of the _Fabrica_, great activity was
-manifested in anatomic research, and numerous opponents and critics of
-Vesalius appeared in the arena of science. The criticism of such men as
-Jacobus Sylvius and John Dryander, while it was of a violent type, was
-of much less importance than was that of Eustachius, Columbus and
-Fallopius. Vesalius was not without his partisans, of whom Ingrassias
-and Cannanus are worthy of mention.
-
-
-Bartholomeus Eustachius
-
-Eustachius was born at San Severino, a small city near Salernum, about
-the year 1520. He studied anatomy in Rome and made remarkable progress
-in this science. In the year 1562, as he informs us in his _Opuscula
-Anatomica_, he was professor of medicine in the Collegio della Sapienza
-at Rome. Like many other men of genius, Eustachius died in poverty. In
-August, 1574, having been called by the illness of Cardinal Rovere to
-Fossombrone, Eustachius died upon the journey.
-
-To Eustachius posterity is indebted for a series of splendid copperplate
-engravings which were designed to illustrate the anatomy of the human
-body. These plates, the handiwork of Eustachius, and the first
-anatomical illustrations wrought in copper, were completed in 1552, only
-nine years after the first impression of the book of Vesalius.
-Unfortunately for himself, and worse for medical science, Eustachius was
-unable to publish them. If this magnificent atlas of anatomy could have
-been published when completed, the anatomical discoveries of the
-eighteenth century would have come two hundred years earlier.
-Unfortunately the entire text of the work is lost. For one hundred and
-thirty-eight years the Eustachian plates remained either in the family
-of Pinus, an intimate friend of the anatomist, or were buried in the
-Papal Library at Rome. When discovered they were presented by Pope
-Clement XI. to his physician, Lancisi, who published them with notes of
-his own, at Rome, in 1714. In 1740 they were issued under the direction
-of Cajetan Petrioli. Four years later the edition by Albinus appeared,
-which was republished in 1761. The anatomical writings of Eustachius
-were published during his lifetime, in 1564. It is upon his _Tabulae
-Anatomicae_ that the fame of this wonderful man is founded. If this work
-had been published in 1552, Eustachius would have divided with Vesalius
-the honor of founding human anatomy. The victim of circumstances, his
-name has been overshadowed by that of Vesalius, to whom in some respects
-he was superior. Deprived during life of his merited honors, Eustachius
-has been awarded a goodly share of posthumous fame.
-
-    [Illustration: BRAIN AND NERVES BY EUSTACHIUS
-    (Reduced one-half)]
-
-    [Illustration: MUSCLES BY EUSTACHIUS
-    (Reduced one-half)]
-
-Eustachius was the first anatomist to describe, with any degree of
-accuracy, the tube which bears his name. We can truly say he discovered
-it, since Alcmaeon dissected only the lower animals, and was not an
-accurate observer, as his view that goats breathe through the ears,
-amply testifies. Eustachius discovered the tensor tympani and stapedius
-muscles, the modiolus and membranous cochlea, and the stapes. The honor
-of the discovery of the stapes is claimed for no less than five renowned
-anatomists, namely, Fallopius, Ingrassias, Columbus, Colladus, and
-Eustachius. It is unnecessary to discuss this disputed claim to
-priority. The truth seems to be that the stapes was discovered by both
-Ingrassias and Eustachius, each independently of the other. In 1546
-Ingrassias publicly demonstrated the little bone of the ear in his
-lectures at Naples. Fallopius, after learning from an eyewitness that
-Ingrassias had actually discovered and named the ossicle, relinquished
-his claim to the discovery. Columbus and Colladus filed their
-information at too late a date. Eustachius, as previously stated,
-finished his anatomical plates in 1552. His seventh plate shows, among
-other subjects, the auditory ossicles—malleus, incus and stapes—and
-tensor tympani muscle. These objects are delineated as taken from a
-human subject, and also from a dog.
-
-Eustachius discovered the origin of the optic nerves, and the sixth
-cerebral nerves. He gives excellent pictures of the corpora olivaria and
-corpora pyramidalia; of the stylo-hyoid muscle; of the deep muscles of
-the neck and throat; of the suprarenal capsules, and of the thoracic
-duct. He also described the ciliary muscle. Eustachius was the first
-anatomist who accurately studied the teeth and the phenomena of the
-first and second dentition. In his researches he employed magnifying
-glasses, maceration, exsiccation, and various methods of injection.
-
-
-Realdus Columbus
-
-The first anatomical treatise containing an account of the lesser, or
-pulmonary circulation, was the monumental work, _De Re Anatomica, libri
-xv._, written by Realdus Columbus and sumptuously published at Venice in
-the year 1559. This, however, was not the first printed account of the
-lesser circulation. Six years prior to the publication of the book of
-Columbus, the unfortunate Servetus, in a theological treatise, described
-correctly the course of the blood in its transit through the lungs.
-Tried for heresy, Servetus was burned, together with all obtainable
-copies of his book. Although it had been printed, the work was
-suppressed; hence it follows that Columbus was the first to publish the
-great discovery. Of the life of this anatomist we know but little. Born
-at Cremona, a small Milanese village, the year of his birth is unknown.
-He died in 1559, while his book was being printed. A few copies were
-finished before his demise, since a copy belonging to the late Dr.
-George Jackson Fisher, of Sing Sing, N.Y., contains the author’s own
-dedication to Pope Paul IV., while in other exemplars, the dedication
-has been written by the two sons of Columbus, and is addressed to “_Pio
-IIII., Pont. Max_”. This prelate, on the death of Paul IV., on August
-18, 1559, became the head of the Church.
-
-Some writers have held that the discovery of the lesser circulation was
-not made by Columbus independently of Servetus, but that a copy of the
-book of Servetus had drifted into Italy and had been read by Columbus.
-There is no direct evidence to support this view. When Vesalius was
-called to Madrid as physician to Charles the Fifth, Columbus, in 1544,
-succeeded him in the University of Padua; two years later he filled the
-anatomical chair at Pisa, and in 1546, Pope Paul IV. called him to Rome.
-Here he spent the later years of his life, engaged in teaching anatomy
-and in writing his book. For forty years Columbus pursued his anatomical
-studies, and in that period he dissected an unusually large number of
-bodies. Fourteen subjects passed under his scalpel in a single year.
-
-    [Illustration: TITLE-PAGE OF COLUMBUS’S ANATOMY
-    (Reduced one-half)]
-
-Columbus frequently made experiments upon living animals. He was the
-first to use dogs for such purposes, preferring them to swine. Book
-XIIII. of the work of Columbus is upon the subject of vivisection, _De
-viva sectione_. In this he tells us how to employ living dogs in
-demonstrating the movements of the heart and brain, the action of the
-lungs, etc. Columbus was the first anatomist who demonstrated
-experimentally that the blood passes from the lungs into the pulmonary
-veins. “When the heart dilates”, says Columbus, “it draws natural blood
-from the vena cava into the right ventricle, and prepared blood from the
-pulmonary vein into the left; the valves being so disposed that they
-collapse and permit its ingress; but when the heart contracts, they
-become tense, and close the apertures, so that nothing can return by the
-way it came. The valves of the aorta and pulmonary artery opening, on
-the contrary, at the same moment, give passage to the spirituous blood
-for distribution to the body at large, and to the natural blood for
-transference to the lungs”.
-
-Like Servetus, Columbus held to the idea of “spiritus”. Harvey was the
-first physiologist who recognized the circulation as purely a movement
-of blood. All before him assumed the existence of a mixture of air and
-blood. Columbus, pupil and prosector of Vesalius, like his great master,
-denied the existence of foramina in the cardiac septum.
-
-
-Gabriel Fallopius
-
-    [Illustration: GABRIEL FALLOPIUS]
-
-Gabriel Fallopius (1523-1562), of Modena, was a noted Italian anatomist.
-In his twenty-fifth year he was made professor of anatomy at Pisa.
-Although the span of his life was short, he will be remembered always as
-the discoverer of the tubes which bear his name. According to Fisher,
-Fallopius “described the ear more minutely than had ever before been
-done. He discovered the little canal along which the facial nerve passes
-after leaving the auditory; it is still called the _aquaeductus
-Fallopii_. He demonstrated the fact of the communication of the mastoid
-cells with the cavity of the tympanum; and also described the fenestrae
-rotunda and ovalis. In the treatment of diseases of the ear, he used an
-aural speculum, and employed sulphuric acid for the removal of polypi
-from the meatus. In some of his supposed discoveries he had long been
-anticipated; for example, the tubes which bear his name were known and
-accurately described by Herophilus, over three hundred years before the
-Christian era, and also by Rufus of Ephesus, of whom Galen speaks as the
-best anatomist of the second century. Rufus refers to two varicose and
-tortuous vessels passing from the testes (as the ovaries were called) to
-the cavity of the uterus. Fallopius, however, gave a full account of
-their course, position, size and structure. He cut into them and found
-them hollow, gave them the name of tubae seminales, and posterity
-attached his name to them, and in time came to a better comprehension of
-their true function. This is not the only instance in the history of
-anatomical discovery where the name of a person, not its discoverer, has
-been given to an organ. Allusion has been made to Fallopius as a
-botanist; a genus of plants, _Fallopia_, has been named in honor of
-him”.
-
-Fallopius was appointed professor of anatomy at Pisa, in the year 1548;
-and later, at the instance of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Cosimo I., he
-received a professorship at Padua, as successor to Vesalius. Besides the
-chair of anatomy and surgery and of botany, he also held the office of
-superintendent of the new botanic garden in that city. Fallopius
-remained in Padua to the day of his death, which occurred in 1562. He
-was very properly succeeded by his favorite pupil, Fabricius ab
-Aquapendente, who had been for some time previously his anatomical
-demonstrator. His collected works, as published in Venice, 1606, embrace
-twenty-four treatises distributed in three folio volumes. Only one of
-his works was published during his lifetime, namely, his _Observationes
-Anatomicae_, Venice, 1561, which is considered one of his most valuable
-books, containing, as it does, most of his discoveries and his
-animadversions on the works of other anatomists.
-
-This was written as a supplement to the anatomy of Vesalius, for it
-follows the same order, passes upon the same subjects, corrects the
-inaccuracies of the Vesalian treatise, and supplies what is wanting.
-Throughout the work Fallopius treats Vesalius with great respect, and
-never mentions him without an honorable title. Vesalius wrote an answer
-to this work, entitled, _Observationum Fallopii examen_, in which he
-acknowledges the courtesy of Fallopius, but, as argument progresses,
-appears to be out of temper.
-
-After the death of Fallopius it was thought that no successor except
-Vesalius could be found competent to fill his place. Accordingly
-Vesalius was chosen. The news of his appointment reached him while he
-was returning from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Unfortunately he was
-shipwrecked and perished, otherwise history would have afforded an
-example of the master filling the chair of the pupil.
-
-
-John Philip Ingrassias
-
-Ingrassias, who lived between the years 1510-1580, was a graduate of the
-celebrated Paduan School. He described minutely the anatomy of the ear,
-including the tympanum, fenestrae rotunda and ovalis, the cochlea, the
-semi-circular canals, and the tensor tympani muscle. His admiring pupils
-caused his portrait to be painted and placed in the Neapolitan School,
-with this inscription:—“To Philip Ingrassias, of Sicily, who, by his
-lectures, restored the science of true Medicine and Anatomy in Naples,
-his pupils have suspended this portrait as a mark of grateful
-remembrance”. Ingrassias was a voluminous writer, his chief work being a
-treatise on osteology, which was published twenty-three years after his
-death. When the plague depopulated Palermo, in 1575, his devotion was
-such as to earn for him the title of the Sicilian Hippocrates. Few men
-have been more earnest workers in medical science. If his fame as an
-anatomist has not equalled that of others, the cause is to be sought in
-the multiplicity of competitors, not in lack of zeal and ability.
-
-    [Illustration: INGRASSIAS]
-
-
-
-
-                           CHAPTER THIRTEENTH
-                      Commentators and Plagiarists
-
-
-    [Illustration: Illuminated capital]
-
-Medical history furnishes numerous examples of literary theft. In many
-instances an entire set of anatomical plates has been pirated by
-unscrupulous publishers. In a few cases both text and plates have been
-appropriated by medical authors. The most notorious example of this form
-of theft was furnished by William Cowper (1666-1709), an English surgeon
-and anatomist, who, having secured three hundred copies of Bidloo’s set
-of one hundred and five anatomical plates, in 1697 issued the work[26]
-as his own. Cowper added a few original illustrations to the book.
-
-Vesalius suffered severely at the hands of the plagiarists. Pirated
-editions of the _Tabulae Anatomicae_ were printed in several cities,
-chiefly in Germany. As regards the _Fabrica_, we may say that it has
-been the fountain from which many anatomical writers have derived
-practically all of their illustrations and much of their text.
-
-The fame of the _Fabrica_ soon spread throughout Europe. It was
-published in Germany, in Holland and in England. An epitome of its
-contents was issued in Latin, in 1545, by Thomas Geminus, or Gemini,
-under the title:—_Compendiosa totius Anatomiae delineatio, aere exaratum
-per Thomam. Geminum._ It contained forty of the Vesalian plates, cut in
-copper, and was the first book issued in England in which the roller
-printing process was employed. It was dedicated to Henry the Eighth, and
-was embellished with “one of the earliest and most curious of all extant
-engraved title-pages”.
-
-In 1553, Geminus issued a second edition, in which the text was
-translated into English. This edition was dedicated to Edward the Sixth,
-with a commendatory note, “To the gentill readers and Surgeons of
-Englande”. Six years later the third English edition appeared, which was
-inscribed to Queen Elizabeth. It contains the first published portrait
-of the Queen. She is shown upon the engraved title-page, and, strange to
-say, above her is another queenly figure, with a pen in her right hand,
-a wreath on her left, her foot resting on the globe, and styled
-_Victoria_.
-
-Another English work on anatomy, which is filled with poor imitations of
-Vesalius’s illustrations, is the _Microcosmographia_ of Helkiah Crooke,
-or Crocus, who was “Professor in Anatomy and Chirurgery”. Its chief
-value rests in an elaborately engraved title-page, a part of which shows
-Crooke giving a demonstration in anatomy in the presence of the
-“Worshipfull Company of Barber-Chirurgeons”, in London, early in the
-seventeenth century.
-
-John Banister of Nottingham, in 1578, borrowed a few Vesalian woodcuts
-for use in _The Historie of Man, sucked from the sappe of the most
-approved Anatomists and published for the Utilitie of all Godly
-Chirurgians within this Realme_.
-
-Most of the host of translators, epitomizers, commentators and imitators
-of Vesalius have passed into oblivion. A few of these persons have
-possessed enough of individuality to deserve recognition.
-
-Juan Valverde di Hamusco, a Spaniard who was born about the year 1500,
-studied anatomy at Padua and later at Rome. His book, _Historia de la
-Composicion del Cuerpo Humano_, was published at Rome in 1556. It
-contains forty-two copperplates and an engraved title-page. Although the
-author says he has used only the Vesalian plates, his work contains
-several plates which are not to be found in Vesalius’s writings. For
-example, Valverde shows a _muskelmann_ with his skin held in his right
-hand, the left grasping a dagger which may have been used in the
-skinning process. Other original drawings show the abdomen and
-intestines, a pregnant woman with the abdomen opened, and illustrations
-of the superficial veins.
-
-Valverde was physician to Cardinal Juan de Toledo, Archbishop of
-Santiago, to whom the work is dedicated. The illustrations were drawn by
-Gaspar Becerra and were engraved by Nicholas Beatrizet. Valverde’s book
-went through several editions. It forms a landmark in the medical
-history of Spain—a country which, for many years, was behind other
-states of Europe in matters of science.
-
-To name the list of anatomical writers who have derived their artistic
-inspiration from the _Fabrica_ would require much more space than is at
-our disposal. It must suffice to say, that, for a period of two
-centuries, nearly all treatises on anatomy contained illustrations which
-were taken from the writings of Vesalius. With few exceptions, these
-reproductions were little better than caricatures of the original
-figures.
-
-Of the numerous editions of the _Fabrica_ there are three which are
-highly prized, namely, the first one, 1543; the second, issued in 1555,
-containing eight hundred and twenty-four pages, with many changes in the
-text; and the 1725 edition of the collected writings of Vesalius. The
-last named is a huge volume which was published at Leyden under the
-supervision of Boerhaave and Albinus, with the illustrations cut in
-copper by Jan Wandelaar[27].
-
-It contains the _Fabrica_, the _Epitome_, the _Epistola de Radicis
-Chynae_, various anatomical treatises of a controversial character, and
-the _Chirurgia Magna_ which has been wrongly attributed to Vesalius.
-Morley says of this book:—“After his death a great work on surgery
-appeared, in seven books, signed with his name, and commonly included
-among his writings. There is reason, however, to believe that his name
-was stolen to give value to the book, which was compiled and published
-by a Venetian, Prosper Bogarucci, a literary crow, who fed himself upon
-the dead man’s reputation”.
-
-    [Illustration: Ornamental block]
-
-
-
-
-                           CHAPTER FOURTEENTH
-                          The Court Physician
-
-
-    [Illustration: Illuminated capital]
-
-Vesalius, having finished the _Fabrica_, intended to write a work on the
-practice of medicine which should be based on pathology. He makes
-mention of this in the preface of the _Fabrica_, and in numerous places
-in the body of the book he describes the pathologic appearances which he
-found in dissection.
-
-Returning to Padua after a year’s absence, he found that the University
-for which he had strenuously labored was a very hotbed of opposition.
-His former pupil and friend, Realdus Columbus, who was now lecturing on
-anatomy at Padua, had turned against him. How deeply Vesalius was
-wounded by the man whom he had made, can be appreciated only by those
-who have been placed in similar circumstances. The controversy between
-Columbus and Vesalius was of a bitter and personal character.
-
-On all sides the views of Vesalius were attacked, and the defenders of
-Galen joined hands with men like Columbus in an effort to besmirch the
-great anatomist. Disgusted with such treatment, Vesalius, early in 1544,
-went to Pisa. Here he conducted a course in anatomy. Leaving Pisa, he
-went to Bologna where he made some special dissections upon two bodies.
-About this time he declined a chair in the University of Pisa which was
-tendered to him by direction of Cosimo de’ Medici. Tired of the
-apparently useless effort to make men see the truth, sick of disputes
-and arguments, persecuted by members of his own profession, in a fit of
-passion Vesalius threw his manuscripts into the fire and ended his
-career as a scientist. “Thus”, says Morley, “he destroyed a huge volume
-of annotations upon Galen; a whole book of Medical Formulae; many
-original notes upon drugs; the copy of Galen from which he lectured,
-covered with marginal notes of new observations that had occurred to him
-while demonstrating; and the paraphrase of the books of Rhazes, in which
-the knowledge of the Arabians was collated with that of the Greeks and
-others”.
-
-    [Illustration: CHARLES THE FIFTH]
-
-While in this frame of mind it is not surprising that he should have
-accepted the appointment of Archiatrus to Charles the Fifth of Spain.
-
-The great Emperor was now at the zenith of his fame. His kingdom, which
-reached from South America to the Zuyder Zee, was well under control,
-but the monarch already contemplated the abdication of the throne in
-favor of his son Philip, who is known in history as Philip the Second.
-
-Vesalius left Italy and took up his residence at Madrid. He was now in
-his thirtieth year. As Archiatrus he accompanied the Emperor in the
-fourth French war, in which he gained his first experience as a military
-surgeon. He also acted as physician to Charles and to the members of the
-imperial household. The war ended in September 1544. In January, 1545,
-Charles went to Brussels, and remained in the Netherlands for many
-months. Vesalius was now in his native country, and in April, 1546, he
-visited the graves of his ancestors at Nymwegen and Wesel. In the same
-year he published a new edition of his treatise on the China root.
-
-On the twenty-fifth day of October, 1555, amid a scene of pomp and
-splendor, in the presence of the assembled representatives of the
-Netherlands, Charles formally surrendered to his son all his
-territories, jurisdiction and authority in the Low-Countries. This was
-the first of a series of acts by which the Emperor gradually
-relinquished the reins of power, in order to spend his remaining days in
-a cloister. Philip thus became the heir to a vast dominion. Vesalius was
-continued in office as Archiatrus by the new Emperor. From both Charles
-and Philip, Vesalius received many marks of honor. It was he who rescued
-Charles from what was thought to be a mortal disease. At a later date,
-when Philip’s unfortunate son, Don Carlos, received a severe injury to
-the head, and after the treatment of the Spanish physicians had failed,
-it was Vesalius who saved his life by an operation. These cures, and the
-accurate prediction of the death-day of Maximilian d’Egmont, placed the
-fame of Vesalius at high tide.
-
-
-
-
-                           CHAPTER FIFTEENTH
-                          Pilgrimage and Death
-
-
-    [Illustration: Illuminated capital]
-
-Suddenly, early in the year 1564, for a reason which has never been
-explained satisfactorily, Vesalius left Madrid. Apparently he was at the
-height of success. He was famous as a physician and surgeon; he was a
-favorite at the Spanish court; he had amassed a fortune; and seemingly
-he was destined to pass his remaining days under the most favorable
-surroundings. As occurs to all great men, he had excited the jealous
-animosity of many of the members of his profession. The efforts of the
-Madrid physicians to ignore the talents of one whom they regarded as a
-foreigner, long since had reacted to the advantage of the Archiatrus.
-
-    [Illustration: PHILIP THE SECOND]
-
-During the twenty years that he had filled the post of Archiatrus, the
-scalpel of Vesalius was rusting: but the controversy concerning the
-infallibility of Galen was still raging. The violent criticisms of
-Sylvius upon the _Fabrica_ had been silenced by death, but others took
-up the cause of Galen where Sylvius had left it. But the passing years
-had brought a new coterie of professors, who, like Fallopius at Padua;
-Rondelet at Montpellier; Massa at Venice; and Fuchs at Tübingen, were
-boldly teaching many things that were contrary to Galen.
-
-Life at the Spanish court was not favorable to the study of science.
-“The hand of the Church”, says Foster[28], “was heavy on the land; the
-dagger of the Inquisition was stabbing at all mental life, and its torch
-was a sterilizing flame sweeping over all intellectual activity. The
-pursuit of natural knowledge had become a crime, and to search with the
-scalpel into the secrets of the body of man was accounted sacrilege. It
-was for a life in priest-ridden, ignorant, superstitious Madrid that
-Vesalius had forsaken the freedom of the Venetian Republic and the
-bright academic circles of Padua; in Madrid, where, as he himself has
-said, ‘he could not lay his hand on so much as a dried skull, much less
-have the chance of making a dissection’. Moreover, he must have felt the
-loss of Charles, who, whatever his faults, recognized the worth of
-intellectual efforts, and in many ways had shown his sympathy with
-Vesalius’s love of knowledge. Such sympathy could not be looked for in
-the narrow and bigoted Philip”.
-
-About this time Vesalius received a copy of the _Observationes
-Anatomicae_ of his pupil Fallopius, who, having learned all that his
-master had taught of anatomy, continued his studies with great skill and
-industry. Such a book, coming at an opportune time, must have seemed
-like a voice calling the Archiatrus back to the intellectual life,
-bringing to his mind’s eye the recollection of his happy days in Italy.
-
-Vesalius travelled to Venice by way of Perpignan. While in Venice he
-visited the printer, Francesco Sanese, and discussed the publication of
-a new book which should contain his reply to Fallopius. In a short time
-he started for Cyprus in company with Jacobo Malatesta, the commander of
-the Venetian forces in that island. Thence he passed to Jerusalem on a
-pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Vesalius never returned from that journey.
-Information of his death reached Brussels towards the end of that
-year—1564.
-
-What was the reason for this pilgrimage? Various alleged authorities
-have given different versions, many of which are evidently fictitious.
-The most reasonable account, which emanates from Spanish-French sources,
-dates from a letter written January 1, 1565, to the physician Caspar
-Peucer by Hubert Languer, or Hubertus Languetus, the Huguenot friend of
-Philip Sidney, which says:—“They say that Vesalius is dead. Doubtless
-you have heard that he went to Jerusalem. That journey had, as they tell
-us from Spain, an odd reason. Vesalius, believing a young Spanish
-nobleman whom he had attended to be dead, obtained leave of the parents
-to open the body for the sake of inquiring into the cause of the
-illness, which he had not rightly comprehended. This was granted; but he
-had no sooner made an incision into the body than he perceived the
-symptoms of life, and opening the breast, saw the heart beat. The
-parents coming afterwards to the knowledge of this, were not satisfied
-with prosecuting him for murder, but accused him to the Inquisition of
-impiety, in hopes that he would be punished with greater rigor by the
-judges of that tribunal than by those of the common law. But the King of
-Spain interposed, and saved him on condition that by way of atoning for
-the error he should undertake a pilgrimage to the Holy Land”.
-
-The pilgrimage was made, the Holy Sepulcher was visited, and the weary
-wanderer had started for Padua to take the chair which was made vacant
-by the death of Fallopius. A violent storm swept the Ionian Sea.
-Vesalius’s ship was wrecked upon the island of Zakynthos, where, on the
-fifteenth day of October, 1564, the Archiatrus died of exhaustion.
-
-Such was the miserable end of Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, a man, who,
-before he had attained his thirtieth year, had become the greatest
-anatomist that the world has ever seen.
-
-    [Illustration: Ornamental block]
-
-
-
-
-                               FOOTNOTES
-
-
-[1]Théorie de la figure humaine. Paris, 1773.
-
-[2]Moehsen: Verzeichnis einer Sammlung von Bildnissen. Berlin, 1771;
-    page 59.
-
-[3]Bell: Observations on Italy. Edinburgh, 1825; page 257.
-
-[4]Galen: De Anatomicis Adininistrationibus. Lib. II.
-
-[5]Celsus: De Medicina. Lib. I.
-
-[6]Fisher: Claudius Galenus. Annals of Anatomy and Surgery, Vol. IV.,
-    page 216.
-
-[7]Saint Basil, in his maturer years, deeply regretted that he had
-    studied classical literature in his youth. Jerome regarded the
-    reading of the writings of antiquity as a terrible crime. Gregory
-    the Great declared a knowledge of grammar even for a layman to be
-    indelicate.—Fort: Medical Economy during the Middle Ages. N. Y.,
-    1883; pages 102, 103.
-
-[8]Meryon: History of Medicine. London, 1861; vol. I, page 479.
-
-[9]Adam; Vitae Germanorum Medicorum. Haidelbergae, 1620: page 224.
-
-[10]Zwinger: Theatrum Vitae Humanae. Basileae, 1571.
-
-[11]Vesalius: Fabrica, 1543, preface.
-
-[12]Sylvius: Ordo et Ordinis Ratio in Legendis Hippocratis et Galeni
-    Libris, 1539.
-
-[13]The Collége Royal de France was founded by Francis the First. This
-    enlightened patron of the sciences and arts recognized the merits of
-    scientific men and rewarded them with his money and his friendship.
-    He established the Collége de France with twelve richly-endowed
-    professorships, one of which was devoted to medicine. The lectures
-    were free to all who desired to attend. The first incumbent of the
-    chair of medicine was Vidus Vidius, Guido Guidi, of Florence, who
-    filled this position from 1542 to 1548. Such success followed his
-    labors that, on his return to Italy, his experience in Paris was the
-    subject of this witticism: _Vidus venit, Vidius vidit, Vidus vicit_.
-
-[14]Northcote: History of Anatomy. London, 1772; page 56.
-
-[15]Portal: Histoire de l’Anatomie et de la Chirurgie. Paris, 1770; vol.
-    I, page 365.
-
-[16]Moreau: Vita Sylvii, in Sylvii Opera Medica. Geneva, 1635.
-
-[17]Vesalius: De radice Chinae epistola, 1546; pages 151, 152.
-
-[18]Archives Curieuses de l’Histoire de France.
-
-[19]Guinterius: Anatomicarum Institutionum, 1539.
-
-[20]Paraphrasis in nonum librum Rhazae medici Arabis clariss. ad Regem
-    Almansorem, de singularum corporis partium affectuum curatione,
-    autore Andrea Wesalio Bruxellensi Medicinae candidato. Lovanii ex
-    officina Rutgeri Resii. mense Februar. 1537.
-
-[21]Radicis Chinae usus, Andrea Vesalio autore. Lugd., 1547; page 278.
-
-[22]Moehsen: Verzeichnis einer Sammlung von Bildnissen. Berlin, 1771;
-    page 82.
-
-[23]Sandrart: Teutsche Academie. Nürnberg, 1685: vol. II., page 243.
-
-[24]Portal: Histoire de l’anatomie et de la chirurgie. Paris, 1770; vol.
-    I., page 399.
-
-[25]McMurrich: Medical Library and Historical Journal, December, 1906.
-
-[26]Cowper: The Anatomy of Human Bodies. Oxford, 1697.
-
-[27]Andreae Vesalii Opera Omnia Anatomica et Chirurgica in duos tomos
-    distributa cura Hermanni Boerhaave et Bernhardi Siegfried Albini.
-    Lugduni Batavorum, 1725.
-
-[28]Foster: Lectures on the History of Physiology. Cambridge, 1901, page
-    17.
-
-
-
-
-                                 INDEX
-
-
-    [Illustration: Ornamental block]
-
-
-
-
-                                 INDEX
-
-
-                                   A
-  Abrégé d’anatomie                                                   93
-  Achillinus, Alexander                                               42
-  Adam, M.                                                            55
-  Adolph of Nassau                                                    11
-  Aegina, Paul of                                                 63, 80
-  Aesculapius                                                         17
-  Aetius                                                              80
-  Alberti, Leo Battista                                                7
-  Albertus Magnus                                                     55
-  Albius, John Andreas                                                80
-  Albinus, B. S.                                            46, 115, 129
-  Albucasis                                                           30
-  Alcmaeon                                                       19, 115
-  Aldo                                                                11
-  Aldus Manutius                                                      43
-  Alexander of Tralles                                                63
-  Alexander the Great                                                 20
-  Alexandria                                                      20, 22
-  Alexandrian Anatomists                                          22, 23
-  Alexandrian Library                                                 23
-  Alexandrian University                                          22, 29
-  Alfonso the Magnificent                                              5
-  Almansor, the                                                       72
-  Al-Rasi                                                             31
-  Amatus                                                              51
-  Ambrosian Library                                                  113
-  Anatomy in Ancient Times                                         17-28
-  Anathomia Mundini                                           11, 35, 48
-  Anatomia Corporis Humani                                            37
-  Anatomia ridotta                                                    93
-  Anatomia Porci                                                      27
-  Anatomical Renaissance                                              14
-  Andernach, John Winter of                                           61
-  Antonius Musa                                                       20
-  Antropologium of Magnus Hundt                                       39
-  Apelles                                                             22
-  Aphorisms of Hippocrates                                            53
-  Apollo                                                              19
-  Apophyses venarum                                                   51
-  Aquaeductus Fallopii                                               122
-  Aqueduct of Sylvius                                                 60
-  Arabs                                                       27, 30, 56
-  Arantius                                                        15, 16
-  Archimedes                                                          22
-  Archiatrus                                          131, 132, 135, 136
-  Aristophanes                                                        22
-  Aristotle                                           19, 55, 65, 66, 67
-  Ars Curativa of Galen                                               56
-  Art-Anatomy                                                      7, 91
-  Artery of Sylvius                                                   60
-  Asclepiadae                                                 17, 19, 56
-  Astruc                                                              57
-  Athanasius                                                          22
-  Augustus                                                            20
-  Aurelius, Marcus                                                    24
-  Averröes                                                         4, 56
-  Avicenna                                                15, 31, 56, 80
-
-
-                                   B
-  Banister, John                                                     127
-  Basel, view of                                                      83
-  Beatrizet, Nicholas                                                128
-  Becerra, Caspar                                                    128
-  Bell, John                                                          18
-  Bembo                                                               12
-  Benedictine Monastery                                                5
-  Berengario da Carpi                                              43-46
-  Bertruccius                                                         29
-  Boccaccio                                                         4, 5
-  Bogarucci, Prosper                                                 129
-  Boerhaave                                                          129
-  Bologna                                 6, 15, 27, 29, 30, 37, 43, 130
-  Boniface VIII                                                       15
-  Bracciolini, Poggio                                                 10
-  Brambilla                                                           44
-  Brissotus, Petrus                                                   56
-  Bruchaeum                                                           21
-  Budaeus                                                             56
-  Busleiden, Hieronymus                                               54
-
-
-                                   C
-  Caelius Aurelianus                                                  63
-  Caesalpinus                                                         16
-  Caius                                                               10
-  Cajetan Petrioli                                                   115
-  Calamus scriptorius                                                 23
-  Callimichus                                                         22
-  Calcar, Jan Stephan van                              9, 74, 82, 83, 89
-  Canna coxae                                                         34
-  Cannanus                                                        51, 60
-  Caraffa                                                         13, 73
-  Carbo, Gisbertus                                                    55
-  Cardan, Jerome                                                      52
-  Cardi, Luigi                                                         9
-  Carpi, Seigneur de                                                  43
-  Carpus                                                           43-46
-  Carolus Stephanus                                                   48
-  Caxton                                                              11
-  Celsus, Aulus Cornelius                                         10, 22
-  Charles the Fifth                    53, 55, 82, 87, 95, 112, 119, 131
-  Chauliac, Guy de                                                    29
-  China root                                                 73, 87, 132
-  Christian III                                                       63
-  Cicero                                                            4, 5
-  Cimabue                                                              7
-  Civitas Hippocratica                                                27
-  Clement VII                                                         12
-  Clement XI                                                         115
-  Colladus                                                      117, 118
-  Collegium trilingue                                                 54
-  Collége de Tréguier                                                 58
-  Collége de Cornouailles                                             58
-  Collége de France                                           15, 58, 60
-  Columbus                                    16, 114, 117, 118-121, 130
-  Copernicus                                                           2
-  Copho                                                               27
-  Coriolano, Christoforo                                              88
-  Cortona, Pietro da                                                   9
-  Cosimo de’ Medici                                               5, 131
-  Cosimo I                                                           123
-  Cowper, William                                                    126
-  Crabbe, Isabella                                                    53
-  Crooke, Helkiah                                                    127
-  Crusaders                                                           15
-  Curtius, Matthaeus                                                  79
-
-
-                                   D
-  da Carpi, Berengario                                         43-46, 47
-  da Carpi, Hugo                                                      45
-  Danoni                                                              84
-  Dante, Alighieri                                                     3
-  Dark Ages, Anatomy in the                                           26
-  da Vinci, Leonardo                                        2, 8, 9, 113
-  de Ketham, Joannes                                              32, 33
-  Della Torre, Marc Antonio                                            8
-  Descartes                                                           65
-  Deventer, the Beggar of                                         61, 64
-  de Zerbi, Gabriel                                               37, 39
-  Donaria of Anatomical Interest                                      20
-  Don Carlos                                                         132
-  Dryander, John                                          46-48, 51, 114
-  Dubois, Jacques                                                     57
-  Dürer, Albrecht                                                      9
-
-
-                                   E
-  Eclectic Philosophy                                                 66
-  Egyptian Anatomy                                                    17
-  Eichmann                                                            47
-  Elizabeth, Queen                                                   127
-  Empedocles of Agrigentum                                            19
-  Epidaurus                                                           20
-  Epitome, the                                    84, 91, 93, 95-97, 129
-  Erasistratus                                                22, 23, 24
-  Eratosthenes                                                        22
-  Estienne, Charles                                            48-51, 60
-  Estienne, Robert                                                    50
-  Eucharus                                                            31
-  Eucharius Rhodion                                                   16
-  Euclid                                                              22
-  Eustachius, Bartholomeus                               15, 16, 114-118
-  Eyck, Hubert and John van                                            7
-
-
-                                   F
-  Fabrica, the       30, 54, 55, 71, 82, 84, 94, 126, 128, 129, 130, 133
-      contents of                                                 93-113
-  Fabricius ab Aquapendente                                       16, 51
-  Fallopia                                                           123
-  Fallopius, Gabriel                16, 114, 117, 118, 121-124, 134, 135
-  Ferdinand I                                                         63
-  Fernel, Jean                                             57, 58, 64-67
-  Fisher, G. J.                                             25, 119, 121
-  Fliegende Blätter                                           37, 89, 95
-  Foesius, Anutius                                                    10
-  Foramen Vesalii                                                    103
-  Fort, George F.                                                     27
-  Fracastoro                                                          10
-  Francis the First                                                   60
-  Frederick II                                                        28
-  Friesen                                                             40
-
-
-                                   G
-  Gabriel de Zerbi                                                37, 39
-  Galen   10, 15, 19, 20, 24-26, 30, 36, 56, 57, 58, 61, 63, 64, 66, 67,
-            68, 79, 80, 101, 103, 109, 111, 112, 123, 130, 131, 133, 134
-  Galileo                                                         2, 112
-  Geminus, Thomas                                               126, 127
-  Gemma, Regnier                                                  70, 71
-  Giacomo Berengario                                               43-46
-  Giacomo Moro                                                        93
-  Giotto                                                               7
-  Giuseppe Ribera                                                      9
-  Glisson                                                             51
-  Granvella                                                           55
-  Greece, Anatomy in                                          17, 18, 20
-  Gregory the Great                                                   27
-  Guido Guidi                                                         60
-  Guillemeau, Jacques                                                 16
-  Guinterius, Joannes                              61-64, 67, 68, 71, 81
-
-
-                                   H
-  Hamusco, Juan Valverde di                                          128
-  Harvey, William                                      16, 110, 112, 121
-  Havers, Clopton                                                     50
-  Hela, Ricardus                                                  37, 38
-  Henry the Second                                                    65
-  Hero                                                                22
-  Herophilus                                                 22, 23, 122
-  Historie of Man                                                    127
-  Hippocrates                    10, 17, 18, 19, 24, 57, 66, 67, 80, 125
-  Holbein, the Elder                                                  41
-  Homer                                                               29
-  Hubert van Eyck                                                      7
-  Hugo da Carpi                                                       45
-  Humanists and Humanism                            4, 9, 10, 11, 13, 56
-  Hundt, Magnus                                                39-40, 42
-
-
-                                   I
-  Ignatius Loyola                                                     73
-  Index Expurgatorius                                                 13
-  Ingrassias, John Philip                         15, 117, 118, 124, 125
-  Inquisition                                                13, 44, 136
-  Isagogae Breves                                                     45
-  Institutionum Anatomicarum                                          81
-  Italy and the Renaissance                                         2-14
-
-
-                                   J
-  Jan Stephan van Calcar                               9, 74, 82, 83, 89
-  Jan Wandelaar                                                  86, 129
-  Jerome                                                              27
-  Jerome Mercurialis                                                  88
-  Jesuits                                                             73
-  Joannes de Ketham                                               32, 33
-
-
-                                   K
-  Kalcker                                                             89
-  Ketham, Joannes de                                              32, 33
-
-
-                                   L
-  Lactantius                                                          11
-  Lancisi                                                            115
-  Languer, Hubert                                                    135
-  Laurentius Phryesen                                             40, 41
-  Leonardo da Vinci                                         2, 8, 9, 113
-  Leonicenus, Nicholas                                            10, 56
-  Linacre, Thomas                                                     10
-  Livy                                                             5, 20
-  Lorenzo de’ Medici                                                   8
-  Louvain, University of                                  53, 54, 71, 75
-  Loyola, Ignatius                                                    73
-  Luca Signorelli                                                      8
-  Luigi Cardi                                                          9
-  Luther                                                              63
-  Luzzi, Mondino dei                                                  29
-
-
-                                   M
-  Maggiore Consiglio of Venice                                        28
-  Magnus, Albertus                                                    55
-  Malatesta, Jacobo                                                  135
-  Manetho                                                             22
-  Marc Antonio della Torre                                             8
-  Margarita Philosophica                                              55
-  Massa                                                              134
-  Maximilian d’Egmont                                                132
-  Mead, Dr. Richard                                                   97
-  Medicina Astrologica                                                28
-  Melzi                                                              113
-  Mercurialis, Jerome                                                 88
-  Meryon, Edward                                                      45
-  Michael Angelo                                                    8, 9
-  Mirach                                                              34
-  Moehsen, J. C. W.                                               18, 87
-  Mondino dei Luzzi                                                29-36
-  Mondino’s Anathomia                                             11, 35
-  Mondino’s Successors                                             37-51
-  Monte Cassino                                                        5
-  Moreau                                                              61
-  Morley, Henry                                             70, 129, 131
-  Moro, Giacomo                                                       93
-  Moschenbauer                                                        93
-  Musa, Antonius                                                      20
-  Museum, Alexandrian                                                 22
-  Myntens, Arnold                                                      9
-
-
-                                   Mc
-  McMurrich                                                          113
-
-
-                                   N
-  Narcissus of Parthenope                                             82
-  Nicholas V                                                       5, 10
-  Northcote, W.                                                       60
-
-
-                                   O
-  Oporinus, Joannes                                   84, 85, 86, 95, 99
-  Oribasius                                                           63
-  Origen                                                              22
-  Osiris                                                              22
-
-
-                                   P
-  Padua, University of         15, 74, 75, 76, 79, 80, 81, 112, 123, 136
-      Vesalius’s Sojourn in                                        56-69
-  Paedagogium Castri                                                  54
-  Paganism                                                        11, 12
-  Paraphrase of Rhazes                                           72, 131
-  Paré, Ambroise                                                      16
-  Paris, Anatomical teaching at                                   56, 69
-  Parthenope, Narcissus of                                            82
-  Pascal                                                             112
-  Paulus Aegineta                                             10, 63, 80
-  Pausanias                                                           18
-  Petrarch                                                       3, 4, 5
-  Peucer, Caspar                                                     135
-  Peyligk, John                                                       39
-  Philip the Second                                    95, 131, 132, 134
-  Phryesen, Laurentius                                        40, 41, 42
-  Pierre de la Rameé                                          65, 66, 67
-  Pietro da Cortona                                                    9
-  Piles, Rogers de                                                    93
-  Pinus                                                              115
-  Pion, Albert                                                        43
-  Poggio Bracciolini                                                   9
-  Pollaiuolo, Antonio                                                  8
-  Poliziano                                                           10
-  Pontanus                                                            10
-  Pope Boniface VIII                                                  15
-  Pope Clement VII                                                    12
-  Pope Clement XI                                                    115
-  Pope Leo X                                                          12
-  Pope Nicholas V                                                     10
-  Pope Paul III                                                       13
-  Pope Paul IV                                                   13, 119
-  Pope Pius IIII                                                     119
-  Portal                                                         60, 112
-  Ptolemies, the                                                      22
-
-
-                                   Q
-  Quintilian                                                           5
-
-
-                                   R
-  Raffaello Santi                                                      9
-  Raimondino                                                          28
-  Ramus                                                       65, 66, 67
-  Regio Judaeorum                                                     21
-  Renaissance, the Anatomical                                      14-16
-  Renaissance, the General                                          1-14
-  Rescius                                                             71
-  Rhacotis                                                            21
-  Rhazes                                                  31, 53, 72, 73
-  Rhodion, Eucharius                                                  16
-  Ribera, Giuseppe                                                     9
-  Richardson, B. W.                                                   99
-  Rogers de Piles                                                     93
-  Rome, Anatomy in                                                19, 20
-  Rubens                                                               9
-  Rufus of Ephesus                                              122, 123
-
-
-                                   S
-  Saint Basil                                                         27
-  Saint Stephen                                                       12
-  Salernum                                                     5, 27, 28
-  Sandrart                                                            89
-  Sannazzaro                                                          10
-  Santi, Raffaello                                                     9
-  Scotus, Michael                                                     55
-  Servetus                                         64, 68, 118, 119, 121
-  Sicilian Hippocrates                                               125
-  Sidney, Philip                                                     135
-  Signorelli, Luca                                                     8
-  Siphac                                                              34
-  Spiegel der Artzny                                                  41
-  Stephanas, Carolus                                               48-51
-  Stirling-Maxwell, Sir William                                       83
-  Sturm                                                               71
-  Sylvius, Jacobus                               57-61, 67, 68, 112, 113
-  Symonds, J. A.                                                       3
-
-
-                                   T
-  Tabulae Anatomicae                                         81, 83, 126
-  Tagault, Jean                                                       57
-  Temples of Aesculapius                                              18
-  Terence                                                              5
-  Theatin Monks                                                       73
-  Theocritus                                                          22
-  Thomas of Sarzana                                                   10
-  Titian                                                  87, 88, 89, 93
-  Torcular Herophili                                                  23
-  Torre, Marc Antonio della                                            8
-  Torricelli                                                      2, 112
-  Tortebat, François                                                  93
-  Trajectorium                                                        35
-  Tralles, Alexander of                                               63
-  Tritonius, Vitus                                                75, 80
-
-
-                                   V
-  Valeriano                                                           12
-  Valverde, Juan di Hamusco                                          128
-  van Eyck, Hubert and John                                            7
-  Varolius                                                            15
-  Vasari                                                              88
-  Velsius                                                             71
-  Venice                            6, 11, 37, 73, 89, 93, 118, 123, 135
-  Venice, Maggiore Consiglio of                                       28
-  Verdunno, Narciso                                                   82
-  Vesalius, birth of                                                  52
-      death of                                                       136
-      education of                                     53-55, 56, 67, 68
-  Vesanus                                                        59, 112
-  Vida                                                                10
-  Vidius, Vidus                                                   15, 60
-  Villanovanus, Michael                                               68
-  Vinci, Leonardo da                                        2, 8, 9, 113
-  Vitruvius                                                           10
-  Vitus Tritonius                                                 75, 80
-
-
-                                   W
-  Waechtlin                                                           41
-  Wandelaar, Jan                                                 86, 129
-  Wesalius Family                                                 52, 53
-  Wharton                                                             42
-  Winter of Andernach                                              61-64
-
-
-                                   Z
-  Zakynthos, island of                                               136
-  Zerbi, Gabriel de                                               37, 39
-  Zyrbi                                                               31
-
-    [Illustration: Ornamental block]
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-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Andreas Vesalius the Reformer of Anatomy, by 
-James Moores Ball
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Andreas Vesalius the Reformer of Anatomy
-
-Author: James Moores Ball
-
-Release Date: October 14, 2020 [EBook #63456]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANDREAS VESALIUS--REFORMER OF ANATOMY ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by deaurider, Stephen Hutcheson, and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
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-</pre>
-
-<div id="cover" class="img">
-<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Andreas Vesalius, the Reformer of Anatomy" width="804" height="1200" />
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig1">
-<img src="images/p_f003.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="1198" />
-<p class="pcap"><i class="cur">And. Vesalius</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="box">
-<h1><span class="smallest">ANDREAS</span>
-<br />VESALIUS
-<br /><span class="smaller"><span class="smallest">THE</span>
-<br /><span class="sc">Reformer of Anatomy</span></span></h1>
-<p class="tbcenter"><span class="smallest">BY</span>
-<br />JAMES MOORES BALL, M. D.</p>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_f005.jpg" alt="Ornamental block" width="285" height="274" />
-</div>
-<p class="center">SAINT LOUIS
-<br /><span class="large">MEDICAL SCIENCE PRESS</span>
-<br /><span class="small">MDCCCCX</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_V">V</div>
-<p class="center smaller">Copyrighted, 1910
-<br />By <span class="sc">James Moores Ball</span>
-<br /><i>All rights reserved</i></p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_VI">VI</div>
-<p class="center small">TO THE MEMORY
-<br />OF THOSE ILLUSTRIOUS MEN
-<br />WHO
-<br />OFTEN UNDER ADVERSE CIRCUMSTANCES
-<br />AND
-<br />SOMETIMES IN DANGER OF DEATH
-<br />SUCCEEDED IN UNRAVELLING THE MYSTERIES
-<br />OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN BODY,
-<br />TO THE FATHERS OF ANATOMY
-<br />AND
-<br />TO THE ARTIST-ANATOMISTS
-<br />THIS BOOK
-<br />IS DEDICATED</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_VIII">VIII</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_f009.jpg" alt="Ornamental block" width="500" height="232" />
-</div>
-<h2><span class="small"><span class="large">PREFACE</span></span></h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_f009a.jpg" alt="Illuminated capital" width="150" height="163" />
-</div>
-<p>In the annals of the
-medical profession the name of
-Andreas Vesalius of Brussels holds
-a place second to none. Every
-physician has heard of him, yet
-few know the details of his life,
-the circumstances under which
-his labors were carried out, the
-extent of those labors, or their far-reaching
-influence upon the progress of anatomy, physiology
-and surgery. Comparatively few physicians have
-seen his works; and fewer still have read them. The
-reformation which he inaugurated in anatomy, and incidentally
-in other branches of medical science, has left
-only a dim impress upon the minds of the busy, science-loving
-physicians of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
-That so little should be known about him is not surprising,
-since his writings were in Latin and were published
-prior to the middle of the sixteenth century. His books,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_IX">IX</span>
-which at one time were in the hands of all the scientific
-physicians of Europe, are now rarely encountered beyond
-the walls of the great medical libraries of the world. They
-are among the <i>incunabula</i> of the medical literature. That
-English-speaking physicians know little of Vesalian literature
-is due to the fact that no extensive biography of the
-great anatomist has appeared in our language. Most of the
-Vesalian literature which has been written by English and
-American authors has been in the form of brief articles
-for the medical press; these oftentimes have been incorrect
-and unillustrated. Perhaps the best example of this class
-is the article by Mr. Henry Morley which appeared originally
-in <i>Fraser&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, in 1853, and later was published
-in his <i>Clement Marot and Other Studies</i>, in 1871.
-The chief data for Vesalius&rsquo;s biography are to be found
-in his own writings, in the archives of the Universities in
-which he taught, and in the controversial literature of the
-period. Extensive as are these sources they leave much
-to be desired. A vast mass of Vesalian literature was
-printed, chiefly in the Latin language, during the seventeenth
-and eighteenth centuries. Much of it is based
-on insufficient evidence or on national prejudice. The
-Germans, the French, the Dutch and the Italians have all
-taken a turn at it. In modern times the monumental
-work of Roth, <i>Andreas Vesalius Bruxellensis</i>, Berlin,
-1892, has served to epitomize this literature and to make
-clear many points which formerly were not understood.
-I have taken Roth&rsquo;s book as a basis for this monograph,
-without using the voluminous references which are found
-in the work of this thorough historian.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_X">X</div>
-<p>The man who overthrew the authority of Galen; revolutionized
-the teaching of the structure of the human
-body; started anatomical, physiological, and surgical investigation
-in the right channels; first correctly illustrated
-his dissections; destroyed ancient dogmas, and made many
-new discoveries&mdash;this man, Andreas Vesalius of Brussels,
-deserves the name which Morley has given him, &ldquo;the
-Luther of Anatomy.&rdquo;</p>
-<p>At long intervals a bright particular star appears in the
-intellectual horizon, endowed with genius of such a superlative
-order as seemingly to comprise within itself the
-whole domain of an entire science. These men do not
-belong to any particular epoch in the development of the
-human mind. They are the eternal symbols of progress,
-and their history is the history of the science which they
-profess. Such men were Bacon, Galileo, Descartes, Newton,
-Lavoisier, and Bichat; and such also was Andreas
-Vesalius the anatomist. Young, enthusiastic, courageous
-and diligent, Vesalius dared to contradict the authority of
-Galen, corrected the anatomical mistakes of thirteen centuries
-and before his thirtieth year published the most accurate,
-complete, and best illustrated treatise on anatomy
-that the world had ever seen. His industry, the success
-which crowned his efforts, the jealousies which his discoveries
-aroused in the breasts of his contemporaries, the
-honors which were conferred upon him by Charles the
-Fifth and Philip the Second, his pilgrimage to the Holy
-Land, and his tragic death&mdash;these are events which deserve
-to be chronicled by an abler pen than mine.</p>
-<p>The year 1543 marks the date of a revolution which
-<span class="pb" id="Page_XI">XI</span>
-was won, not by force of arms but by the scalpel of an anatomist
-and the hand of an artist. The whole of human
-anatomy, as a study involving correct descriptions of the
-component parts of the body and accurate delineations
-thereof, may be said to have been founded by Andreas
-Vesalius and Jan Stephan van Calcar. As light pouring
-into a prism attracts little notice until it emerges in iridescent
-hues, so it was with anatomy: after passing through
-the brain of Vesalius it bore rich fruit which has been
-gathered by many hands. To turn from the writings of
-Galen, Mondino, Hundt, Peyligk, Phryesen, and Berengario
-da Carpi to the beauties of Vesalius&rsquo;s <i>De Humani
-Corporis Fabrica</i> is like passing from darkness into sunlight.
-To both anatomists and artists this book was a
-revelation. For more than a century after its appearance
-the anatomists of Europe did little more than make additions
-to, and compose commentaries upon the conjoint
-triumph of Vesalius and van Calcar. For more than two
-centuries the osteologic and myologic figures of the
-<i>Fabrica</i> formed the basis of all treatises on Art-Anatomy.</p>
-<p><span class="lr">JAMES MOORES BALL.</span></p>
-<div class="verse">
-<p class="t0"><span class="small">Saint Louis,</span></p>
-<p class="t0"><span class="small">MDCCCCX.</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_f012.jpg" alt="Ornamental block" width="500" height="127" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_XII">XII</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_f013.jpg" alt="Ornamental block" width="500" height="113" />
-</div>
-<h2 id="toc" class="center">TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2>
-<dl class="toc">
-<dt class="small">PAGE</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c1">INTRODUCTION</a> 1-16</dt>
-<dd>The Study of Medical History&mdash;The General Renaissance&mdash;The Anatomical Renaissance.</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c2">ANATOMY IN ANCIENT TIMES</a> 17-28</dt>
-<dd>Anatomy in Egypt and in Greece&mdash;Hippocrates and the Asclepiadae&mdash;Alcmaeon, Empedocles and Aristotle&mdash;Early Roman Medicine&mdash;The Alexandrian University&mdash;Herophilus and Erasistratus&mdash;Claudius Galenus&mdash;The School of Salernum&mdash;Frederick II.</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c3">MONDINO, THE RESTORER OF ANATOMY</a> 29-36</dt>
-<dd>Life of Mondino&mdash;He restores the Study of Practical Anatomy&mdash;His Book on Anatomy.</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c4">MONDINO&rsquo;S SUCCESSORS</a> 37-51</dt>
-<dd>Gabriel de Zerbi&mdash;John Peyligk&mdash;Magnus Hundt&mdash;Laurentius Phryesen&mdash;Alexander Achillinus&mdash;Berengario da Carpi&mdash;John Dryander&mdash;Charles Estienne.</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c5">VESALIUS&rsquo;S EARLY LIFE</a> 52-55</dt>
-<dd>Origin of the Vesalius Family&mdash;Early Life of the Anatomist&mdash;Vesalius enters the University of Louvain.</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c6">SOJOURN IN PARIS</a> 56-69</dt>
-<dd>Vesalius goes to Paris to study Medicine&mdash;Celebrated Parisian Physicians of the Sixteenth Century&mdash;Jacobus Sylvius&mdash;Joannes Guinterius&mdash;Jean Fernel&mdash;Philosophy of Pierre de la Rame&eacute;&mdash;State of Anatomy at this Period.</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c7">VESALIUS RETURNS TO LOUVAIN</a> 70-72</dt>
-<dd>Vesalius returns to Louvain&mdash;He conducts a Course in Anatomy&mdash;Secures a Skeleton.</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c8">PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY IN PADUA</a> 73-80</dt>
-<dd>Vesalius goes to Venice, thence to Padua&mdash;Receives the Degree of Doctor of Medicine&mdash;He is appointed Professor of Anatomy&mdash;His method of Teaching&mdash;Lectures also in Bologna.</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c9">FIRST CONTRIBUTION TO ANATOMY</a> 81-83</dt>
-<dd>Vesalius issues a Series of Anatomical Plates under the title &ldquo;Tabulae Anatomicae&rdquo;&mdash;His Plates are extensively pirated.</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c10">PUBLICATION OF THE FABRICA</a> 84-94</dt>
-<dd>The Manuscript and Illustrations for the Fabrica are transported to Basel&mdash;Joannes Oporinus, the noted Printer and Greek Scholar&mdash;Publication of the Fabrica&mdash;Beauty of the Illustrations&mdash;Who was the unnamed Artist?&mdash;The Plates were erroneously ascribed to Titian&mdash;Christoforo Coriolano&mdash;Jan Stephan van Calcar&mdash;Popularity of the Illustrations among Artists and Anatomists.</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c11">PUBLICATION OF THE EPITOME</a> 95-97</dt>
-<dd>Publication of the Epitome&mdash;Reasons for its Publication&mdash;Character of the Work.</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c12">CONTENTS OF THE FABRICA</a> 99-113</dt>
-<dd>General Plan of the Book&mdash;A brief Review of its Contents&mdash;The First Book, on Osteology&mdash;Vesalius&rsquo;s Contributions to the Anatomy of the Bones&mdash;The Second Book, on Ligaments and Muscles&mdash;Excellence of this Part of the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;&mdash;The Third Book, on the Veins and Arteries&mdash;The Fourth Book, on the Nerves&mdash;The Fifth Book, on the Organs of Nutrition&mdash;The Sixth Book, on the Heart&mdash;Vesalius&rsquo;s Idea of the Circulation&mdash;Quotation from his Book&mdash;The Seventh Book, on the Brain and the Organs of Sense&mdash;Conclusion.</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c13">CONTEMPORARY ANATOMISTS</a> 114-125</dt>
-<dd>The publication of the Fabrica is followed by great activity among Anatomists&mdash;Bartholomeus Eustachius&mdash;Realdus Columbus&mdash;Gabriel Fallopius&mdash;John Philip Ingrassias.</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c14">COMMENTATORS AND PLAGIARISTS</a> 126-129</dt>
-<dd>Plagiarism in Medicine&mdash;William Cowper and Bidloo&rsquo;s Plates&mdash;Pirated editions of the &ldquo;Tabulae Anatomicae&rdquo;&mdash;Thomas Geminus&rsquo;s editions of the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;&mdash;The Microcosmographia of Helkiah Crooke&mdash;John Banister&rsquo;s Book&mdash;Juan Valverde di Hamusco&rsquo;s work on Anatomy&mdash;Best editions of the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;.</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c15">THE COURT PHYSICIAN</a> 130-132</dt>
-<dd>Vesalius is appointed Archiatrus to Charles the Fifth&mdash;He follows the Emperor in his Journeys&mdash;Abdication of Charles&mdash;Vesalius is appointed Archiatrus to Philip the Second.</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c16">PILGRIMAGE AND DEATH</a> 133-136</dt>
-<dd>Vesalius leaves Madrid&mdash;He visits Venice, then goes to Cyprus, and passes on to Jerusalem&mdash;Reason for the Pilgrimage&mdash;Death of Vesalius.</dd>
-</dl>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_f015.jpg" alt="Ornamental block" width="500" height="360" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_XV">XV</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_f016.jpg" alt="Ornamental block" width="500" height="73" />
-</div>
-<h2><span class="small"><span class="large">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</span></span></h2>
-<dl class="toc">
-<dt><a href="#fig1">Andreas Vesalius&mdash;from the &ldquo;Epitome&rdquo;, 1543</a> Frontispiece</dt>
-<dt class="small">PAGE</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig2">Andreas Vesalius&mdash;van Kalker p.; I. Troijen s.&mdash;from an old copperplate engraving</a> XVIII.</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig3">Initial Letter&mdash;from the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543</a> 16</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig4">Hippocrates</a> 17</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig5">Aristotle</a> 19</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig6">Alexander the Great</a> 20</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig7">Ptolemy Soter</a> 21</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig8">Galen</a> 24</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig9">Mondino&rsquo;s Diagram of the Heart</a> 31</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig10">Anatomical Demonstration in 1493</a> 33</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig11">Title-page of Mondino&rsquo;s Anatomy by Melerstat</a> 34</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig12">Colophon of the Anatomy of Mondino</a> 36</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig13">Anatomical Plate by Ricardus Hela, 1493</a> 38</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig14">Peyligk&rsquo;s Diagram of the Heart, 1499</a> 39</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig15">Anatomical Figure from Magnus Hundt, 1501</a> 40</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig16">Anatomical Figure from Laurentius Phryesen, 1518</a> 41</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig17">Alexander Achillinus</a> 42</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig18">Dissection by Berengario, 1535</a> 43</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig19">Skeleton by Berengario, 1523</a> 44</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig20">Muscles by Berengario, 1521</a> 45</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig21">Muscles by Berengario, 1521</a> 46</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig22">Dryander</a> 47</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig23">Anatomical Figure by Estienne, 1545</a> 48</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig24">Skeleton by Estienne, 1545</a> 49</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig25">Skull by Dryander, 1541</a> 51</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig26">The Old University of Louvain</a> 54</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig27">Sylvius</a> 57</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig28">Winter of Andernach</a> 62</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig29">Jean Fernel</a> 64</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig30">Ramus</a> 66</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig31">Vivisection of a Pig&mdash;from the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543</a> 69</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig32">Instruments used in Dissection&mdash;from the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543</a> 74</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig33">Initial Letter&mdash;from the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543</a> 80</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig34">View of the City of Basel in the Sixteenth Century</a> 83</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig35">Joannes Oporinus</a> 85</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig36">Mark of Oporinus&mdash;from the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543</a> 86</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig37">Jan Stephan van Calcar&mdash;from Sandrart&rsquo;s &ldquo;Teutsche Academie&rdquo;, 1685</a> 88</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig38">Second Vesalian Plate of the Muscles&mdash;from the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543</a> 90</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig39">Ninth Vesalian Plate of the Muscles&mdash;from the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543</a> 92</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig40">A Human Skull resting on the Skull of a Dog&mdash;from the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543</a> 94</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig41">Title-page of Vesalius&rsquo;s &ldquo;Epitome&rdquo;, 1543</a> 96</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig42">Skeleton by Vesalius&mdash;from the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543</a> 98</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig43">Fifth Vesalian Plate of the Muscles&mdash;from the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543</a> 100</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig44">Deep Muscles of the Back by Vesalius&mdash;from the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543</a> 102</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig45">Part of the First Text-page of the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543</a> 103</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig46">Plate of the Arterial Tree by Vesalius&mdash;from the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543</a> 104</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig47">Dissection of the Abdomen by Vesalius&mdash;from the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543</a> 106</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig48">Dissection of the Heart by Vesalius&mdash;from the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543</a> 107</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig49">Initial Letter&mdash;from the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543</a> 113</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig50">Brain and Nerves by Eustachius</a> 116</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig51">Muscles by Eustachius</a> 117</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig52">Title-page of Columbus&rsquo;s Anatomy</a> 120</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig53">Gabriel Fallopius</a> 122</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig54">Ingrassias</a> 125</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig55">Charles the Fifth</a> 131</dt>
-<dt><a href="#fig56">Philip the Second</a> 133</dt>
-</dl>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_f017.jpg" alt="Ornamental block" width="500" height="71" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_XVII">XVII</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig2">
-<img src="images/p_f018.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="1171" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>I. van Kalker p.<span class="hst"> I. Tro&yuml;en s.</span></i>
-<br />ANDREAS VESALIUS
-<br />(From an old copperplate engraving)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_1">1</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p001.jpg" alt="Ornamental block" width="500" height="114" />
-</div>
-<h2 id="c1"><span class="small"><span class="large">INTRODUCTION</span></span></h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p001a.jpg" alt="Illuminated capital" width="150" height="144" />
-</div>
-<p>The intelligent student of
-medical history has at his command
-an unfailing source of pleasure. To
-learn the successive steps by which
-Medicine has advanced from a priest-ridden
-and secret art practiced with
-mysterious rites in the Greek temples,
-passing through the schools of Greek philosophy into the
-light of publicity, is his privilege. To hunt through
-musty and worm-eaten volumes for facts regarding the
-great physicians of antiquity is his delight; and to communicate
-the knowledge thus obtained to others, who
-have not the time or the facilities for such research, is his
-duty. In every period are events and incidents of interest,
-but to the Middle Ages a peculiar fascination attaches;
-for it was during this period that Europe, emerging from
-an intellectual darkness of ten centuries&rsquo; duration, awoke
-to the Renaissance, and Medicine, as ever has been the
-case, kept pace with the general advance of knowledge.</p>
-<p>The present book deals with the life of a master
-whose work was an essential factor in the evolution of
-the Anatomical Renaissance. In order to understand the
-New Birth of Anatomy it is necessary to know something
-of the scope and influence of the General Renaissance.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_2">2</div>
-<h3>The General Renaissance</h3>
-<p>This, the Revival of Learning, includes an indefinite
-time in European history. The seeds of the new movement
-were planted in the Middle Ages, but they bore no
-fruit until the time had arrived for an apparently &ldquo;spontaneous
-outburst of intelligence&rdquo;. Definitions of the
-Renaissance will vary with the point of view. Artists and
-sculptors will say it was a revolution which was created
-by the recovery of ancient statues; litt&eacute;rateurs and philosophers
-look upon it as a radical change due to the discovery
-of the writings of the classical authors; astronomers
-and physicists will cite the names of Copernicus, Galileo,
-and Torricelli; geographers will point to the discovery of
-a New Continent; historians will name the extinction of
-feudalism and the capture of Constantinople by the Turks;
-inventors will recall the changed conditions of warfare
-brought about by gunpowder, the multiplication of books
-by the invention of printing, and the advent of new methods
-of engraving; and anatomists will sound the praises
-of Leonardo da Vinci and of Andreas Vesalius. All will
-agree that the Renaissance meant Revolution&mdash;revolution
-in thought, in conduct, in creed, and in conditions of
-existence. To no one fact can the Renaissance be attributed;
-nor can its scope be limited to any one field of human
-endeavor. The Renaissance was, and is, and will
-continue to be, as long as the race progresses.</p>
-<p>The new movement began in Italy and grew rapidly.
-When, toward the end of the sixteenth century, the lamp
-of learning began to get dim in Italy, it was relighted by
-<span class="pb" id="Page_3">3</span>
-the nations of northern Europe&mdash;the Germans, the Hollanders,
-and the English&mdash;and by them was transferred to
-us. The Revival consisted largely in the recovery of the
-buried writings of the ancient Greek and Roman authors,
-together with comments on what they had written, and
-the production of books which were modeled after their
-works. But it was broader than this. It included all
-branches of learning, although more progress was made
-in some lines than in others.</p>
-<p>Italy, a country divided into numerous small States,
-and so-called Republics, offered great opportunities for
-individual development and became famous in those paths
-in which individualism has gained its greatest triumphs.
-Thus in literature, in law, in medicine, in painting and in
-sculpture, the Italians were pre&euml;minent. In architecture
-and in the drama they reached no such heights as were
-attained by the French, the Germans and the English. It
-was in the northwest part of Italy, in the province of
-Tuscany, that the Renaissance gained its greatest victories.
-Among the earliest of the leaders of the New Learning
-was the Florentine poet, Dante Alighieri (1265-1321).
-&ldquo;To Dante&rdquo;, says Symonds, &ldquo;in a truer sense than to any
-other poet, belongs the double glory of immortalising in
-verse the centuries behind him, while he inaugurated the
-new age&rdquo;. His <i>Vita Nuova</i> (New Life) and <i>Divina Commedia</i>
-(Divine Comedy) are essentially modern in thought,
-but ancient in the manner in which the thought is expressed.</p>
-<p>Petrarch may be said to fairly open the new era.
-Like Dante, he was a Florentine. He was the apostle of
-<span class="pb" id="Page_4">4</span>
-Humanism, that system of philosophy which regarded
-man &ldquo;as a rational being apart from theological determinations&rdquo;
-and perceived that &ldquo;classic literature alone
-displayed human nature in the plenitude of intellectual
-and moral freedom&rdquo;. To a revolt against the despotism
-of the Church, it added the attempt to unify all that had
-been taught and done by man. Petrarch was a poet, a
-lawyer, an orator, a priest, and a philosopher. He lived
-between the years 1304-1374. He was a great traveler,
-and visited the leading continental cities in order to converse
-with learned men. Petrarch delighted in the study
-of Cicero, in collecting manuscripts, and in accumulating
-coins and inscriptions for historic purposes. He advocated
-public libraries and preached the duty of preserving
-ancient monuments. He opposed the physicians and
-astrologers of his day, and ridiculed the followers of
-Averr&ouml;es.</p>
-<p>Boccaccio, who has been called the Father of Italian
-Prose, and is most widely known as the author of the
-<i>Decameron</i>, did not spend all of his time in describing
-the escapades of the knights and ladies of old. Influenced
-potently by Petrarch, Boccaccio regretted the years he
-had wasted in law and trade, when he should have been
-reading the classics. Late in life he began the study of
-Greek that he might read the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i>.
-What he lacked in genuine scholarship he made up in
-industry. He continued the work begun by Petrarch of
-hunting for lost manuscripts of the ancient Greek and
-Roman authors. Many of these precious documents
-were stored in the conventual libraries, where, too often,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_5">5</span>
-they were either wantonly destroyed or were mutilated,
-the words of the author being erased from the parchment
-to make way for new prayers. Boccaccio tells of a visit
-which he made to the Benedictine Monastery of Monte
-Cassino near the city of Salernum. He wished to see the
-books and found them in a room without door or key.
-Many of them were mutilated. On making inquiry as to
-the cause, the monks answered that they had sold some of
-the sheets, having first erased the original words, replacing
-them with psalters. The margins of the old pages were
-made into charms and were sold to women.</p>
-<p>It was owing to the unselfish labors of such men as
-Petrarch and Boccaccio that the works of Livy, Cicero,
-Quintilian, Terence, and others of the ancient authors,
-were preserved. In this enterprise they were encouraged
-by the rulers. Thus Cosimo de&rsquo; Medici in Florence,
-Alfonso the Magnanimous in Naples, and Nicholas V. in
-Rome, to say nothing of the despots of the smaller cities,
-rivaled one another in their zeal in unearthing and multiplying
-the manuscripts of the ancient writers. They
-spared neither time nor money to increase their store of
-manuscript books. They surrounded themselves with
-learned men who lived in high esteem, and who were
-supported by salaries paid by the State or by private
-pensions.</p>
-<p>The fifteenth century, which was one of the most
-remarkable epochs in history, was rich in accomplishment.
-Almost all of the great events which have influenced
-European commercial and intellectual development
-can be traced to that period. The invention of printing,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_6">6</span>
-the discovery of America, the fall of the Roman Empire
-in the East, the birth of the Reformation, and the rise of
-art in Italy, all belong to this wonderful century. In this
-period, when almost every city in Italy was a new Athens,
-the Italian poets, historians, and artists vied with the eminent
-men of the ancient world in carrying the lamp of
-learning. The Italian cities&mdash;Florence, Bologna, Milan,
-Venice, Rome and Ferrara&mdash;fought with one another, not
-for the spoils of the battlefield but for the victories of
-science and of art; not so much for the profits of commerce
-as for the wealth of genius and of learning. The
-intellectual development which occurred in northern
-Italy under the rule of the house of Medici, and particularly
-under the auspices of Lorenzo the Magnificent,
-forms one of the most interesting periods in European
-history.</p>
-<p>It is impossible in the present work to trace the steps
-by which the exquisite taste of the ancients in works of art
-was revived in modern times. Nevertheless, a few words
-may be devoted to this subject. While much must be credited
-to those Greek artists who had left their country and
-had settled in the Italian peninsula, it must be conceded
-that many of the works of art of the native Italians were
-not the less meritorious. The same circumstances which
-favored the revival of letters, operated to further the cause
-of art; and the same individuals, who were interested in the
-preservation of the manuscripts of the older authors, also
-busied themselves with the collection of ancient statues,
-paintings, gems and tapestry. The freedom of the Italian
-Republics permitted the minds of men to expand to full
-<span class="pb" id="Page_7">7</span>
-fruition; and the encouragement which was given by its
-rulers to artists, sculptors and artisans, made the city of
-Florence, in the fifteenth century, a not less renowned
-centre of culture than Athens had been in ancient times.</p>
-<p>The revival of art dates from the time of Cimabue
-(1240-1300) and Giotto (1276-1336). The former is known
-as the Father of Modern Painters; the latter constructed
-the Campanile at Florence. To Giovanni Cimabue, scion
-of a noble Florentine family, is usually given the credit of
-being the restorer of art in Italy. He is thought to have
-been the first painter to throw expression into the human
-countenance. His work, if judged by present standards,
-would be called crude, rude and incomplete. Much of
-the fame of this painter is to be attributed to his being
-the first person whom Vasari chronicled in his <i>Lives of
-the Painters</i>. For more than a century after the time of
-Cimabue and Giotto, painters displayed only a smattering
-of anatomical knowledge.</p>
-<p>Early in the fifteenth century two Flemish artists,
-Hubert van Eyck (1365-1426) and his brother John (1385-1441),
-in their polyptych of the Adoration of the Lamb,
-boldly struck out along new lines and committed the unheard-of
-deed of painting nude figures. Italy, however,
-was the real birthplace of Art-Anatomy. While the
-Flemings and others of the North painted everything that
-they saw, including the nude, the Italians were the first
-men of the Renaissance who thought of painting the nude
-figure before draping it. Leo Battista Alberti (1404-1472),
-in his works on painting, insists that the bony
-skeleton must first be drawn and then clothed with its
-<span class="pb" id="Page_8">8</span>
-muscles and flesh. This was an important step in advance,
-since it shows that the Florentine artists were progressing
-towards realism and were breaking away from
-the symbolism of the early Christian painters and mosaic-workers.
-The new movement in art found a worthy
-champion in Antonio Pollaiuolo (1432-1498). In his
-knowledge of the anatomy of the human figure he surpassed
-all of the artists of his day; and as a result of his
-labors he may justly be named the founder of the scientific
-study of the nude. His knowledge of anatomy was
-so accurate, and so extensive, that it could have been
-gained only in the dissecting room.</p>
-<p>Under the patronage of Lorenzo de&rsquo; Medici and the
-guiding mind of Pollaiuolo, there occurred a revival of
-pseudo-paganism in Art. The old Church subjects were
-largely neglected; mythological subjects again became
-the fashion; draperies were either modified or were laid
-aside; and the scientific study of anatomy, both as regards
-the nude figure and the dissection of the individual parts,
-became the necessary training of the student. Of all the
-masters of this period, the palm for excellence in drawing
-the naked figure must be awarded to Luca Signorelli
-(1442-1524), from whose work Michael Angelo is known
-to have profited.</p>
-<p>The alliance between skilled anatomists and master
-artists was of reciprocal benefit. The anatomical studies
-which were made conjointly by Leonardo da Vinci and
-the celebrated teacher of anatomy, Marc Antonio della
-Torre, were lost to the world by the untimely death of
-the latter, before he had finished a magnificent treatise
-<span class="pb" id="Page_9">9</span>
-on human anatomy. Leonardo&rsquo;s anatomical sketches, if
-they had been published during his lifetime, would have
-revolutionized anatomy both as regards discoveries in the
-body and the teaching of the structure of man. These
-masterpieces of anatomical illustration long remained
-hidden from the world; they were published only in the
-year 1902. Even now their cost is so great that only a
-few wealthy libraries can possess them. Leonardo&rsquo;s long
-unpublished drawings show him to have been a most accurate
-anatomist. At the same time, he constantly kept
-in view the aim of fine art, which, in so far as practical
-anatomy is concerned, needs a knowledge of only the
-bones and the muscles.</p>
-<p>Nor was Leonardo the only artist who made dissections.
-Raffaello Santi, Michael Angelo, Bartholomaus
-Torre, Luigi Cardi or Civoli, Jan Stephan van Calcar,
-Giuseppe Ribera, Arnold Myntens, and Pietro da Cortona
-studied practical anatomy. Rubens&rsquo;s long-lost sketch-book<a class="fn" id="fr_1" href="#fn_1">[1]</a>,
-which was published one hundred and thirty-three
-years after his death, shows with what care he had studied
-human anatomy. Albrecht D&uuml;rer&rsquo;s <i>Treatise on the Proportions
-of the Human Body</i> is also worthy of mention.</p>
-<p>In the number and fame of her Universities, Italy showed
-supremacy. At the end of the fifteenth century she
-could boast of sixteen seats of learning, a number equal
-to that of the combined institutions of Britain, France,
-Germany, Hungary, Bohemia and Bavaria.</p>
-<p>This digression has led us away from the Humanists.
-Their list is a long one. Among them were Poggio
-<span class="pb" id="Page_10">10</span>
-Bracciolini, who discovered the manuscript of the <i>Institutions</i>
-of Quintilian and the writings of Vitruvius; Poliziano,
-the first poet of the fifteenth century, and the translator
-of the works of Hippocrates and Galen; Pontanus,
-whose <i>De Stellis</i> and <i>Urania</i> were much admired by
-Italian scholars; Sannazzaro, whose epic on the birth of
-Christ cost him twenty years of labor; Vida, whose <i>Christiad</i>
-and other poems were much admired; and Fracastoro,
-whose <i>Syphilis</i> was hailed as a divine poem.</p>
-<p>From the viewpoint of the medical historian an important
-event occurred in the year 1443, when Thomas
-of Sarzana, later known as Pope Nicholas V., discovered
-a manuscript copy of the <i>De Medicina</i> of Aulus Cornelius
-Celsus. This classic, which had been lost for many centuries,
-was one of the first medical books to pass through
-the press. It gave physicians an insight into Hippocratic
-medicine without the disadvantage of an imperfect translation.
-Physicians took an active part in the Renaissance.
-Thus Nicholas Leonicenus, of Ferrara, translated the
-<i>Aphorisms</i> of Hippocrates and the <i>Natural History</i> of
-Pliny; and Winter of Andernach did similar labor for
-the writings of Galen, Alexander, and Paulus Aegineta.
-Their efforts seem insignificant in comparison with those
-of Anutius Foesius, a humble practitioner of Metz, who
-spent forty years of his life in preparing a complete Greek
-edition of the works of Hippocrates. The New Learning
-was brought to England by two physicians, Thomas
-Linacre and John Kaye (Caius).</p>
-<p>Some of the Humanists were printers. The history of
-printing in Italy naturally forms a part of the history of
-<span class="pb" id="Page_11">11</span>
-the Renaissance. In 1462, Maintz was pillaged by Adolph
-of Nassau and its printers were scattered over Europe.
-Two of them wandered into Italy, living in a village in the
-Sabine mountains, where, in October, 1465, the first book
-was printed from an Italian press. It was a Latin edition
-of Lactantius. Six years later a press was established in
-Florence. In 1478, Mondino&rsquo;s <i>Anathomia</i> was printed in
-Pavia. It has been estimated that before the first year of
-the sixteenth century, five thousand books had been printed
-in Italy. In those days the editions were small, 265
-copies being considered one edition. An immense amount
-of labor was required to get out a new edition. First, the
-manuscripts of the ancient author had to be collected,
-compared and corrected, this work being done by learned
-men who resided in the home of the publisher. The corrections
-were made without the aid of dictionaries, grammars,
-or book-helps of any kind. The proof was read
-aloud to the assembled scholars and the final corrections
-were added. In time, Venice came to be the most noted
-of the Italian cities in the publishing business, owing
-chiefly to the family of Aldo. This family of printers became
-famous for finely printed Greek and Latin books,
-which are still called Aldine editions. Nine years after
-the printing of the first book in Italy, the art was practiced
-in England by Caxton.</p>
-<p>Humanism in Italy began to decline toward the close
-of the fifteenth century. Long before this time it had
-degenerated into Paganism. The scholars influenced
-all life, customs and thought. Although the nation remained
-Catholic, it was such only in name. Everyone
-<span class="pb" id="Page_12">12</span>
-bowed before the shrine of classical literature. Even in
-the christening of children the Christian name was sacrificed
-to paganism. The saints were forgotten, and the
-names most frequently chosen were those from heathen
-mythology. The polite authors described scenes, events
-and actions in their writings in terms which long since
-have been banished from good society. A spade was
-called by its true name. Bembo, the secretary of Leo X.,
-could write a hymn to Saint Stephen or a monologue for
-Priapus with equal ease and elegance. The amours of the
-high and the low were flaunted in print. The nation degenerated
-into an intellectual and sensual state which involved
-even the Popes. Scholars and rich men alike vied
-with one another in returning to those pursuits, habits,
-and methods of thought which had ruled ancient Rome
-in her most corrupt days.</p>
-<p>Such a condition could not exist forever. The turning-point
-came in 1527, when Charles the Fifth, engaging in
-war with Pope Clement VII., captured and sacked the
-city of Rome. After that event everything was changed.
-Not only had the scholars lost their influence, but many
-of them had lost their lives. Valeriano, who returned to
-Rome after the siege, pathetically exclaims: &ldquo;Good God!
-when first I began to enquire for the philosophers, orators,
-poets and professors of Greek and Latin literature, whose
-names were written on my tablets, how great, how horrible
-a tragedy was offered to me! Of all those lettered
-men whom I had hoped to see, how many had perished
-miserably, carried off by the most cruel of all fates, overwhelmed
-by undeserved calamities; some dead of plague,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_13">13</span>
-some brought to a slow end by penury in exile, others
-slaughtered by a foeman&rsquo;s sword, others worn out by daily
-tortures; some, again, and these of all the most unhappy,
-driven by anguish to self-murder&rdquo;. Such was the end of
-the men who made the Italian Renaissance. The Spaniards,
-the Inquisition, and the changed policy of the
-Church prevented a second revival of Humanism.</p>
-<p>While the sack of Rome marks the end of the Humanists,
-the Revival in Medicine continued to grow in vigor and
-extent. Many of the greatest discoveries in anatomy were
-made, and most of the important books on this subject were
-written, in the middle and latter part of the sixteenth century.
-Italian history is rich in contradictions. While peace,
-ease and comfort are generally considered to be necessary
-to the development of science and culture, Italy offers
-the strange spectacle of the steady increase in medical
-knowledge in spite of wars and alarms. The Inquisition,
-which had been introduced from Spain in 1224, was given
-a new and horrible impetus when, in 1540, Paul III. appointed
-six cardinals to add to its tortures. One of them,
-Caraffa, became Pope Paul IV. in 1555, and four years
-later originated the <i>Index Expurgatorius</i>. Torn by civil
-and foreign wars, and terrorized by the Inquisition, which
-was not abolished until late in the eighteenth century,
-Italy gradually lost her commercial and intellectual supremacy.
-That she should have accomplished so much
-under such unfavorable circumstances, is now a matter
-of wonderment.</p>
-<p>The origin of the Renaissance in Italy was due to
-many causes. The early Roman civilization was not entirely
-<span class="pb" id="Page_14">14</span>
-blotted out by the invasion of the barbarians of the
-North. And in the matter of language the Italians possessed
-an advantage, since the transition from Latin to
-Italian was easier than from Latin to Spanish, French,
-English or German. The fertility of the country; the
-mildness of the climate; the division into semi-independent
-states; the infusion of new northern blood into the
-veins of the Italians; the removal of the papal court to
-Avignon in 1309; and the gradual rise of a powerful middle
-class, whose members included the devotees of the
-professions of law and medicine, were factors which determined
-that Italy, rather than France or Spain, should
-be the field for the Revival of Letters.</p>
-<p>To Italy, then, belongs the glory of having been the
-first to free herself from the trammels of ancient scholasticism
-and the fetters of mediaeval theology. She abandoned
-the wordy dialectics and metaphysical gymnastics
-of the philosophers of old. In place of mortification,
-penance and solitary confinement in cloistered monasteries
-and convents, she began to have a proper conception
-of the dignity of man and his relation to nature.</p>
-<p>Italy, in the time of her freedom, received the torch
-of learning from Greece; Italy revived its brilliancy, and,
-when her time of adversity and ruin arrived, she passed it
-on to the nations of Northern Europe. They in turn
-have transferred it to America, to Australia, to India, and
-to the uttermost parts of the earth.</p>
-<h3>The Anatomical Renaissance</h3>
-<p>Italy in the sixteenth century was the fount from which
-issued a ceaseless stream of anatomical discoveries. The
-<span class="pb" id="Page_15">15</span>
-ancient and illustrious Universities of Bologna, Pavia,
-Padua, Pisa and Rome, eclipsed the schools of Paris and
-Montpellier, of Toulouse and Salamanca; and the Italian
-peninsula, which, in early mediaeval times, had gloried in
-the skill of the physicians of Salernum, a second time became
-the medical centre of Europe. Vesalius and his
-pupil, Fallopius, taught at Padua; the ancient fame of
-Bologna was supported by Arantius and Varolius; Vidius,
-returned from establishing the anatomical school at Paris,
-taught at Pisa; Eustachius was at Rome, Ingrassias lectured
-at Naples, and the fame of the New Anatomy spread
-throughout the world. The Italian cities were filled with
-students from foreign lands. Padua had more than one
-thousand new students every year, salaries were paid to
-her one hundred professors, and medicine was looked
-upon as a noble profession.</p>
-<p>While the Italians were the leaders in progress, the
-Germans were still lecturing on Galen and Avicenna, the
-English had done almost nothing, and the Coll&eacute;ge de
-France was not established until 1530.</p>
-<p>Legalized by imperial authority and sanctioned by the
-Church, dissection was no longer regarded as a crime. A
-bull by Pope Boniface VIII., issued in the year 1300, forbidding
-the evisceration of the dead and the boiling of
-their bodies to secure the bones for consecrated ground,
-as was done by the Crusaders, was wrongly interpreted as
-forbidding anatomical dissection. Two centuries later the
-Popes, standing in the vanguard of science, permitted dissections
-to be made in all the Italian medical schools,
-and paved the way for the Anatomical Renaissance.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_16">16</div>
-<p>Great things were done in the sixteenth century. Under
-the scalpel and pen of Vesalius, anatomy was revolutionized.
-Surgery was guided into new paths by Ambroise
-Par&eacute;; and obstetrics, thanks to the labors of Eucharius
-Rhodion and Jacques Guillemeau, began to assume its
-legitimate place among the medical sciences. Servetus,
-visionary and argumentative, correctly described the pulmonary
-circulation in a theological work which was burned
-with its author. Eustachius, Columbus and Fallopius
-widened the path which had been blazed by Vesalius.
-Arantius, Caesalpinus and Fabricius added materially to
-anatomical science. The labors of all these great masters
-prepared the way for the greatest event occurring in the
-seventeenth century, namely, William Harvey&rsquo;s discovery
-of the circulatory movement of the blood.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig3">
-<img src="images/p_p016.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="612" />
-<p class="pcap">INITIAL LETTER BY VESALIUS
-<br />(From the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_17">17</div>
-<h2 id="c2"><span class="small">CHAPTER FIRST</span>
-<br />Anatomy in Ancient Times</h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p017.jpg" alt="Illuminated capital" width="150" height="154" />
-</div>
-<p>Egypt and Greece were the
-sources of the medical learning of the
-ancient world. Although the Egyptians
-and early Greeks possessed a certain
-amount of anatomical knowledge,
-which was gained in the one instance
-by the practice of embalming and in
-the other by an examination of the bones, no real progress
-could be made because of the laws, customs and prejudices
-of those ancient peoples. Thus we find the Egyptians
-stoning the operator who opened the abdomen in
-order that the body might be embalmed; and the Greeks
-inflicted the death penalty on those of their generals who,
-after a battle, neglected to bury or burn the remains of
-the slain.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig4">
-<img src="images/p_p017a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="594" />
-<p class="pcap">HIPPOCRATES</p>
-</div>
-<p>In the time of Hippocrates,
-whose life extended
-approximately over the period
-between 460-377 B.C.,
-Greek medicine emerged
-from the domination of the
-Asclepiadae, or priests of
-Aesculapius, who had followed
-it as an hereditary
-and secret art. Prior to this
-time in the numerous Asclepia,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_18">18</span>
-or Temples of Aesculapius, votive offerings had
-been accepted, some of which were of anatomical interest.
-Thus the Temple at Athens received a silver heart and
-gold eyes. Pausanias states that Hippocrates gave to the
-Temple of Apollo, at Delphos, a skeleton which was
-made of brass. Possibly, as Moehsen<a class="fn" id="fr_2" href="#fn_2">[2]</a> believes, this was
-a metallic figure representing a man who was much emaciated
-by the ravages of disease. In the Hippocratic
-writings, some of which are undoubtedly spurious, are few
-references to the opening of a dead body; and these examinations
-concern the investigation of the thorax and
-abdomen in order to determine the cause of death. While
-the Greek physicians knew little of the human muscles,
-of the nervous system and of the organs of sense, they
-were well acquainted with the anatomy of the bones.
-Their dissections were held upon the lower animals.</p>
-<p>It is impossible to determine whether or not the Greek
-physicians of the Hippocratic period dissected the human
-body. &ldquo;It has long been a matter of debate&rdquo;, says John
-Bell<a class="fn" id="fr_3" href="#fn_3">[3]</a>, &ldquo;whether the ancients were, or were not, acquainted
-with anatomy, and the subject, with its various bearings,
-has been much and keenly agitated by the learned.
-If anatomy had been much known to the ancients, their
-knowledge would not have remained a subject of speculation.
-We should have had evidence of it in their works;
-but, on the contrary, we find Hippocrates spending his
-time in idle prognostics, and dissecting apes, to discover
-the seat of the bile.&rdquo;</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_19">19</div>
-<p>Galen<a class="fn" id="fr_4" href="#fn_4">[4]</a> states that the ancient physicians did not write
-works on anatomy; that such treatises were at that time
-unnecessary, because the Asclepiadae&mdash;to which family
-Hippocrates belonged&mdash;secretly
-instructed their
-young men in this subject;
-and that opportunities were
-given for such study in the
-temples of Aesculapius.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig5">
-<img src="images/p_p019.jpg" alt="" width="434" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">ARISTOTLE</p>
-</div>
-<p>The first systematic dissections
-seem to have been
-made by the Pythagorean
-philosopher Alcmaeon,
-who lived in the sixth century
-B. C., but it is uncertain whether he dissected brutes
-or men. The cochlea of the ear and the amnios of the
-foetus were named by Empedocles of Agrigentum, in the
-fifth century B. C. The nerves were first distinguished
-from the tendons by Aristotle, (384-322 B. C.), the most
-celebrated zo&ouml;tomist of antiquity, who has been called
-the Father of Comparative Anatomy. For twenty centuries
-his views of natural phenomena were held in high
-esteem.</p>
-<p>For a long period the early inhabitants of Rome were
-practically without physicians. During severe epidemics
-they had recourse to oracles, to the health deities of the
-Greeks, and to their native gods. As early as the fifth
-century B. C., during a pestilence, a temple was erected
-to Apollo as Healer. The worship of Aesculapius was
-<span class="pb" id="Page_20">20</span>
-introduced into Rome in the year 291 B. C. Livy relates
-that the god of medicine in the guise of a serpent was
-transported from Epidaurus, in Greece, to the Isle of the
-Tiber where a temple was built in his honor.</p>
-<p>The Romans, like the Greeks, were accustomed to
-leave votive offerings, or donaria, in their temples. Such
-gifts included surgical instruments, pharmaceutical appliances,
-painted tablets representing miraculous cures, and
-great numbers of images of various parts of the human
-frame shaped in metal, stone or terra-cotta. Among the
-remains of Roman anatomical art is the marble figure
-which was unearthed in the villa of Antonius Musa, the
-favorite physician of the Emperor Augustus. It is a human
-torso; the front of the chest and abdomen has been
-removed so as to expose the
-viscera. The heart is placed
-vertically in the middle
-of the thorax, thus corresponding
-to the position of
-this organ as described by
-Galen who made his dissections
-on apes. It is a
-human thorax with simian
-contents. The figure is
-supposed to have been constructed
-for the purposes of a teacher of anatomy.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig6">
-<img src="images/p_p020.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="590" />
-<p class="pcap">ALEXANDER THE GREAT</p>
-</div>
-<p>It was in the famous Alexandrian University that human
-anatomy was first studied systematically and legally.</p>
-<p>Alexander the Great, after the fall of Tyre (332 B. C.)
-and the siege of Gaza, ordered his fleet to sail up the Nile
-<span class="pb" id="Page_21">21</span>
-as far as Memphis while he proceeded overland with the
-army. It was probably on this march, while viewing the
-pyramids and other marvelous works of the ancient
-Egyptians, that he conceived the grand idea of founding
-a city upon the banks of the Nile, which should be a model
-of architectural beauty, a centre of intellectual life and
-a lasting monument of his own greatness and magnificence.
-The foundation of Alexandria was laid by the
-warrior whose name it bears; but the credit of instituting
-the Library belongs to one of his lieutenants, Ptolemy
-Soter.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig7">
-<img src="images/p_p021.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="593" />
-<p class="pcap">PTOLEMY SOTER</p>
-</div>
-<p>The new city which for centuries was the intellectual
-and commercial storehouse of Europe, Africa and India,
-was of oblong form. Lake
-Mareotis washed its walls
-on the south, while the
-Mediterranean bathed its
-ramparts on the north. Provided
-with broad streets,
-it was adorned with magnificent
-houses, temples
-and public buildings. At
-the centre of the city was
-the Mausoleum in which
-was deposited the body of Alexander, embalmed after the
-manner of the Egyptians. Alexandria was divided into
-three parts: the <i>Regio Judaeorum</i> or Jews&rsquo; quarter, in
-the northwest; the <i>Rhacotis</i>, or Egyptian section, on the
-west, containing the Serapeum with a large part of the
-Library; and on the north, the <i>Bruchaeum</i>, or Greek portion,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_22">22</span>
-containing the greater part of the Library, the Museum,
-the Temple of the Caesars and the Court of Justice.
-The population was cosmopolitan in character; the statues
-of the Greek gods stood by the side of those of Osiris
-and of Isis; the Jews forgot their language and spoke
-Greek; and under the Ptolemies, who were of Greek descent,
-Alexandria became a centre of intellectual life and
-culture.</p>
-<p>To the medical historian the most interesting feature
-of Alexandria was the Museum or University. Here were
-assembled the intellectual giants of the earth: Archimedes
-and Hero, the philosophers; Apelles, the painter;
-Hipparchus and Ptolemy, the astronomers; Euclid, the
-geometer; Eratosthenes and Strabo, the geographers;
-Manetho, the historian; Aristophanes, the rhetorician;
-Theocritus and Callimichus, the poets; and Erasistratus
-and Herophilus, the anatomists, all of whom labored in
-quiet upon the peaceful banks of the Nile. The early
-Christian church drew from &ldquo;the divine school at Alexandria&rdquo;
-such eminent teachers as Origen and Athanasius.
-Here were a chemical laboratory, a botanical and zo&ouml;logical
-garden, an astronomical observatory, a great library,
-and a room for the dissection of the dead.</p>
-<p>In the Alexandrian school of medicine Erasistratus
-and Herophilus taught the science of organization from
-actual dissections. The generosity of the Ptolemies not
-only furnished them with an abundance of dead material,
-but condemned malefactors were used for human vivisection.
-Celsus<a class="fn" id="fr_5" href="#fn_5">[5]</a> states that the Alexandrian anatomists obtained
-<span class="pb" id="Page_23">23</span>
-criminals, &ldquo;for dissection alive, and contemplated,
-even while they breathed, those parts which nature had
-before concealed.&rdquo;</p>
-<p>Herophilus made many anatomical discoveries. He
-traced the delicate arachnoid membrane into the ventricles
-of the brain, which he held to be the seat of the soul; and
-first described that junction of the six cerebral sinuses opposite
-the occipital protuberance, which to this day is
-called the <i>torcular Herophili</i>. He saw the lacteals, but
-knew not their use, and regarded the nerves as organs of
-sensation arising from the brain; he described the different
-tunics of the eye, giving them names which are still
-retained; and first named the duodenum and discovered
-the epididymis. He attributed the pulsation of arteries
-to the action of the heart; the paralysis of muscles to an
-affection of the nerves; and first named the furrow in the
-fourth cerebral ventricle, calling it <i>calamus scriptorius</i>.</p>
-<p>Erasistratus gave names to the auricles of the heart;
-declared that the veins were blood-vessels; and the arteries,
-from being found empty after death, were air-vessels.
-He believed that the purpose of respiration was to fill the
-arteries with air; the air distended the arteries, made them
-beat, and in this manner the pulse was produced. When
-once the air gained entrance to the left ventricle, it became
-the vital spirits. The function of the veins was to
-carry blood to the extremities. He is said to have had a
-vague idea of the division of nerves into nerves of sensation
-and of motion; to the former he assigned an origin
-in the membranes of the brain, while the latter proceeded
-from the cerebral substance itself. He recognized the
-<span class="pb" id="Page_24">24</span>
-use of the trachea as the tube which conveys air to the
-lungs. A catheter, the first invented, which was figured
-in ancient surgical works, bore the name of the catheter
-of Erasistratus. He gravely tells us, as the result of his
-anatomical studies, that the soul is located in the membranes
-of the brain.</p>
-<p>The practice of human dissection did not long exist
-in the city of its origin, and after the second century
-was unknown. Then science underwent a retrogression;
-observations and experiments were replaced by useless
-discussions and subtle theories. The decline of the Alexandrian
-University was due to a series of disasters which
-began with the Roman domination and reached their climax
-with the capture of the city by the Arabs.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig8">
-<img src="images/p_p024.jpg" alt="" width="487" height="640" />
-<p class="pcap">GALEN</p>
-</div>
-<p>Claudius Galenus, the celebrated
-Roman physician whose
-writings were for centuries accepted
-as authority and whose
-reputation was second only to
-that of Hippocrates, was obliged
-to base his anatomical treatises
-largely upon the dissection
-of the lower animals. He advised
-his pupils to visit Alexandria,
-where he had studied, in
-order that they might examine the human skeleton. He
-complained that the physicians of his time&mdash;in the reign
-of Marcus Aurelius&mdash;had entirely neglected anatomical
-knowledge and had degenerated into mere sophists. He
-appreciated the importance of anatomy, particularly to a
-<span class="pb" id="Page_25">25</span>
-surgeon who is called upon to treat wounds and injuries.
-Hence he has endeavored in the four books, <i>De Anatomicis
-Administrationibus</i>, to cover this part of anatomy
-as exhaustively as possible.</p>
-<p>Galen&rsquo;s voluminous writings form a precious monument
-of ancient medicine. The works of the Alexandrian
-anatomists having been destroyed, we know of their labors
-chiefly from what Galen has said of them. His treatises
-show a remarkable familiarity with practical anatomy, although
-his dissections were made upon the lower animals.
-Galen&rsquo;s knowledge of osteology was extensive. He described
-the bones of the skull, the cranial sutures, and the
-essential features of the malar, maxillary, ethmoid and
-sphenoid bones. He divided the vertebrae into cervical,
-dorsal and lumbar classes. He knew that both arteries
-and veins were blood-carrying vessels; he described the
-valves of the heart, and recognized this organ as the source
-of pulsation. He erroneously taught that the interventricular
-septum presents foramina through which the two
-kinds of blood become mixed.</p>
-<p>In myology Galen made numerous advances. &ldquo;Previous
-to his investigations&rdquo;, says Fisher<a class="fn" id="fr_6" href="#fn_6">[6]</a> &ldquo;much confusion
-existed as to what constituted a single muscle; he adopted
-the general rule of considering each bundle of fibers
-that terminates in an independent tendon to be one muscle.
-He was the first to describe and give names to the
-platysma myoides, the sterno- and thyro-hyoides, and the
-popliteal. He described the six muscles of the eye, two
-muscles of the eyelids, and four pairs of muscles of the
-<span class="pb" id="Page_26">26</span>
-lower jaw&mdash;the temporal to raise, the masseter to draw to
-one side, and two depressors, corresponding to the digastric
-and internal pterygoid muscles. He described also
-the brachialis anticus, the biceps flexor cubiti, the sphincter
-and levator ani, and the straight and oblique muscles
-of the abdomen. In short, he described the greater portion
-of the muscles of the body, his treatise differing
-chiefly from a modern one in the minute account of these
-organs and in the omission of some of the smaller muscles.&rdquo;
-Galen studied the brain and named the corpus
-callosum, the septum lucidum, the corpora quadrigemina
-and the fornix; but erroneously stated that the nerves of
-sensation arise from the brain, and those of motion from
-the spinal cord. He denied the decussation of the optic
-nerves. He described the pneumogastric and sympathetic
-nerves; seven pairs of cerebral and thirty pairs of spinal
-nerves; and claimed the discovery of the ganglia of
-the nervous system. He located the seat of the soul in
-the brain, which also is the source of the rational mind;
-the heart to him was the source of courage and of anger,
-and the liver was the seat of desire. Many of Galen&rsquo;s
-anatomical statements show that he derived his knowledge
-from comparative dissections.</p>
-<p>The Galenic era was followed by that long period of ignorance,
-of slumber and of inaction which is justly known
-as the Dark Ages. While a few Greek and Arab writers,
-who came after Galen, contributed to the literature of medicine
-and surgery, they did nothing for anatomy. After
-the end of the fifth century even the works of Galen were
-forgotten. At this period, when medicine was chiefly in
-<span class="pb" id="Page_27">27</span>
-the hands of the Jews, the Arabs and the bigoted clergy,
-nothing was done for science or for art. The whole influence
-of Christianity was exerted against the schools of
-philosophy. Illustrious apostles of the Church pronounced
-anathemas against the reading of the ancient classics;<a class="fn" id="fr_7" href="#fn_7">[7]</a>
-and eminent ecclesiastics regarded disease as a divine penalty
-or as an invaluable aid to saintly advancement. Art
-and anatomy were practically forgotten. Their Renaissance
-occurred almost simultaneously.</p>
-<p>During the period from the seventh to the fourteenth
-centuries the school of Salernum was for medicine what
-Bologna became for law and Paris for philosophy. Here,
-for eight hundred years, medicine was taught to thousands
-of students and the impress of the profession was so potent
-that the city called itself <i>Civitas Hippocratica</i>, and thus its
-seals were stamped. Here medical diplomas were first
-issued to waiting students who took a sacred oath to serve
-the poor without pay. Here with a book in his hand, a
-ring on his finger and a laurel wreath on his head, the
-candidate was kissed by each professor and was told to
-start upon his way. Here women were professors and
-vied with men in spreading the doctrines of our art.</p>
-<p>For a period of several hundred years anatomy was
-taught at Salernum from dissections made upon pigs.
-Copho, one of the Salernian professors of the early part
-of the twelfth century, wrote a treatise, <i>Anatomia Porci</i>,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_28">28</span>
-which gives minute directions regarding the manner in
-which the animal is to be dissected. Another anatomical
-work of later date, written by a member of the Salernian
-faculty, is entitled <i>Demonstratio Anatomica</i>; it also deals
-only with comparative anatomy. In the thirteenth century
-(A. D. 1231) Frederick II., Emperor of Germany and
-King of the Two Sicilies, and the author of a treatise
-which contained a complete anatomy of the falcon, decreed
-that a human body should be anatomized at Salernum
-at least once in five years. Physicians and surgeons
-of the kingdom were required to be present at the dissection.
-So far as is known, no record has been kept of
-these demonstrations. Creditable as was this anatomic
-decree, the great Hohenstaufen in other respects was not
-free from the errors of his age. A firm believer in <i>Medicina
-Astrologica</i>, he did not decide upon any undertaking
-until the stars had been consulted.</p>
-<p>It was not alone at Salernum that dissection was legalized
-in the thirteenth century. A document of the year
-1308, of the Maggiore Consiglio of Venice, shows that a
-medical college located in that city was authorized to dissect
-a body once a year. This, and other isolated examples,
-indicate that the time was approaching when anatomy
-should be taught from human dissections. The credit of
-reinaugurating the teaching of this useful department of
-science belongs to Mondino dei Luzzi of Bologna.</p>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p028.jpg" alt="Ornamental block" width="499" height="108" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_29">29</div>
-<h2 id="c3"><span class="small">CHAPTER SECOND</span>
-<br />Mondino, the Restorer of Anatomy</h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p029.jpg" alt="Illuminated capital" width="150" height="153" />
-</div>
-<p>In the year 1315, in the old
-Italian city of Bologna, an event occurred
-which marks an important epoch in
-the history of medicine. A wondering
-crowd of medical students witnessed
-the dissection of a human cadaver&mdash;one
-of the few procedures of the kind that
-had occurred since the fall of the Alexandrian University.
-Acting under royal authority Mondino, a man far in advance
-of the age, placed the body of a female upon a table
-where for many centuries before only the cadavera of apes,
-of swine and of dogs had been studied.</p>
-<p>Mondino, known also as Mundinus, Mundini, Raimondino,
-or Mondino dei Luzzi, was descended from a
-prominent Italian family. Little is known of his life. The
-year of his birth is disputed; probably 1276 was near the
-time. He was graduated in medicine in 1290 and in 1306
-he became a professor in the University of Bologna, holding
-his chair with credit until his death in 1326. Like
-that of the illustrious Homer, Mondino&rsquo;s nativity has been
-claimed by several rival cities. Guy de Chauliac, writing
-in 1363, states that Mondino was a Bolognese: <i>Mundinus
-Bononiensis</i> is Chauliac&rsquo;s expression.</p>
-<p>Mondino&rsquo;s method of teaching anatomy is known from
-Chauliac&rsquo;s testimony:&mdash;&ldquo;Mundinus of Bologna, wrote on
-anatomy, and my master, Bertruccius, demonstrated it
-<span class="pb" id="Page_30">30</span>
-many times in this manner:&mdash;The body having been placed
-on a table, he would make from it four readings; in the
-first the digestive organs were treated, because more prone
-to rapid decomposition; in the second, the organs of respiration;
-in the third, the organs of circulation; in the fourth
-the extremities were treated.&rdquo; The innovation so auspiciously
-begun was not continued, and after the death of Mondino
-human dissections were made only at long intervals.
-The few instances in which, in the fourteenth and fifteenth
-centuries, the ecclesiastical and civil authorities granted
-the right to make dissections only prove the contention,
-that the practical study of human anatomy did not gain
-recognition until the sixteenth century.</p>
-<p>When Mondino began his dissections the epoch of
-Saracen learning had ended, but the influence of Arab
-medicine exerted by the writings of Albucasis, Avicenna
-and Rhazes had not declined. The Arabian physicians
-had accomplished little for anatomy. In this line the influence
-of Galen was still potent, and was rarely questioned
-until the publication of the <i>Fabrica</i> of Vesalius in 1543.
-During a long period the little treatise of Mondino held
-full sway in the mediaeval schools. Medicine was taught
-in the University of Bologna, which as early as the twelfth
-century was celebrated for its departments of literature and
-of law. These studies were free of the difficulties which
-beset medicine. The prejudice against dissection was so
-great that for nearly a century after his death few men
-dared to repeat the acts of Mondino.</p>
-<p>In 1316 Mondino issued his book which remained in
-manuscript form for more than one hundred and fifty
-<span class="pb" id="Page_31">31</span>
-years, the first printed edition bearing the date 1478.
-Small and imperfect as it was, it marks an era in the history
-of science. By command of the authorities this book
-was read in all the Italian Universities. The work of
-Mondino contained no new facts; it was compiled largely
-from the writings of Galen and of Avicenna. The descriptions,
-to use the words of Turner, &ldquo;are corrupted by
-the barbarous leaven of the Arabian schools, and his Latin
-is defaced by the exotic nomenclature of Ibn-Sina and
-Al-Rasi&rdquo;. Mondino divided the body into three cavities,
-of which the upper contains the animal members, the
-lower the natural members, and the middle the spiritual
-members. Many of his names are borrowed from the
-Arab writers. Thus, he calls the peritoneum <i>siphac</i>, the
-omentum <i>zyrbi</i>, and the mesentery <i>eucharus</i>. His description
-of the heart is much nearer accuracy than would
-be expected. He resorted to vivisection, and tells us that
-when the recurrent nerves of the larynx are cut the animal&rsquo;s
-voice is lost. In his book we find the rudiments of
-phrenology. He states that the brain is divided into compartments,
-each of which holds one of the faculties of the
-intellect.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig9">
-<img src="images/p_p031.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="373" />
-<p class="pcap">MONDINO&rsquo;S DIAGRAM OF THE HEART, 1513</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_32">32</div>
-<p>Mondino did not himself make the dissections which
-are credited to him. According to an ancient custom
-which lasted until the time of Vesalius, the actual cutting
-was done by a barber who wielded a knife as large as a
-cleaver. The professor of anatomy sat upon an elevated
-seat and discoursed concerning the parts, while a demonstrator,
-who also did not soil his fingers, pointed to the
-different structures with a staff. Originally Mondino&rsquo;s
-book contained no figures; when the art of wood engraving
-was introduced in the latter part of the fifteenth century,
-a few rude woodcuts appeared which represent
-Mondino and his method of teaching. In the <i>Fasciculus
-Medicinae</i> of Joannes de Ketham, published at Venice in
-1493, Mondino&rsquo;s book is printed with an illustration
-showing a demonstration in anatomy.</p>
-<p>According to Mondino the heart is placed in the centre
-of the body. The valves he considers &ldquo;wonderful
-works of nature&rdquo;. He describes a right, left and middle
-ventricle. The right ventricle has thinner walls than the
-left, because it contains blood; the left one contains the
-vital spirit, which passes through the arteries to the body;
-and the middle ventricle consists of many small cavities
-&ldquo;broader on the right side than on the left, to the end
-that the blood, which comes to the left ventricle from the
-right, be refined, because its refinement is the preparation
-for the generation of vital spirit, which should be continually
-formed&rdquo;. Mondino describes five bones of the head,
-separated by three sutures&mdash;coronal, sagittal and occipital.
-The brain has two membranes: dura and pia. There are
-three cerebral ventricles&mdash;anterior, posterior and middle&mdash;and
-in these he locates the various intellectual qualities.
-He describes the cerebral nerves: olfactory, optic, motor
-oculi, facial, vagus, trigeminal, auditory and hypoglossal.
-He calls the innominate bone <i>os femoris</i>: the femur, <i>canna
-coxae</i>; the humerus,
-<i>os adjutori</i>; while
-the bones of both leg
-and forearm are named
-<i>focilia</i> major and
-minus.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_33">33</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig10">
-<img src="images/p_p033.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="1217" />
-<p class="pcap">ANATOMICAL DEMONSTRATION IN 1493
-<br />(Joannes de Ketham)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_34">34</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig11">
-<img src="images/p_p034.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="1312" />
-<p class="pcap">TITLE-PAGE OF MONDINO&rsquo;S ANATOMY
-BY MELERSTAT
-<br />(Printed before 1500)</p>
-</div>
-<p>Like many anatomists
-who succeeded
-him, Mondino mingled
-surgical ideas
-with his anatomical
-statements. A break
-in the <i>siphac</i> causes
-hernia and a swelling
-in the <i>mirach</i>.
-He treated ascites by
-puncture and evacuation,
-making a
-valve-like opening.
-Wounds of the large
-intestines must be
-sutured; if the wound
-be in the small intestines
-he advises that
-&ldquo;you should have large ants, and, making them bite
-the conjoined lips of the wound, decapitate them instantly,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_35">35</span>
-and continue until the lips remain in apposition and
-then reduce the gut as before&rdquo;. He gives an explanation
-of the length and convolution of the intestines; &ldquo;for if it
-were not convoluted the animals would have to be continuously
-ingesting food and continuously defecating, which
-would impede engagement in the higher occupations&rdquo;.
-Digestion is aided by black bile from the spleen and by
-red bile from the liver. The kidneys he regards as glands
-in which urine is extracted from the blood. The renal
-veins expand and form a fine membrane like a sieve
-through which the urine is filtered but blood cannot pass.
-He mentions renal calculi: if small they pass through the
-ureter; if large they are incurable except by incision, and
-this is to be avoided. The uterus and breasts are connected
-by veins, hence the sympathy between these organs.
-Inguinal hernia is to be operated upon; the spermatic
-cord and testicle may or may not be dissected out, or
-the hernia may be treated by the application of a caustic.
-An incision in the neck of the bladder will heal, because
-this part is muscular; but a cut in the body of the organ
-will not heal. He describes the operation for stone:&mdash;The
-patient being in proper position, the stone is conducted
-to the neck of the bladder by the finger in the rectum;
-an incision is made and the stone is pulled out with an
-instrument called <i>trajectorium</i>.</p>
-<p>Mondino&rsquo;s book passed through not less than twenty-three
-editions between the years 1478-1580. The only
-manuscript extant is in the National Library at Paris.</p>
-<p>The first printed edition of the <i>Anathomia Mundini</i>,
-Pavia, 1478, is a folio of twenty-two leaves. The Strassburg
-<span class="pb" id="Page_36">36</span>
-edition, 1513, is a small octavo volume of forty
-leaves. It contains a diagram of the heart and an astrological
-figure, a cadaver with the thorax and abdomen
-opened, surrounded by the signs of the zodiac. Such
-was the volume which for more than two hundred years
-was supposed to contain
-all that was to
-be said of human
-anatomy!</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig12">
-<img src="images/p_p036.jpg" alt="" width="640" height="1200" />
-<p class="pcap">COLOPHON OF THE ANATOMY OF MONDINO, 1513</p>
-</div>
-<p>So numerous are
-the abbreviations in
-Mondino&rsquo;s book, so
-barbarous is his style,
-that the making of a
-translation is a difficult
-task. His reasons
-for writing are
-these:&mdash;&ldquo;A work upon
-any science or art&mdash;as
-saith Galen&mdash;is
-issued for three reasons;
-<i>First</i>, that one
-may help his friends.
-<i>Second</i>, that he may
-exercise his best mental
-powers. <i>Third</i>,
-that he may be saved
-from the oblivion incident
-to old age&rdquo;.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_37">37</div>
-<h2 id="c4"><span class="small">CHAPTER THIRD</span>
-<br />Mondino&rsquo;s Successors</h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p037.jpg" alt="Illuminated capital" width="150" height="154" />
-</div>
-<p>For two hundred years
-anatomists used Mondino&rsquo;s book as a
-text for their lectures and for the same
-period anatomical writers did little
-more than comment upon this treatise.
-The new art of wood engraving was
-turned to anatomical use and crude illustrations
-of the various parts of the body were put into
-circulation. Some of these pictures were in the form of
-<i>Fliegende Bl&auml;tter</i>, or flying leaves. A set of anatomical
-plates of this type was issued by a certain Ricardus Hela,
-a physician of Paris, as early as the year 1493. They were
-printed at Nuremberg. Their character may be judged
-by the accompanying illustration of the osseous system.</p>
-<h3>Gabriel de Zerbi</h3>
-<p>One of Mondino&rsquo;s commentators was Gabriel de Zerbi
-(1468-1505), of Verona, who taught medicine, logic and
-philosophy in the Universities of Padua, Bologna and
-Rome. His book, <i>Anatomia Corporis Humani</i>, appeared
-at Venice in 1502. Zerbi imitated Mondino in style,
-abbreviations and language. The work, however, contains
-some original observations regarding the Fallopian
-tubes, the puncta lachrymalia and the lachrymal gland.
-From the fact that Zerbi describes two lachrymal glands
-in each orbit, it is known that many of his dissections
-were made upon brutes.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_38">38</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig13">
-<img src="images/p_p038.jpg" alt="" width="850" height="1200" />
-<p class="pcap">ANATOMICAL PLATE BY RICARDUS HELA, 1493</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_39">39</div>
-<p>Zerbi&rsquo;s reputation, which extended to all parts of Europe,
-was the cause of his death. The Venetians received
-from Constantinople the request for a skillful physician
-who should treat one of the principal Seigniors of Turkey.
-The Republic turned its eyes to Zerbi who went to Constantinople,
-apparently cured the Seignior, and, loaded
-with presents, started on the return voyage for Venice,
-Unfortunately the patient suddenly died after a debauch.
-The infuriated Turks overtook the ship on which Zerbi
-and his son were passengers and carried them back to
-Constantinople, where both the anatomist and his son
-were quartered alive.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig14">
-<img src="images/p_p039.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="418" />
-<p class="pcap">PEYLIGK&rsquo;S DIAGRAM OF THE HEART, 1499</p>
-</div>
-<h3>John Peyligk</h3>
-<p>Among the German anatomists of this period was John
-Peyligk, a Leipsic jurist, whose <i>Philosophiae Naturalis
-Compendium</i>, printed at Leipsic in 1499, contains crude
-anatomical illustrations.</p>
-<h3>Magnus Hundt</h3>
-<p>Far more important was the <i>Antropologium</i> of Magnus
-Hundt (1449-1519), of Magdeburg, which appeared at
-<span class="pb" id="Page_40">40</span>
-Leipsic in 1501. It contains four large and several small
-woodcuts which are among the earliest of anatomical illustrations.
-One of
-these shows the trachea
-on the right
-side of the neck,
-passing downward
-to the lungs; on
-the left side the
-oesophagus is represented.
-In the
-thorax are seen the
-lungs and the heart,
-the latter resembling
-the figure of
-this organ as presented
-on old playing
-cards. The
-pericardium has
-been opened, and
-the stomach and intestines
-are crudely
-figured. The
-diaphragm is absent.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig15">
-<img src="images/p_p040.jpg" alt="" width="609" height="999" />
-<p class="pcap">ANATOMICAL FIGURE FROM MAGNUS HUNDT, 1501</p>
-</div>
-<h3>Laurentius Phryesen</h3>
-<p>Early in the sixteenth century a Holland physician,
-Laurentius Phryesen (<i>Phries</i>, <i>Friesen</i>), residing in the
-German city of Colmar and later at Metz, wrote a popular
-<span class="pb" id="Page_41">41</span>
-book on medicine, <i>Spiegel der Artzny</i>, which was published
-at Strassburg in 1518. It contains two anatomical
-illustrations cut in wood, dated 1517, and supposedly made
-after the drawings of Waechtlin, a pupil of the Elder
-Holbein. These pictures tell their own story; they show
-a marked improvement over the figures which Hundt
-published in 1501. The other anatomical plate in Phryesen&rsquo;s
-book is devoted to the skeleton.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig16">
-<img src="images/p_p041.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="1150" />
-<p class="pcap">ANATOMICAL FIGURE FROM LAURENTIUS PHRYESEN, 1518</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_42">42</div>
-<h3>Alexander Achillinus</h3>
-<p>The Italian physician Alexander Achillinus (1463-1525),
-professor of philosophy and medicine in Bologna, is deserving
-of mention for his anatomical knowledge. Zealously
-devoted to the Arab medical authors, Achillinus made
-numerous discoveries which are set forth in his general
-anatomy, <i>De Humani Corporis Anatomica</i>, Venice, 1516;
-and in a commentary
-upon Mondino&rsquo;s
-book, <i>In
-Mundini Anatomiam
-Annotationes</i>, Venice,
-1522. He discovered
-the duct
-of the sublingual
-gland, usually
-credited to Wharton;
-two of the
-auditory ossicles,
-the malleus and
-incus; the labyrinth; the vermiform appendix; the caecum
-and ileo-caecal valve; and the patheticus nerve.
-Portal credits him with a better knowledge of the
-bones and of the brain than was possessed by his predecessors.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig17">
-<img src="images/p_p042.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="723" />
-<p class="pcap">ALEXANDER ACHILLINUS</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_43">43</div>
-<h3>Berengario da Carpi</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig18">
-<img src="images/p_p043.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="469" />
-<p class="pcap">DISSECTION BY BERENGARIO, 1535</p>
-</div>
-<p>Giacomo Berengario, Jacobus Berengarius Carpensis,
-also known as Carpus, was born in the small town of
-Carpi, in the Duchy of Modena, in the year 1470. His
-father, who was a surgeon, directed his studies, and for a
-time he was placed under the instruction of the learned
-Aldus Manutius. Graduating in medicine from the
-University of Bologna, Berengario became noted for his
-skill in surgery and anatomy. He taught these branches
-in Pavia, and was a member of the Bologna faculty from
-1502 to 1527. Then he practiced for a time in Rome,
-where he amassed a fortune by the treatment of the victims
-of syphilis. The last twenty years of his life were
-spent in Ferrara, where he died in 1550. Berengario was
-one of the restorers of anatomy. His first dissection is
-said to have been made in the house of Albert Pion,
-Seigneur de Carpi. This demonstration was given publicly
-<span class="pb" id="Page_44">44</span>
-upon the body of a pig. Soon the anatomist turned
-his attention to human subjects, of which it is said that
-more than a hundred passed beneath his scalpel.</p>
-<p>Berengario&rsquo;s later years are said by Brambilla to have
-been made miserable by the machinations of the agents
-of the Inquisition, who objected to some of his opinions
-regarding the organs of generation. He was unjustly
-accused of dissecting living men&mdash;an accusation which
-arose from his statement that the surgeon should observe
-the anatomy of the living body whenever it was opened
-by wounds or accidents.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig19">
-<img src="images/p_p044.jpg" alt="" width="596" height="999" />
-<p class="pcap">SKELETON BY BERENGARIO, 1523</p>
-</div>
-<p>Berengario determined to improve Mondino&rsquo;s book
-by making corrections in the
-text, and by adding suitable
-illustrations. No illustrations
-were to be found in the
-early editions of Mondino,
-and those which were added
-by later editors of the work
-were untrue to nature. To
-Berengario must be given the
-credit of furnishing some of
-the first anatomical illustrations
-that were published,
-and that were made from
-actual human dissections.
-These appeared in his &ldquo;Commentaries
-of Carpus upon
-the Anatomy of Mundinus&rdquo;,
-(<i>Carpi Commentaria super</i>
-<span class="pb" id="Page_45">45</span>
-<i>Anatomia Mundini</i>), which was published at Bologna in
-1521. The volume contains twenty-one plates which were
-cut in wood. They have been credited to the celebrated
-artist, Hugo da Carpi. While the drawing is somewhat
-coarse, the illustrations are true to nature and show a distinct
-advance over preceding pictures of this class. Berengario
-states that his plates will be of value not only to
-physicians and surgeons but also to artists (<i>et istae figurae
-etiam juvant pictores in lineandis membris</i>). Some of
-his figures are schematic; for example, those showing the
-abdominal muscles. So much better are his illustrations
-than those of his predecessors
-that it may fairly be claimed
-that Berengario was the
-first author to produce an illustrated
-anatomy.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig20">
-<img src="images/p_p045.jpg" alt="" width="614" height="999" />
-<p class="pcap">MUSCLES BY BERENGARIO, 1521</p>
-</div>
-<p>Berengario also wrote a
-&ldquo;Short Introduction to the
-Anatomy of the Human
-Body&rdquo;, <i>Isagogae Breves in
-Anatomiam Humani Corporis</i>;
-and a work on Fracture
-of the Skull.</p>
-<p>He was the first anatomist
-who described the basilar
-part of the occipital bone,
-the sphenoidal sinus and the
-tympanic membrane. Meryon<a class="fn" id="fr_8" href="#fn_8">[8]</a>
-credits him with the
-<span class="pb" id="Page_46">46</span>
-&ldquo;first correct description of the great omentum (gastrocolic)
-and transverse mesocolon; of the caecal appendix
-vermiformis, of the valvulae conniventes of the intestines;
-of the relative proportions
-of the thorax and pelvis in
-man and woman; of the
-flexor-brevis-pollicis; of the
-vesiculae seminales; of the
-separate cartilages of the
-larynx; of the membranous
-pellicle in front of the
-retina (attributed to Albinus);
-of the tricuspid valve,
-between the right auricle
-and ventricle of the heart;
-of the semilunar valves at
-the commencement of the
-pulmonary artery; of the
-inosculation between the
-epigastric and mammary
-arteries, and an imperfect
-account of the cochlea of
-the ear&rdquo;. He was the first of the mediaeval anatomists to
-deviate from the Galenic teaching in regard to the structure
-of the heart. He diplomatically states that in the human
-subject the foramina in the cardiac septum are seen
-only with great difficulty (<i>sed in homine cum maxima
-difficultate videnter</i>).</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig21">
-<img src="images/p_p046.jpg" alt="" width="607" height="999" />
-<p class="pcap">MUSCLES BY BERENGARIO, 1521</p>
-</div>
-<h3>John Dryander</h3>
-<p>John Dryander, a German physician, whose true name
-<span class="pb" id="Page_47">47</span>
-was Eichmann, called himself Dryander in accordance with
-the custom of adopting names derived from the Latin or
-Greek languages. He was born about the year 1500 in
-the Wetterau in Hesse.
-After obtaining proficiency
-in mathematics and astronomy,
-he went to Paris
-where he studied medicine
-for several years.
-Returning to Germany,
-he engaged in the study
-of practical anatomy and
-became a professor in
-Marburg, in which city
-he died in the year 1560.
-He is said to have conducted
-the first dissections
-that were made in
-Marburg, where he taught
-anatomy for twenty-four years, or from 1536 to 1560.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig22">
-<img src="images/p_p047.jpg" alt="" width="604" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">DRYANDER</p>
-</div>
-<p>Dryander, although he was a partisan of Mondino and
-da Carpi, and was a fierce and sometimes an unfair opponent
-of Vesalius, deserves to be regarded as one of the
-restorers of anatomy. He made several observations upon
-the distinction between the cortical and the medullary
-portions of the brain; and was one of the earliest practical
-anatomists of the sixteenth century to furnish anatomical
-illustrations. He made important astronomical observations
-and was the inventor of several useful instruments.
-He was the author of three medical works of
-<span class="pb" id="Page_48">48</span>
-which two were upon anatomy. His <i>Anatomia Mundini</i>,
-which was published at Marburg in 1541, contains forty-six
-plates, many of which have been copied from Berengario&rsquo;s
-work.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig23">
-<img src="images/p_p048.jpg" alt="" width="789" height="1200" />
-<p class="pcap">ANATOMICAL FIGURE BY ESTIENNE, 1545</p>
-</div>
-<h3>Charles Estienne</h3>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_49">49</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig24">
-<img src="images/p_p049.jpg" alt="" width="746" height="1200" />
-<p class="pcap">SKELETON BY ESTIENNE, 1545
-<br />(Reduced one-half)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_50">50</div>
-<p>Charles Estienne, better known by the name of <i>Carolus
-Stephanus</i>, was a French anatomist whose work is
-worthy of remembrance. Born in the early part of the
-sixteenth century, he was given an excellent education.
-He belonged to a noted Huguenot family of scholars and
-printers who have made the Estienne name famous.
-Robert Estienne, the brother of Charles, became the victim
-of religious persecution; he was obliged to flee to
-save his life, and for a time the publishing business was
-conducted by Charles Estienne. The latter also suffered
-for his faith; he was thrown into a dungeon, where he
-died in the year 1564. Charles Estienne wrote numerous
-books on literature, history, forestry and botany. His
-anatomical treatise, <i>De Dissectione Partium Corporis
-Humani</i>, appeared at Paris in 1545 with sixty-two full
-page plates which combine anatomical clearness, beauty
-of form, and artistic representation. A French translation
-of Estienne&rsquo;s Anatomy was published in 1546. This
-work was printed as far as the middle of the third book
-as early as the year 1539: some of the plates are dated as
-early as 1530. The illustrations have been excellently cut
-in wood; many of them show the entire body, with much
-ornamentation, so that the proper anatomical part seems
-small and irrelevant. Some of the plates show the subject
-in picturesque and even loathsome attitudes. The text of
-this work is especially valuable for the history of anatomical
-discovery. Although he was an ardent Galenist,
-Estienne made numerous original observations in anatomy.
-He described the synovial glands, a discovery which has
-been credited to Clopton Havers. Estienne was the first
-anatomist to discover the canal in the spinal cord; he described
-the capsule of the liver, a tissue which bears
-<span class="pb" id="Page_51">51</span>
-Glisson&rsquo;s name; and differentiated the eight pair from the
-sympathetic nerves. He was the first anatomist to see and
-describe the valves in the veins, which he called <i>apophyses
-venarum</i>&mdash; discovery which has been claimed for
-Jacobus Sylvius, Cannanus, Amatus and Fabricius.</p>
-<p>The question of priority in the discovery of the valves
-of the veins gave rise to much controversy. It is reasonable
-to assume that these structures were noticed independently
-by all of the anatomists whose names are mentioned
-above.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig25">
-<img src="images/p_p051.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="818" />
-<p class="pcap">SKULL BY DRYANDER, 1541</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_52">52</div>
-<h2 id="c5"><span class="small">CHAPTER FOURTH</span>
-<br />Vesalius&rsquo;s Early Life</h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p052.jpg" alt="Illuminated capital" width="150" height="149" />
-</div>
-<p>Andreas Vesalius, or Wesalius
-as the family name was inscribed prior
-to the year 1537, was born in Brussels
-on the last day of the year 1514. From
-astrological observations made by
-Jerome Cardan we learn that this event
-occurred about six o&rsquo;clock in the
-morning, and under favorable stellar auspices. The placenta
-and caul, to which popular belief ascribed remarkable
-powers, were carefully preserved by the mother.</p>
-<p>The Vesalius family originally was named Witing,
-(<i>Witting</i>, <i>Wytinck</i>, <i>Wytings</i>, according to various authorities)
-and adopted the name Wesalius from the town of
-Wesel, (<i>Wesele</i>, <i>Vesel</i>), in the Duchy of Cleves, which the
-family claimed as their native place. The three weasels
-(<i>Flemish</i>&mdash;&ldquo;Wesel&rdquo;), found in the Vesalian coat of arms,
-testify to this origin.</p>
-<p>It may be said with truth that medical learning ran in
-the blood of the Vesalius family. Andreas&rsquo;s great-great-grandfather,
-Peter Wesalius, wrote a treatise on some of
-the works of Avicenna and at great cost restored the manuscripts
-of several medical authors. Peter&rsquo;s son, John
-Wesalius, held the responsible position of physician to
-Mary of Burgundy, the first wife of Maximilian the First;
-in his old age John taught medicine in the University of
-Louvain. From that time the Vesalius family was closely
-<span class="pb" id="Page_53">53</span>
-associated with the Austro-Burgundian dynasty. Eberhard,
-son of John Wesalius, served as physician to Mary
-of Burgundy; he died before attaining his thirty-sixth
-year, and was long survived by his father. Eberhard,
-who was the grandfather of Andreas, wrote commentaries
-upon the books of Rhazes and on the <i>Aphorisms</i> of Hippocrates.
-He was also noted as a mathematician. Eberhard&rsquo;s
-son Andreas, the father of the anatomist, was
-apothecary to Charles the Fifth and to Margaret of
-Austria. He accompanied the great Emperor upon his
-numerous journeys and military expeditions. In 1538
-he presented Andreas&rsquo;s first anatomical plates to the
-Emperor, and thus opened the way to the court to his son.
-The father remained in the imperial service until the day
-of his death, which occurred in 1546. Andreas&rsquo;s mother,
-Isabella Crabbe, exercised a great influence upon the
-youth whom she believed to be destined to accomplish
-great things. She it was who preserved the manuscripts
-and books of the Vesalian ancestors. Isabella happily
-lived long enough to see the <i>Fabrica</i>, to witness the intellectual
-triumph of her son, and to know of his activity
-at the Spanish court.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_54">54</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig26">
-<img src="images/p_p054.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="568" />
-<p class="pcap">THE OLD UNIVERSITY OF LOUVAIN
-<br />(Erected early in the Fourteenth Century. The New Building dates from 1680)</p>
-</div>
-<p>Little is known of the youth of Vesalius. The traditions
-of his ancestors, their accomplishments in the field of
-letters and in medicine, and their loyalty to their sovereigns,
-were themes which his mother must have recounted with
-pleasure. At an early age Andreas was sent to the neighboring
-city of Louvain, whose University, founded in the
-year 1424, in the early part of the sixteenth century
-eclipsed many institutions of greater age, and in the number
-of its students ranked second only to the University
-of Paris. The theologians of Louvain were noted for
-their orthodox Catholicism; from the very first days of
-religious controversy they had battled strongly against the
-rising tide of the Reformation. Her professors of jurisprudence
-and of philosophy were men of eminent talents.
-Within the University were four literary schools which
-were named <i>Paedagogium Castri</i>, <i>Porci</i>, <i>Lilii</i>, and <i>Falconis</i>,
-from their insignia:&mdash;a fort, a pig, a lily, and a falcon.
-Here also was the <i>Collegium trilingue Buslidianum</i>,
-which was founded by Hieronymus Busleiden (+1517)
-for teaching the Greek, Hebrew and Latin languages.
-Vesalius selected the <i>Paedagogium Castri</i> which he
-fondly mentions in laudatory terms in his <i>Fabrica</i>. Here,
-and in the Busleidinian College, he obtained that thorough
-knowledge of ancient languages which, in later years, astonished
-his hearers and served him well in numerous
-<span class="pb" id="Page_55">55</span>
-literary controversies. The names of Vesalius&rsquo;s teachers
-are unknown, although Adam<a class="fn" id="fr_9" href="#fn_9">[9]</a> states that John Winter of
-Andernach was his professor of Greek. Vesalius speaks
-scornfully of one of his teachers, a theologian, who, in
-trying to explain Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>De Anima</i>, used a picture of
-the <i>Margarita Philosophica</i> to show the structure of
-the brain. Among Vesalius&rsquo;s school companions were
-Gisbertus Carbo, to whom the anatomist presented the
-first skeleton which he articulated (<i>Fabrica</i>, 1543, page 162);
-and the younger Granvella, who later was Chancellor to
-Charles the Fifth.</p>
-<p>At an early age Vesalius possessed a desire to study
-the structure of the human body. His powers of observation
-were precociously developed. When a boy, learning
-to swim by the aid of bladders filled with air, he noted
-the elasticity of these organs, and he referred to the incident
-in his <i>Fabrica</i> (1543, page 518). When little more
-than a child, he tired of dialectics and tried to learn anatomy
-from the scholastic writings of Albertus Magnus and
-of Michael Scotus. He soon discovered that the true
-road to anatomical science led, not through books but
-through the actual handling of the dead tissues. He began
-the practical study of anatomy by dissecting the
-bodies of mice, moles, rats, dogs and cats.<a class="fn" id="fr_10" href="#fn_10">[10]</a></p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_56">56</div>
-<h2 id="c6"><span class="small">CHAPTER FIFTH</span>
-<br />Sojourn in Paris</h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p056.jpg" alt="Illuminated capital" width="150" height="154" />
-</div>
-<p>One thought was uppermost
-in the mind of Vesalius, and that was
-to follow the profession of his ancestors,
-just as in ancient Greece the
-sons of the Asclepiadae naturally
-adopted the vocation of their fathers.
-Andreas possessed an excellent preliminary
-education and was especially proficient in the
-Greek and Latin languages; he also knew something of
-Hebrew and much of Arabic. It was in the year 1533
-that the young Belgian travelled to Paris for the purpose
-of obtaining a medical education. At that time the
-French capital was the Mecca of the medical world&mdash;Paris,
-that city where classical medicine first secured support
-(<i>ubi primum medicinam prospere renasci vidimus</i>)<a class="fn" id="fr_11" href="#fn_11">[11]</a>.
-In Paris, under the leadership of Budaeus, Humanism
-had enjoyed a rapid growth; and here Petrus Brissotus,
-after gaining the doctor&rsquo;s cap in the year 1514, produced
-a revolution by delivering his lectures from the books of
-Galen in place of the treatises of Averr&ouml;es and of Avicenna.
-At his own expense Brissotus published Leonicenus&rsquo;s
-translation of Galen&rsquo;s <i>Ars Curativa</i>, in order that his
-pupils might not be misled by the incorrect text of the
-Arab authors. It will be recalled that, long before this
-time, classical Greek and Latin medical literature had
-<span class="pb" id="Page_57">57</span>
-passed through the distorting crucible of Saracenic
-translations. At this period medical science, purified
-from Arabic dross, was taught in a splendid manner in
-Paris by such eminent professors as Jacobus Sylvius, Jean
-Fernel, and Winter of Andernach. At their feet sat
-young men from the remotest parts of Europe.</p>
-<p>The most popular of the Paris teachers was Jacobus
-Sylvius, or Jacques Dubois, whose Latinized name is
-perpetuated in anatomical nomenclature. He was born
-at Louville, near Amiens, in 1478. In his early years he
-was noted for his scholarly attainments in the Greek, Latin
-and Hebrew languages and was the author of a
-French grammar. His anatomical knowledge was gained
-under Jean Tagault, a famous Parisian practitioner
-and surgical author.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig27">
-<img src="images/p_p057.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="679" />
-<p class="pcap">SYLVIUS</p>
-</div>
-<p>Sylvius was noted for his industry,
-for his eloquence, and above
-all for his avarice. It was the inordinate
-desire for money which
-led him to abandon philology for
-medicine. While studying under
-Tagault he began a course of medical
-lectures, explanatory of the
-works of Hippocrates and Galen,
-with such success that the Faculty
-of the University of Paris protested
-on the score that Sylvius was not a
-graduate. He then went to Montpellier, whose medical
-professors had long held a high position, where, according
-to Astruc, he received the doctor&rsquo;s cap at the end of
-<span class="pb" id="Page_58">58</span>
-November, 1529. He was then above fifty years of age.
-Armed with this degree, he returned to Paris and immediately
-entered the lists as an independent medical teacher,
-but was again halted by the Faculty who ruled that he
-must first receive the Bachelor&rsquo;s degree. This he gained
-on June 28, 1531. Sylvius then resumed his lectures with
-such success that his classes in the Coll&eacute;ge de Tr&eacute;guier
-numbered from four to five hundred, while Fernel, who
-was a professor in the Coll&eacute;ge de Cornouailles, lectured
-to almost empty benches. In 1550, Henry the Second
-named Sylvius Professor of Medicine, as the successor of
-Vidus Vidius, in the recently established Coll&eacute;ge de
-France. Sylvius died January 13, 1555, and was interred
-in the paupers&rsquo; cemetery as he had wished.</p>
-<p>Sylvius was not only an eloquent lecturer but he was
-also a demonstrative teacher. He was the first professor
-in France who taught anatomy from the human cadaver.
-In his lectures on botany he used a collection of plants to
-elucidate the subject. His chief fault was a blind reverence
-for ancient authors. He regarded Galen&rsquo;s writings
-as gospel; if the cadaver presented structures unlike Galen&rsquo;s
-description, the fault was not in the book but in the
-dead body, or, perchance, human structure had changed
-since Galen&rsquo;s time! In one of his early books<a class="fn" id="fr_12" href="#fn_12">[12]</a>, Sylvius
-declared that Galen&rsquo;s anatomy was infallible; that Galen&rsquo;s
-treatise, <i>De Usu Partium</i>, was divine; and that
-further progress was impossible!</p>
-<p>The character of Sylvius was contemptible. He was
-a man of vast learning and at the same time was rough,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_59">59</span>
-coarse and brutal. His avarice led him to endure the
-cold winters of Paris without the benefit of a fire; in severe
-weather he would play at football, or engage in other
-violent exercise in his room, to save the cost of fuel.
-Once, and once only, did his friends find him hilarious;
-they wondered and asked the cause. Sylvius said he was
-happy because he had dismissed his &ldquo;three beasts, his
-mule, his cat and his maid&rdquo;. He was notoriously rigid
-in exacting his fees from students, and on one occasion
-he threatened to stop his lectures until two delinquents
-should pay their dues. Although he was supposed to
-have amassed great wealth, little of it was found after
-his death, and these sums were secreted in secluded
-places. In 1616, when his former residence in the <i>rue
-Saint-Jacques</i> was demolished, numerous gold pieces
-were found. His reputation for miserliness followed
-him beyond the grave, as witness his epitaph:</p>
-<div class="verse">
-<p class="t0"><span class="f">Sylbius hic situs est, gratis qui nil dedit unqu&agrave;m,</span></p>
-<p class="t0"><span class="f">Mortuus et gratis quod legis ista dolet.</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="verse">
-<p class="t0">&ldquo;Sylvius lies here, who never gave anything for nothing:</p>
-<p class="t0">Being dead, he even grieves that you read these lines for nothing.&rdquo;</p>
-</div>
-<p>In controversies he was violent and vindictive&mdash;a
-pastmaster in the use of bitter language. Jealous of the
-fame of other anatomists, he was particularly enraged
-when, in later years, he was opposed by Vesalius. Sylvius
-spoke of him not as Vesalius, but as <i>Vesanus</i>, a madman,
-who poisoned Europe by his impiety and clouded knowledge
-by his blunders. Such was the man who, in the
-mid-part of the sixteenth century, filled the position of
-<span class="pb" id="Page_60">60</span>
-highest honor in the Medical Faculty of the Coll&eacute;ge
-de France<a class="fn" id="fr_13" href="#fn_13">[13]</a>.</p>
-<p>Sylvius rendered valuable service in naming the muscles
-which, prior to his time, were designated by numbers.
-These, says Northcote<a class="fn" id="fr_14" href="#fn_14">[14]</a> &ldquo;were differently applied by almost
-every author; so that it was the description, and not
-the name, that must lead one to know what part was
-meant by such authors; and this required a previous
-thorough knowledge of anatomy&rdquo;. He is the first writer
-who mentions colored injections and is supposed to have
-discovered this useful adjunct of anatomical study. He
-was the first anatomist who published satisfactory descriptions
-of the pterygoid and clinoid processes of the
-sphenoid bone, and of the os unguis. He gave a good
-account of the sphenoidal sinus in the adult but denied
-its existence in the child, as had been affirmed by Fallopius<a class="fn" id="fr_15" href="#fn_15">[15]</a>.
-Sylvius also wrote intelligently concerning the
-vertebrae but incorrectly described the sternum. His
-observation concerning the valves in the veins gave rise
-to much discussion; the honor of priority in the discovery,
-however, belongs to other anatomists&mdash;Estienne and
-Cannanus. His discoveries in cerebral anatomy have
-caused his name to be attached to the <i>aqueduct</i>, the <i>fissure</i>
-and the <i>artery of Sylvius</i>.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_61">61</div>
-<p>The manner in which Sylvius conducted his anatomical
-course is known to us by his own writings, by the
-testimony of Moreau<a class="fn" id="fr_16" href="#fn_16">[16]</a>, and by that of Vesalius<a class="fn" id="fr_17" href="#fn_17">[17]</a>. Thus the
-course for the year 1535 began with the reading, by
-Sylvius, of Galen&rsquo;s treatise <i>De Usu Partium</i>. When the
-middle of the first book was reached, Sylvius remarked
-that the subject was too difficult for his students to understand
-and that he would not plague his class with it.
-He then jumped to the fourth book, read all to the tenth
-book, discussed a part of the tenth and omitting the
-eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth, he took up the fourteenth
-and the remaining three books. Thus he omitted all that
-Galen had said concerning the extremities. A second
-Galenic work which Sylvius used was the anatomico-physiologic
-treatise, <i>De Musculorum Motu</i>. Not infrequently
-the professor was unable to demonstrate in dissection
-the parts on which he had lectured. Thus, on
-one occasion, the students succeeded in finding the pulmonary
-and aortic valves which Sylvius had failed to find
-on the preceding day.</p>
-<h3>Joannes Guinterius of Andernach</h3>
-<p>Another famous member of the Paris Faculty of this
-period, and a man whose life-story reads like a romance,
-was Joannes Guinterius, the beggar of Deventer. Guinterius
-(Gonthier, Guinther, Guinter, Winter, or Winther),
-who is often called John Winter of Andernach, from the
-name of the town in which he was born, lived between
-the years 1487-1574, and rose to eminence in both the literary
-and the medical worlds. Born of humble parents, he
-was sent at an early age to the University of Utrecht. Leaving
-this institution because of his poverty, he went to
-Deventer where he was reduced to the necessity of begging
-in the streets. He drifted to the University of
-Marburg, and here displayed such brilliant talents that he
-soon obtained employment as a teacher in the small town
-of Goslar, in Brunswick. His growing reputation for
-learning led to his appointment to the chair of Greek in
-the noted University of Louvain.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_62">62</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig28">
-<img src="images/p_p062.jpg" alt="" width="766" height="1000" />
-<p class="pcap">WINTER OF ANDERNACH</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_63">63</div>
-<p>Desiring to study medicine, Guinterius went to Paris
-in 1525; he received the Bachelor&rsquo;s degree in 1528, and
-the full medical title two years later. He passed a brilliant
-examination which won for him the commendation
-of the most eminent professors. Remaining in Paris, he
-engaged in practice and in teaching, and rapidly rose to
-eminence. In addition to conducting courses in anatomy,
-he translated into Latin the writings of the most noted
-Greek medical authors of antiquity&mdash;the books of Galen,
-of Oribasius, of Paul of Aegina, of Caelius Aurelianus,
-and of Alexander of Tralles&mdash;all of which were held in
-high esteem in the sixteenth century. His fame reached
-far beyond the boundaries of France. Christian III., the
-enlightened king of Denmark, who was noted for his love
-of literature, sought to attach him to the Danish court,
-but the honor was refused. Having become a convert to
-the religious views of Luther, Guinterius found that his
-life was in danger; he left Paris and resided for a time in
-Metz. He soon removed to Strassburg, where he was
-received with distinguished honors and was appointed to
-a professorship in the University. Owing to the activity
-of his enemies, his position became insecure; accordingly,
-he resigned his chair and spent a considerable time in
-travelling throughout Germany and Italy. In the year
-1562, Ferdinand I., in appreciation of the great merits of
-Guinterius, raised him to the highest distinction by placing
-<span class="pb" id="Page_64">64</span>
-him among the nobles of the land; and thus the beggar
-of Deventer became a nobleman of Strassburg. His
-life ended October 4, 1574.</p>
-<p>Like Sylvius, Guinterius was a teacher of men who became
-greater than himself&mdash;Vesalius, Servetus and Rondelet
-sat upon his benches. Like Sylvius, he placed his
-faith in Galen and failed to grasp the great truth that
-anatomical science is based, not on the writings of the
-Fathers but on dissection of the dead body.</p>
-<h3>Jean Fernel</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig29">
-<img src="images/p_p064.jpg" alt="" width="631" height="801" />
-<p class="pcap">JEAN FERNEL</p>
-</div>
-<p>The third bright star of the Paris constellation was
-Jean Fernel (1485-1558), of Amiens, who was regarded as
-<span class="pb" id="Page_65">65</span>
-the ablest physiologist of his time and was physician-in-ordinary
-to Henry the Second. Fernel dipped deeply
-into philosophy, geometry and mathematics. Before
-entering the medical profession he issued three books on
-mathematic and geometric subjects. He received the
-medical degree in 1530, but continued his study of mathematics
-with such ardor that he was almost ruined financially.
-On the advice of his friends he entered upon the
-practice of medicine in Paris and met with remarkable
-success. He was skilled in anatomy and surgery and accompanied
-his sovereign upon numerous military expeditions.
-His medical writings are contained in many
-volumes and concern a variety of subjects, such as physiology,
-therapeutics, surgery, pathology, the treatment of
-fevers and the venereal diseases.</p>
-<p>Fernel&rsquo;s medical views were powerfully influenced by
-the teachings of an unfortunate French philosopher, Pierre
-de la Rame&eacute;, or Ramus, who, like many other Protestants,
-lost his life on Saint Bartholomew&rsquo;s Night. Brutally assassinated,
-his body was dragged through the streets of
-Paris and then was thrown into the Seine; but his system
-of philosophy survived and exercised a potent influence
-until it was eclipsed by the doctrines of Descartes.</p>
-<p>Ramus, who was an uncompromising opponent of the
-Aristotelian philosophy, pointed out the defects and suggested
-the reforms in the system of University education.
-He compared the teaching of medicine with that of theology,
-much to the disparagement of the latter:&mdash;&ldquo;The
-reason&rdquo;, said he, &ldquo;why medicine is better taught, and the
-lectures are better attended than in theology is, that those
-<span class="pb" id="Page_66">66</span>
-who teach it know it, and practice it, and their disputations
-are chiefly on the books of Hippocrates and Galen;
-whilst the theologians observe a strict reticence on questions
-of the Old Testament, which they read in Hebrew,
-as well as of the New, which they read in Greek, but
-display their learning in subtle questions respecting the
-pagan philosophy of Plato and Aristotle&rdquo;.<a class="fn" id="fr_18" href="#fn_18">[18]</a> Ramus endeavored
-to withdraw the minds of both physicians and
-medical students from the authoritative dogmas of the
-ancient physicians and to substitute therefor the intelligent
-study of Nature.
-The practical trend of
-his mind is shown in his
-suggestion that institutions
-should be arranged
-for clinical teaching.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig30">
-<img src="images/p_p066.jpg" alt="" width="630" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">RAMUS</p>
-</div>
-<p>Just as Ramus had
-become an Eclectic in
-philosophy, so Fernel
-sought the best from
-various sources and different
-medical systems.
-Like Ramus, he cast
-off the yoke which authority
-had placed upon
-him; and proposed
-carefully planned principles
-which should lead to the discovery of truth. Like
-Ramus, Fernel presented his views in a clear style and in
-<span class="pb" id="Page_67">67</span>
-better order than was to be found in the writings of his
-predecessors. Like Ramus, he adopted the good and rejected
-the bad, regardless of whether it had been said by
-Aristotle, or by Galen, or by Hippocrates. Fernel was a
-reformer who stood for freedom of thought, which, up to
-his time, had suffered from the despotism of the scholastics.
-Although many of Fernel&rsquo;s physiologic and pathologic
-ideas seem ridiculous when viewed in the light of
-modern knowledge, yet he deserves praise for daring to
-oppose ancient dogmas, and for pointing the road to progress.
-In breadth of view, Fernel was far superior to
-Sylvius and Guinterius.</p>
-<p>The anatomical teaching in Paris in the early part of
-the sixteenth century was far from satisfactory. There
-was too much lecturing and theorizing from Galen&rsquo;s texts,
-and too little of actual dissection. Vesalius, who was not
-backward in his criticisms, says that the dissections were
-made by ignorant barbers, and during the whole time
-that he was in Paris he never saw Guinterius use a knife
-upon a cadaver. Only at rare intervals was a human
-body brought into the amphitheatre, and then the dissection
-lasted less than three days. It comprised only a
-superficial study of the intestines and abdominal muscles;
-no other muscles were studied. The bones, veins, arteries
-and nerves were almost wholly ignored. The great
-lights of the Paris profession were totally unfit to give to
-the young Belgian what was his heart&rsquo;s desire. They
-were ignorant and knew it not. It is not surprising that,
-on more than one occasion, Vesalius brushed the ignorant
-prosectors aside, took the knife into his own hands,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_68">68</span>
-and carried out the dissection in a systematic manner.
-His zeal and learning won the admiration of Guinterius
-who spoke of Vesalius and Servetus in loving terms;&mdash;&ldquo;first
-Andreas Vesalius, a young man, by Hercules! of
-singular zeal in the study of anatomy; and second,
-Michael Villanovanus (Servetus), deeply imbued with
-learning of every kind, and behind none in his knowledge
-of the Galenic doctrine. With the aid of these two, I
-have examined the muscles, veins, arteries and nerves of
-the whole body, and demonstrated them to the students&rdquo;.<a class="fn" id="fr_19" href="#fn_19">[19]</a></p>
-<p>Vesalius must have had many blue days in Paris&mdash;days
-when he longed to have a free hand in dissection. A
-weaker character than his would have fitted peacefully
-into the established order of things, but not of such stuff
-was Andreas made. The difficulties which beset his path
-only stimulated him to work the harder; he firmly resolved
-to devote his energy, his talents and his life to
-anatomical study and teaching. He decided to secure
-the opportunity to dissect the human body and to rival
-the ancient Alexandrian professors who taught the subject.
-&ldquo;Never&rdquo;, he says, &ldquo;would I have been able to accomplish
-my purpose in Paris, if I had not taken the
-work into my own hands&rdquo;. The Book of Nature which
-Sylvius lauded, but kept his pupils from studying, was
-now opened by Vesalius. He dissected numerous dogs
-and studied the only part of human anatomy that was
-available, namely, the bones. In his search for materials
-for a skeleton he haunted the Cemetery of the Innocents.
-On one occasion, when he went to Montfau&ccedil;on, the place
-<span class="pb" id="Page_69">69</span>
-where the bodies of executed criminals were deposited and
-bones were plentiful, Vesalius and his fellow-student were
-attacked by fierce dogs. For a time the young anatomist
-was in danger of leaving his own bones to the hungry
-scavengers. By such dangers he gained what the Paris
-professors could not supply. He became a master of the
-osseous system, so much so that, when blindfolded, he
-was able to name and describe any part of the skeleton
-which was placed in his hands. His talents were recognized
-by both professors and students; and at the third
-anatomy which he attended in Paris he was requested to
-take charge of the dissection. To the satisfaction of the
-students, as well as to the astonishment of the barbers,
-he made an elaborate dissection of the abdominal organs
-and of the muscles of the arm.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig31">
-<img src="images/p_p069.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="317" />
-<p class="pcap">VIVISECTION OF A PIG
-<br />(From the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_70">70</div>
-<h2 id="c7"><span class="small">CHAPTER SIXTH</span>
-<br />Vesalius Returns to Louvain</h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p070.jpg" alt="Illuminated capital" width="150" height="153" />
-</div>
-<p>In the latter part of the
-year 1536, owing to the outbreak of
-the third Franco-German war, Vesalius
-returned to the University of Louvain.
-During this period he secured a human
-skeleton by secret means. Accompanied
-by his faithful friend, Regnier
-Gemma, known as a mathematician as well as a
-physician, Vesalius visited the gallows outside the walls
-of Louvain in order to search for bones. Here he found
-a skeleton which was held together simply by the ligaments
-and still possessed the origins and insertions of the
-muscles. Morley states that the body was that of &ldquo;a noted
-robber, who, since he deserved more than ordinary
-hanging, had been chained to the top of a high stake and
-roasted alive. He had been roasted by a slow fire made
-of straw, that was kept burning at some distance below
-his feet. In that way there had been a dish cooked for
-the fowls of heaven, which was regarded by them as a
-special dainty. The sweet flesh of the delicately roasted
-thief they had preferred to any other; his bones, therefore,
-had been elaborately picked and there was left suspended
-on the stake a skeleton dissected out and cleaned
-by many beaks with rare precision. The dazzling skeleton,
-complete and clean, was lifted up on high before the
-eyes of the anatomist, who had been striving hitherto to
-<span class="pb" id="Page_71">71</span>
-piece together such a thing out of the bones of many
-people, gathered as occasion offered&rdquo;.</p>
-<p>Such a prize could not be lost. With Gemma&rsquo;s assistance
-Vesalius climbed the gallows and secured the skeleton
-which he secretly conveyed to his home. The treasure,
-however, was not complete; one finger, a patella and
-a foot were missing. To this extent was Vesalius the
-owner of a human skeleton. In supplying the missing
-parts Vesalius was obliged to incur new dangers. He
-stole out of the city in the nighttime, climbed the gallows
-unaided, searched through the mass of decaying bodies,
-and, having found the coveted bones, he stole into the
-city by another gate. These secret expeditions, however,
-soon became unnecessary, for the Burgomaster of Louvain
-generously furnished an abundance of material for
-Vesalius&rsquo;s students.</p>
-<p>It was at this period&mdash;late in the year 1536 or early in
-1537&mdash;that Vesalius conducted the first public anatomy
-that had been held in Louvain in eighteen years. He
-performed the dissection and lectured at the same time,
-which was an innovation. Some remarks he made concerning
-the seat of the soul caused him to be critised by
-the theologians. A further cause for suspicion was his
-association with such firm Protestants as Guinterius and
-Sturm of Paris; and his friendly relations with the publisher
-Rescius, and the physician Velsius. Fortunately
-the suspicion of heresy did not lead to any formal charges,
-but the affair seems to have rankled in his memory and
-some years later, in his <i>Fabrica</i>, he sought to clear his
-name of even the appearance of heresy.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_72">72</div>
-<p>Vesalius began his career as an author by issuing a
-paraphrase, or free translation, of the ninth book of the
-<i>Almansor</i> of the celebrated Rhazes<a class="fn" id="fr_20" href="#fn_20">[20]</a>. This book, <i>liber
-ad Almansorem</i>, or work dedicated to the Caliph Al-Mans&ucirc;r,
-was written by a learned Arab physician who
-lived between the years 860-932. The <i>Almansor</i> consists
-of ten books and was designed by the author for a complete
-body or compendium of Physic. The first book
-treats of anatomy and physiology; the second, of temperaments;
-the third, of food and simple medicines; the
-fourth, of means for preserving health; the fifth, of skin
-diseases and cosmetics; the sixth, of diet; the seventh, of
-surgery; the eighth, of poisons; the ninth, of treatment
-of all parts of the body; the tenth, or last book, deals with
-the treatment of fevers. The ninth book, which Vesalius
-translated from the barbarous version into a readable
-form, was so highly prized in mediaeval times that it
-was read publicly in the schools and was commentated by
-learned professors for more than a hundred years. By
-this publication Vesalius furnished a valuable contribution
-to medical literature. The numerous marginal and interlinear
-notes, which he supplied, show his intimate acquaintance
-with classical literature as well as with materia medica.
-Vesalius emphasizes the fact that the book of Rhazes
-contains many remedies which were unknown to the
-Greeks. The value of his edition was increased by the
-presence of original drawings of the plants mentioned
-in the text.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_73">73</div>
-<h2 id="c8"><span class="small">CHAPTER SEVENTH</span>
-<br />Professor of Anatomy in Padua</h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p073.jpg" alt="Illuminated capital" width="150" height="141" />
-</div>
-<p>Shortly after the publication
-of his <i>Paraphrasis in nonum librum
-Rhazae</i>, Vesalius journeyed into Italy.
-It was in the year 1537 that he entered
-the prosperous and enlightened city of
-Venice. Here the study of anatomy
-not only was not tabooed, but was encouraged, particularly
-by the Theatin monks who devoted themselves to the
-care of the sick. At the head of this order stood two
-remarkable men: J. Peter Caraffa, who later ascended
-the papal throne as Paul IV.; and Ignatius Loyola, the
-founder of the Jesuits. It is a strange circumstance that
-two strong characters so dissimilar as were Vesalius and
-Loyola should meet as co-workers in the same field.
-The one was filled with a thirst for anatomical knowledge,
-and was dreaming of the day when his <i>opus magnum</i>
-should revolutionize an important science; the other was
-enthused with visions of the world-wide acceptance of
-the doctrines of Catholicism. They met again, in 1543&mdash;the
-year which marks two important events, namely, the
-publication of the <i>Fabrica</i>, and the full recognition of the
-Jesuits by the Pope.</p>
-<p>In Venice the young anatomist entered into various
-lines of activity. He experimented with a new remedy,
-the China root, and besought his acquaintances to observe
-its effects in cases of pleurisy. He solicited anatomical
-<span class="pb" id="Page_74">74</span>
-material and possibly may have conducted a public demonstration
-in anatomy, although this is uncertain. He
-practiced minor surgery; he leeched and opened veins,
-particularly the popliteal vein which the barbers of that
-day did not venture to touch. In Venice he fortunately
-met his countryman, Jan Stephan van Calcar, who was
-soon to furnish the drawings for Vesalius&rsquo;s first anatomical
-plates.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig32">
-<img src="images/p_p074.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="586" />
-<p class="pcap">INSTRUMENTS USED IN DISSECTION
-<br />(From the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543)</p>
-</div>
-<p>In order to gain all the rights and privileges of a full-fledged
-physician, Vesalius settled in Padua. On the 6th
-day of December, 1537, shortly after having received his
-degree as Doctor of Medicine, Andreas Vesalius of Brussels
-was appointed Professor of Surgery with the right to
-<span class="pb" id="Page_75">75</span>
-teach Anatomy in the famous University of Padua. This,
-says Fisher, &ldquo;was the first purely anatomical chair ever
-instituted&rdquo;.</p>
-<p>From his own writings and from the manuscript notes
-of his loyal student, Vitus Tritonius, a fairly good idea
-of Vesalius&rsquo;s teaching can be given. The first act of the
-young Paduan professor was to improve the course in
-anatomy. Here, as he had done previously at Louvain,
-Vesalius discharged the entire duties of the professorship.
-He acted as lecturer, demonstrator and dissector. Dissatisfied
-with the ignorant barbers, he ignored them and
-employed his students as assistants. He resorted to all
-possible means to obtain anatomical material, much of
-which was secured by stealth.</p>
-<p>The aula in which Vesalius conducted his course was
-built of wood and was capable of holding five hundred
-persons. In the centre of the room was a table under
-which was a receptacle containing bones and joints. An
-articulated skeleton was placed in an upright position at
-one end of the table. In this elegantly appointed room,
-before an audience of distinguished laymen and students,
-the instruction in anatomy was given. The course was a
-strenuous one, occupying practically the entire day for a
-period of three weeks, and comprising not only human
-but also much comparative anatomy. The vivisection of
-dogs, pigs, and rarely of cats, was a regular part of the
-course. Drawings were used to elucidate the relations
-between the skeleton and the soft parts; and frequently
-Vesalius marked the outlines of the joints upon the skin
-of the subject. He also marked the cranial sutures with
-<span class="pb" id="Page_76">76</span>
-ink. His anatomical charts were the work of his own
-hand; at times he drew the pictures in the presence of
-his audience. His dissections were made with extreme
-neatness and dexterity. He used but few instruments and
-these were of the simplest kind: knives of different shapes,
-hooks, cannula, catheter, sounds, bristles, hammer, saw,
-needles, thread and a sponge. Forceps and injection apparatus
-were not used; he rarely used scissors. Much of
-the actual separation of tissues was done by the aid of the
-finger-nails. A vivisection board completed the list <i>de
-instrumentis quae anatomes studioso debent esse ad
-manum</i>.</p>
-<p>Let us now follow one Vesalius&rsquo;s public courses in anatomy.
-It is the month of December, in the year 1537. The
-report has spread that the young Belgian professor will
-begin his course. Long before the hour set for the lecture,
-every available seat has been taken and many persons
-are standing. An audience comprising the professors of
-the University, the students of medicine, officials of the
-city of Padua, and learned persons of all ranks, including
-members of the clergy, numbering more than five hundred
-persons, has assembled to do honor to the professor
-of anatomy.</p>
-<p>Vesalius comes into the arena and walks to the table
-which is closely surrounded by his auditors. He wastes
-no time; after a few preliminary remarks on the importance
-of anatomy and the methods of acquiring a knowledge
-of this science, he launches into the practical demonstration.
-After rapidly pointing out the divisions of
-the body, and demonstrating the skin, joints, cartilages,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_77">77</span>
-ligaments, glands, fat and muscles, he passes to the more
-complex parts, all of which are shown upon the skinned
-body of a dog or of a lamb, in order to conserve the human
-material. Now the human cadaver is placed on the
-table; all eyes are turned upon it, for such a demonstration
-occurs only at long intervals. Vesalius speaks first
-of the difference in the structure of joints at different ages
-and in different sexes, illustrating his remarks by means
-of drawings and by an abundant supply of bones of man
-and of the lower animals.</p>
-<p>Now comes the dissection. This is made rapidly and
-in regular order. Its course depends upon the amount of
-material at hand; if the professor resorts to two bodies,
-as in the year 1538, the demonstration is handled in grand
-style. Vesalius uses the first body for a comprehensive
-examination of the muscles, ligaments and viscera; whilst
-the second cadaver is devoted to the relations of the veins,
-arteries, nerves and viscera. The text of the <i>Fabrica</i> is
-written according to this plan of public dissection.</p>
-<p>At times Vesalius attempted to teach the whole of
-anatomy on one cadaver. In this event, osteology was followed
-by the dissection of the abdominal muscles layer
-by layer, the demonstration closing with an examination
-of the entire contents of the abdomen. The pelvic organs
-were reached by incision and separation of the symphysis
-pubis. If the cadaver was that of a female, the dissection
-began with the mammary glands and then passed to the
-inferior venter. In pregnancy the foetal membranes
-were removed intact, and were placed in a vessel filled
-with water. The foetus was opened and its anastomosing
-<span class="pb" id="Page_78">78</span>
-vessels were found. For demonstrating the cotyledons,
-the uterus of a sheep or goat was used. After the thorax
-had been raised by means of a log or brick, Vesalius
-passed to the face and the anterior part of the neck, freely
-exposing the muscles on one side and the vessels and
-nerves on the other. Then followed the unilateral preparation
-of the muscles of the shoulder and back, then those
-of the mouth, which were approached by means of division
-of the lower jaw; and, finally, the pharynx and the
-larynx were exposed. The rectus anticus muscle was
-next brought into view, whereupon Vesalius detached the
-head from the vertebral column. Decapitation was followed
-by an examination of the cranium; the skull-cap
-was sawed and the brain was dissected in its natural position.
-Then came the examination of the eye, which
-Vesalius dissected in two ways: either by a complete section,
-or layer by layer from without inwards.</p>
-<p>The ear and the cavities of the frontal and sphenoidal
-bones were next opened, provided these bones were not
-needed for the setting up of a skeleton. Finally he took
-up the extremities, demonstrating the muscles of an arm
-and a leg on one side, and the nerves and vessels on the
-other. The anatomy lesson ended with the introduction
-of numerous vivisections.</p>
-<p>Vesalius could not entirely escape disputations, but he
-gave to them a close anatomic basis. Theoretical physiology
-was repugnant to him; for him physiology was
-not speculation but the sequel of anatomic research. If
-he at times gave free reign to his views, he indicated them
-as mere theories. He did not ignore pathologic conditions,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_79">79</span>
-but he handled them as briefly as possible. Fearing to
-tire his audience with too much variety, he confined his
-students closely to the structure of the human body.</p>
-<p>The merit of Vesalius&rsquo;s public dissections, and the impression
-which they made upon his auditors, can be appreciated
-only by comparison with similar demonstrations
-made by his predecessors. The large and enlightened
-audience remained day by day for a period of three or
-four weeks. He says not a word about the physical and
-mental strain incident to such a strenuous course, in
-which his entire time was employed. The courses
-brought great financial profit to the professor.</p>
-<p>On two occasions, probably in the years 1539 and
-1540, Vesalius was called from Padua to Bologna to conduct
-public dissections. This was a great honor, for
-Bologna was the city in which Mondino had revived
-the practical teaching of anatomy. These courses were
-conducted by Vesalius in a wooden building erected for
-that particular purpose. Here, as in Padua, the professor
-acted as demonstrator and lecturer, remaining in this
-ancient city for a period of several weeks. On the first
-occasion he was supplied with three human bodies and
-was enabled to handle the subject in grand style. At the
-first s&eacute;ance he engaged with the celebrated Professor
-Matthaeus Curtius, whose acquaintance he had made in
-1538 while on a vacation trip, in a deep study of the question
-of venesection. Before a large and select assembly
-he demonstrated in all three bodies that Galen&rsquo;s description
-of the vena azygos was incorrect. On the second
-convocation Vesalius seems to have disposed of more
-<span class="pb" id="Page_80">80</span>
-bodies. He reviewed Galen&rsquo;s work on the joints, and
-by numerous specimens, which were prepared by the
-students, he demonstrated the difference in the ancient
-knowledge of the skeleton. On this occasion he undertook
-the complete dissection of an ape and presented its
-skeleton, as well as that of a man, to Professor John
-Andreas Albius, who held the chair of Hippocratic medicine
-in Bologna.</p>
-<p>Little is known of the way in which Vesalius taught
-surgery. The first year he was in Padua, he began with
-Avicenna&rsquo;s treatise on tumors. According to the fragmentary
-notes in the college book of his ardent pupil,
-Vitus Tritonius, Vesalius compared Avicenna&rsquo;s teachings
-with the classical works of Hippocrates, Galen, Paul of
-Aegina, and Aetius, explaining and correcting them.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig33">
-<img src="images/p_p080.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="625" />
-<p class="pcap">INITIAL LETTER BY VESALIUS
-<br />(From the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_81">81</div>
-<h2 id="c9"><span class="small">CHAPTER EIGHTH</span>
-<br />First Contribution to Anatomy</h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p081.jpg" alt="Illuminated capital" width="150" height="154" />
-</div>
-<p>Like all great teachers,
-Vesalius was ever mindful of the interests
-of his students. Soon after accepting
-the chair of Anatomy in Padua,
-he articulated a human skeleton
-for use in his class room. His next
-work was the preparation of a set of
-anatomical plates, <i>Tabulae Anatomicae</i>, which were intended
-to pave the way to anatomy for beginners. For the
-further benefit of his class, he edited an edition of Guinterius&rsquo;s
-<i>Institutionuin Anatomicarum</i>, which was issued
-in April, 1538.</p>
-<h3>Tabulae Anatomicae</h3>
-<p>The <i>Tabulae Anatomicae</i> were in the form of <i>Fliegende
-Bl&auml;tter</i>, or loose leaves, and consisted of six plates
-which are now among the rarest of medical works. They
-bore the following title:</p>
-<p class="center"><i><b>Tabulae Anatomicae. Imprimebat Venetiis B(ernardinus).
-<br />Vitalis Venetus sumptibus Joannis Stephani
-<br />Calcarensis Prostrant ver&ograve; in officina
-<br />D. Bernardini. a. 1538.</b></i></p>
-<p>In the preface Vesalius says that no one can learn
-either botany or anatomy from figures alone, but illustrations
-are a valuable means toward the imparting of
-<span class="pb" id="Page_82">82</span>
-knowledge. In publishing these plates he hopes to benefit
-those persons who had attended his public dissections.
-Not a line in these pictures is unnatural; all has been
-reproduced just as he had shown in his demonstrations.
-He gives due credit to van Calcar, the artist who made
-the drawings of the three skeletons. The other pictures
-were made by the author himself.</p>
-<p>The <i>Tabulae Anatomicae</i> were arranged in the following
-order:&mdash;</p>
-<div class="verse">
-<p class="t0">I.&mdash;The Portal System and the Organs of Generation;</p>
-<p class="t0">II.&mdash;The Venae Cavae and Chief Veins;</p>
-<p class="t0">III.&mdash;The Great Artery&mdash;Arteria Magna&mdash;and the Heart;</p>
-<p class="t0">IV.&mdash;The Skeleton in its Anterior View;</p>
-<p class="t0">V.&mdash;The Skeleton in its Side View;</p>
-<p class="t0">VI.&mdash;The Skeleton in its Posterior View.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The plates are of large dimensions, measuring over
-sixteen inches in length, and were cut in wood. Like
-those in the <i>Fabrica</i>, they were made in Italy. Owing to
-their transient use by medical students, the <i>Tabulae</i> were
-soon destroyed, although unauthorized editions were
-printed in several cities. The book was dedicated to
-Narcissus of Parthenope (Narciso Verdunno, or Vertuneo)
-who, in 1520, was first physician to the crown of Naples,
-and later, in 1524, was physician and councilor to Charles
-the Fifth. It is noteworthy that three of these plates deal
-with the skeleton, a subject to which Vesalius had given
-much attention. The absence of a plate showing the nervous
-system is also to be noted. Vesalius had such a
-<span class="pb" id="Page_83">83</span>
-plate prepared, and it appeared in a pirated edition of the
-<i>Tabulae</i> which was published at Cologne in 1539. The
-large size of these plates, their fidelity to nature, and the
-skill with which they were cut in wood, were features
-which showed to the world that a real master of anatomy
-had been born. The original drawings were made by
-Jan Stephan van Calcar, who probably also was the
-engraver.</p>
-<p>Only two copies of the <i>Tabulae Anatomicae</i> are
-known. A fine edition of these plates, reproduced by
-photography, was privately issued in 1874 by Sir William
-Stirling-Maxwell, the talented author of the <i>Annals of the
-Artists of Spain</i>.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig34">
-<img src="images/p_p083.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="594" />
-<p class="pcap">VIEW OF THE CITY OF BASEL IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_84">84</div>
-<h2 id="c10"><span class="small">CHAPTER NINTH</span>
-<br />Publication of the Fabrica</h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p084.jpg" alt="Illuminated capital" width="150" height="146" />
-</div>
-<p>On the first day of August,
-1542, after three years of strenuous
-labor, Vesalius completed the <i>Fabrica</i>,
-and twelve days later he wrote the last
-word of the <i>Epitome</i>. The blocks for
-the <i>Fabrica</i>, and also those for the
-<i>Epitome</i>, were made in Italy. In the
-summer of 1542 they were conveyed to Basel by a merchant
-named Danoni and were safely delivered to the printer,
-Oporinus. They were accompanied by a long Latin
-letter, written by Vesalius to his friend, &ldquo;Joannes Oporinus,
-professor of Greek letters in Basel&rdquo;. He begs Oporinus
-to take the greatest care that the printed illustrations
-shall correspond with the proofs which accompany the
-blocks. &ldquo;Every detail must be distinctly visible, so that
-each cut shall have the effect of a picture&rdquo;. Early in the
-following year Vesalius went to Basel to superintend the
-printing of his books. While there, he conducted a demonstration
-in anatomy&mdash;the first which had occurred in
-that city since 1531&mdash;and presented the articulated skeleton
-of the subject to the University. Part of this skeleton
-exists today. It is thought to be the oldest anatomical
-preparation in existence.</p>
-<h3>The Fabrica</h3>
-<p>The heart of Vesalius must have filled with joy when
-he saw the final page of his book turned from the
-<span class="pb" id="Page_85">85</span>
-press. The treatise which founded modern anatomy
-bears this title:&mdash;</p>
-<p class="center"><span class="f">Andreae Desalii Brurellensis, Scholae medicorum
-<br />Patabinae professoris, de humani corporis
-<br />fabrica Libri septem. Basileae.</span>
-<br />MDXLIII</p>
-<p>A fortune was lavished upon the illustration and publication
-of this grand work. To use the words of Fisher,
-&ldquo;it was and is a glorious book, a rare and precious monument
-of genius, industry and liberality&rdquo;. It abounds
-with curious initial letters bearing quaint and interesting
-anatomical conceits, each one teaching its lesson. One
-of these, reduced in size, introduces the present chapter;
-and it was this letter
-that Vesalius used in
-his opening sentence:
-<i>Os caeterarum hominis
-partium est durissimum
-&amp; ardissimum, maximaque
-terrestre &amp; frigidum,
-&amp; sensus denique
-praeter solos dentes
-expers.</i></p>
-<div class="img" id="fig35">
-<img src="images/p_p085.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="1006" />
-<p class="pcap">JOANNES OPORINUS</p>
-</div>
-<p>The first edition of
-the <i>Fabrica</i> is a folio
-volume with magnificent
-illustrations on
-wood, all carefully printed
-by Joannes Oporinus
-(1507-1568) of Basel.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_86">86</div>
-<p>The title-page is a beautiful engraving which represents
-Vesalius at work dissecting a female subject. He is
-surrounded by interested spectators who crowd the amphitheatre.
-The abdomen of the subject is opened. Vesalius
-has raised his left hand; his right hand grasps a
-small rod which rests on the viscera. The great teacher
-is talking to his pupils. Placed at the head of the dissecting
-table is an upright skeleton which grasps a long
-staff with its right hand. In the audience are many persons
-of different rank. To the left a naked man is climbing
-a pillar, while to the right, and below, a dog is being
-brought into the arena. To the left, and below, is a
-monkey which appears to enjoy the demonstration.
-Above, in the architecture, we
-see the monogram of the publisher,
-Oporinus; in the centre,
-on a shield, are the three
-weasels of the Vesalius family,
-and below, is a shield which
-bears the privilegium. This old
-engraving is one of the most
-spirited and elaborate to be
-found in the whole range of
-medical literature. In the 1725
-edition, for which Jan Wandelaar
-made copperplate reproductions of the original figures,
-the title-page is altered:&mdash;the monogram of Oporinus is
-absent and the architecture is slightly changed.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig36">
-<img src="images/p_p086.jpg" alt="" width="558" height="724" />
-<p class="pcap">MARK OF OPORINUS</p>
-</div>
-<p>Who was the unnamed artist? It is noteworthy that
-Vesalius does not state who drew the illustrations, or who
-<span class="pb" id="Page_87">87</span>
-cut them in wood, for his <i>Fabrica</i>. He only states that this
-book has cost him a monstrous amount of labor in the
-preparation of the dissections, and in the directing of the
-eye, the hand, and the intelligence of the artist. He
-complains bitterly of the obstinacy of the artist, who, at
-times so tormented him that he&mdash;Vesalius&mdash;considered
-himself more unfortunate than the criminal whose body
-had been dissected<a class="fn" id="fr_21" href="#fn_21">[21]</a>. It was probably owing to this unpleasant
-experience that Vesalius omitted the artist&rsquo;s name.
-The great anatomist speaks regretfully of the large sums
-which he was obliged to pay, in order to induce skilled
-artists to undertake this class of work. He states that
-they were much more interested in painting Venus and
-The Graces than in drawing pictures of skinned and foul
-smelling bodies. Moehsen<a class="fn" id="fr_22" href="#fn_22">[22]</a> assumes that Vesalius had
-Titian in mind when he penned these thoughts, but this
-is questionable. It is not surprising that eminent artists
-should have disliked anatomical drawing, at a time when
-antiseptic injections and preserving fluids were not known.
-Foul odors had no terrors for the great Belgian, who
-haunted cemeteries for anatomical material and often kept
-parts of cadavers in his bedchamber for weeks at a time.</p>
-<p>For a period of two centuries the Vesalian pictures were
-ascribed to Titian, but on insufficient grounds. The
-famous Venetian painter was over sixty years of age at
-the time of the publication of the <i>Fabrica</i>; his services
-were much in demand, and he was signally honored by
-the Spanish emperor, Charles the Fifth. His powers
-<span class="pb" id="Page_88">88</span>
-remained undiminished until shortly before his death,
-which occurred in 1576. He had the ability to make
-the Vesalian illustrations, but it is doubtful if he had the
-time. Although Titian may have taken an interest in
-these anatomical plates, it is not now believed that he
-drew them.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig37">
-<img src="images/p_p088.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="817" />
-<p class="pcap">JAN STEPHAN VAN CALCAR</p>
-</div>
-<p>The Vesalian pictures have been attributed to Christoforo
-Coriolano; but he could not have been the artist,
-since his earliest work dates from 1568. He is known to
-have furnished the drawings for Jerome Mercurialis&rsquo;s
-<i>De Arte Gymnastica</i>, and for Vasari&rsquo;s <i>Lives of the Painters</i>.
-Roth is of the opinion that Vesalius himself made most
-of the illustrations; but such a view would credit the
-<span class="pb" id="Page_89">89</span>
-comparatively short and busy life of the great anatomist
-with too much accomplishment.</p>
-<p>I conclude that the illustrations for the <i>Fabrica</i>, like
-the osseous figures in the <i>Tabulae Anatomicae</i>, which
-Vesalius issued in 1538, were made by Jan Stephan van
-Calcar (+1546), the favorite pupil of Titian. Sandrart<a class="fn" id="fr_23" href="#fn_23">[23]</a>
-states that van Calcar made the drawings for the <i>Fabrica</i>;
-that he went to Venice in 1536 or 1537; that he studied
-under Titian; and that his paintings were of such merit
-that they were often mistaken for those of Titian, Raphael,
-and Rubens.</p>
-<p>Van Calcar was a Fleming, a native of Kalcker in the
-Duchy of Cleves. The date of his birth is not known.
-His death occurred at Naples in 1546. He was highly
-esteemed by Vesalius who speaks of him as ranking &ldquo;with
-the divine and happy wits of Italy&rdquo;. The anatomical
-plates which Vesalius issued in 1538 were made, he states,
-by van Calcar:&mdash;<i>sumptibus Joannis Stephani Calcarensis</i>.
-These plates, which appeared in the form of pictorial
-broad sheets, or <i>Fliegende Bl&auml;tter</i>, may be likened to
-the Herald who goes in advance to announce the coming
-of the King. They were engraved on wood, and, like
-their companion pictures in the <i>Fabrica</i>, they were unprecedented
-in magnitude and in minuteness.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_90">90</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig38">
-<img src="images/p_p090.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="1304" />
-<p class="pcap">SECOND VESALIAN PLATE OF THE MUSCLES
-<br />(From the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543. Reduced one-half)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_91">91</div>
-<p>The Vesalian plates vary greatly in merit. The most
-satisfactory ones are those depicting the undissected body
-and the bones and muscles. The artist was not at his
-best in drawing the nervous system, although it is claimed
-that Vesalius had prepared his neurologic specimens
-with great care. For the use of artists, the best plates
-are the three skeletons and the four entire myologic figures
-in the <i>Fabrica</i>. The first myologic figure, showing
-a man who has been divested of all skin, fat, and superficial
-fascia, presents the muscles of the anterior portion
-of the body beautifully delineated. Vesalius took much
-pride in this plate, and directed the attention of artists to
-it. The second plate, which is constructed along similar
-lines, shows the body in its lateral aspect. The head is
-thrown slightly backward, the right hand pointing to the
-earth and the left raised towards the horizon, and the
-whole attitude of the subject calls to mind the position
-which an orator would assume when addressing an audience.
-The third myologic plate is similar to the first one,
-but the muscles of the face are exhibited to better advantage
-and the aponeuroses, absent in the first plate, are
-here present. The fourth plate, which is the ninth in
-Vesalius&rsquo;s work (<i>nona musculorum tabula</i>), presents the
-muscles of the posterior part of the body. The other
-myologic figures show the deeper muscles, layer by layer,
-and are of value to an artist who wishes to study the
-effect of their action upon the superficial parts of the
-body. Hence many of these figures have been reproduced
-in works on art-anatomy. The artist who studies
-these plates should remember that the figures in question
-are divested of skin, fat, and superficial veins&mdash;all of
-which must be supplied, in order to avoid giving too great
-prominence to the muscles. The two naked figures contained
-in the <i>Epitome</i> are properly clothed in skin and
-are of great artistic merit. They also are to be seen in
-numerous works on art-anatomy. Thus, in one of the
-earliest books on anatomy for the use of artists (<i>Abr&eacute;g&eacute;
-d&rsquo;anatomie accommod&eacute; aux arts de peinture et de sculpture.</i>
-Paris, 1667, 1668), Rogers de Piles and Fran&ccedil;ois
-Tortebat have used the three skeletons and seven myologic
-figures taken from the <i>Fabrica</i> and the <i>Epitome</i>. In
-the preface of his book, de Piles says that he does not
-think it is possible to produce better figures than those
-found in the works of Vesalius. That he was not alone
-in this opinion is shown by the fact that many other artists,
-who have composed treatises on art-anatomy, have drawn
-freely from the Vesalian storehouse. An Italian, Giacomo
-Moro, in his anatomy for the use of artists, (<i>Anatomia
-ridotta ad uso de&rsquo; pittori e scultore.</i> Venice 1679),
-reproduced nineteen of Vesalius&rsquo;s figures in copperplate.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_92">92</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig39">
-<img src="images/p_p092.jpg" alt="" width="890" height="1500" />
-<p class="pcap">NINTH VESALIAN PLATE, OF THE MUSCLES
-<br />(From the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543. Reduced one-half)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_93">93</div>
-<p>The popularity of Vesalius&rsquo;s anatomical figures among
-painters was due, not only to the intrinsic worth of these
-illustrations, but also to the erroneous belief that the original
-drawings were the work of Titian. This opinion
-found expression on the title-pages of several works on
-art-anatomy. For example, in 1706, Moschenbauer, of
-Augsburg, issued a folio volume illustrated with Vesalian
-figures cut in wood, with this title:&mdash;<i>Andreae Vesalii,
-Bruxellensis, des ersten besten Anatomici, Zergliederung
-des menschlichen K&ouml;rpers auf Mahlerey, and Bildhauer-Kunst
-gerichtet, die Figuren von Titian gezeichnet</i>. An
-anonymous book, <i>Notomia di Titanio</i>, appeared in Italy
-about the year 1670.</p>
-<p>The Vesalian figures of the skeleton were also issued
-in single sheets with moralistic verses appended. Moehsen
-<span class="pb" id="Page_94">94</span>
-cites one of these with the inscription printed in French:</p>
-<div class="verse">
-<p class="t0">&ldquo;De cet objet affreux tu parois rebutt&eacute;,</p>
-<p class="t0">Est c&rsquo;est ce que dans peu cependant tu dois &eacute;tre:</p>
-<p class="t0">Apprens, mortel, a te conno&icirc;tre</p>
-<p class="t0">Ce miroir est le seul, ou tu n&rsquo;est point flatt&eacute;&rdquo;.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Another legend reminds the reader that he is only
-dust, and to dust he must return:&mdash;&ldquo;<i>Vous estes poudre, &amp;
-vous retourn&eacute;res en poudre</i>&rdquo;.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig40">
-<img src="images/p_p094.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="721" />
-<p class="pcap">A HUMAN SKULL RESTING ON THE SKULL OF A DOG
-<br />(From the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_95">95</div>
-<h2 id="c11"><span class="small">CHAPTER TENTH</span>
-<br />Publication of the Epitome</h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p095.png" alt="Illuminated capital" width="150" height="152" />
-</div>
-<p>Upon the thirteenth day
-of August, 1542, Vesalius finished the
-<i>Epitome</i> of his great book. The text
-and illustrations for it were forwarded
-to Basel by the same merchant who
-conveyed the manuscript and drawings
-of the <i>Fabrica</i>. The title of the
-lesser work is as follows:&mdash;</p>
-<p class="center"><span class="f">Andreae Vesalii Bruxellensis, Scholae medicorum
-<br />Patavinae professoris, suorum de Humani corporis
-<br />fabrica librorum Epitome. Basil., et officina
-<br />Joannis Oporini, Anno, 1543, mense Junio.</span></p>
-<p>This work is extremely rare. It belonged to the class
-of <i>Fliegende Bl&auml;tter</i> and was issued unbound. Perfect
-copies of it are rarely found. The first twelve sheets are
-printed on both sides; the two last leaves are printed on
-one side only, in order that they might be cut out and
-pasted together to show two complete figures. Hence
-these sheets are often lacking. The <i>Epitome</i> appeared in
-the same year and in the same month as the <i>Fabrica</i>, but
-the latter work was printed first.</p>
-<p>The <i>Epitome</i> is dedicated to Philip, the son of Charles
-the Fifth, who, after his father&rsquo;s abdication, was known
-as Philip the Second of Spain. The title-page is printed
-from the same plate as the larger work; and Vesalius&rsquo;s
-portrait also is present. From the fact that the dedication
-bears the inscription: <i>Patavii, idibus Augusti 1542</i>, the
-erroneous opinion arose that this work preceded the
-<i>Fabrica</i>.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_96">96</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig41">
-<img src="images/p_p096.jpg" alt="" width="857" height="1201" />
-<p class="pcap">TITLE-PAGE OF VESALIUS&rsquo;S &ldquo;EPITOME&rdquo;, 1543</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_97">97</div>
-<p>Among the illustrations found in the <i>Epitome</i> are
-seven that are not in the large book; namely, five myologic
-plates, and the figure of a naked man and one of a
-woman. The myologic figures in the <i>Epitome</i> differ
-from those in the <i>Fabrica</i> in this respect: the muscles
-are drawn in their natural position, group, and order, so
-that the surgeon, in treating wounds and in performing
-operations, may have the correct relations of the parts in
-mind. Also, the one side of the figure differs from the
-other: the one showing the superficial muscles, while the
-other exhibits the deeper musculature. The muscles in
-the <i>Fabrica</i>, with the exception of four complete myologic
-figures, are represented as they appear in anatomical
-demonstrations, particular attention being given to their
-origins and insertions. For the purpose of the artist, the
-best figures are the three skeletons and the four complete
-myologic figures which are found in the <i>Fabrica</i>.</p>
-<p>Two beautiful copies of the <i>Epitome</i>, printed on vellum,
-are in existence. One is in the British Museum and
-is thought to be the copy which was owned by the celebrated
-Dr. Richard Mead; the other one is in the possession
-of the University of Louvain.</p>
-<p>Vesalius speaks modestly of the <i>Epitome</i>, which
-he regards as an index or appendix of the <i>Fabrica</i>,
-and is for the use of beginners in anatomy.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_98">98</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig42">
-<img src="images/p_p098.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="1318" />
-<p class="pcap">SKELETON BY VESALIUS
-<br />(From the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543. Reduced one-half)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_99">99</div>
-<h2 id="c12"><span class="small">CHAPTER ELEVENTH</span>
-<br />Contents of the Fabrica</h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p099.jpg" alt="Illuminated capital" width="150" height="152" />
-</div>
-<p>The reputation of Vesalius
-rests securely upon the <i>Fabrica</i>. This
-grand book, which is dedicated to
-Charles the Fifth, consists of six hundred
-and fifty-nine folio pages of text;
-thirty-four pages of index, disposed in
-three columns to the page; six pages
-of preface; and two pages of a letter which is addressed
-to &ldquo;Joannes Oporinus, the renowned professor of Greek
-letters in Basel&rdquo;. The work is printed in excellent style.
-The printed page measures 8 by 12&frac12; inches, including
-the marginal notes. There are fifty-seven lines to a page,
-averaging twelve words to a line, or approximately seven
-hundred words to a page. This was written, amid many
-duties and distractions, in the short period of three years.
-It is truly a monument of diligence.</p>
-<p>The text of the <i>Fabrica</i> is clear and concise; it describes
-what has to be described and does it well. The
-errors which Vesalius rectified, and the improvements
-which he made in anatomy, are so numerous that references
-can be made to only a few of them. His anatomical
-writings are of such bulk that they cannot be reviewed
-adequately within the limits of the present chapter. As
-regards the <i>Fabrica</i>, we may say, with Richardson, that
-&ldquo;The dissections and the plates are the book&rdquo;.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_100">100</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig43">
-<img src="images/p_p100.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="1306" />
-<p class="pcap">FIFTH VESALIAN PLATE OF THE MUSCLES
-<br />(From the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543. Reduced one-half)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_101">101</div>
-<p>The <i>Fabrica</i> contains the rudiments of anthropology
-as well as the first illustrations of comparative anatomy.
-Vesalius portrays a human skull resting upon the skull of
-a dog. He also shows a simian and a canine sacrum and
-coccyx, to prove his contention that Galen&rsquo;s anatomy was
-derived from dissection of the lower animals. The <i>Fabrica</i>
-is more than an anatomy. Throughout the work
-physiology goes hand in hand with the anatomical description.
-The use and function of each part of the body
-is given in short, clear sentences.</p>
-<p>The <i>Fabrica</i> is built upon a practical plan. It treats
-of anatomy in a logical manner and is composed of seven
-books, which deal with the following subjects: (1)&mdash;Bones
-and Cartilages; (2)&mdash;Ligaments and Muscles; (3)&mdash;Veins
-and Arteries; (4)&mdash;Nerves; (5)&mdash;Organs of Nutrition and
-Generation; (6)&mdash;Heart and Lungs; and (7)&mdash;Brain and
-Organs of Sense.</p>
-<h3>The First Book</h3>
-<p>Vesalius devotes one hundred and sixty-eight pages to
-the bones and cartilages, treating these structures with a
-thoroughness that amazed his contemporaries. He was
-the first author who correctly described the osseous system
-as a whole. In numerous instances Vesalius places
-himself in direct opposition to the opinions of Galen. He
-denied the existence of the intermaxillary bone in adults,
-and showed that the inferior maxilla does not consist of
-two pieces, as has been asserted by Galen. The seven
-bones of the sternum were reduced to three by Vesalius.
-He denied Galen&rsquo;s statement that the bones of the symphysis
-pubis separate during parturition. He was the
-first anatomist to give an accurate description of the
-sphenoid bone. A small aperture at the root of the
-pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone is called <i>foramen
-Vesalii</i>. Vesalius proved the existence of marrow in the
-bones of the hand, which had been denied by Galen. In
-all respects, he wrote more intelligently of the bones than
-any anatomist who had preceded him.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_102">102</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig44">
-<img src="images/p_p102.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="1348" />
-<p class="pcap">DEEP MUSCLES OF THE BACK BY VESALIUS
-<br />(From the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543. Reduced one-half)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_103">103</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig45">
-<img src="images/p_p103.jpg" alt="" width="1120" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">PART OF THE FIRST TEXT-PAGE OF THE &ldquo;FABRICA&rdquo;</p>
-</div>
-<h3>The Second Book</h3>
-<p>Vesalius devotes one hundred and eighty-eight pages
-to a description of the ligaments and the muscles. This
-part of his treatise, while it contains a few errors and does
-not reach the high plane of the first book, is superior to
-any work of its kind that had preceded it. Vesalius was
-the first writer to describe the internal pterygoid muscle.
-He denied the existence of a general muscle of the skin,
-and stated that the intercostal muscles merely separate the
-ribs without expanding or contracting the thorax. He
-held the view that nerves and muscles do not stand in
-any relation of proportionate strength to one another,
-large nerves often being distributed to small muscles.
-He also held that the tendons are similar in structure to
-the ligaments.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_104">104</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig46">
-<img src="images/p_p104.jpg" alt="" width="882" height="1600" />
-<p class="pcap">PLATE OF THE ARTERIAL TREE BY VESALIUS
-<br />(From the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543. Reduced one-half)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_105">105</div>
-<p>Vesalius&rsquo;s plates of the superficial muscles are among
-the most beautiful that have ever appeared. They have
-been copied in practically all later treatises on anatomy,
-and have been used extensively by art-anatomists. His
-plates of the deeper muscles, while naturally not so
-pleasing to the eye, are wonderfully near accuracy. The
-different muscles are drawn to show function as well
-as structure.</p>
-<h3>The Third Book</h3>
-<p>The third part of the <i>Fabrica</i>, comprising sixty pages,
-is devoted to the veins and arteries. Vesalius begins with
-the definition of a vein, and describes the structure of
-these vessels in general. The term &ldquo;artery&rdquo; is treated in
-like manner. He introduces several small illustrations
-which serve to elucidate this part of the text. His first
-large plate in this section is devoted to the venae portae.
-This is followed by a full-page picture of the entire venous
-system. The arterial system is fully described and
-elaborately illustrated. To these is added another plate,
-in which both arteries and veins are represented in their
-natural order. In other plates he shows the special circulations&mdash;cerebral,
-portal, and pulmonary.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_106">106</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig47">
-<img src="images/p_p106.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="1037" />
-<p class="pcap">DISSECTION OF THE ABDOMEN BY VESALIUS
-<br />(From the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_107">107</div>
-<p>Vesalius described the valve which guards the foramen
-ovale in the foetus, and also noticed the valve-like fold
-which guards the entrance of each hepatic vein into the
-inferior vena cava. He also gave an admirable description
-of the vena azygos. Blinded by the ancient theory
-of the movement of the blood&mdash;a sort of flux and reflux
-in the veins, he overlooked the function of the venous
-valves. He described them as eminences, or projections,
-or accidental rugosities, which in no way interfere with
-the flux and reflux of the blood.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig48">
-<img src="images/p_p107.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="364" />
-<p class="pcap">DISSECTION OF THE HEART BY VESALIUS
-<br />(From the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543)</p>
-</div>
-<h3>The Fourth Book</h3>
-<p>Vesalius devotes forty pages to the cerebral and spinal
-nerves. The anatomy of the brain is treated in the seventh
-book. His representations of the nerves are very creditable.
-He mentions eleven pairs of cranial nerves: the
-olfactory, the optic, the motores oculorum, the trifacial,
-the abducens, the portio dura, the portio mollis, the
-glosso-pharyngeal, the pneumogastric, and the spinal
-accessory.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_108">108</div>
-<p>His account of the brain&mdash;contained in the seventh
-book&mdash;is elaborately minute considering the time when it
-was written. His illustrations and description of this
-organ surpass those of scores of later authors. Vesalius
-fully describes the position of the brain; the membranes
-which cover it; the cavities, or ventricles, within it; the
-divisions of cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla; the anatomy
-of the base, and the origins of the cerebral nerves.
-These structures are illustrated from different points of
-view.</p>
-<h3>The Fifth Book</h3>
-<p>The fifth book, comprising more than one hundred
-pages, is devoted to the organs of nutrition. Here we
-find an admirable account of the peritoneum, the mesentery,
-the omentum, the stomach and intestines, the liver,
-the spleen, and the genito-urinary tract&mdash;all of which
-structures are described and fully illustrated. In this
-book Vesalius also describes the foetus in utero.</p>
-<h3>The Sixth Book</h3>
-<p>In less than fifty pages Vesalius describes the contents
-of the thorax. He writes intelligently of the membrane
-lining the thorax, and then gives an account of the arteria
-aspera, as the trachea was formerly named. Passing on
-to the lungs, he next takes up the anatomy of the heart.
-He describes its position, form, and structure in better
-terms than had been done by preceding anatomists. The
-auricles, ventricles, and valves are carefully examined.
-His illustrations of both lungs and heart are excellent.</p>
-<p>In the 1543 edition of the <i>Fabrica</i>, Vesalius adopts
-<span class="pb" id="Page_109">109</span>
-the erroneous view of Galen that openings exist in the
-septum of the heart. In the second edition of his book,
-published in 1555, he says that influenced by the views of
-Galen, he believed that the blood passes from the right to
-the left ventricle of the heart, through the septum, by
-means of the pores. Vesalius immediately adds that the
-septum of the heart is as dense and compact as the rest
-of this organ, and that not the smallest quantity of blood
-passes through the septum.</p>
-<p>His account of this subject is best given in his own
-words:&mdash;&ldquo;In recounting as above the structure of the
-heart, and the use of its different parts, I have followed in
-the main the doctrines of Galen; not that I regard them
-in all particulars as consonant with the truth, but because,
-in attributing new functions and uses to a number of
-parts, I am still distrustful of myself, and not long ago
-should hardly have ventured to differ from that Prince of
-Physicians by so much as a finger&rsquo;s breadth. As for the
-dividing wall, or septum, between the ventricles forming
-the right side of the left cavity, the student of anatomy
-should consider carefully that it is equally thick, compact,
-and dense, with all the rest of the cardiac substance enclosing
-the left ventricle. And accordingly, notwithstanding
-what I have said about the pits in this situation,
-and at the same time not forgetting the absorption by the
-portal vein from the stomach and intestines, I still do not
-see how even the smallest quantity of blood can be transfused,
-through the substance of the septum, from the
-right ventricle to the left&rdquo;.</p>
-<p>Vesalius and other anatomists knew of the hepatic
-<span class="pb" id="Page_110">110</span>
-circulation, or at least believed in some communication
-between the portal and hepatic veins:&mdash;&ldquo;The branches of
-this vein&rdquo;&mdash;vena cava&mdash;&ldquo;distributed through the body of
-the liver, come in contact with those of the portal vein;
-and the extreme ramifications of these veins inosculate
-with each other, and in many places appear to unite and
-be continuous&rdquo;.</p>
-<p>Vesalius knew that in several particulars the accepted
-physiology of the vascular system was wrong. If he could
-have lived a few years longer, it is possible that he might
-have solved the great problem which was made clear by
-William Harvey. In the light of our present knowledge
-some of Vesalius&rsquo;s words are suggestive:</p>
-<p>&ldquo;When these matters are taken into account, many
-things at once present themselves in regard to the arterial
-system, which deserve careful consideration; especially
-the fact that there is hardly a single vein going to the
-stomach, the intestines, or even the spleen, without its
-accompanying artery, and that nearly every member of
-the portal system has a companion artery associated with
-it in its course. Again, the arteries going to the kidneys
-are of such size that they can by no means be affirmed
-to serve merely for regulating the heat of these organs;
-and still less can we assert that so many arteries are distributed
-to the stomach, intestines and spleen for that
-purpose alone. And there is, furthermore, the fact, which
-we must for many reasons admit, that there is through
-the arteries and veins a mutual flux and reflux of materials,
-and that within these vessels the weight and gravitation
-of their contents has no effect&rdquo;.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_111">111</div>
-<h3>The Seventh Book.</h3>
-<p>In the seventh book, consisting of less than sixty pages,
-Vesalius fully describes the anatomy of the brain, of the
-cranial nerves, and of the organs of sense. His description
-of the eye is not as near accuracy as might be expected.
-He places the crystalline lens in the centre of the
-globe. His description of the organ of vision was only
-slightly better than that which was given by Galen. Vesalius
-showed, however, that the optic nerve is not a hollow
-tube, and that it does not enter the eyeball exactly in the
-antero-posterior axis.</p>
-<h3>Conclusion</h3>
-<p>Considering the time in which he lived, Vesalius was
-remarkably free from errors. Although to him the arteries
-were carriers of vital spirits, the veins were the true
-blood vessels, and, according to the first edition of his
-great book, the septum of the heart was filled with foramina;
-yet, we must say with Baas, &ldquo;these are all mere
-shadows necessary to the brilliancy of the picture&rdquo;.</p>
-<p>Vesalius was more than an anatomist. As a practical
-physician he had the highest reputation among his
-contemporaries. He was an accomplished scholar and
-was thoroughly conversant with the weaknesses of human
-nature, as is evident from many satirical touches in
-his writings. Although his great work contains many
-errors that a tyro of the present day would laugh at, it
-laid the foundations of our knowledge. Vesalius overthrew
-the idol of authority in anatomy and taught us to
-look at Nature with our own eyes.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_112">112</div>
-<p>Portal<a class="fn" id="fr_24" href="#fn_24">[24]</a> has paid a splendid tribute to Vesalius. &ldquo;Vesalius&rdquo;,
-he says, &ldquo;appears to me one of the greatest men who
-ever existed. Let the astronomers vaunt their Copernicus,
-the natural philosophers their Galileo and Torricelli, the
-mathematicians their Pascal, the geographers their Columbus,
-I shall always place Vesalius above all their heroes.
-The first study of man is man. Vesalius has this noble
-object in view, and has admirably attained it; he has made
-on himself and his fellows such discoveries as Columbus
-could make only by travelling to the extremity of the
-world. The discoveries of Vesalius are of direct importance
-to man; by acquiring fresh knowledge of his own
-structure, man seems to enlarge his existence; while discoveries
-in geography or astronomy affect him but in a
-very indirect manner&rdquo;.</p>
-<p>Like Harvey, Vesalius was obliged to defend his
-writings from fierce attacks. The most desperate of his
-opponents was his old master, Jacobus Sylvius, who was so
-wedded to the Galenic teachings that he asserted that
-since Galen&rsquo;s time the thigh bones had changed their
-shape. He spoke of Vesalius as a &ldquo;madman, Vesanus,
-whose pestilential breath poisons Europe&rdquo;. Ponderous
-discussions were carried on between the friends and opponents
-of the great anatomist. The complete overthrow
-of the Galenists resulted.</p>
-<p>If Vesalius had remained professor of anatomy in Padua,
-instead of being appointed physician to Charles the Fifth,
-at Madrid, in 1544, it is probable that the circulation of
-the blood would have been discovered by him.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_113">113</div>
-<p>In recent years attempts have been made to show that
-it was not Vesalius, but Leonardo da Vinci, who was the
-founder of modern anatomy. A considerable amount of
-controversial literature has accumulated on this subject.
-For our purpose it may suffice to quote the conclusions of
-McMurrich<a class="fn" id="fr_25" href="#fn_25">[25]</a>:&mdash;&ldquo;Leonardo was the first to create a new
-anatomy, but he created it for himself alone; Vesalius demonstrated
-a new anatomy to the world. It was the publication
-of Vesalius&rsquo;s <i>Fabrica</i> that revolutionized anatomy,
-while Leonardo&rsquo;s drawings were lying unpublished, at
-first the cherished possessions of his favorite pupil Melzi,
-later in the Ambrosian Library in Milan, and still later
-forgotten in the Royal Library at Windsor. We must
-credit Leonardo as being the forerunner of the new anatomy,
-but Vesalius must be recognized as its founder&rdquo;.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig49">
-<img src="images/p_p113.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="595" />
-<p class="pcap">INITIAL LETTER BY VESALIUS
-<br />(From the &ldquo;Fabrica&rdquo;, 1543)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_114">114</div>
-<h2 id="c13"><span class="small">CHAPTER TWELFTH</span>
-<br />Contemporary Anatomists</h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p114.jpg" alt="Illuminated capital" width="150" height="153" />
-</div>
-<p>Shortly after the publication
-of the <i>Fabrica</i>, great activity was
-manifested in anatomic research, and
-numerous opponents and critics of
-Vesalius appeared in the arena of
-science. The criticism of such men
-as Jacobus Sylvius and John Dryander,
-while it was of a violent type, was of much less importance
-than was that of Eustachius, Columbus and Fallopius.
-Vesalius was not without his partisans, of whom
-Ingrassias and Cannanus are worthy of mention.</p>
-<h3>Bartholomeus Eustachius</h3>
-<p>Eustachius was born at San Severino, a small city near
-Salernum, about the year 1520. He studied anatomy in
-Rome and made remarkable progress in this science. In
-the year 1562, as he informs us in his <i>Opuscula Anatomica</i>,
-he was professor of medicine in the Collegio della
-Sapienza at Rome. Like many other men of genius,
-Eustachius died in poverty. In August, 1574, having been
-called by the illness of Cardinal Rovere to Fossombrone,
-Eustachius died upon the journey.</p>
-<p>To Eustachius posterity is indebted for a series of
-splendid copperplate engravings which were designed to
-illustrate the anatomy of the human body. These plates,
-the handiwork of Eustachius, and the first anatomical
-<span class="pb" id="Page_115">115</span>
-illustrations wrought in copper, were completed in 1552,
-only nine years after the first impression of the book of
-Vesalius. Unfortunately for himself, and worse for medical
-science, Eustachius was unable to publish them. If
-this magnificent atlas of anatomy could have been published
-when completed, the anatomical discoveries of the
-eighteenth century would have come two hundred years
-earlier. Unfortunately the entire text of the work is lost.
-For one hundred and thirty-eight years the Eustachian
-plates remained either in the family of Pinus, an intimate
-friend of the anatomist, or were buried in the Papal Library
-at Rome. When discovered they were presented by
-Pope Clement XI. to his physician, Lancisi, who published
-them with notes of his own, at Rome, in 1714. In
-1740 they were issued under the direction of Cajetan
-Petrioli. Four years later the edition by Albinus appeared,
-which was republished in 1761. The anatomical
-writings of Eustachius were published during his lifetime,
-in 1564. It is upon his <i>Tabulae Anatomicae</i> that the
-fame of this wonderful man is founded. If this work had
-been published in 1552, Eustachius would have divided
-with Vesalius the honor of founding human anatomy.
-The victim of circumstances, his name has been overshadowed
-by that of Vesalius, to whom in some respects he
-was superior. Deprived during life of his merited honors,
-Eustachius has been awarded a goodly share of posthumous
-fame.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_116">116</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig50">
-<img src="images/p_p116.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="1216" />
-<p class="pcap">BRAIN AND NERVES BY EUSTACHIUS
-<br />(Reduced one-half)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_117">117</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig51">
-<img src="images/p_p117.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="1242" />
-<p class="pcap">MUSCLES BY EUSTACHIUS
-<br />(Reduced one-half)</p>
-</div>
-<p>Eustachius was the first anatomist to describe, with any
-degree of accuracy, the tube which bears his name. We
-can truly say he discovered it, since Alcmaeon dissected
-only the lower animals, and was not an accurate observer,
-as his view that goats breathe through the ears, amply
-testifies. Eustachius discovered the tensor tympani and
-stapedius muscles, the modiolus and membranous cochlea,
-and the stapes. The honor of the discovery of the stapes
-is claimed for no less than five renowned anatomists,
-namely, Fallopius, Ingrassias, Columbus, Colladus, and
-Eustachius. It is unnecessary to discuss this disputed
-claim to priority. The truth seems to be that the stapes
-was discovered by both Ingrassias and Eustachius, each
-independently of the other. In 1546 Ingrassias publicly
-<span class="pb" id="Page_118">118</span>
-demonstrated the little bone of the ear in his lectures at
-Naples. Fallopius, after learning from an eyewitness
-that Ingrassias had actually discovered and named the
-ossicle, relinquished his claim to the discovery. Columbus
-and Colladus filed their information at too late a date.
-Eustachius, as previously stated, finished his anatomical
-plates in 1552. His seventh plate shows, among other
-subjects, the auditory ossicles&mdash;malleus, incus and stapes&mdash;and
-tensor tympani muscle. These objects are delineated
-as taken from a human subject, and also from a dog.</p>
-<p>Eustachius discovered the origin of the optic nerves,
-and the sixth cerebral nerves. He gives excellent pictures
-of the corpora olivaria and corpora pyramidalia; of the
-stylo-hyoid muscle; of the deep muscles of the neck and
-throat; of the suprarenal capsules, and of the thoracic
-duct. He also described the ciliary muscle. Eustachius
-was the first anatomist who accurately studied the teeth
-and the phenomena of the first and second dentition. In
-his researches he employed magnifying glasses, maceration,
-exsiccation, and various methods of injection.</p>
-<h3>Realdus Columbus</h3>
-<p>The first anatomical treatise containing an account of
-the lesser, or pulmonary circulation, was the monumental
-work, <i>De Re Anatomica, libri xv.</i>, written by Realdus
-Columbus and sumptuously published at Venice in the
-year 1559. This, however, was not the first printed account
-of the lesser circulation. Six years prior to the
-publication of the book of Columbus, the unfortunate
-Servetus, in a theological treatise, described correctly the
-<span class="pb" id="Page_119">119</span>
-course of the blood in its transit through the lungs.
-Tried for heresy, Servetus was burned, together with all
-obtainable copies of his book. Although it had been
-printed, the work was suppressed; hence it follows that
-Columbus was the first to publish the great discovery.
-Of the life of this anatomist we know but little. Born at
-Cremona, a small Milanese village, the year of his birth
-is unknown. He died in 1559, while his book was being
-printed. A few copies were finished before his demise,
-since a copy belonging to the late Dr. George Jackson
-Fisher, of Sing Sing, N.Y., contains the author&rsquo;s own dedication
-to Pope Paul IV., while in other exemplars, the dedication
-has been written by the two sons of Columbus, and
-is addressed to &ldquo;<i>Pio IIII., Pont. Max</i>&rdquo;. This prelate, on
-the death of Paul IV., on August 18, 1559, became the
-head of the Church.</p>
-<p>Some writers have held that the discovery of the lesser
-circulation was not made by Columbus independently of
-Servetus, but that a copy of the book of Servetus had
-drifted into Italy and had been read by Columbus. There
-is no direct evidence to support this view. When Vesalius
-was called to Madrid as physician to Charles the
-Fifth, Columbus, in 1544, succeeded him in the University
-of Padua; two years later he filled the anatomical
-chair at Pisa, and in 1546, Pope Paul IV. called him to
-Rome. Here he spent the later years of his life, engaged
-in teaching anatomy and in writing his book. For forty
-years Columbus pursued his anatomical studies, and in
-that period he dissected an unusually large number of
-bodies. Fourteen subjects passed under his scalpel in a
-single year.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_120">120</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig52">
-<img src="images/p_p120.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="1168" />
-<p class="pcap">TITLE-PAGE OF COLUMBUS&rsquo;S ANATOMY
-<br />(Reduced one-half)</p>
-</div>
-<p>Columbus frequently made experiments upon living
-animals. He was the first to use dogs for such purposes,
-preferring them to swine. Book XIIII. of the work of
-Columbus is upon the subject of vivisection, <i>De viva
-sectione</i>. In this he tells us how to employ living dogs
-<span class="pb" id="Page_121">121</span>
-in demonstrating the movements of the heart and brain,
-the action of the lungs, etc. Columbus was the first
-anatomist who demonstrated experimentally that the blood
-passes from the lungs into the pulmonary veins. &ldquo;When
-the heart dilates&rdquo;, says Columbus, &ldquo;it draws natural blood
-from the vena cava into the right ventricle, and prepared
-blood from the pulmonary vein into the left; the valves
-being so disposed that they collapse and permit its ingress;
-but when the heart contracts, they become tense, and
-close the apertures, so that nothing can return by the way
-it came. The valves of the aorta and pulmonary artery
-opening, on the contrary, at the same moment, give passage
-to the spirituous blood for distribution to the body
-at large, and to the natural blood for transference to the
-lungs&rdquo;.</p>
-<p>Like Servetus, Columbus held to the idea of &ldquo;spiritus&rdquo;.
-Harvey was the first physiologist who recognized the circulation
-as purely a movement of blood. All before him
-assumed the existence of a mixture of air and blood.
-Columbus, pupil and prosector of Vesalius, like his great
-master, denied the existence of foramina in the cardiac
-septum.</p>
-<h3>Gabriel Fallopius</h3>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_122">122</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig53">
-<img src="images/p_p122.jpg" alt="" width="610" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">GABRIEL FALLOPIUS</p>
-</div>
-<p>Gabriel Fallopius (1523-1562), of Modena, was a noted
-Italian anatomist. In his twenty-fifth year he was made
-professor of anatomy at Pisa. Although the span of his
-life was short, he will be remembered always as the discoverer
-of the tubes which bear his name. According to
-Fisher, Fallopius &ldquo;described the ear more minutely than
-had ever before been done. He discovered the little
-canal along which the facial nerve passes after leaving
-the auditory; it is still called the <i>aquaeductus Fallopii</i>.
-He demonstrated the fact of the communication of the
-mastoid cells with the cavity of the tympanum; and also
-described the fenestrae rotunda and ovalis. In the treatment
-of diseases of the ear, he used an aural speculum,
-and employed sulphuric acid for the removal of polypi
-from the meatus. In some of his supposed discoveries
-he had long been anticipated; for example, the tubes
-which bear his name were known and accurately described
-by Herophilus, over three hundred years before the
-Christian era, and also by Rufus of Ephesus, of whom
-<span class="pb" id="Page_123">123</span>
-Galen speaks as the best anatomist of the second century.
-Rufus refers to two varicose and tortuous vessels passing
-from the testes (as the ovaries were called) to the cavity
-of the uterus. Fallopius, however, gave a full account of
-their course, position, size and structure. He cut into
-them and found them hollow, gave them the name of
-tubae seminales, and posterity attached his name to them,
-and in time came to a better comprehension of their true
-function. This is not the only instance in the history of
-anatomical discovery where the name of a person, not its
-discoverer, has been given to an organ. Allusion has
-been made to Fallopius as a botanist; a genus of plants,
-<i>Fallopia</i>, has been named in honor of him&rdquo;.</p>
-<p>Fallopius was appointed professor of anatomy at
-Pisa, in the year 1548; and later, at the instance of the
-Grand Duke of Tuscany, Cosimo I., he received a professorship
-at Padua, as successor to Vesalius. Besides
-the chair of anatomy and surgery and of botany, he also
-held the office of superintendent of the new botanic garden
-in that city. Fallopius remained in Padua to the day
-of his death, which occurred in 1562. He was very
-properly succeeded by his favorite pupil, Fabricius ab
-Aquapendente, who had been for some time previously
-his anatomical demonstrator. His collected works, as
-published in Venice, 1606, embrace twenty-four treatises
-distributed in three folio volumes. Only one of his works
-was published during his lifetime, namely, his <i>Observationes
-Anatomicae</i>, Venice, 1561, which is considered one
-of his most valuable books, containing, as it does, most of
-his discoveries and his animadversions on the works of
-other anatomists.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_124">124</div>
-<p>This was written as a supplement to the anatomy of
-Vesalius, for it follows the same order, passes upon the
-same subjects, corrects the inaccuracies of the Vesalian
-treatise, and supplies what is wanting. Throughout the
-work Fallopius treats Vesalius with great respect, and
-never mentions him without an honorable title. Vesalius
-wrote an answer to this work, entitled, <i>Observationum
-Fallopii examen</i>, in which he acknowledges the courtesy
-of Fallopius, but, as argument progresses, appears to be
-out of temper.</p>
-<p>After the death of Fallopius it was thought that no
-successor except Vesalius could be found competent to
-fill his place. Accordingly Vesalius was chosen. The
-news of his appointment reached him while he was returning
-from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Unfortunately
-he was shipwrecked and perished, otherwise history would
-have afforded an example of the master filling the chair
-of the pupil.</p>
-<h3>John Philip Ingrassias</h3>
-<p>Ingrassias, who lived between the years 1510-1580,
-was a graduate of the celebrated Paduan School. He
-described minutely the anatomy of the ear, including the
-tympanum, fenestrae rotunda and ovalis, the cochlea, the
-semi-circular canals, and the tensor tympani muscle. His
-admiring pupils caused his portrait to be painted and
-placed in the Neapolitan School, with this inscription:&mdash;&ldquo;To
-Philip Ingrassias, of Sicily, who, by his lectures, restored
-the science of true Medicine and Anatomy in
-Naples, his pupils have suspended this portrait as a mark
-of grateful remembrance&rdquo;. Ingrassias was a voluminous
-<span class="pb" id="Page_125">125</span>
-writer, his chief work being a treatise on osteology, which
-was published twenty-three years after his death. When
-the plague depopulated Palermo, in 1575, his devotion was
-such as to earn for him the title of the Sicilian Hippocrates.
-Few men have been more earnest workers in medical science.
-If his fame as an anatomist has not equalled that of
-others, the cause is to be sought in the multiplicity of
-competitors, not in lack of zeal and ability.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig54">
-<img src="images/p_p125.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="820" />
-<p class="pcap">INGRASSIAS</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_126">126</div>
-<h2 id="c14"><span class="small">CHAPTER THIRTEENTH</span>
-<br />Commentators and Plagiarists</h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p126.jpg" alt="Illuminated capital" width="150" height="152" />
-</div>
-<p>Medical history furnishes
-numerous examples of literary theft.
-In many instances an entire set of anatomical
-plates has been pirated by unscrupulous
-publishers. In a few cases
-both text and plates have been appropriated
-by medical authors. The most
-notorious example of this form of theft was furnished by
-William Cowper (1666-1709), an English surgeon and
-anatomist, who, having secured three hundred copies of
-Bidloo&rsquo;s set of one hundred and five anatomical plates, in
-1697 issued the work<a class="fn" id="fr_26" href="#fn_26">[26]</a> as his own. Cowper added a few
-original illustrations to the book.</p>
-<p>Vesalius suffered severely at the hands of the plagiarists.
-Pirated editions of the <i>Tabulae Anatomicae</i> were
-printed in several cities, chiefly in Germany. As regards
-the <i>Fabrica</i>, we may say that it has been the fountain
-from which many anatomical writers have derived practically
-all of their illustrations and much of their text.</p>
-<p>The fame of the <i>Fabrica</i> soon spread throughout Europe.
-It was published in Germany, in Holland and in
-England. An epitome of its contents was issued in Latin,
-in 1545, by Thomas Geminus, or Gemini, under the title:&mdash;<i>Compendiosa
-totius Anatomiae delineatio, aere exaratum
-per Thomam. Geminum.</i> It contained forty of the Vesalian
-<span class="pb" id="Page_127">127</span>
-plates, cut in copper, and was the first book issued in
-England in which the roller printing process was employed.
-It was dedicated to Henry the Eighth, and was embellished
-with &ldquo;one of the earliest and most curious of all
-extant engraved title-pages&rdquo;.</p>
-<p>In 1553, Geminus issued a second edition, in which
-the text was translated into English. This edition was
-dedicated to Edward the Sixth, with a commendatory note,
-&ldquo;To the gentill readers and Surgeons of Englande&rdquo;. Six
-years later the third English edition appeared, which was
-inscribed to Queen Elizabeth. It contains the first published
-portrait of the Queen. She is shown upon the engraved
-title-page, and, strange to say, above her is another
-queenly figure, with a pen in her right hand, a wreath on
-her left, her foot resting on the globe, and styled <i>Victoria</i>.</p>
-<p>Another English work on anatomy, which is filled
-with poor imitations of Vesalius&rsquo;s illustrations, is the
-<i>Microcosmographia</i> of Helkiah Crooke, or Crocus, who
-was &ldquo;Professor in Anatomy and Chirurgery&rdquo;. Its chief
-value rests in an elaborately engraved title-page, a part of
-which shows Crooke giving a demonstration in anatomy
-in the presence of the &ldquo;Worshipfull Company of Barber-Chirurgeons&rdquo;,
-in London, early in the seventeenth century.</p>
-<p>John Banister of Nottingham, in 1578, borrowed a
-few Vesalian woodcuts for use in <i>The Historie of Man,
-sucked from the sappe of the most approved Anatomists
-and published for the Utilitie of all Godly Chirurgians
-within this Realme</i>.</p>
-<p>Most of the host of translators, epitomizers, commentators
-and imitators of Vesalius have passed into oblivion.
-<span class="pb" id="Page_128">128</span>
-A few of these persons have possessed enough of individuality
-to deserve recognition.</p>
-<p>Juan Valverde di Hamusco, a Spaniard who was born
-about the year 1500, studied anatomy at Padua and later
-at Rome. His book, <i>Historia de la Composicion del
-Cuerpo Humano</i>, was published at Rome in 1556. It
-contains forty-two copperplates and an engraved title-page.
-Although the author says he has used only the Vesalian
-plates, his work contains several plates which are not to
-be found in Vesalius&rsquo;s writings. For example, Valverde
-shows a <i>muskelmann</i> with his skin held in his right hand,
-the left grasping a dagger which may have been used in
-the skinning process. Other original drawings show the
-abdomen and intestines, a pregnant woman with the abdomen
-opened, and illustrations of the superficial veins.</p>
-<p>Valverde was physician to Cardinal Juan de Toledo,
-Archbishop of Santiago, to whom the work is dedicated.
-The illustrations were drawn by Gaspar Becerra and were
-engraved by Nicholas Beatrizet. Valverde&rsquo;s book went
-through several editions. It forms a landmark in the
-medical history of Spain&mdash;a country which, for many years,
-was behind other states of Europe in matters of science.</p>
-<p>To name the list of anatomical writers who have derived
-their artistic inspiration from the <i>Fabrica</i> would require
-much more space than is at our disposal. It must
-suffice to say, that, for a period of two centuries, nearly
-all treatises on anatomy contained illustrations which were
-taken from the writings of Vesalius. With few exceptions,
-these reproductions were little better than caricatures
-of the original figures.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_129">129</div>
-<p>Of the numerous editions of the <i>Fabrica</i> there are
-three which are highly prized, namely, the first one, 1543;
-the second, issued in 1555, containing eight hundred and
-twenty-four pages, with many changes in the text; and
-the 1725 edition of the collected writings of Vesalius.
-The last named is a huge volume which was published at
-Leyden under the supervision of Boerhaave and Albinus,
-with the illustrations cut in copper by Jan Wandelaar<a class="fn" id="fr_27" href="#fn_27">[27]</a>.</p>
-<p>It contains the <i>Fabrica</i>, the <i>Epitome</i>, the <i>Epistola de
-Radicis Chynae</i>, various anatomical treatises of a controversial
-character, and the <i>Chirurgia Magna</i> which has
-been wrongly attributed to Vesalius. Morley says of this
-book:&mdash;&ldquo;After his death a great work on surgery appeared,
-in seven books, signed with his name, and commonly
-included among his writings. There is reason, however,
-to believe that his name was stolen to give value to the
-book, which was compiled and published by a Venetian,
-Prosper Bogarucci, a literary crow, who fed himself upon
-the dead man&rsquo;s reputation&rdquo;.</p>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p129.jpg" alt="Ornamental block" width="500" height="256" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_130">130</div>
-<h2 id="c15"><span class="small">CHAPTER FOURTEENTH</span>
-<br />The Court Physician</h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p130.jpg" alt="Illuminated capital" width="150" height="154" />
-</div>
-<p>Vesalius, having finished
-the <i>Fabrica</i>, intended to write a work
-on the practice of medicine which
-should be based on pathology. He
-makes mention of this in the preface
-of the <i>Fabrica</i>, and in numerous
-places in the body of the book he describes
-the pathologic appearances which he found in
-dissection.</p>
-<p>Returning to Padua after a year&rsquo;s absence, he found
-that the University for which he had strenuously labored
-was a very hotbed of opposition. His former pupil and
-friend, Realdus Columbus, who was now lecturing on
-anatomy at Padua, had turned against him. How deeply
-Vesalius was wounded by the man whom he had made,
-can be appreciated only by those who have been placed
-in similar circumstances. The controversy between
-Columbus and Vesalius was of a bitter and personal
-character.</p>
-<p>On all sides the views of Vesalius were attacked, and
-the defenders of Galen joined hands with men like Columbus
-in an effort to besmirch the great anatomist. Disgusted
-with such treatment, Vesalius, early in 1544, went
-to Pisa. Here he conducted a course in anatomy. Leaving
-Pisa, he went to Bologna where he made some special
-dissections upon two bodies. About this time he declined
-<span class="pb" id="Page_131">131</span>
-a chair in the University of Pisa which was tendered to
-him by direction of Cosimo de&rsquo; Medici. Tired of the apparently
-useless effort to make men see the truth, sick of
-disputes and arguments, persecuted by members of his
-own profession, in a fit of passion Vesalius threw his
-manuscripts into the fire and ended his career as a scientist.
-&ldquo;Thus&rdquo;, says Morley, &ldquo;he destroyed a huge volume
-of annotations upon Galen; a whole book of Medical
-Formulae; many original notes upon drugs; the copy of
-Galen from which he lectured, covered with marginal
-notes of new observations
-that had occurred to him
-while demonstrating; and
-the paraphrase of the
-books of Rhazes, in
-which the knowledge of
-the Arabians was collated
-with that of the Greeks
-and others&rdquo;.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig55">
-<img src="images/p_p131.jpg" alt="" width="675" height="801" />
-<p class="pcap">CHARLES THE FIFTH</p>
-</div>
-<p>While in this frame of
-mind it is not surprising
-that he should have accepted
-the appointment
-of Archiatrus to Charles
-the Fifth of Spain.</p>
-<p>The great Emperor was now at the zenith of his fame.
-His kingdom, which reached from South America to the
-Zuyder Zee, was well under control, but the monarch already
-contemplated the abdication of the throne in favor of
-his son Philip, who is known in history as Philip the Second.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_132">132</div>
-<p>Vesalius left Italy and took up his residence at Madrid.
-He was now in his thirtieth year. As Archiatrus he accompanied
-the Emperor in the fourth French war, in
-which he gained his first experience as a military surgeon.
-He also acted as physician to Charles and to the members
-of the imperial household. The war ended in September
-1544. In January, 1545, Charles went to Brussels, and
-remained in the Netherlands for many months. Vesalius
-was now in his native country, and in April, 1546, he
-visited the graves of his ancestors at Nymwegen and
-Wesel. In the same year he published a new edition of
-his treatise on the China root.</p>
-<p>On the twenty-fifth day of October, 1555, amid a scene
-of pomp and splendor, in the presence of the assembled
-representatives of the Netherlands, Charles formally surrendered
-to his son all his territories, jurisdiction and authority
-in the Low-Countries. This was the first of a series
-of acts by which the Emperor gradually relinquished
-the reins of power, in order to spend his remaining days in
-a cloister. Philip thus became the heir to a vast dominion.
-Vesalius was continued in office as Archiatrus by the new
-Emperor. From both Charles and Philip, Vesalius received
-many marks of honor. It was he who rescued
-Charles from what was thought to be a mortal disease. At
-a later date, when Philip&rsquo;s unfortunate son, Don Carlos,
-received a severe injury to the head, and after the treatment
-of the Spanish physicians had failed, it was Vesalius
-who saved his life by an operation. These cures, and
-the accurate prediction of the death-day of Maximilian
-d&rsquo;Egmont, placed the fame of Vesalius at high tide.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_133">133</div>
-<h2 id="c16"><span class="small">CHAPTER FIFTEENTH</span>
-<br />Pilgrimage and Death</h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p133.jpg" alt="Illuminated capital" width="150" height="141" />
-</div>
-<p>Suddenly, early in the year
-1564, for a reason which has never been
-explained satisfactorily, Vesalius left
-Madrid. Apparently he was at the
-height of success. He was famous as
-a physician and surgeon; he was a
-favorite at the Spanish court; he had amassed a fortune;
-and seemingly he was destined to pass his remaining days
-under the most favorable surroundings. As occurs to all
-great men, he had excited the jealous animosity of many
-of the members of his profession. The efforts of the
-Madrid physicians to ignore the talents of one whom they
-regarded as a foreigner, long since had reacted to
-the advantage of the Archiatrus.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig56">
-<img src="images/p_p133a.jpg" alt="" width="674" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">PHILIP THE SECOND</p>
-</div>
-<p>During the twenty years
-that he had filled the post
-of Archiatrus, the scalpel
-of Vesalius was rusting:
-but the controversy concerning
-the infallibility of
-Galen was still raging. The
-violent criticisms of Sylvius
-upon the <i>Fabrica</i> had been
-silenced by death, but
-<span class="pb" id="Page_134">134</span>
-others took up the cause of Galen where Sylvius had
-left it. But the passing years had brought a new coterie
-of professors, who, like Fallopius at Padua; Rondelet at
-Montpellier; Massa at Venice; and Fuchs at T&uuml;bingen,
-were boldly teaching many things that were contrary to
-Galen.</p>
-<p>Life at the Spanish court was not favorable to the study
-of science. &ldquo;The hand of the Church&rdquo;, says Foster<a class="fn" id="fr_28" href="#fn_28">[28]</a>, &ldquo;was
-heavy on the land; the dagger of the Inquisition was stabbing
-at all mental life, and its torch was a sterilizing flame
-sweeping over all intellectual activity. The pursuit of
-natural knowledge had become a crime, and to search with
-the scalpel into the secrets of the body of man was accounted
-sacrilege. It was for a life in priest-ridden, ignorant,
-superstitious Madrid that Vesalius had forsaken the
-freedom of the Venetian Republic and the bright academic
-circles of Padua; in Madrid, where, as he himself
-has said, &lsquo;he could not lay his hand on so much as a dried
-skull, much less have the chance of making a dissection&rsquo;.
-Moreover, he must have felt the loss of Charles, who,
-whatever his faults, recognized the worth of intellectual
-efforts, and in many ways had shown his sympathy with
-Vesalius&rsquo;s love of knowledge. Such sympathy could not
-be looked for in the narrow and bigoted Philip&rdquo;.</p>
-<p>About this time Vesalius received a copy of the <i>Observationes
-Anatomicae</i> of his pupil Fallopius, who, having
-learned all that his master had taught of anatomy, continued
-his studies with great skill and industry. Such a
-book, coming at an opportune time, must have seemed
-<span class="pb" id="Page_135">135</span>
-like a voice calling the Archiatrus back to the intellectual
-life, bringing to his mind&rsquo;s eye the recollection of his happy
-days in Italy.</p>
-<p>Vesalius travelled to Venice by way of Perpignan.
-While in Venice he visited the printer, Francesco Sanese,
-and discussed the publication of a new book which
-should contain his reply to Fallopius. In a short time
-he started for Cyprus in company with Jacobo Malatesta,
-the commander of the Venetian forces in that island.
-Thence he passed to Jerusalem on a pilgrimage to the
-Holy Land. Vesalius never returned from that journey.
-Information of his death reached Brussels towards the end
-of that year&mdash;1564.</p>
-<p>What was the reason for this pilgrimage? Various
-alleged authorities have given different versions, many of
-which are evidently fictitious. The most reasonable account,
-which emanates from Spanish-French sources,
-dates from a letter written January 1, 1565, to the physician
-Caspar Peucer by Hubert Languer, or Hubertus Languetus,
-the Huguenot friend of Philip Sidney, which says:&mdash;&ldquo;They
-say that Vesalius is dead. Doubtless you have
-heard that he went to Jerusalem. That journey had, as
-they tell us from Spain, an odd reason. Vesalius, believing
-a young Spanish nobleman whom he had attended to
-be dead, obtained leave of the parents to open the body
-for the sake of inquiring into the cause of the illness,
-which he had not rightly comprehended. This was granted;
-but he had no sooner made an incision into the body
-than he perceived the symptoms of life, and opening the
-breast, saw the heart beat. The parents coming afterwards
-<span class="pb" id="Page_136">136</span>
-to the knowledge of this, were not satisfied with
-prosecuting him for murder, but accused him to the Inquisition
-of impiety, in hopes that he would be punished
-with greater rigor by the judges of that tribunal than
-by those of the common law. But the King of Spain interposed,
-and saved him on condition that by way of
-atoning for the error he should undertake a pilgrimage to
-the Holy Land&rdquo;.</p>
-<p>The pilgrimage was made, the Holy Sepulcher was
-visited, and the weary wanderer had started for Padua to
-take the chair which was made vacant by the death of
-Fallopius. A violent storm swept the Ionian Sea. Vesalius&rsquo;s
-ship was wrecked upon the island of Zakynthos,
-where, on the fifteenth day of October, 1564, the Archiatrus
-died of exhaustion.</p>
-<p>Such was the miserable end of Andreas Vesalius of
-Brussels, a man, who, before he had attained his thirtieth
-year, had become the greatest anatomist that the world
-has ever seen.</p>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p136.jpg" alt="Ornamental block" width="800" height="312" />
-</div>
-<h2 id="c17"><span class="small"><span class="large">FOOTNOTES</span></span></h2>
-<div class="fnblock"><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_1" href="#fr_1">[1]</a>Th&eacute;orie de la figure humaine. Paris, 1773.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_2" href="#fr_2">[2]</a>Moehsen: Verzeichnis einer Sammlung von Bildnissen. Berlin, 1771; page 59.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_3" href="#fr_3">[3]</a>Bell: Observations on Italy. Edinburgh, 1825; page 257.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_4" href="#fr_4">[4]</a>Galen: De Anatomicis Adininistrationibus. Lib. II.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_5" href="#fr_5">[5]</a>Celsus: De Medicina. Lib. I.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_6" href="#fr_6">[6]</a>Fisher: Claudius Galenus. Annals of Anatomy and Surgery, Vol. IV., page 216.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_7" href="#fr_7">[7]</a>Saint Basil, in his maturer years, deeply regretted that he had studied classical literature
-in his youth. Jerome regarded the reading of the writings of antiquity as a terrible
-crime. Gregory the Great declared a knowledge of grammar even for a layman
-to be indelicate.&mdash;Fort: Medical Economy during the Middle Ages. N. Y., 1883;
-pages 102, 103.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_8" href="#fr_8">[8]</a>Meryon: History of Medicine. London, 1861; vol. I, page 479.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_9" href="#fr_9">[9]</a>Adam; Vitae Germanorum Medicorum. Haidelbergae, 1620: page 224.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_10" href="#fr_10">[10]</a>Zwinger: Theatrum Vitae Humanae. Basileae, 1571.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_11" href="#fr_11">[11]</a>Vesalius: Fabrica, 1543, preface.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_12" href="#fr_12">[12]</a>Sylvius: Ordo et Ordinis Ratio in Legendis Hippocratis et Galeni Libris, 1539.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_13" href="#fr_13">[13]</a>The Coll&eacute;ge Royal de France was founded by Francis the First. This enlightened
-patron of the sciences and arts recognized the merits of scientific men and rewarded them
-with his money and his friendship. He established the Coll&eacute;ge de France with twelve
-richly-endowed professorships, one of which was devoted to medicine. The lectures
-were free to all who desired to attend. The first incumbent of the chair of medicine
-was Vidus Vidius, Guido Guidi, of Florence, who filled this position from 1542 to
-1548. Such success followed his labors that, on his return to Italy, his experience in
-Paris was the subject of this witticism: <i>Vidus venit, Vidius vidit, Vidus vicit</i>.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_14" href="#fr_14">[14]</a>Northcote: History of Anatomy. London, 1772; page 56.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_15" href="#fr_15">[15]</a>Portal: Histoire de l&rsquo;Anatomie et de la Chirurgie. Paris, 1770; vol. I, page 365.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_16" href="#fr_16">[16]</a>Moreau: Vita Sylvii, in Sylvii Opera Medica. Geneva, 1635.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_17" href="#fr_17">[17]</a>Vesalius: De radice Chinae epistola, 1546; pages 151, 152.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_18" href="#fr_18">[18]</a>Archives Curieuses de l&rsquo;Histoire de France.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_19" href="#fr_19">[19]</a>Guinterius: Anatomicarum Institutionum, 1539.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_20" href="#fr_20">[20]</a>Paraphrasis in nonum librum Rhazae medici Arabis clariss. ad Regem Almansorem,
-de singularum corporis partium affectuum curatione, autore Andrea Wesalio Bruxellensi
-Medicinae candidato. Lovanii ex officina Rutgeri Resii. mense Februar. 1537.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_21" href="#fr_21">[21]</a>Radicis Chinae usus, Andrea Vesalio autore. Lugd., 1547; page 278.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_22" href="#fr_22">[22]</a>Moehsen: Verzeichnis einer Sammlung von Bildnissen. Berlin, 1771; page 82.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_23" href="#fr_23">[23]</a>Sandrart: Teutsche Academie. N&uuml;rnberg, 1685: vol. II., page 243.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_24" href="#fr_24">[24]</a>Portal: Histoire de l&rsquo;anatomie et de la chirurgie. Paris, 1770; vol. I., page 399.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_25" href="#fr_25">[25]</a>McMurrich: Medical Library and Historical Journal, December, 1906.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_26" href="#fr_26">[26]</a>Cowper: The Anatomy of Human Bodies. Oxford, 1697.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_27" href="#fr_27">[27]</a>Andreae Vesalii Opera Omnia Anatomica et Chirurgica in duos tomos distributa cura
-Hermanni Boerhaave et Bernhardi Siegfried Albini. Lugduni Batavorum, 1725.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_28" href="#fr_28">[28]</a>Foster: Lectures on the History of Physiology. Cambridge, 1901, page 17.
-</div>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_137">137</div>
-<h2 id="c18"><span class="small"><span class="large">INDEX</span></span></h2>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_139">139</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p139.jpg" alt="Ornamental block" width="800" height="179" />
-</div>
-<h2 id="c19"><span class="small"><span class="large">INDEX</span></span></h2>
-<p class="center"><a class="ab" href="#index_A">A</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_B">B</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_C">C</a> <span class="ab">D</span> <a class="ab" href="#index_E">E</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_F">F</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_G">G</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_H">H</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_I">I</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_J">J</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_K">K</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_L">L</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_M">M</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_Mc">Mc</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_N">N</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_O">O</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_P">P</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_Q">Q</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_R">R</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_S">S</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_T">T</a> <span class="ab">U</span> <a class="ab" href="#index_V">V</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_W">W</a> <span class="ab">X</span> <span class="ab">Y</span> <a class="ab" href="#index_Z">Z</a></p>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_A">A</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Abr&eacute;g&eacute; d&rsquo;anatomie</span> <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Achillinus, Alexander</span> <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Adam, M.</span> <a href="#Page_55">55</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Adolph of Nassau</span> <a href="#Page_11">11</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Aegina, Paul of</span> <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Aesculapius</span> <a href="#Page_17">17</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Aetius</span> <a href="#Page_80">80</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Alberti, Leo Battista</span> <a href="#Page_7">7</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Albertus Magnus</span> <a href="#Page_55">55</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Albius, John Andreas</span> <a href="#Page_80">80</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Albinus, B. S.</span> <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Albucasis</span> <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Alcmaeon</span> <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Aldo</span> <a href="#Page_11">11</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Aldus Manutius</span> <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Alexander of Tralles</span> <a href="#Page_63">63</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Alexander the Great</span> <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Alexandria</span> <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Alexandrian Anatomists</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Alexandrian Library</span> <a href="#Page_23">23</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Alexandrian University</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Alfonso the Magnificent</span> <a href="#Page_5">5</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Almansor, the</span> <a href="#Page_72">72</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Al-Rasi</span> <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Amatus</span> <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Ambrosian Library</span> <a href="#Page_113">113</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Anatomy in Ancient Times</span> <a href="#Page_17">17</a>-28</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Anathomia Mundini</span> <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Anatomia Corporis Humani</span> <a href="#Page_37">37</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Anatomia ridotta</span> <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Anatomia Porci</span> <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Anatomical Renaissance</span> <a href="#Page_14">14</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Andernach, John Winter of</span> <a href="#Page_61">61</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Antonius Musa</span> <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Antropologium of Magnus Hundt</span> <a href="#Page_39">39</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Apelles</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Aphorisms of Hippocrates</span> <a href="#Page_53">53</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Apollo</span> <a href="#Page_19">19</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Apophyses venarum</span> <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Aquaeductus Fallopii</span> <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Aqueduct of Sylvius</span> <a href="#Page_60">60</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Arabs</span> <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Arantius</span> <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Archimedes</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Archiatrus</span> <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Aristophanes</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Aristotle</span> <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Ars Curativa of Galen</span> <a href="#Page_56">56</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Art-Anatomy</span> <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Artery of Sylvius</span> <a href="#Page_60">60</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Asclepiadae</span> <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Astruc</span> <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Athanasius</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Augustus</span> <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Aurelius, Marcus</span> <a href="#Page_24">24</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Averr&ouml;es</span> <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Avicenna</span> <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_140">140</div>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_B">B</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Banister, John</span> <a href="#Page_127">127</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Basel, view of</span> <a href="#Page_83">83</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Beatrizet, Nicholas</span> <a href="#Page_128">128</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Becerra, Caspar</span> <a href="#Page_128">128</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Bell, John</span> <a href="#Page_18">18</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Bembo</span> <a href="#Page_12">12</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Benedictine Monastery</span> <a href="#Page_5">5</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Berengario da Carpi</span> <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-46</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Bertruccius</span> <a href="#Page_29">29</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Boccaccio</span> <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Bogarucci, Prosper</span> <a href="#Page_129">129</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Boerhaave</span> <a href="#Page_129">129</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Bologna</span> <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Boniface VIII</span> <a href="#Page_15">15</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Bracciolini, Poggio</span> <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Brambilla</span> <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Brissotus, Petrus</span> <a href="#Page_56">56</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Bruchaeum</span> <a href="#Page_21">21</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Budaeus</span> <a href="#Page_56">56</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Busleiden, Hieronymus</span> <a href="#Page_54">54</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_141">141</div>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_C">C</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Caelius Aurelianus</span> <a href="#Page_63">63</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Caesalpinus</span> <a href="#Page_16">16</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Caius</span> <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Cajetan Petrioli</span> <a href="#Page_115">115</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Calamus scriptorius</span> <a href="#Page_23">23</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Callimichus</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Calcar, Jan Stephan van</span> <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Canna coxae</span> <a href="#Page_34">34</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Cannanus</span> <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Caraffa</span> <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Carbo, Gisbertus</span> <a href="#Page_55">55</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Cardan, Jerome</span> <a href="#Page_52">52</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Cardi, Luigi</span> <a href="#Page_9">9</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Carpi, Seigneur de</span> <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Carpus</span> <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-46</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Carolus Stephanus</span> <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Caxton</span> <a href="#Page_11">11</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Celsus, Aulus Cornelius</span> <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Charles the Fifth</span> <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Chauliac, Guy de</span> <a href="#Page_29">29</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">China root</span> <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Christian III</span> <a href="#Page_63">63</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Cicero</span> <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Cimabue</span> <a href="#Page_7">7</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Civitas Hippocratica</span> <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Clement VII</span> <a href="#Page_12">12</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Clement XI</span> <a href="#Page_115">115</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Colladus</span> <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Collegium trilingue</span> <a href="#Page_54">54</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Coll&eacute;ge de Tr&eacute;guier</span> <a href="#Page_58">58</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Coll&eacute;ge de Cornouailles</span> <a href="#Page_58">58</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Coll&eacute;ge de France</span> <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Columbus</span> <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-121, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Copernicus</span> <a href="#Page_2">2</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Copho</span> <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Coriolano, Christoforo</span> <a href="#Page_88">88</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Cortona, Pietro da</span> <a href="#Page_9">9</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Cosimo de&rsquo; Medici</span> <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Cosimo I</span> <a href="#Page_123">123</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Cowper, William</span> <a href="#Page_126">126</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Crabbe, Isabella</span> <a href="#Page_53">53</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Crooke, Helkiah</span> <a href="#Page_127">127</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Crusaders</span> <a href="#Page_15">15</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Curtius, Matthaeus</span> <a href="#Page_79">79</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_142">142</div>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_D">D</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">da Carpi, Berengario</span> <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-46, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">da Carpi, Hugo</span> <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Danoni</span> <a href="#Page_84">84</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Dante, Alighieri</span> <a href="#Page_3">3</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Dark Ages, Anatomy in the</span> <a href="#Page_26">26</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">da Vinci, Leonardo</span> <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">de Ketham, Joannes</span> <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Della Torre, Marc Antonio</span> <a href="#Page_8">8</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Descartes</span> <a href="#Page_65">65</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Deventer, the Beggar of</span> <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">de Zerbi, Gabriel</span> <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Donaria of Anatomical Interest</span> <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Don Carlos</span> <a href="#Page_132">132</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Dryander, John</span> <a href="#Page_46">46</a>-48, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Dubois, Jacques</span> <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">D&uuml;rer, Albrecht</span> <a href="#Page_9">9</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_143">143</div>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_E">E</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Eclectic Philosophy</span> <a href="#Page_66">66</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Egyptian Anatomy</span> <a href="#Page_17">17</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Eichmann</span> <a href="#Page_47">47</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Elizabeth, Queen</span> <a href="#Page_127">127</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Empedocles of Agrigentum</span> <a href="#Page_19">19</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Epidaurus</span> <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Epitome, the</span> <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>-97, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Erasistratus</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Eratosthenes</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Estienne, Charles</span> <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-51, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Estienne, Robert</span> <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Eucharus</span> <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Eucharius Rhodion</span> <a href="#Page_16">16</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Euclid</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Eustachius, Bartholomeus</span> <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>-118</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Eyck, Hubert and John van</span> <a href="#Page_7">7</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_F">F</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Fabrica, the</span> <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></dt>
-<dd><span class="jl">contents of</span> <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-113</dd>
-<dt><span class="jl">Fabricius ab Aquapendente</span> <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Fallopia</span> <a href="#Page_123">123</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Fallopius, Gabriel</span> <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>-124, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Ferdinand I</span> <a href="#Page_63">63</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Fernel, Jean</span> <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>-67</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Fisher, G. J.</span> <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Fliegende Bl&auml;tter</span> <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Foesius, Anutius</span> <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Foramen Vesalii</span> <a href="#Page_103">103</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Fort, George F.</span> <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Fracastoro</span> <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Francis the First</span> <a href="#Page_60">60</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Frederick II</span> <a href="#Page_28">28</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Friesen</span> <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_144">144</div>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_G">G</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Gabriel de Zerbi</span> <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Galen</span> <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>-26, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Galileo</span> <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Geminus, Thomas</span> <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Gemma, Regnier</span> <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Giacomo Berengario</span> <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-46</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Giacomo Moro</span> <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Giotto</span> <a href="#Page_7">7</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Giuseppe Ribera</span> <a href="#Page_9">9</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Glisson</span> <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Granvella</span> <a href="#Page_55">55</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Greece, Anatomy in</span> <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Gregory the Great</span> <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Guido Guidi</span> <a href="#Page_60">60</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Guillemeau, Jacques</span> <a href="#Page_16">16</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Guinterius, Joannes</span> <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-64, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_H">H</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Hamusco, Juan Valverde di</span> <a href="#Page_128">128</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Harvey, William</span> <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Havers, Clopton</span> <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Hela, Ricardus</span> <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Henry the Second</span> <a href="#Page_65">65</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Hero</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Herophilus</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Historie of Man</span> <a href="#Page_127">127</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Hippocrates</span> <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Holbein, the Elder</span> <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Homer</span> <a href="#Page_29">29</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Hubert van Eyck</span> <a href="#Page_7">7</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Hugo da Carpi</span> <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Humanists and Humanism</span> <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Hundt, Magnus</span> <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-40, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_I">I</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Ignatius Loyola</span> <a href="#Page_73">73</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Index Expurgatorius</span> <a href="#Page_13">13</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Ingrassias, John Philip</span> <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Inquisition</span> <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Isagogae Breves</span> <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Institutionum Anatomicarum</span> <a href="#Page_81">81</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Italy and the Renaissance</span> <a href="#Page_2">2</a>-14</dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_J">J</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Jan Stephan van Calcar</span> <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Jan Wandelaar</span> <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Jerome</span> <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Jerome Mercurialis</span> <a href="#Page_88">88</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Jesuits</span> <a href="#Page_73">73</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Joannes de Ketham</span> <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_145">145</div>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_K">K</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Kalcker</span> <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Ketham, Joannes de</span> <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_L">L</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Lactantius</span> <a href="#Page_11">11</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Lancisi</span> <a href="#Page_115">115</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Languer, Hubert</span> <a href="#Page_135">135</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Laurentius Phryesen</span> <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Leonardo da Vinci</span> <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Leonicenus, Nicholas</span> <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Linacre, Thomas</span> <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Livy</span> <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Lorenzo de&rsquo; Medici</span> <a href="#Page_8">8</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Louvain, University of</span> <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Loyola, Ignatius</span> <a href="#Page_73">73</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Luca Signorelli</span> <a href="#Page_8">8</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Luigi Cardi</span> <a href="#Page_9">9</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Luther</span> <a href="#Page_63">63</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Luzzi, Mondino dei</span> <a href="#Page_29">29</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_M">M</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Maggiore Consiglio of Venice</span> <a href="#Page_28">28</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Magnus, Albertus</span> <a href="#Page_55">55</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Malatesta, Jacobo</span> <a href="#Page_135">135</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Manetho</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Marc Antonio della Torre</span> <a href="#Page_8">8</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Margarita Philosophica</span> <a href="#Page_55">55</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Massa</span> <a href="#Page_134">134</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Maximilian d&rsquo;Egmont</span> <a href="#Page_132">132</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Mead, Dr. Richard</span> <a href="#Page_97">97</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Medicina Astrologica</span> <a href="#Page_28">28</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Melzi</span> <a href="#Page_113">113</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Mercurialis, Jerome</span> <a href="#Page_88">88</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Meryon, Edward</span> <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Michael Angelo</span> <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Mirach</span> <a href="#Page_34">34</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Moehsen, J. C. W.</span> <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Mondino dei Luzzi</span> <a href="#Page_29">29</a>-36</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Mondino&rsquo;s Anathomia</span> <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Mondino&rsquo;s Successors</span> <a href="#Page_37">37</a>-51</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Monte Cassino</span> <a href="#Page_5">5</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Moreau</span> <a href="#Page_61">61</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Morley, Henry</span> <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Moro, Giacomo</span> <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Moschenbauer</span> <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Musa, Antonius</span> <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Museum, Alexandrian</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Myntens, Arnold</span> <a href="#Page_9">9</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_146">146</div>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_Mc">Mc</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">McMurrich</span> <a href="#Page_113">113</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_N">N</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Narcissus of Parthenope</span> <a href="#Page_82">82</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Nicholas V</span> <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Northcote, W.</span> <a href="#Page_60">60</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_O">O</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Oporinus, Joannes</span> <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Oribasius</span> <a href="#Page_63">63</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Origen</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Osiris</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_P">P</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Padua, University of</span> <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></dt>
-<dd><span class="jl">Vesalius&rsquo;s Sojourn in</span> <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-69</dd>
-<dt><span class="jl">Paedagogium Castri</span> <a href="#Page_54">54</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Paganism</span> <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Paraphrase of Rhazes</span> <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Par&eacute;, Ambroise</span> <a href="#Page_16">16</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Paris, Anatomical teaching at</span> <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Parthenope, Narcissus of</span> <a href="#Page_82">82</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Pascal</span> <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Paulus Aegineta</span> <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Pausanias</span> <a href="#Page_18">18</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Petrarch</span> <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Peucer, Caspar</span> <a href="#Page_135">135</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Peyligk, John</span> <a href="#Page_39">39</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Philip the Second</span> <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Phryesen, Laurentius</span> <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Pierre de la Rame&eacute;</span> <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Pietro da Cortona</span> <a href="#Page_9">9</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Piles, Rogers de</span> <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Pinus</span> <a href="#Page_115">115</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Pion, Albert</span> <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Poggio Bracciolini</span> <a href="#Page_9">9</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Pollaiuolo, Antonio</span> <a href="#Page_8">8</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Poliziano</span> <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Pontanus</span> <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Pope Boniface VIII</span> <a href="#Page_15">15</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Pope Clement VII</span> <a href="#Page_12">12</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Pope Clement XI</span> <a href="#Page_115">115</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Pope Leo X</span> <a href="#Page_12">12</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Pope Nicholas V</span> <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Pope Paul III</span> <a href="#Page_13">13</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Pope Paul IV</span> <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Pope Pius IIII</span> <a href="#Page_119">119</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Portal</span> <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Ptolemies, the</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_147">147</div>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_Q">Q</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Quintilian</span> <a href="#Page_5">5</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_R">R</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Raffaello Santi</span> <a href="#Page_9">9</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Raimondino</span> <a href="#Page_28">28</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Ramus</span> <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Regio Judaeorum</span> <a href="#Page_21">21</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Renaissance, the Anatomical</span> <a href="#Page_14">14</a>-16</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Renaissance, the General</span> <a href="#Page_1">1</a>-14</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Rescius</span> <a href="#Page_71">71</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Rhacotis</span> <a href="#Page_21">21</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Rhazes</span> <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Rhodion, Eucharius</span> <a href="#Page_16">16</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Ribera, Giuseppe</span> <a href="#Page_9">9</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Richardson, B. W.</span> <a href="#Page_99">99</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Rogers de Piles</span> <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Rome, Anatomy in</span> <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Rubens</span> <a href="#Page_9">9</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Rufus of Ephesus</span> <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_148">148</div>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_S">S</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Saint Basil</span> <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Saint Stephen</span> <a href="#Page_12">12</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Salernum</span> <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Sandrart</span> <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Sannazzaro</span> <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Santi, Raffaello</span> <a href="#Page_9">9</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Scotus, Michael</span> <a href="#Page_55">55</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Servetus</span> <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Sicilian Hippocrates</span> <a href="#Page_125">125</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Sidney, Philip</span> <a href="#Page_135">135</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Signorelli, Luca</span> <a href="#Page_8">8</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Siphac</span> <a href="#Page_34">34</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Spiegel der Artzny</span> <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Stephanas, Carolus</span> <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-51</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Stirling-Maxwell, Sir William</span> <a href="#Page_83">83</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Sturm</span> <a href="#Page_71">71</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Sylvius, Jacobus</span> <a href="#Page_57">57</a>-61, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Symonds, J. A.</span> <a href="#Page_3">3</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_T">T</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Tabulae Anatomicae</span> <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Tagault, Jean</span> <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Temples of Aesculapius</span> <a href="#Page_18">18</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Terence</span> <a href="#Page_5">5</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Theatin Monks</span> <a href="#Page_73">73</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Theocritus</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Thomas of Sarzana</span> <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Titian</span> <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Torcular Herophili</span> <a href="#Page_23">23</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Torre, Marc Antonio della</span> <a href="#Page_8">8</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Torricelli</span> <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Tortebat, Fran&ccedil;ois</span> <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Trajectorium</span> <a href="#Page_35">35</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Tralles, Alexander of</span> <a href="#Page_63">63</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Tritonius, Vitus</span> <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_149">149</div>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_V">V</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Valeriano</span> <a href="#Page_12">12</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Valverde, Juan di Hamusco</span> <a href="#Page_128">128</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">van Eyck, Hubert and John</span> <a href="#Page_7">7</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Varolius</span> <a href="#Page_15">15</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Vasari</span> <a href="#Page_88">88</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Velsius</span> <a href="#Page_71">71</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Venice</span> <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Venice, Maggiore Consiglio of</span> <a href="#Page_28">28</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Verdunno, Narciso</span> <a href="#Page_82">82</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Vesalius, birth of</span> <a href="#Page_52">52</a></dt>
-<dd><span class="jl">death of</span> <a href="#Page_136">136</a></dd>
-<dd><span class="jl">education of</span> <a href="#Page_53">53</a>-55, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></dd>
-<dt><span class="jl">Vesanus</span> <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Vida</span> <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Vidius, Vidus</span> <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Villanovanus, Michael</span> <a href="#Page_68">68</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Vinci, Leonardo da</span> <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Vitruvius</span> <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Vitus Tritonius</span> <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_W">W</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Waechtlin</span> <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Wandelaar, Jan</span> <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Wesalius Family</span> <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Wharton</span> <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Winter of Andernach</span> <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-64</dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="indexlr">
-<dt class="center b" id="index_Z">Z</dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Zakynthos, island of</span> <a href="#Page_136">136</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Zerbi, Gabriel de</span> <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></dt>
-<dt><span class="jl">Zyrbi</span> <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p_p149.jpg" alt="Ornamental block" width="525" height="294" />
-</div>
-<h2>Transcriber&rsquo;s Notes</h2>
-<ul>
-<li>Silently corrected a few typos.</li>
-<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li>
-<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li>
-</ul>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Andreas Vesalius the Reformer of
-Anatomy, by James Moores Ball
-
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