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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/6322.txt b/6322.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3d6976a --- /dev/null +++ b/6322.txt @@ -0,0 +1,21076 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Equinoctial Regions of America, by Alexander von Humboldt + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Equinoctial Regions of America + +Author: Alexander von Humboldt + +Posting Date: June 5, 2012 [EBook #6322] +Release Date: August, 2004 +First Posted: November 26, 2002 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EQUINOCTIAL REGIONS OF AMERICA *** + + + + +Produced by Sue Asscher and Robert Prince + + + + + + + + + + +Equinoctial Regions of America + +Alexander von Humboldt + + +BOHN'S SCIENTIFIC LIBRARY. + + + + +HUMBOLDT'S PERSONAL NARRATIVE + +VOLUME 1. + +PERSONAL NARRATIVE OF TRAVELS TO THE EQUINOCTIAL REGIONS OF AMERICA +DURING THE YEARS 1799-1804 + +BY + +ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT AND AIME BONPLAND. + + + +TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH OF + +ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT + +AND EDITED BY + +THOMASINA ROSS. + + + +IN THREE VOLUMES + +VOLUME 1. + + +LONDON. + +GEORGE BELL & SONS. +1907. +LONDON: PORTUGAL ST., LINCOLN'S INN. +CAMBRIDGE: DEIGHTON, BELL AND CO. +NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN CO. +BOMBAY: A.H. WHEELER AND CO. + + +EDITOR'S PREFACE. + +The increasing interest attached to all that part of the American +Continent situated within and near the tropics, has suggested the +publication of the present edition of Humboldt's celebrated work, +as a portion of the SCIENTIFIC LIBRARY. + +Prior to the travels of Humboldt and Bonpland, the countries +described in the following narrative were but imperfectly known to +Europeans. For our partial acquaintance with them we were chiefly +indebted to the early navigators, and to some of the followers of +the Spanish Conquistadores. The intrepid men whose courage and +enterprise prompted them to explore unknown seas for the discovery +of a New World, have left behind them narratives of their +adventures, and descriptions of the strange lands and people they +visited, which must ever be perused with curiosity and interest; +and some of the followers of Pizarro and Cortez, as well as many +learned Spaniards who proceeded to South America soon after the +conquest, were the authors of historical and other works of high +value. But these writings of a past age, however curious and +interesting, are deficient in that spirit of scientific +investigation which enhances the importance and utility of accounts +of travels in distant regions. In more recent times, the researches +of La Condamine tended in a most important degree to promote +geographical knowledge; and he, as well as other eminent botanists +who visited the coasts of South America, and even ascended the +Andes, contributed by their discoveries and collections to augment +the vegetable riches of the Old World. But, in their time, geology +as a science had little or no existence. Of the structure of the +giant mountains of our globe scarcely anything was understood; +whilst nothing was known beneath the earth in the New World, except +what related to her mines of gold and silver. + +It remained for Humboldt to supply all that was wanting, by the +publication of his Personal Narrative. In this, more than in any +other of his works, he shows his power of contemplating nature in +all her grandeur and variety. + +The researches and discoveries of Humboldt's able coadjutor and +companion, M. Bonpland, afford not only a complete picture of the +botany of the equinoctial regions of America, but of that of other +places visited by the travellers on their voyage thither. The +description of the Island of Teneriffe and the geography of its +vegetation, show how much was discovered by Humboldt and Bonpland +which had escaped the observation of discerning travellers who had +pursued the same route before them. Indeed, the whole account of +the Canary Islands presents a picture which cannot be contemplated +without the deepest interest, even by persons comparatively +indifferent to the study of nature. + +It is, perhaps, scarcely necessary to remind the reader that since +the time when this work was first published in Paris, the +separation of the Spanish Colonies from the mother-country, +together with subsequent political events, have wrought great +changes in the governments of the South American States, as well as +in the social condition of their inhabitants. One consequence of +these changes has been to render obsolete some facts and +observations relating to subjects, political, commercial, and +statistical, interspersed through this work. However useful such +matter might have been on its original publication, it is wholly +irrelevant to the existing state of things, and consequently it has +been deemed advisable to omit it. By this curtailment, together +with that of some meteorological tables and discussions of very +limited interest, the work has been divested of its somewhat +lengthy and discursive character, and condensed within dimensions +better adapted to the taste and requirements of the present time. + +An English translation of this work by Helen Maria Williams, was +published many years ago, and is now out of print. Though faultless +as respects correctness of interpretation, it abounds in foreign +turns of expression, and is somewhat deficient in that fluency of +style without which a translated work is unsatisfactory to the +English reader. In the edition now presented to the public it is +hoped that these objections are in some degree removed. + +A careful English version is given of all the Spanish and +Portuguese terms, phrases, and quotations which occur in this work. +Though the author has only in some few instances given a French +translation of these passages, yet it is presumed that the +interpretation of the whole in English will not be deemed +superfluous; this new edition of the "Personal Narrative" having +been undertaken with the view of presenting the work in the form +best suited for the instruction and entertainment of the general +reader. + +T.R. + +London, December 1851. + +*** + +MEASURES: + +In this narrative, as well as in the Political Essay on New Spain, +all the prices are reckoned in piastres, and silver reals (reales +de plata). Eight of these reals are equivalent to a piastre, or one +hundred and five sous, French money (4 shillings 4 1/2 pence +English). Nouv. Esp. volume 2 pages 519, 616 and 866. + +The magnetic dip is always measured in this work, according to the +centesimal division, if the contrary be not expressly mentioned. + +One flasco contains 70 or 80 cubic inches, Paris measure. + +112 English pounds = 105 French pounds; and 160 Spanish pounds = 93 +French pounds. + +An arpent des eaux et forets, or legal acre of France, of which 1. +95 = 1 hectare. It is about 1 1/4 acre English. + +A tablon, equal to 1849 square toises, contains nearly an acre and +one-fifth: a legal acre has 1344 square toises, and 1.95 legal acre +is equal one hectare. + +For the sake of accuracy, the French Measures, as given by the +Author, and the indications of the Centigrade Thermometer, are +retained in the translation. The following tables may, therefore, +be found useful. + +TABLE OF LINEAR MEASURE. + + 1 toise = 6 feet 4.73 inches. + 1 foot = 12.78 inches. + 1 metre = 3 feet 3.37 inches. + +(Transcriber's Note: The 'toise' was introduced by Charlemagne +in 790; it originally represented the distance between the +fingertips of a man with outstretched arms, and is thus the same +as the British 'fathom'. During the founding of the Metric System, +less than 20 years before the date of this work, the 'toise' was +assigned a value of 1.949 meters, or a little over two yards. The +'foot'; actually the 'French foot', or 'pied', is defined as +1/6 of a 'toise', and is a little over an English foot.) + +CENTIGRADE THERMOMETER REDUCED TO FAHRENHEIT'S SCALE. + +Cent. Fahr. Cent. Fahr. Cent. Fahr. Cent. Fahr. +100 212 65 149 30 86 -5 23 + 99 210.2 64 147.2 29 84.2 -6 21.2 + 98 208.4 63 145.4 28 82.4 -7 19.4 + 97 206.6 62 143.6 27 80.6 -8 17.6 + 96 204.8 61 141.8 26 78.8 -9 15.8 + 95 203 60 140 25 77 -10 14 + 94 201.2 59 138.2 24 75.2 -11 12.2 + 93 199.4 58 136.4 23 73.4 -12 10.4 + 92 197.6 57 134.6 22 71.6 -13 8.6 + 91 195.8 56 132.8 21 69.8 -14 6.8 + 90 194 55 131 20 68 -15 5 + 89 192.2 54 129.2 19 66.2 -16 3.2 + 88 190.4 53 127.4 18 64.4 -17 1.4 + 87 188.6 52 125.6 17 62.6 -18 -0.4 + 86 186.8 51 123.8 16 60.8 -19 -2.2 + 85 185 50 122 15 59 -20 -4 + 84 183.2 49 120.2 14 57.2 -21 -5.8 + 83 181.4 48 118.4 13 55.4 -22 -7.6 + 82 179.6 47 116.6 12 53.6 -23 -9.4 + 81 177.8 46 114.8 11 51.8 -24 -11.2 + 80 176 45 113 10 50 -25 -13 + 79 174.2 44 111.2 9 48.2 -26 -14.8 + 78 172.4 43 109.4 8 46.4 -27 -16.6 + 77 170.6 42 107.6 7 44.6 -28 -18.4 + 76 168.8 41 105.8 6 42.8 -29 -20.2 + 75 167 40 104 5 41 -30 -22 + 74 165.2 39 102.2 4 39.2 -31 -23.8 + 73 163.4 38 100.4 3 37.4 -32 -25.6 + 72 161.6 37 98.6 2 35.6 -33 -27.4 + 71 159.8 36 96.8 1 33.8 -34 -29.2 + 70 158 35 95 0 32 -35 -31 + 69 156.2 34 93.2 -1 30.2 -36 -32.8 + 68 154.4 33 91.4 -2 28.4 -37 -34.6 + 67 152.6 32 89.6 -3 26.6 -38 -36.4 + 66 150.8 31 87.8 -4 24.8 -39 -38.2 + + +*** + +VOLUME 1. + +CONTENTS. + +EDITOR'S PREFACE. + +INTRODUCTION BY THE AUTHOR. + +CHAPTER 1.1. + +PREPARATIONS.--INSTRUMENTS.--DEPARTURE FROM SPAIN.-- + LANDING AT THE CANARY ISLANDS. + +CHAPTER 1.2. + +STAY AT TENERIFE.--JOURNEY FROM SANTA CRUZ TO OROTAVA.--EXCURSION + TO THE SUMMIT OF THE PEAK OF TEYDE. + +CHAPTER 1.3. + +PASSAGE FROM TENERIFE TO SOUTH AMERICA.-- + THE ISLAND OF TOBAGO.--ARRIVAL AT CUMANA. + +CHAPTER 1.4. + +FIRST ABODE AT CUMANA.--BANKS OF THE MANZANARES. + +CHAPTER 1.5. + +PENINSULA OF ARAYA.--SALT-MARSHES.-- + RUINS OF THE CASTLE OF SANTIAGO. + +CHAPTER 1.6. + +MOUNTAINS OF NEW ANDALUCIA.--VALLEY OF THE CUMANACOA.-- + SUMMIT OF THE COCOLLAR.--MISSIONS OF THE CHAYMA INDIANS. + +CHAPTER 1.7. + +CONVENT OF CARIPE.--CAVERN OF THE GUACHARO.--NOCTURNAL BIRDS. + +CHAPTER 1.8. + +DEPARTURE FROM CARIPE.--MOUNTAIN AND FOREST OF SANTA MARIA.-- + MISSION OF CATUARO.--PORT OF CARIACO. + +CHAPTER 1.9. + +PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION AND MANNERS OF THE CHAYMAS.--THEIR LANGUAGE.-- + FILIATION OF THE NATIONS WHICH INHABIT NEW ANDALUCIA.-- + PARIAGOTOS SEEN BY COLUMBUS. + +CHAPTER 1.10. + +SECOND ABODE AT CUMANA.--EARTHQUAKES.--EXTRAORDINARY METEORS. + +CHAPTER 1.11. + +PASSAGE FROM CUMANA TO LA GUAYRA.--MORRO OF NUEVA BARCELONA.-- + CAPE CODERA.--ROAD FROM LA GUAYRA TO CARACAS. + +CHAPTER 1.12. + +GENERAL VIEW OF THE PROVINCES OF VENEZUELA.-- + DIVERSITY OF THEIR INTERESTS.--CITY AND VALLEY OF CARACAS.-- + CLIMATE. + +CHAPTER 1.13. + +ABODE AT CARACAS.--MOUNTAINS IN THE VICINITY OF THE TOWN.-- + EXCURSION TO THE SUMMIT OF THE SILLA.--INDICATIONS OF MINES. + +CHAPTER 1.14. + +EARTHQUAKES AT CARACAS.--CONNECTION OF THOSE PHENOMENA WITH THE + VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS OF THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. + +CHAPTER 1.15. + +DEPARTURE FROM CARACAS.--MOUNTAINS OF SAN PEDRO AND OF LOS TEQUES.-- + LA VICTORIA.--VALLEYS OF ARAGUA. + +*** + +INTRODUCTION BY THE AUTHOR. + +Many years have elapsed since I quitted Europe, to explore the +interior of the New Continent. Devoted from my earliest youth to +the study of nature, feeling with enthusiasm the wild beauties of a +country guarded by mountains and shaded by ancient forests, I +experienced in my travels, enjoyments which have amply compensated +for the privations inseparable from a laborious and often agitated +life. These enjoyments, which I endeavoured to impart to my readers +in my 'Remarks upon the Steppes,' and in the 'Essay on the +Physiognomy of Plants,' were not the only fruits I reaped from an +undertaking formed with the design of contributing to the progress +of natural philosophy. I had long prepared myself for the +observations which were the principal object of my journey to the +torrid zone. I was provided with instruments of easy and convenient +use, constructed by the ablest makers, and I enjoyed the special +protection of a government which, far from presenting obstacles to +my investigations, constantly honoured me with every mark of regard +and confidence. I was aided by a courageous and enlightened friend, +and it was singularly propitious to the success of our participated +labour, that the zeal and equanimity of that friend never failed, +amidst the fatigues and dangers to which we were sometimes exposed. + +Under these favourable circumstances, traversing regions which for +ages have remained almost unknown to most of the nations of Europe, +I might add even to Spain, M. Bonpland and myself collected a +considerable number of materials, the publication of which may +throw some light on the history of nations, and advance the study +of nature. + +I had in view a two-fold purpose in the travels of which I now +publish the historical narrative. I wished to make known the +countries I had visited; and to collect such facts as are fitted to +elucidate a science of which we as yet possess scarcely the +outline, and which has been vaguely denominated Natural History of +the World, Theory of the Earth, or Physical Geography. The last of +these two objects seemed to me the most important. I was +passionately devoted to botany and certain parts of zoology, and I +flattered myself that our investigations might add some new species +to those already known, both in the animal and vegetable kingdoms; +but preferring the connection of facts which have been long +observed, to the knowledge of insulated facts, although new, the +discovery of an unknown genus seemed to me far less interesting +than an observation on the geographical relations of the vegetable +world, on the migrations of the social plants, and the limit of the +height which their different tribes attain on the flanks of the +Cordilleras. + +The natural sciences are connected by the same ties which link +together all the phenomena of nature. The classification of the +species, which must be considered as the fundamental part of +botany, and the study of which is rendered attractive and easy by +the introduction of natural methods, is to the geography of plants +what descriptive mineralogy is to the indication of the rocks +constituting the exterior crust of the globe. To comprehend the +laws observed in the position of these rocks, to determine the age +of their successive formations, and their identity in the most +distant regions, the geologist should be previously acquainted with +the simple fossils which compose the mass of mountains, and of +which the names and character are the object of oryctognostical +knowledge. It is the same with that part of the natural history of +the globe which treats of the relations plants have to each other, +to the soil whence they spring, or to the air which they inhale and +modify. The progress of the geography of plants depends in a great +measure on that of descriptive botany; and it would be injurious to +the advancement of science, to attempt rising to general ideas, +whilst neglecting the knowledge of particular facts. + +I have been guided by these considerations in the course of my +inquiries; they were always present to my mind during the period of +my preparatory studies. When I began to read the numerous +narratives of travels, which compose so interesting a part of +modern literature, I regretted that travellers, the most +enlightened in the insulated branches of natural history, were +seldom possessed of sufficient variety of knowledge to avail +themselves of every advantage arising from their position. It +appeared to me, that the importance of the results hitherto +obtained did not keep pace with the immense progress which, at the +end of the eighteenth century, had been made in several departments +of science, particularly geology, the history of the modifications +of the atmosphere, and the physiology of animals and plants. I saw +with regret, (and all scientific men have shared this feeling) that +whilst the number of accurate instruments was daily increasing, we +were still ignorant of the height of many mountains and elevated +plains; of the periodical oscillations of the aerial ocean; of the +limit of perpetual snow within the polar circle and on the borders +of the torrid zone; of the variable intensity of the magnetic +forces, and of many other phenomena equally important. + +Maritime expeditions and circumnavigatory voyages have conferred +just celebrity on the names of the naturalists and astronomers who +have been appointed by various governments to share the dangers of +those undertakings; but though these eminent men have given us +precise notions of the external configuration of countries, of the +natural history of the ocean, and of the productions of islands and +coasts, it must be admitted that maritime expeditions are less +fitted to advance the progress of geology and other parts of +physical science, than travels into the interior of a continent. +The advancement of the natural sciences has been subordinate to +that of geography and nautical astronomy. During a voyage of +several years, the land but seldom presents itself to the +observation of the mariner, and when, after lengthened expectation, +it is descried, he often finds it stripped of its most beautiful +productions. Sometimes, beyond a barren coast, he perceives a ridge +of mountains covered with verdure, but its distance forbids +examination, and the view serves only to excite regret. + +Journeys by land are attended with considerable difficulties in the +conveyance of instruments and collections, but these difficulties +are compensated by advantages which it is unnecessary to enumerate. +It is not by sailing along a coast that we can discover the +direction of chains of mountains, and their geological +constitution, the climate of each zone, and its influence on the +forms and habits of organized beings. In proportion to the extent +of continents, the greater on the surface of the soil are the +riches of animal and vegetable productions; the more distant the +central chain of mountains from the sea-shore, the greater is the +variety in the bosom of the earth, of those stony strata, the +regular succession of which unfolds the history of our planet. As +every being considered apart is impressed with a particular type, +so, in like manner, we find the same distinctive impression in the +arrangement of brute matter organized in rocks, and also in the +distribution and mutual relations of plants and animals. The great +problem of the physical description of the globe, is the +determination of the form of these types, the laws of their +relations with each other, and the eternal ties which link the +phenomena of life, and those of inanimate nature. + +Having stated the general object I had in view in my expeditions, I +will now hasten to give a slight sketch of the whole of the +collections and observations which we have accumulated, and the +union of which is the aim and end of every scientific journey. The +maritime war, during our abode in America, having rendered +communication with Europe very uncertain, we found ourselves +compelled, in order to diminish the chance of losses, to form three +different collections. Of these, the first was embarked for Spain +and France, the second for the United States and England, and the +third, which was the most considerable, remained almost constantly +under our own eyes. Towards the close of our expedition, this last +collection formed forty-two boxes, containing an herbal of six +thousand equinoctial plants, seeds, shells, insects, and (what had +hitherto never been brought to Europe) geological specimens, from +the Chimborazo, New Grenada, and the banks of the river Amazon. + +After our journey to the Orinoco, we left a part of these +collections at the island of Cuba, intending to take them on our +return from Peru to Mexico. The rest followed us during the space +of five years, on the chain of the Andes, across New Spain, from +the shores of the Pacific to the coasts of the Caribbean Sea. The +conveyance of these objects, and the minute care they required, +occasioned embarrassments scarcely conceiveable even by those who +have traversed the most uncultivated parts of Europe. Our progress +was often retarded by the necessity of dragging after us, during +expeditions of five or six months, twelve, fifteen, and sometimes +more than twenty loaded mules, exchanging these animals every eight +or ten days, and superintending the Indians who were employed in +driving the numerous caravan. Often, in order to add to our +collections of new mineral substances, we found ourselves obliged +to throw away others, which we had collected a considerable time +before. These sacrifices were not less vexatious than the losses we +accidentally sustained. Sad experience taught us but too late, that +from the sultry humidity of the climate, and the frequent falls of +the beasts of burden, we could preserve neither the skins of +animals hastily prepared, nor the fishes and reptiles placed in +phials filled with alcohol. I enter into these details, because, +though little interesting in themselves, they serve to show that we +had no means of bringing back, in their natural state, many objects +of zoology and comparative anatomy, of which we have published +descriptions and drawings. Notwithstanding some obstacles, and the +expense occasioned by the carriage of these articles, I had reason +to applaud the resolution I had taken before my departure, of +sending to Europe the duplicates only of the productions we +collected. I cannot too often repeat, that when the seas are +infested with privateers, a traveller can be sure only of the +objects in his own possession. A very few of the duplicates, which +we shipped for Europe during our abode in America, were saved; the +greater part fell into the hands of persons who feel no interest +for science. When a ship is condemned in a foreign port, boxes +containing only dried plants or stones, instead of being sent to +the scientific men to whom they are addressed, are put aside and +forgotten. Some of our geological collections taken in the Pacific +were, however, more fortunate. We were indebted for their +preservation to the generous activity of Sir Joseph Banks, +President of the Royal Society of London, who, amidst the political +agitations of Europe, unceasingly laboured to strengthen the bonds +of union between scientific men of all nations. + +In our investigations we have considered each phenomenon under +different aspects, and classed our remarks according to the +relations they bear to each other. To afford an idea of the method +we have followed, I will here add a succinct enumeration of the +materials with which we were furnished for describing the volcanoes +of Antisana and Pichincha, as well as that of Jorullo: the latter, +during the night of the 20th of September, 1759, rose from the +earth one thousand five hundred and seventy-eight French feet above +the surrounding plains of Mexico. The position of these singular +mountains in longitude and latitude was ascertained by astronomical +observations. We took the heights of the different parts by the aid +of the barometer, and determined the dip of the needle and the +intensity of the magnetic forces. Our collections contain the +plants which are spread over the flanks of these volcanoes, and +specimens of different rocks which, superposed one upon another, +constitute their external coat. We are enabled to indicate, by +measures sufficiently exact, the height above the level of the +ocean, at which we found each group of plants, and each volcanic +rock. Our journals furnish us with a series of observations on the +humidity, the temperature, the electricity, and the degree of +transparency of the air on the brinks of the craters of Pichincha +and Jorullo; they also contain topographical plans and geological +profiles of these mountains, founded in part on the measure of +vertical bases, and on angles of altitude. Each observation has +been calculated according to the tables and the methods which are +considered most exact in the present state of our knowledge; and in +order to judge of the degree of confidence which the results may +claim, we have preserved the whole detail of our partial +operations. + +It would have been possible to blend these different materials in a +work devoted wholly to the description of the volcanoes of Peru and +New Spain. Had I given the physical description of a single +province, I could have treated separately everything relating to +its geography, mineralogy, and botany; but how could I interrupt +the narrative of a journey, a disquisition on the manners of a +people, or the great phenomena of nature, by an enumeration of the +productions of the country, the description of new species of +animals and plants, or the detail of astronomical observations. Had +I adopted a mode of composition which would have included in one +and the same chapter all that has been observed on one particular +point of the globe, I should have prepared a work of cumbrous +length, and devoid of that clearness which arises in a great +measure from the methodical distribution of matter. Notwithstanding +the efforts I have made to avoid, in this narrative, the errors I +had to dread, I feel conscious that I have not always succeeded in +separating the observations of detail from those general results +which interest every enlightened mind. These results comprise in +one view the climate and its influence on organized beings, the +aspect of the country, varied according to the nature of the soil +and its vegetable covering, the direction of the mountains and +rivers which separate races of men as well as tribes of plants; and +finally, the modifications observable in the condition of people +living in different latitudes, and in circumstances more or less +favourable to the development of their faculties. I do not fear +having too much enlarged on objects so worthy of attention: one of +the noblest characteristics which distinguish modern civilization +from that of remoter times is, that it has enlarged the mass of our +conceptions, rendered us more capable of perceiving the connection +between the physical and intellectual world, and thrown a more +general interest over objects which heretofore occupied only a few +scientific men, because those objects were contemplated separately, +and from a narrower point of view. + +As it is probable that these volumes will obtain the attention of a +greater number of readers than the detail of my observations merely +scientific, or my researches on the population, the commerce, and +the mines of New Spain, I may be permitted here to enumerate all +the works which I have hitherto published conjointly with M. +Bonpland. When several works are interwoven in some sort with each +other, it may perhaps be interesting to the reader to know the +sources whence he may obtain more circumstantial information. + +1.I.1. ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS, TRIGONOMETRICAL OPERATIONS, AND + BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS MADE DURING THE COURSE OF A JOURNEY TO + THE EQUINOCTIAL REGIONS OF THE NEW CONTINENT, FROM 1799 TO 1804. + +This work, to which are added historical researches on the position +of several points important to navigators, contains, first, the +original observations which I made from the twelfth degree of +southern to the forty-first degree of northern latitude; the +transits of the sun and stars over the meridian; distances of the +moon from the sun and the stars; occultations of the satellites; +eclipses of the sun and moon; transits of Mercury over the disc of +the sun; azimuths; circum-meridian altitudes of the moon, to +determine the longitude by the differences of declination; +researches on the relative intensity of the light of the austral +stars; geodesical measures, etc. Secondly, a treatise on the +astronomical refractions in the torrid zone, considered as the +effect of the decrement of caloric in the strata of the air; +thirdly, the barometric measurement of the Cordillera of the Andes, +of Mexico, of the province of Venezuela, of the kingdom of Quito, +and of New Grenada; followed by geological observations, and +containing the indication of four hundred and fifty-three heights, +calculated according to the method of M. Laplace, and the new +co-efficient of M. Ramond; fourthly, a table of near seven hundred +geographical positions on the New Continent; two hundred and +thirty-five of which have been determined by my own observations, +according to the three co-ordinates of longitude, latitude, and +height. + +1.I.2. EQUINOCTIAL PLANTS COLLECTED IN MEXICO, IN THE ISLAND OF + CUBA, IN THE PROVINCES OF CARACAS, CUMANA, AND BARCELONA, ON THE + ANDES OF NEW GRENADA, QUITO, AND PERU, AND ON THE BANKS OF THE RIO + NEGRO, THE ORINOCO, AND THE RIVER AMAZON. + +M. Bonpland has in this work given figures of more than forty new +genera of plants of the torrid zone, classed according to their +natural families. The methodical descriptions of the species are +both in French and Latin, and are accompanied by observations on +the medicinal properties of the plants, their use in the arts, and +the climate of the countries in which they are found. + +1.I.3. MONOGRAPHY OF THE MELASTOMA, RHEXIA, AND OTHER GENERA OF + THIS ORDER OF PLANTS. + +Comprising upwards of a hundred and fifty species of melastomaceae, +which we collected during the course of our expeditions, and which +form one of the most beautiful ornaments of tropical vegetation. M. +Bonpland has added the plants of the same family, which, among many +other rich stores of natural history, M. Richard collected in his +interesting expedition to the Antilles and French Guiana, and the +descriptions of which he has communicated to us. + +1.I.4. ESSAY ON THE GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS, ACCOMPANIED BY A PHYSICAL + TABLE OF THE EQUINOCTIAL REGIONS, FOUNDED ON MEASURES TAKEN FROM + THE TENTH DEGREE OF NORTHERN TO THE TENTH DEGREE OF SOUTHERN + LATITUDE. + +I have endeavoured to collect in one point of view the whole of the +physical phenomena of that part of the New Continent comprised +within the limits of the torrid zone from the level of the Pacific +to the highest summit of the Andes; namely, the vegetation, the +animals, the geological relations, the cultivation of the soil, the +temperature of the air, the limit of perpetual snow, the chemical +constitution of the atmosphere, its electrical intensity, its +barometrical pressure, the decrement of gravitation, the intensity +of the azure colour of the sky, the diminution of light during its +passage through the successive strata of the air, the horizontal +refractions, and the heat of boiling water at different heights. +Fourteen scales, disposed side by side with a profile of the Andes, +indicate the modifications to which these phenomena are subject +from the influence of the elevation of the soil above the level of +the sea. Each group of plants is placed at the height which nature +has assigned to it, and we may follow the prodigious variety of +their forms from the region of the palms and arborescent ferns to +those of the johannesia (chuquiraga, Juss.), the gramineous plants, +and lichens. These regions form the natural divisions of the +vegetable empire; and as perpetual snow is found in each climate at +a determinate height, so, in like manner, the febrifuge species of +the quinquina (cinchona) have their fixed limits, which I have +marked in the botanical chart belonging to this essay. + +1.I.5. OBSERVATIONS ON ZOOLOGY AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. + +I have comprised in this work the history of the condor; +experiments on the electrical action of the gymnotus; a treatise on +the larynx of the crocodiles, the quadrumani, and birds of the +tropics; the description of several new species of reptiles, +fishes, birds, monkeys, and other mammalia but little known. M. +Cuvier has enriched this work with a very comprehensive treatise on +the axolotl of the lake of Mexico, and on the genera of the Protei. +That naturalist has also recognized two new species of mastodons +and an elephant among the fossil bones of quadrupeds which we +brought from North and South America. For the description of the +insects collected by M. Bonpland we are indebted to M. Latreille, +whose labours have so much contributed to the progress of +entomology in our times. The second volume of this work contains +figures of the Mexican, Peruvian, and Aturian skulls, which we have +deposited in the Museum of Natural History at Paris, and respecting +which Blumenbach has published observations in the 'Decas quinta +Craniorum diversarum gentium.' + +1.I.6. POLITICAL ESSAY ON THE KINGDOM OF NEW SPAIN, WITH A PHYSICAL + AND GEOGRAPHICAL ATLAS, FOUNDED ON ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS AND + TRIGONOMETRICAL AND BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. + +This work, based on numerous official memoirs, presents, in six +divisions, considerations on the extent and natural appearance of +Mexico, on the population, on the manners of the inhabitants, their +ancient civilization, and the political division of their +territory. It embraces also the agriculture, the mineral riches, +the manufactures, the commerce, the finances, and the military +defence of that vast country. In treating these different subjects +I have endeavoured to consider them under a general point of view; +I have drawn a parallel not only between New Spain, the other +Spanish colonies, and the United States of North America, but also +between New Spain and the possessions of the English in Asia; I +have compared the agriculture of the countries situated in the +torrid zone with that of the temperate climates; and I have +examined the quantity of colonial produce necessary to Europe in +the present state of civilization. In tracing the geological +description of the richest mining districts in Mexico, I have, in +short, given a statement of the mineral produce, the population, +the imports and exports of the whole of Spanish America. I have +examined several questions which, for want of precise data, had not +hitherto been treated with the attention they demand, such as the +influx and reflux of metals, their progressive accumulation in +Europe and Asia, and the quantity of gold and silver which, since +the discovery of America down to our own times, the Old World has +received from the New. The geographical introduction at the +beginning of this work contains the analysis of the materials which +have been employed in the construction of the Mexican Atlas. + +1.I.7. VIEWS OF THE CORDILLERAS, AND MONUMENTS OF THE INDIGENOUS + NATIONS OF THE NEW CONTINENT.* (*Atlas Pittoresque, ou Vues des + Cordilleres, 1 volume folio, with 69 plates, part of which are + coloured, accompanied by explanatory treatises. This work may be + considered as the Atlas to the historical narrative of the travels.) + +This work is intended to represent a few of the grand scenes which +nature presents in the lofty chain of the Andes, and at the same +time to throw some light on the ancient civilization of the +Americans, through the study of their monuments of architecture, +their hieroglyphics, their religious rites, and their astrological +reveries. I have given in this work a description of the teocalli, +or Mexican pyramids, and have compared their structure with that of +the temple of Belus. I have described the arabesques which cover +the ruins of Mitla, the idols in basalt ornamented with the +calantica of the heads of Isis; and also a considerable number of +symbolical paintings, representing the serpent-woman (the Mexican +Eve), the deluge of Coxcox, and the first migrations of the natives +of the Aztec race. I have endeavoured to prove the striking +analogies existing between the calendar of the Toltecs and the +catasterisms of their zodiac, and the division of time of the +people of Tartary and Thibet, as well as the Mexican traditions on +the four regenerations of the globe, the pralayas of the Hindoos, +and the four ages of Hesiod. In this work I have also included (in +addition to the hieroglyphical paintings I brought to Europe), +fragments of all the Aztec manuscripts, collected in Rome, Veletri, +Vienna, and Dresden, and one of which reminds us, by its lineary +symbols, of the kouas of the Chinese. Together with the rude +monuments of the aborigines of America, this volume contains +picturesque views of the mountainous countries which those people +inhabited; for example, the cataract of Tequendama, Chimborazo, the +volcano of Jorullo and Cayambe, the pyramidal summit of which, +covered with eternal ice, is situated directly under the +equinoctial line. In every zone the configuration of the ground, +the physiognomy of the plants, and the aspect of lovely or wild +scenery, have great influence on the progress of the arts, and on +the style which distinguishes their productions. This influence is +so much the more perceptible in proportion as man is farther +removed from civilization. + +I could have added to this work researches on the character of +languages, which are the most durable monuments of nations. I have +collected a number of materials on the languages of America, of +which MM. Frederic Schlegel and Vater have made use; the former in +his Considerations on the Hindoos, the latter in his Continuation +of the Mithridates of Adelung, in the Ethnographical Magazine, and +in his Inquiries into the Population of the New Continent. These +materials are now in the hands of my brother, William von Humboldt, +who, during his travels in Spain, and a long abode at Rome, formed +the richest collection of American vocabularies in existence. His +extensive knowledge of the ancient and modern languages has enabled +him to trace some curious analogies in relation to this subject, so +important to the philosophical study of the history of man. A part +of his labours will find a place in this narrative. + +Of the different works which I have here enumerated, the second and +third were composed by M. Bonpland, from the observations which he +made in a botanical journal. This journal contains more than four +thousand methodical descriptions of equinoctial plants, a ninth +part only of which have been made by me. They appear in a separate +publication, under the title of Nova Genera et Species Plantariem. +In this work will be found, not only the new species we collected, +which, after a careful examination by one of the first botanists of +the age, Professor Willdenouw, are computed to amount to fourteen +or fifteen hundred, but also the interesting observations made by +M. Bonpland on plants hitherto imperfectly described. The plates of +this work are all engraved according to the method followed by M. +Labillardiere, in the Specimen Planterum Novae Hollandiae, a work +remarkable for profound research and clearness of arrangement. + +After having distributed into separate works all that belongs to +astronomy, botany, zoology, the political description of New Spain, +and the history of the ancient civilization of certain nations of +the New Continent, there still remained many general results and +local descriptions, which I might have collected into separate +treatises. I had, during my journey, prepared papers on the races +of men in South America; on the Missions of the Orinoco; on the +obstacles to the progress of society in the torrid zone arising +from the climate and the strength of vegetation; on the character +of the landscape in the Cordilleras of the Andes compared with that +of the Alps in Switzerland; on the analogies between the rocks of +the two hemispheres; on the physical constitution of the air in the +equinoctial regions, etc. I had left Europe with the firm intention +of not writing what is usually called the historical narrative of a +journey, but to publish the fruit of my inquiries in works merely +descriptive; and I had arranged the facts, not in the order in +which they successively presented themselves, but according to the +relation they bore to each other. Amidst the overwhelming majesty +of Nature, and the stupendous objects she presents at every step, +the traveller is little disposed to record in his journal matters +which relate only to himself, and the ordinary details of life. + +I composed a very brief itinerary during the course of my +excursions on the rivers of South America, and in my long journeys +by land. I regularly described (and almost always on the spot) the +visits I made to the summits of volcanoes, or mountains remarkable +for their height; but the entries in my journal were interrupted +whenever I resided in a town, or when other occupations prevented +me from continuing a work which I considered as having only a +secondary interest. Whenever I wrote in my journal, I had no other +motive than the preservation of some of those fugitive ideas which +present themselves to a naturalist, whose life is almost wholly +passed in the open air. I wished to make a temporary collection of +such facts as I had not then leisure to class, and note down the +first impressions, whether agreeable or painful, which I received +from nature or from man. Far from thinking at the time that those +pages thus hurriedly written would form the basis of an extensive +work to be offered to the public, it appeared to me, that my +journal, though it might furnish certain data useful to science, +would present very few of those incidents, the recital of which +constitutes the principal charm of an itinerary. + +The difficulties I have experienced since my return, in the +composition of a considerable number of treatises, for the purpose +of making known certain classes of phenomena, insensibly overcame +my repugnance to write the narrative of my journey. In undertaking +this task, I have been guided by the advice of many estimable +persons, who honour me with their friendship. I also perceived that +such a preference is given to this sort of composition, that +scientific men, after having presented in an isolated form the +account of their researches on the productions, the manners, and +the political state of the countries through which they have +passed, imagine that they have not fulfilled their engagements with +the public, till they have written their itinerary. + +An historical narrative embraces two very distinct objects; the +greater or the less important events connected with the purpose of +the traveller, and the observations he has made during his journey. +The unity of composition also, which distinguishes good works from +those on an ill-constructed plan, can be strictly observed only +when the traveller describes what has passed under his own eye; and +when his principal attention has been fixed less on scientific +observations than on the manners of different people and the great +phenomena of nature. Now, the most faithful picture of manners is +that which best displays the relations of men towards each other. +The character of savage or civilized life is portrayed either in +the obstacles a traveller meets with, or in the sensations he +feels. It is the traveller himself whom we continually desire to +see in contact with the objects which surround him; and his +narration interests us the more, when a local tint is diffused over +the description of a country and its inhabitants. Such is the +source of the interest excited by the history of those early +navigators, who, impelled by intrepidity rather than by science, +struggled against the elements in their search for the discovery of +a new world. Such is the irresistible charm attached to the fate of +that enterprising traveller (Mungo Park.), who, full of enthusiasm +and energy, penetrated alone into the centre of Africa, to discover +amidst barbarous nations the traces of ancient civilization. + +In proportion as travels have been undertaken by persons whose +views have been directed to researches into descriptive natural +history, geography, or political economy, itineraries have partly +lost that unity of composition, and that simplicity which +characterized those of former ages. It is now become scarcely +possible to connect so many different materials with the detail of +other events; and that part of a traveller's narrative which we may +call dramatic gives way to dissertations merely descriptive. The +numerous class of readers who prefer agreeable amusement to solid +instruction, have not gained by the exchange; and I am afraid that +the temptation will not be great to follow the course of travellers +who are incumbered with scientific instruments and collections. + +To give greater variety to my work, I have often interrupted the +historical narrative by descriptions. I first represent phenomena +in the order in which they appeared; and I afterwards consider them +in the whole of their individual relations. This mode has been +successfully followed in the journey of M. de Saussure, whose most +valuable work has contributed more than any other to the +advancement of science. Often, amidst dry discussions on +meteorology, it contains many charming descriptions; such as those +of the modes of life of the inhabitants of the mountains, the +dangers of hunting the chamois, and the sensations felt on the +summit of the higher Alps. + +There are details of ordinary life which it may be useful to note +in an itinerary, because they serve for the guidance of those who +afterwards journey through the same countries. I have preserved a +few, but have suppressed the greater part of those personal +incidents which present no particular interest, and which can be +rendered amusing only by the perfection of style. + +With respect to the country which has been the object of my +investigations, I am fully sensible of the great advantages enjoyed +by persons who travel in Greece, Egypt, the banks of the Euphrates, +and the islands of the Pacific, in comparison with those who +traverse the continent of America. In the Old World, nations and +the distinctions of their civilization form the principal points in +the picture; in the New World, man and his productions almost +disappear amidst the stupendous display of wild and gigantic +nature. The human race in the New World presents only a few +remnants of indigenous hordes, slightly advanced in civilization; +or it exhibits merely the uniformity of manners and institutions +transplanted by European colonists to foreign shores. Information +which relates to the history of our species, to the various forms +of government, to monuments of art, to places full of great +remembrances, affect us far more than descriptions of those vast +solitudes which seem destined only for the development of vegetable +life, and to be the domain of wild animals. The savages of America, +who have been the objects of so many systematic reveries, and on +whom M. Volney has lately published some accurate and intelligent +observations, inspire less interest since celebrated navigators +have made known to us the inhabitants of the South Sea islands, in +whose character we find a striking mixture of perversity and +meekness. The state of half-civilization existing among those +islanders gives a peculiar charm to the description of their +manners. A king, followed by a numerous suite, presents the fruits +of his orchard; or a funeral is performed amidst the shade of the +lofty forest. Such pictures, no doubt, have more attraction than +those which pourtray the solemn gravity of the inhabitant of the +banks of the Missouri or the Maranon. + +America offers an ample field for the labours of the naturalist. On +no other part of the globe is he called upon more powerfully by +nature to raise himself to general ideas on the cause of phenomena +and their mutual connection. To say nothing of that luxuriance of +vegetation, that eternal spring of organic life, those climates +varying by stages as we climb the flanks of the Cordilleras, and +those majestic rivers which a celebrated writer (M. Chateaubriand.) +has described with such graceful accuracy, the resources which the +New World affords for the study of geology and natural philosophy +in general have been long since acknowledged. Happy the traveller +who may cherish the hope that he has availed himself of the +advantages of his position, and that he has added some new facts to +the mass of those previously acquired! + +Since I left America, one of those great revolutions, which at +certain periods agitate the human race, has broken out in the +Spanish colonies, and seems to prepare new destinies for a +population of fourteen millions of inhabitants, spreading from the +southern to the northern hemisphere, from the shores of the Rio de +la Plata and Chile to the remotest part of Mexico. Deep +resentments, excited by colonial legislation, and fostered by +mistrustful policy, have stained with blood regions which had +enjoyed, for the space of nearly three centuries, what I will not +call happiness but uninterrupted peace. At Quito several of the +most virtuous and enlightened citizens have perished, victims of +devotion to their country. While I am giving the description of +regions, the remembrance of which is so dear to me, I continually +light on places which recall to my mind the loss of a friend. + +When we reflect on the great political agitations of the New World, +we observe that the Spanish Americans are by no means in so +favourable a position as the inhabitants of the United States; the +latter having been prepared for independence by the long enjoyment +of constitutional liberty. Internal dissensions are chiefly to be +dreaded in regions where civilization is but slightly rooted, and +where, from the influence of climate, forests may soon regain their +empire over cleared lands if their culture be abandoned. It may +also be feared that, during a long series of years, no foreign +traveller will be enabled to traverse all the countries which I +have visited. This circumstance may perhaps add to the interest of +a work which pourtrays the state of the greater part of the Spanish +colonies at the beginning of the 19th century. I even venture to +indulge the hope that this work will be thought worthy of attention +when passions shall be hushed into peace, and when, under the +influence of a new social order, those countries shall have made +rapid progress in public welfare. If then some pages of my book are +snatched from oblivion, the inhabitant of the banks of the Orinoco +and the Atabapo will behold with delight populous cities enriched +by commerce, and fertile fields cultivated by the hands of free +men, on those very spots where, at the time of my travels, I found +only impenetrable forests and inundated lands. + +*** + +PERSONAL NARRATIVE OF A JOURNEY TO THE EQUINOCTIAL REGIONS + OF THE NEW CONTINENT. + +VOLUME 1. + + +CHAPTER 1.1. +PREPARATIONS. +INSTRUMENTS. +DEPARTURE FROM SPAIN. +LANDING AT THE CANARY ISLANDS. + +From my earliest youth I felt an ardent desire to travel into +distant regions, seldom visited by Europeans. This desire is +characteristic of a period of our existence when appears an +unlimited horizon, and when we find an irresistible attraction in +the impetuous agitations of the mind, and the image of positive +danger. Though educated in a country which has no direct +communication with either the East or the West Indies, living +amidst mountains remote from coasts, and celebrated for their +numerous mines, I felt an increasing passion for the sea and +distant expeditions. Objects with which we are acquainted only by +the animated narratives of travellers have a peculiar charm; +imagination wanders with delight over that which is vague and +undefined; and the pleasures we are deprived of seem to possess a +fascinating power, compared with which all we daily feel in the +narrow circle of sedentary life appears insipid. The taste for +herborisation, the study of geology, rapid excursions to Holland, +England, and France, with the celebrated Mr. George Forster, who +had the happiness to accompany captain Cook in his second +expedition round the globe, contributed to give a determined +direction to the plan of travels which I had formed at eighteen +years of age. No longer deluded by the agitation of a wandering +life, I was anxious to contemplate nature in all her variety of +wild and stupendous scenery; and the hope of collecting some facts +useful to the advancement of science, incessantly impelled my +wishes towards the luxuriant regions of the torrid zone. As +personal circumstances then prevented me from executing the +projects by which I was so powerfully influenced, I had leisure to +prepare myself during six years for the observations I proposed to +make on the New Continent, as well as to visit different parts of +Europe, and to explore the lofty chain of the Alps, the structure +of which I might afterwards compare with that of the Andes of Quito +and of Peru. + +I had traversed a part of Italy in 1795, but had not been able to +visit the volcanic regions of Naples and Sicily; and I regretted +leaving Europe without having seen Vesuvius, Stromboli, and Etna. I +felt, that in order to form a proper judgment of many geological +phenomena, especially of the nature of the rocks of trap-formation, +it was necessary to examine the phenomena presented by burning +volcanoes. I determined therefore to return to Italy in the month +of November, 1797. I made a long stay at Vienna, where the fine +collections of exotic plants, and the friendship of Messrs. de +Jacquin, and Joseph van der Schott, were highly useful to my +preparatory studies. I travelled with M. Leopold von Buch, through +several cantons of Salzburg and Styria, countries alike interesting +to the landscape-painter and the geologist; but just when I was +about to cross the Tyrolese Alps, the war then raging in Italy +obliged me to abandon the project of going to Naples. + +A short time before, a gentleman passionately fond of the fine +arts, and who had visited the coasts of Greece and Illyria to +inspect their monuments, made me a proposal to accompany him in an +expedition to Upper Egypt. This expedition was to occupy only eight +months. Provided with astronomical instruments and able +draughtsmen, we were to ascend the Nile as far as Assouan, after +minutely examining the positions of the Said, between Tentyris and +the cataracts. Though my views had not hitherto been fixed on any +region but the tropics, I could not resist the temptation of +visiting countries so celebrated in the annals of human +civilization. I therefore accepted this proposition, but with the +express condition, that on our return to Alexandria I should be at +liberty to continue my journey through Syria and Palestine. The +studies which I entered upon with a view to this new project, I +afterwards found useful, when I examined the relations between the +barbarous monuments of Mexico, and those belonging to the nations +of the old world. I thought myself on the point of embarking for +Egypt, when political events forced me to abandon a plan which +promised me so much satisfaction. + +An expedition of discovery in the South Sea, under the direction of +captain Baudin, was then preparing in France. The plan was great, +bold, and worthy of being executed by a more enlightened commander. +The purpose of this expedition was to visit the Spanish possessions +of South America, from the mouth of the river Plata to the kingdom +of Quito and the isthmus of Panama. After visiting the archipelago +of the Pacific, and exploring the coasts of New Holland, from Van +Diemen's Land to that of Nuyts, both vessels were to stop at +Madagascar, and return by the Cape of Good Hope. I was in Paris +when the preparations for this voyage were begun. I had but little +confidence in the personal character of captain Baudin, who had +given cause of discontent to the court of Vienna, when he was +commissioned to conduct to Brazil one of my friends, the young +botanist, Van der Schott; but as I could not hope, with my own +resources, to make a voyage of such extent, and view so fine a +portion of the globe, I determined to take the chances of this +expedition. I obtained permission to embark, with the instruments I +had collected, in one of the vessels destined for the South Sea, +and I reserved to myself the liberty of leaving captain Baudin +whenever I thought proper. M. Michaux, who had already visited +Persia and a part of North America, and M. Bonpland, with whom I +then formed the friendship that still unites us, were appointed to +accompany this expedition as naturalists. + +I had flattered myself during several months with the idea of +sharing the labours directed to so great and honourable an object +when the war which broke out in Germany and Italy, determined the +French government to withdraw the funds granted for their voyage of +discovery, and adjourn it to an indefinite period. Deeply mortified +at finding the plans I had formed during many years of my life +overthrown in a single day, I sought at any risk the speediest +means of quitting Europe, and engaging in some enterprise which +might console me for my disappointment. + +I became acquainted with a Swedish consul, named Skioldebrand, who +having been appointed by his court to carry presents to the dey of +Algiers, was passing through Paris, to embark at Marseilles. This +estimable man had resided a long time on the coast of Africa; and +being highly respected by the government of Algiers, he could +easily procure me permission to visit that part of the chain of the +Atlas which had not been the object of the important researches of +M. Desfontaines. He despatched every year a vessel for Tunis, where +the pilgrims embarked for Mecca, and he promised to convey me by +the same medium to Egypt. I eagerly seized so favourable an +opportunity, and thought myself on the point of executing a plan +which I had formed previously to my arrival in France. No +mineralogist had yet examined that lofty chain of mountains which, +in the empire of Morocco, rises to the limits of the perpetual +snow. I flattered myself, that, after executing some operations in +the alpine regions of Barbary, I should receive in Egypt from those +illustrious men who had for some months formed the Institute of +Cairo, the same kind attentions with which I had been honoured +during my abode in Paris. I hastily completed my collection of +instruments, and purchased works relating to the countries I was +going to visit. I parted from a brother who, by his advice and +example, had hitherto exercised a great influence on the direction +of my thoughts. He approved the motives which determined me to quit +Europe; a secret voice assured us that we should meet again; and +that hope, which did not prove delusive, assuaged the pain of a +long separation. I left Paris with the intention of embarking for +Algiers and Egypt; but by one of those vicissitudes which sway the +affairs of this life, I returned to my brother from the river +Amazon and Peru, without having touched the continent of Africa. + +The Swedish frigate which was to convey M. Skioldebrand to Algiers, +was expected at Marseilles toward the end of October. M. Bonpland +and myself repaired thither with great celerity, for during our +journey we were tormented with the fear of being too late, and +missing our passage. + +M. Skioldebrand was no less impatient than ourselves to reach his +place of destination. Several times a day we climbed the mountain +of Notre Dame de la Garde, which commands an extensive view of the +Mediterranean. Every sail we descried in the horizon excited in us +the most eager emotion; but after two months of anxiety and vain +expectation, we learned by the public papers, that the Swedish +frigate which was to convey us, had suffered greatly in a storm on +the coast of Portugal, and had been forced to enter the port of +Cadiz, to refit. This news was confirmed by private letters, +assuring us that the Jaramas, which was the name of the frigate, +would not reach Marseilles before the spring. + +We felt no inclination to prolong our stay in Provence till that +period. The country, and especially the climate, were delightful, +but the aspect of the sea reminded us of the failure of our +projects. In an excursion we made to Hyeres and Toulon, we found in +the latter port the frigate la Boudeuse, which had been commanded +by M. de Bougainville, in his voyage round the world. She was then +fitting out for Corsica. M. de Bougainville had honoured me with +particular kindness during my stay in Paris, when I was preparing +to accompany the expedition of captain Baudin. I cannot describe +the impression made upon my mind by the sight of the vessel which +had carried Commerson to the islands of the South Sea. In some +conditions of the mind, a painful emotion blends itself with all +our feelings. + +We still persisted in the intention of visiting the African coast, +and were nearly becoming the victims of our perseverance. A small +vessel of Ragusa, on the point of setting sail for Tunis, was at +that time in the port of Marseilles; we thought the opportunity +favourable for reaching Egypt and Syria, and we agreed with the +captain for our passage. The vessel was to sail the following day; +but a circumstance trivial in itself happily prevented our +departure. The live-stock intended to serve us for food during our +passage, was kept in the great cabin. We desired that some changes +should be made, which were indispensable for the safety of our +instruments; and during this interval we learnt at Marseilles, that +the government of Tunis persecuted the French residing in Barbary, +and that every person coming from a French port was thrown into a +dungeon. Having escaped this imminent danger, we were compelled to +suspend the execution of our projects. We resolved to pass the +winter in Spain, in hopes of embarking the next spring, either at +Carthagena, or at Cadiz, if the political situation of the East +permitted. + +We crossed Catalonia and the kingdom of Valencia, on our way to +Madrid. We visited the ruins of Tarragona and those of ancient +Saguntum; and from Barcelona we made an excursion to Montserrat, +the lofty peaks of which are inhabited by hermits, and where the +contrast between luxuriant vegetation and masses of naked and arid +rocks, forms a landscape of a peculiar character. I employed myself +in ascertaining by astronomical observations the position of +several points important for the geography of Spain, and determined +by means of the barometer the height of the central plain. I +likewise made several observations on the inclination of the +needle, and on the intensity of the magnetic forces. + +On my arrival at Madrid I had reason to congratulate myself on the +resolution I had formed of visiting the Peninsula. Baron de Forell, +minister from the court of Saxony, treated me with a degree of +kindness, of which I soon felt the value. He was well versed in +mineralogy, and was full of zeal for every undertaking that +promoted the progress of knowledge. He observed to me, that under +the administration of an enlightened minister, Don Mariano Luis de +Urquijo, I might hope to obtain permission to visit, at my own +expense, the interior of Spanish America. After the disappointments +I had suffered, I did not hesitate a moment to adopt this idea. + +I was presented at the court of Aranjuez in March 1799 and the king +received me graciously. I explained to him the motives which led me +to undertake a voyage to the new world and the Philippine Islands, +and I presented a memoir on the subject to the secretary of state. +Senor de Urquijo supported my demand, and overcame every obstacle. +I obtained two passports, one from the first secretary of state, +the other from the council of the Indies. Never had so extensive a +permission been granted to any traveller, and never had any +foreigner been honoured with more confidence on the part of the +Spanish government. + +Many considerations might have induced us to prolong our abode in +Spain. The abbe Cavanilles, no less remarkable for the variety of +his attainments than his acute intelligence; M. Nee, who, together +with M. Haenke, had, as botanist, made part of the expedition of +Malaspina, and who had formed one of the greatest herbals ever seen +in Europe; Don Casimir Ortega, the abbe Pourret, and the learned +authors of the Flora of Peru, Messrs. Ruiz and Pavon, all opened to +us without reserve their rich collections. We examined part of the +plants of Mexico, discovered by Messrs. Sesse, Mocino, and +Cervantes, whose drawings had been sent to the Museum of Natural +History of Madrid. This great establishment, the direction of which +was confided to Senor Clavijo, author of an elegant translation of +the works of Buffon, offered us, it is true, no geological +representation of the Cordilleras, but M. Proust, so well known by +the great accuracy of his chemical labours, and a distinguished +mineralogist, M. Hergen, gave us curious details on several mineral +substances of America. It would have been useful to us to have +employed a longer time in studying the productions of the countries +which were to be the objects of our research, but our impatience to +take advantage of the permission given us by the court was too +great to suffer us to delay our departure. For a year past, I had +experienced so many disappointments, that I could scarcely persuade +myself that my most ardent wishes would be at length fulfilled. + +We left Madrid about the middle of May, crossed a part of Old +Castile, the kingdoms of Leon and Galicia, and reached Corunna, +whence we were to embark for Cuba. The winter having been +protracted and severe, we enjoyed during the journey that mild +temperature of the spring, which in so southern a latitude usually +occurs during March and April. The snow still covered the lofty +granitic tops of the Guadarama; but in the deep valleys of Galicia, +which resemble the most picturesque spots of Switzerland and the +Tyrol, cistuses loaded with flowers; and arborescent heaths clothed +every rock. We quitted without regret the elevated plain of the two +Castiles, which is everywhere devoid of vegetation, and where the +severity of the winter's cold is followed by the overwhelming heat +of summer. From the few observations I personally made, the +interior of Spain forms a vast plain, elevated three hundred toises +(five hundred and eighty-four metres) above the level of the ocean, +is covered with secondary formations, grit-stone, gypsum, sal-gem, +and the calcareous stone of Jura. The climate of the Castiles is +much colder than that of Toulon and Genoa; its mean temperature +scarcely rises to 15 degrees of the centigrade thermometer. + +We are astonished to find that, in the latitude of Calabria, +Thessaly, and Asia Minor, orange-trees do not flourish in the open +air. The central elevated plain is encircled by a low and narrow +zone, where the chamaerops, the date-tree, the sugar-cane, the +banana, and a number of plants common to Spain and the north of +Africa, vegetate on several spots, without suffering from the +rigours of winter. From the 36th to 40th degrees of latitude, the +medium temperature of this zone is from 17 to 20 degrees; and by a +concurrence of circumstances, which it would be too long to +explain, this favoured region has become the principal seat of +industry and intellectual improvement. + +When, in the kingdom of Valencia, we ascend from the shore of the +Mediterranean towards the lofty plains of La Mancha and the +Castiles, we seem to discern, far inland, from the lengthened +declivities, the ancient coast of the Peninsula. This curious +phenomenon recalls the traditions of the Samothracians, and other +historical testimonies, according to which it is supposed that the +irruption of the waters through the Dardanelles, augmenting the +basin of the Mediterranean, rent and overflowed the southern part +of Europe. If we admit that these traditions owe their origin, not +to mere geological reveries, but to the remembrance of some ancient +catastrophe, we may conceive the central elevated plain of Spain +resisting the efforts of these great inundations, till the draining +of the waters, by the straits formed between the pillars of +Hercules, brought the Mediterranean progressively to its present +level, lower Egypt emerging above its surface on the one side, and +the fertile plains of Tarragona, Valencia, and Murcia, on the +other. Everything that relates to the formation of that sea,* (* +Some of the ancient geographers believed that the Mediterranean, +swelled by the waters of the Euxine, the Palus Maeotis, the Caspian +Sea, and the Sea of Aral, had broken the pillars of Hercules; +others admitted that the irruption was made by the waters of the +ocean. In the first of these hypotheses, the height of the land +between the Black Sea and the Baltic, and between the ports of +Cette and Bordeaux, determine the limit which the accumulation of +the waters may have reached before the junction of the Black Sea, +the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic, as well to the north of the +Dardanelles, as to the east of this strip of land which formerly +joined Europe to Mauritania, and of which, in the time of Strabo, +certain vestiges remained in the Islands of Juno and the Moon.) +which has had so powerful an influence on the first civilization of +mankind, is highly interesting. We might suppose, that Spain, +forming a promontory amidst the waves, was indebted for its +preservation to the height of its land; but in order to give weight +to these theoretic ideas, we must clear up the doubts that have +arisen respecting the rupture of so many transverse dikes;--we must +discuss the probability of the Mediterranean having been formerly +divided into several separate basins, of which Sicily and the +island of Candia appear to mark the ancient limits. We will not +here risk the solution of these problems, but will satisfy +ourselves in fixing attention on the striking contrast in the +configuration of the land in the eastern and western extremities of +Europe. Between the Baltic and the Black Sea, the ground is at +present scarcely fifty toises above the level of the ocean, while +the plain of La Mancha, if placed between the sources of the Niemen +and the Borysthenes, would figure as a group of mountains of +considerable height. If the causes, which may have changed the +surface of our planet, be an interesting speculation, +investigations of the phenomena, such as they offer themselves to +the measures and observations of the naturalist, lead to far +greater certainty. + +From Astorga to Corunna, especially from Lugo, the mountains rise +gradually. The secondary formations gently disappear, and are +succeeded by the transition rocks, which indicate the proximity of +primitive strata. We found considerable mountains composed of that +ancient grey stone which the mineralogists of the school of +Freyberg name grauwakke, and grauwakkenschiefer. I do not know +whether this formation, which is not frequent in the south of +Europe, has hitherto been discovered in other parts of Spain. +Angular fragments of Lydian stone, scattered along the valleys, +seemed to indicate that the transition schist is the basis of the +strata of greywacke. Near Corunna even granitic ridges stretch as +far as Cape Ortegal. These granites, which seem formerly to have +been contiguous to those of Britanny and Cornwall, are perhaps the +wrecks of a chain of mountains destroyed and sunk in the waves. +Large and beautiful crystals of feldspar characterise this rock. +Common tin ore is sometimes discovered there, but working the mines +is a laborious and unprofitable operation for the inhabitants of +Galicia. + +The first secretary of state had recommended us very particularly +to brigadier Don Raphael Clavijo, who was employed in forming new +dock-yards at Corunna. He advised us to embark on board the sloop +Pizarro,* (* According to the Spanish nomenclature, the Pizarro was +a light frigate (fragata lijera).) which was to sail in company +with the Alcudia, the packet-boat of the month of May, which, on +account of the blockade, had been detained three weeks in the port. +Senor Clavijo ordered the necessary arrangements to be made on +board the sloop for placing our instruments, and the captain of the +Pizarro received orders to stop at Teneriffe, as long as we should +judge necessary to enable us to visit the port of Orotava, and +ascend the peak. + +We had yet ten days to wait before we embarked. During this +interval, we employed ourselves in preparing the plants we had +collected in the beautiful valleys of Galicia, which no naturalist +had yet visited: we examined the fuci and the mollusca which the +north-west winds had cast with great profusion at the foot of the +steep rock, on which the lighthouse of the Tower of Hercules is +built. This edifice, called also the Iron Tower, was repaired in +1788. It is ninety-two feet high, its walls are four feet and a +half thick, and its construction clearly proves that it was built +by the Romans. An inscription discovered near its foundation, a +copy of which M. Laborde obligingly gave me, informs us, that this +pharos was constructed by Caius Sevius Lupus, architect of the city +of Aqua Flavia (Chaves), and that it was dedicated to Mars. Why is +the Iron Tower called in the country by the name of Hercules? Was +it built by the Romans on the ruins of a Greek or Phoenician +edifice? Strabo, indeed, affirms that Galicia, the country of the +Callaeci, had been peopled by Greek colonies. According to an +extract from the geography of Spain, by Asclepiades the Myrlaean, +an ancient tradition stated that the companions of Hercules had +settled in these countries. + +The ports of Ferrol and Corunna both communicate with one bay, so +that a vessel driven by bad weather towards the coast may anchor in +either, according to the wind. This advantage is invaluable where +the sea is almost always tempestuous, as between capes Ortegal and +Finisterre, which are the promontories Trileucum and Artabrum of +ancient geography. A narrow passage, flanked by perpendicular rocks +of granite, leads to the extensive basin of Ferrol. No port in +Europe has so extraordinary an anchorage, from its very inland +position. The narrow and tortuous passage by which vessels enter +this port, has been opened, either by the irruption of the waves, +or by the reiterated shocks of very violent earthquakes. In the New +World, on the coasts of New Andalusia, the Laguna del Obispo +(Bishop's lake) is formed exactly like the port of Ferrol. The most +curious geological phenomena are often repeated at immense +distances on the surface of continents; and naturalists who have +examined different parts of the globe, are struck with the extreme +resemblance observed in the rents on coasts, in the sinuosities of +the valleys, in the aspect of the mountains, and in their +distribution by groups. The accidental concurrence of the same +causes must have everywhere produced the same effects; and amidst +the variety of nature, an analogy of structure and form is observed +in the arrangement of inanimate matter, as well as in the internal +organization of plants and of animals. + +Crossing from Corunna to Ferrol, over a shallow, near the White +Signal, in the bay, which according to D'Anville is the Portus +Magnus of the ancients, we made several experiments by means of a +valved thermometrical sounding lead, on the temperature of the +ocean, and on the decrement of caloric in the successive strata of +water. The thermometer on the bank, and near the surface, was from +12.5 to 13.3 degrees centigrades, while in deep water it constantly +marked 15 or 15.3 degrees, the air being at 12.8 degrees. The +celebrated Franklin and Mr. Jonathan Williams* (* Author of a work +entitled "Thermometrical Navigation," published at Philadelphia.) +were the first to invite the attention of naturalists to the +phenomena of the temperature of the Atlantic over shoals, and in +that zone of tepid and flowing waters which runs from the gulf of +Mexico to the banks of Newfoundland and the northern coasts of +Europe. The observation, that the proximity of a sand-bank is +indicated by a rapid descent of the temperature of the sea at its +surface, is not only interesting to the naturalist, but may become +also very important for the safety of navigators. The use of the +thermometer ought certainly not to lead us to neglect the use of +the lead; but experiments sufficiently prove, that variations of +temperature, sensible to the most imperfect instruments, indicate +danger long before the vessel reaches the shoals. In such cases, +the frigidity of the water may induce the pilot to heave the lead +in places where he thought himself in the most perfect safety. The +waters which cover the shoals owe in a great measure the diminution +of their temperature to their mixture with the lower strata of +water, which rise towards the surface on the edge of the banks. + +The moment of leaving Europe for the first time is attended with a +solemn feeling. We in vain summon to our minds the frequency of the +communication between the two worlds; we in vain reflect on the +great facility with which, from the improved state of navigation, +we traverse the Atlantic, which compared to the Pacific is but a +larger arm of the sea; the sentiment we feel when we first +undertake so distant a voyage is not the less accompanied by a deep +emotion, unlike any other impression we have hitherto felt. +Separated from the objects of our dearest affections, entering in +some sort on a new state of existence, we are forced to fall back +on our own thoughts, and we feel within ourselves a dreariness we +have never known before. Among the letters which, at the time of +our embarking, I wrote to friends in France and Germany, one had a +considerable influence on the direction of our travels, and on our +succeeding operations. When I left Paris with the intention of +visiting the coast of Africa, the expedition for discoveries in the +Pacific seemed to be adjourned for several years. I had agreed with +captain Baudin, that if, contrary to his expectation, his voyage +took place at an earlier period, and intelligence of it should +reach me in time, I would endeavour to return from Algiers to a +port in France or Spain, to join the expedition. I renewed this +promise on leaving Europe, and wrote to M. Baudin, that if the +government persisted in sending him by Cape Horn, I would endeavour +to meet him either at Monte Video, Chile, or Lima, or wherever he +should touch in the Spanish colonies. In consequence of this +engagement, I changed the plan of my journey, on reading in the +American papers, in 1801, that the French expedition had sailed +from Havre, to circumnavigate the globe from east to west. I hired +a small vessel from Batabano, in the island of Cuba, to Portobello, +and thence crossed the isthmus to the coast of the Pacific; this +mistake of a journalist led M. Bonpland and myself to travel eight +hundred leagues through a country we had no intention to visit. It +was only at Quito, that a letter from M. Delambre, perpetual +secretary of the first class of the Institute, informed us, that +captain Baudin went by the Cape of Good Hope, without touching on +the eastern or western coasts of America. + +We spent two days at Corunna, after our instruments were embarked. +A thick fog, which covered the horizon, at length indicated the +change of weather we so anxiously desired. On the 4th of June, in +the evening, the wind turned to north-east, a point which, on the +coast of Galicia, is considered very constant during the summer. +The Pizarro prepared to sail on the 5th, though we had intelligence +that only a few hours previously an English squadron had been seen +from the watch-tower of Sisarga, appearing to stand towards the +mouth of the Tagus. Those who saw our ship weigh anchor asserted +that we should be captured in three days, and that, forced to +follow the fate of the vessel, we should be carried to Lisbon. This +prognostic gave us the more uneasiness, as we had known some +Mexicans at Madrid, who, in order to return to Vera Cruz, had +embarked three times at Cadiz, and having been each time taken at +the entrance of the port, were at length obliged to return to Spain +through Portugal. + +The Pizarro set sail at two in the afternoon. As the long and +narrow passage by which a ship sails from the port of Corunna opens +towards the north, and the wind was contrary, we made eight short +tacks, three of which were useless. A fresh tack was made, but very +slowly, and we were for some moments in danger at the foot of fort +St. Amarro, the current having driven us very near the rock, on +which the sea breaks with considerable violence. We remained with +our eyes fixed on the castle of St. Antonio, where the unfortunate +Malaspina was then a captive in a state prison. On the point of +leaving Europe to visit the countries which this illustrious +traveller had visited with so much advantage, I could have wished +to have fixed my thoughts on some object less affecting. + +At half-past six we passed the Tower of Hercules, which is the +lighthouse of Corunna, as already mentioned, and where, from a very +remote time, a coal-fire has been kept up for the direction of +vessels. The light of this fire is in no way proportionate to the +noble construction of so vast an edifice, being so feeble that +ships cannot perceive it till they are in danger of striking on the +shore. Towards the close of day the wind increased and the sea ran +high. We directed our course to north-west, in order to avoid the +English frigates, which we supposed were cruising off these coasts. +About nine we spied the light of a fishing-hut at Sisarga, which +was the last object we beheld in the west of Europe. + +On the 7th we were in the latitude of Cape Finisterre. The group of +granitic rocks, which forms part of this promontory, like that of +Torianes and Monte de Corcubion, bears the name of the Sierra de +Torinona. Cape Finisterre is lower than the neighbouring lands, but +the Torinona is visible at seventeen leagues' distance, which +proves that the elevation of its highest summit is not less than +300 toises (582 metres). Spanish navigators affirm that on these +coasts the magnetic variation differs extremely from that observed +at sea. M. Bory, it is true, in the voyage of the sloop Amaranth, +found in 1751, that the variation of the needle determined at the +Cape was four degrees less than could have been conjectured from +the observations made at the same period along the coasts. In the +same manner as the granite of Galicia contains tin disseminated in +its mass, that of Cape Finisterre probably contains micaceous iron. +In the mountains of the Upper Palatinate there are granitic rocks +in which crystals of micaceous iron take the place of common mica. + +On the 8th, at sunset, we descried from the mast-head an English +convoy sailing along the coast, and steering towards south-east. In +order to avoid it we altered our course during the night. From this +moment no light was permitted in the great cabin, to prevent our +being seen at a distance. This precaution, which was at the time +prescribed in the regulations of the packet-ships of the Spanish +navy, was extremely irksome to us during the voyages we made in the +course of the five following years. We were constantly obliged to +make use of dark-lanterns to examine the temperature of the water, +or to read the divisions on the limb of the astronomical +instruments. In the torrid zone, where twilight lasts but a few +minutes, our operations ceased almost at six in the evening. This +state of things was so much the more vexatious to me as from the +nature of my constitution I never was subject to sea-sickness, and +feel an extreme ardour for study during the whole time I am at sea. + +On the 9th of June, in latitude 39 degrees 50 minutes, and +longitude 16 degrees 10 minutes west of the meridian of the +observatory of Paris, we began to feel the effects of the great +current which from the Azores flows towards the straits of +Gibraltar and the Canary Islands. This current is commonly +attributed to that tendency towards the east, which the straits of +Gibraltar give to the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. M. de Fleurieu +observes that the Mediterranean, losing by evaporation more water +than the rivers can supply, causes a movement in the neighbouring +ocean, and that the influence of the straits is felt at the +distance of six hundred leagues. Without derogating from the +respect I entertain for the opinion of that celebrated navigator, I +may be permitted to consider this important object in a far more +general point of view. + +When we cast our eyes over the Atlantic, or that deep valley which +divides the western coasts of Europe and Africa from the eastern +coasts of the new world, we distinguish a contrary direction in the +motion of the waters. Within the tropics, especially from the coast +of Senegal to the Caribbean Sea, the general current, that which +was earliest known to mariners, flows constantly from east to west. +This is called the equinoctial current. Its mean rapidity, +corresponding to different latitudes, is nearly the same in the +Atlantic and in the Pacific, and may be estimated at nine or ten +miles in twenty-four hours, consequently from 0.59 to 0.65 of a +foot every second! In those latitudes the waters run towards the +west with a velocity equal to a fourth of the rapidity of the +greater part of the larger rivers of Europe. The movement of the +ocean in a direction contrary to that of the rotation of the globe, +is probably connected with this last phenomenon only as far as the +rotation converts into trade winds* (* The limits of the trade +winds were, for the first time, determined by Dampier in 1666.) the +polar winds, which, in the low regions of the atmosphere bring back +the cold air of the high latitudes toward the equator. To the +general impulsion which these trade-winds give the surface of the +sea, we must attribute the equinoctial current, the force and +rapidity of which are not sensibly modified by the local variations +of the atmosphere. + +In the channel which the Atlantic has dug between Guiana and +Guinea, on the meridian of 20 or 23 degrees, and from the 8th or +9th to the 2nd or 3rd degrees of northern latitude, where the +trade-winds are often interrupted by winds blowing from the south +and south-south-west, the equinoctial current is more inconstant in +its direction. Towards the coasts of Africa, vessels are drawn in +the direction of south-east; whilst towards the Bay of All Saints +and Cape St. Augustin, the coasts of which are dreaded by +navigators sailing towards the mouth of the Plata, the general +motion of the waters is masked by a particular current (the effects +of which extend from Cape St. Roche to the Isle of Trinidad) +running north-west with a mean velocity of a foot and a half every +second. + +The equinoctial current is felt, though feebly, even beyond the +tropic of Cancer, in the 26th and 28th degrees of latitude. In the +vast basin of the Atlantic, at six or seven hundred leagues from +the coasts of Africa, vessels from Europe bound to the West Indies, +find their sailing accelerated before they reach the torrid zone. +More to the north, in 28 and 35 degrees, between the parallels of +Teneriffe and Ceuta, in 46 and 48 degrees of longitude, no constant +motion is observed: there, a zone of 140 leagues in breadth +separates the equinoctial current (the tendency of which is towards +the west) from that great mass of water which runs eastward, and is +distinguished for its extraordinary high temperature. To this mass +of waters, known by the name of the Gulf-stream,* (* Sir Francis +Drake observed this extraordinary movement of the waters, but he +was unacquainted with their high temperature.) the attention of +naturalists was directed in 1776 by the curious observations of +Franklin and Sir Charles Blagden. + +The equinoctial current drives the waters of the Atlantic towards +the coasts inhabited by the Mosquito Indians, and towards the +shores of Honduras. The New Continent, stretching from south to +north, forms a sort of dyke to this current. The waters are carried +at first north-west, and passing into the Gulf of Mexico through +the strait formed by Cape Catoche and Cape St. Antonio, follow the +bendings of the Mexican coast, from Vera Cruz to the mouth of the +Rio del Norte, and thence to the mouths of the Mississippi, and the +shoals west of the southern extremity of Florida. Having made this +vast circuit west, north, east, and south, the current takes a new +direction northward, and throws itself with impetuosity into the +Gulf of Florida. At the end of the Gulf of Florida, in the parallel +of Cape Cannaveral, the Gulf-stream, or current of Florida, runs +north-east. Its rapidity resembles that of a torrent, and is +sometimes five miles an hour. The pilot may judge, with some +certainty, of the proximity of his approach to New York, +Philadelphia, or Charlestown when he reaches the edge of the +stream; for the elevated temperature of the waters, their saltness, +indigo-blue colour, and the shoals of seaweed which cover their +surface, as well as the heat of the surrounding atmosphere, all +indicate the Gulf-stream. Its rapidity diminishes towards the +north, at the same time that its breadth increases and the waters +become cool. Between Cayo Biscaino and the bank of Bahama the +breadth is only 15 leagues, whilst in the latitude of 28 1/2 +degrees, it is 17, and in the parallel of Charlestown, opposite +Cape Henlopen, from 40 to 50 leagues. The rapidity of the current +is from three to five miles an hour where the stream is narrowest, +and is only one mile as it advances towards the north. The waters +of the Mexican Gulf; forcibly drawn to north-east, preserve their +warm temperature to such a point, that in 40 and 41 degrees of +latitude I found them at 22.5 degrees (18 degrees R.) when, out of +the current, the heat of the ocean at its surface was scarcely 17.5 +degrees (14 degrees R.). In the parallel of New York and Oporto, +the temperature of the Gulf-stream is consequently equal to that of +the seas of the tropics in the 18th degree of latitude, as, for +instance, in the parallel of Porto Rico and the islands of Cape +Verd. + +To the east of the port of Boston, and on the meridian of Halifax, +in latitude 41 degrees 25 minutes, and longitude 67 degrees, the +current is near 80 leagues broad. From this point it turns suddenly +to the east, so that its western edge, as it bends, becomes the +western limit of the running waters, skirting the extremity of the +great bank of Newfoundland, which M. Volney ingeniously calls the +bar of the mouth of this enormous sea-river. The cold waters of +this bank, which according to my experiments are at a temperature +of 8.7 or 10 degrees (7 or 8 degrees R.) present a striking +contrast with the waters of the torrid zone, driven northward by +the Gulf-stream, the temperature of which is from 21 to 22.5 +degrees (17 to 18 degrees R.). in these latitudes, the caloric is +distributed in a singular manner throughout the ocean; the waters +of the bank are 9.4 degrees colder than the neighbouring sea; and +this sea is 3 degrees colder than the current. These zones can have +no equilibrium of temperature, having a source of heat, or a cause +of refrigeration, which is peculiar to each, and the influence of +which is permanent. + +From the bank of Newfoundland, or from the 52nd degree of longitude +to the Azores, the Gulf-stream continues its course to east and +east-south-east. The waters are still acted upon by the impulsion +they received near a thousand leagues distance, in the straits of +Florida, between the island of Cuba and the shoals of Tortoise +Island. This distance is double the length of the course of the +river Amazon, from Jaen or the straits of Manseriche to Grand Para. +On the meridian of the islands of Corvo and Flores, the most +western of the group of the Azores, the breadth of the current is +160 leagues. When vessels, on their return from South America to +Europe, endeavour to make these two islands to rectify their +longitude, they are always sensible of the motion of the waters to +south-east. At the 33rd degree of latitude the equinoctial current +of the tropics is in the near vicinity of the Gulf-stream. In this +part of the ocean, we may in a single day pass from waters that +flow towards the west, into those which run to the south-east or +east-south-east. + +From the Azores, the current of Florida turns towards the straits +of Gibraltar, the isle of Madeira, and the group of the Canary +Islands. The opening of the Pillars of Hercules has no doubt +accelerated the motion of the waters towards the east. We may in +this point of view assert, that the strait, by which the +Mediterranean communicates with the Atlantic, produces its effects +at a great distance; but it is probable also, that, without the +existence of this strait, vessels sailing to Teneriffe would be +driven south-east by a cause which we must seek on the coasts of +the New World. Every motion is the cause of another motion in the +vast basin of the seas as well as in the aerial ocean. Tracing the +currents to their most distant sources, and reflecting on their +variable celerity, sometimes decreasing as between the gulf of +Florida and the bank of Newfoundland; at other times augmenting, as +in the neighbourhood of the straits of Gibraltar, and near the +Canary Islands, we cannot doubt but the same cause which impels the +waters to make the circuitous sweep of the gulf of Mexico, agitates +them also near the island of Madeira. + +On the south of that island, we may follow the current, in its +direction south-east and south-south-east towards the coast of +Africa, between Cape Cantin and Cape Bojador. In those latitudes a +vessel becalmed is running on the coast, while, according to the +uncorrected reckoning, it was supposed to be a good distance out at +sea. Were the motion of the waters caused by the opening at the +straits of Gibraltar, why, on the south of those straits, should it +not follow an opposite direction? On the contrary, in the 25th and +26th degrees of latitude, the current flows at first direct south, +and then south-west. Cape Blanc, which, after Cape Verd, is the +most salient promontory, seems to have an influence on this +direction, and in this parallel the waters, of which we have +followed the course from the coasts of Honduras to those of Africa, +mingle with the great current of the tropics to resume their tour +from east to west. Several hundred leagues westward of the Canary +Islands, the motion peculiar to the equinoctial waters is felt in +the temperate zone from the 28th and 29th degrees of north +latitude; but on the meridian of the island of Ferro, vessels sail +southward as far as the tropic of Cancer, before they find +themselves, by their reckoning, eastward of their right course.* (* +See Humboldt's Cosmos volume 1 page 312 Bohn's edition.) + +We have just seen that between the parallels of 11 and 43 degrees, +the waters of the Atlantic are driven by the currents in a +continual whirlpool. Supposing that a molecule of water returns to +the same place from which it departed, we can estimate, from our +present knowledge of the swiftness of currents, that this circuit +of 3800 leagues is not terminated in less than two years and ten +months. A boat, which may be supposed to receive no impulsion from +the winds, would require thirteen months to go from the Canary +Islands to the coast of Caracas, ten months to make the tour of the +gulf of Mexico and reach Tortoise Shoals opposite the port of the +Havannah, while forty or fifty days might be sufficient to carry it +from the straits of Florida to the bank of Newfoundland. It would +be difficult to fix the rapidity of the retrograde current from +this bank to the shores of Africa; estimating the mean velocity of +the waters at seven or eight miles in twenty-four hours, we may +allow ten or eleven months for this last distance. Such are the +effects of the slow but regular motion which agitates the waters of +the Atlantic. Those of the river Amazon take nearly forty-five days +to flow from Tomependa to Grand Para. + +A short time before my arrival at Teneriffe, the sea had left in +the road of Santa Cruz the trunk of a cedrela odorata covered with +the bark. This American tree vegetates within the tropics, or in +the neighbouring regions. It had no doubt been torn up on the coast +of the continent, or of that of Honduras. The nature of the wood, +and the lichens which covered its bark, bore evidence that this +trunk had not belonged to these submarine forests which ancient +revolutions of the globe have deposited in the polar regions. If +the cedrela, instead of having been cast on the strand of +Teneriffe, had been carried farther south, It would probably have +made the whole tour of the Atlantic, and returned to its native +soil with the general current of the tropics. This conjecture is +supported by a fact of more ancient date, recorded in the history +of the Canaries by the abbe Viera. In 1770, a small vessel laden +with corn, and bound from the island of Lancerota, to Santa Cruz, +in Teneriffe, was driven out to sea, while none of the crew were on +board. The motion of the waters from east to west, carried it to +America, where it went on shore at La Guayra, near Caracas. + +Whilst the art of navigation was yet in its infancy, the +Gulf-stream suggested to the mind of Christopher Columbus certain +indications of the existence of western regions. Two corpses, the +features of which indicated a race of unknown men, were cast ashore +on the Azores, towards the end of the 15th century. Nearly at the +same period, the brother-in-law of Columbus, Peter Correa, governor +of Porto Santo, found on the strand of that island pieces of bamboo +of extraordinary size, brought thither by the western currents. The +dead bodies and the bamboos attracted the attention of the Genoese +navigator, who conjectured that both came from a continent situate +towards the west. We now know that in the torrid zone the +trade-winds and the current of the tropics are in opposition to +every motion of the waves in the direction of the earth's rotation. +The productions of the new world cannot reach the old but by the +very high latitudes, and in following the direction of the current +of Florida. The fruits of several trees of the Antilles are often +washed ashore on the coasts of the islands of Ferro and Gomera. +Before the discovery of America, the Canarians considered these +fruits as coming from the enchanted isle of St. Borondon, which +according to the reveries of pilots, and certain legends, was +situated towards the west in an unknown part of the ocean, buried, +as was supposed, in eternal mists. + +My chief view in tracing a sketch of the currents of the Atlantic +is to prove that the motion of the waters towards the south-east, +from Cape St. Vincent to the Canary Islands, is the effect of the +general motion to which the surface of the ocean is subjected at +its western extremity. We shall give but a very succinct account of +the arm of the Gulf-stream, which in the 45th and 50th degrees of +latitude, near the bank called the Bonnet Flamand, runs from +south-west to north-east towards the coasts of Europe. This partial +current becomes very strong at those times when the west winds are +of long continuance: and, like that which flows along the isles of +Ferro and Gomera, it deposits every year on the western coasts of +Ireland and Norway the fruit of trees which belong to the torrid +zone of America. On the shores of the Hebrides, we collect seeds of +Mimosa scandens, of Dolichos urens, of Guilandina bonduc, and +several other plants of Jamaica, the isle of Cuba, and of the +neighbouring continent. The current carries thither also barrels of +French wine, well preserved, the remains of the cargoes of vessels +wrecked in the West Indian seas. To these examples of the distant +migration of the vegetable world, others no less striking may be +added. The wreck of an English vessel, the Tilbury, burnt near +Jamaica, was found on the coast of Scotland. On these same coasts +are sometimes found various kinds of tortoises, that inhabit the +waters of the Antilles. When the western winds are of long +duration, a current is formed in the high latitudes, which runs +directly towards east-south-east, from the coasts of Greenland and +Labrador, as far as the north of Scotland. Wallace relates, that +twice (in 1682 and 1684), American savages of the race of the +Esquimaux, driven out to sea in their leathern canoes, during a +storm, and left to the guidance of the currents, reached the +Orkneys. This last example is the more worthy of attention, as it +proves at the same time how, at a period when the art of navigation +was yet in its infancy, the motion of the waters of the ocean may +have contributed to disseminate the different races of men over the +face of the globe. + +In reflecting on the causes of the Atlantic currents, we find that +they are much more numerous than is generally believed; for the +waters of the sea may be put in motion by an external impulse, by +difference of heat and saltness, by the periodical melting of the +polar ice, or by the inequality of evaporation, in different +latitudes. Sometimes several of these causes concur to one and the +same effect, and sometimes they produce several contrary effects. +Winds that are light, but which, like the trade-winds, are +continually acting on the whole of a zone, cause a real movement of +transition, which we do not observe in the heaviest tempests, +because these last are circumscribed within a small space. When, in +a great mass of water, the particles at the surface acquire a +different specific gravity, a superficial current is formed, which +takes its direction towards the point where the water is coldest, +or where it is most saturated with muriate of soda, sulphate of +lime, and muriate or sulphate of magnesia. In the seas of the +tropics we find, that at great depths the thermometer marks 7 or 8 +centesimal degrees. Such is the result of the numerous experiments +of commodore Ellis and of M. Peron. The temperature of the air in +those latitudes being never below 19 or 20 degrees, it is not at +the surface that the waters can have acquired a degree of cold so +near the point of congelation, and of the maximum of the density of +water. The existence of this cold stratum in the low latitudes is +an evident proof of the existence of an under-current, which runs +from the poles towards the equator: it also proves that the saline +substances which alter the specific gravity of the water, are +distributed in the ocean, so as not to annihilate the effect +produced by the differences of temperature. + +Considering the velocity of the molecules, which, on account of the +rotatory motion of the globe, vary with the parallels, we may be +tempted to admit that every current, in the direction from south to +north, tends at the same time eastward, while the waters which run +from the pole towards the equator, have a tendency to deviate +westward. We may also be led to think that these tendencies +diminish to a certain point the speed of the tropical current, in +the same manner as they change the direction of the polar current, +which in July and August, is regularly perceived during the melting +of the ice, on the parallel of the bank of Newfoundland, and +farther north. Very old nautical observations, which I have had +occasion to confirm by comparing the longitude given by the +chronometer with that which the pilots obtained by their reckoning, +are, however, contrary to these theoretical ideas. In both +hemispheres, the polar currents, when they are perceived, decline a +little to the east; and it would seem that the cause of this +phenomenon should be sought in the constancy of the westerly winds +which prevail in the high latitudes. Besides, the particles of +water do not move with the same rapidity as the particles of air; +and the currents of the ocean, which we consider as most rapid, +have only a swiftness of eight or nine feet a second; it is +consequently very probable, that the water, in passing through +different parallels, gradually acquires a velocity correspondent to +those parallels, and that the rotation of the earth does not change +the direction of the currents. + +The variable pressure on the surface of the sea, caused by the +changes in the weight of the air, is another cause of motion which +deserves particular attention. It is well known, that the +barometric variations do not in general take place at the same +moment in two distant points, which are on the same level. If in +one of these points the barometer stands a few lines lower than in +the other, the water will rise where it finds the least pressure of +air, and this local intumescence will continue, till, from the +effect of the wind, the equilibrium of the air is restored. M. +Vaucher thinks that the tides in the lake of Geneva, known by the +name of the seiches, arise from the same cause. We know not whether +it be the same, when the movement of progression, which must not be +confounded with the oscillation of the waves, is the effect of an +external impulse. M. de Fleurieu, in his narrative of the voyage of +the Isis, cites several facts, which render it probable that the +sea is not so still at the bottom as naturalists generally suppose. +Without entering here into a discussion of this question, we shall +only observe that, if the external impulse is constant in its +action, like that of the trade-winds, the friction of the particles +of water on each other must necessarily propagate the motion of the +surface of the ocean even to the lower strata; and in fact this +propagation in the Gulf-stream has long been admitted by +navigators, who think they discover the effects in the great depth +of the sea wherever it is traversed by the current of Florida, even +amidst the sand-banks which surround the northern coasts of the +United States. This immense river of hot waters, after a course of +fifty days, from the 24th to the 45th degree of latitude, or 450 +leagues, does not lose, amidst the rigours of winter in the +temperate zone, more than 3 or 4 degrees of the temperature it had +under the tropics. The greatness of the mass, and the small +conductibility of water for heat, prevent a more speedy +refrigeration. If, therefore, the Gulf-stream has dug a channel at +the bottom of the Atlantic ocean, and if its waters are in motion +to considerable depths, they must also in their inferior strata +keep up a lower temperature than that observed in the same +parallel, in a part of the sea which has neither currents nor deep +shoals. These questions can be cleared up only by direct +experiments, made by thermometrical soundings. + +Sir Erasmus Gower remarks, that, in the passage from England to the +Canary islands, the current, which carries vessels towards the +south-east, begins at the 39th degree of latitude. During our +voyage from Corunna to the coast of South America, the effect of +this motion of the waters was perceived farther north. From the +37th to the 30th degree, the deviation was very unequal; the daily +average effect was 12 miles, that is, our sloop drove towards the +east 75 miles in six days. In crossing the parallel of the straits +of Gibraltar, at a distance of 140 leagues, we had occasion to +observe, that in those latitudes the maximum of the rapidity does +not correspond with the mouth of the straits, but with a more +northerly point, which lies on the prolongation of a line passing +through the strait and Cape St. Vincent. This line is parallel to +the direction which the waters follow from the Azores to Cape +Cantin. We should moreover observe (and this fact is not +uninteresting to those who examine the nature of fluids), that in +this part of the retrograde current, on a breadth of 120 or 140 +leagues, the whole mass of water has not the same rapidity, nor +does it follow precisely the same direction. When the sea is +perfectly calm, there appears at the surface narrow stripes, like +small rivulets, in which the waters run with a murmur very sensible +to the ear of an experienced pilot. On the 13th of June, in 34 +degrees 36 minutes north latitude, we found ourselves in the midst +of a great number of these beds of currents. We took their +direction with the compass, and some ran north-east, others +east-north-east, though the general movement of the ocean, +indicated by comparing the reckoning with the chronometrical +longitude, continued to be south-east. It is very common to see a +mass of motionless waters crossed by threads of water, which run in +different directions, and we may daily observe this phenomenon on +the surface of lakes; but it is much less frequent to find partial +movements, impressed by local causes on small portions of waters in +the midst of an oceanic river, which occupies an immense space, and +which moves, though slowly, in a constant direction. In the +conflict of currents, as in the oscillation of the waves, our +imagination is struck by those movements which seem to penetrate +each other, and by which the ocean is continually agitated. + +We passed Cape St. Vincent, which is of basaltic formation, at the +distance of more than eighty leagues. It is not distinctly seen at +a greater distance than 15 leagues, but the granitic mountain +called the Foya de Monchique, situated near the Cape, is +perceptible, as pilots allege, at the distance of 26 leagues. If +this assertion be exact, the Foya is 700 toises (1363 metres), and +consequently 116 toises (225 metres) higher than Vesuvius. + +From Corunna to the 36th degree of latitude we had scarcely seen +any organic being, excepting sea-swallows and a few dolphins. We +looked in vain for sea-weeds (fuci) and mollusca, when on the 11th +of June we were struck with a curious sight which afterwards was +frequently renewed in the southern ocean. We entered on a zone +where the whole sea was covered with a prodigious quantity of +medusas. The vessel was almost becalmed, but the mollusca were +borne towards the south-east, with a rapidity four times greater +than the current. Their passage lasted near three quarters of an +hour. We then perceived but a few scattered individuals, following +the crowd at a distance as if tired with their journey. Do these +animals come from the bottom of the sea, which is perhaps in these +latitudes some thousand fathoms deep? or do they make distant +voyages in shoals? We know that the mollusca haunt banks; and if +the eight rocks, near the surface, which captain Vobonne mentions +having seen in 1732, to the north of Porto Santo, really exist, we +may suppose that this innumerable quantity of medusas had been +thence detached; for we were but 28 leagues from the reef. We +found, beside the Medusa aurita of Baster, and the Medusa pelagica +of Bosc with eight tentacula (Pelagia denticulata, Peron), a third +species which resembles the Medusa hysocella, and which Vandelli +found at the mouth of the Tagus. It is known by its brownish-yellow +colour, and by its tentacula, which are longer than the body. +Several of these sea-nettles were four inches in diameter: their +reflection was almost metallic: their changeable colours of violet +and purple formed an agreeable contrast with the azure tint of the +ocean. + +In the midst of these medusas M. Bonpland observed bundles of +Dagysa notata, a mollusc of a singular construction, which Sir +Joseph Banks first discovered. These are small gelatinous bags, +transparent, cylindrical, sometimes polygonal, thirteen lines long +and two or three in diameter. These bags are open at both ends. In +one of these openings, we observed a hyaline bladder, marked with a +yellow spot. The cylinders lie longitudinally, one against another, +like the cells of a bee-hive, and form chaplets from six to eight +inches in length. I tried the galvanic electricity on these +mollusca, but it produced no contraction. It appears that the genus +dagysa, formed at the time of Cook's first voyage, belongs to the +salpas (biphores of Bruguiere), to which M. Cuvier joins the Thalia +of Brown, and the Tethys vagina of Tilesius. The salpas journey +also by groups, joining in chaplets, as we have observed of the +dagysa. + +On the morning of the 13th of June, in 34 degrees 33 minutes +latitude, we saw large masses of this last mollusc in its passage, +the sea being perfectly calm. We observed during the night, that, +of three species of medusas which we collected, none yielded any +light but at the moment of a very slight shock. This property does +not belong exclusively to the Medusa noctiluca, which Forskael has +described in his Fauna Aegyptiaca, and which Gmelin has applied to +the Medusa pelagica of Loefling, notwithstanding its red tentacula, +and the brownish tuberosities of its body. If we place a very +irritable medusa on a pewter plate, and strike against the plate +with any sort of metal, the slight vibrations of the plate are +sufficient to make this animal emit light. Sometimes, in +galvanising the medusa, the phosphorescence appears at the moment +that the chain closes, though the exciters are not in immediate +contact with the organs of the animal. The fingers with which we +touch it remain luminous for two or three minutes, as is observed +in breaking the shell of the pholades. If we rub wood with the body +of a medusa, and the part rubbed ceases shining, the +phosphorescence returns if we pass a dry hand over the wood. When +the light is extinguished a second time, it can no longer be +reproduced, though the place rubbed be still humid and viscous. In +what manner ought we to consider the effect of the friction, or +that of the shock? This is a question of difficult solution. Is it +a slight augmentation of temperature which favours the +phosphorescence? or does the light return, because the surface is +renewed, by putting the animal parts proper to disengage the +phosphoric hydrogen in contact with the oxygen of the atmospheric +air? I have proved by experiments published in 1797, that the +shining of wood is extinguished in hydrogen gas, and in pure azotic +gas, and that its light reappears whenever we mix with it the +smallest bubble of oxygen gas. These facts, to which several others +may be added, tend to explain the causes of the phosphorescence of +the sea, and of that peculiar influence which the shock of the +waves exercises on the production of light. + +When we were between the island of Madeira and the coast of Africa, +we had slight breezes and dead calms, very favourable for the +magnetic observations, which occupied me during this passage. We +were never weary of admiring the beauty of the nights; nothing can +be compared to the transparency and serenity of an African sky. We +were struck with the innumerable quantity of falling stars, which +appeared at every instant. The farther progress we made towards the +south, the more frequent was this phenomenon, especially near the +Canaries. I have observed during my travels, that these igneous +meteors are in general more common and luminous in some regions of +the globe than in others; but I have never beheld them so +multiplied as in the vicinity of the volcanoes of the province of +Quito, and in that part of the Pacific ocean which bathes the +volcanic coasts of Guatimala. The influence which place, climate, +and season appear to exercise on the falling stars, distinguishes +this class of meteors from those to which we trace stones that drop +from the sky (aerolites), and which probably exist beyond the +boundaries of our atmosphere. According to the observations of +Messrs. Benzenberg and Brandes, many of the falling stars seen in +Europe have been only thirty thousand toises high. One was even +measured which did not exceed fourteen thousand toises, or five +nautical leagues. These measures, which can give no result but by +approximation, deserve well to be repeated. In warm climates, +especially within the tropics, falling stars leave a tail behind +them, which remains luminous 12 or 15 seconds: at other times they +seem to burst into sparks, and they are generally lower than those +in the north of Europe. We perceive them only in a serene and azure +sky; they have perhaps never been below a cloud. Falling stars +often follow the same direction for several hours, which direction +is that of the wind. In the bay of Naples, M. Gay-Lussac and myself +observed luminous phenomena very analogous to those which fixed my +attention during a long abode at Mexico and Quito. These meteors +are perhaps modified by the nature of the soil and the air, like +certain effects of the looming or mirage, and of the terrestrial +refraction peculiar to the coasts of Calabria and Sicily. + +When we were forty leagues east of the island of Madeira, a +swallow* (* Hirundo rustica, Linn.) perched on the topsail-yard. It +was so fatigued, that it suffered itself to be easily taken. It was +remarkable that a bird, in that season, and in calm weather, should +fly so far. In the expedition of d'Entrecasteaux, a common swallow +was seen 60 leagues distant from Cape Blanco; but this was towards +the end of October, and M. Labillardiere thought it had newly +arrived from Europe. We crossed these latitudes in June, at a +period when the seas had not for a long time been agitated by +tempests. I mention this last circumstance, because small birds and +even butterflies, are sometimes forced out to sea by the +impetuosity of the winds, as we observed in the Pacific ocean, when +we were on the western coast of Mexico. + +The Pizarro had orders to touch at the isle of Lancerota, one of +the seven great Canary Islands; and at five in the afternoon of the +16th of June, that island appeared so distinctly in view that I was +able to take the angle of altitude of a conic mountain, which +towered majestically over the other summits, and which we thought +was the great volcano which had occasioned such devastation on the +night of the 1st of September, 1730. + +The current drew us toward the coast more rapidly than we wished. +As we advanced, we discovered at first the island of Forteventura, +famous for its numerous camels;* (* These camels, which serve for +labour, and sometimes for food, did not exist till the Bethencourts +made the conquest of the Canaries. In the sixteenth century, asses +were so abundant in the island of Forteventura, that they became +wild and were hunted. Several thousands were killed to save the +harvest. The horses of Forteventura are of singular beauty, and of +the Barbary race.--"Noticias de la Historia General de las Islas +Canarias" por Don Jose de Viera, tome 2 page 436.) and a short time +after we saw the small island of Lobos in the channel which +separates Forteventura from Lancerota. We spent part of the night +on deck. The moon illumined the volcanic summits of Lancerota, the +flanks of which, covered with ashes, reflected a silver light. +Antares threw out its resplendent rays near the lunar disk, which +was but a few degrees above the horizon. The night was beautifully +serene and cool. Though we were but a little distance from the +African coast, and on the limit of the torrid zone, the centigrade +thermometer rose no higher than 18 degrees. The phosphorescence of +the ocean seemed to augment the mass of light diffused through the +air. After midnight, great black clouds rising behind the volcano +shrouded at intervals the moon and the beautiful constellation of +the Scorpion. We beheld lights carried to and fro on shore, which +were probably those of fishermen preparing for their labours. We +had been occasionally employed, during our passage, in reading the +old voyages of the Spaniards, and these moving lights recalled to +our fancy those which Pedro Gutierrez, page of Queen Isabella, saw +in the isle of Guanahani, on the memorable night of the discovery +of the New World. + +On the 17th, in the morning, the horizon was foggy, and the sky +slightly covered with vapour. The outlines of the mountains of +Lancerota appeared stronger: the humidity, increasing the +transparency of the air, seemed at the same time to have brought +the objects nearer our view. This phenomenon is well known to all +who have made hygrometrical observations in places whence the chain +of the Higher Alps or of the Andes is seen. We passed through the +channel which divides the isle of Alegranza from Montana Clara, +taking soundings the whole way; and we examined the archipelago of +small islands situated northward of Lancerota. In the midst of this +archipelago, which is seldom visited by vessels bound for +Teneriffe, we were singularly struck with the configuration of the +coasts. We thought ourselves transported to the Euganean mountains +in the Vicentin, or the banks of the Rhine near Bonn. The form of +organized beings varies according to the climate, and it is that +extreme variety which renders the study of the geography of plants +and animals so attractive; but rocks, more ancient perhaps than the +causes which have produced the difference of the climate on the +globe, are the same in both hemispheres. The porphyries containing +vitreous feldspar and hornblende, the phonolite, the greenstone, +the amygdaloids, and the basalt, have forms almost as invariable as +simple crystallized substances. In the Canary Islands, and in the +mountains of Auvergne, in the Mittelgebirge in Bohemia, in Mexico, +and on the banks of the Ganges, the formation of trap is indicated +by a symmetrical disposition of the mountains, by truncated cones, +sometimes insulated, sometimes grouped, and by elevated plains, +both extremities of which are crowned by a conical rising. + +The whole western part of Lancerota, of which we had a near view, +bears the appearance of a country recently convulsed by volcanic +eruptions. Everything is black, parched, and stripped of vegetable +mould. We distinguished, with our glasses, stratified basalt in +thin and steeply-sloping strata. Several hills resembled the Monte +Novo, near Naples, or those hillocks of scoria and ashes which the +opening earth threw up in a single night at the foot of the volcano +of Jorullo, in Mexico. In fact, the abbe Viera relates, that in +1730, more than half the island changed its appearance. The great +volcano, which we have just mentioned, and which the inhabitants +call the volcano of Temanfaya, spread desolation over a most +fertile and highly cultivated region: nine villages were entirely +destroyed by the lavas. This catastrophe had been preceded by a +tremendous earthquake, and for several years shocks equally violent +were felt. This last phenomenon is so much the more singular, as it +seldom happens after an eruption, when the elastic vapours have +found vent by the crater, after the ejection of the melted matter. +The summit of the great volcano is a rounded hill, but not entirely +conic. From the angles of altitude which I took at different +distances, its absolute elevation did not appear to exceed three +hundred toises. The neighbouring hills, and those of Alegranza and +Isla Clara, were scarcely above one hundred or one hundred and +twenty toises. We may be surprised at the small elevation of these +summits, which, viewed from the sea, wear so majestic a form; but +nothing is more uncertain than our judgment on the greatness of +angles, which are subtended by objects close to the horizon. From +illusions of this sort it arose, that before the measures of +Messrs. de Churruca and Galleano, at Cape Pilar, navigators +considered the mountains of the straits of Magellan, and those of +Terra del Fuego, to be extremely elevated. + +The island of Lancerota bore formerly the name of Titeroigotra. On +the arrival of the Spaniards, its inhabitants were distinguished +from the other Canarians by marks of greater civilization. Their +houses were built with freestone, while the Guanches of Teneriffe +dwelt in caverns. At Lancerota, a very singular custom prevailed at +that time, of which we find no example except among the people of +Thibet. A woman had several husbands, who alternately enjoyed the +prerogatives due to the head of a family. A husband was considered +as such only during a lunar revolution, and whilst his rights were +exercised by others, he remained classed among the household +domestics. In the fifteenth century the island of Lancerota +contained two small distinct states, divided by a wall; a kind of +monument which outlives national enmities, and which we find in +Scotland, in China, and Peru. + +We were forced by the winds to pass between the islands of +Alegranza and Montana Clara, and as none on board the sloop had +sailed through this passage, we were obliged to be continually +sounding. We found from twenty-five to thirty-two fathoms. The lead +brought up an organic substance of so singular a structure that we +were for a long time doubtful whether it was a zoophyte or a kind +of seaweed. The stem, of a brownish colour and three inches long, +has circular leaves with lobes, and indented at the edges. The +colour of these leaves is a pale green, and they are membranous and +streaked like those of the adiantums and Gingko biloba. Their +surface is covered with stiff whitish hairs; before their opening +they are concave, and enveloped one in the other. We observed no +mark of spontaneous motion, no sign of irritability, not even on +the application of galvanic electricity. The stem is not woody, but +almost of a horny substance, like the stem of the Gorgons. Azote +and phosphorus having been abundantly found in several cryptogamous +plants, an appeal to chemistry would be useless to determine +whether this organized substance belonged to the animal or +vegetable kingdom. Its great analogy to several sea-plants, with +adiantum leaves, especially the genus caulerpa of M. Lamoureux, of +which the Fucus proliter of Forskael is one of the numerous +species, engaged us to rank it provisionally among the sea-wracks, +and give it the name of Fucus vitifolius. The bristles which cover +this plant are found in several other fuci.* (* Fucus +lycopodioides, and F. hirsutus.) The leaf, examined with a +microscope at the instant we drew it up from the water, did not +present, it is true, those conglobate glands, or those opaque +points, which the parts of fructification in the genera of ulva and +fucus contain; but how often do we find seaweeds in such a state +that we cannot yet distinguish any trace of seeds in their +transparent parenchyma. + +The vine-leaved fucus presents a physiological phenomenon of the +greatest interest. Fixed to a piece of madrepore, this seaweed +vegetates at the bottom of the ocean, at the depth of 192 feet, +notwithstanding which we found its leaves as green as those of our +grasses. According to the experiments of Bouguer, light is weakened +after a passage of 180 feet in the ratio of 1 to 1477.8. The +seaweed of Alegranza consequently presents a new example of plants +which vegetate in great obscurity without becoming white. Several +germs, enveloped in the bulbs of the lily tribes, the embryo of the +malvaceae, of the rhamnoides, of the pistacea, the viscum, and the +citrus, the branches of some subterraneous plants; in short, +vegetables transported into mines, where the ambient air contains +hydrogen or a great quantity of azote, become green without light. +From these facts we are inclined to admit that it is not +exclusively by the influence of the solar rays that this carburet +of hydrogen is formed in the organs of plants, the presence of +which makes the parenchyma appear of a lighter or darker green, +according as the carbon predominates in the mixture. + +Mr. Turner, who has so well made known the family of the seaweeds, +as well as many other celebrated botanists, are of opinion that +most of the fuci which we gather on the surface of the ocean, and +which, from the 23rd to the 35th degree of latitude and 32nd of +longitude, appear to the mariner like a vast inundated meadow, grow +primitively at the bottom of the ocean, and float only in their +ripened state, when torn up by the motion of the waves. If this +opinion be well founded, we must agree that the family of seaweeds +offers formidable difficulties to naturalists, who persist in +thinking that absence of light always produces whiteness; for how +can we admit that so many species of ulvaceae and dictyoteae, with +stems and green leaves, which float on the ocean, have vegetated on +rocks near the surface of the water? + +From some notions which the captain of the Pizarro had collected in +an old Portuguese itinerary, he thought himself opposite to a small +fort, situated north of Teguisa, the capital of the island of +Lancerota. Mistaking a rock of basalt for a castle, he saluted it +by hoisting the Spanish flag, and sent a boat with an officer to +inquire of the commandant whether any English vessels were cruising +in the roads. We were not a little surprised to learn that the land +which we had considered as a prolongation of the coast of +Lancerota, was the small island of Graciosa, and that for several +leagues there was not an inhabited place. We took advantage of the +boat to survey the land, which enclosed a large bay. + +The small part of the island of Graciosa which we traversed, +resembles those promontories of lava seen near Naples, between +Portici and Torre del Greco. The rocks are naked, with no marks of +vegetation, and scarcely any of vegetable soil. A few crustaceous +lichen-like variolariae, leprariae, and urceorariae, were scattered +about upon the basalts. The lavas which are not covered with +volcanic ashes remain for ages without any appearance of +vegetation. On the African soil excessive heat and lengthened +drought retard the growth of cryptogamous plants. + +The basalts of Graciosa are not in columns, but are divided into +strata ten or fifteen inches thick. These strata are inclined at an +angle of 80 degrees to the north-west. The compact basalt +alternates with the strata of porous basalt and marl. The rock does +not contain hornblende, but great crystals of foliated olivine, +which have a triple cleavage.* (* Blaettriger olivin.) This +substance is decomposed with great difficulty. M. Hauy considers it +a variety of the pyroxene. The porous basalt, which passes into +mandelstein, has oblong cavities from two to eight lines in +diameter, lined with chalcedony, enclosing fragments of compact +basalt. I did not remark that these cavities had the same +direction, or that the porous rock lay on compact strata, as +happens in the currents of lava of Etna and Vesuvius. The marl,* (* +Mergel.) which alternates more than a hundred times with the +basalts, is yellowish, friable by decomposition, very coherent in +the inside, and often divided into irregular prisms, analogous to +the basaltic prisms. The sun discolours their surface, as it +whitens several schists, by reviving a hydro-carburetted principle, +which appears to be combined with the earth. The marl of Graciosa +contains a great quantity of chalk, and strongly effervesces with +nitric acid, even on points where it is found in contact with the +basalt. This fact is the more remarkable, as this substance does +not fill the fissures of the rock, but its strata are parallel to +those of the basalt; whence we may conclude that both fossils are +of the same formation, and have a common origin. The phenomenon of +a basaltic rock containing masses of indurated marl split into +small columns, is also found in the Mittelgebirge, in Bohemia. +Visiting those countries in 1792, in company with Mr. Freiesleben, +we even recognized in the marl of the Stiefelberg the imprint of a +plant nearly resembling the Cerastium, or the Alsine. Are these +strata, contained in the trappean mountains, owing to muddy +irruptions, or must we consider them as sediments of water, which +alternate with volcanic deposits? This last hypothesis seems so +much the less admissible, since, from the researches of Sir James +Hall on the influence of pressure in fusions, the existence of +carbonic acid in substances contained in basalt presents nothing +surprising. Several lavas of Vesuvius present similar phenomena. In +Lombardy, between Vicenza and Albano, where the calcareous stone of +the Jura contains great masses of basalt, I have seen the latter +enter into effervescence with the acids wherever it touches the +calcareous rock. + +We had not time to reach the summit of a hill very remarkable for +having its base formed of banks of clay under strata of basalt, +like a mountain in Saxony, called the Scheibenbergen Hugel, which +is become celebrated on account of the disputes of volcanean and +neptunean geologists. These basalts were covered with a mammiform +substance, which I vainly sought on the Peak of Teneriffe, and +which is known by the names of volcanic glass, glass of Muller, or +hyalite: it is the transition from the opal to the chalcedony. We +struck off with difficulty some fine specimens, leaving masses that +were eight or ten inches square untouched. I never saw in Europe +such fine hyalites as I found in the island of Graciosa, and on the +rock of porphyry called el Penol de los Banos, on the bank of the +lake of Mexico. + +Two kinds of sand cover the shore; one is black and basaltic, the +other white and quartzose. In a place exposed to the rays of the +sun, the first raised the thermometer to 51.2 degrees (41 degrees +R.) and the second to 40 degrees (32 degrees R.) The temperature of +the air in the shade was 27.7 or 7.5 degrees higher than that of +the air over the sea. The quartzose sand contains fragments of +feldspar. It is thrown back by the water, and forms, in some sort, +on the surface of the rocks, small islets on which seaweed +vegetates. Fragments of granite have been observed at Teneriffe; +the island of Gomora, from the details furnished me by M. +Broussonnet, contains a nucleus of micaceous schist:--the quartz +disseminated in the sand, which we found on the shore of Graciosa, +is a different substance from the lavas and the trappean porphyries +so intimately connected with volcanic productions. From these facts +it seems to be evident that in the Canary Islands, as well as on +the Andes of Quito, in Auvergne, in Greece, and throughout the +greater part of the globe, subterraneous fires have pierced through +the rocks of primitive formation. In treating hereafter of the +great number of warm springs which we have seen issuing from +granite, gneiss, and micaceous schist, we shall have occasion to +return to this subject, which is one of the most important of the +physical history of the globe. + +We re-embarked at sunset, and hoisted sail, but the breeze was too +feeble to permit us to continue our course to Teneriffe. The sea +was calm; a reddish vapour covered the horizon, and seemed to +magnify every object. In this solitude, amidst so many uninhabited +islets, we enjoyed for a long time the view of rugged and wild +scenery. The black mountains of Graciosa appeared like +perpendicular walls five or six hundred feet high. Their shadows, +thrown over the surface of the ocean, gave a gloomy aspect to the +scenery. Rocks of basalt, emerging from the bosom of the waters, +wore the resemblance of the ruins of some vast edifice, and carried +our thoughts back to the remote period when submarine volcanoes +gave birth to new islands, or rent continents asunder. Every thing +which surrounded us seemed to indicate destruction and sterility; +but the back-ground of the picture, the coasts of Lancerota +presented a more smiling aspect. In a narrow pass between two +hills, crowned with scattered tufts of trees, marks of cultivation +were visible. The last rays of the sun gilded the corn ready for +the sickle. Even the desert is animated wherever we can discover a +trace of the industry of man. + +We endeavoured to get out of this bay by the pass which separates +Alegranza from Montana Clara, and through which we had easily +entered to land at the northern point of Graciosa. The wind having +fallen, the currents drove us very near a rock, on which the sea +broke with violence, and which is noted in the old charts under the +name of Hell, or Infierno. As we examined this rock at the distance +of two cables' length, we found that it was a mass of lava three or +four toises high, full of cavities, and covered with scoriae +resembling coke. We may presume that this rock,* (* I must here +observe, that this rock is noted on the celebrated Venetian chart +of Andrea Bianco, but that the name of Infierno is given, as in the +more ancient chart of Picigano, made in 1367, to Teneriffe, without +doubt because the Guanches considered the peak as the entrance into +hell. In the same latitudes an island made its appearance in 1811.) +which modern charts call the West Rock (Roca del Oeste), was raised +by volcanic fire; and it might heretofore have been much higher; +for the new island of the Azores, which rose from the sea at +successive periods, in 1638 and 1719, had reached 354 feet when it +totally disappeared in 1723, to the depth of 480 feet. This opinion +on the origin of the basaltic mass of the Infierno is confirmed by +a phenomenon, which was observed about the middle of the last +century in these same latitudes. At the time of the eruption of the +volcano of Temanfaya, two pyramidal hills of lithoid lava rose from +the bottom of the ocean, and gradually united themselves with the +island of Lancerota. + +As we were prevented by the fall of the wind, and by the currents, +from repassing the channel of Alegranza, we resolved on tacking +during the night between the island of Clara and the West Rock. +This resolution had nearly proved fatal. A calm is very dangerous +near this rock, towards which the current drives with considerable +force. We began to feel the effects of this current at midnight. +The proximity of the stony masses, which rise perpendicularly above +the water, deprived us of the little wind which blew: the sloop no +longer obeyed the helm, and we dreaded striking every instant. It +is difficult to conceive how a mass of basalt, insulated in the +vast expanse of the ocean, can cause so considerable a motion of +the waters. These phenomena, worthy the attention of naturalists, +are well known to mariners; they are extremely to be dreaded in the +Pacific ocean, particularly in the small archipelago of the islands +of Galapagos. The difference of temperature which exists between +the fluid and the mass of rocks does not explain the direction +which these currents take; and how can we admit that the water is +engulfed at the base of these rocks, (which often are not of +volcanic origin) and that this continual engulfing determines the +particles of water to fill up the vacuum that takes place. + +The wind having freshened a little towards the morning on the 18th, +we succeeded in passing the channel. We drew very near the Infierno +the second time, and remarked the large crevices, through which the +gaseous fluids probably issued, when this basaltic mass was raised. +We lost sight of the small islands of Alegranza, Montana Clara, and +Graciosa, which appear never to have been inhabited by the +Guanches. They are now visited only for the purpose of gathering +archil, which production is, however, less sought after, since so +many other lichens of the north of Europe have been found to yield +materials proper for dyeing. Montana Clara is noted for its +beautiful canary-birds. The note of these birds varies with their +flocks, like that of our chaffinches, which often differs in two +neighbouring districts. Montana Clara yields pasture for goats, a +fact which proves that the interior of this islet is less arid than +its coasts. The name of Alegranza is synonymous with the Joyous, +(La Joyeuse,) which denomination it received from the first +conquerors of the Canary Islands, the two Norman barons, Jean de +Bethencourt and Gadifer de Salle. This was the first point on which +they landed. After remaining several days at Graciosa, a small part +of which we examined, they conceived the project of taking +possession of the neighbouring island of Lancerota, where they were +welcomed by Guadarfia, sovereign of the Guanches, with the same +hospitality that Cortez found in the palace of Montezuma. The +shepherd king, who had no other riches than his goats, became the +victim of base treachery, like the sultan of Mexico. + +We sailed along the coasts of Lancerota, of the island of Lobos, +and of Forteventura. The second of these islands seems to have +anciently formed part of the two others. This geological hypothesis +was started in the seventeenth century by the Franciscan, Juan +Galindo. That writer supposed that king Juba had named six Canary +Islands only, because, in his time, three among them were +contiguous. Without admitting the probability of this hypothesis, +some learned geographers have imagined they recognized, in the two +islands Nivaria and Ombrios, the Canaria and Capraria of the +ancients. + +The haziness of the horizon prevented us, during the whole of our +passage from Lancerota to Teneriffe, from discovering the summit of +the peak of Teyde. If the height of this volcano is 1905 toises, as +the last trigonometrical measure of Borda indicates, its summit +ought to be visible at a distance of 43 leagues, supposing the eye +on a level with the ocean, and a refraction equal to 0.079 of +distance. It has been doubted whether the peak has ever been seen +from the channel which separates Lancerota from Forteventura, and +which is distant from the volcano, according to the chart of +Varela, 2 degrees 29 minutes, or nearly 50 leagues. This phenomenon +appears nevertheless to have been verified by several officers of +the Spanish navy. I had in my hand, on board the Pizarro, a +journal, in which it was noted, that the peak of Teneriffe had been +seen at 135 miles distance, near the southern cape of Lancerota, +called Pichiguera. Its summit was discovered under an angle +considerable enough to lead the observer, Don Manual Baruti, to +conclude that the volcano might have been visible at nine miles +farther. It was in September, towards evening, and in very damp +weather. Reckoning fifteen feet for the elevation of the eye, I +find, that to render an account of this phenomenon, we must suppose +a refraction equal to 0.158 of the arch, which is not very +extraordinary for the temperate zone. According to the observations +of General Roy, the refractions vary in England from one-twentieth +to one-third; and if it be true that they reach these extreme +limits on the coast of Africa, (which I much doubt,) the peak, in +certain circumstances, may be seen on the deck of a vessel as far +off as 61 leagues. + +Navigators who have much frequented these latitudes, and who can +reflect on the physical causes of the phenomena, are surprised that +the peaks of Teyde and of the Azores* (* The height of this peak of +the Azores, according to Fleurieu, is 1100 toises; to Ferrer, 1238 +toises; and to Tofino, 1260 toises: but these measures are only +approximative estimates. The captain of the Pizarro, Don Manuel +Cagigal, proved to me, by his journal, that he observed the peak of +the Azores at the distance of 37 leagues, when he was sure of his +latitude within two minutes. The volcano was seen at 4 degrees +south-east, so that the error in longitude must have an almost +imperceptible influence in the estimation of the distance. +Nevertheless, the angle which the peak of the Azores subtended was +so great, that the captain of the Pizarro was of opinion this +volcano must be visible at more than 40 or 42 leagues. The distance +of 37 leagues supposes an elevation of 1431 toises.) are sometimes +visible at a very great distance, though at other times they are +not seen when the distance is much less, and the sky appears serene +and the horizon free from fogs. These circumstances are the more +worthy of attention because vessels returning to Europe, sometimes +wait impatiently for a sight of these mountains, to rectify their +longitude; and think themselves much farther off than they really +are, when in fine weather these peaks are not perceptible at +distances where the angles subtended must be very considerable. The +constitution of the atmosphere has a great influence on the +visibility of distant objects. It may be admitted, that in general +the peak of Teneriffe is seldom seen at a great distance, in the +warm and dry months of July and August; and that, on the contrary, +it is seen at very extraordinary distances in the months of January +and February, when the sky is slightly clouded, and immediately +after a heavy rain, or a few hours before it falls. It appears that +the transparency of the air is prodigiously increased, as we have +already observed, when a certain quantity of water is uniformly +diffused through the atmosphere. Independent of these observations, +it is not astonishing, that the peak of Teyde should be seldomer +visible at a very remote distance, than the summits of the Andes, +to which, during so long a time, my observations were directed. +This peak, inferior in height to those parts of the chain of Mount +Atlas at the foot of which is the city of Morocco, is not, like +those points, covered with perpetual snows. The Piton, or +Sugar-loaf, which terminates the peak, no doubt reflects a great +quantity of light, owing to the whitish colour of the pumice-stone +thrown up by the crater; but the height of that little truncated +cone does not form a twenty-second part of the total elevation. The +flanks of the volcano are covered either with blocks of black and +scorified lava, or with a luxuriant vegetation, the masses of which +reflect the less light, as the leaves of the trees are separated +from each other by shadows of more considerable extent than that of +the part enlightened. + +Hence it results that, setting aside the Piton, the peak of Teyde +belongs to that class of mountains, which, according to the +expression of Bouger, are seen at considerable distances only in a +NEGATIVE MANNER, because they intercept the light which is +transmitted to us from the extreme limits of the atmosphere; and we +perceive their existence only on account of the difference of +intensity subsisting between the aerial light which surrounds them, +and that which is reflected by the particles of air placed between +the mountains and the eye of the observer. As we withdraw from the +isle of Teneriffe, the Piton or Sugar-loaf is seen for a +considerable space of time in a POSITIVE MANNER, because it +reflects a whitish light, and clearly detaches itself from the sky. +But as this cone is only 80 toises high, by 40 in breadth at its +summit, it has recently been a question whether, from the +diminutiveness of its mass, it can be visible at distances which +exceed 40 leagues; and whether it be not probable, that navigators +distinguish the peaks as a small cloud above the horizon, only when +the base of the Piton begins to be visible on it. If we admit, that +the mean breadth of the Sugar-loaf is 100 toises, we find that the +little cone, at 40 leagues distance, still subtends, in the +horizontal direction, an angle of more than three minutes. This +angle is considerable enough to render an object visible; and if +the height of the Piton greatly exceeded its base, the angle in the +horizontal direction might be still smaller, and the object still +continue to make an impression on our visual organs; for +micrometrical observations have proved that the limit of vision is +but a minute only, when the dimensions of the objects are the same +in every direction. We distinguish at a distance, by the eye only, +trunks of trees insulated in a vast plain, though the subtended +angle be under twenty-five seconds. + +As the visibility of an object detaching itself in a brown colour, +depends on the quantities of light which the eye meets on two +lines, one of which ends at the mountain, and the other extends to +the surface of the aerial ocean, it follows that the farther we +remove from the object, the smaller the difference becomes between +the light of the surrounding atmosphere, and that of the strata of +air before the mountain. For this reason, when less elevated +summits begin to appear above the horizon, they present themselves +at first under a darker hue than those we discern at very great +distances. In the same manner, the visibility of mountains seen +only in a negative manner, does not depend solely on the state of +the lower regions of the air, to which our meteorological +observations are limited, but also on the transparency and physical +constitution of the air in the most elevated parts; for the image +detaches itself better in proportion as the aerial light, which +comes from the limits of the atmosphere, has been originally more +intense, or has undergone less loss in its passage. This +consideration explains to a certain point, why, under a perfectly +serene sky, the state of the thermometer and the hygrometer being +precisely the same in the air nearest the earth, the peak is +sometimes visible, and at other times invisible, to navigators at +equal distances. It is even probable, that the chance of perceiving +this volcano would not be greater, if the ashy cone, at the summit +of which is the mouth of the crater, were equal, as in Vesuvius, to +a quarter of the total height. These ashes, being pumice-stone +crumbled into dust, do not reflect as much light as the snow of the +Andes; and they cause the mountain, seen from afar, to detach +itself not in a bright, but in a dark hue. The ashes also +contribute, if we may use the expression, to equalize the portions +of aerial light, the variable difference of which renders the +object more or less distinctly visible. Calcareous mountains, +devoid of vegetable earth, summits covered with granitic sand, the +high savannahs of the Cordilleras,* (* Los Pajonales, from paja, +straw. This is the name given to the region of the gramina, which +encircles the zone of the perpetual snows.) which are of a golden +yellow, are undoubtedly distinguished at small distances better +than objects which are seen in a negative manner; but the theory +indicates a certain limit, beyond which these last detach +themselves more distinctly from the azure vault of the sky. + +The colossal summits of Quito and Peru, towering above the limit of +the perpetual snows, concentre all the peculiarities which must +render them visible at very small angles. The circular summit of +the peak of Teneriffe is only a hundred toises in diameter. +According to the measures I made at Riobamba, in 1803, the dome of +the Chimborazo, 153 toises below its summit, consequently in a +point which is 1300 toises higher than the peak, is still 673 +toises (1312 metres) in breadth. The zone of perpetual snows also +forms a fourth of the height of the mountain; and the base of this +zone, seen on the coast of the Pacific, fills an extent of 3437 +toises (6700 metres). But though Chimborazo is two-thirds higher +than the peak, we do not see it, on account of the curve of the +globe, at more than 38 miles and a third farther distant. The +radiant brilliancy of its snows, when, at the port of Guayaquil, at +the close of the rainy season, Chimborazo is discerned on the +horizon, may lead us to suppose, that it must be seen at a very +great distance in the South Sea. Pilots highly worthy of credit +have assured me, that they have seen it from the rock of Muerto, to +the south west of the isle of Puna, at a distance of 47 leagues. +Whenever it has been seen at a greater distance, the observers, +uncertain of their longitude, have not been in a situation to +furnish precise data. + +Aerial light, projected on mountains, increases the visibility of +those which are seen positively; its power diminishes, on the +contrary, the visibility of objects which, like the peak of +Teneriffe and that of the Azores, detach themselves in a brown +tint. Bouguer, relying on theoretical considerations, was of +opinion that, according to the constitution of our atmosphere, +mountains seen negatively cannot be perceived at distances +exceeding 35 leagues. It is important here to observe, that these +calculations are contrary to experience. The peak of Teneriffe has +been often seen at the distance of 36, 38, and even at 40 leagues. +Moreover, in the vicinity of the Sandwich Islands, the summit of +Mowna-Roa, at a season when it was without snows, has been seen on +the skirt of the horizon, at the distance of 53 leagues. This is +the most striking example we have hitherto known of the visibility +of a mountain; and it is the more remarkable, that an object seen +negatively furnishes this example. + +The volcanoes of Teneriffe, and of the Azores, the Sierra Nevada of +Santa Martha, the peak of Orizaba, the Silla of Caracas, Mowna-Roa, +and Mount St. Elias, insulated in the vast extent of the seas, or +placed on the coasts of continents, serve as sea-marks to direct +the pilot, when he has no means of determining the position of the +vessel by the observation of the stars; everything which has a +relation to the visibility of these natural seamarks, is +interesting to the safety of navigation. + + +CHAPTER 1.2. + +STAY AT TENERIFE. +JOURNEY FROM SANTA CRUZ TO OROTAVA. +EXCURSION TO THE SUMMIT OF THE PEAK OF TEYDE. + +From the time of our departure from Graciosa, the horizon continued +so hazy, that, notwithstanding the considerable height of the +mountains of Canary,* (* Isla de la Gran Canaria.) we did not +discover that island till the evening of the 18th of June. It is +the granary of the archipelago of the Fortunate Islands; and, what +is very remarkable in a region situated beyond the limits of the +tropics, we were assured, that in some districts, there are two +wheat harvests in the year; one in February, and the other in June. +Canary has never been visited by a learned mineralogist; yet this +island is so much the more worthy of observation, as the +physiognomy of its mountains, disposed in parallel chains, appeared +to me to differ entirely from that of the summits of Lancerota and +Teneriffe. Nothing is more interesting to the geologist, than to +observe the relations, on the same point of the globe, between +volcanic countries, and those which are primitive or secondary. +When the Canary Islands shall have been examined, in all the parts +which compose the system of these mountains, we shall find that we +have been too precipitate in considering the whole group as raised +by the action of submarine fires. + +On the morning of the 19th, we discovered the point of Naga, but +the peak of Teneriffe was still invisible: the land, obscured by a +thick mist, presented forms that were vague and confused. As we +approached the road of Santa Cruz we observed that the mist, driven +by the winds, drew nearer to us. The sea was strongly agitated, as +it most commonly is in those latitudes. We anchored after several +soundings, for the mist was so thick, that we could scarcely +distinguish objects at a few cables' distance; but at the moment we +began to salute the place, the fog was instantly dispelled. The +peak of Teyde appeared in a break above the clouds, and the first +rays of the sun, which had not yet risen on us, illumined the +summit of the volcano. + +We hastened to the prow of the vessel to behold the magnificent +spectacle, and at the same instant we saw four English vessels +lying to, and very near our stern. We had passed without being +perceived, and the same mist which had concealed the peak from our +view, had saved us from the risk of being carried back to Europe. +The Pizarro stood in as close as possible to the fort, to be under +its protection. It was on this shore, that, in the landing +attempted by the English two years before our arrival, in July +1797, admiral Nelson had his arm carried off by a cannon-ball. + +The situation of the town of Santa Cruz is very similar to that of +La Guayra, the most frequented port of the province of Caraccas. +The heat is excessive in both places, and from the same causes; but +the aspect of Santa Cruz is more gloomy. On a narrow and sandy +beach, houses of dazzling whiteness, with flat roofs, and windows +without glass, are built close against a wall of black +perpendicular rock, devoid of vegetation. A fine mole, built of +freestone, and the public walk planted with poplars, are the only +objects which break the sameness of the landscape. The view of the +peak, as it presents itself above Santa Cruz, is much less +picturesque than that we enjoy from the port of Orotava. There, a +highly cultured and smiling plain presents a pleasing contrast to +the wild aspect of the volcano. From the groups of palm trees and +bananas which line the coast, to the region of the arbutus, the +laurel, and the pine, the volcanic rock is crowned with luxuriant +vegetation. We easily conceive how the inhabitants, even of the +beautiful climates of Greece and Italy, might fancy they recognised +one of the Fortunate Isles in the western part of Teneriffe. The +eastern side, that of Santa Cruz, on the contrary, is every where +stamped with sterility. The summit of the peak is not more arid +than the promontory of basaltic lava, which stretches towards the +point of Naga, and on which succulent plants, springing up in the +clefts of the rocks, scarcely indicate a preparation of soil. At +the port of Orotava, the top of the Piton subtends an angle in +height of more than eleven degrees and a half; while at the mole of +Santa Cruz* (* The oblique distances from the top of the volcano to +Orotava and to Santa Cruz are nearly 8600 toises and 22,500 toises.) +the angle scarcely exceeds 4 degrees 36 minutes. + +Notwithstanding this difference, and though in the latter place the +volcano rises above the horizon scarcely as much as Vesuvius seen +from the mole of Naples, the aspect of the peak is still very +majestic, when those who anchor in the road discern it for the +first time. The Piton alone was visible to us; its cone projected +itself on a sky of the purest blue, whilst dark thick clouds +enveloped the rest of the mountain to the height of 1800 toises. +The pumice-stone, illumined by the first rays of the sun, reflected +a reddish light, like that which tinges the summits of the higher +Alps. This light by degrees becomes dazzlingly white; and, deceived +like most travellers, we thought that the peak was still covered +with snow, and that we should with difficulty reach the edge of the +crater. + +We have remarked, in the Cordillera of the Andes, that the conical +mountains, such as Cotopaxi and Tungurahua, are oftener seen free +from clouds, than those of which the tops are broken into bristly +points, like Antisana and Pichincha; but the peak of Teneriffe, +notwithstanding its pyramidical form, is a great part of the year +enveloped in vapours, and is sometimes, during several weeks, +invisible from the road of Santa Cruz. Its position to the west of +an immense continent, and its insulated situation in the midst of +the sea, are no doubt the causes of this phenomenon. Navigators are +well aware that even the smallest islets, and those which are +without mountains, collect and harbour the clouds. The decrement of +heat is also different above the plains of Africa, and above the +surface of the Atlantic; and the strata of air, brought by the +trade winds, cool in proportion as they advance towards the west. +If the air has been extremely dry above the burning sands of the +desert, it is very quickly saturated when it enters into contact +with the surface of the sea, or with the air that lies on that +surface. It is easy to conceive, therefore, why vapours become +visible in the atmospherical strata, which, at a distance from the +continent, have no longer the same temperature as when they began +to be saturated with water. The considerable mass of a mountain, +rising in the midst of the Atlantic, is also an obstacle to the +clouds, which are driven out to sea by the winds. + +On entering the streets of Santa Cruz, we felt a suffocating heat, +though the thermometer was not above twenty-five degrees. Those who +have for a long time inhaled the air of the sea suffer every time +they land; not because this air contains more oxygen than the air +on shore, as has been erroneously supposed, but because it is less +charged with those gaseous combinations, which the animal and +vegetable substances, and the mud resulting from their +decomposition, pour into the atmosphere. Miasms that escape +chemical analysis have a powerful effect on our organs, especially +when they have not for a long while been exposed to the same kind +of irritation. + +Santa Cruz, the Anaza of the Guanches, is a neat town, with a +population of 8000 souls. I was not struck with the vast number of +monks and secular ecclesiastics, which travellers have thought +themselves bound to find in every country under the Spanish +government; nor shall I stop to enter into the description of the +churches; the library of the Dominicans, which contains scarcely a +few hundred volumes; the mole, where the inhabitants assemble to +inhale the freshness of the evening breeze; or the famed monument +of Carrara marble, thirty feet high, dedicated to Our Lady of +Candelaria, in memory of the miraculous appearance of the Virgin, +in 1392, at Chimisay, near Guimar. The port of Santa Cruz may be +considered as a great caravanserai, on the road to America and the +Indies. Every traveller who writes the narrative of his adventures, +begins by a description of Madeira and Teneriffe; and if in the +natural history of these islands there yet remains an immense field +untrodden, we must admit that the topography of the little towns of +Funchal, Santa Cruz, Laguna, and Orotava, leaves scarcely anything +untold. + +The recommendation of the court of Madrid procured for us, in the +Canaries, as in all the other Spanish possessions, the most +satisfactory reception. The captain-general gave us immediate +permission to examine the island. Colonel Armiaga, who commanded a +regiment of infantry, received us into his house with kind +hospitality. We could not cease admiring the banana, the papaw +tree, the Poinciana pulcherrima, and other plants, which we had +hitherto seen only in hot-houses, cultivated in his garden in the +open air. The climate of the Canaries however is not warm enough to +ripen the real Platano Arton, with triangular fruit from seven to +eight inches long, and which, requiring a temperature of 24 +centesimal degrees, does not flourish even in the valley of +Caracas. The bananas of Teneriffe are those named by the Spanish +planters Camburis or Guineos, and Dominicos. The Camburi, which +suffers least from cold, is cultivated with success even at Malaga, +where the temperature is only 18 degrees; but the fruit we see +occasionally at Cadiz comes from the Canary Islands by vessels +which make the passage in three or four days. In general, the musa, +known by every people under the torrid zone, though hitherto never +found in a wild state, has as great a variety of fruit as our apple +and pear trees. These varieties, which are confounded by the +greater part of botanists, though they require very different +climates, have become permanent by long cultivation. + +We went to herborize in the evening in the direction of the fort of +Passo Alto, along the basaltic rocks that close the promontory of +Naga. We were very little satisfied with our harvest, for the +drought and dust had almost destroyed vegetation. The Cacalia +Kleinia, the Euphorbia canariensis, and several other succulent +plants, which draw their nourishment from the air rather than the +soil on which they grow, reminded us by their appearance, that this +group of islands belongs to Africa, and even to the most arid part +of that continent. + +Though the captain of the Pizarro had orders to stop long enough at +Teneriffe to give us time to scale the summit of the peak, if the +snows did not prevent our ascent, we received notice, on account of +the blockade of the English ships, not to expect a longer delay +than four or five days. We consequently hastened our departure for +the port of Orotava, which is situated on the western declivity of +the volcano, where we were sure of finding guides. I could find no +one at Santa Cruz who had mounted the peak, and I was not surprised +at this. The most curious objects become less interesting, in +proportion as they are near to us; and I have known inhabitants of +Schaffhausen, in Switzerland, who had never seen the fall of the +Rhine but at a distance. + +On the 20th of June, before sunrise, we began our excursion by +ascending to the Villa de Laguna, estimated to be at the elevation +of 350 toises above the port of Santa Cruz. We could not verify +this estimate of the height, the surf not having permitted us to +return on board during the night, to take our barometers and +dipping-needle. As we foresaw that our expedition to the peak would +be very precipitate, we consoled ourselves with the reflection that +it was well not to expose instruments which were to serve us in +countries less known by Europeans. The road by which we ascended to +Laguna is on the right of a torrent, or baranco, which in the rainy +season forms fine cascades; it is narrow and tortuous. Near the +town we met some white camels, which seemed to be very slightly +laden. The chief employment of these animals is to transport +merchandise from the custom-house to the warehouses of the +merchants. They are generally laden with two chests of Havannah +sugar, which together weigh 900 pounds; but this load may be +augmented to thirteen hundred-weight, or 52 arrobas of Castile. +Camels are not numerous at Teneriffe, whilst they exist by +thousands in the two islands of Lancerota and Forteventura; the +climate and vegetation of these islands, which are situated nearer +Africa, are more analogous to those of that continent. It is very +extraordinary, that this useful animal, which breeds in South +America, should be seldom propagated at Teneriffe. In the fertile +district of Adexe only, where the plantations of the sugar-cane are +most considerable, camels have sometimes been known to breed. These +beasts of burden, as well as horses, were brought into the Canary +Islands in the fifteenth century by the Norman conquerors. The +Guanches were previously unacquainted with them; and this fact +seems to be very well accounted for by the difficulty of +transporting an animal of such bulk in frail canoes, without the +necessity of considering the Guanches as a remnant of the people of +Atlantis, or a different race from that of the western Africans. + +The hill, on which the town of San Christobal de la Laguna is +built, belongs to the system of basaltic mountains, which, +independent of the system of less ancient volcanic rocks, form a +broad girdle around the peak of Teneriffe. The basalt on which we +walked was darkish brown, compact, half-decomposed, and when +breathed on, emitted a clayey smell. We discovered amphibole, +olivine,* (* Peridot granuliforme. Hauy.) and translucid pyroxenes, +* (* Augite.--Werner.) with a perfectly lamellar fracture, of a +pale olive green, and often crystallized in prisms of six planes. +The first of these substances is extremely rare at Teneriffe; and I +never found it in the lavas of Vesuvius; but those of Etna contain +it in abundance. Notwithstanding the great number of blocks, which +we stopped to break, to the great regret of our guides, we could +discover neither nepheline, leucite,* (* Amphigene.--Hauy.) nor +feldspar. This last, which is so common in the basaltic lavas of +the island of Ischia, does not begin to appear at Teneriffe, till +we approach the volcano. The rock of Laguna is not columnar, but is +divided into ledges, of small thickness, and inclined to the east +at an angle of 30 or 40 degrees. It has nowhere the appearance of a +current of lava flowing from the sides of the peak. If the present +volcano has given birth to these basalts, we must suppose, that, +like the substances which compose the Somma, at the back of +Vesuvius, they are the effect of a submarine effusion, in which the +liquid mass has formed strata. A few arborescent Euphorbias, the +Cacalia Kleinia, and Indian figs (Cactus), which have become wild +in the Canary Islands, as well as in the south of Europe and the +whole continent of Africa, are the only plants we see on these arid +rocks. The feet of our mules were slipping every moment on beds of +stone, which were very steep. We nevertheless recognized the +remains of an ancient pavement. In these colonies we discover at +every step some traces of that activity which characterized the +Spanish nation in the 16th century. + +As we approached Laguna, we felt the temperature of the atmosphere +gradually become lower. This sensation was so much the more +agreeable, as we found the air of Santa Cruz very oppressive. As +our organs are more affected by disagreeable impressions, the +change of temperature becomes still more sensible when we return +from Laguna to the port: we seem then to be drawing near the mouth +of a furnace. The same impression is felt, when, on the coast of +Caracas, we descend from the mountain of Avila to the port of La +Guayra. According to the law of the decrement of heat, three +hundred and fifty toises in height produce in this latitude only +three or four degrees difference in temperature. The heat which +overpowers the traveller on his entrance into Santa Cruz, or La +Guayra, must consequently be attributed to the reverberation from +the rocks, against which these towns are built. + +The perpetual coolness which prevails at Laguna causes it to be +considered in the Canaries a delightful abode. Situated in a small +plain, surrounded by gardens, protected by a hill which is crowned +by a wood of laurels, myrtle, and arbutus, the capital of Teneriffe +is very beautifully placed. We should be mistaken if, relying on +the account of some travellers, we believed it seated on the border +of a lake. The rain sometimes forms a sheet of water of +considerable extent; and the geologist, who beholds in everything +the past rather than the present state of nature, can have no doubt +but that the whole plain is a great basin dried up. Laguna has +fallen from its opulence, since the lateral eruptions of the +volcano have destroyed the port of Garachico, and since Santa Cruz +has become the central point of the commerce of the island. It +contains only 9000 inhabitants, of whom nearly 400 are monks, +distributed in six convents. The town is surrounded with a great +number of windmills, which indicate the cultivation of wheat in +these high countries. I shall observe on this occasion, that +different kinds of grain were known to the Guanches. They called +wheat at Teneriffe tano, at Lancerota triffa; barley, in the grand +Canary, bore the name of aramotanoque, and at Lancerota it was +called tamosen. The flour of roasted barley (gofio) and goat's-milk +constituted the principal food of the people, on the origin of +which so many systematic fables have been current. These aliments +sufficiently prove that the race of the Guanches belonged to the +nations of the old continent, perhaps to those of Caucasus, and not +like the rest of the Atlantides,* to the inhabitants of the New +World (* Without entering here into any discussion respecting the +existence of the Atlantis, I may cite the opinion of Diodorus +Siculus, according to whom the Atlantides were ignorant of the use +of corn, because they were separated from the rest of mankind +before these gramina were cultivated.); these, before the arrival +of the Europeans, were unacquainted with corn, milk, and cheese. + +A great number of chapels, which the Spaniards call ermitas, +encircle the town of Laguna. Shaded by trees of perpetual verdure, +and erected on small eminences, these chapels add to the +picturesque effect of the landscape. The interior of the town is +not equal to its external appearance. The houses are solidly built, +but very antique, and the streets seem deserted. A botanist ought +not to complain of the antiquity of the edifices. The roofs and +walls are covered with Canary house-leek and those elegant +trichomanes, mentioned by every traveller. These plants are +nourished by the abundant mists. + +Mr. Anderson, the naturalist in the third voyage of captain Cook, +advises physicians to send their patients to Teneriffe, on account +of the mildness of the temperature and the equal climate of the +Canaries. The ground on these islands rises in an amphitheatre, and +presents simultaneously, as in Peru and Mexico, the temperature of +every climate, from the heat of Africa to the cold of the higher +Alps. Santa Cruz, the port of Orotava, the town of the same name, +and that of Laguna, are four places, the mean temperatures of which +form a descending series. In the south of Europe the change of the +seasons is too sensibly felt to present the same advantages. +Teneriffe, on the contrary, situated as it were on the threshold of +the tropics, though but a few days' sail from Spain, shares in the +charms which nature has lavished on the equinoctial regions. +Vegetation here displays some of her fairest and most majestic +forms in the banana and the palm-tree. He who is alive to the +charms of nature finds in this delicious island remedies still more +potent than the climate. No abode appeared to me more fitted to +dissipate melancholy, and restore peace to the perturbed mind, than +that of Teneriffe or Madeira. These advantages are the effect not +of the beauty of the site and the purity of the air alone: the +moral feeling is no longer harrowed up by the sight of slavery, the +presence of which is so revolting in the West Indies, and in every +other place to which European colonists have conveyed what they +call their civilization and their industry. + +In winter the climate of Laguna is extremely foggy, and the +inhabitants often complain of the cold. A fall of snow, however, +has never been seen; a fact which may seem to indicate that the +mean temperature of this town must be above 18.7 degrees (15 +degrees R.), that is to say, higher than that of Naples. I do not +lay this down as an unexceptional conclusion, for in winter the +refrigeration of the clouds does not depend so much on the mean +temperature of the whole year, as on the instantaneous diminution +of heat to which a district is exposed by its local situation. The +mean temperature of the capital of Mexico, for instance, is only +16.8 degrees (13.5 degrees R.), nevertheless, in the space of a +hundred years snow has fallen only once, while in the south of +Europe and in Africa it snows in places where the mean temperature +is above 19 degrees. + +The vicinity of the sea renders the climate of Laguna more mild in +winter than might be expected, arising from its elevation above the +level of the ocean. I was astonished to learn that M. Broussonnet +had planted in the midst of this town, in the garden of the Marquis +de Nava, the bread-fruit tree (Artocarpus incisa), and +cinnamon-tree (Laurus Cinnamomum). These valuable productions of +the South Sea and the East Indies are naturalized there as well as +at Orotava. Does not this fact prove that the bread-fruit might +flourish in Calabria, Sicily, and Granada? The culture of the +coffee-tree has not equally succeeded at Laguna, though its fruit +ripens at Teguesta, as well as between the port of Orotava and the +village of St. Juan de la Rambla. It is probable that some local +circumstances, perhaps the nature of the soil and the winds that +prevail in the flowering season, are the cause of this phenomenon. +In other regions, in the neighbourhood of Naples, for instance, the +coffee-tree thrives abundantly, though the mean temperature +scarcely rises above 18 centigrade degrees. + +No person has ascertained in the island of Teneriffe, the lowest +height at which snow falls every year. This fact, though easy of +verification by barometrical measurements, has hitherto been +generally neglected under every zone. It is nevertheless highly +interesting both to agriculture in the colonies and meteorology, +and fully as important as the measure of the limit of the perpetual +snows. My observations furnished me with the data, set down in the +following table:-- + +Column 1: North latitude. + +Column 2: Lowest height in toises at which snow falls. + +Column 3: Lowest height in metres at which snow falls. + +Column 4: Inferior limit in toises of the perpetual snows. + +Column 5: Inferior limit in metres of the perpetual snows. + +Column 6: Difference in toises of columns 4 and 5. + +Column 7: Difference in metres of columns 4 and 5. + +Column 8: Mean temperature degrees centigrade. + +Column 9: Mean temperature degrees Reaum. + + 0 : 2040 : 3976 : 2460 : 4794 : 420 : 818 : 27 : 21.6. + + 20 : 1550 : 3020 : 2360 : 4598 : 810 : 1578 : 24.5 : 19.6. + + 40 : 0 : 0 : 1540 : 3001 : 1540 : 3001 : 17 : 13.6. + +This table presents only the ordinary state of nature, that is to +say, the phenomena as they are annually observed. Exceptions +founded on particular local circumstances, exist. Thus it sometimes +snows, though seldom, at Naples, at Lisbon, and even at Malaga, +consequently as low as the 37th degree of latitude: and, as we have +just observed, snow has been seen to fall at Mexico, the elevation +of which is 1173 toises above the level of the ocean. This +phenomenon, which had not been seen for several centuries, took +place on the day that the Jesuits were expelled, and was attributed +by the people to that act of severity. A more striking exception +was found in the climate of Valladolid, the capital of the province +of Mechoacan. According to my measures, the height of this town, +situate in latitude 19 degrees 42 minutes, is only a thousand +toises: and yet, a few years before our arrival in New Spain, the +streets were covered with snow for some hours. + +Snow had been seen to fall also at Teneriffe, in a place lying +above Esperanza de la Laguna, very near the town of that name, in +the gardens of which the artocarpus flourishes. This extraordinary +fact was confirmed to M. Broussonnet by very aged persons. The +Erica arborea, the Myrica Faya, and the Arbutus callicarpa,* (* +This fine arbutus, imported by M. Broussonnet, is very different +from the Arbutus laurifolia, with which it has been confounded, but +which belongs to North America.) did not suffer from the snow; but +it destroyed all the vines in the open air. This observation is +interesting to vegetable physiology. In hot countries, the plants +are so vigorous, that cold is less injurious to them, provided it +be of short duration. I have seen the banana cultivated in the +island of Cuba, in places where the thermometer descends to seven +centesimal degrees, and sometimes very near freezing point. In +Italy and Spain the orange and date-trees do not perish, though the +cold during the night may be two degrees below freezing point. In +general it is remarked by cultivators, that the trees which grow in +a fertile soil are less delicate, and consequently less affected by +great changes in the temperature, than those which grow in land +that affords but little nutriment.* (* The mulberries, cultivated +in the thin and sandy soils of countries bordering on the Baltic +Sea, are examples of this feebleness of organization. The late +frosts do more injury to them, than to the mulberries of Piedmont. +In Italy a cold of 5 degrees below freezing point does not destroy +robust orange trees. According to M. Galesio, these trees, less +tender than the lemon and bergamot orange trees, freeze only at ten +centesimal degrees below freezing point.) + +In order to pass from the town of Laguna to the port of Orotava and +the western coast of Teneriffe, we cross at first a hilly region +covered with black and argillaceous earth, in which are found some +small crystals of pyroxene. The waters most probably detach these +crystals from the neighbouring rocks, as at Frascati, near Rome. +Unfortunately, strata of ferruginous earth conceal the soil from +the researches of the geologist. It is only in some ravines, that +we find columnar basalts, somewhat curved, and above them very +recent breccia, resembling volcanic tufa. The breccia contain +fragments of the same basalts which they cover; and it is asserted +that marine petrifactions are observed in them. The same phenomenon +occurs in the Vicentin, near Montechio Maggiore. + +The valley of Tacoronte is the entrance into that charming country, +of which travellers of every nation have spoken with rapturous +enthusiasm. Under the torrid zone I found sites where nature is +more majestic, and richer in the display of organic forms; but +after having traversed the banks of the Orinoco, the Cordilleras of +Peru, and the most beautiful valleys of Mexico, I own that I have +never beheld a prospect more varied, more attractive, more +harmonious in the distribution of the masses of verdure and of +rocks, than the western coast of Teneriffe. + +The sea-coast is lined with date and cocoa trees. Groups of the +musa, as the country rises, form a pleasing contrast with the +dragon-tree, the trunks of which have been justly compared to the +tortuous form of the serpent. The declivities are covered with +vines, which throw their branches over towering poles. Orange trees +loaded with flowers, myrtles, and cypress trees encircle the +chapels reared to devotion on the isolated hills. The divisions of +landed property are marked by hedges formed of the agave and the +cactus. An innumerable quantity of cryptogamous plants, among which +ferns are the most predominant, cover the walls, and are moistened +by small springs of limpid water. In winter, when the volcano is +buried under ice and snow, this district enjoys perpetual spring. +In summer, as the day declines, the breezes from the sea diffuse a +delicious freshness. The population of this coast is very +considerable; and it appears to be still greater than it is, +because the houses and gardens are distant from each other, which +adds to the picturesque beauty of the scene. Unhappily the real +welfare of the inhabitants does not correspond with the exertions +of their industry, or with the advantages which nature has lavished +on this spot. The farmers are not land-owners; the fruits of their +labour belong to the nobles; and those feudal institutions, which, +for so long a time, spread misery throughout Europe, still press +heavily on the people of the Canary Islands. + +From Tegueste and Tacoronte to the village of St. Juan de la Rambla +(which is celebrated for its excellent malmsey wine), the rising +hills are cultivated like a garden. I might compare them to the +environs of Capua and Valentia, if the western part of Teneriffe +was not infinitely more beautiful on account of the proximity of +the peak, which presents on every side a new point of view. The +aspect of this mountain is interesting not merely from its gigantic +mass; it excites the mind, by carrying it back to the mysterious +source of its volcanic agency. For thousands of years, no flames or +light have been perceived on the summit of the Piton, nevertheless +enormous lateral eruptions, the last of which took place in 1798, +are proofs of the activity of a fire still far from being +extinguished. There is also something that leaves a melancholy +impression on beholding a crater in the centre of a fertile and +well cultivated country. The history of the globe informs us, that +volcanoes destroy what they have been a long series of ages in +creating. Islands, which the action of submarine fires has raised +above the waters, are by degrees clothed in rich and smiling +verdure; but these new lands are often laid waste by the renewed +action of the same power which caused them to emerge from the +bottom of the ocean. Islets, which are now but heaps of scoriae and +volcanic ashes, were once perhaps as fertile as the hills of +Tacoronte and Sauzal. Happy the country, where man has no distrust +of the soil on which he lives! + +Pursuing our course to the port of Orotava, we passed the smiling +hamlets of Matanza and Victoria. These names are mingled together +in all the Spanish colonies, and they form an unpleasing contrast +with the peaceful and tranquil feelings which those countries +inspire. Matanza signifies slaughter, or carnage; and the word +alone recalls the price at which victory has been purchased. In the +New World it generally indicates the defeat of the natives: at +Teneriffe, the village of Matanza was built in a place* (* The +ancient Acantejo.) where the Spaniards were conquered by those same +Guanches who soon after were sold as slaves in the markets of +Europe. + +Before we reached Orotava, we visited a botanic garden at a little +distance from the port. We there found M. Le Gros, the French +vice-consul, who had often scaled the summit of the Peak, and who +served us as an excellent guide. He was accompanying captain Baudin +in a voyage to the West Indies, when a dreadful tempest, of which +M. Le Dru has given an account in the narrative of his voyage to +Porto Rico, forced the vessel to put into Teneriffe. There M. Le +Gros was led by the beauty of the spot to settle. It was he who +augmented scientific knowledge by the first accurate ideas of the +great lateral eruption of the Peak, which has been very improperly +called the explosion of the volcano of Chahorra. This eruption took +place on the 8th of June, 1798. + +The establishment of a botanical garden at Teneriffe is a very +happy idea, on account of the influence it is likely to have on the +progress of botany, and on the introduction of useful plants into +Europe. For the first conception of it we are indebted to the +Marquis de Nava. He undertook, at an enormous expense, to level the +hill of Durasno, which rises as an amphitheatre, and which was +begun to be planted in 1795. The marquis thought that the Canary +Islands, from the mildness of their climate and geographical +position, were the most suitable place for naturalising the +productions of the East and West Indies, and for inuring the plants +gradually to the colder temperature of the south of Europe. The +plants of Asia, Africa, and South America, may easily be brought to +Orotava; and in order to introduce the bark-tree* into Sicily, +Portugal, or Grenada, it should be first planted at Durasno, or at +Laguna, and the shoots of this tree may afterwards be transported +into Europe from the Canaries. (* I speak of the species of +bark-tree (cinchona), which at Peru, and in the kingdom of New +Granada, flourish on the back of the Cordilleras, at the height of +between 1000 and 1500 toises, in places where the thermometer is +between nine and ten degrees during the day, and from three to four +during the night. The orange bark-tree (Cinchona lancifolia) is +much less delicate than the red bark-tree (C. oblongifolia).) In +happier times, when maritime wars shall no longer interrupt +communication, the garden of Teneriffe may become extremely useful +with respect to the great number of plants which are sent from the +Indies to Europe; for ere they reach our coasts, they often perish, +owing to the length of the passage, during which they inhale an air +impregnated with salt water. These plants would meet at Orotava +with the care and climate necessary for their preservation. At +Durasno, the protea, the psidium, the jambos, the chirimoya of +Peru,* (* Annona cherimolia. Lamarck.) the sensitive plant, and the +heliconia, grow in the open air. We gathered the ripened seeds of +several beautiful species of glycine from New Holland, which the +governor of Cumana, Mr. Emparan, had successfully cultivated, and +which grow wild on the coasts of South America. + +We arrived very late at the port of Orotava,* (* Puerto de la Cruz. +The only fine port of the Canary Islands is that of St. Sebastian, +in the isle of Gomara.) if we may give the name of port to a road +in which vessels are obliged to put to sea whenever the winds blow +violently from the north-west. It is impossible to speak of Orotava +without recalling to the remembrance of the friends of science the +name of Don Bernardo Cologan, whose house at all times was open to +travellers of every nation. + +We could have wished to have sojourned for some time in Don +Bernardo's house, and to have visited with him the charming scenery +of St. Juan de la Rambla and of Rialexo de Abaxo.* (* This +last-named village stands at the foot of the lofty mountain of +Tygayga.) But on a voyage such as we had undertaken, the present is +but little enjoyed. Continually haunted by the fear of not +executing the designs of the morrow, we live in perpetual +uneasiness. Persons who are passionately fond of nature and the +arts feel the same sensations, when they travel through Switzerland +and Italy. Enabled to see but a small portion of the objects which +allure them, they are disturbed in their enjoyments by the +restraints they impose on themselves at every step. + +On the morning of the 21st of June, we were on our way to the +summit of the volcano. M. Le Gros, whose attentions were unwearied, +M. Lalande, secretary to the French Consulate at Santa Cruz, and +the English gardener at Durasno, joined us on this excursion. The +day was not very fine, and the summit of the peak, which is +generally visible at Orotava from sunrise till ten o'clock, was +covered with thick clouds. + +We were agreeably surprised by the contrast between the vegetation +of this part of Teneriffe, and that of the environs of Santa Cruz. +Under the influence of a cool and humid climate, the ground was +covered with beautiful verdure; while on the road from Santa Cruz +to Laguna the plants exhibited nothing but capsules emptied of +their seeds. Near the port of Santa Cruz, the strength of the +vegetation is an obstacle to geological research. We passed along +the base of two small hills, which rise in the form of bells. +Observations made at Vesuvius and in Auvergne lead us to think that +these hills owe their origin to lateral eruptions of the great +volcano. The hill called Montanita de la Villa seems indeed to have +emitted lavas; and according to the tradition of the Guanches, an +eruption took place in 1430. Colonel Franqui assured Borda, that +the place is still to be seen whence the melted matter issued; and +that the ashes which covered the ground adjacent, were not yet +fertilized. Whenever the rock appeared, we discovered basaltic +amygdaloid* (* Basaltartiger Mandelstein. Werner.) covered with +hardened clay,* (* Bimstein-Conglomerat. W.) which contains +rapilli, or fragments of pumice-stone. This last formation +resembles the tufas of Pausilippo, and the strata of puzzolana, +which I found in the valley of Quito, at the foot of the volcano of +Pichincha. The amygdaloid has very long pores, like the superior +strata of the lavas of Vesuvius, arising probably from the action +of an elastic fluid forcing its way through the matter in fusion. +Notwithstanding these analogies, I must here repeat, that in all +the low region of the peak of Teneriffe, on the side of Orotava, I +have met with no flow of lava, nor any current, the limits of which +are strongly marked. Torrents and inundations change the surface of +the globe, and when a great number of currents of lava meet and +spread over a plain, as I have seen at Vesuvius, in the Atrio dei +Cavalli, they seem to be confounded together, and wear the +appearance of real strata. + +The villa de Orotava has a pleasant aspect at a distance, from the +great abundance of water which runs through the principal streets. +The spring of Agua Mansa, collected in two large reservoirs, turns +several mills, and is afterward discharged among the vineyards of +the adjacent hills. The climate is still more refreshing at the +villa than at the port of La Cruz, from the influence of the +breeze, which blows strong after ten in the morning. The water, +which has been dissolved in the air at a higher temperature, +frequently precipitates itself; and renders the climate very foggy. +The villa is nearly 160 toises (312 metres) above the level of the +sea, consequently 200 toises lower than the site on which Laguna is +built: it is observed also, that the same kind of plants flower a +month later in this latter place. + +Orotava, the ancient Taoro of the Guanches, is situated on a very +steep declivity. The streets seem deserted; the houses are solidly +built, and of a gloomy appearance. We passed along a lofty +aqueduct, lined with a great number of fine ferns; and visited +several gardens, in which the fruit trees of the north of Europe +are mingled with orange trees, pomegranate, and date trees. We were +assured, that these last were as little productive here as on the +coast of Cumana. Although we had been made acquainted, from the +narratives of many travellers, with the dragon-tree of the garden +of M. Franqui, we were not the less struck with its enormous +magnitude. We were told, that the trunk of this tree, which is +mentioned in several very ancient documents as marking the +boundaries of a field, was as gigantic in the fifteenth century as +it is at the present time. Its height appeared to us to be about 50 +or 60 feet; its circumference near the roots is 45 feet. We could +not measure higher, but Sir George Staunton found that, 10 feet +from the ground, the diameter of the trunk is still 12 English +feet; which corresponds perfectly with the statement of Borda, who +found its mean circumference 33 feet 8 inches, French measure. The +trunk is divided into a great number of branches, which rise in the +form of a candelabrum, and are terminated by tufts of leaves, like +the yucca which adorns the valley of Mexico. This division gives it +a very different appearance from that of the palm-tree. + +Among organic creations, this tree is undoubtedly, together with +the Adansonia or baobab of Senegal, one of the oldest inhabitants +of our globe. The baobabs are of still greater dimensions than the +dragon-tree of Orotava. There are some which near the root measure +34 feet in diameter, though their total height is only from 50 to +60 feet. But we should observe, that the Adansonia, like the +ochroma, and all the plants of the family of bombax, grow much more +rapidly* than the dracaena, the vegetation of which is very slow. +(* It is the same with the plane-tree (Platanus occidentalis) which +M. Michaux measured at Marietta, on the banks of the Ohio, and +which, at twenty feet from the ground, was 15.7 feet in diameter. +--"Voyage a l'Ouest des Monts Alleghany" 1804 page 93. The yew, +chestnut, oak, plane-tree, deciduous cypress, bombax, mimosa, +caesalpina, hymenaea, and dracaena, appear to me to be the plants +which, in different climates, present specimens of the most +extraordinary growth. An oak, discovered together with some Gallic +helmets in 1809, in the turf pits of the department of the Somme, +near the village of Yseux, seven leagues from Abbeville, was about +the same size as the dragon-tree of Orotava. According to a memoir +by M. Traullee, the trunk of this oak was 14 feet in diameter.) +That in M. Franqui's garden still bears every year both flowers and +fruit. Its aspect forcibly exemplifies "that eternal youth of +nature," which is an inexhaustible source of motion and of life. + +The dracaena, which is seen only in cultivated spots in the Canary +Islands, at Madeira, and Porto Santo, presents a curious phenomenon +with respect to the migration of plants. It has never been found in +a wild state on the continent of Africa. The East Indies is its +real country. How has this tree been transplanted to Teneriffe, +where it is by no means common? Does its existence prove, that, at +some very distant period, the Guanches had connexions with other +nations originally from Asia?* (* The form of the dragon-tree is +exhibited in several species of the genus Dracaena, at the Cape of +Good Hope, in China, and in New Zealand. But in New Zealand it is +superseded by the form of the yucca; for the Dracaena borealis of +Aiton is a Convallaria, of which it has all the appearance. The +astringent juice, known in commerce by the name of dragon's blood, +is, according to the inquiries we made on the spot, the produce of +several American plants, which do not belong to the same genus and +of which some are lianas. At Laguna, toothpicks steeped in the +juice of the dragon-tree are made in the nunneries, and are much +extolled as highly useful for keeping the gums in a healthy state.) + +On leaving Orotava, a narrow and stony pathway led us through a +beautiful forest of chestnut trees (el monte de Castanos), to a +site covered with brambles, some species of laurels, and +arborescent heaths. The trunks of the latter grow to an +extraordinary size; and the flowers with which they are loaded form +an agreeable contrast, during a great part of the year, to the +Hypericum canariense, which is very abundant at this height. We +stopped to take in our provision of water under a solitary +fir-tree. This station is known in the country by the name of Pino +del Dornajito. Its height, according to the barometrical +measurement of M. de Borda, is 522 toises; and it commands a +magnificent prospect of the sea, and the whole of the northern part +of the island. Near Pino del Dornajito, a little on the right of +the pathway, is a copious spring of water, into which we plunged +the thermometer, which fell to 15.4 degrees. At a hundred toises +distance from this spring is another equally limpid. If we admit +that these waters indicate nearly the mean heat of the place whence +they issue, we may fix the absolute elevation of the station at 520 +toises, supposing the mean temperature of the coast to be 21 +degrees, and allowing one degree for the decrement of caloric +corresponding under this zone to 93 toises. We should not be +surprised if this spring remained a little below the heat of the +air, since it probably takes its source in some more elevated part +of the peak, and possibly communicates with the small subterranean +glaciers of which we shall speak hereafter. The accordance just +observed between the barometrical and thermometrical measures is so +much more striking, because in mountainous countries, with steep +declivities, the springs generally indicate too great a decrement +of caloric, for they unite small currents of water, which filtrate +at different heights, and their temperature is consequently the +mean between the temperature of these currents. The spring of +Dornajito has considerable reputation in the country; and at the +time I was there, it was the only one known on the road which leads +to the summit of the volcano. The formation of springs demands a +certain regularity in the direction and inclination of the strata. +On a volcanic soil, porous and splintered rocks absorb the rain +waters, and convey them to considerable depths. Hence arises that +aridity observed in the greater part of the Canary Islands, +notwithstanding the considerable height of their mountains, and the +mass of clouds which navigators behold incessantly overhanging this +archipelago. + +From Pino del Dornajito to the crater of the volcano we continued +to ascend without crossing a single valley; for the small ravines +(barancos) do not merit this name. To the eye of the geologist the +whole island of Teneriffe is but one mountain, the almost +elliptical base of which is prolonged to the north-east, and in +which may be distinguished several systems of volcanic rocks formed +at different epochs. The Chahorra, or Montana Colorada, and the +Urca, considered in the country as insulated volcanoes, are only +little hills abutting on the peak, and masking its pyramidal form. +The great volcano, the lateral eruptions of which have given birth +to vast promontories, is not however precisely in the centre of the +island, and this peculiarity of structure appears the less +surprising, if we recollect that, as the learned mineralogist M. +Cordier has observed, it is not perhaps the small crater of the +Piton which has been the principal agent in the changes undergone +by the island of Teneriffe. + +Above the region of arborescent heaths, called Monte Verde, is the +region of ferns. Nowhere, in the temperate zone, have I seen such +an abundance of the pteris, blechnum, and asplenium; yet none of +these plants have the stateliness of the arborescent ferns which, +at the height of five or six hundred toises, form the principal +ornament of equinoctial America. The root of the Pteris aquilina +serves the inhabitants of Palma and Gomera for food; they grind it +to powder, and mix with it a quantity of barley-meal. This +composition, when boiled, is called gofio; the use of so homely an +aliment is a proof of the extreme poverty of the lower order of +people in the Canary Islands. + +Monte Verde is intersected by several small and very arid ravines +(canadas), and the region of ferns is succeeded by a wood of +juniper trees and firs, which has suffered greatly from the +violence of hurricanes. In this place, mentioned by some travellers +under the name of Caravela,* (* "Philosophical Transactions" volume +29 page 317. Carabela is the name of a vessel with lateen sails. +The pines of the peak formerly were used as masts of vessels.) Mr. +Eden states that in the year 1705 he saw little flames, which, +according to the doctrine of the naturalists of his time, he +attributes to sulphurous exhalations igniting spontaneously. We +continued to ascend, till we came to the rock of La Gayta and to +Portillo: traversing this narrow pass between two basaltic hills, +we entered the great plain of Spartium. At the time of the voyage +of Laperouse, M. Manneron had taken the levels of the peak, from +the port of Orotava to this elevated plain, near 1400 toises above +the level of the sea; but the want of water, and the misconduct of +the guides, prevented him from taking the levels to the top of the +volcano. The results of the operation, (which was two-thirds +completed,) unfortunately were not sent to Europe, and the work is +still to be recommenced from the sea-coast. + +We spent two hours and a half in crossing the Llano del Retama, +which appears like an immense sea of sand. Notwithstanding the +elevation of this site, the centigrade thermometer rose in the +shade toward sunset, to 13.8 degrees, or 3.7 degrees higher than +toward noon at Monte Verde. This augmentation of heat could be +attributed only to the reverberation from the ground, and the +extent of the plain. We suffered much from the suffocating dust of +the pumice-stone, in which we were continually enveloped. In the +midst of this plain are tufts of the retama, which is the Spartium +nubigenum of Aiton. M. de Martiniere, one of the botanists who +perished in the expedition of Laperouse, wished to introduce this +beautiful shrub into Languedoc, where firewood is very scarce. It +grows to the height of nine feet, and is loaded with odoriferous +flowers, with which the goat hunters, that we met in our road, had +decorated their hats. The goats of the peak, which are of a deep +brown colour, are reckoned delicious food; they browse on the +spartium, and have run wild in the deserts from time immemorial. +They have been transported to Madeira, where they are preferred to +the goats of Europe. + +As far as the rock of Gayta, or the entrance of the extensive Llano +del Retama, the peak of Teneriffe is covered with beautiful +vegetation. There are no traces of recent devastation. We might +have imagined ourselves scaling the side of some volcano, the fire +of which had been extinguished as remotely as that of Monte Cavo, +near Rome; but scarcely had we reached the plain covered with +pumice-stone, when the landscape changed its aspect, and at every +step we met with large blocks of obsidian thrown out by the +volcano. Everything here speaks perfect solitude. A few goats and +rabbits only bound across the plain. The barren region of the peak +is nine square leagues; and as the lower regions viewed from this +point retrograde in the distance, the island appears an immense +heap of torrefied matter, hemmed round by a scanty border of +vegetation. + +From the region of the Spartium nubigenum we passed through narrow +defiles, and small ravines hollowed at a very remote time by the +torrents, first arriving at a more elevated plain (el Monton de +Trigo), then at the place where we intended to pass the night. This +station, which is more than 1530 toises above the coast, bears the +name of the English Halt (Estancia de los Ingleses* (* This +denomination was in use as early as the beginning of the last +century. Mr. Eden, who corrupts all Spanish words, as do most +travellers in our own times, calls it the Stancha: it is the +Station des Rochers of M. Borda, as is proved by the barometrical +heights there observed. These heights were in 1803, according to M. +Cordier, 19 inches 9.5 lines; and in 1776, according to Messrs. +Borda and Varela, 19 inches 9.8 lines; the barometer at Orotava +keeping within nearly a line at the same height.)), no doubt +because most of the travellers, who formerly visited the peak, were +Englishmen. Two inclined rocks form a kind of cavern, which affords +a shelter from the winds. This point, which is higher than the +summit of the Canigou, can be reached on the backs of mules; and +here has ended the expedition of numbers of travellers, who on +leaving Orotava hoped to have ascended to the brink of the crater. +Though in the midst of summer, and under an African sky, we +suffered from cold during the night. The thermometer descended as +low as to five degrees. Our guides made a large fire with the dry +branches of retama. Having neither tents nor cloaks, we lay down on +some masses of rock, and were singularly incommoded by the flame +and smoke, which the wind drove towards us. We had attempted to +form a kind of screen with cloths tied together, but our enclosure +took fire, which we did not perceive till the greater part had been +consumed by the flames. We had never passed a night on a point so +elevated, and we then little imagined that we should, one day, on +the ridge of the Cordilleras, inhabit towns higher than the summit +of the volcano we were to scale on the morrow. As the temperature +diminished, the peak became covered with thick clouds. The approach +of night interrupts the play of the ascending current, which, +during the day, rises from the plains towards the high regions of +the atmosphere; and the air, in cooling, loses its capacity of +suspending water. A strong northerly wind chased the clouds; the +moon at intervals, shooting through the vapours, exposed its disk +on a firmament of the darkest blue; and the view of the volcano +threw a majestic character over the nocturnal scenery. Sometimes +the peak was entirely hidden from our eyes by the fog, at other +times it broke upon us in terrific proximity; and, like an enormous +pyramid, threw its shadow over the clouds rolling beneath our feet. + +About three in the morning, by the sombrous light of a few fir +torches, we started on our journey to the summit of the Piton. We +scaled the volcano on the north-east side, where the declivities +are extremely steep; and after two hours' toil, we reached a small +plain, which, on account of its elevated position, bears the name +of Alta Vista. This is the station of the neveros, those natives, +whose occupation it is to collect ice and snow, which they sell in +the neighbouring towns. Their mules, better practised in climbing +mountains than those hired by travellers, reach Alta Vista, and the +neveros are obliged to transport the snow to that place on their +backs. Above this point commences the Malpays, a term by which is +designated here, as well as in Mexico, Peru, and every other +country subject to volcanoes, a ground destitute of vegetable +mould, and covered with fragments of lava. + +We turned to the right to examine the cavern of ice, which is at +the elevation of 1728 toises, consequently below the limit of the +perpetual snows in this zone. Probably the cold which prevails in +this cavern, is owing to the same causes which perpetuate the ice +in the crevices of Mount Jura and the Apennines, and on which the +opinions of naturalists are still much divided. This natural +ice-house of the peak has, nevertheless, none of those +perpendicular openings, which give emission to the warm air, while +the cold air remains undisturbed at the bottom. It would seem that +the ice is preserved in it on account of its mass, and because its +melting is retarded by the cold, which is the consequence of quick +evaporation. This small subterraneous glacier is situated in a +region, the mean temperature of which is probably not under three +degrees; and it is not, like the true glaciers of the Alps, fed by +the snow waters that flow from the summits of the mountains. During +winter the cavern is filled with ice and snow; and as the rays of +the sun do not penetrate beyond the mouth, the heats of summer are +not sufficient to empty the reservoir. The existence of a natural +ice-house depends, consequently, rather on the quantity of snow +which enters it in winter, and the small influence of the warm +winds in summer, than on the absolute elevation of the cavity, and +the mean temperature of the layer of air in which it is situated. +The air contained in the interior of a mountain is not easily +displaced, as is exemplified by Monte Testaccio at Rome, the +temperature of which is so different from that of the surrounding +atmosphere. On Chimborazo enormous heaps of ice are found covered +with sand, and, in the same manner as at the peak, far below the +inferior limit of the perpetual snows. + +It was near the Ice-Cavern (Cueva del Hielo), that, in the voyage +of Laperouse, Messrs. Lamanon and Monges made their experiments on +the temperature of boiling water. These naturalists found it 88.7 +degrees, the barometer at nineteen inches one line. In the kingdom +of New Grenada, at the chapel of Guadaloupe, near Santa-Fe de +Bogota, I have seen water boil at 89.9 degrees, under a pressure of +19 inches 1.9 lines, At Tambores, in the province of Popayan, Senor +Caldas found the heat of boiling water 89.5 degrees, the barometer +being at 18 inches 11.6 lines. These results might lead us to +suspect, that, in the experiment of M. Lamanon, the water had not +reached the maximum of its temperature. + +Day was beginning to dawn when we left the ice-cavern. We observed, +during the twilight, a phenomenon which is not unusual on high +mountains, but which the position of the volcano we were scaling +rendered very striking. A layer of white and fleecy clouds +concealed from us the sight of the ocean, and the lower region of +the island. This layer did not appear above 800 toises high; the +clouds were so uniformly spread, and kept so perfect a level, that +they wore the appearance of a vast plain covered with snow. The +colossal pyramid of the peak, the volcanic summits of Lancerota, of +Forteventura, and the isle of Palma, were like rocks amidst this +vast sea of vapours, and their black tints were in fine contrast +with the whiteness of the clouds. + +While we were climbing over the broken lavas of the Malpays, we +perceived a very curious optical phenomenon, which lasted eight +minutes. We thought we saw on the east side small rockets thrown +into the air. Luminous points, about seven or eight degrees above +the horizon, appeared first to move in a vertical direction; but +their motion was gradually changed into a horizontal oscillation. +Our fellow-travellers, our guides even, were astonished at this +phenomenon, without our having made any remark on it to them. We +thought, at first sight, that these luminous points, which floated +in the air, indicated some new eruption of the great volcano of +Lancerota; for we recollected that Bouguer and La Condamine, in +scaling the volcano of Pichincha, were witnesses of the eruption of +Cotopaxi. But the illusion soon ceased, and we found that the +luminous points were the images of several stars magnified by the +vapours. These images remained motionless at intervals, they then +seemed to rise perpendicularly, descended sideways, and returned to +the point whence they had departed. This motion lasted one or two +seconds. Though we had no exact means of measuring the extent of +the lateral shifting, we did not the less distinctly observe the +path of the luminous point. It did not appear double from an effect +of mirage, and left no trace of light behind. Bringing, with the +telescope of a small sextant by Troughton, the stars into contact +with the lofty summit of a mountain in Lancerota, I observed that +the oscillation was constantly directed towards the same point, +that is to say, towards that part of the horizon where the disk of +the sun was to appear; and that, making allowance for the motion of +the star in its declination, the image returned always to the same +place. These appearances of lateral refraction ceased long before +daylight rendered the stars quite invisible. I have faithfully +related what we saw during the twilight, without undertaking to +explain this extraordinary phenomenon, of which I published an +account in Baron Zach's Astronomical Journal, twelve years ago. The +motion of the vesicular vapours, caused by the rising of the sun; +the mingling of several layers of air, the temperature and density +of which were very different, no doubt contributed to produce an +apparent movement of the stars in the horizontal direction. We see +something similar in the strong undulations of the solar disk, when +it cuts the horizon; but these undulations seldom exceed twenty +seconds, while the lateral motion of the stars, observed at the +peak, at more than 1800 toises, was easily distinguished by the +naked eye, and seemed to exceed all that we have thought it +possible to consider hitherto as the effect of the refraction of +the light of the stars. On the top of the Andes, at Antisana, I +observed the sun-rise, and passed the whole night at the height of +2100 toises, without noting any appearance resembling this +phenomenon. + +I was anxious to make an exact observation of the instant of +sun-rising at an elevation so considerable as that we had reached +on the peak of Teneriffe. No traveller, furnished with instruments, +had as yet taken such an observation. I had a telescope and a +chronometer, which I knew to be exceedingly correct. In the part +where the sun was to appear the horizon was free from vapour. We +perceived the upper limb at 4 hours 48 minutes 55 seconds apparent +time, and what is very remarkable, the first luminous point of the +disk appeared immediately in contact with the limit of the horizon, +consequently we saw the true horizon; that is to say, a part of the +sea farther distant than 43 leagues. It is proved by calculation +that, under the same parallel in the plain, the rising would have +begun at 5 hours 1 minute 50.4 seconds, or 11 minutes 51.3 seconds +later than at the height of the peak. The difference observed was +12 minutes 55 seconds, which arose no doubt from the uncertainty of +the refraction for a zenith distance, of which observations are +wanting. + +We were surprised at the extreme slowness with which the lower limb +of the sun seemed to detach itself from the horizon. This limb was +not visible till 4 hours 56 minutes 56 seconds. The disc of the +sun, much flattened, was well defined; during the ascent there was +neither double image nor lengthening of the lower limb. The +duration of the sun's rising being triple that which we might have +expected in this latitude, we must suppose that a fog-bank, very +uniformly extended, concealed the true horizon, and followed the +sun in its ascent. Notwithstanding the libration of the stars,* +which we had observed towards the east, we could not attribute the +slowness of the rising to an extraordinary refraction of the rays +occasioned by the horizon of the sea; for it is precisely at the +rising of the sun, as Le Gentil daily observed at Pondicherry, and +as I have several times remarked at Cumana, that the horizon sinks, +on account of the elevation of temperature in the stratum of the +air which lies immediately over the surface of the ocean. (* A +celebrated astronomer, Baron Zach, has compared this phenomenon of +an apparent libration of the stars to that described in the +Georgics (lib. 50 v. 365). But this passage relates only to the +falling stars, which the ancients, (like the mariners of modern +times) considered as a prognostic of wind.) + +The road, which we were obliged to clear for ourselves across the +Malpays, was extremely fatiguing. The ascent is steep, and the +blocks of lava rolled from beneath our feet. I can compare this +part of the road only to the Moraine of the Alps or that mass of +pebbly stones which we find at the lower extremity of the glaciers. +At the peak the lava, broken into sharp pieces, leaves hollows, in +which we risked falling up to our waists. Unfortunately the +listlessness of our guides contributed to increase the difficulty +of this ascent. Unlike the guides of the valley of Chamouni, or the +nimble-footed Guanches, who could, it is asserted, seize the rabbit +or wild goat in its course, our Canarian guides were models of the +phlegmatic. They had wished to persuade us on the preceding evening +not to go beyond the station of the rocks. Every ten minutes they +sat down to rest themselves, and when unobserved they threw away +the specimens of obsidian and pumice-stone, which we had carefully +collected. We discovered at length that none of them had ever +visited the summit of the volcano. + +After three hours' walking, we reached, at the extremity of the +Malpays, a small plain, called La Rambleta, from the centre of +which the Piton, or Sugar-loaf, takes its rise. On the side toward +Orotava the mountain resembles those pyramids with steps that are +seen at Fayoum and in Mexico; for the elevated plains of Retama and +Rambleta form two tiers, the first of which is four times higher +than the second. If we suppose the total height of the Peak to be +1904 toises, the Rambleta is 1820 toises above the level of the +sea. Here are found those spiracles, which are called by the +natives the Nostrils of the Peak (Narices del Pico). Watery and +heated vapours issue at intervals from several crevices in the +ground, and the thermometer rose to 43.2 degrees. M. Labillardiere +had found the temperature of these vapours, eight years before us, +53.7 degrees; a difference which does not perhaps prove so much a +diminution of activity in the volcano, as a local change in the +heating of its internal surface. The vapours have no smell, and +seem to be pure water. A short time before the great eruption of +Mount Vesuvius, in 1805, M. Gay-Lussac and myself had observed that +water, under the form of vapour, in the interior of the crater, did +not redden paper which had been dipped in syrup of violets. I +cannot, however, admit the bold hypothesis, according to which the +Nostrils of the Peak are to be considered as the vents of an +immense apparatus of distillation, the lower part of which is +situated below the level of the sea. Since the time when volcanoes +have been carefully studied, and the love of the marvellous has +been less apparent in works on geology, well founded doubts have +been raised respecting these direct and constant communications +between the waters of the sea and the focus of the volcanic fire.* +(* This question has been examined with much sagacity by M. +Brieslak, in his "Introduzzione alla Geologia," tome 2 pages 302, +323, 347. Cotopaxi and Popocatepetl, which I saw ejecting smoke and +ashes, in 1804, are farther from both the Pacific and the Gulf of +the Antilles, than Grenoble is from the Mediterranean, and Orleans +from the Atlantic. We must not consider the fact as merely +accidental, that we have not yet discovered an active volcano more +than 40 leagues distant from the ocean; but I consider the +hypothesis, that the waters of the sea are absorbed, distilled, and +decomposed by volcanoes, as very doubtful.) We may find a very +simple explanation of a phenomenon, that has in it nothing very +surprising. The peak is covered with snow during part of the year; +we ourselves found it still so in the plain of Rambleta. Messrs. +O'Donnel and Armstrong discovered in 1806 a very abundant spring in +the Malpays, a hundred toises above the cavern of ice, which is +perhaps fed partly by this snow. Everything consequently leads us +to presume that the peak of Teneriffe, like the volcanoes of the +Andes, and those of the island of Manilla, contains within itself +great cavities, which are filled with atmospherical water, owing +merely to filtration. The aqueous vapours exhaled by the Narices +and crevices of the crater, are only those same waters heated by +the interior surfaces down which they flow. + +We had yet to scale the steepest part of the mountain, the Piton, +which forms the summit. The slope of this small cone, covered with +volcanic ashes, and fragments of pumice-stone, is so steep, that it +would have been almost impossible to reach the top, had we not +ascended by an old current of lava, the debris of which have +resisted the ravages of time. These debris form a wall of scorious +rock, which stretches into the midst of the loose ashes. We +ascended the Piton by grasping these half-decomposed scoriae, which +often broke in our hands. We employed nearly half an hour to scale +a hill, the perpendicular height of which is scarcely ninety +toises. Vesuvius, three times lower than the peak of Teneriffe, is +terminated by a cone of ashes almost three times higher, but with a +more accessible and easy slope. Of all the volcanoes which I have +visited, that of Jorullo, in Mexico, is the only one that is more +difficult to climb than the Peak, because the whole mountain is +covered with loose ashes. + +When the Sugar-loaf (el Piton) is covered with snow, as it is in +the beginning of winter, the steepness of its declivity may be very +dangerous to the traveller. M. Le Gros showed us the place where +captain Baudin was nearly killed when he visited the Peak of +Teneriffe. That officer had the courage to undertake, in company +with the naturalists Advenier, Mauger, and Riedle, an excursion to +the top of the volcano about the end of December, 1797. Having +reached half the height of the cone, he fell, and rolled down as +far as the small plain of Rambleta; happily a heap of lava, covered +with snow, hindered him from rolling farther with accelerated +velocity. I have been told, that in Switzerland a traveller was +suffocated by rolling down the declivity of the Col de Balme, over +the compact turf of the Alps. + +When we gained the summit of the Piton, we were surprised to find +scarcely room enough to seat ourselves conveniently. We were +stopped by a small circular wall of porphyritic lava, with a base +of pitchstone, which concealed from us the view of the crater.* (* +Called La Caldera, or the caldron of the peak, a denomination which +recalls to mind the Oules of the Pyrenees.) The west wind blew with +such violence that we could scarcely stand. It was eight in the +morning, and we suffered severely from the cold, though the +thermometer kept a little above freezing point. For a long time we +had been accustomed to a very high temperature, and the dry wind +increased the feeling of cold, because it carried off every moment +the small atmosphere of warm and humid air, which was formed around +us from the effect of cutaneous perspiration. + +The brink of the crater of the peak bears no resemblance to those +of most of the other volcanoes which I have visited: for instance, +the craters of Vesuvius, Jorullo, and Pichincha. In these the Piton +preserves its conic figure to the very summit: the whole of their +declivity is inclined the same number of degrees, and uniformly +covered with a layer of pumice-stone very minutely divided; when we +reach the top of these volcanoes, nothing obstructs the view of the +bottom of the crater. The peaks of Teneriffe and Cotopaxi, on the +contrary, are of very different construction. At their summit a +circular wall surrounds the crater; which wall, at a distance, has +the appearance of a small cylinder placed on a truncated cone. On +Cotopaxi this peculiar construction is visible to the naked eye at +more than 2000 toises distance; and no person has ever reached the +crater of that volcano. On the peak of Teneriffe, the wall, which +surrounds the crater like a parapet, is so high, that it would be +impossible to reach the Caldera, if, on the eastern side, there was +not a breach, which seems to have been the effect of a flowing of +very old lava. We descended through this breach toward the bottom +of the funnel, the figure of which is elliptic. Its greater axis +has a direction from north-west to south-east, nearly north 35 +degrees west. The greatest breadth of the mouth appeared to us to +be 300 feet, the smallest 200 feet, which numbers agree very nearly +with the measurement of MM. Verguin, Varela, and Borda. + +It is easy to conceive, that the size of a crater does not depend +solely on the height and mass of the mountain, of which it forms +the principal air-vent. This opening is indeed seldom in direct +ratio with the intensity of the volcanic fire, or with the activity +of the volcano. At Vesuvius, which is but a hill compared with the +Peak of Teneriffe, the diameter of the crater is five times +greater. When we reflect, that very lofty volcanoes throw out less +matter from their summits than from lateral openings, we should be +led to think, that the lower the volcanoes, their force and +activity being the same, the more considerable ought to be their +craters. In fact, there are immense volcanoes in the Andes, which +have but very small openings; and we might establish as a +geological principle, that the most colossal mountains have craters +of little extent at the summits, if the Cordilleras did not present +many instances to the contrary.* (* The great volcanoes of Cotopaxi +and Rucupichincha have craters, the diameters of which, according +to my measurements, exceed 400 and 700 toises.) I shall have +occasion, in the progress of this work, to cite a number of facts, +which will throw some light on what may be called the external +structure of volcanoes. This structure is as varied as the volcanic +phenomena themselves; and in order to raise ourselves to geological +conceptions worthy of the greatness of nature, we must set aside +the idea that all volcanoes are formed after the model of Vesuvius, +Stromboli, and Etna. + +The external edges of the Caldera are almost perpendicular. Their +appearance is somewhat like the Somma, seen from the Atrio dei +Cavalli. We descended to the bottom of the crater on a train of +broken lava, from the eastern breach of the enclosure. The heat was +perceptible only in a few crevices, which gave vent to aqueous +vapours with a peculiar buzzing noise. Some of these funnels or +crevices are on the outside of the enclosure, on the external brink +of the parapet that surrounds the crater. We plunged the +thermometer into them, and saw it rise rapidly to 68 and 75 +degrees. It no doubt indicated a higher temperature, but we could +not observe the instrument till we had drawn it up, lest we should +burn our hands. M. Cordier found several crevices, the heat of +which was that of boiling water. It might be thought that these +vapours, which are emitted in gusts, contain muriatic or sulphurous +acid; but when condensed, they have no particular taste; and +experiments, which have been made with re-agents, prove that the +chimneys of the peak exhale only pure water. This phenomenon, +analogous to that which I observed in the crater of Jorullo, +deserves the more attention, as muriatic acid abounds in the +greater part of volcanoes, and as M. Vauquelin has discovered it +even in the porphyritic lavas of Sarcouy in Auvergne. + +I sketched on the spot a view of the interior edge of the crater, +as it presented itself in the descent by the eastern break. Nothing +is more striking than the manner in which these strata of lava are +piled on one another, exhibiting the sinuosities of the calcareous +rock of the higher Alps. These enormous ledges, sometimes +horizontal, sometimes inclined and undulating, are indicative of +the ancient fluidity of the whole mass, and of the combination of +several deranging causes, which have determined the direction of +each flow. The top of the circular wall exhibits those curious +ramifications which we find in coke. The northern edge is most +elevated. Towards the south-west the enclosure is considerably sunk +and an enormous mass of scorious lava seems glued to the extremity +of the brink. On the west the rock is perforated; and a large +opening gives a view of the horizon of the sea. The force of the +elastic vapours perhaps formed this natural aperture, at the time +of some inundation of lava thrown out from the crater. + +The inside of this funnel indicates a volcano, which for thousands +of years has vomited no fire but from its sides. This conclusion is +not founded on the absence of great openings, which might be +expected in the bottom of the Caldera. Those whose experience is +founded on personal observation, know that several volcanoes, in +the intervals of an eruption, appear filled up, and almost +extinguished; but that in these same mountains, the crater of the +volcano exhibits layers of scoriae, rough, sonorous, and shining. +We observe hillocks and intumescences caused by the action of the +elastic vapours, cones of broken scoriae and ashes which cover the +funnels. None of these phenomena characterise the crater of the +peak of Teneriffe; its bottom is not in the state which ensues at +the close of an eruption. From the lapse of time, and the action of +the vapours, the inside walls are detached, and have covered the +basin with great blocks of lithoid lavas. + +The bottom of the Caldera is reached without danger. In a volcano, +the activity of which is principally directed towards the summit, +such as Vesuvius, the depth of the crater varies before and after +each eruption; but at the peak of Teneriffe the depth appears to +have remained unchanged for a long time. Eden, in 1715, estimated +it at 115 feet; Cordier, in 1803, at 110 feet. Judging by mere +inspection, I should have thought the funnel of still less depth. +Its present state is that of a solfatara; and it is rather an +object of curious investigation, than of imposing aspect. The +majesty of the site consists in its elevation above the level of +the sea, in the profound solitude of these lofty regions, and in +the immense space over which the eye ranges from the summit of the +mountain. + +The wall of compact lava, forming the enclosure of the Caldera, is +snow-white at its surface. The same colour prevails in the inside +of the Solfatara of Puzzuoli. When we break these lavas, which +might be taken at some distance for calcareous stone, we find in +them a blackish brown nucleus. Porphyry, with basis of pitch-stone, +is whitened externally by the slow action of the vapours of +sulphurous acid gas. These vapours rise in abundance; and what is +rather remarkable, through crevices which seem to have no +communication with the apertures that emit aqueous vapours. We may +be convinced of the presence of the sulphurous acid, by examining +the fine crystals of sulphur, which are everywhere found in the +crevices of the lava. This acid, combined with the water with which +the soil is impregnated, is transformed into sulphuric acid by +contact with the oxygen of the atmosphere. In general, the humidity +in the crater of the peak is more to be feared than the heat; and +they who seat themselves for a while on the ground find their +clothes corroded. The porphyritic lavas are affected by the action +of the sulphuric acid: the alumine, magnesia, soda, and metallic +oxides gradually disappear; and often nothing remains but the +silex, which unites in mammillary plates, like opal. These +siliceous concretions,* (* Opalartiger kieselsinter. The siliceous +gurh of the volcanoes of the Isle of France contains, according to +Klaproth, 0.72 silex, and 0.21 water; and thus comes near to opal, +which Karsten considers as a hydrated silex.) which M. Cordier +first made known, are similar to those found in the isle of Ischia, +in the extinguished volcanoes of Santa Fiora, and in the Solfatara +of Puzzuoli. It is not easy to form an idea of the origin of these +incrustations. The aqueous vapours, discharged through great +spiracles, do not contain alkali in solution, like the waters of +the Geyser, in Iceland. Perhaps the soda contained in the lavas of +the peak acts an important part in the formation of these deposits +of silex. There may exist in the crater small crevices, the vapours +of which are not of the same nature as those on which travellers, +whose attention has been directed simultaneously to a great number +of objects, have made experiments. + +Seated on the northern brink of the crater, I dug a hole of some +inches in depth; and the thermometer placed in this hole rose +rapidly to 42 degrees. Hence we may conclude what must be the heat +in this solfatara at the depth of thirty or forty fathoms. The +sulphur reduced into vapour is condensed into fine crystals, which +however are not equal in size to those M. Dolomieu brought from +Sicily. They are semi-diaphanous octahedrons, very brilliant on the +surface, and of a conchoidal fracture. These masses, which will one +day perhaps be objects of commerce, are constantly bedewed with +sulphurous acid. I had the imprudence to wrap up a few, in order to +preserve them, but I soon discovered that the acid had consumed not +only the paper which contained them, but a part also of my +mineralogical journal. The heat of the vapours, which issue from +the crevices of the caldera, is not sufficiently great to combine +the sulphur while in a state of minute division, with the oxygen of +the atmospheric air; and after the experiment I have just cited on +the temperature of the soil, we may presume that the sulphurous +acid is formed at a certain depth,* in cavities to which the +external air has free access. (* An observer, in general very +accurate, M. Breislack, asserts that the muriatic acid always +predominates in the vapours of Vesuvius. This assertion is contrary +to what M. Gay-Lussac and myself observed, before the great +eruption of 1805, and while the lava was issuing from the crater. +The smell of the sulphurous acid, so easy to distinguish, was +perceptible at a great distance; and when the volcano threw out +scoriae, the smell was mingled with that of petroleum.) + +The vapours of heated water, which act on the fragments of lava +scattered about on the caldera, reduce certain parts of it to a +state of paste. On examining, after I had reached America, those +earthy and friable masses, I found crystals of sulphate of alumine. +MM. Davy and Gay-Lussac have already made the ingenious remark, +that two bodies highly inflammable, the metals of soda and potash, +have probably an important part in the action of a volcano; now the +potash necessary to the formation of alum is found not only in +feldspar, mica, pumice-stone, and augite, but also in obsidian. +This last substance is very common at Teneriffe, where it forms the +basis of the tephrinic lava. These analogies between the peak of +Teneriffe and the Solfatara of Puzzuoli, might no doubt be shown to +be more numerous, if the former were more accessible, and had been +frequently visited by naturalists. + +An expedition to the summit of the volcano of Teneriffe is +interesting, not solely on account of the great number of phenomena +which are the objects of scientific research; it has still greater +attractions from the picturesque beauties which it lays open to +those who are feelingly alive to the majesty of nature. It is a +difficult task to describe the sensations, which are the more +forcible, inasmuch as they have something undefined, produced by +the immensity of the space as well as by the vastness, the novelty, +and the multitude of the objects, amidst which we find ourselves +transported. When a traveller attempts to describe the loftiest +summits of the globe, the cataracts of the great rivers, the +tortuous valleys of the Andes, he incurs the danger of fatiguing +his readers by the monotonous expression of his admiration. It +appears to me more conformable to the plan I have proposed to +myself in this narrative, to indicate the peculiar character that +distinguishes each zone: we exhibit with more clearness the +physiognomy of the landscape, in proportion as we endeavour to +sketch its individual features, to compare them with each other, +and to discover by this kind of analysis the sources of the +enjoyments, furnished by the great picture of nature. + +Travellers have learned by experience, that views from the summits +of very lofty mountains are neither so beautiful, picturesque, nor +so varied, as those from heights which do not exceed that of +Vesuvius, Righi, and the Puy-de-Dome. Colossal mountains, such as +Chimborazo, Antisana, or Mount Rosa, compose so large a mass, that +the plains covered with rich vegetation are seen only in the +immensity of distance, and a blue and vapoury tint is uniformly +spread over the landscape. The peak of Teneriffe, from its slender +form and local position, unites the advantages of less lofty +summits with those peculiar to very great heights. We not only +discern from its top a vast expanse of sea, but we perceive also +the forests of Teneriffe, and the inhabited parts of the coasts, in +a proximity calculated to produce the most beautiful contrasts of +form and colour. We might say, that the volcano overwhelms with its +mass the little island which serves as its base, and it shoots up +from the bosom of the waters to a height three times loftier than +the region where the clouds float in summer. If its crater, half +extinguished for ages past, shot forth flakes of fire like that of +Stromboli in the Aeolian Islands, the peak of Teneriffe, like a +lighthouse, would serve to guide the mariner in a circuit of more +than 260 leagues. + +When we were seated on the external edge of the crater, we turned +our eyes towards the north-west, where the coasts are studded with +villages and hamlets. At our feet, masses of vapour, constantly +drifted by the winds, afforded us the most variable spectacle. A +uniform stratum of clouds, similar to that already described, and +which separated us from the lower regions of the island, had been +pierced in several places by the effect of the small currents of +air, which the earth, heated by the sun, began to send towards us. +The port of Orotava, its vessels at anchor, the gardens and the +vineyards encircling the town, shewed themselves through an opening +which seemed to enlarge every instant. From the summit of these +solitary regions our eyes wandered over an inhabited world; we +enjoyed the striking contrast between the bare sides of the peak, +its steep declivities covered with scoriae, its elevated plains +destitute of vegetation, and the smiling aspect of the cultured +country beneath. We beheld the plants divided by zones, as the +temperature of the atmosphere diminished with the elevation of the +site. Below the Piton, lichens begin to cover the scorious and +lustrous lava: a violet,* (* Viola cheiranthifolia.) akin to the +Viola decumbens, rises on the slope of the volcano at 1740 toises +of height; it takes the lead not only of the other herbaceous +plants, but even of the gramina, which, in the Alps and on the +ridge of the Cordilleras, form close neighbourhood with the plants +of the family of the cryptogamia. Tufts of retama, loaded with +flowers, adorn the valleys hollowed out by the torrents, and +encumbered with the effects of the lateral eruptions. Below the +retama, lies the region of ferns, bordered by the tract of the +arborescent heaths. Forests of laurel, rhamnus, and arbutus, divide +the ericas from the rising grounds planted with vines and fruit +trees. A rich carpet of verdure extends from the plain of spartium, +and the zone of the alpine plants even to the groups of the date +tree and the musa, at the feet of which the ocean appears to roll. +I here pass slightly over the principal features of this botanical +chart, as I shall enter hereafter into some farther details +respecting the geography of the plants of the island of Teneriffe.* +(* See below.) + +The seeming proximity, in which, from the summit of the peak, we +behold the hamlets, the vineyards, and the gardens on the coast, is +increased by the prodigious transparency of the atmosphere. +Notwithstanding the great distance, we could distinguish not only +the houses, the sails of the vessels, and the trunks of the trees, +but we could discern the vivid colouring of the vegetation of the +plains. These phenomena are owing not only to the height of the +site, but to the peculiar modifications of the air in warm +climates. In every zone, an object placed on a level with the sea, +and viewed in a horizontal direction, appears less luminous, than +when seen from the top of a mountain, where vapours arrive after +passing through strata of air of decreasing density. Differences +equally striking are produced by the influence of climate. The +surface of a lake or large river is less resplendent, when we see +it at an equal distance, from the top of the higher Alps of +Switzerland, than when we view it from the summit of the +Cordilleras of Peru or of Mexico. In proportion as the air is pure +and serene, the solution of the vapours becomes more complete, and +the light loses less in its passage. When from the shores of the +Pacific we ascend the elevated plain of Quito, or that of Antisana, +we are struck for some days by the nearness at which we imagine we +see objects which are actually seven or eight leagues distant. The +peak of Teyde has not the advantage of being situated in the +equinoctial region; but the dryness of the columns of air which +rise perpetually above the neighbouring plains of Africa, and which +the eastern winds convey with rapidity, gives to the atmosphere of +the Canary Islands a transparency which not only surpasses that of +the air of Naples and Sicily, but perhaps exceeds the purity of the +sky of Quito and Peru. This transparency may be regarded as one of +the chief causes of the beauty of landscape scenery in the torrid +zone; it heightens the splendour of the vegetable colouring, and +contributes to the magical effect of its harmonies and contrasts. +If the mass of light, which circulates about objects, fatigues the +external senses during a part of the day, the inhabitant of the +southern climates has his compensation in moral enjoyment. A lucid +clearness in the conceptions, and a serenity of mind, correspond +with the transparency of the surrounding atmosphere. We feel these +impressions without going beyond the boundaries of Europe. I appeal +to travellers who have visited countries rendered famous by the +great creations of the imagination and of art,--the favoured climes +of Italy and Greece. + +We prolonged in vain our stay on the summit of the Peak, awaiting +the moment when we might enjoy the view of the whole of the +archipelago of the Fortunate Islands:* we, however, descried Palma, +Gomera, and the Great Canary, at our feet. (* Of all the small +islands of the Canaries, the Rock of the East is the only one which +cannot be seen, even in fine weather, from the top of the Peak. Its +distance is 3 degrees 5 minutes, while that of the Salvage is only +2 degrees 1 minute. The island of Madeira, distant 4 degrees 29 +minutes, would be visible, if its mountains were more than 3000 +toises high.) The mountains of Lancerota, free from vapours at +sunrise, were soon enveloped in thick clouds. Supposing only an +ordinary refraction, the eye takes in, in calm weather, from the +summit of the volcano, a surface of the globe of 5700 square +leagues, equal to a fourth of the superficies of Spain. The +question has often been agitated, whether it be possible to +perceive the coast of Africa from the top of this colossal pyramid; +but the nearest parts of that coast are still farther from +Teneriffe than 2 degrees 49 minutes, or 56 leagues. The visual ray +of the horizon from the Peak being 1 degree 57 minutes, cape +Bojador can be seen only on the supposition of its height being 200 +toises above the level of the ocean. We are ignorant of the height +of the Black Mountains near cape Bojador, as well as of that peak, +called by navigators the Penon Grande, farther to the south of this +promontory. If the summit of the volcano of Teneriffe were more +accessible, we should observe without doubt, in certain states of +the wind, the effects of an extraordinary refraction. On perusing +what Spanish and Portuguese authors relate respecting the existence +of the fabulous isle of San Borondon, or Antilia, we find that it +is particularly the humid wind from west-south-west, which produces +in these latitudes the phenomena of the mirage. We shall not +however admit with M. Vieyra, "that the play of the terrestrial +refractions may render visible to the inhabitants of the Canaries +the islands of Cape Verd, and even the Apalachian mountains of +America."* (* The American fruits, frequently thrown by the sea on +the coasts of the islands of Ferro and Gomera, were formerly +supposed to emanate from the plants of the island of San Borondon. +This island, said to be governed by an archbishop and six bishops, +and which Father Feijoa believed to be the image of the island of +Ferro, reflected on a fog-bank, was ceded in the 16th century, by +the King of Portugal, to Lewis Perdigon, at the time the latter was +preparing to take possession of it by conquest.) + +The cold we felt on the top of the Peak, was very considerable for +the season. The centigrade thermometer, at a distance from the +ground, and from the apertures that emitted the hot vapours, fell +in the shade to 2.7 degrees. The wind was west, and consequently +opposite to that which brings to Teneriffe, during a great part of +the year, the warm air that floats above the burning desert of +Africa. As the temperature of the atmosphere, observed at the port +of Orotava by M. Savagi, was 22.8 degrees, the decrement of caloric +was one degree every 94 toises. This result perfectly corresponds +with those obtained by Lamanon and Saussure on the summits of the +Peak and Etna, though in very different seasons. The tall slender +form of these mountains facilitates the means of comparing the +temperature of two strata of the atmosphere, which are nearly in +the same perpendicular plane; and in this point of view the +observations made in an excursion to the volcano of Teneriffe +resemble those of an ascent in a balloon. We must nevertheless +remark, that the ocean, on account of its transparency and +evaporation, reflects less caloric than the plains, into the upper +regions of the air; and also that summits which are surrounded by +the sea are colder in summer, than mountains which rise from a +continent; but this circumstance has very little influence on the +decrement of atmospherical heat; the temperature of the low regions +being equally diminished by the proximity of the ocean. + +It is not the same with respect to the influence exercised by the +direction of the wind, and the rapidity of the ascending current; +the latter sometimes increases in an astonishing manner the +temperature of the loftiest mountains. I have seen the thermometer +rise, on the slope of the volcano of Antisana, in the kingdom of +Quito, to 19 degrees, when we were 2837 toises high. M. +Labillardiere has seen it, on the edge of the crater of the peak of +Teneriffe, at 18.7 degrees, though he had used every possible +precaution to avoid the effect of accidental causes. + +On the summit of the Peak, we beheld with admiration the azure +colour of the sky. Its intensity at the zenith appeared to +correspond to 41 degrees of the cyanometer. We know, by Saussure's +experiment, that this intensity increases with the rarity of the +air, and that the same instrument marked at the same period 39 +degrees at the priory of Chamouni, and 40 degrees at the top of +Mont Blanc. This last mountain is 540 toises higher than the +volcano of Teneriffe; and if, notwithstanding this difference, the +sky is observed there to be of a less deep blue, we must attribute +this phenomenon to the dryness of the African air, and the +proximity of the torrid zone. + +We collected on the brink of the crater, some air which we meant to +analyse on our voyage to America. The phial remained so well +corked, that on opening it ten days after, the water rushed in with +impetuosity. Several experiments, made by means of nitrous gas in +the narrow tube of Fontana's eudiometer, seemed to prove that the +air of the crater contained 0.09 degrees less oxygen than the air +of the sea; but I have little confidence in this result obtained by +means which we now consider as very inexact. The crater of the Peak +has so little depth, and the air is renewed with so much facility, +that it is scarcely probable the quantity of azote is greater there +than on the coasts. We know also, from the experiments of MM. +Gay-Lussac and Theodore de Saussure, that in the highest as well as +in the lowest regions of the atmosphere, the air equally contains +0.21 of oxygen.* (* During the stay of M. Gay-Lussac and myself at +the hospice of Mont Cenis, in March 1805, we collected air in the +midst of a cloud loaded with electricity. This air, analysed in +Volta's eudiometer, contained no hydrogen, and its purity did not +differ 0.002 of oxygen from the air of Paris, which we had carried +with us in phials hermetically sealed.) + +We saw on the summit of the Peak no trace of psora, lecidea, or +other cryptogamous plants; no insect fluttered in the air. We found +however a few hymenoptera adhering to masses of sulphur moistened +with sulphurous acid, and lining the mouths of the funnels. These +are bees, which appear to have been attracted by the flowers of the +Spartium nubigenum, and which oblique currents of air had carried +up to these high regions, like the butterflies found by M. Ramond +at the top of Mont Perdu. The butterflies perished from cold, while +the bees on the Peak were scorched on imprudently approaching the +crevices where they came in search of warmth. + +Notwithstanding the heat we felt in our feet on the edge of the +crater, the cone of ashes remains covered with snow during several +months in winter. It is probable, that under the cap of snow +considerable hollows are found, like those existing under the +glaciers of Switzerland, the temperature of which is constantly +less elevated than that of the soil on which they repose. The cold +and violent wind, which blew from the time of sunrise, induced us +to seek shelter at the foot of the Piton. Our hands and faces were +nearly frozen, while our boots were burnt by the soil on which we +walked. We descended in the space of a few minutes the Sugar-loaf +which we had scaled with so much toil; and this rapidity was in +part involuntary, for we often rolled down on the ashes. It was +with regret that we quitted this solitude, this domain where Nature +reigns in all her majesty. We consoled ourselves with the hope of +once again visiting the Canary Islands, but this, like many other +plans we then formed, has never been executed. + +We traversed the Malpays but slowly; for the foot finds no sure +foundation on the loose blocks of lava. Nearer the station of the +rocks, the descent becomes extremely difficult; the compact +short-swarded turf is so slippery, that we were obliged to incline +our bodies continually backward, in order to avoid falling. In the +sandy plain of Retama, the thermometer rose to 22.5 degrees; and +this heat seemed to us suffocating in comparison with the cold, +which we had suffered from the air on the summit of the volcano. We +were absolutely without water; our guides, not satisfied with +drinking clandestinely the little supply of malmsey wine, for which +we were indebted to Don Cologan's kindness, had broken our water +jars. Happily the bottle which contained the air of the crater +escaped unhurt. + +We at length enjoyed the refreshing breeze in the beautiful region +of the arborescent erica and fern; and we were enveloped in a thick +bed of clouds stationary at six hundred toises above the plain. The +clouds having dispersed, we remarked a phenomenon which afterwards +became familiar to us on the declivities of the Cordilleras. Small +currents of air chased trains of cloud with unequal velocity, and +in opposite directions: they bore the appearance of streamlets of +water in rapid motion and flowing in all directions, amidst a great +mass of stagnant water. The causes of this partial motion of the +clouds are probably very various; we may suppose them to arise from +some impulsion at a great distance; from the slight inequalities of +the soil, which reflects in a greater or less degree the radiant +heat; from a difference of temperature kept up by some chemical +action; or perhaps from a strong electric charge of the vesicular +vapours. + +As we approached the town of Orotava, we met great flocks of +canaries.* (* Fringilla Canaria. La Caille relates, in the +narrative of his voyage to the Cape, that on Salvage Island these +canaries are so abundant, that you cannot walk there in a certain +season without breaking their eggs.) These birds, well known in +Europe, were in general uniformly green. Some, however, had a +yellow tinge on their backs; their note was the same as that of the +tame canary. It is nevertheless remarked, that those which have +been taken in the island of the Great Canary, and in the islet of +Monte Clara, near Lancerota, have a louder and at the same time a +more harmonious song. In every zone, among birds of the same +species, each flock has its peculiar note. The yellow canaries are +a variety, which has taken birth in Europe; and those we saw in +cages at Orotava and Santa Cruz had been bought at Cadiz, and in +other ports of Spain. But of all the birds of the Canary Islands, +that which has the most heart-soothing song is unknown in Europe. +It is the capirote, which no effort has succeeded in taming, so +sacred to his soul is liberty. I have stood listening in admiration +of his soft and melodious warbling, in a garden at Orotava; but I +have never seen him sufficiently near to ascertain to what family +he belongs. As to the parrots, which were supposed to have been +seen at the period of captain Cook's abode at Teneriffe, they never +existed but in the narratives of a few travellers, who have copied +from each other. Neither parrots nor monkeys inhabit the Canary +Islands; and though in the New Continent the former migrate as far +as North Carolina, I doubt whether in the Old they have ever been +met with beyond the 28th degree of north latitude. + +Toward the close of day we reached the port of Orotava, where we +received the unexpected intelligence that the Pizarro would not set +sail till the 24th or 25th. If we could have calculated on this +delay, we should either have lengthened our stay on the Peak,* or +have made an excursion to the volcano of Chahorra. (* As a great +number of travellers who land at Santa Cruz, do not undertake the +excursion to the Peak, because they are ignorant of the time it +occupies, it may be useful to lay down the following data: In +making use of mules as far as the Estancia de los Ingleses, it +takes twenty-one hours from Orotava to arrive at the summit of the +Peak, and return to the port; namely, from Orotava to the Pino del +Dornajito three hours; from the Pino to the Station of the Rocks +six hours; and from this station to the Caldera three hours and a +half. I reckon nine hours for the descent. In this calculation I +count only the time employed in walking, without reckoning that +which is necessary for examining the productions of the Peak, or +for taking rest. Half a day is sufficient for going from Santa Cruz +to Orotava.) We passed the following day in visiting the environs +of Orotava, and enjoying the agreeable company we found at Don +Cologan's. We perceived that Teneriffe had attractions not only to +those who devote themselves to the study of nature: we found at +Orotava several persons possessing a taste for literature and +music, and who have transplanted into these distant climes the +amenity of European society. In these respects the Canary Islands +have no great resemblance to the other Spanish colonies, excepting +the Havannah. + +We were present on the eve of St. John at a pastoral fete in the +garden of Mr. Little. This gentleman, who rendered great service to +the Canarians during the last famine, has cultivated a hill covered +with volcanic substances. He has formed in this delicious site an +English garden, whence there is a magnificent view of the Peak, of +the villages along the coast, and the isle of Palma, which is +bounded by the vast expanse of the Atlantic. I cannot compare this +prospect with any, except the views of the bays of Genoa and +Naples; but Orotava is greatly superior to both in the magnitude of +the masses and in the richness of vegetation. In the beginning of +the evening the slope of the volcano exhibited on a sudden a most +extraordinary spectacle. The shepherds, in conformity to a custom, +no doubt introduced by the Spaniards, though it dates from the +highest antiquity, had lighted the fires of St. John. The scattered +masses of fire and the columns of smoke driven by the wind, formed +a fine contrast with the deep verdure of the forests which covered +the sides of the Peak. Shouts of joy resounding from afar were the +only sounds that broke the silence of nature in these solitary +regions. + +Don Cologan's family has a country-house nearer the coast than that +I have just mentioned. This house, called La Paz, is connected with +a circumstance that rendered it peculiarly interesting to us. M. de +Borda, whose death we deplored, was its inmate during his last +visit to the Canary Islands. It was in a neighbouring plain that he +measured the base, by which he determined the height of the Peak. +In this geometrical operation the great dracaena of Orotava served +as a mark. Should any well-informed traveller at some future day +undertake a new measurement of the volcano with more exactness, and +by the help of astronomical repeating circles, he ought to measure +the base, not near Orotava, but near Los Silos, at a place called +Bante. According to M. Broussonnet there is no plain near the Peak +of greater extent. In herborizing near La Paz we found a great +quantity of Lichen roccella on the basaltic rocks bathed by the +waters of the sea. The archil of the Canaries is a very ancient +branch of commerce; this lichen is however found in less abundance +in the island of Teneriffe than in the desert islands of Salvage, +La Graciosa, and Alegranza, or even in Canary and Hierro. We left +the port of Orotava on the 24th of June. + +To avoid disconnecting the narrative of the excursion to the top of +the Peak, I have said nothing of the geological observations I made +on the structure of this colossal mountain, and on the nature of +the volcanic rocks of which it is composed. Before we quit the +archipelago of the Canaries, I shall linger for a moment, and bring +into one point of view some facts relating to the physical aspect +of those countries. + +Mineralogists who think that the end of the geology of volcanoes is +the classification of lavas, the examination of the crystals they +contain, and their description according to their external +characters, are generally very well satisfied when they come back +from the mouth of a burning volcano. They return loaded with those +numerous collections, which are the principal objects of their +research. This is not the feeling of those who, without confounding +descriptive mineralogy (oryctognosy) with geognosy, endeavour to +raise themselves to ideas generally interesting, and seek, in the +study of nature, for answers to the following questions:-- + +Is the conical mountain of a volcano entirely formed of liquified +matter heaped together by successive eruptions, or does it contain +in its centre a nucleus of primitive rocks covered with lava, which +are these same rocks altered by fire? What are the affinities which +unite the productions of modern volcanoes with the basalts, the +phonolites, and those porphyries with bases of feldspar, which are +without quartz, and which cover the Cordilleras of Peru and Mexico, +as well as the small groups of the Monts Dores, of Cantal, and of +Mezen in France? Has the central nucleus of volcanoes been heated +in its primitive position, and raised up, in a softened state, by +the force of the elastic vapours, before these fluids communicated, +by means of a crater, with the external air? What is the substance, +which, for thousands of years, keeps up this combustion, sometimes +so slow, and at other times so active? Does this unknown cause act +at an immense depth; or does this chemical action take place in +secondary rocks lying on granite? + +The farther we are from finding a solution of these problems in the +numerous works hitherto published on Etna and Vesuvius, the greater +is the desire of the traveller to see with his own eyes. He hopes +to be more fortunate than those who have preceded him; he wishes to +form a precise idea of the geological relations which the volcano +and the neighbouring mountains bear to each other: but how often is +he disappointed, when, on the limits of the primitive soil, +enormous banks of tufa and puzzolana render every observation on +the position and stratification impossible! We reach the inside of +the crater with less difficulty than we at first expect; we examine +the cone from its summit to its base; we are struck with the +difference in the produce of each eruption, and with the analogy +which still exists between the lavas of the same volcano; but, +notwithstanding the care with which we interrogate nature, and the +number of partial observations which present themselves at every +step, we return from the summit of a burning volcano less satisfied +than when we were preparing to visit it. It is after we have +studied them on the spot, that the volcanic phenomena appear still +more isolated, more variable, more obscure, than we imagine them +when consulting the narratives of travellers. + +These reflections occurred to me on descending from the summit of +the peak of Teneriffe, the first unextinct volcano I had yet +visited. They returned anew whenever, in South America, or in +Mexico, I had occasion to examine volcanic mountains. When we +reflect how little the labours of mineralogists, and the +discoveries in chemistry, have promoted the knowledge of the +physical geology of mountains, we cannot help being affected with a +painful sentiment; and this is felt still more strongly by those, +who, studying nature in different climates, are more occupied by +the problems they have not been able to solve, than with the few +results they have obtained. + +The peak of Ayadyrma, or of Echeyde,* (* The word Echeyde, which +signifies Hell in the language of the Guanches, has been corrupted +by the Europeans into Teyde.) is a conic and isolated mountain, +which rises in an islet of very small circumference. Those who do +not take into consideration the whole surface of the globe, +believe, that these three circumstances are common to the greater +part of volcanoes. They cite, in support of their opinion, Etna, +the peak of the Azores, the Solfatara of Guadaloupe, the +Trois-Salazes of the isle of Bourbon, and the clusters of volcanoes +in the Indian Sea and in the Atlantic. In Europe and in Asia, as +far as the interior of the latter continent is known, no burning +volcano is situated in the chains of mountains; all being at a +greater or less distance from those chains. In the New World, on +the contrary, (and this fact deserves the greatest attention,) the +volcanoes the most stupendous for their masses form a part of the +Cordilleras themselves. The mountains of mica-slate and gneiss in +Peru and New Grenada immediately touch the volcanic porphyries of +the provinces of Quito and Pasto. To the south and north of these +countries, in Chile and in the kingdom of Guatimala, the active +volcanoes are grouped in rows. They are the continuation, as we may +say, of the chains of primitive rocks, and if the volcanic fire has +broken forth in some plain remote from the Cordilleras, as in mount +Sangay and Jorullo,* (* Two volcanoes of the Provinces of Quixos +and Mechoacan, the one in the southern, and the other in the +northern hemisphere.) we must consider this phenomenon as an +exception to the law, which nature seems to have imposed on these +regions. I may here repeat these geological facts, because this +presumed isolated situation of every volcano has been cited in +opposition to the idea that the peak of Teneriffe, and the other +volcanic summits of the Canary Islands, are the remains of a +submerged chain of mountains. The observations which have been made +on the grouping of volcanoes in America, prove that the ancient +state of things represented in the conjectural map of the Atlantic +by M. Bory de St. Vincent* (* Whether the traditions of the +ancients respecting the Atlantis are founded on historical facts, +is a matter totally distinct from the question whether the +archipelago of the Canaries and the adjacent islands are the +vestiges of a chain of mountains, rent and sunk in the sea during +one of the great convulsions of our globe. I do not pretend to form +any opinion in favour of the existence of the Atlantis; but I +endeavour to prove, that the Canaries have no more been created by +volcanoes, than the whole body of the smaller Antilles has been +formed by madrepores.) is by no means contradictory to the +acknowledged laws of nature; and that nothing opposes the +supposition that the summits of Porto Santo, Madeira, and the +Fortunate Islands, may heretofore have formed, either a distinct +range of primitive mountains, or the western extremity of the chain +of the Atlas. + +The peak of Teyde forms a pyramidal mass like Etna, Tungurahua, and +Popocatepetl. This physiognomic character is very far from being +common to all volcanoes. We have seen some in the southern +hemisphere, which, instead of having the form of a cone or a bell, +are lengthened in one direction, having the ridge sometimes smooth, +and at others bristled with small pointed rocks. This structure is +peculiar to Antisana and Pichincha, two burning mountains of the +province of Quito; and the absence of the conic form ought never to +be considered as a reason excluding the idea of a volcanic origin. +I shall develop, in the progress of this work, some of the +analogies, which I think I have perceived between the physiognomy +of volcanoes and the antiquity of their rocks. It is sufficient to +state, generally speaking, that the summits, which are still +subject to eruptions of the greatest violence, and at the nearest +periods to each other, are SLENDER PEAKS of a conic form; that the +mountains with LENGTHENED SUMMITS, and rugged with small stony +masses, are very old volcanoes, and near being extinguished; and +that rounded tops, in the form of domes, or bells, indicate those +problematic porphyries, which are supposed to have been heated in +their primitive position, penetrated by vapours, and forced up in a +mollified state, without having ever flowed as real lithoidal +lavas. To the first class belong Cotopaxi, the peak of Teneriffe, +and the peak of Orizava in Mexico. In the second may be placed +Cargueirazo and Pichincha, in the province of Quito; the volcano of +Puracey, near Popayan; and perhaps also Hecla, in Iceland. In the +third and last we may rank the majestic figure of Chimborazo, and, +(if it be allowable to place by the side of that colossus a hill of +Europe,) the Great Sarcouy in Auvergne. + +In order to form a more exact idea of the external structure of +volcanoes, it is important to compare their perpendicular height +with their circumference. This, however, cannot be done with any +exactness, unless the mountains are isolated, and rising on a plain +nearly on a level with the sea. In calculating the circumference of +the peak of Teneriffe in a curve passing through the port of +Orotava, Garachico, Adexe, and Guimar, and setting aside the +prolongations of its base towards the forest of Laguna, and the +north-east cape of the island, we find that this extent is more +than 54,000 toises. The height of the Peak is consequently one +twenty-eighth of the circumference of its basis. M. von Buch found +a thirty-third for Vesuvius; and, which perhaps is less certain, a +thirty-fourth for Etna.* (* Gilbert, Annalen der Physik B. 5 page +455. Vesuvius is 133,000 palmas, or eighteen nautical miles in +circumference. The horizontal distance from Resina to the crater is +3700 toises. Italian mineralogists have estimated the circumference +of Etna at 840,000 palmas, or 119 miles. With these data, the ratio +of the height to the circumference would be only a seventy-second; +but I find on tracing a curve through Catania, Palermo, Bronte, and +Piemonte, only 62 miles in circumference, according to the best +maps. This increases the ratio to a fifty-fourth. Does the basis +fall on the outside of the curve that I assume?) If the slope of +these three volcanoes were uniform from the summit to the base, the +peak of Teyde would have an inclination of 12 degrees 29 minutes, +Vesuvius 12 degrees 41 minutes, and Etna 10 degrees 13 minutes, a +result which must astonish those who do not reflect on what +constitutes an average slope. In a very long ascent, slopes of +three or four degrees alternate with others which are inclined from +25 to 30 degrees; and the latter only strike our imagination, because +we think all the slopes of mountains more steep than they really are. +I may cite in support of this consideration the example of the +ascent from the port of Vera Cruz to the elevated plain of Mexico. +On the eastern slope of the Cordillera a road has been traced, +which for ages has not been frequented except on foot, or on the +backs of mules. From Encero to the small Indian village of Las +Vigas, there are 7500 toises of horizontal distance; and Encero +being, according to my barometric measurement, 746 toises lower +than Las Vigas, the result, for the mean slope, is only an angle of +5 degrees 40 minutes. + +In the following note will be seen the results of some experiments +I have made on the difficulties arising from the declivities in +mountainous countries.* + +(* In places where there were at the same time slopes covered with +tufted grass and loose sands, I took the following measures:-- + + 5 degrees, slope of a very marked inclination. In France the high + roads must not exceed 4 degrees 46 minutes by law; + 15 degrees, slope extremely steep, and which we cannot descend in a + carriage; + 37 degrees, slope almost inaccessible on foot, if the ground be + naked rock, or turf too thick to form steps. The body falls + backwards when the tibia makes a smaller angle than 53 degrees with + the sole of the foot; + 42 degrees, the steepest slope that can be climbed on foot in a + ground that is sandy, or covered with volcanic ashes. + +When the slope is 44 degrees, it is almost impossible to scale it, +though the ground permits the forming of steps by thrusting in the +foot. The cones of volcanoes have a medium slope from 33 to 40 +degrees. The steepest parts of these cones, either of Vesuvius, the +Peak of Teneriffe, the volcano of Pichincha, or Jorullo, are from +40 to 42 degrees. A slope of 55 degrees is quite inaccessible. If +seen from above it would be estimated at 75 degrees.) + +Isolated volcanoes, in the most distant regions, are very analogous +in their structure. At great elevations all have considerable +plains, in the middle of which arises a cone perfectly circular. +Thus at Cotopaxi the plains of Suniguaicu extend beyond the farm of +Pansache. The stony summit of Antisana, covered with eternal snow, +forms an islet in the midst of an immense plain, the surface of +which is twelve leagues square, while its height exceeds that of +the peak of Teneriffe by two hundred toises. At Vesuvius, at three +hundred and seventy toises high, the cone detaches itself from the +plain of Atrio dei Cavalli. The peak of Teneriffe presents two of +these elevated plains, the uppermost of which, at the foot of the +Piton, is as high as Etna, and of very little extent; while the +lowermost, covered with tufts of retama, reaches as far as the +Estancia de los Ingleses. This rises above the level of the sea +almost as high as the city of Quito, and the summit of Mount +Lebanon. + +The greater the quantity of matter that has issued from the crater +of a mountain, the more elevated is its cone of ashes in proportion +to the perpendicular height of the volcano itself. Nothing is more +striking, under this point of view, than the difference of +structure between Vesuvius, the peak of Teneriffe, and Pichincha. I +have chosen this last volcano in preference, because its summit* +enters scarcely within the limit of the perpetual snows. (* I have +measured the summit of Pichincha, that is the small mountain +covered with ashes above the Llano del Vulcan, to the north of Alto +de Chuquira. This mountain has not, however, the regular form of a +cone. As to Vesuvius, I have indicated the mean height of the +Sugar-loaf, on account of the great difference between the two +edges of the crater.) The cone of Cotopaxi, the form of which is +the most elegant and most regular known, is 540 toises in height; +but it is impossible to decide whether the whole of this mass is +covered with ashes. + +TABLE 3: VOLCANOES: + +Column 1: Name of the volcano. + +Column 2: Total height in toises. + +Column 3: Height of the cone covered with ashes. + +Column 4: Proportion of the cone to the total height. + + Vesuvius : 606 : 200 : 1/3. + + Peak of Teneriffe : 1904 : 84 : 1/22. + + Pichincha : 2490 : 240 : 1/10. + +This table seems to indicate, what we shall have an opportunity of +proving more amply hereafter, that the peak of Teneriffe belongs to +that group of great volcanoes, which, like Etna and Antisana, have +had more copious eruptions from their sides than from their +summits. Thus the crater at the extremity of the Piton, which is +called the Caldera, is extremely small. Its diminutive size struck +M. de Borda, and other travellers, who took little interest in +geological investigations. + +As to the nature of the rocks which compose the soil of Teneriffe, +we must first distinguish between productions of the present +volcano, and the range of basaltic mountains which surround the +Peak, and which do not rise more than five or six hundred toises +above the level of the ocean. Here, as well as in Italy, Mexico, +and the Cordilleras of Quito, the rocks of trap-formation* are at a +distance from the recent currents of lava (* The trap-formation +includes the basalts, green-stone (grunstein), the trappean +porphyries, the phonolites or porphyrschiefer, etc.); everything +shows that these two classes of substances, though they owe their +origin to similar phenomena, date from very different periods. It +is important to geology not to confound the modern currents of +lava, the heaps of basalt, green-stone, and phonolite, dispersed +over the primitive and secondary formations, with those porphyroid +masses having bases of compact feldspar,* which perhaps have never +been perfectly liquified, but which do not less belong to the +domain of volcanoes. (* These petrosiliceous masses contain +vitreous and often calcined crystals of feldspar, of amphibole, of +pyroxene, a little of olivine, but scarcely any quartz. To this +very ambiguous formation belong the trappean porphyries of +Chimborazo and of Riobamba in America, of the Euganean mountains in +Italy, and of the Siebengebirge in Germany; as well as the domites +of the Great-Sarcouy, of Puy-de-Dome, of the Little Cleirsou, and +of one part of the Puy-Chopine in Auvergne.) + +In the island of Teneriffe, strata of tufa, puzzolana, and clay, +separate the range of basaltic hills from the currents of recent +lithoid lava, and from the eruptions of the present volcano. In the +same manner as the eruptions of Epomeo in the island of Ischia, and +those of Jorullo in Mexico, have taken place in countries covered +with trappean porphyry, ancient basalt, and volcanic ashes, so the +peak of Teyde has raised itself amidst the wrecks of submarine +volcanoes. Notwithstanding the difference of composition in the +recent lavas of the Peak, there is a certain regularity of +position, which must strike the naturalist least skilled in +geognosy. The great elevated plain of Retama separates the black, +basaltic, and earthlike lava, from the vitreous and feldsparry +lava, the basis of which is obsidian, pitch-stone, and phonolite. +This phenomenon is the more remarkable, inasmuch as in Bohemia and +in other parts of Europe, the porphyrschiefer with base of +phonolite* (* Klingstein. Werner.) covers also the convex summits +of basaltic mountains. + +It has already been observed, that from the level of the sea to +Portillo, and as far as the entrance on the elevated plain of the +Retama, that is, two-thirds of the total height of the volcano, the +ground is so covered with plants, that it is difficult to make +geological observations. The currents of lava, which we discover on +the slope of Monte Verde, between the beautiful spring of Dornajito +and Caravela, are black masses, altered by decomposition, sometimes +porous, and with very oblong pores. The basis of these lower lavas +is rather wacke than basalt; when it is spongy, it resembles the +amygdaloids* of Frankfort-on-the-Main. (* Wakkenartiger +mandelstein. Steinkaute.) Its fracture is generally irregular; +wherever it is conchoidal, we may presume that the cooling has been +more rapid, and the mass has been exposed to a less powerful +pressure. These currents of lava are not divided into regular +prisms, but into very thin layers, not very regular in their +inclination; they contain much olivine, small grains of magnetic +iron, and augite, the colour of which often varies from deep +leek-green to olive green, and which might be mistaken for +crystallized olivine, though no transition from one to the other of +these substances exists.* (* Steffens, Handbuch der Oryktognosie +tome 1 s. 364. The crystals which Mr. Friesleben and myself have +made known under the denomination of foliated olivine (blattriger +olivin) belong, according to Mr. Karsten, to the pyroxene augite. +Journal des Mines de Freiberg 1791 page 215.) Amphibole is in +general very rare at Teneriffe, not only in the modern lithoid +lavas, but also in the ancient basalts, as has been observed by M. +Cordier, who resided longer at the Canaries than any other +mineralogist. Nepheline, leucite, idocrase, and meionite have not +yet been seen at the peak of Teneriffe; for a reddish-grey lava, +which we found on the slope of Monte Verde, and which contains +small microscopic crystals, appears to me to be a close mixture of +basalt and analcime.* (* This substance, which M. Dolomieu +discovered in the amygdaloids of Catania in Sicily, and which +accompanies the stilbites of Fassa in Tyrol, forms, with the +chabasie of Hauy, the genus Cubicit of Werner. M. Cordier found at +Teneriffe xeolite in an amygdaloid which covers the basalts of La +Punta di Naga.) In like manner the lava of Scala, with which the +city of Naples is paved, contains a close mixture of basalt, +nepheline, and leucite. With respect to this last substance, which +has hitherto been observed only at Vesuvius and in the environs of +Rome, it exists perhaps at the peak of Teneriffe, in the old +currents of lava now covered by more recent ejections. Vesuvius, +during a long series of years, has also thrown out lavas without +leucites: and if it be true, as M. von Buch has rendered very +probable, that these crystals are formed only in the currents which +flow either from the crater itself, or very near its brink, we must +not be surprised at not finding them in the lavas of the peak. The +latter almost all proceed from lateral eruptions, and consequently +have been exposed to an enormous pressure in the interior of the +volcano. + +In the plain of Retama, the basaltic lavas disappear under heaps of +ashes, and pumice-stone reduced to powder. Thence to the summit, +from 1500 to 1900 toises in height, the volcano exhibits only +vitreous lava with bases of pitch-stone* (* Petrosilex resinite. +Hauy.) and obsidian. These lavas, destitute of amphibole and mica, +are of a blackish brown, often varying to the deepest olive green. +They contain large crystals of feldspar, which are not fissured, +and seldom vitreous. The analogy of those decidedly volcanic masses +with the resinite porphyries* (* Pechstein-porphyr. Werner.) of the +valley of Tribisch in Saxony is very remarkable; but the latter, +which belong to an extended and metalliferous formation of +porphyry, often contain quartz, which is wanting in the modern +lavas. When the basis of the lavas of the Malpays changes from +pitchstone to obsidian, its colour is paler, and is mixed with +grey; in this case, the feldspar passes by imperceptible gradations +from the common to the vitreous. Sometimes both varieties meet in +the same fragment, as we observed also in the trappean porphyries +of the valley of Mexico. The feldsparry lavas of the Peak, of a +much less black tinge than those of Arso in the island of Ischia, +whiten at the edge of the crater from the effect of the acid +vapours; but internally they are not found to be colourless like +that of the feldsparry lavas of the Solfatara at Naples, which +perfectly resemble the trappean porphyries at the foot of +Chimborazo. In the middle of the Malpays, at the height of the +cavern of ice, we found among the vitreous lavas with pitch-stone +and obsidian bases, blocks of real greenish-grey, or mountain-green +phonolite, with a smooth fracture, and divided into thin laminae, +sonorous and keen edged. These masses were the same as the +porphyrschiefer of the mountain of Bilin in Bohemia; we recognised +in them small long crystals of vitreous feldspar. + +This regular disposition of lithoid basaltic lava and feldsparry +vitreous lava is analogous to the phenomena of all trappean +mountains; it reminds us of those phonolites lying in very ancient +basalts, those close mixtures of augite and feldspar which cover +the hills of wacke or porous amygdaloids: but why are the +porphyritic or feldsparry lavas of the Peak found only on the +summit of the volcano? Should we conclude from this position that +they are of more recent formation than the lithoid basaltic lava, +which contains olivine and augite? I cannot admit this last +hypothesis; for lateral eruptions may have covered the feldsparry +nucleus, at a period when the crater had ceased its activity. At +Vesuvius also, we perceive small crystals of vitreous feldspar only +in the very ancient lavas of the Somma. These lavas, setting aside +the leucite, very nearly resemble the phonolitic ejections of the +Peak of Teneriffe. In general, the farther we go back from the +period of modern eruptions, the more the currents increase both in +size and extent, acquiring the character of rocks, by the +regularity of their position, by their division into parallel +strata, or by their independence of the present form of the ground. + +The Peak of Teneriffe is, next to Lipari, the volcano that has +produced most obsidian. This abundance is the more striking, as in +other regions of the earth, in Iceland, in Hungary, in Mexico, and +in the kingdom of Quito, we meet with obsidians only at great +distances from burning volcanoes. Sometimes they are scattered over +the fields in angular pieces; for instance, near Popayan, in South +America; at other times they form isolated rocks, as at Quinche, +near Quito. In other places (and this circumstance is very +remarkable), they are disseminated in pearl-stone, as at +Cinapecuaro, in the province of Mechoacan,* (* To the west of the +city of Mexico.) and at the Cabo de Gates, in Spain. At the peak of +Teneriffe the obsidian is not found towards the base of the +volcano, which is covered with modern lava: it is frequent only +towards the summit, especially from the plain of Retama, where very +fine specimens may be collected. This peculiar position, and the +circumstance that the obsidian of the Peak has been ejected by a +crater which for ages past has thrown out no flames, favour the +opinion, that volcanic vitrifications, wherever they are found, are +to be considered as of very ancient formation. + +Obsidian, jade, and Lydian-stone,* (* Lydischerstein.) are three +minerals, which nations ignorant of the use of copper or iron, have +in all ages employed for making keen-edged weapons. We see that +wandering hordes have dragged with them, in their distant journeys, +stones, the natural position of which the mineralogist has not yet +been able to determine. Hatchets of jade, covered with Aztec +hieroglyphics, which I brought from Mexico, resemble both in their +form and nature those made use of by the Gauls, and those we find +among the South Sea islanders. The Mexicans dug obsidian from +mines, which were of vast extent; and they employed it for making +knives, sword-blades, and razors. In like manner the Guanches, (in +whose language obsidian was called tabona,) fixed splinters of that +mineral to the ends of their lances. They carried on a considerable +trade in it with the neighbouring islands; and from the consumption +thus occasioned, and the quantity of obsidian which must have been +broken in the course of manufacture, we may presume that this +mineral has become scarce from the lapse of ages. We are surprised +to see an Atlantic nation substituting, like the natives of +America, vitrified lava for iron. In both countries this variety of +lava was employed as an object of ornament: and the inhabitants of +Quito made beautiful looking-glasses with an obsidian divided into +parallel laminae. + +There are three varieties of obsidian at the Peak. Some form +enormous blocks, several toises long, and often of a spheroidal +shape. We might suppose that they had been thrown out in a softened +state, and had afterwards been subject to a rotary motion. They +contain a quantity of vitreous feldspar, of a snow-white colour, +and the most brilliant pearly lustre. These obsidians are, +nevertheless, but little transparent on the edges; they are almost +opaque, of a brownish black, and of an imperfect conchoidal +fracture. They pass into pitch-stone; and we may consider them as +porphyries with a basis of obsidian. The second variety is found in +fragments much less considerable. It is in general of a greenish +black, sometimes of murky grey, very seldom of a perfect black, +like the obsidian of Hecla and Mexico. Its fracture is perfectly +conchoidal, and it is extremely transparent on the edges. I have +found in it neither amphibole nor pyroxene, but some small white +points, which seem to be feldspar. None of the obsidians of the +Peak appear in those grey masses of pearl or lavender-blue, +striped, and in separate wedge-formed pieces, like the obsidian of +Quito, Mexico, and Lipari, and which resemble the fibrous plates of +the crystalites of our glass-houses, on which Sir James Hall, Dr. +Thompson, and M. de Bellevue, have published some curious +observations.* (* The name crystalites has been given to the +crystalized thin plates observed in glass cooling slowly. The term +glastenized glass is employed by Dr. Thompson and others to +indicate glass which by slow cooling is wholly unvitrified, and has +assumed the appearance of a fossil substance, or real glass-stone.) + +The third variety of obsidian of the Peak is the most remarkable of +the whole, from its connexion with pumice-stone. It is, like that +above described, of a greenish black, sometimes of a murky grey, +but its very thin plates alternate with layers of pumice-stone. Dr. +Thomson's fine collection at Naples contained similar examples of +lithoid lava of Vesuvius, divided into very distinct plates, only a +line thick. The fibres of the pumice-stone of the Peak are very +seldom parallel to each other, and perpendicular to the strata of +obsidian; they are most commonly irregular, asbestoidal, like +fibrous glass-gall; and instead of being disseminated in the +obsidian, like crystalites, they are found simply adhering to one +of the external surfaces of this substance. During my stay at +Madrid, M. Hergen showed me several specimens in the mineralogical +collection of Don Jose Clavijo; and for a long time the Spanish +mineralogists considered them as furnishing undoubted proofs, that +pumice-stone owes its origin to obsidian, in some degree deprived +of colour, and swelled by volcanic fire. I was formerly of this +opinion, which, however, must be understood to refer to one variety +only of pumice. I even thought, with many other geologists, that +obsidian, so far from being vitrified lava, belonged to rocks that +were not volcanic; and that the fire, forcing its way through the +basalts, the green-stone rocks, the phonolites, and the porphyries +with bases of pitchstone and obsidian, the lavas and pumice-stone +were no other than these same rocks altered by the action of the +volcanoes. The deprivation of colour and extraordinary swelling +which the greater part of the obsidians undergo in a forge-fire, +their transition into pitch-stone, and their position in regions +very distant from burning volcanoes, appear to be phenomena very +difficult to reconcile, when we consider the obsidians as volcanic +glass. A more profound study of nature, new journeys, and +observations made on the productions of burning volcanoes, have led +me to renounce those ideas. + +It appears to me at present extremely probable, that obsidians, and +porphyries with bases of obsidian, are vitrified masses, the +cooling of which has been too rapid to change them into lithoid +lava. I consider even the pearlstone as an unvitrified obsidian: +for among the minerals in the King's cabinet at Berlin there are +volcanic glasses from Lipari, in which we see striated crystalites, +of a pearl-grey colour, and of an earthy appearance, forming +gradual approaches to a granular lithoid lava, like the pearlstone +of Cinapecuaro, in Mexico. The oblong bubbles observed in the +obsidians of every continent are incontestible proofs of their +ancient state of igneous fluidity; and Dr. Thompson possesses +specimens from Lipari, which are very instructive in this point of +view, because fragments of red porphyry, or porphyry lavas, which +do not entirely fill up the cavities of the obsidian, are found +enveloped in them. We might say, that these fragments had not time +to enter into complete solution in the liquified mass. They contain +vitreous feldspar, and augite, and are the same as the celebrated +columnar porphyries of the island of Panaria, which, without having +been part of a current of lava, seem raised up in the form of +hillocks, like many of the porphyries in Auvergne, in the Euganean +mountains, and in the Cordilleras of the Andes. + +The objections against the volcanic origin of obsidians, founded on +their speedy loss of colour, and their swelling by a slow fire, +have been shaken by the ingenious experiments of Sir James Hall. +These experiments prove, that a stone which is fusible only at +thirty-eight degrees of Wedgwood's pyrometer, yields a glass that +softens at fourteen degrees; and that this glass, melted again and +unvitrified (glastenized), is fusible again only at thirty-five +degrees of the same pyrometer. I applied the blowpipe to some black +pumice-stone from the volcano of the isle of Bourbon, which, on the +slightest contact with the flame, whitened and melted into an +enamel. + +But whether obsidians be primitive rocks which have undergone the +action of volcanic fire, or lavas repeatedly melted within the +crater, the origin of the pumice-stones contained in the obsidian +of the Peak of Teneriffe is not less problematic. This subject is +the more worthy of being investigated, since it is generally +interesting to the geology of volcanoes; and since that excellent +mineralogist, M. Fleuriau de Bellevue, after having examined Italy +and the adjacent islands with great attention, affirms, that it is +highly improbable that pumice-stone owes its origin to the swelling +of obsidian. + +The experiments of M. da Camara, and those I made in 1802, tend to +support the opinion, that the pumice-stones adherent to the +obsidians of the Peak of Teneriffe do not unite to them +accidentally, but are produced by the expansion of an elastic +fluid, which is disengaged from the compact vitreous matter. This +idea had for a long time occupied the mind of a person highly +distinguished for his talents and reputation at Quito, who, +unacquainted with the labours of the mineralogists of Europe, had +devoted himself to researches on the volcanoes of his country. Don +Juan de Larea, one of those men lately sacrificed to the fury of +faction, had been struck with the phenomena exhibited by obsidians +exposed to a white heat. He had thought, that, wherever volcanoes +act in the centre of a country covered with porphyry with base of +obsidian, the elastic fluids must cause a swelling of the liquified +mass, and perform an important part in the earthquakes preceding +eruptions. Without adopting an opinion, which seems somewhat bold, +I made, in concert with M. Larea, a series of experiments on the +tumefaction of the volcanic vitreous substances at Teneriffe, and +on those which are found at Quinche, in the kingdom of Quito. To +judge of the augmentation of their bulk, we measured pieces exposed +to a forge-fire of moderate heat, by the water they displaced from +a cylindric glass, enveloping the spongy mass with a thin coating +of wax. According to our experiments, the obsidians swelled very +unequally: those of the Peak and the black varieties of Cotopaxi +and of Quinche increased nearly five times their bulk. + +The colour of the pumice-stones of the Peak leads to another +important observation. The sea of white ashes which encircles the +Piton, and covers the vast plain of Retama, is a certain proof of +the former activity of the crater: for in all volcanoes, even when +there are lateral eruptions, the ashes and the rapilli issue +conjointly with the vapours only from the opening at the summit of +the mountain. Now, at Teneriffe, the black rapilli extend from the +foot of the Peak to the sea-shore; while the white ashes, which are +only pumice ground to powder, and among which I have discovered, +with a lens, fragments of vitreous feldspar and pyroxene, +exclusively occupy the region next to the Peak. This peculiar +distribution seems to confirm the observations made long ago at +Vesuvius, that the white ashes are thrown out last, and indicate +the end of the eruption. In proportion as the elasticity of the +vapours diminishes, the matter is thrown to a less distance; and +the black rapilli, which issue first, when the lava has ceased +running, must necessarily reach farther than the white rapilli. The +latter appear to have been exposed to the action of a more intense +fire. + +I have now examined the exterior structure of the Peak, and the +composition of its volcanic productions, from the region of the +coast to the top of the Piton:--I have endeavoured to render these +researches interesting, by comparing the phenomena of the volcano +of Teneriffe with those that are observed in other regions, the +soil of which is equally undermined by subterranean fires. This +mode of viewing Nature in the universality of her relations is no +doubt adverse to the rapidity desirable in an itinerary; but it +appears to me that, in a narrative, the principal end of which is +the progress of physical knowledge, every other consideration ought +to be subservient to those of instruction and utility. By isolating +facts, travellers, whose labours are in every other respect +valuable, have given currency to many false ideas of the pretended +contrasts which Nature offers in Africa, in New Holland, and on the +ridge of the Cordilleras. The great geological phenomena are +subject to regular laws, as well as the forms of plants and +animals. The ties which unite these phenomena, the relations which +exist between the varied forms of organized beings, are discovered +only when we have acquired the habit of viewing the globe as a +great whole; and when we consider in the same point of view the +composition of rocks, the causes which alter them, and the +productions of the soil, in the most distant regions. + +Having treated of the volcanic substances of the isle of Teneriffe, +there now remains to be solved a question intimately connected with +the preceding investigation. Does the archipelago of the Canary +Islands contain any rocks of primitive or secondary formation; or +is there any production observed, that has not been modified by +fire? This interesting problem has been considered by the +naturalists of Lord Macartney's expedition, and by those who +accompanied captain Baudin in his voyage to the Austral regions. +Their opinions are in direct opposition to each other; and the +contradiction is the more striking, as the question does not refer +to one of those geological reveries which we are accustomed to call +systems, but to a positive fact. + +Doctor Gillan imagined that he observed, between Laguna and the +port of Orotava, in very deep ravines, beds of primitive rocks. +This, however, is a mistake. What Dr. Gillan calls somewhat +vaguely, mountains of hard ferruginous clay, are nothing but an +alluvium which we find at the foot of every volcano. Strata of clay +accompany basalts, as tufas accompany modern lavas. Neither M. +Cordier nor myself observed in any part of Teneriffe a primitive +rock, either in its natural place, or thrown out by the mouth of +the Peak; and the absence of these rocks characterizes almost every +island of small extent that has an unextinguishied volcano. We know +nothing positive of the mountains of the Azores; but it is certain, +that the island of Bourbon as well as Teneriffe, exhibits only a +heap of lavas and basalts. No volcanic rock rears its head, either +on the Gros Morne, or on the volcano of Bourbon, or on the colossal +pyramid of Cimandef, which is perhaps more elevated than the Peak +of the Canary Islands. + +Bory St. Vincent nevertheless asserted, that lavas including +fragments of granite have been found on the elevated plain of +Retama; and M. Broussonnet informed me, that on a hill above +Guimar, fragments of mica-slate, containing beautiful plates of +specular iron, had been found. I can affirm nothing respecting the +accuracy of this latter statement, which it would be so much the +more important to verify, as M. Poli, of Naples, is in possession +of a fragment of rock thrown out by Vesuvius,* which I found to be +a real mica-slate. (* In the valuable collection of Dr. Thomson, +who resided at Naples till 1805, is a fragment of lava enclosing a +real granite, which is composed of reddish feldspar with a pearly +lustre like adularia, quartz, mica, hornblende, and, what is very +remarkable, lazulite. But in general the masses of known primitive +rocks, (I mean those which perfectly resemble our granites, our +gneiss, and our mica-slates) are very rare in lavas; the substances +we commonly denote by the name of granite, thrown out by Vesuvius, +are mixtures of nepheline, mica, and pyroxene. We are ignorant +whether these mixtures constitute rocks sui generis placed under +granite, and consequently of more ancient date; or simply form +either intermediate strata on veins, in the interior of the +primitive mountains, the tops of which appear at the surface of the +globe.) Every thing that tends to enlighten us with respect to the +site of the volcanic fire, and the position of rocks subject to its +action, is highly interesting to geology. + +It is possible, that at the Peak of Teneriffe, the fragments of +primitive rocks thrown out by the mouth of the volcano may be less +rare than they at present appear to be, and may be heaped together +in some ravine, not yet visited by travellers. In fact, at +Vesuvius, these same fragments are met with only in one single +place, at the Fossa Grande, where they are hidden under a thick +layer of ashes. If this ravine had not long ago attracted the +attention of naturalists, when masses of granular limestone, and +other primitive rocks, were laid bare by the rains, we might have +thought them as rare at Vesuvius, as they are, at least in +appearance, at the Peak of Teneriffe. + +With respect to the fragments of granite, gneiss, and mica-slate, +found on the shores of Santa Cruz and Orotava, they were probably +brought in ships as ballast. They no more belong to the soil where +they lie, than the feldsparry lavas of Etna, seen in the pavements +of Hamburg and other towns of the north. The naturalist is exposed +to a thousand errors, if he lose sight of the changes, produced on +the surface of the globe by the intercourse between nations. We +might be led to say, that man, when expatriating himself; is +desirous that everything should change country with him. Not only +plants, insects, and different species of small quadrupeds, follow +him across the ocean; his active industry covers the shores with +rocks, which he has torn from the soil in distant climes. + +Though it be certain, that no scientific observer has hitherto +found at Teneriffe primitive strata, or even those trappean and +ambiguous porphyries, which constitute the bases of Etna, and of +several volcanoes of the Andes, we must not conclude from this +isolated fact, that the whole archipelago of the Canaries is the +production of submarine fires. The island of Gomera contains +mountains of granite and mica-slate; and it is, undoubtedly, in +these very ancient rocks, that we must seek there, as well as on +all other parts of the globe, the centre of the volcanic action. +Amphibole, sometimes pure and forming intermediate strata, at other +times mixed with granite, as in the basanites or basalts of the +ancients, may, of itself, furnish all the iron contained in the +black and stony lavas. This quantity amounts in the basalt of the +modern mineralogists only to 0.20, while in amphibole it exceeds 0. +30. + +From several well-informed persons, to whom I addressed myself, I +learned that there are calcareous formations in the Great Canary, +Forteventura, and Lancerota.* (* At Lancerota calcareous stone is +burned to lime with a fire made of the alhulaga, a new species of +thorny and arborescent Sonchus.) I was not able to determine the +nature of this secondary rock; but it appears certain, that the +island of Teneriffe is altogether destitute of it; and that in its +alluvial lands it exhibits only clayey calcareous tufa, alternating +with volcanic breccia, said to contain, (near the village of La +Rambla, at Calderas, and near Candelaria,) plants, imprints of +fishes, buccinites, and other fossil marine productions. M. Cordier +brought away some of this tufa, which resembles that in the +environs of Naples and Rome, and contains fragments of reeds. At +the Salvages, which islands La Perouse took at a distance for +masses of scoriae, even fibrous gypsum is found. + +I had seen, while herborizing between the port of Orotava and the +garden of La Paz, heaps of greyish calcareous stones, of an +imperfect conchoidal fracture, and analogous to that of Mount Jura +and the Apennines. I was informed that these stones were extracted +from a quarry near Rambla; and that there were similar quarries +near Realejo, and the mountain of Roxas, above Adexa. This +information led me into an error. As the coasts of Portugal consist +of basalts covering calcareous rocks containing shells, I imagined +that a trappean formation, like that of the Vicentin in Lombardy, +and of Harutsh in Africa, might have extended from the banks of the +Tagus and Cape St. Vincent as far as the Canary Islands; and that +the basalts of the Peak might perhaps conceal a secondary +calcareous stone. These conjectures exposed me to severe +animadversions from M. G.A. de Luc, who is of opinion that every +volcanic island is only an accumulation of lavas and scoriae. M. de +Luc declares it is impossible that real lava should contain +fragments of vegetable substances. Our collections, however, +contain pieces of trunks of palm-trees, enclosed and penetrated by +the very liquid lava of the isle of Bourbon. + +Though Teneriffe belongs to a group of islands of considerable +extent, the Peak exhibits nevertheless all the characteristics of a +mountain rising on a solitary islet. The lead finds no bottom at a +little distance from the ports of Santa Cruz, Orotava, and +Garachico: in this respect it is like St. Helena. The ocean, as +well as the continents, has its mountains and its plains; and, if +we except the Andes, volcanic cones are formed everywhere in the +lower regions of the globe. + +As the Peak rises amid a system of basalts and old lava, and as the +whole part which is visible above the surface of the waters +exhibits burnt substances, it has been supposed that this immense +pyramid is the effect of a progressive accumulation of lavas; or +that it contains in its centre a nucleus of primitive rocks. Both +of these suppositions appear to me ill-founded. I think there is as +little probability that mountains of granite, gneiss, or primitive +calcareous stone have existed where we now see the tops of the +Peak, of Vesuvius, and of Etna, as in the plains where almost in +our own time has been formed the volcano of Jorullo, which is more +than a third of the height of Vesuvius. On examining the +circumstances which accompanied the formation of the new island, +called Sabrina, in the archipelago of the Azores;* (* At Sabrina +island, near St. Michael's, the crater opened at the foot of a +solid rock, of almost a cubical form. This rock, surmounted by a +small elevated plain perfectly level, is more than two hundred +toises in breadth. Its formation was anterior to that of the +crater, into which, a few days after its opening, the sea made an +irruption. At Kameni, the smoke was not even visible till +twenty-six days after the appearance of the upheaved rocks. +Philosophical Transactions volume 26 pages 69 and 200, volume 27 +page 353. All these phenomena, on which Mr. Hawkins collected very +valuable observations during his abode at Santorino, are +unfavourable to the idea commonly entertained of the origin of +volcanic mountains. They are usually ascribed to a progressive +accumulation of liquified matter, and the diffusion of lavas +issuing from a central mouth.) on carefully reading the minute and +simple narrative, given by the Jesuit Bourguignon of the slow +appearance of the islet of the little Kameni, near Santorino; we +find that these extraordinary eruptions are generally preceded by a +swelling of the softened crust of the globe. Rocks appear above the +waters before the flames force their way, or lavas issue from the +crater: we must distinguish between the nucleus raised up, and the +mass of lavas and scoriae, which successively increases its +dimensions. + +It is true that from all existing records of revolutions of this +kind, the perpendicular height of the stony nucleus appears never +to have exceeded one hundred and fifty or two hundred toises; even +taking into the account the depth of the sea, the bottom of which +had been lifted up: but when considering the great effects of +nature, and the intensity of its forces, the bulk of the masses +must not deter the geologist in his speculations. Every thing +indicates that the physical changes of which tradition has +preserved the remembrance, exhibit but a feeble image of those +gigantic catastrophes which have given mountains their present +form, changed the positions of the rocky strata, and buried +sea-shells on the summits of the higher Alps. Doubtless, in those +remote times which preceded the existence of the human race, the +raised crust of the globe produced those domes of trappean +porphyry, those hills of isolated basalt on vast elevated plains, +those solid nuclei which are clothed in the modern lavas of the +Peak, of Etna, and of Cotopaxi. The volcanic revolutions have +succeeded each other after long intervals, and at very different +periods: of this we see the vestiges in the transition mountains, +in the secondary strata, and in those of alluvium. Volcanoes of +earlier date than the sandstone and calcareous rocks have been for +ages extinguished; those which are yet in activity are in general +surrounded only with breccias and modern tufas; but nothing hinders +us from admitting, that the archipelago of the Canaries may exhibit +some real rocks of secondary formation, if we recollect that +subterranean fires have been there rekindled in the midst of a +system of basalts and very ancient lavas. + +We seek in vain in the Periplus of Hanno or of Scylax for the first +written notions on the eruptions of the Peak of Teneriffe. Those +navigators sailed timidly along the coast, anchoring every evening +in some bay, and had no knowledge of a volcano distant fifty-six +leagues from the coast of Africa. Hanno nevertheless relates, that +he saw torrents of light, which seemed to fall on the sea; that +every night the coast was covered with fire; and that the great +mountain, called the Car of the Gods, appeared to throw up sheets +of flame, which rose even to the clouds. But this mountain, +situated northward of the island of the Gorilli, formed the western +extremity of the Atlas chain; and it is also very uncertain whether +the flames seen by Hanno were the effect of some volcanic eruption, +or whether they must be attributed to the custom, common to many +nations, of setting fire to the forests and dry grass of the +savannahs. In our own days similar doubts were entertained by the +naturalists, who, in the voyage of d'Entrecasteaux, saw the island +of Amsterdam covered with a thick smoke. On the coast of the +Caracas, trains of reddish fire, fed by the burning grass, appeared +to me, for several nights, under the delusive semblance of a +current of lava, descending from the mountains, and dividing itself +into several branches. + +Though the narratives of Hanno and Scylax, in the state in which +they have reached us, contain no passage which we can reasonably +apply to the Canary Islands, it is very probable that the +Carthaginians, and even the Phoenicians, had some knowledge of the +Peak of Teneriffe. In the time of Plato and Aristotle, vague +notions of it had reached the Greeks, who considered the whole of +the coast of Africa, beyond the Pillars of Hercules, as thrown into +disorder by the fire of volcanoes. The Abode of the Blessed, which +was sought first in the north, beyond the Riphaean mountains, among +the Hyperboreans, and next to the south of Cyrenaica, was supposed +to be situated in regions that were considered to be westward, +being the direction in which the world known to the ancients +terminated. The name of Fortunate Islands was long in as vague +signification, as that of El Dorado among the conquerors of +America. Happiness was thought to reside at the end of the earth, +as we seek for the most exquisite enjoyments of the mind in an +ideal world beyond the limits of reality.* (* The idea of the +happiness, the great civilization, and the riches of the +inhabitants of the north, was common to the Greeks, to the people +of India, and to the Mexicans.) + +We must not be surprised that, previous to the time of Aristotle, +we find no accurate notion respecting the Canary Islands and the +volcanoes they contain, among the Greek geographers. The only +nation whose navigations extended toward the west and the north, +the Carthaginians, were interested in throwing a veil of mystery +over those distant regions. While the senate of Carthage was averse +to any partial emigration, it pointed out those islands as a place +of refuge in times of trouble and public misfortune; they were to +the Carthaginians what the free soil of America has become to +Europeans amidst their religious and civil dissensions. + +The Canaries were not better known to the Romans till eighty-four +years before the reign of Augustus. A private individual was +desirous of executing the project, which wise foresight had +dictated to the senate of Carthage. Sertorius, conquered by Sylla, +and weary of the din of war, looked out for a safe and peaceable +retreat. He chose the Fortunate Islands, of which a delightful +picture had been drawn for him on the shores of Baetica. He +carefully combined the notions he acquired from travellers; but in +the little that has been transmitted to us of those notions, and in +the more minute descriptions of Sebosus and Juba, there is no +mention of volcanoes or volcanic eruptions. Scarcely can we +recognise the isle of Teneriffe, and the snows with which the +summit of the Peak is covered in winter, in the name of Nivaria, +given to one of the Fortunate Islands. Hence we might conclude, +that the volcano at that time threw out no flames, if it were +allowable so to interpret the silence of a few authors, whom we +know only by short fragments or dry nomenclatures. The naturalist +vainly seeks in history for documents of the first eruptions of the +Peak; he nowhere finds any but in the language of the Guanches, in +which the word Echeyde denotes, at the same time, hell and the +volcano of Teneriffe. + +Of all the written testimonies, the oldest I have found in relation +to the activity of this volcano dates from the beginning of the +sixteenth century. It is contained in the narrative of the voyage +of Aloysio Cadamusto, who landed at the Canaries in 1505. This +traveller was witness of no eruptions, but he positively affirms +that, like Etna, this mountain burns without interruption, and that +the fire has been seen by christians held in slavery by the +Guanches of Teneriffe. The Peak, therefore, was not at that time in +the state of repose in which we find it at present; for it is +certain that no navigator or inhabitant of Teneriffe has seen issue +from the mouth of the Peak, I will not say flames, but even any +smoke visible at a distance. It would be well, perhaps, were the +funnel of the Caldera to open anew; the lateral eruptions would +thereby be rendered less violent, and the whole group of islands +would be less endangered by earthquakes. + +The eruptions of the Peak have been very rare for two centuries +past, and these long intervals appear to characterize volcanoes +highly elevated. The smallest one of all, Stromboli, is almost +always burning. At Vesuvius, the eruptions are rarer than formerly, +though still more frequent than those of Etna and the Peak of +Teneriffe. The colossal summits of the Andes, Cotopaxi and +Tungurahua, scarcely have an eruption once in a century. We may +say, that in active volcanoes the frequency of the eruptions is in +the inverse ratio of the height and the mass. The Peak also had +seemed extinguished during ninety-two years, when, in 1798, it made +its last eruption by a lateral opening formed in the mountain of +Chahorra. In this interval Vesuvius had sixteen eruptions. + +The whole of the mountainous part of the kingdom of Quito may be +considered as an immense volcano, occupying more than seven hundred +square leagues of surface, and throwing out flames by different +cones, known under the particular denominations of Cotopaxi, +Tungurahua, and Pichincha. The group of the Canary Islands is +situated on the same sort of submarine volcano. The fire makes its +way sometimes by one and sometimes by another of these islands. +Teneriffe alone contains in its centre an immense pyramid +terminating in a crater, and throwing out, from one century to +another, lava by its flanks. In the other islands, the different +eruptions have taken place in various parts; and we nowhere find +those isolated mountains to which the volcanic effects are +confined. The basaltic crust, formed by ancient volcanoes, seems +everywhere undermined; and the currents of lava, seen at Lancerota +and Palma, remind us, by every geological affinity, of the eruption +which took place in 1301 at the island of Ischia, amid the tufas of +Epomeo. + +The exclusively lateral action of the peak of Teneriffe is a +geological phenomenon, the more remarkable as it contributes to +make the mountains which are backed by the principal volcano appear +isolated. It is true, that in Etna and Vesuvius the great flowings +of lava do not proceed from the crater itself, and that the +abundance of melted matter is generally in the inverse ratio of the +height of the opening whence the lava is ejected. But at Vesuvius +and Etna a lateral eruption constantly terminates by flashes of +flame and by ashes issuing from the crater, that is, from the +summit of the mountain. At the Peak this phenomenon has not been +witnessed for ages: and yet recently, in the eruption of 1798, the +crater remained quite inactive. Its bottom did not sink in; while +at Vesuvius, as M. von Buch has observed, the greater or less depth +of the crater is an infallible indication of the proximity of a new +eruption. + +I might terminate these geological sketches by enquiring into the +nature of the combustible which has fed for so many thousands of +years the fire of the peak of Teneriffe;--I might examine whether +it be sodium or potassium, the metallic basis of some earth, +carburet of hydrogen, or pure sulphur combined with iron, that +burns in the volcano;--but wishing to limit myself to what may be +the object of direct observation, I shall not take upon me to solve +a problem for which we have not yet sufficient data. We know not +whether we may conclude, from the enormous quantity of sulphur +contained in the crater of the Peak, that it is this substance +which keeps up the heat of the volcano; or whether the fire, fed by +some combustible of an unknown nature, effects merely the +sublimation of the sulphur. What we learn from observation is, that +in craters which are still burning, sulphur is very rare; while all +the ancient volcanoes end in becoming sulphur-pits. We might +presume that, in the former, the sulphur is combined with oxygen, +while, in the latter, it is merely sublimated; for nothing hitherto +authorises us to admit that it is formed in the interior of +volcanoes, like ammonia and the neutral salts. When we were yet +unacquainted with sulphur, except as disseminated in the +muriatiferous gypsum and in the Alpine limestone, we were almost +forced to the belief, that in every part of the globe the volcanic +fire acted on rocks of secondary formation; but recent observations +have proved that sulphur exists in great abundance in those +primitive rocks which so many phenomena indicate as the centre of +the volcanic action. Near Alausi, at the back of the Andes of +Quito, I found an immense quantity in a bed of quartz, which formed +a layer of mica-slate. This fact is the more important, as it is in +strict conformity with the conclusions deduced from the observation +of those fragments of ancient rocks which are thrown out intact by +volcanoes. + +We have just considered the island of Teneriffe merely in a +geological point of view; we have seen the Peak towering amid +fractured strata of basalt and mandelstein; let us examine how +these fused masses have been gradually adorned with vegetable +clothing, what is the distribution of plants on the steep declivity +of the volcano, and what is the aspect or physiognomy of vegetation +in the Canary Islands. + +In the northern part of the temperate zone, the cryptogamous plants +are the first that cover the stony crust of the globe. The lichens +and mosses, that develop their foliage beneath the snows, are +succeeded by grumina and other phanerogamous plants. This order of +vegetation differs on the borders of the torrid zone, and in the +countries between the tropics. We there find, it is true, whatever +some travellers may have asserted, not only on the mountains, but +also in humid and shady places, almost on a level with the sea, +Funaria, Dicranum, and Bryum; and these genera, among their +numerous species, exhibit several which are common to Lapland, to +the Peak of Teneriffe, and to the Blue Mountains of Jamaica. (This +extraordinary fact was first observed by M. Swarz. It was confirmed +by M. Willdenouw when he carefully examined our herbals, especially +the collection of cryptogamous plants, which we gathered on the +tops of the Andes, in a region of the world where organic life is +totally different from that of the old world.) Nevertheless, in +general, it is not by mosses and lichens that vegetation in the +countries near the tropics begins. In the Canary Islands, as well +as in Guinea, and on the rocky coasts of Peru, the first vegetation +which prepares the soil are the succulent plants; the leaves of +which, provided with an infinite number of orifices* (* The pores +corticaux of M. Decandolle, discovered by Gleichen, and figured by +Hedwig.) and cutaneous vessels, deprive the ambient air of the +water it holds in solution. Fixed in the crevices of volcanic +rocks, they form, as it were, that first layer of vegetable earth +with which the currents of lithoid lava are clothed. Wherever these +lavas are scorified, and where they have a shining surface, as in +the basaltic mounds to the north of Lancerota, the development of +vegetation is extremely slow, and many ages may pass away before +shrubs can take root. It is only when lavas are covered with tufa +and ashes, that the volcanic islands, losing that appearance of +nudity which marks their origin, bedeck themselves in rich and +brilliant vegetation. + +In its present state, the island of Teneriffe, the Chinerfe* (* Of +Chinerfe the Europeans have formed, by corruption, Tchineriffe and +Teneriffe.) of the Guanches, exhibits five zones of plants, which +we may distinguish by the names--region of vines, region of +laurels, region of pines, region of the retama, and region of +grasses. These zones are ranged in stages, one above another, and +occupy, on the steep declivity of the Peak, a perpendicular height +of 1750 toises; while fifteen degrees farther north, on the +Pyrenees, snow descends to thirteen or fourteen hundred toises of +absolute elevation. If the plants of Teneriffe do not reach the +summit of the volcano, it is not because the perpetual snow and the +cold of the surrounding atmosphere mark limits which they cannot +pass; it is the scorified lava of the Malpays, the powdered and +barren pumice-stone of the Piton, which impede the migration of +plants towards the brink of the crater. + +The first zone, that of the vines, extends from the sea-shore to +two or three hundred toises of height; it is that which is most +inhabited, and the only part carefully cultivated. In the low +regions, at the port of Orotava, and wherever the winds have free +access, the centigrade thermometer stands in winter, in the months +of January and February, at noon, between fifteen and seventeen +degrees; and the greatest heats of summer do not exceed twenty-five +or twenty-six degrees. The mean temperature of the coasts of +Teneriffe appears at least to rise to twenty-one degrees (16.8 +degrees Reaumur); and the climate in those parts keeps at the +medium between the climate of Naples and that of the torrid zone. + +The region of the vines exhibits, among its vegetable productions, +eight kinds of arborescent Euphorbia; Mesembrianthema, which are +multiplied from the Cape of Good Hope to the Peloponnesus; the +Cacalia Kleinia, the Dracaena, and other plants, which in their +naked and tortuous trunks, in their succulent leaves, and their +tint of bluish green, exhibit distinctive marks of the vegetation +of Africa. It is in this zone that the date-tree, the plantain, the +sugar-cane, the Indian fig, the Arum Colocasia, the root of which +furnishes a nutritive fecula, the olive-tree, the fruit trees of +Europe, the vine, and corn are cultivated. Corn is reaped from the +end of March to the beginning of May: and the culture of the +bread-fruit tree of Otaheite, that of the cinnamon tree of the +Moluccas, the coffee-tree of Arabia, and the cacao-tree of America, +have been tried with success. On several points of the coast the +country assumes the character of a tropical landscape; and we +perceive that the region of the palms extends beyond the limits of +the torrid zone. The chamaerops and the date-tree flourish in the +fertile plains of Murviedro, on the coasts of Genoa, and in +Provence, near Antibes, between the thirty-ninth and forty-fourth +degrees of latitude; a few trees of the latter species, planted +within the walls of the city of Rome, resist even the cold of 2.5 +degrees below freezing point. But if the south of Europe as yet +only partially shares the gifts lavished by nature on the zone of +palms, the island of Teneriffe, situated on the parallel of Egypt, +southern Persia, and Florida, is adorned with the greater part of +the vegetable forms which add to the majesty of the landscape in +the regions near the equator. + +On reviewing the different tribes of indigenous plants, we regret +not finding trees with small pinnated leaves, and arborescent +gramina. No species of the numerous family of the sensitive-plants +has migrated as far as the archipelago of the Canary Islands, while +on both continents they have been seen in the thirty-eighth and +fortieth degrees of latitude. On a more careful examination of the +plants of the islands of Lancerota and Forteventura, which are +nearest the coast of Morocco, we may perhaps find a few mimosas +among many other plants of the African flora. + +The second zone, that of the laurels, comprises the woody part of +Teneriffe: this is the region of the springs, which gush forth +amidst turf always verdant, and never parched with drought. Lofty +forests crown the hills leading to the volcano, and in them are +found four species of laurel,* (* Laurus indica, L. foetens, L. +nobilis, and L. Til. With these trees are mingled the Ardisia +excelsa, Rhamnus glandulosus, Erica arborea and E. texo.) an oak +nearly resembling the Quercus Turneri* (* Quercus canariensis, +Broussonnet.) of the mountains of Tibet, the Visnea mocanera, the +Myrica Faya of the Azores, a native olive (Olea excelsa), which is +the largest tree of this zone, two species of Sideroxylon, the +leaves of which are extremely beautiful, the Arbutus callicarpa, +and other evergreen trees of the family of myrtles. Bindweeds, and +an ivy very different from that of Europe (Hedera canariensis) +entwine the trunks of the laurels; at their feet vegetate a +numberless quantity of ferns,* (* Woodwardia radicans, Asplenium +palmatum, A. canariensis, A. latifolium, Nothalaena subcordata, +Trichomanes canariensis, T. speciosum, and Davallia canariensis.) +of which three species* (* Two Acrostichums and the Ophyoglossum +lusitanicum.) alone descend as low as the region of the vines. The +soil, covered with mosses and tender grass, is enriched with the +flowers of the Campanula aurea, the Chrysanthemum pinnatifidum, the +Mentha canariensis, and several bushy species of Hypericum.* (* +Hypericum canariense, H. floribundum, and H. glandulosum.) +Plantations of wild and grafted chestnut-trees form a broad border +round the region of the springs, which is the greenest and most +agreeable of the whole. + +In the third zone (beginning at nine hundred toises of absolute +height), the last groups of Arbutus, of Myrica Faya, and of that +beautiful heath known to the natives by the name of Texo, appear. +This zone, four hundred toises in breadth, is entirely filled by a +vast forest of pines, among which mingles the Juniperus cedro of +Broussonnet. The leaves of these pines are very long and stiff, and +they sprout sometimes by pairs, but oftener by threes in one +sheath. Having had no opportunity of examining the fructification, +we cannot say whether this species, which has the appearance of the +Scotch fir, is really different from the eighteen species of pines +with which we are already acquainted in Europe. M. Decandolle is of +opinion that the pine of Teneriffe is equally distinct from the +Pinus atlantica of the neighbouring mountains of Mogador, and from +the pine of Aleppo,* (* Pinus halepensis. M. Decandolle observes, +that this species, which is not found in Portugal, but grows on the +Mediterranean shores of France, Spain, and Italy, in Asia Minor, +and in Barbary, would be better named Pinus mediterranea. It +composes the principal part of the pine-forests of the south-east +of France, where Gouan and Gerard have confounded it with the Pinus +sylvestris. It comprehends the Pinus halepensis, Mill., Lamb., and +Desfont., and the Pinus maritima, Lamb.) which belongs to the basin +of the Mediterranean, and does not appear to have passed the +Pillars of Hercules. We met with these last pines on the slope of +the Peak, near twelve hundred toises above the level of the sea. In +the Cordilleras of New Spain, under the torrid zone, the Mexican +pines extend to the height of two thousand toises. Notwithstanding +the similarity of structure existing between the different species +of the same genus of plants, each of them requires a certain degree +of temperature and rarity in the ambient air to attain its due +growth. If in temperate climates, and wherever snow falls, the +uniform heat of the soil be somewhat above the mean heat of the +atmosphere, it is probable that at the height of Portillo the roots +of the pines draw their nourishment from a soil, in which, at a +certain depth, the thermometer rises at most to nine or ten +degrees. + +The fourth and fifth zones, the regions of the retama and the +gramina, occupy heights equal to the most inaccessible summits of +the Pyrenees. It is the sterile part of the island where heaps of +pumice-stone, obsidian, and broken lava, form impediments to +vegetation. We have already spoken of those flowery tufts of alpine +broom (Spartium nubigenum), which form oases amidst a vast desert +of ashes. Two herbaceous plants, the Scrophularia glabrata and the +Viola cheiranthifolia, advance even to the Malpays. Above a turf +scorched by the heat of an African sun, an arid soil is overspread +by the Cladonia paschalis. Towards the summit of the Peak the +Urceolarea and other plants of the family of the lichens, help to +work the decomposition of the scorified matter. By this unceasing +action of organic force the empire of Flora is extended over +islands ravaged by volcanoes. + +On surveying the different zones of the vegetation of Teneriffe, we +perceive that the whole island may be considered as a forest of +laurels, arbutus, and pines, containing in its centre a naked and +rocky soil, unfit either for pasturage or cultivation. M. +Broussonnet observes, that the archipelago of the Canaries may be +divided into two groups of islands; the first comprising Lancerota +and Forteventura, the second Teneriffe, Canary, Gomera, Ferro, and +Palma. The appearance of the vegetation essentially differs in +these two groups. The eastern islands, Lancerota and Forteventura, +consist of extensive plains and mountains of little elevation; they +have very few springs, and bear the appearance, still more than the +other islands, of having been separated from the continent. The +winds blow in the same direction, and at the same periods: the +Euphorbia mauritanica, the Atropa frutescens, and the arborescent +Sonchus, vegetate there in the loose sands, and afford, as in +Africa, food for camels. The western group of the Canaries presents +a more elevated soil, is more woody, and is watered by a greater +number of springs. + +Though the whole archipelago contains several plants found also in +Portugal,* (* M. Willdenouw and myself found, among the plants of +the peak of Teneriffe, the beautiful Satyrium diphyllum (Orchis +cordata, Willd.) which Mr. Link discovered in Portugal. The +Canaries have, in common with the Flora of the Azores, not the +Dicksonia culcita, the only arborescent heath found at the +thirty-ninth degree of latitude, but the Asplenium palmatum, and +the Myrica Faya. This last tree is met with in Portugal, in a wild +state. Count Hoffmansegg has seen very old trunks of it; but it was +doubtful whether it was indigenous, or imported into that part of +our continent. In reflecting on the migrations of plants, and on +the geological possibility, that lands sunk in the ocean may have +heretofore united Portugal, the Azores, the Canaries, and the chain +of Atlas, we conceive, that the existence of the Myrica Faya in +western Europe is a phenomenon at least as striking as that of the +pine of Aleppo would be at the Azores.), in Spain, at the Azores, +and in the north-west of Africa, yet a great number of species, and +even some genera, are peculiar to Teneriffe, to Porto Santo, and to +Madeira. Such are the Mocanera, the Plocama, the Bosea, the +Canarina, the Drusa, and the Pittosporum. A form which may be +called northern, that of the cruciform plant (Among the small +number of cruciform species contained in the Flora of Teneriffe, we +shall here mention Cheiranthus longifolius, l'Herit.; Ch. +fructescens, Vent.; Ch. scoparius, Brouss.; Erysimum bicorne, +Aiton; Crambe strigosa, and C. laevigata, Brouss.), is much rarer +in the Canaries than in Spain and in Greece. Still farther to the +south, in the equinoctial regions of both continents, where the +mean temperature of the air rises above twenty-two degrees, the +cruciform plants are scarcely ever to be seen. + +A question highly interesting to the history of the progressive +marks of organization on the globe has been very warmly discussed +in our own times, that of ascertaining whether the polymorphous +plants are more common in the volcanic islands. The vegetation of +Teneriffe is unfavourable to the hypothesis that nature in new +countries is but little subject to permanent forms. M. Broussonnet, +who resided so long at the Canaries, asserts that the variable +plants are not more common there than in the south of Europe. May +it not to be presumed, that the polymorphous species, which are so +abundant in the isle of Bourbon, are assignable to the nature of +the soil and climate rather than to the newness of the vegetation? + +Before we take leave of the old world to pass into the new, I must +advert to a subject which is of general interest, because it +belongs to the history of man, and to those fatal revolutions which +have swept off whole tribes from the face of the earth. We inquire +at the isle of Cuba, at St. Domingo, and in Jamaica, where is the +abode of the primitive inhabitants of those countries? We ask at +Teneriffe what is become of the Guanches, whose mummies alone, +buried in caverns, have escaped destruction? In the fifteenth +century almost all mercantile nations, especially the Spaniards and +the Portuguese, sought for slaves at the Canary Islands, as in +later times they have been sought on the coast of Guinea.* (* The +Spanish historians speak of expeditions made by the Huguenots of +Rochelle to carry off Guanche slaves. I have some doubt respecting +these expeditions, which are said to have taken place subsequently +to the year 1530.) The Christian religion, which in its origin was +so highly favourable to the liberty of mankind, served afterwards +as a pretext to the cupidity of Europeans. Every individual, made +prisoner before he received the rite of baptism, became a slave. At +that period no attempt had yet been made to prove that the blacks +were an intermediate race between man and animals. The swarthy +Guanche and the African negro were simultaneously sold in the +market of Seville, without a question whether slavery should be the +doom only of men with black skins and woolly hair. + +The archipelago of the Canaries was divided into several small +states hostile to each other, and in many instances the same island +was subject to two independent princes. The trading nations, +influenced by the hideous policy still exercised on the coast of +Africa, kept up intestine warfare. One Guanche then became the +property of another, who sold him to the Europeans; several, who +preferred death to slavery, killed themselves and their children. +The population of the Canaries had considerably suffered by the +slave trade, by the depredations of pirates, and especially by a +long period of carnage, when Alonzo de Lugo completed the conquest +of the Guanches. The surviving remnants of the race perished mostly +in 1494, in the terrible pestilence called the modorra, which was +attributed to the quantity of dead bodies left exposed in the open +air by the Spaniards after the battle of La Laguna. The nation of +the Guanches was extinct at the beginning of the seventeenth +century; a few old men only were found at Candelaria and Guimar. + +It is, however, consoling to find that the whites have not always +disdained to intermarry with the natives; but the Canarians of the +present day, whom the Spaniards familiarly call Islenos +(Islanders), have very powerful motives for denying this mixture. +In a long series of generations time effaces the characteristic +marks of a race; and as the descendants of the Andalusians settled +at Teneriffe are themselves of dark complexion, we may conceive +that intermarriages cannot have produced a perceptible change in +the colour of the whites. It is very certain that no native of pure +race exists in the whole island. It is true that a few Canarian +families boast of their relationship to the last shepherd-king of +Guimar, but these pretensions do not rest on very solid +foundations, and are only renewed from time to time when some +Canarian of more dusky hue than his countrymen is prompted to +solicit a commission in the service of the king of Spain. + +A short time after the discovery of America, when Spain was at the +highest pinnacle of her glory, the gentle character of the Guanches +was the fashionable topic, as we in our times laud the Arcadian +innocence of the inhabitants of Otaheite. In both these pictures +the colouring is more vivid than true. When nations, wearied with +mental enjoyments, behold nothing in the refinement of manners but +the germ of depravity, they are pleased with the idea, that in some +distant region, in the first dawn of civilization, infant society +enjoys pure and perpetual felicity. To this sentiment Tacitus owed +a part of his success, when he sketched for the Romans, subjects of +the Caesars, a picture of the manners of the inhabitants of +Germany. The same sentiment gives an ineffable charm to the +narrative of those travellers who, at the close of the last +century, visited the South Sea Islands. + +The inhabitants of those islands, too much vaunted (and previously +anthropophagi), resemble, under more than one point of view, the +Guanches of Teneriffe. Both nations were under the yoke of feudal +government. Among the Guanches, this institution, which facilitates +and renders a state of warfare perpetual, was sanctioned by +religion. The priests declared to the people: "The great Spirit, +Achaman, created first the nobles, the achimenceys, to whom he +distributed all the goats that exist on the face of the earth. +After the nobles, Achaman created the plebeians, achicaxnas. This +younger race had the boldness to petition also for goats; but the +supreme Spirit answered, that this race was destined to serve the +nobles, and that they had need of no property." This tradition was +made, no doubt, to please the rich vassals of the shepherd-kings. +The faycan, or high priest, also exercised the right of conferring +nobility; and the law of the Guanches expressed that every +achimencey who degraded himself by milking a goat with his own +hands, lost his claim to nobility. This law does not remind us of +the simplicity of the Homeric age. We are astonished to see the +useful labours of agriculture, and of pastoral life, exposed to +contempt at the very dawn of civilization. + +The Guanches, famed for their tall stature, were the Patagonians of +the old world. Historians exaggerated the muscular strength of the +Guanches, as, previous to the voyage of Bougainville and Cordoba, +colossal proportions were attributed to the tribe that inhabited +the southern extremity of America. I never saw Guanche mummies but +in the cabinets of Europe. At the time I visited the Canaries they +were very scarce; a considerable number, however, might be found if +miners were employed to open the sepulchral caverns which are cut +in the rock on the eastern slope of the Peak, between Arico and +Guimar. These mummies are in a state of desiccation so singular, +that whole bodies, with their integuments, frequently do not weigh +above six or seven pounds; or a third less than the skeleton of an +individual of the same size, recently stripped of the muscular +flesh. The conformation of the skull has some slight resemblance to +that of the white race of the ancient Egyptians; and the incisive +teeth of the Guanches are blunted, like those of the mummies found +on the banks of the Nile. But this form of teeth is the result of +art; and on examining more carefully the physiognomy of the ancient +Canarians, Blumenbach and other able anatomists have recognized in +the cheek bones and the lower jaw perceptible differences from the +Egyptian mummies. On opening those of the Guanches, remains of +aromatic plants are discovered, among which the Chenopodium +ambrosioides is constantly perceived: the bodies are often +decorated with small laces, to which are hung little discs of baked +earth, which appear to have served as numerical signs, and resemble +the quippoes of the Peruvians, the Mexicans, and the Chinese. + +The population of islands being in general less exposed than that +of continents to the effect of migrations, we may presume that, in +the time of the Carthaginians and the Greeks, the archipelago of +the Canaries was inhabited by the same race of men as were found by +the Norman and Spanish conquerors. The only monument that can throw +any light on the origin of the Guanches is their language; but +unhappily there are not above a hundred and fifty words extant, and +several express the same object, according to the dialect of the +different islanders. Independently of these words, which have been +carefully noted, there are still some valuable fragments existing +in the names of a great number of hamlets, hills, and valleys. The +Guanches, like the Biscayans, the Hindoos, the Peruvians, and all +primitive nations, named places after the quality of the soil, the +shape of the rocks, the caverns that gave them shelter, and the +nature of the tree that overshadowed the springs.* + +(* It has been long imagined, that the language of the Guanches had +no analogy with the living tongues; but since the travels of +Hornemann, and the ingenious researches of Marsden and Venturi, +have drawn the attention of the learned to the Berbers, who, like +the Sarmatic tribes, occupy an immense extent of country in the +north of Africa, we find that several Guanche words have common +roots with words of the Chilha and Gebali dialects. We shall cite, +for instance, the words: + +TABLE OF WORDS. + +Column 1: Word. + +Column 2: In Guanche. + +Column 3: In Berberic. + + Heaven : Tigo : Tigot. + Milk : Aho : Acho. + Barley : Temasen : Tomzeen. + Basket : Carianas : Carian. + Water : Aenum : Anan. + +I doubt whether this analogy is a proof of a common origin; but it +is an indication of the ancient connexion between the Guanches and +Berbers, a tribe of mountaineers, in which the ancient Numidians, +Getuli, and Garamanti are confounded, and who extend themselves +from the eastern extremity of Atlas by Harutsh and Fezzan, as far +as the oasis of Siwah and Augela. The natives of the Canary Islands +called themselves Guanches, from guan, man; as the Tonguese call +themselves bye, and tongui, which have the same signification as +guan. Besides the nations who speak the Berberic language are not +all of the same race; and the description which Scylax gives, in +his Periplus, of the inhabitants of Cerne, a shepherd people of +tall stature and long hair, reminds us of the features which +characterize the Canarian Guanches.) + +The greater attention we direct to the study of languages in a +philosophical point of view, the more we must observe that no one +of them is entirely distinct. The language of the Guanches would +appear still less so, had we any data respecting its mechanism and +grammatical construction; two elements more important than the form +of words, and the identity of sounds. It is the same with certain +idioms, as with those organized beings that seem to shrink from all +classification in the series of natural families. Their isolated +state is merely apparent; for it ceases when, on embracing a +greater number of objects, we come to discover the intermediate +links. Those learned enquirers who trace Egyptians wherever there +are mummies, hieroglyphics, or pyramids, will imagine perhaps that +the race of Typhon was united to the Guanches by the Berbers, real +Atlantes, to whom belong the Tibboes and the Tuarycks of the +desert: but this hypothesis is supported by no analogy between the +Berberic and Coptic languages, which are justly considered as +remnants of the ancient Egyptian. + +The people who have succeeded the Guanches are descended from the +Spaniards, and in a more remote degree from the Normans. Though +these two races have been exposed during three centuries past to +the same climate, the latter is distinguished by the fairer +complexion. The descendants of the Normans inhabit the valley of +Teganana, between Punta de Naga and Punta de Hidalgo. The names of +Grandville and Dampierre are still pretty common in this district. +The Canarians are a moral, sober, and religious people, of a less +industrious character at home than in foreign countries. A roving +and enterprising disposition leads these islanders, like the +Biscayans and Catalonians, to the Philippines, to the Ladrone +Islands, to America, and wherever there are Spanish settlements, +from Chile and La Plata to New Mexico. To them we are in a great +measure indebted for the progress of agriculture in those colonies. +The whole archipelago does not contain 160,030 inhabitants, and the +Islenos are perhaps more numerous in the new continent than in +their own country. + + +CHAPTER 1.3. + +PASSAGE FROM TENERIFE TO SOUTH AMERICA. +THE ISLAND OF TOBAGO. +ARRIVAL AT CUMANA. + +We left the road of Santa Cruz on the 25th of June, and directed +our course towards South America. We soon lost sight of the Canary +Islands, the lofty mountains of which were covered with a reddish +vapour. The Peak alone appeared from time to time, as at intervals +the wind dispersed the clouds that enveloped the Piton. We felt, +for the first time, how strong are the impressions left on the mind +from the aspect of those countries situated on the limits of the +torrid zone, where nature appears at once so rich, so various, and +so majestic. Our stay at Teneriffe had been very short, and yet we +withdrew from the island as if it had long been our home. + +Our passage from Santa Cruz to Cumana, the most eastern part of the +New Continent, was very fine. We cut the tropic of Cancer on the +27th; and though the Pizarro was not a very fast sailer, we made, +in twenty days, the nine hundred leagues, which separate the coast +of Africa from that of the New Continent. We passed fifty leagues +west of Cape Bojador, Cape Blanco, and the Cape Verd islands. A few +land birds, which had been driven to sea by the impetuosity of the +wind followed us for several days. + +The latitude diminished rapidly, from the parallel of Madeira to +the tropic. When we reached the zone where the trade-winds are +constant, we crossed the ocean from east to west, on a calm sea, +which the Spanish sailors call the Ladies' Gulf, el Golfo de las +Damas. In proportion as we advanced towards the west, we found the +trade-winds fix to eastward. + +These winds, the most generally adopted theory of which is +explained in a celebrated treatise of Halley,* are a phenomenon +much more complicated than most persons admit. (* The existence of +an upper current of air, which blows constantly from the equator to +the poles, and of a lower current, which blows from the poles to +the equator, had already been admitted, as M. Arago has shown, by +Hooke. The ideas of the celebrated English naturalist are developed +in a Discourse on Earthquakes published in 1686. "I think (adds he) +that several phenomena, which are presented by the atmosphere and +the ocean, especially the winds, may be explained by the polar +currents."--Hooke's Posthumous Works page 364.) In the Atlantic +Ocean, the longitude, as well as the declination of the sun, +influences the direction and limits of the trade-winds. In the +direction of the New Continent, in both hemispheres, these limits +extend beyond the tropics eight or nine degrees; while in the +vicinity of Africa, the variable winds prevail far beyond the +parallel of 28 or 27 degrees. It is to be regretted, on account of +the progress of meteorology and navigation, that the changes of the +currents of the equinoctial atmosphere in the Pacific are much less +known than the variation of these same currents in a sea that is +narrower, and influenced by the proximity of the coasts of Guinea +and Brazil. The difference with which the strata of air flow back +from the two poles towards the equator cannot be the same in every +degree of longitude, that is to say, on points of the globe where +the continents are of very different breadths, and where they +stretch away more or less towards the poles. + +It is known, that in the passage from Santa Cruz to Cumana, as in +that from Acapulco to the Philippine Islands, seamen are scarcely +ever under the necessity of working their sails. We pass those +latitudes as if we were descending a river, and we might deem it no +hazardous undertaking if we made the voyage in an open boat. +Farther west, on the coast of Santa Martha and in the Gulf of +Mexico, the trade-wind blows impetuously, and renders the sea very +stormy.* (* The Spanish sailors call the rough trade-winds at +Carthagena in the West Indies los brisotes de Santa Martha; and in +the Gulf of Mexico, las brizas pardas. These latter winds are +accompanied with a grey and cloudy sky.) + +The wind fell gradually the farther we receded from the African +coast: it was sometimes smooth water for several hours, and these +short calms were regularly interrupted by electrical phenomena. +Black thick clouds, marked by strong outlines, rose on the east, +and it seemed as if a squall would have forced us to hand our +topsails; but the breeze freshened anew, there fell a few large +drops of rain, and the storm dispersed without our hearing any +thunder. Meanwhile it was curious to observe the effect of several +black, isolated, and very low clouds, which passed the zenith. We +felt the force of the wind augment or diminish progressively, +according as small bodies of vesicular vapour approached or +receded, while the electrometers, furnished with a long metallic +rod and lighted match, showed no change of electric tension in the +lower strata of the air. It is by help of these squalls, which +alternate with dead calms, that the passage from the Canary Islands +to the Antilles, or southern coast of America, is made in the +months of June and July. + +Some Spanish navigators have lately proposed going to the West +Indies and the coasts of Terra Firma by a course different from +that which was taken by Columbus. They advise, instead of steering +directly to the south in search of the trade-winds, to change both +latitude and longitude, in a diagonal line from Cape St. Vincent to +America. This method, which shortens the way, cutting the tropic +nearly twenty degrees west of the point where it is commonly cut by +pilots, was several times successfully adopted by Admiral Gravina. +That able commander, who fell at the battle of Trafalgar, arrived +in 1802 at St. Domingo, by the oblique passage, several days before +the French fleet, though orders of the court of Madrid would have +forced him to enter Ferrol with his squadron, and stop there some +time. + +This new system of navigation shortens the passage from Cadiz to +Cumana one-twentieth; but as the tropic is attained only at the +longitude of forty degrees, the chance of meeting with contrary +winds, which blow sometimes from the south, and at other times from +the south-west, is more unfavourable. In the old system, the +disadvantage of making a longer passage is compensated by the +certainty of catching the trade-winds in a shorter space of time, +and keeping them the greater part of the passage. At the time of my +abode in the Spanish colonies, I witnessed the arrival of several +merchant-ships, which from the fear of privateers had chosen the +oblique course, and had had a very short passage. + +Nothing can equal the beauty and mildness of the climate of the +equinoctial region on the ocean. While the trade wind blew +strongly, the thermometer kept at 23 or 24 degrees in the day, and +at 22 or 22.5 degrees during the night. The charm of the lovely +climates bordering on the equator, can be fully enjoyed only by +those who have undertaken the voyage from Acapulco or the coasts of +Chile to Europe in a very rough season. What a contrast between the +tempestuous seas of the northern latitudes and the regions where +the tranquillity of nature is never disturbed! If the return from +Mexico or South America to the coasts of Spain were as expeditious +and as agreeable as the passage from the old to the new continent, +the number of Europeans settled in the colonies would be much less +considerable than it is at present. To the sea which surrounds the +Azores and the Bermuda Islands, and which is traversed in returning +to Europe by the high latitudes, the Spaniards have given the +singular name of Golfo de las Yeguas (the Mares' Gulf). Colonists +who are not accustomed to the sea, and who have led solitary lives +in the forests of Guiana, the savannahs of the Caracas, or the +Cordilleras of Peru, dread the vicinity of the Bermudas more than +the inhabitants of Lima fear at present the passage round Cape +horn. + +To the north of the Cape Verd Islands we met with great masses of +floating seaweeds. They were the tropic grape, (Fucus natans), +which grows on submarine rocks, only from the equator to the +fortieth degree of north and south latitude. These weeds seem to +indicate the existence of currents in this place, as well as to +south-west of the banks of Newfoundland. We must not confound the +latitudes abounding in scattered weeds with those banks of marine +plants, which Columbus compares to extensive meadows, the sight of +which dismayed the crew of the Santa Maria in the forty-second +degree of longitude. I am convinced, from the comparison of a great +number of journals, that in the basin of the Northern Atlantic +there exist two banks of weeds very different from each other. The +most extensive is a little west of the meridian of Fayal, one of +the Azores, between the twenty-fifth and thirty-sixth degrees of +latitude.* (* It would appear that Phoenician vessels came "in +thirty days' sail, with an easterly wind," to the weedy sea, which +the Portuguese and Spaniards call mar de zargasso. I have shown, in +another place (Views of Nature Bohn's edition page 46), that the +passage of Aristotle, De Mirabil. (ed. Duval page 1157), can +scarcely be applied to the coasts of Africa, like an analogous +passage of the Periplus of Scylax. Supposing that this sea, full of +weeds, which impeded the course of the Phoenician vessels, was the +mar de zargasso, we need not admit that the ancients navigated the +Atlantic beyond thirty degrees of west longitude from the meridian +of Paris.) The temperature of the Atlantic in those latitudes is +from sixteen to twenty degrees, and the north winds, which +sometimes rage there very tempestuously, drive floating isles of +seaweed into the low latitudes as far as the parallels of +twenty-four and even twenty degrees. Vessels returning to Europe, +either from Monte Video or the Cape of Good Hope, cross these banks +of Fucus, which the Spanish pilots consider as at an equal distance +from the Antilles and Canaries; and they serve the less instructed +mariner to rectify his longitude. The second bank of Fucus is but +little known; it occupies a much smaller space, in the +twenty-second and twenty-sixth degrees of latitude, eighty leagues +west of the meridian of the Bahama Islands. It is found on the +passage from the Caiques to the Bermudas. + +Though a species of seaweed* (* The baudreux of the Falkland +Islands; Fucus giganteus, Forster; Laminaria pyrifera, Lamour.) has +been seen with stems eight hundred feet long, the growth of these +marine cryptogamia being extremely rapid, it is nevertheless +certain, that in the latitudes we have just described, the Fuci, +far from being fixed to the bottom, float in separate masses on the +surface of the water. In this state, the vegetation can scarcely +last longer than it would in the branch of a tree torn from its +trunk; and in order to explain how moving masses are found for ages +in the same position, we must admit that they owe their origin to +submarine rocks, which, lying at forty or sixty fathoms' depth, +continually supply what has been carried away by the equinoctial +currents. This current bears the tropic grape into the high +latitudes, toward the coasts of Norway and France; and it is not +the Gulf-stream, as some mariners think, which accumulates the +Fucus to the south of the Azores. + +The causes that unroot these weeds at depths where it is generally +thought the sea is but slightly agitated, are not sufficiently +known. We learn only, from the observations of M. Lamouroux, that +if the fucus adhere to the rocks with the greatest firmness before +its fructification, it separates with great facility after that +period, or during the season which suspends its vegetation like +that of the terrestrial plants. The fish and mollusca which gnaw +the stems of the seaweeds no doubt contribute also to detach them +from their roots. + +From the twenty-second degree of latitude, we found the surface of +the sea covered with flying-fish,* (* Exocoetus volitans.) which +threw themselves up into the air, twelve, fifteen, or eighteen +feet, and fell down on the deck. I do not hesitate to speak on a +subject of which voyagers discourse as frequently as of dolphins, +sharks, sea-sickness, and the phosphorescence of the ocean. None of +these topics can fail to afford interesting observations to +naturalists, provided they make them their particular study. Nature +is an inexhaustible source of investigation, and in proportion as +the domain of science is extended, she presents herself to those +who know how to interrogate her, under forms which they have never +yet examined. + +I have named the flying-fish, in order to direct the attention of +naturalists to the enormous size of their natatory bladder, which, +in an animal of 6.4 inches, is 3.6 inches long, 0.9 of an inch +broad, and contains three cubic inches and a half of air. As this +bladder occupies more than half the size of the fish, it is +probable that it contributes to its lightness. We may assert that +this reservoir of air is more fitted for flying than swimming; for +the experiments made by M. Provenzal and myself have proved, that, +even in the species which are provided with this organ, it is not +indispensably necessary for the ascending movement to the surface +of the water. In a young flying-fish, 5.8 inches long, each of the +pectoral fins, which serve as wings, presented a surface to the air +of 3 7/16 square inches. We observed, that the nine branches of +nerves, which go to the twelve rays of these fins, are almost three +times the size of the nerves that belong to the ventral fins. When +the former of these nerves are excited by galvanic electricity, the +rays which support the membrane of the pectoral fin extend with +five times the force with which the other fins move when galvanised +by the same metals. Thus, the fish is capable of throwing itself +horizontally the distance of twenty feet before retouching the +water with the extremity of its fins. This motion has been aptly +compared to that of a flat stone, which, thrown horizontally, +bounds one or two feet above the water. Notwithstanding the extreme +rapidity of this motion, it is certain, that the animal beats the +air during the leap; that is, it alternately extends and closes its +pectoral fins. The same motion has been observed in the flying +scorpion of the rivers of Japan: they also contain a large +air-bladder, with which the great part of the scorpions that have +not the faculty of flying are unprovided. The flying-fish, like +almost all animals which have gills, enjoy the power of equal +respiration for a long time, both in water and in air, by the same +organs; that is, by extracting the oxygen from the atmosphere as +well as from the water in which it is dissolved. They pass a great +part of their life in the air; but if they escape from the sea to +avoid the voracity of the Dorado, they meet in the air the +Frigate-bird, the Albatross, and others, which seize them in their +flight. Thus, on the banks of the Orinoco, herds of the Cabiai, +which rush from the water to escape the crocodile, become the prey +of the jaguar, which awaits their arrival. + +I doubt, however, whether the flying-fish spring out of the water +merely to escape the pursuit of their enemies. Like swallows, they +move by thousands in a right line, and in a direction constantly +opposite to that of the waves. In our own climates, on the brink of +a river, illumined by the rays of the sun, we often see solitary +fish fearlessly bound above the surface as if they felt pleasure in +breathing the air. Why should not these gambols be more frequent +with the flying-fish, which from the strength of their pectoral +fins, and the smallness of their specific gravity, can so easily +support themselves in the air? I invite naturalists to examine +whether other flying-fish, for instance the Exocoetus exiliens, the +Trigla volitans, amid the T. hirundo, have as capacious an +air-bladder as the flying-fish of the tropics. This last follows +the heated waters of the Gulf-stream when they flow northward. The +cabin-boys amuse themselves with cutting off a part of the pectoral +fins, and assert, that these wings grow again; which seems to me +not unlikely, from facts observed in other families of fishes. + +At the time I left Paris, experiments made at Jamaica by Dr. +Brodbelt, on the air contained in the natatory bladder of the +sword-fish, had led some naturalists to think, that within the +tropics, in sea-fish, that organ must be filled with pure oxygen +gas. Full of this idea, I was surprised at finding in the +air-bladder of the flying-fish only 0.04 of oxygen to 0.94 of azote +and 0.02 of carbonic acid. The proportion of this last gas, +measured by the absorption of lime-water in graduated tubes, +appeared more uniform than that of the oxygen, of which some +individuals yielded almost double the quantity. From the curious +phenomena observed by MM. Biot, Configliachi, and Delaroche, we +might suppose, that the swordfish dissected by Dr. Brodbelt had +inhabited the lower strata of the ocean, where some fish* have as +much as 0.92 of oxygen in the air-bladder. (* Trigla cucullus.) + +On the 3rd and 4th of July, we crossed that part of the Atlantic +where the charts indicate the bank of the Maal-stroom; and towards +night we altered our course to avoid the danger, the existence of +which is, however, as doubtful as that of the isles Fonseco and St. +Anne. It would have been perhaps as prudent to have continued our +course. The old charts are filled with rocks, some of which really +exist, though most of them are merely the offspring of those +optical illusions which are more frequent at sea than in inland +places. As we approached the supposed Maal-stroom, we observed no +other motion in the waters than the effect of a current which bore +to the north-west, and which hindered us from diminishing our +latitude as much as we wished. The force of this current augments +as we approach the new continent; it is modified by the +configuration of the coasts of Brazil and Guiana, and not by the +waters of the Orinoco and the Amazon, as some have supposed. + +From the time we entered the torrid zone, we were never weary of +admiring, at night, the beauty of the southern sky, which, as we +advanced to the south, opened new constellations to our view. We +feel an indescribable sensation when, on approaching the equator, +and particularly on passing from one hemisphere to the other, we +see those stars, which we have contemplated from our infancy, +progressively sink, and finally disappear. Nothing awakens in the +traveller a livelier remembrance of the immense distance by which +he is separated from his country, than the aspect of an unknown +firmament. The grouping of the stars of the first magnitude, some +scattered nebulae, rivalling in splendour the milky way, and tracts +of space remarkable for their extreme blackness, give a peculiar +physiognomy to the southern sky. This sight fills with admiration +even those who, uninstructed in the several branches of physical +science, feel the same emotion of delight in the contemplation of +the heavenly vault, as in the view of a beautiful landscape, or a +majestic site. A traveller needs not to be a botanist, to recognize +the torrid zone by the mere aspect of its vegetation. Without +having acquired any notions of astronomy, without any acquaintance +with the celestial charts of Flamsteed and De La Caille, he feels +he is not in Europe, when he sees the immense constellation of the +Ship, or the phosphorescent Clouds of Magellan, arise on the +horizon. The heavens and the earth,--everything in the equinoctial +regions, presents an exotic character. + +The lower regions of the air were loaded with vapours for some +days. We saw distinctly for the first time the Southern Cross only +on the night of the 4th of July, in the sixteenth degree of +latitude. It was strongly inclined, and appeared from time to time +between the clouds, the centre of which, furrowed by uncondensed +lightnings, reflected a silvery light. If a traveller may be +permitted to speak of his personal emotions, I shall add, that on +that night I experienced the realization of one of the dreams of my +early youth. + +When we begin to fix our eyes on geographical maps, and to read the +narratives of navigators, we feel for certain countries and +climates a sort of predilection, which we know not how to account +for at a more advanced period of life. These impressions, however, +exercise a considerable influence over our determinations; and from +a sort of instinct we endeavour to connect ourselves with objects +on which the mind has long been fixed as by a secret charm. At a +period when I studied the heavens, not with the intention of +devoting myself to astronomy, but only to acquire a knowledge of +the stars, I was disturbed by a feeling unknown to those who are +devoted to sedentary life. It was painful to me to renounce the +hope of beholding the beautiful constellations near the south pole. +Impatient to rove in the equinoctial regions, I could not raise my +eyes to the starry firmament without thinking of the Southern +Cross, and recalling the sublime passage of Dante, which the most +celebrated commentators have applied to that constellation:-- + + Io mi volsi a man' destra e posi mente + All' altro polo, e vidi quattro stelle + Non viste mai fuorch' alla prima gente. + + Goder parea lo ciel di lor fiammelle; + O settentrional vedovo sito + Poiche privato sei di mirar quelle! + +The pleasure we felt on discovering the Southern Cross was warmly +shared by those of the crew who had visited the colonies. In the +solitude of the seas we hail a star as a friend, from whom we have +long been separated. The Portuguese and the Spaniards are +peculiarly susceptible of this feeling; a religious sentiment +attaches them to a constellation, the form of which recalls the +sign of the faith planted by their ancestors in the deserts of the +New World. + +The two great stars which mark the summit and the foot of the Cross +having nearly the same right ascension, it follows that the +constellation is almost perpendicular at the moment when it passes +the meridian. This circumstance is known to the people of every +nation situated beyond the tropics, or in the southern hemisphere. +It has been observed at what hour of the night, in different +seasons, the Cross is erect or inclined. It is a timepiece which +advances very regularly nearly four minutes a-day, and no other +group of stars affords to the naked eye an observation of time so +easily made. How often have we heard our guides exclaim in the +savannahs of Venezuela, or in the desert extending from Lima to +Truxillo, "Midnight is past, the Cross begins to bend!" How often +those words reminded us of that affecting scene, where Paul and +Virginia, seated near the source of the river of Lataniers, +conversed together for the last time, and where the old man, at the +sight of the Southern Cross, warns them that it is time to +separate. + +The last days of our passage were not so felicitous as the mildness +of the climate and the calmness of the ocean had led us to hope. +The dangers of the sea did not disturb us, but the germs of a +malignant fever became manifest on board our vessel as we drew near +the Antilles. Between decks the ship was excessively hot, and very +much crowded. From the time we passed the tropic, the thermometer +was at thirty-four or thirty-six degrees. Two sailors, several +passengers, and, what is remarkable enough, two negroes from the +coast of Guinea, and a mulatto child, were attacked with a disorder +which appeared to be epidemic. The symptoms were not equally +alarming in all the cases; nevertheless, several persons, and +especially the most robust, fell into delirium after the second +day. No fumigation was made. A Gallician surgeon, ignorant and +phlegmatic, ordered bleedings, because he attributed the fever to +what he called heat and corruption of the blood. There was not an +ounce of bark on board; for we had emitted to take any with us, +under the impression that this salutary production of Peru could +not fail to be found on board a Spanish vessel. + +On the 8th of July, a sailor, who was near expiring, recovered his +health from a circumstance worthy of being mentioned. His hammock +was so hung, that there was not ten inches between his face and the +deck. It was impossible to administer the sacrament in this +situation; for, agreeably to the custom on board Spanish vessels, +the viaticum must be carried by the light of tapers, and followed +by the whole crew. The patient was removed into an airy place near +the hatchway, where a small square berth had been formed with +sailcloth. Here he was to remain till he died, which was an event +expected every moment; but passing from an atmosphere heated, +stagnant, and filled with miasma, into fresher and purer air, which +was renewed every instant, he gradually revived from his lethargic +state. His recovery dated from the day when he quitted the middle +deck; and as it often happens in medicine that the same facts are +cited in support of systems diametrically opposite, this recovery +confirmed our doctor in his idea of the inflammation of the blood, +and the necessity of bleeding, evacuating, and all the asthenic +remedies. We soon felt the fatal effects of this treatment. + +For several days the pilot's reckoning differed 1 degree 12 minutes +in longitude from that of my time. This difference was owing less +to the general current, which I have called the current of +rotation, than to that particular movement, which, drawing the +waters toward the north-west, from the coast of Brazil to the +Antilles, shortens the passage from Cayenne to Guadaloupe.* (* In +the Atlantic Ocean there is a space where the water is constantly +milky, though the sea is very deep. This curious phenomenon exists +in the parallel of the island of Dominica, very near the 57th +degree of longitude. May there not be in this place some sunken +volcanic islet, more easterly still than Barbadoes?) On the 12th of +July, I thought I might foretell our seeing land next day before +sunrise. We were then, according to my observations, in latitude 10 +degrees 46 minutes, and west longitude 60 degrees 54 minutes. A few +series of lunar distances confirmed the chronometrical result; but +we were surer of the position of the vessel, than of that of the +land to which we were directing our course, and which was so +differently marked in the French, Spanish, and English charts. The +longitudes deduced from the accurate observations of Messrs. +Churruca, Fidalgo, and Noguera, were not then published. + +The pilots trusted more to the log than the timekeeper; they smiled +at the prediction of so speedily making land, and thought +themselves two or three days' sail from the coast. It was therefore +with great pleasure, that on the 13th, about six in the morning, I +learned that very high land was seen from the mast-head, though not +clearly, as it was surrounded with a thick fog. The wind blew hard, +and the sea was very rough. Large drops of rain fell at intervals, +and every indication menaced tempestuous weather. The captain of +the Pizarro intended to pass through the channel which separates +the islands of Tobago and Trinidad; and knowing that our sloop was +very slow in tacking, he was afraid of falling to leeward towards +the south, and approaching the Boca del Drago. We were in fact +surer of our longitude than of our latitude, having had no +observation at noon since the 11th. Double altitudes which I took +in the morning, after Douwes's method, placed us in 11 degrees 6 +minutes 50 seconds, consequently 15 minutes north of our reckoning. +Though the result clearly proved that the high land on the horizon +was not Trinidad, but Tobago, yet the captain continued to steer +north-north-west, in search of this latter island. + +An observation of the meridian altitude of the sun fully confirmed +the latitude obtained by Douwes's method. No more doubt remained as +to the position of the vessel, with respect to the island, and we +resolved to double Cape North (Tobago) to pass between that island +and Grenada, and steer towards a port in Margareta. + +The island of Tobago presents a very picturesque aspect. It is +merely a heap of rocks carefully cultivated. The dazzling whiteness +of the stone forms an agreeable contrast to the verdure of some +scattered tufts of trees. Cylindric and very lofty cactuses crown +the top of the mountains, and give a peculiar physiognomy to this +tropical landscape. The sight of the trees alone is sufficient to +remind the navigator that he has reached an American coast; for +these cactuses are as exclusively peculiar to the New World, as the +heaths are to the Old. + +We crossed the shoal which joins Tobago to the island of Grenada. +The colour of the sea presented no visible change; but the +centigrade thermometer, plunged into the water to the depth of some +inches, rose only to 23 degrees; while farther at sea eastward on +the same parallel, and equally near the surface, it kept at 25.6 +degrees. Notwithstanding the currents, the cooling of the water +indicated the existence of the shoal, which is noted in only a very +few charts. The wind slackened after sunset, and the clouds +disappeared as the moon reached the zenith. The number of falling +stars was very considerable on this and the following nights; they +appeared less frequent towards the north than the south over Terra +Firma, which we began to coast. This position seems to prove the +influence of local causes on meteors, the nature of which is not +yet sufficiently known to us. + +On the 14th at sunrise, we were in sight of the Boca del Drago. We +distinguished Chacachacarreo, the most westerly of the islands +situated between Cape Paria and the north-west cape of Trinidad. +When we were five leagues distant from the coast, we felt, near +Punta de la Boca, the effect of a particular current which carried +the ship southward. The motion of the waters which flow through the +Boca del Draco, and the action of the tides, occasion an eddy. We +cast the lead, and found from thirty-six to forty-three fathoms on +a bottom of very fine green clay. According to the rules +established by Dampier, we ought not to have expected so little +depth near a coast formed by very high and perpendicular mountains. +We continued to heave the lead till we reached Cabo de tres +Puntas* (* Cape Three Points, the name given to it by Columbus.) and +we every where found shallow water, apparently indicating the +prolongation of the ancient coast. In these latitudes the +temperature of the sea was from twenty-three to twenty-four +degrees, consequently from 1.5 to two degrees lower than in the +open ocean, beyond the edge of the bank. + +The Cabo de tres Puntas is, according to my observations, in 65 +degrees 4 minutes 5 seconds longitude. It seemed to us the more +elevated, as the clouds concealed the view of its indented top. +The aspect of the mountains of Paria, their colour, and especially +their generally rounded forms, made us suspect that the coast was +granitic; but we afterwards recognized how delusive, even to those +who have passed their lives in scaling mountains, are impressions +respecting the nature of rocks seen at a distance. + +A dead calm, which lasted several hours, permitted us to determine +with exactness the intensity of the magnetic forces opposite the +Cabo de tres Puntas. This intensity was greater than in the open +sea, to the east of the island of Tobago, in the ratio of from 237 +to 229. During the calm the current drew us on rapidly to the west. +Its velocity was three miles an hour, and it increased as we +approached the meridian of Testigos, a heap of rocks which rises up +amidst the waters. At the setting of the moon, the sky was covered +with clouds, the wind freshened anew, and the rain descended in one +of those torrents peculiar to the torrid zone. + +The malady which had broken out on board the Pizarro had made rapid +progress, from the time when we approached the coasts of Terra +Firma; but having then almost reached the end of our voyage we +flattered ourselves that all who were sick would be restored to +health, as soon as we could land them at the island of St. +Margareta, or the port of Cumana, places remarkable for their great +salubrity. + +This hope was unfortunately not realised. The youngest of the +passengers attacked with the malignant fever fell a victim to the +disease. He was an Asturian, nineteen years of age, the only son of +a poor widow. Several circumstances rendered the death of this +young man affecting. His countenance bore the expression of +sensibility and great mildness of disposition. He had embarked +against his own inclination; and his mother, whom he had hoped to +assist by the produce of his efforts, had made a sacrifice of her +affection in the hope of securing the fortune of her son, by +sending him to the colonies to a rich relation, who resided at the +island of Cuba. The unfortunate young man expired on the third day +of his illness, having fallen from the beginning into a lethargic +state interrupted only by fits of delirium. The yellow fever, or +black vomit, at Vera Cruz, scarcely carries off the sick with so +alarming a rapidity. Another Asturian, still younger, did not leave +for one moment the bed of his dying friend; and, what is very +remarkable, did not contract the disorder. + +We were assembled on the deck, absorbed in melancholy reflections. +It was no longer doubtful, that the fever which raged on board had +assumed within the last few days a fatal aspect. Our eyes were +fixed on a hilly and desert coast on which the moon, from time to +time, shed her light athwart the clouds. The sea, gently agitated, +emitted a feeble phosphoric light. Nothing was heard but the +monotonous cry of a few large sea-birds, flying towards the shore. +A profound calm reigned over these solitary regions, but this calm +of nature was in discordance with the painful feelings by which we +were oppressed. About eight o'clock the dead man's knell was slowly +tolled. At this lugubrious sound, the sailors suspended their +labours, and threw themselves on their knees to offer a momentary +prayer: an affecting ceremony, which brought to our remembrance +those times when the primitive christians all considered themselves +as members of the same family. All were united in one common sorrow +for a misfortune which was felt to be common to all. The corpse of +the young Asturian was brought upon deck during the night, but the +priest entreated that it might not be committed to the waves till +after sunrise, that the last rites might be performed, according to +the usage of the Romish church. There was not an individual on +board, who did not deplore the death of this young man, whom we had +beheld, but a few days before, full of cheerfulness and health. + +Those among the passengers who had not yet felt symptoms of the +disease, resolved to leave the vessel at the first place where she +might touch, and await the arrival of another packet, to pursue +their course to the island of Cuba and to Mexico. They considered +the between-decks of the ship as infected; and though it was by no +means clear to me that the fever was contagious, I thought it most +prudent to land at Cumana. I wished not to visit New Spain, till I +had made some sojourn on the coasts of Venezuela and Paria; a few +of the productions of which had been examined by the unfortunate +Loefling. We were anxious to behold in their native site, the +beautiful plants which Bose and Bredemeyer had collected during +their journey to the continent, and which adorn the conservatories +of Schoenbrunn and Vienna. It would have been painful to have +touched at Cumana, or at Guayra, without visiting the interior of a +country so little frequented by naturalists. + +The resolution we formed during the night of the 14th of July, had +a happy influence on the direction of our travels; for instead of a +few weeks, we remained a whole year in this part of the continent. +Had not the fever broken out on board the Pizarro, we should never +have reached the Orinoco, the Cassiquiare, or even the limits of +the Portuguese possessions on the Rio Negro. To this direction +given to our travels we were perhaps also indebted for the good +health we enjoyed during so long an abode in the equinoctial +regions. + +It is well known, that Europeans, during the first months after +their arrival under the scorching sky of the tropics, are exposed +to the greatest dangers. They consider themselves to be safe, when +they have passed the rainy season in the West India islands, at +Vera Cruz, or at Carthagena. This opinion is very general, although +there are examples of persons, who, having escaped a first attack +of the yellow fever, have fallen victims to the same disease in one +of the following years. The facility of becoming acclimated, seems +to be in the inverse ratio of the difference that exists between +the mean temperature of the torrid zone, and that of the native +country of the traveller, or colonist, who changes his climate; +because the irritability of the organs, and their vital action, are +powerfully modified by the influence of the atmospheric heat. A +Prussian, a Pole, or a Swede, is more exposed on his arrival at the +islands or on the continent, than a Spaniard, an Italian, or even +an inhabitant of the South of France. With respect to the people of +the north, the difference of the mean temperature is from nineteen +to twenty-one degrees, while to the people of southern countries it +is only from nine to ten. We were fortunate enough to pass safely +through the interval during which a European recently landed runs +the greatest danger, in the extremely hot, but very dry climate of +Cumana, a city celebrated for its salubrity. + +On the morning of the 15th, when nearly on a line with the hill of +St. Joseph, we were surrounded by a great quantity of floating +seaweed. Its stems had those extraordinary appendages in the form +of little cups and feathers, which Don Hippolyto Ruiz remarked on +his return from the expedition to Chile, and which he described in +a separate memoir as the generative organs of the Fucus natans. A +fortunate accident allowed us the means of verifying a fact which +had been but once observed by naturalists. The bundles of fucus +collected by M. Bonpland were completely identical with the +specimens given us by the learned authors of the Flora of Peru. On +examining both with the microscope, we found that the supposed +parts of fructification, the stamina and pistils, belong to a new +genus, of the family of the Ceratophytae. + +The coast of Paria stretches to the west, forming a wall of rocks +of no great height, with rounded tops and a waving outline. We were +long without perceiving the bold coasts of the island of Margareta, +where we were to stop for the purpose of ascertaining whether we +could touch at Guayra. We had learned, by altitudes of the sun, +taken under very favourable circumstances, how incorrect at that +period were the most highly-esteemed marine charts. On the morning +of the 15th, when the time-keeper placed us in 66 degrees 1 minute +15 seconds longitude, we were not yet in the meridian of Margareta +island; though according to the reduced chart of the Atlantic ocean, +we ought to have passed the very lofty western cape of this island, +which is laid down in longitude 66 degrees 0 minutes. The +inaccuracy with which the coasts were delineated previously to the +labours of Fidalgo, Noguera, and Tiscar, and I may venture to add, +before the astronomical observations I made at Cumana, might have +become dangerous to navigators, were not the sea uniformly calm in +those regions. The errors in latitude were still greater than those +in longitude, for the coasts of New Andalusia stretch to the +westward of Cape Three Points (or tres Puntas) fifteen or twenty +miles more to the north, than appears in the charts published +before the year 1800. + +About eleven in the morning we perceived a very low islet, covered +with a few sandy downs, and on which we discovered with our glasses +no trace of habitation or culture. Cylindrical cactuses rose here +and there in the form of candelabra. The soil, almost destitute of +vegetation, seemed to have a waving motion, in consequence of the +extraordinary refraction which the rays of the sun undergo in +traversing the strata of air in contact with plains strongly +heated. Under every zone, deserts and sandy shores appear like an +agitated sea, from the effect of mirage. + +The coasts, seen at a distance, are like clouds, in which each +observer meets the form of the objects that occupy his imagination. +Our bearings and our chronometer being at variance with the charts +which we had to consult, we were lost in vain conjectures. Some +took mounds of sand for Indian huts, and pointed out the place +where they alleged the fort of Pampatar was situated; others saw +herds of goats, which are so common in the dry valley of St. John; +or descried the lofty mountains of Macanao, which seemed to them +partly hidden by the clouds. The captain resolved to send a pilot +on shore, and the men were preparing to get out the long-boat when +we perceived two canoes sailing along the coast. We fired a gun as +a signal for them, and though we had hoisted Spanish colours, they +drew near with distrust. These canoes, like all those in use among +the natives, were constructed of the single trunk of a tree. In +each canoe there were eighteen Guayqueria Indians, naked to the +waist, and of very tall stature. They had the appearance of great +muscular strength, and the colour of their skin was something +between brown and copper-colour. Seen at a distance, standing +motionless, and projected on the horizon, they might have been +taken for statues of bronze. We were the more struck with their +appearance, as it did not correspond with the accounts given by +some travellers respecting the characteristic features and extreme +feebleness of the natives. We afterwards learned, without passing +the limits of the province of Cumana, the great contrast existing +between the physiognomy of the Guayquerias and that of the Chaymas +and the Caribs. + +When we were near enough to hail them in Spanish, the Indians threw +aside their mistrust, and came straight on board. They informed us +that the low islet near which we were at anchor was Coche, which +had never been inhabited; and that Spanish vessels coming from +Europe were accustomed to sail farther north, between this island +and that of Margareta, to take a coasting pilot at the port of +Pampatar. Our inexperience had led us into the channel to the south +of Coche; and as at that period the English cruisers frequented +this passage, the Indians had at first taken us for an enemy's +ship. The southern passage is, in fact, highly advantageous for +vessels going to Cumana and Barcelona. The water is less deep than +in the northern passage, which is much narrower; but there is no +risk of touching the ground, if vessels keep very close to the +island of Lobos and the Moros del Tunal. The channel between Coche +and Margareta is narrowed by the shoals off the north-west cape of +Coche, and by the bank that surrounds La Punta de los Mangles. + +The Guayquerias belong to that tribe of civilized Indians who +inhabit the coasts of Margareta and the suburbs of the city of +Cumana. Next to the Caribs of Spanish Guiana they are the finest +race of men in Terra Firma. They enjoy several privileges, because +from the earliest times of the conquest they remained faithful +friends to the Castilians. The king of Spain styles them in his +public acts, "his dear, noble, and loyal Guayquerias." The Indians +of the two canoes we had met had left the port of Cumana during the +night. They were going in search of timber to the forests of cedar +(Cedrela odorata, Linn.), which extend from Cape San Jose to beyond +the mouth of Rio Carupano. They gave us some fresh cocoa-nuts, and +very beautifully coloured fish of the Chaetodon genus. What riches +to our eyes were contained in the canoes of these poor Indians! +Broad spreading leaves of Vijao* (* Heliconia bihai.) covered +bunches of plantains. The scaly cuirass of an armadillo (Dasypus), +the fruit of the Calabash tree (Crescentia cujete), used as a cup +by the natives, productions common in the cabinets of Europe, had a +peculiar charm for us, because they reminded us that, having +reached the torrid zone, we had attained the end to which our +wishes had been so long directed. + +The master of one of the canoes offered to remain on board the +Pizarro as coasting pilot (practico). He was a Guayqueria of an +excellent disposition, sagacious in his observations, and he had +been led by intelligent curiosity to notice the productions of the +sea as well as the plants of the country. By a fortunate chance, +the first Indian we met on our arrival was the man whose +acquaintance became the most useful to us in the course of our +researches. I feel a pleasure in recording in this itinerary the +name of Carlos del Pino, who, during the space of sixteen months, +attended us in our course along the coasts, and into the inland +country. + +The captain of the corvette weighed anchor towards evening. Before +we left the shoal or placer of Coche, I ascertained the longitude +of the east cape of the island, which I found to be 66 degrees 11 +minutes 53 seconds. As we steered westward, we soon came in sight +of the little island of Cubagua, now entirely deserted, but formerly +celebrated for its fishery of pearls. There the Spaniards, +immediately after the voyages of Columbus and Ojeda, founded, under +the name of New Cadiz, a town, of which there now remains no +vestige. At the beginning of the sixteenth century the pearls of +Cubagua were known at Seville, at Toledo, and at the great fairs of +Augsburg and Bruges. New Cadiz having no water, that of the Rio +Manzanares was conveyed thither from the neighbouring coast, though +for some reason, I know not what, it was thought to be the cause of +diseases of the eyes. The writers of that period all speak of the +riches of the first planters, and the luxury they displayed. At +present, downs of shifting sand cover this uninhabited land, and +the name of Cubagua is scarcely found in our charts. + +Having reached these latitudes, we saw the high mountains of Cape +Macanao, on the western side of the island of Margareta, which rose +majestically on the horizon. If we might judge from the angles of +altitude of the tops, taken at eighteen miles' distance, they +appeared to be about 500 or 600 toises high. According to +Berthoud's time-keeper, the longitude of Cape Macanao is 66 degrees +47 minutes 5 seconds. I speak of the rocks at the extremity of the +cape, and not that strip of very low land which stretches to the +west, and loses itself in a shoal. The position of Macanao and that +which I have assigned to the east point of the island of Coche, +differ only four seconds in time, from the results obtained by +M. Fidalgo. + +There being little wind, the captain preferred standing off and on +till daybreak. We passed a part of the night on deck. The +Guayqueria pilot conversed with us respecting the animals and +plants of his country. We learned with great satisfaction that +there was, a few leagues from the coast, a mountainous region +inhabited by the Spaniards, in which the cold was sensibly felt; +and that in the plains there were two species of crocodiles, very +different from each other, besides, boas, electric eels, and +several kinds of tigers. Though the words bava, cachicamo, and +temblador, were entirely unknown to us, we easily guessed, from the +pilot's simple description of their manners and forms, the species +which the creoles distinguished by these denominations. + + +CHAPTER 1.4. + +FIRST ABODE AT CUMANA. +BANKS OF THE MANZANARES. + +On the 16th of July, 1799, at break of day, we beheld a verdant +coast, of picturesque aspect. The mountains of New Andalusia, +half-veiled by mists, bounded the horizon to the south. The city of +Cumana and its castle appeared between groups of cocoa-trees. We +anchored in the port about nine in the morning, forty-one days +after our departure from Corunna; the sick dragged themselves on +deck to enjoy the sight of a land which was to put an end to their +sufferings. Our eyes were fixed on the groups of cocoa-trees which +border the river: their trunks, more than sixty feet high, towered +over every object in the landscape. The plain was covered with the +tufts of Cassia, Caper, and those arborescent mimosas, which, like +the pine of Italy, spread their branches in the form of an +umbrella. The pinnated leaves of the palms were conspicuous on the +azure sky, the clearness of which was unsullied by any trace of +vapour. The sun was ascending rapidly toward the zenith. A dazzling +light was spread through the air, along the whitish hills strewed +with cylindric cactuses, and over a sea ever calm, the shores of +which were peopled with alcatras,* (* A brown pelican, of the size +of a swan. (Pelicanus fuscus, Linn.)) egrets, and flamingoes. The +splendour of the day, the vivid colouring of the vegetable world, +the forms of the plants, the varied plumage of the birds, +everything was stamped with the grand character of nature in the +equinoctial regions. + +The city of Cumana, the capital of New Andalusia, is a mile distant +from the embarcadero, or the battery of the Boca, where we landed, +after having passed the bar of the Manzanares. We had to cross a +vast plain, called el Salado, which divides the suburb of the +Guayquerias from the sea-coast. The excessive heat of the +atmosphere was augmented by the reverberation of the soil, partly +destitute of vegetation. The centigrade thermometer, plunged into +the white sand, rose to 37.7 degrees. In the small pools of salt +water it kept at 30.5 degrees, while the heat of the ocean, at its +surface, is generally, in the port of Cumana, from 25.2 to 26.3 +degrees. The first plant we gathered on the continent of America +was the Avicennia tomentosa,8 (* Mangle prieto.) which in this +place scarcely reaches two feet in height. This shrub, together +with the sesuvium, the yellow gomphrena, and the cactus, cover soil +impregnated with muriate of soda; they belong to that small number +of plants which live in society like the heath of Europe, and which +in the torrid zone are found only on the seashore, and on the +elevated plains of the Andes.* (* On the extreme rarity of the +social plants in the tropics, see my Essay on the Geog. of Plants +page 19; and a paper by Mr. Brown on the Proteacea, Transactions of +the Lin. Soc. volume 10 page 1, page 23, in which that great +botanist has extended and confirmed by numerous facts my ideas on +the association of plants of the same species.) The Avicennia of +Cumana is distinguished by another peculiarity not less remarkable: +it furnishes an instance of a plant common to the shores of South +America and the coasts of Malabar. + +The Indian pilot led us across his garden, which rather resembled a +copse than a piece of cultivated ground. He showed us, as a proof +of the fertility of this climate, a silk-cotton tree (Bombax +heptaphyllum), the trunk of which, in its fourth year, had reached +nearly two feet and a half in diameter. We have observed, on the +banks of the Orinoco and the river Magdalena, that the bombax, the +carolinea, the ochroma, and other trees of the family of the +malvaceae, are of extremely rapid growth. I nevertheless think that +there was some exaggeration in the report of the Indian respecting +the age of his bombax; for under the temperate zone, in the hot and +damp lands of North America, between the Mississippi and the +Alleghany mountains, the trees do not exceed a foot in diameter, in +ten years. Vegetation in those parts is in general but a fifth more +speedy than in Europe, even taking as an example the Platanus +occidentalis, the tulip tree, and the Cupressus disticha, which +reach from nine to fifteen feet in diameter. On the strand of +Cumana, in the garden of the Guayqueria pilot, we saw for the first +time a guama* loaded with flowers, and remarkable for the extreme +length and silvery splendour of its numerous stamina. (* Inga +spuria, which we must not confound with the common inga, Inga vera, +Willd. (Mimosa Inga, Linn.). The white stamina, which, to the +number of sixty or seventy, are attached to a greenish corolla, +have a silky lustre, and are terminated by a yellow anther. The +flower of the guama is eighteen lines long. The common height of +this fine tree, which prefers a moist soil, is from eight to ten +toises.) We crossed the suburb of the Guayqueria Indians, the +streets of which are very regular, and formed of small houses, +quite new, and of a pleasing appearance. This part of the town had +just been rebuilt, for the earthquake had laid Cumana in ruins +eighteen months before our arrival. By a wooden bridge, we crossed +the river Manzanares, which contains a few bavas, or crocodiles of +the smaller species. + +We were conducted by the captain of the Pizarro to the governor of +the province, Don Vincente Emparan, to present to him the passports +furnished to us by the first Secretary of State at Madrid. He +received us with that frankness and unaffected dignity which have +at all times characterized the natives of Biscay. Before he was +appointed governor of Portobello and Cumana, Don Vincente Emparan +had distinguished himself as captain of a vessel in the navy. His +name recalls to mind one of the most extraordinary and distressing +events recorded in the history of maritime warfare. At the time of +the last rupture between Spain and England, two brothers of Senor +Emperan, both of whom commanded ships in the Spanish navy, engaged +with each other before the port of Cadiz, each supposing that he +was attacking an enemy. A fierce battle was kept up during a whole +night, and both the vessels were sunk almost simultaneously. A very +small part of the crew was saved, and the two brothers had the +misfortune to recognize each other a little before they expired. + +The governor of Cumana expressed his great satisfaction at the +resolution we had taken to remain for some time in New Andalusia, a +province which at that period was but little known even by name in +Europe, and which in its mountains, and on the banks of its +numerous rivers, contains a great number of objects worthy of +fixing the attention of naturalists. Senor Emperan showed us +cottons dyed with native plants, and fine furniture made +exclusively of the wood of the country. He was much interested in +everything that related to natural philosophy; and asked, to our +great astonishment, whether we thought, that, under the beautiful +sky of the tropics, the atmosphere contained less azote (azotico) +than in Spain; or whether the rapidity with which iron oxidates in +those climates, were only the effect of greater humidity as +indicated by the air hygrometer. The name of his native country +pronounced on a distant shore would not have been more agreeable to +the ear of a traveller, than those words azote, oxide of iron, and +hygrometer, were to ours. Senor Emparan was a lover of science, and +the public marks of consideration which he gave us during a long +abode in his government, contributed greatly to procure us a +favourable welcome in every part of South America. + +We hired a spacious house, the situation of which was favourable +for astronomical observations. We enjoyed an agreeable coolness +when the breeze arose; the windows were without glass, and even +without those paper panes which are often substituted for glass at +Cumana. The whole of the passengers of the Pizarro left the vessel, +but the recovery of those who had been attacked by the fever was +very slow. We saw some who, a month after, notwithstanding the care +bestowed on them by their countrymen, were still extremely weak and +reduced. Hospitality, in the Spanish colonies, is such, that a +European who arrives, without recommendation or pecuniary means, is +almost sure of finding assistance, if he land in any port on +account of sickness. The Catalonians, the Galicians, and the +Biscayans, have the most frequent intercourse with America. They +there form as it were three distinct corporations, which exercise a +remarkable influence over the morals, the industry, and commerce of +the colonies. The poorest inhabitant of Siges or Vigo is sure of +being received into the house of a Catalonian or Galician pulpero,* +(* A retail dealer.) whether he land in Chile or the Philippine +Islands. + +Among the sick who landed at Cumana was a negro, who fell into a +state of insanity a few days after our arrival; he died in that +deplorable condition, though his master, almost seventy years old, +who had left Europe to settle at San Blas, at the entrance of the +gulf of California, had attended him with the greatest care. I +relate this fact as affording evidence that men born under the +torrid zone, after having dwelt in temperate climates, sometimes +feel the pernicious effects of the heat of the tropics. The negro +was a young man, eighteen years of age, very robust, and born on +the coast of Guinea; an abode of some years on the high plain of +Castile, had imparted to his organization that kind of irritability +which renders the miasma of the torrid zone so dangerous to the +inhabitants of the countries of the north. + +The site on which Cumana is built is part of a tract of ground, +very remarkable in a geological point of view. The chain of the +calcareous Alps of the Brigantine and the Tataraqual stretches east +and west from the summit of the Imposible to the port of Mochima +and to Campanario. The sea, in times far remote, appears to have +divided this chain from the rocky coasts of Araya and Maniquarez. +The vast gulf of Cariaco has been caused by an irruption of the +sea; and no doubt can be entertained but that the waters once +covered, on the southern bank, the whole tract of land impregnated +with muriate of soda, through which flows the Manzanares. The slow +retreat of the waters has turned into dry ground this extensive +plain, in which rises a group of small hills, composed of gypsum +and calcareous breccias of very recent formation. The city of +Cumana is backed by this group, which was formerly an island of the +gulf of Cariaco. That part of the plain which is north of the city, +is called Plaga Chica, or the Little Plain, and extends eastwards +as far as Punta Delgada, where a narrow valley, covered with yellow +gomphrena, still marks the point of the ancient outlet of the +waters. + +The hill of calcareous breccias, which we have just mentioned as +having once been an island in the ancient gulf, is covered with a +thick forest of cylindric cactus and opuntia. Some of these trees, +thirty or forty feet high, are covered with lichens, and are +divided into several branches in the form of candelabra. Near +Maniquarez, at Punta Araya, we measured a cactus,* the trunk of +which was four feet nine inches in circumference (* Tuna macho. We +distinguish in the wood of the cactus the medullary prolongations, +as M. Desfontaines has already observed.). A European acquainted +only with the opuntia in our hot-houses is surprised to see the +wood of this plant become so hard from age, that it resists for +centuries both air and moisture: the Indians of Cumana therefore +employ it in preference to any other for oars and door-posts. +Cumana, Coro, the island of Margareta, and Curassao, are the parts +of South America that abound most in plants of the nopal family. +There only, a botanist, after a long residence, could compose a +monography of the genus cactus, the species of which vary not only +in their flowers and fruits, but also in the form of their +articulated stems, the number of costae, and the disposition of the +thorns. We shall see hereafter how these plants, which characterize +a warm and singularly dry climate, like that of Egypt and +California, gradually disappear in proportion as we remove from the +coasts, and penetrate into the inland country. + +The groups of columnar cactus and opuntia produce the same effect +in the arid lands of equinoctial America as the junceae and the +hydrocharides in the marshes of our northern climes. Places in +which the larger species of the strong cactus are collected in +groups are considered as almost impenetrable. These places are +called Tunales; and they are impervious not only to the native, who +goes naked to the waist, but are formidable even to those who are +fully clothed. In our solitary rambles we sometimes endeavoured to +penetrate into the Tunal that crowns the summit of the castle hill, +a part of which is crossed by a pathway, where we could have +studied, amidst thousands of specimens, the organization of this +singular plant. Sometimes night suddenly overtook us, for there is +scarcely any twilight in this climate; and we then found ourselves +dangerously situated, as the Cascabel, or rattle-snake, the Coral, +and other vipers armed with poisonous fangs, frequent these +scorched and arid haunts, to deposit their eggs in the sand. + +The castle of San Antonio is built at the western extremity of the +hill, but not on the most elevated point, being commanded on the +east by an unfortified summit. The Tunal is considered both here +and everywhere in the Spanish colonies as a very important means of +military defence; and when earthen works are raised, the engineers +are eager to propagate the thorny opuntia, and promote its growth, +as they are careful to keep crocodiles in the ditches of fortified +places. In regions where organized nature is so powerful and +active, man summons as auxiliaries in his defence the carnivorous +reptile, and the plant with its formidable armour of thorns. + +The castle is only thirty toises above the level of the water in +the gulf of Cariaco. Standing on a naked and calcareous hill, it +commands the town, and has a very picturesque effect when viewed +from a vessel entering the port. It forms a bright object against +the dark curtains of those mountains which raise their summits to +the clouds, and of which the vaporous and bluish tint blends with +the azure sky. On descending from Fort San Antonio to the +south-west, we find on the slope of the same rock the ruins of the +old castle of Santa Maria. This site is delightful to those who +wish to enjoy at the approach of sunset the freshness of the breeze +and the view of the gulf. The lofty summits of the island of +Margareta are seen above the rocky coast of the isthmus of Araya, +and towards the west the small islands of Caracas, Picuita, and +Boracha, recall to mind the catastrophes that have overwhelmed the +coasts of Terra Firma. These islets resemble fortifications, and +from the effect of the mirage (while the inferior strata of the +air, the ocean, and the soil, are unequally heated by the sun), +their points appear raised like the extremity of the great +promontories of the coast. It is pleasing, during the day, to +observe these inconstant phenomena; we see, as night approaches, +these stony masses which had been suspended in the air, settle down +on their bases; and the luminary, whose presence vivifies organic +nature, seems by the variable inflection of its rays to impress +motion on the stable rock, and give an undulating movement to +plains covered with arid sands.* (* The real cause of the mirage, +or the extraordinary refraction which the rays undergo when strata +of air of different densities lie over each other, was guessed at +by Hooke.--See his Posthumous Works page 472.) + +The town of Cumana, properly so called, occupies the ground lying +between the castle of San Antonio and the small rivers of +Manzanares and Santa Catalina. The Delta, formed by the bifurcation +of the first of these rivers, is a fertile plain covered with +Mammees, Sapotas (achras), plantains, and other plants cultivated +in the gardens or charas of the Indians. The town has no remarkable +edifice, and the frequency of earthquakes forbids such +embellishments. It is true, that strong shocks occur less +frequently in a given time at Cumana than at Quito, where we +nevertheless find sumptuous and very lofty churches. But the +earthquakes of Quito are violent only in appearance, and, from the +peculiar nature of the motion and of the ground, no edifice there +is overthrown. At Cumana, as well as at Lima, and in several cities +situated far from the mouths of burning volcanoes, it happens that +the series of slight shocks is interrupted after a long course of +years by great catastrophes, resembling the effects of the +explosion of a mine. We shall have occasion to return to this +phenomenon, for the explanation of which so many vain theories have +been imagined, and which have been classified according to +perpendicular and horizontal movements, shock, and oscillation.* (* +This classification dates from the time of Posidonius. It is the +successio and inclinatio of Seneca; but the ancients had already +judiciously remarked, that the nature of these shocks is too +variable to permit any subjection to these imaginary laws.) + +The suburbs of Cumana are almost as populous as the ancient town. +They are three in number:--Serritos, on the road to the Plaga +Chicha, where we meet with some fine tamarind trees; St. Francis, +towards the south-east; and the great suburb of the Guayquerias, or +Guayguerias. The name of this tribe of Indians was quite unknown +before the conquest. The natives who bear that name formerly +belonged to the nation of the Guaraounos, of which we find remains +only in the swampy lands of the branches of the Orinoco. Old men +have assured me that the language of their ancestors was a dialect +of the Guaraouno; but that for a century past no native of that +tribe at Cumana, or in the island of Margareta, has spoken any +other language than Castilian. + +The denomination Guayqueria, like the words Peru and Peruvian, owes +its origin to a mere mistake. The companions of Christopher +Columbus, coasting along the island of Margareta, the northern +coast of which is still inhabited by the noblest portion of the +Guayqueria nation,* (* The Guayquerias of La Banda del Norte +consider themselves as the most noble race, because they think they +are less mixed with the Chayma Indian, and other copper-coloured +races. They are distinguished from the Guayquerias of the continent +by their manner of pronouncing the Spanish language, which they +speak almost without separating their teeth. They show with pride +to Europeans the Punta de la Galera, or Galley's Point, (so called +on account of the vessel of Columbus having anchored there), and +the port of Manzanillo, where they first swore to the whites in +1498, that friendship which they have never betrayed, and which has +obtained for them, in court phraseology, the title of fieles, +loyal.--See above.) encountered a few natives who were harpooning +fish by throwing a pole tied to a cord, and terminating in an +extremely sharp point. They asked them in the Haiti language their +name; and the Indians, thinking that the question of the strangers +related to their harpoons, which were formed of the hard and heavy +wood of the Macana palm, answered guaike, guaike, which signifies +pointed pole. A striking difference at present exists between the +Guayquerias, a civilized tribe of skilled fishermen, and those +savage Guaraounos of the Orinoco, who suspend their habitations on +the trunks of the Moriche palm. The population of Cumana has been +singularly exaggerated, but according to the most authentic +registers it does not exceed 16,000 souls. + +Probably the Indian suburb will by degrees extend as far as the +Embarcadero; the plain, which is not yet covered with houses or +huts, being more than 340 toises in length. The heat is somewhat +less oppressive on the side near the seashore, than in the old +town, where the reverberation of the calcareous soil, and the +proximity of the mountain of San Antonio, raise the temperature to +an excessive degree. In the suburb of the Guayquerias, the sea +breezes have free access; the soil is clayey, and, for that reason, +it is thought to be less exposed to violent shocks of earthquake, +than the houses at the foot of the rocks and hills on the right +bank of the Manzanares. + +The shore near the mouth of the small river Santa Catalina is +bordered with mangrove trees,* but these mangroves are not +sufficiently spread to diminish the salubrity of the air of Cumana. +(* Rhizophora mangle. M. Bonpland found on the Plaga Chica the +Allionia incarnata, in the same place where the unfortunate +Loefling had discovered this new genus of Nyctagineae.) The soil of +the plain is in part destitute of vegetation, in part covered with +tufts of Sesuvium portulacastrum, Gomphrena flava, G. myrtifolia, +Talinum cuspidatum, T. cumanense, and Portulaca lanuginosa. Among +these herbaceous plants we find at intervals the Avicennia +tomentosa, the Scoparia dulcis, a frutescent mimosa with very +irritable leaves,* and particularly cassias, the number of which is +so great in South America, that we collected, in our travels, more +than thirty new species. (* The Spaniards designate by the name of +dormideras (sleeping plants), the small number of mimosas with +irritable leaves. We have increased this number by three species +previously unknown to botanists, namely, the Mimosa humilis of +Cumana, the M. pellita of the savannahs of Calabozo, and the M. +dormiens of the banks of the Apure.) + +On leaving the Indian suburb, and ascending the river southward, we +found a grove of cactus, a delightful spot, shaded by tamarinds, +brazilettos, bombax, and other plants, remarkable for their leaves +and flowers. The soil here is rich in pasturage, and dairy-houses +built with reeds, are separated from each other by clumps of trees. +The milk remains fresh, when kept, not in the calabashes* of very +thick ligneous fibres (* These calabashes are made from the fruit +of the Crescentia cujete.), but in porous earthen vessels from +Maniquarez. A prejudice prevalent in northern countries had long +led me to believe, that cows, under the torrid zone, did not yield +rich milk; but my abode at Cumana, and especially an excursion +through the vast plains of Calabozo, covered with grasses, and +herbaceous sensitive plants, convinced me that the ruminating +animals of Europe become perfectly habituated to the hottest +climates, provided they find water and good nourishment. Milk is +excellent in the provinces of New Andalusia, Barcelona, and +Venezuela; and butter is better in the plains of the equinoctial +zone, than on the ridge of the Andes, where the Alpine plants, +enjoying in no season a sufficiently high temperature, are less +aromatic than on the Pyrenees, on the mountains of Estremadura, or +of Greece. As the inhabitants of Cumana prefer the coolness of the +sea breeze to the sight of vegetation, their favourite walk is the +open shore. The Spaniards, who in general have no great +predilection for trees, or for the warbling of birds, have +transported their tastes and their habits into the colonies. In +Terra Firma, Mexico, and Peru, it is rare to see a native plant a +tree, merely with the view of procuring shade; and if we except the +environs of the great capitals, walks bordered with trees are +almost unknown in those countries. The arid plain of Cumana +exhibits after violent showers an extraordinary phenomenon. The +earth, when drenched with rain, and heated again by the rays of the +sun, emits that musky odour which in the torrid zone, is common to +animals of very different classes, namely: to the jaguar, the small +species of tiger cat, the cabiai or thick-nosed tapir,* (* Cavia +capybara, Linn.; chiguire.) the galinazo vulture,* (* Vultur aura, +Linn., Zamuro, or Galinazo: the Brazilian vulture of Buffon. I +cannot reconcile myself to the adoption of names, which designate, +as belonging to a single country, animals common to a whole +continent.) the crocodile, the viper, and the rattlesnake. The +gaseous emanations, which are the vehicles of this aroma, seem to +be evolved in proportion only as the mould, containing the spoils +of an innumerable quantity of reptiles, worms, and insects, begins +to be impregnated with water. I have seen Indian children, of the +tribe of the Chaymas, draw out from the earth and eat millipedes or +scolopendras* eighteen inches long, and seven lines broad. (* +Scolopendras are very common behind the castle of San Antonio, on +the summit of the hill.) Whenever the soil is turned up, we are +struck with the mass of organic substances, which by turns are +developed, transformed, and decomposed. Nature in these climates +appears more active, more fruitful, we may even say more prodigal, +of life. + +On this shore, and near the dairies just mentioned, we enjoy, +especially at sunrise, a very beautiful prospect over an elevated +group of calcareous mountains. As this group subtends an angle of +three degrees only at the house where we dwelt, it long served me +to compare the variations of the terrestrial refraction with the +meteorological phenomena. Storms are formed in the centre of this +Cordillera; and we see from afar thick clouds resolve into abundant +rains, while during seven or eight months not a drop of water falls +at Cumana. The Brigantine, which is the highest part of this chain, +raises itself in a very picturesque manner behind Brito and +Tataraqual. It takes its name from the form of a very deep valley +on the northern declivity, which resembles the interior of a ship. +The summit of this mountain is almost bare of vegetation, and is +flat like that of Mowna Roa, in the Sandwich Islands. It is a +perpendicular wall, or, to use a more expressive term of the +Spanish navigators, a table (mesa). This peculiar form, and the +symmetrical arrangement of a few cones which surround the +Brigantine, made me at first think that this group, which is wholly +calcareous, contained rocks of basaltic or trappean formation. + +The governor of Cumana sent, in 1797, a band of determined men to +explore this entirely desert country, and to open a direct road to +New Barcelona, by the summit of the Mesa. It was reasonably +expected that this way would be shorter, and less dangerous to the +health of travellers, than the route taken by the couriers along +the coasts; but every attempt to cross the chain of the mountains +of the Brigantine was fruitless. In this part of America, as in +Australia* to the west of Sydney, it is not so much the height of +the mountain chains, as the form of the rocks, that presents +obstacles difficult to surmount. (* The Blue Mountains of +Australia, and those of Carmarthen and Lansdowne, are not visible, +in clear weather, beyond fifty miles.--Peron, Voyage aux Terres +Australes page 389. Supposing the angle of altitude half a degree, +the absolute height of these mountains would be about 620 toises.) + +The longitudinal valley formed by the lofty mountains of the +interior and the southern declivity of the Cerro de San Antonio, is +intersected by the Rio Manzanares. This plain, the only thoroughly +wooded part in the environs of Cumana, is called the Plain of the +Charas,* on account of the numerous plantations which the +inhabitants have begun, for some years past, along the river. (* +Chacra, by corruption chara, signifies a hut or cottage surrounded +by a garden. The word ipure has the same signification.) A narrow +path leads from the hill of San Francisco across the forest to the +hospital of the Capuchins, a very agreeable country-house, which +the Aragonese monks have built as a retreat for old infirm +missionaries, who can no longer fulfil the duties of their +ministry. As we advance to the west, the trees of the forest become +more vigorous, and we meet with a few monkeys,* (* The common +machi, or weeping monkey.) which, however, are very rare in the +environs of Cumana. At the foot of the capparis, the bauhinia, and +the zygophyllum with flowers of a golden yellow, there extends a +carpet of Bromelia,* (* Chihuchihue, of the family of the ananas.) +akin to the B. karatas, which from the odour and coolness of its +foliage attracts the rattlesnake. + +The waters of the Manzanares are very limpid in quality, and this +river has no resemblance to the Manzanares of Madrid, which appears +the more magnificent in contrast with the fine bridge by which it +is crossed. It takes its source, like all the rivers of New +Andalusia, in the savannahs (llanos) known by the names of the +plateaux of Jonoro, Amana, and Guanipa,* (* These three eminences +bear the names of mesas, tables. An immense plain has an almost +imperceptible rise from both sides to the middle, without any +appearance of mountains or hills.) and it receives, near the Indian +village of San Fernando, the waters of the Rio Juanillo. It has +been several times proposed to the government, but without success, +to construct a dyke at the first ipure, in order to form artificial +irrigations in the plain of Charas; for, notwithstanding its +apparent sterility, the soil is extremely productive, wherever +humidity is combined with the heat of the climate. The cultivators +were gradually to refund the money advanced for the construction of +the sluices. Meanwhile, pumps worked by mules, and other hydraulic +but imperfect machines, have been erected, to serve till this +project is carried into execution. + +The banks of the Manzanares are very pleasant, and are shaded by +mimosas, erythrinas, ceibas, and other trees of gigantic growth. A +river, the temperature of which, in the season of the floods, +descends as low as twenty-two degrees, when the air is at thirty +and thirty-three degrees, is an inestimable benefit in a country +where the heat is excessive during the whole year, and where it is +so agreeable to bathe several times in the day. The children pass a +considerable part of their lives in the water; all the inhabitants, +even the women of the most opulent families, know how to swim; and +in a country where man is so near the state of nature, one of the +first questions asked on meeting in the morning is, whether the +water is cooler than it was on the preceding evening. One of the +modes of bathing is curious. We every evening visited a family, in +the suburb of the Guayquerias. In a fine moonlight night, chairs +were placed in the water; the men and women were lightly clothed, +as in some baths of the north of Europe; and the family and +strangers, assembled in the river, passed some hours in smoking +cigars, and in talking, according to the custom of the country, of +the extreme dryness of the season, of the abundant rains in the +neighbouring districts, and particularly of the extravagancies of +which the ladies of Cumana accuse those of Caracas and the +Havannah. The company were under no apprehensions from the bavas, +or small crocodiles, which are now extremely scarce, and which +approach men without attacking them. These animals are three or +four feet long. We never met with them in the Manzanares, but with +a great number of dolphins (toninas), which sometimes ascend the +river in the night, and frighten the bathers by spouting water. + +The port of Cumana is a roadstead capable of receiving the fleets +of Europe. The whole of the Gulf of Cariaco, which is about 35 +miles long and 48 broad, affords excellent anchorage. The Pacific +is not more calm on the shores of Peru, than the Caribbean Sea from +Porto-cabello, and especially from Cape Codera to the point of +Paria. The hurricanes of the West Indies are never felt in these +regions. The only danger in the port of Cumana is a shoal, called +Morro Roxo. There are from one to three fathoms water on this +shoal, while just beyond its edges there are eighteen, thirty, and +even thirty-eight. The remains of an old battery, situated +north-north-east of the castle of San Antonio, and very near it, +serve as a mark to avoid the bank of Morro Roxo. + +The city lies at the foot of a hill destitute of verdure, and is +commanded by a castle. No steeple or dome attracts from afar the +eye of the traveller, but only a few trunks of tamarind, cocoa, and +date trees, which rise above the houses, the roofs of which are +flat. The surrounding plains, especially those on the coasts, wear +a melancholy, dusty, and arid appearance, while a fresh and +luxuriant vegetation marks from afar the windings of the river, +which separates the city from the suburbs; the population of +European and mixed race from the copper-coloured natives. The hill +of fort San Antonio, solitary, white, and bare, reflects a great +mass of light, and of radiant heat: it is composed of breccia, the +strata of which contain numerous fossils. In the distance, towards +the south, stretches a vast and gloomy curtain of mountains. These +are the high calcareous Alps of New Andalusia, surmounted by +sandstone, and other more recent formations. Majestic forests cover +this Cordillera of the interior, and they are joined by a woody +vale to the open clayey lands and salt marshes of the environs of +Cumana. A few birds of considerable size contribute to give a +peculiar character to these countries. On the seashore, and in the +gulf, we find flocks of fishing herons, and alcatras of a very +unwieldy form, which swim, like the swan, raising their wings. +Nearer the habitation of man, thousands of galinazo vultures, the +jackals of the winged tribe, are ever busy in disinterring the +carcases of animals.* (* Buffon Hist. Nat. des Oiseaux tome 1 page +114.) A gulf, containing hot and submarine springs, divides the +secondary from the primary and schistose rocks of the peninsula of +Araya. Each of these coasts is washed by a tranquil sea, of azure +tint, and always gently agitated by a breeze from one quarter. A +bright clear sky, with a few light clouds at sunset, reposes on the +ocean, on the treeless peninsula, and on the plains of Cumana, +while we see the storms accumulate and descend in fertile showers +among the inland mountains. Thus on these coasts, as well as at the +foot of the Andes, the earth and the sky present the extremes of +clear weather and fogs, of drought and torrents of rain, of +absolute nudity and never-ceasing verdure. + +The analogies which we have just indicated, between the sea-coasts +of New Andalusia and those of Peru, extend also to the recurrence +of earthquakes, and the limits which nature seems to have +prescribed to these phenomena. We have ourselves felt very violent +shocks at Cumana; and we learned on the spot, the most minute +circumstances that accompanied the great catastrophe of the 14th +December, 1797. + +It is a very generally received opinion on the coasts of Cumana, +and in the island of Margareta, that the gulf of Cariaco owes its +existence to a rent of the continent attended by an irruption of +the sea. The remembrance of that great event was preserved among +the Indians to the end of the fifteenth century; and it is related +that, at the time of the third voyage of Christopher Columbus, the +natives mentioned it as of very recent date. In 1530, the +inhabitants were alarmed by new shocks on the coasts of Paria and +Cumana. The land was inundated by the sea, and the small fort, +built by James Castellon at New Toledo,* was entirely destroyed. (* +This was the first name given to the city of Cumana--Girolamo +Benzoni Hist. del Mondo Nuovo pages 3, 31, and 33. James Castellon +arrived at St. Domingo in 1521, after the appearance of the +celebrated Bartholomew de las Casas in these countries. On +attentively reading the narratives of Benzoni and Caulin, we find +that the fort of Castellon was built near the mouth of the +Manzanares (alla ripa del fiume de Cumana); and not, as some modern +travellers have asserted, on the mountain where now stands the +castle of San Antonio.) At the same time an enormous opening was +formed in the mountains of Cariaco, on the shores of the gulf +bearing that name, when a great body of salt-water, mixed with +asphaltum, issued from the micaceous schist. Earthquakes were very +frequent about the end of the sixteenth century; and, according to +the traditions preserved at Cumana, the sea often inundated the +shores, rising from fifteen to twenty fathoms. + +As no record exists at Cumana, and its archives, owing to the +continual devastations of the termites, or white ants, contain no +document that goes back farther than a hundred and fifty years, we +are unacquainted with the precise dates of the ancient earthquakes. +We only know, that, in times nearer our own, the year 1776 was at +once the most fatal to the colonists, and the most remarkable for +the physical history of the country. The city of Cumana was +entirely destroyed, the houses were overturned in the space of a +few minutes, and the shocks were hourly repeated during fourteen +months. In several parts of the province the earth opened, and +threw out sulphureous waters. These irruptions were very frequent +in a plain extending towards Casanay, two leagues east of the town +of Cariaco, and known by the name of the hollow ground (tierra +hueca), because it appears entirely undermined by thermal springs. +During the years 1766 and 1767, the inhabitants of Cumana encamped +in their streets; and they began to rebuild their houses only when +the earthquakes recurred once a month. What was felt at Quito, +immediately after the great catastrophe of February 1797, took +place on these coasts. While the ground was in a state of continual +oscillation, the atmosphere seemed to dissolve itself into water. + +Tradition states that in the earthquake of 1766, as well as in +another remarkable one in 1794, the shocks were mere horizontal +oscillations; it was only on the disastrous 14th of December, 1797, +that for the first time at Cumana the motion was felt by an +upheaving of the ground. More than four-fifths of the city were +then entirely destroyed; and the shock, attended by a very loud +subterraneous noise, resembled, as at Riobamba, the explosion of a +mine at a great depth. Happily the most violent shock was preceded +by a slight undulating motion, so that most of the inhabitants were +enabled to escape into the streets, and a small number only +perished of those who had assembled in the churches. It is a +generally received opinion at Cumana, that the most destructive +earthquakes are announced by very feeble oscillations, and by a +hollow sound, which does not escape the observation of persons +habituated to this kind of phenomenon. In those fatal moments the +cries of 'misericordia! tembla! tembla!'* are everywhere heard (* +"Mercy! the earthquake! the earthquake!"--See Tschudi's Travels in +Peru page 170.); and it rarely happens that a false alarm is given +by a native. Those who are most apprehensive attentively observe +the motions of dogs, goats, and swine. The last-mentioned animals, +endowed with delicate olfactory nerves, and accustomed to turn up +the earth, give warning of approaching danger by their restlessness +and their cries. We shall not attempt to decide, whether, being +nearer the surface of the ground, they are the first to hear the +subterraneous noise; or whether their organs receive the impression +of some gaseous emanation which issues from the earth. We cannot +deny the possibility of this latter cause. During my abode at Peru, +a fact was observed in the inland country, which has an analogy +with this kind of phenomenon, and which is not unfrequent. At the +end of violent earthquakes, the herbs that cover the savannahs of +Tucuman acquired noxious properties; an epidemic disorder broke out +among the cattle, and a great number of them appeared stupified or +suffocated by the deleterious vapours exhaled from the ground. + +At Cumana, half an hour before the catastrophe of the 14th of +December, 1797, a strong smell of sulphur was perceived near the +hill of the convent of San Francisco; and on the same spot the +subterraneous noise, which seemed to proceed from south-east to +north-west, was loudest. At the same time flames appeared on the +banks of the Manzanares, near the hospital of the Capuchins, and in +the gulf of Cariaco, near Mariguitar. This last phenomenon, so +extraordinary in a country not volcanic, is pretty frequent in the +Alpine calcareous mountains near Cumanacoa, in the valley of +Bordones, in the island of Margareta, and amidst the Llanos or +savannahs of New Andalusia. In these savannahs, flakes of fire +rising to a considerable height, are seen for hours together in the +dryest places; and it is asserted, that, on examining the ground no +crevice is perceptible. This fire, which resembles the springs of +hydrogen, or Salse, of Modena, or what is called the +will-o'-the-wisp of our marshes, does not burn the grass; because, +no doubt, the column of gas, which develops itself, is mixed with +azote and carbonic acid, and does not burn at its basis. The +people, although less superstitious here than in Spain, call these +reddish flames by the singular name of 'the soul of the tyrant +Aguirre;' imagining that the spectre of Lopez Aguirre, harassed by +remorse, wanders over these countries sullied by his crimes.* (* +When at Cumana, or in the island of Margareta, the people pronounce +the words el tirano (the tyrant), it is always to denote the hated +Lopez d'Aguirre, who, after having taken part, in 1560, in the +revolt of Fernando de Guzman against Pedro de Ursua, governor of +the Omeguas and Dorado, voluntarily took the title of traidor, or +traitor. He descended the river Amazon with his band, and reached +by a communication of the rivers of Guyana the island of Margareta. +The port of Paraguache still bears, in this island, the name of the +Tyrant's Port.) + +The great earthquake of 1797 produced some changes in the +configuration of the shoal of Morro Roxo, towards the mouth of the +Rio Bordones. Similar swellings were observed at the time of the +total destruction of Cumana, in 1766. At that period, the Punta +Delgado, on the southern coast of the gulf of Cariaco, became +perceptibly enlarged; and in the Rio Guarapiche, near the village +of Maturin, a shoal was formed, no doubt by the action of the +elastic fluids, which displaced and raised up the bed of the river. + +In order to follow a plan conformable to the end we proposed in +this work, we shall endeavour to generalize our ideas, and to +comprehend in one point of view everything that relates to these +phenomena, so terrific, and so difficult to explain. If it be the +duty of the men of science who visit the Alps of Switzerland, or +the coasts of Lapland, to extend our knowledge respecting the +glaciers and the aurora borealis, it may be expected that a +traveller who has journeyed through Spanish America, should have +chiefly fixed his attention on volcanoes and earthquakes. Each part +of the globe is an object of particular study; and when we cannot +hope to penetrate the causes of natural phenomena, we ought at +least to endeavour to discover their laws, and distinguish, by the +comparison of numerous facts, that which is permanent and uniform +from that which is variable and accidental. + +The great earthquakes, which interrupt the long series of slight +shocks, appear to have no regular periods at Cumana. They have +taken place at intervals of eighty, a hundred, and sometimes less +than thirty years; while on the coasts of Peru, for instance at +Lima, a certain regularity has marked the periods of the total +destruction of the city. The belief of the inhabitants in the +existence of this uniformity has a happy influence on public +tranquillity, and the encouragement of industry. It is generally +admitted, that it requires a sufficiently long space of time for +the same causes to act with the same energy; but this reasoning is +just only inasmuch as the shocks are considered as a local +phenomenon; and a particular focus, under each point of the globe +exposed to those great catastrophes, is admitted. Whenever new +edifices are raised on the ruins of the old, we hear from those who +refuse to build, that the destruction of Lisbon on the first day of +November, 1755, was soon followed by a second, and not less fatal +convulsion, on the 31st of March, 1761. + +It is a very ancient opinion,* (* Aristotle de Meteor. lib. 2 (ed. +Duval, tome 1 page 798). Seneca Nat. Quaest. lib. 6 c. 12.) and one +that is commonly received at Cumana, Acapulco, and Lima, that a +perceptible connection exists between earthquakes and the state of +the atmosphere that precedes those phenomena. But from the great +number of earthquakes which I have witnessed to the north and south +of the equator; on the continent, and on the seas; on the coasts, +and at 2500 toises height; it appears to me that the oscillations +are generally very independent of the previous state of the +atmosphere. This opinion is entertained by a number of intelligent +residents of the Spanish colonies, whose experience extends, if not +over a greater space of the globe, at least over a greater number +of years, than mine. On the contrary, in parts of Europe where +earthquakes are rare compared to America, scientific observers are +inclined to admit an intimate connection between the undulations of +the ground, and certain meteors, which appear simultaneously with +them. In Italy for instance, the sirocco and earthquakes are +suspected to have some connection; and in London, the frequency of +falling-stars, and those southern lights which have since been +often observed by Mr. Dalton, were considered as the forerunners of +those shocks which were felt from 1748 to 1756. + +On days when the earth is shaken by violent shocks, the regularity +of the horary variations of the barometer is not disturbed within +the tropics. I had opportunities of verifying this observation at +Cumana, at Lima, and at Riobamba; and it is the more worthy of +attention, as at St. Domingo, (in the town of Cape Francois,) it is +asserted, that a water-barometer sank two inches and a half +immediately before the earthquake of 1770. It is also related, +that, at the time of the destruction of Oran, a druggist fled with +his family, because, observing accidentally, a few minutes before +the earthquake, the height of the mercury in his barometer, he +perceived that the column sank in an extraordinary manner. I know +not whether we can give credit to this story; but as it is nearly +impossible to examine the variations of the weight of the +atmosphere during the shocks, we must be satisfied with observing +the barometer before or after these phenomena have taken place. + +We can scarcely doubt, that the earth, when opened and agitated by +shocks, spreads occasionally gaseous emanations through the +atmosphere, in places remote from the mouths of volcanoes not +extinct. At Cumana, it has already been observed that flames and +vapours mixed with sulphurous acid spring up from the most arid +soil. In other parts of the same province, the earth ejects water +and petroleum. At Riobamba, a muddy and inflammable mass, called +moya, issues from crevices that close again, and accumulates into +elevated hills. At about seven leagues from Lisbon, near Colares, +during the terrible earthquake of the 1st of November, 1755, flames +and a column of thick smoke were seen to issue from the flanks of +the rocks of Alvidras, and, according to some witnesses, from the +bosom of the sea. + +Elastic fluids thrown into the atmosphere may act locally on the +barometer, not by their mass, which is very small, compared to the +mass of the atmosphere, but because, at the moment of great +explosions, an ascending current is probably formed, which +diminishes the pressure of the air. I am inclined to think that in +the majority of earthquakes nothing escapes from the agitated +earth; and that, when gaseous emanations and vapours are observed, +they oftener accompany or follow, than precede the shocks. This +circumstance would seem to explain the mysterious influence of +earthquakes in equinoctial America, on the climate, and on the +order of the dry and rainy seasons. If the earth generally act on +the air only at the moment of the shocks, we can conceive why a +sensible meteorological change so rarely precedes those great +revolutions of nature. + +The hypothesis according to which, in the earthquakes of Cumana, +elastic fluids tend to escape from the surface of the soil, seems +confirmed by the great noise which is heard during the shocks at +the borders of the wells in the plain of Charas. Water and sand are +sometimes thrown out twenty feet high. Similar phenomena were +observed in ancient times by the inhabitants of those parts of +Greece and Asia Minor abounding with caverns, crevices, and +subterraneous rivers. Nature, in her uniform progress, everywhere +suggests the same ideas of the causes of earthquakes, and the means +by which man, forgetting the measure of his strength, pretends to +diminish the effect of the subterraneous explosions. What a great +Roman naturalist has said of the utility of wells and caverns* is +repeated in the New World by the most ignorant Indians of Quito, +when they show travellers the guaicos, or crevices of Pichincha. (* +"In puteis est remedium, quale et crebri specus praebent: conceptum +enim spiritum exhalant: quod in certis notatur oppidis, quae minus +quatiuntur, crebris ad eluviem cuniculis cavata."--Pliny lib. 2 c. +82 (ed. Par. 1723 t. 1 page 112.) Even at present, in the capital +of St. Domingo, wells are considered as diminishing the violence of +the shocks. I may observe on this occasion, that the theory of +earthquakes, given by Seneca, (Nat. Quaest. lib. 6 c. 4-31), +contains the germ of everything that has been said in our times on +the action of the elastic vapours confined in the interior of the +globe.) + +The subterranean noise, so frequent during earthquakes, is +generally not in the ratio of the force of the shocks. At Cumana it +constantly precedes them, while at Quito, and recently at Caracas, +and in the West India Islands, a noise like the discharge of a +battery was heard a long time after the shocks had ceased. A third +kind of phenomenon, the most remarkable of the whole, is the +rolling of those subterranean thunders, which last several months, +without being accompanied by the least oscillatory motion of the +ground.* (* The subterranean thunders (bramidos y truenos +subterraneos) of Guanaxuato. The phenomenon of a noise without +shocks was observed by the ancients.--Aristot. Meteor. lib. 2 (ed. +Duval page 802). Pliny lib. 2 c. 80.) + +In every country subject to earthquakes, the point at which, +probably owing to a particular disposition of the stony strata, the +effects are most sensibly felt, is considered as the cause and the +focus of the shocks. Thus, at Cumana, the hill of the castle of San +Antonio, and particularly the eminence on which stands the convent +of St. Francis, are believed to contain an enormous quantity of +sulphur and other inflammable matter. We forget that the rapidity +with which the undulations are propagated to great distances, even +across the basin of the ocean, proves that the centre of action is +very remote from the surface of the globe. From this same cause no +doubt earthquakes are not confined to certain species of rocks, as +some naturalists suppose, but all are fitted to propagate the +movement. Keeping within the limits of my own experience I may here +cite the granites of Lima and Acapulco; the gneiss of Caracas; the +mica-slate of the peninsula of Araya; the primitive thonschiefer of +Tepecuacuilco, in Mexico; the secondary limestones of the +Apennines, Spain, and New Andalusia; and finally, the trappean +porphyries of the provinces of Quito and Popayan.* (* I might add +to the list of secondary rocks, the gypsum of the newest formation, +for instance, that of Montmartre, situated on a marine calcareous +rock, which is posterior to the chalk.--See the Memoires de +l'Academie tome 1 page 341 on the earthquake felt at Paris and its +environs in 1681.) In these different places the ground is +frequently agitated by the most violent shocks; but sometimes, in +the same rock, the superior strata form invincible obstacles to the +propagation of the motion. Thus, in the mines of Saxony, we have +seen workmen hasten up alarmed by oscillations which were not felt +at the surface of the ground. + +If, in regions the most remote from each other, primitive, +secondary, and volcanic rocks, share equally in the convulsive +movements of the globe; we cannot but admit also that within a +space of little extent, certain classes of rocks oppose themselves +to the propagation of the shocks. At Cumana, for instance, before +the great catastrophe of 1797, the earthquakes were felt only along +the southern and calcareous coast of the gulf of Cariaco, as far as +the town of that name; while in the peninsula of Araya, and at the +village of Maniquarez, the ground did not share the same agitation. +But since December 1797, new communications appear to have been +opened in the interior of the globe. The peninsula of Araya is now +not merely subject to the same agitations as the soil of Cumana, +but the promontory of mica-slate, previously free from earthquakes, +has become in its turn a central point of commotion. The earth is +sometimes strongly shaken at the village of Maniquarez, when on the +coast of Cumana the inhabitants enjoy the most perfect +tranquillity. The gulf of Cariaco, nevertheless, is only sixty or +eighty fathoms deep. + +It has been thought from observations made both on the continent +and in the islands, that the western and southern coasts are most +exposed to shocks. This observation is connected with opinions +which geologists have long formed respecting the position of the +high chains of mountains, and the direction of their steepest +declivities; but the existence of the Cordillera of Caracas, and +the frequency of the oscillations on the eastern and northern coast +of Terra Firma, in the gulf of Paria, at Carupano, at Cariaco, and +at Cumana, render the accuracy of that opinion doubtful. + +In New Andalusia, as well as in Chile and Peru, the shocks follow +the course of the shore, and extend but little inland. This +circumstance, as we shall soon find, indicates an intimate +connection between the causes which produce earthquakes and +volcanic eruptions. If the earth was most agitated on the coasts, +because they are the lowest part of the land, why should not the +oscillations be equally strong and frequent on those vast savannahs +or prairies,* which are scarcely eight or ten toises above the +level of the ocean? (* The Llanos of Cumana, of New Barcelona, of +Calabozo, of Apure, and of Meta.) + +The earthquakes of Cumana are connected with those of the West +India Islands; and it has even been suspected that they have some +connection with the volcanic phenomena of the Cordilleras of the +Andes. On the 4th of February 1797, the soil of the province of +Quito suffered such a destructive commotion, that near 40,000 +natives perished. At the same period the inhabitants of the eastern +Antilles were alarmed by shocks, which continued during eight +months, when the volcano of Guadaloupe threw out pumice-stones, +ashes, and gusts of sulphureous vapours. The eruption of the 27th +of September, during which very long-continued subterranean noises +were heard, was followed on the 14th of December by the great +earthquake of Cumana. Another volcano of the West India Islands, +that of St. Vincent, affords an example of these extraordinary +connections. This volcano had not emitted flames since 1718, when +they burst forth anew in 1812. The total ruin of the city of +Caracas preceded this explosion thirty-five days, and violent +oscillations of the ground were felt both in the islands and on the +coasts of Terra Firma. + +It has long been remarked that the effects of great earthquakes +extend much farther than the phenomena arising from burning +volcanoes. In studying the physical revolutions of Italy, in +carefully examining the series of the eruptions of Vesuvius and +Etna, we can scarcely recognise, notwithstanding the proximity of +these mountains, any traces of a simultaneous action. It is on the +contrary beyond a doubt, that at the period of the last and +preceding destruction of Lisbon,* the sea was violently agitated +even as far as the New World, for instance, at the island of +Barbados, more than twelve hundred leagues distant from the coasts +of Portugal. + +(* Destruction of Lisbon: The 1st of November, 1755, and 31st of +March, 1761. During the first of these earthquakes, the sea +inundated, in Europe, the coasts of Sweden, England, and Spain; in +America, the islands of Antigua, Barbados, and Martinique. At +Barbados, where the ordinary tides rise only from twenty-four to +twenty-eight inches, the water rose twenty feet in Carlisle Bay. It +became at the same time as black as ink; being, without doubt, +mixed with the petroleum, or asphaltum, which abounds at the bottom +of the sea, as well on the coasts of the gulf of Cariaco, as near +the island of Trinidad. In the West Indies, and in several lakes of +Switzerland, this extraordinary motion of the waters was observed +six hours after the first shock that was felt at +Lisbon--Philosophical Transactions volume 49 pages 403, 410, 544, +668; ibid. volume 53 page 424. At Cadiz a mountain of water sixty +feet high was seen eight miles distant at sea. This mass threw +itself impetuously on the coasts, and beat down a great number of +houses; like the wave eighty-four feet high, which on the 9th of +June, 1586, at the time of the great earthquake of Lima, covered +the port of Callao.--Acosta Hist. Natural de las Indias edition de +1591 page 123. In North America, on Lake Ontario, violent +agitations of the water were observed from the month of October +1755. These phenomena are proofs of subterraneous communications at +enormous distances. On comparing the periods of the great +catastrophes of Lima and Guatimala, which generally succeed each +other at long intervals, it has sometimes been thought, that the +effect of an action slowly propagating along the Cordilleras, +sometimes from north to south, at other times from south to north, +may be perceived.--Cosmo Bueno Descripcion del Peru ed. de Lima +page 67. Four of these remarkable catastrophes, with their dates, +may be here enumerated.) + +TABLE OF FOUR CATASTROPHES: + +COLUMN 1 : MEXICO. (Latitude 13 degrees 32 minutes north.) + +COLUMN 2 : PERU. (Latitude 12 degrees 2 minutes south.) + + 30th of November, 1577 : 17th of June, 1578. + + 4th of March, 1679 : 17th of June, 1678. + + 12th of February, 1689 : 10th of October, 1688. + + 27th of September, 1717 : 8th of February, 1716. + +When the shocks are not simultaneous, or do not follow each other +at short intervals, great doubts may be entertained with respect to +the supposed communication of the movement.) + +Several facts tend to prove that the causes which produce +earthquakes have a near connection with those which act in volcanic +eruptions. The connection of these causes was known to the +ancients, and it excited fresh attention at the period of the +discovery of America. The discovery of the New World not only +offered new productions to the curiosity of man, it also extended +the then existing stock of knowledge respecting physical geography, +the varieties of the human species, and the migrations of nations. +It is impossible to read the narratives of early Spanish +travellers, especially that of the Jesuit Acosta, without +perceiving the influence which the aspect of a great continent, the +study of extraordinary appearances of nature, and intercourse with +men of different races, must have exercised on the progress of +knowledge in Europe. The germ of a great number of physical truths +is found in the works of the sixteenth century; and that germ would +have fructified, had it not been crushed by fanaticism and +superstition. We learned, at Pasto, that the column of black and +thick smoke, which, in 1797, issued for several months from the +volcano near that shore, disappeared at the very hour, when, sixty +leagues to the south, the towns of Riobamba, Hambato, and Tacunga +were destroyed by an enormous shock. In the interior of a burning +crater, near those hillocks formed by ejections of scoriae and +ashes, the motion of the ground is felt several seconds before each +partial eruption takes place. We observed this phenomenon at +Vesuvius in 1805, while the mountain threw out incandescent +scoriae; we were witnesses of it in 1802, on the brink of the +immense crater of Pichincha, from which, nevertheless, at that +time, clouds of sulphureous acid vapours only issued. + +Everything in earthquakes seems to indicate the action of elastic +fluids seeking an outlet to diffuse themselves in the atmosphere. +Often, on the coasts of the Pacific, the action is almost +instantaneously communicated from Chile to the gulf of Guayaquil, a +distance of six hundred leagues; and, what is very remarkable, the +shocks appear to be the stronger in proportion as the country is +distant from burning volcanoes. The granitic mountains of Calabria, +covered with very recent breccias, the calcareous chain of the +Apennines, the country of Pignerol, the coasts of Portugal and +Greece, those of Peru and Terra Firma, afford striking proofs of +this fact. The globe, it may be said, is agitated with the greater +force, in proportion as the surface has a smaller number of funnels +communicating with the caverns of the interior. At Naples and at +Messina, at the foot of Cotopaxi and of Tunguragua, earthquakes are +dreaded only when vapours and flames do not issue from the craters. +In the kingdom of Quito, the great catastrophe of Riobamba led +several well-informed persons to think that that country would be +less frequently disturbed, if the subterranean fire should break +the porphyritic dome of Chimborazo; and if that colossal mountain +should become a burning volcano. At all times analogous facts have +led to the same hypotheses. The Greeks, who, like ourselves, +attributed the oscillations of the ground to the tension of elastic +fluids, cited in favour of their opinion, the total cessation of +the shocks at the island of Euboea, by the opening of a crevice in +the Lelantine plain.* (* "The shocks ceased only when a crevice, +which ejected a river of fiery mud, opened in the plain of +Lelantum, near Chalcis."--Strabo.) + +The phenomena of volcanoes, and those of earthquakes, have been +considered of late as the effects of voltaic electricity, developed +by a particular disposition of heterogeneous strata. It cannot be +denied, that often, when violent shocks succeed each other within +the space of a few hours, the electricity of the air sensibly +increases at the instant the ground is most agitated; but to +explain this phenomenon, it is unnecessary to recur to an +hypothesis, which is in direct contradiction to everything hitherto +observed respecting the structure of our planet, and the +disposition of its strata. + + +CHAPTER 1.5. + +PENINSULA OF ARAYA. +SALT-MARSHES. +RUINS OF THE CASTLE OF SANTIAGO. + +THE first weeks of our abode at Cumana were employed in testing our +instruments, in herborizing in the neighbouring plains, and in +examining the traces of the earthquake of the 14th of December, +1797. Overpowered at once by a great number of objects, we were +somewhat embarrassed how to lay down a regular plan of study and +observation. Whilst every surrounding object was fitted to inspire +in us the most lively interest, our physical and astronomical +instruments in their turns excited strongly the curiosity of the +inhabitants. We had numerous visitors; and in our desire to satisfy +persons who appeared so happy to see the spots of the moon through +Dollond's telescope, the absorption of two gases in a eudiometrical +tube, or the effects of galvanism on the motions of a frog, we were +obliged to answer questions often obscure, and to repeat for whole +hours the same experiments. These scenes were renewed for the space +of five years, whenever we took up our abode in a place where it +was understood that we were in possession of microscopes, +telescopes, and electrical apparatus. + +I could not begin a regular course of astronomical observations +before the 28th of July, though it was highly important for me to +know the longitude given by Berthoud's time-keeper; but it +happened, that in a country where the sky is constantly clear and +serene, no stars appeared for several nights. The whole series of +the observations I made in 1799 and 1800 give for their results, +that the latitude of the great square at Cumana is 10 degrees 27 +minutes 52 seconds, and its longitude 66 degrees 30 minutes 2 +seconds. This longitude is founded on the difference of time, on +lunar distances, on the eclipse of the sun (on the 28th of October, +1799), and on ten immersions of Jupiter's satellites, compared with +observations made in Europe. The oldest chart we have of the +continent, that of Don Diego Ribeiro, geographer to the emperor +Charles the Fifth, places Cumana in latitude 9 degrees 30 minutes; +which differs fifty-eight minutes from the real latitude, and half +a degree from that marked by Jefferies in his American Pilot, +published in 1794. During three centuries the whole of the coast +of Terra Firma has been laid down too far to the south: this has +been owing to the current near the island of Trinidad, which sets +toward the north, and mariners are led by their dead-reckoning to +think themselves farther south than they really are. + +On the 17th of August a halo round the moon fixed the attention of +the inhabitants of Cumana, who considered it as the presage of some +violent earthquake; for, according to popular notions, all +extraordinary phenomena are immediately connected with each other. +Coloured circles around the moon are much more rare in northern +countries than in Provence, Italy, and Spain. They are seen +particularly (and this fact is singular enough) when the sky is +clear, and the weather seems to be most fair and settled. Under the +torrid zone beautiful prismatic colours appear almost every night, +and even at the time of the greatest droughts; often in the space +of a few minutes they disappear several times, because, doubtless, +the superior currents change the state of the floating vapours, by +which the light is refracted. I sometimes even observed, between +the fifteenth degree of latitude and the equator, small halos +around the planet Venus; the purple, orange, and violet, were +distinctly perceived: but I never saw any colours around Sirius, +Canopus, or Acherner. + +While the halo was visible at Cumana, the hygrometer denoted great +humidity; nevertheless the vapours appeared so perfectly in +solution, or rather so elastic and uniformly disseminated, that +they did not alter the transparency of the atmosphere. The moon +arose after a storm of rain, behind the castle of San Antonio. As +soon as she appeared on the horizon, we distinguished two circles: +one large and whitish, forty-four degrees in diameter; the other a +small circle of 1 degree 43 minutes, displaying all the colours of +the rainbow. The space between the two circles was of the deepest +azure. At four degrees height, they disappeared, while the +meteorological instruments indicated not the slightest change in +the lower regions of the air. This phenomenon had nothing +extraordinary, except the great brilliancy of the colours, added to +the circumstance, that, according to the measures taken with +Ramsden's sextant, the lunar disk was not exactly in the centre of +the haloes. Without this actual measurement we might have thought +that the excentricity was the effect of the projection of the +circles on the apparent concavity of the sky. + +If the situation of our house at Cumana was highly favourable for +the observation of the stars and meteorological phenomena, it +obliged us to be sometimes the witnesses of painful scenes during +the day. A part of the great square is surrounded with arcades, +above which is one of those long wooden galleries, common in warm +countries. This was the place where slaves, brought from the coast +of Africa, were sold. Of all the European governments Denmark was +the first, and for a long time the only power, which abolished the +traffic; yet notwithstanding that fact, the first negroes we saw +exposed for sale had been landed from a Danish slave-ship. What are +the duties of humanity, national honour, or the laws of their +country, to men stimulated by the speculations of sordid interest? + +The slaves exposed to sale were young men from fifteen to twenty +years of age. Every morning cocoa-nut oil was distributed among +them, with which they rubbed their bodies, to give their skin a +black polish. The persons who came to purchase examined the teeth +of these slaves, to judge of their age and health; forcing open +their mouths as we do those of horses in a market. This odious +custom dates from Africa, as is proved by the faithful pictures +drawn by the inimitable Cervantes,* who after his long captivity +among the Moors, described the sale of Christian slaves at Algiers. +(* El Trato de Argel. Jorn. 2 Viage al Parnasso 1784 page 316.) It +is distressing to think that even at this day there exist European +colonists in the West Indies who mark their slaves with a hot iron, +to know them again if they escape. This is the treatment bestowed +on those "who save other men the labour of sowing, tilling, and +reaping."* (* La Bruyere Caracteres edition 1765 chapter 11 page +300. I will here cite a passage strongly characteristic of La +Bruyere's benevolent feeling for his fellow-creatures. "We find +(under the torrid zone) certain wild animals, male and female, +scattered through the country, black, livid, and all over scorched +by the sun, bent to the earth which they dig and turn up with +invincible perseverance. They have something like articulate +utterance; and when they stand up on their feet, they exhibit a +human face, and in fact these creatures are men.") + +In 1800 the number of slaves did not exceed six thousand in the two +provinces of Cumana and Barcelona, when at the same period the +whole population was estimated at one hundred and ten thousand +inhabitants. The trade in African slaves, which the laws of the +Spaniards have never favoured, is almost as nothing on these coasts +where the trade in American slaves was carried on in the sixteenth +century with desolating activity. Macarapan, anciently called +Amaracapana, Cumana, Araya, and particularly New Cadiz, built on +the islet of Cubagua, might then be considered as commercial +establishments for facilitating the slave trade. Girolamo Benzoni +of Milan, who at the age of twenty-two visited Terra Firma, took +part in some expeditions in 1542 to the coasts of Bordones, +Cariaco, and Paria, to carry off the unfortunate natives, he +relates with simplicity, and often with a sensibility not common in +the historians of that time, the examples of cruelty of which he +was a witness. He saw the slaves dragged to New Cadiz, to be marked +on the forehead and on the arms, and for the payment of the quint +to the officers of the crown. From this port the Indians were sent +to the island of Haiti or St. Domingo, after having often changed +masters, not by way of sale, but because the soldiers played for +them at dice. + +The first excursion we made was to the peninsula of Araya, and +those countries formerly celebrated for the slave-trade and the +pearl-fishery. We embarked on the Rio Manzanares, near the Indian +suburb, on the 19th of August, about two in the morning. The +principal objects of this excursion were, to see the ruins of the +castle of Araya, to examine the salt-works, and to make a few +geological observations on the mountains forming the narrow +peninsula of Maniquarez. The night was delightfully cool; swarms of +phosphorescent insects* glistened in the air (* Elater noctilucus. +), and over a soil covered with sesuvium, and groves of mimosa +which bordered the river. We know how common the glow-worm* (* +Lampyris italica, L. noctiluca.) is in Italy and in all the south +of Europe, but the picturesque effect it produces cannot be +compared to those innumerable, scattered, and moving lights, which +embellish the nights of the torrid zone, and seem to repeat on the +earth, along the vast extent of the savannahs, the brilliancy of +the starry vault of heaven. + +When, on descending the river, we drew near plantations, or charas, +we saw bonfires kindled by the negroes. A light and undulating +smoke rose to the tops of the palm-trees, and imparted a reddish +hue to the disk of the moon. It was on a Sunday night, and the +slaves were dancing to the music of the guitar. The people of +Africa, of negro race, are endowed with an inexhaustible store of +activity and gaiety. After having ended the labours of the week, +the slaves, on festival days, prefer to listless sleep the +recreations of music and dancing. + +The bark in which we passed the gulf of Cariaco was very spacious. +Large skins of the jaguar, or American tiger, were spread for our +repose during the night. Though we had yet scarcely been two months +in the torrid zone, we had already become so sensible to the +smallest variation of temperature that the cold prevented us from +sleeping; while, to our surprise, we saw that the centigrade +thermometer was as high as 21.8 degrees. This fact is familiar to +those who have lived long in the Indies, and is worthy the +attention of physiologists. Bouguer relates, that when he reached +the summit of Montagne Pelee, in the island of Martinique, he and +his companions shivered with cold, though the heat was above 21.5 +degrees. In reading the interesting narrative of captain Bligh, +who, in consequence of a mutiny on board the Bounty, was forced to +make a voyage of twelve hundred leagues in an open boat, we find +that that navigator, in the tenth and twelfth degrees of south +latitude, suffered much more from cold than from hunger. During our +abode at Guayaquil, in the month of January 1803, we observed that +the natives covered themselves, and complained of the cold, when +the thermometer sank to 23.8 degrees, whilst they felt the heat +suffocating at 30.5 degrees. Six or seven degrees were sufficient +to cause the opposite sensations of cold and heat; because, on +these coasts of South America, the ordinary temperature of the +atmosphere is twenty-eight degrees. The humidity, which modifies +the conducting power of the air for heat, contributes greatly to +these impressions. In the port of Guayaquil, as everywhere else in +the low regions of the torrid zone, the weather grows cool only +after storms of rain: and I have observed that when the thermometer +sinks to 23.8 degrees, De Luc's hygrometer keeps up to fifty and +fifty-two degrees; it is, on the contrary, at thirty-seven degrees +in a temperature of 30.5 degrees. At Cumana, during very heavy +showers, people in the streets are heard exclaiming, que hielo! +estoy emparamado;* though the thermometer exposed to the rain sinks +only to 21.5 degrees. (* "What an icy cold! I shiver as if I was on +the top of the mountains." The provincial word emparamarse can be +translated only by a very long periphrasis. Paramo, in Peruvian +puna, is a denomination found on all the maps of Spanish America. +In the colonies it signifies neither a desert nor a heath, but a +mountainous place covered with stunted trees, exposed to the winds, +and in which a damp cold perpetually reigns. In the torrid zone, +the paramos are generally from one thousand six hundred to two +thousand toises high. Snow often falls on them, but it remains only +a few hours; for we must not confound, as geographers often do, the +words paramo and puna with that of nevado, in Peruvian ritticapa, a +mountain which enters into the limits of perpetual snow. These +notions are highly interesting to geology and the geography of +plants; because, in countries where no height has been measured, we +may form an exact idea of the lowest height to which the +Cordilleras rise, on looking into the map for the words paramo and +nevado. As the paramos are almost continually enveloped in a cold +and thick fog, the people say at Santa Fe and at Mexico, cae un +paramito when a thick small rain falls, and the temperature of the +air sinks considerably. From paramo has been made emparamarse, +which signifies to be as cold as if we were on the ridge of the +Andes.) From these observations it follows, that between the +tropics, in plains where the temperature of the air is in the +day-time almost invariably above twenty-seven degrees, warmer +clothing during the night is requisite, whenever in a damp air the +thermometer sinks four or five degrees. + +We landed about eight in the morning at the point of Araya, near +the new salt-works. A solitary house, near a battery of three guns, +the only defence of this coast, since the destruction of the fort +of Santiago, is the abode of the inspector. It is surprising that +these salt-works, which formerly excited the jealousy of the +English, Dutch, and other maritime powers, have not created a +village, or even a farm; a few huts only of poor Indian fishermen +are found at the extremity of the point of Araya. + +This spot commands a view of the islet of Cubagua, the lofty hills +of Margareta, the ruins of the castle of Santiago, the Cerro de la +Vela, and the calcareous chain of the Brigantine, which bounds the +horizon towards the south. I availed myself of this view to take +the angles between these different points, from a basis of four +hundred toises, which I measured between the battery and the hill +called the Pena. As the Cerro de la Vela, the Brigantine, and the +castle of San Antonio at Cumana, are equally visible from the Punta +Arenas, situated to the west of the village of Maniquarez, the same +objects were available for an approximate determination of the +respective positions of several points, which are laid down in the +mineralogical chart of the peninsula of Araya. + +The abundance of salt contained in the peninsula of Araya was known +to Alonzo Nino, when, following the tracks of Columbus, Ojeda, and +Amerigo Vespucci, he visited these countries in 1499. Though of all +the people on the globe the natives of South America consume the +least salt, because they scarcely eat anything but vegetables, it +nevertheless appears, that at an early period the Guayquerias dug +into the clayey and muriatiferous soil of Punta Arenas. Even the +brine-pits, now called new, (la salina nueva,) situated at the +extremity of Cape Araya, were worked in very remote times. The +Spaniards, who settled at first at Cubagua, and soon after on the +coasts of Cumana, worked, from the beginning of the sixteenth +century, the salt marshes which stretch away like a lagoon to the +north of Cerro de la Vela. As at that period the peninsula of Araya +had no settled population, the Dutch availed themselves of the +natural riches of a soil which appeared to be property common to +all nations. In our days, each colony has its own salt-works, and +navigation is so much improved, that the merchants of Cadiz can +send, at a small expense, salt from Spain and Portugal to the +southern hemisphere, a distance of 1900 leagues, to cure meat at +Monte Video and Buenos Ayres. These advantages were unknown at the +time of the conquest; colonial industry had then made so little +progress, that the salt of Araya was carried, at great expense, to +the West India Islands, Carthagena, and Portobello. In 1605, the +court of Madrid sent armed ships to Punta Araya, with orders to +expel the Dutch by force of arms. The Dutch, however, continued to +carry on a contraband trade in salt till, in 1622, there was built +near the salt-works a fort, which afterwards became celebrated +under the name of the Castillo de Santiago, or the Real Fuerza de +Araya. The great salt-marshes are laid down on the oldest Spanish +maps, sometimes as a bay, and at other times as a lagoon. Laet, who +wrote his Orbis Novus in 1633, and who had some excellent notions +respecting these coasts, expressly states, that the lagoon was +separated from the sea by an isthmus above the level of high water. +In 1726, an impetuous hurricane destroyed the salt-works of Araya, +and rendered the fort, the construction of which had cost more than +a million of piastres, useless. This hurricane was a very rare +phenomenon in these regions, where the sea is in general as calm as +the water in our large rivers. The waves overflowed the land to a +great extent; and by the effect of this eruption of the ocean the +salt lake was converted into a gulf several miles in length. Since +that period, artificial reservoirs, or pits, (vasets,) have been +formed, to the north of the range of hills which separates the +castle from the north coast of the peninsula. + +The consumption of salt amounted, in 1799 and 1800, in the two +provinces of Cumana* and Barcelona, to nine or ten thousand +fanegas, each sixteen arrobas, or four hundredweight. This +consumption is very considerable, and gives, if we deduct from the +total population fifty thousand Indians, who eat very little salt, +sixty pounds for each person. Salt beef, called tasajo, is the most +important article of export from Barcelona. Of nine or ten thousand +fanegas furnished by the two provinces conjointly, three thousand +only are produced by the salt-works of Araya; the rest is extracted +from the sea-water at the Morro of Barcelona, at Pozuelos, at +Piritu, and in the Golfo Triste. In Mexico, the salt lake of Penon +Blanco alone furnishes yearly more than two hundred and fifty +thousand fanegas of unpurified salt. (* At the period of my visit +to that country the government of Cumana comprehended the two +provinces of New Andalusia and New Barcelona. The words province +and govierno, or government of Cumana, are consequently not +synonymous. A Catalonian, Juan de Urpin, who had been by turns a +canon, a doctor of laws, a counsellor in St. Domingo, and a private +soldier in the castle of Araya, founded in 1636, the city of New +Barcelona, and attempted to give the name of New Catalonia (Nueva +Cathaluna) to the province of which this newly constructed city +became the capital. This attempt was fruitless; and it is from the +capital that the whole province took its name. Since my departure +from America, it has been raised to the rank of a Govierno. In New +Andalusia, the Indian name of Cumana has superseded the names Nueva +Toledo and Nueva Cordoba, which we find on the maps of the +seventeenth century.) + +The province of Caracas possesses fine salt-works at Los Roques; +those which formerly existed at the small island of Tortuga, where +the soil is strongly impregnated with muriate of soda, were +destroyed by order of the Spanish government. A canal was made by +which the sea has free access to the salt-marshes. Foreign nations +who have colonies in the West Indies frequented this uninhabited +island; and the court of Madrid, from views of suspicious policy, +was apprehensive that the salt-works of Tortuga would give rise to +settlements, by means of which an illicit trade would be carried on +with Terra Firma. + +The royal administration of the salt-works of Araya dates only from +the year 1792. Before that period they were in the hands of Indian +fishermen, who manufactured salt at their pleasure, and sold it, +paying the government the moderate sum of three hundred piastres. +The price of the fanega was then four reals;* (* In this narrative, +as well as in the Political Essay on New Spain, all the prices are +reckoned in piastres, and silver reals (reales de plata). Eight of +these reals are equivalent to a piastre, or one hundred and five +sous, French money (4 shillings 4 1/2 pence English). Nouv. Esp. +volume 2 pages 519, 616 and 866.) but the salt was extremely +impure, grey, mixed with earthy particles, and surcharged with +muriate and sulphate of magnesia. Since the province of Cumana has +become dependent on the intendancia of Caracas, the sale of salt is +under the control of the excise; and the fanega, which the +Guayquerias sold at half a piastre, costs a piastre and a half.* (* +The fanega of salt is sold to those Indians and fishermen who do +not pay the duties (derechos reales), at Punta Araya for six, at +Cumana for eight reals. The prices to the other tribes are, at +Araya ten, at Cumana twelve reals.) This augmentation of price is +slightly compensated by greater purity of the salt, and by the +facility with which the fishermen and farmers can procure it in +abundance during the whole year. The salt-works of Araya yielded to +the treasury, in 1799, a clear income of eight thousand piastres. + +Considered as a branch of industry the salt produced here is not of +any great importance, but the nature of the soil which contains the +salt-marshes is well worthy of attention. In order to obtain a +clear idea of the geological connection existing between this +muriatiferous soil and the rocks of more ancient formation, we +shall take a general view of the neighbouring mountains of Cumana, +and those of the peninsula of Araya, and the island of Margareta. + +Three great parallel chains extend from east to west. The two most +northerly chains are primitive, and contain the mica-slates of +Macanao, and the San Juan Valley, of Maniquarez, and of +Chuparipari. These we shall distinguish by the names of Cordillera +of the island of Margareta, and Cordillera of Araya. The third +chain, the most southerly of the whole, the Cordillera of the +Brigantine and of the Cocollar, contains rocks only of secondary +formation; and, what is remarkable enough, though analogous to the +geological constitution of the Alps westward of St. Gothard, the +primitive chain is much less elevated than that which was composed +of secondary rocks.* (* In New Andalusia, the Cordillera of the +Cocollar nowhere contains primitive rocks. If these rocks form the +nucleus of this chain, and rise above the level of the neighbouring +plains, which is scarcely probable, we must suppose that they are +all covered with limestone and sandstone. In the Swiss Alps, on the +contrary, the chain which is designated under the too vague +denomination of lateral and calcareous, contains primitive rocks, +which, according to the observations of Escher and Leopold von +Buch, are often visible to the height of eight hundred or a +thousand toises.) The sea has separated the two northern +Cordilleras, those of the island of Margareta and the peninsula of +Araya; and the small islands of Coche and of Cubagua are remnants +of the land that was submerged. Farther to the south, the vast gulf +Cariaco stretches away, like a longitudinal valley formed by the +irruption of the sea, between the two small chains of Araya and the +Cocollar, between the mica-slate and the Alpine limestone. We shall +soon see that the direction of the strata, very regular in the +first of these rocks, is not quite parallel with the general +direction of the gulf. In the high Alps of Europe, the great +longitudinal valley of the Rhone also sometimes cuts at an oblique +angle the calcareous banks in which it has been excavated. + +The two parallel chains of Araya and the Cocollar were connected, +to the east of the town of Cariaco, between the lakes of Campoma +and Putaquao, by a kind of transverse dyke, which bears the name of +Cerro de Meapire, and which in distant times, by resisting the +impulse of the waves, has hindered the waters of the gulf of +Cariaco from uniting with those of the gulf of Paria. Thus, in +Switzerland, the central chain, that which passes by the Col de +Ferrex, the Simplon, St. Gothard, and the Splugen, is connected on +the north and the south with two lateral chains, by the mountains +of Furca and Maloya. It is interesting to recall to mind those +striking analogies exhibited in both continents by the external +structure of the globe. + +The primitive chain of Araya ends abruptly in the meridian of the +village of Maniquarez; and the western slope of the peninsula, as +well as the plains in the midst of which stands the castle of San +Antonio, is covered with very recent formations of sandstone and +clay mixed with gypsum. Near Maniquarez, breccia or sandstone with +calcareous cement, which might easily be confounded with real +limestone, lies immediately over the mica-slate; while on the +opposite side, near Punta Delgada, this sandstone covers a compact +bluish grey limestone, almost destitute of petrifactions, and +traversed by small veins of calcareous spar. This last rock is +analogous to the limestone of the high Alps.* (* Alpenkalkstein.) + +The very recent sandstone formation of the peninsula of Araya +contains:--first, near Punta Arenas, a stratified sandstone, +composed of very fine grains, united by a calcareous cement in +small quantity;--secondly, at the Cerro de la Vela, a schistose +sandstone,* (* Sandsteinschiefer.) without mica, and passing into +slate-clay,* (* Thonschiefer.) which accompanies coal;--thirdly, on +the western side, between Punta Gorda and the ruins of the castle +of Santiago, breccia composed of petrified sea-shells united by a +calcareous cement, in which are mingled grains of quartz;--fourthly, +near the point of Barigon, whence the stone employed +for building at Cumana is obtained, banks of yellowish white shelly +limestone, in which are found some scattered grains of +quartz;--fifthly, at Penas Negras, at the top of the Cerro de la Vela, a +bluish grey compact limestone, very tender, almost without +petrifactions, and covering the schistose sandstone. However +extraordinary this mixture of sandstone and compact limestone* (* +Dichter kalkstein.) may appear, we cannot doubt that these strata +belong to one and the same formation. The very recent secondary +rocks everywhere present analogous phenomena; the molasse of the +Pays de Vaud contains a fetid shelly limestone, and the cerite +limestone of the banks of the Seine is sometimes mixed with +sandstone. + +The strata of calcareous breccia are composed of an infinite number +of sea-shells, from four to six inches in diameter, and in part +well preserved. We find they contain not ammonites, but +ampullaires, solens, and terebratulae. The greater part of these +shells are mixed: the oysters and pectinites being sometimes +arranged in families. The whole are easily detached, and their +interior is filled with fossil madrepores and cellepores. We have +now to speak of a fourth formation, which probably rests* on the +calcareous sandstone of Araya, I mean the muriatiferous clay. (* It +were to be wished that mineralogical travellers would examine more +particularly the Cerro de la Vela. The limestone of the Penas +Negras rests on a slate-clay, mixed with quartzose sand; but there +is no proof of the muriatiferous clay of the salt-works being of +more ancient formation than this slate-clay, or of its alternating +with banks of sandstone. No well having been dug in these +countries, we can have no information respecting the superposition +of the strata. The banks of calcareous sandstone, which are found +at the mouth of the salt lake, and near the fishermen's huts on the +coast opposite Cape Macano, appeared to me to lie beneath the +muriatiferous clay.) This clay, hardened, impregnated with +petroleum, and mixed with lamellar and lenticular gypsum, is +analogous to the salzthon, which in Europe accompanies the sal-gem +of Berchtesgaden, and in South America that of Zipaquira. It is +generally of a smoke-grey colour, earthy, and friable; but it +encloses more solid masses of a blackish brown, of a schistose, and +sometimes conchoidal fracture. These fragments, from six to eight +inches long, have an angular form. When they are very small, they +give the clay a porphyroidal appearance. We find disseminated in +it, as we have already observed, either in nests or in small veins, +selenite, and sometimes, though seldom, fibrous gypsum. It is +remarkable enough, that this stratum of clay, as well as the banks +of pure sal-gem and the salzthon in Europe, scarcely ever contains +shells, while the rocks adjacent exhibit them in great abundance. + +Although the muriate of soda is not found visible to the eye in the +clay of Araya, we cannot doubt of its existence. It shows itself in +large crystals, if we sprinkle the mass with rain-water and expose +it to the sun. The lagoon to the east of the castle of Santiago +exhibits all the phenomena which have been observed in the salt +lakes of Siberia, described by Lepechin, Gmelin, and Pallas. This +lagoon receives, however, only the rain-waters, which filter +through the banks of clay, and unite at the lowest point of the +peninsula. While the lagoon served as a salt-work to the Spaniards +and the Dutch, it did not communicate with the sea; at present this +communication has been interrupted anew, by faggots placed at the +place where the waters of the ocean made an irruption in 1726. +After great droughts, crystallized and very pure muriate of soda, +in masses of three or four cubic feet, is still drawn from time to +time from the bottom of the lagoon. The salt waters of the lake, +exposed to the heat of the sun, evaporate at their surface; crusts +of salt, formed in a saturated solution, fall to the bottom; and by +the attraction between crystals of a similar nature and form, the +crystallized masses daily augment. It is generally observed that +the water is brackish wherever lagoons are formed in clayey ground. +It is true, that for the new salt-work near the battery of Araya, +the seawater is received into pits, as in the salt marshes of the +south of France; but in the island of Margareta, near Pampatar, +salt is manufactured by employing only fresh water, with which the +muriatiferous clay has first been lixiviated. + +We must not confound the salt disseminated in these clayey soils +with that contained in the sands of the seashore, on the coasts of +Normandy. These phenomena, considered in a geognostical point of +view, have scarcely any properties in common. I have seen +muriatiferous clay at the level of the ocean at Punta Araya, and at +two thousand toises' height in the Cordilleras of New Grenada. If +in the former of these places it lies on very recent shelly +breccia, it forms, on the contrary, in Austria near Ischel, a +considerable stratum in the Alpine limestone, which, though equally +posterior to the existence of organic life on the globe, is +nevertheless of high antiquity, as is proved by the great number of +rocks with which it is covered. We shall not question, that +sal-gem, either pure or mixed with muriatiferous clay, may have +been deposited by an ancient sea; but everything evinces that it +was formed during an order of things bearing no resemblance to that +in which the sea at present, by a slower operation, deposits a few +particles of muriate of soda on the sands of our shores. In the +same manner as sulphur and coal belong to periods of formation very +remote from each other, the sal-gem is also found sometimes in +transition gypsum,* (* Uebergangsgyps, in the transition slate of +White Alley (l'Allee Blanche), and between the grauwacke and black +transition limestone near Bex, below the Dent de Chamossaire, +according to M. von Buch.) sometimes in the Alpine limestone,* (* +At Halle in the Tyrol.) sometimes in a muriatiferous clay lying on +a very recent sandstone,* (* At Punta Araya.) and lastly, sometimes +in a gypsum* posterior to the chalk. (* Gypsum of the third +formation among the secondary gypsums. The first formation contains +the gypsum in which are found the brine-springs of Thuringia, and +which is placed either in the Alpine limestone or zechstein, to +which it essentially belongs (Freiesleben Geognost. Arbeiten tome 2 +page 131), or between the zechstein and the limestone of the Jura, +or between the zechstein and the new sandstone. It is the ancient +gypsum of secondary formation of Werner's school (alterer +flozgyps), which we almost preferably call muriatiferous gypsum. +The second formation is composed of fibrous gypsum, placed either +in the molasse or new sandstone, or between this and the upper +limestone. It abounds in common clay, which differs essentially +from the salzthon or muriatiferous clay. The third formation of +gypsum is more recent than chalk. To this belongs the bony gypsum +of Paris; and, as appears from the researches of Mr. Steffens +(Geogn. Aufsatsze 1810 page 142), the gypsum of Segeberg, in +Holstein, in which sal-gem is sometimes disseminated in very small +nests (Jenaische Litteratur-Zeitung 1813 page 100). The gypsum of +Paris, lying between a cerite limestone, which covers chalk and a +sandstone without shells, is distinguished by fossil bones of +quadrupeds, while the Segeberg and Lunebourg gypsums, the position +of which is more uncertain, are characterized by the boracits which +they contain. Two other formations, far anterior to the three we +have just mentioned, are the transition gypsum (ubergangsgyps) of +Aigle, and the primitive gypsum (urgyps) of the valley of Canaria, +near Airolo. I flatter myself that I may render some service to +those geologists who prefer the knowledge of positive facts to +speculation on the origin of things, by furnishing them with +materials from which they may generalize their ideas on the +formation of rocks in both hemispheres. The relative antiquity of +the formations is the principal object of a science which is to +render us acquainted with the structure of the globe; that is to +say, the nature of the strata which constitute the crust of our +planet.) + +The new salt-works of Araya have five reservoirs, or pits, the +largest of which have two thousand three hundred square toises +surface. Their mean depth is eight inches. Use is made both of the +rain-water, which by filtration collects at the lowest part of the +plain, and of the water of the sea, which enters by canals, or +martellieres, when the flood-tide is favoured by the winds. The +situation of these new salt-works is less advantageous than that of +the lagoon. The waters which fall into the latter pass over steeper +slopes, washing a greater extent of ground. + +The earth already lixiviated is never carried away here, as it is +from time to time in the island of Margareta; nor have wells been +dug in the muriatiferous clay, with the view of finding strata +richer in muriate of soda. The salineros, or salt-workers generally +complain of want of rain; and in the new salt-works, it appears to +me difficult to determine what quantity of salt is derived solely +from the waters of the sea. The natives estimate it at a sixth of +the total produce. The evaporation is extremely strong, and +favoured by the constant motion of the air; so that the salt is +collected in eighteen or twenty days after the pits are filled. + +Though the muriate of soda is manufactured with less care in the +peninsula of Araya than at the salt-works of Europe, it is +nevertheless purer, and contains less of earthy muriates and +sulphates. We know not whether this purity may be attributed to +that portion of the salt which is furnished by the sea; for though +it is extremely probable, that the quantity of salt dissolved in +the waters of the ocean is nearly the same under every zone, it is +not less uncertain whether the proportion between the muriate of +soda, the muriate and sulphate of magnesia, and the sulphate and +carbonate of lime, be equally invariable. + +Having examined the salt-works, and terminated our geodesical +operations, we departed at the decline of day to sleep at an Indian +hut, some miles distant, near the ruins of the castle of Araya. +Directing our course southward, we traversed first the plain +covered with muriatiferous clay, and stripped of vegetation; then +two chains of hills of sandstone, between which the lagoon is +situated. Night overtook us while we were in a narrow path, +bordered on one side by the sea, and on the other by a range of +perpendicular rocks. The tide was rising rapidly, and narrowed the +road at every step. We at length arrived at the foot of the old +castle of Araya, where we enjoyed a prospect that had in it +something lugubrious and romantic. The ruins stand on a bare and +arid mountain, crowned with agave, columnar cactus, and thorny +mimosas: they bear less resemblance to the works of man, than to +those masses of rock which were ruptured at the early revolutions +of the globe. + +We were desirous of stopping to admire this majestic spectacle, and +to observe the setting of Venus, whose disk appeared at intervals +between the yawning crannies of the castle; but the muleteer, who +served as our guide, was parched with thirst, and pressed us +earnestly to return. He had long perceived that we had lost our +way; and as he hoped to work on our fears he continually warned us +of the danger of tigers and rattlesnakes. Venomous reptiles are, +indeed, very common near the castle of Araya; and two jaguars had +been lately killed at the entrance of the village of Maniquarez. If +we might judge from their skins, which were preserved, their size +was not less than that of the Indian tiger. We vainly represented +to our guide that those animals did not attack men where the goats +furnished them with abundant prey; we were obliged to yield, and +return. After having proceeded three quarters of an hour along a +shore covered by the tide we were joined by the negro, who carried +our provision. Uneasy at not seeing us arrive, he had come to meet +us, and he led us through a wood of nopals to a hut inhabited by an +Indian family. We were received with the cordial hospitality +observed in this country among people of every tribe. The hut in +which we slung our hammocks was very clean; and there we found +fish, plantains, and what in the torrid zone is preferable to the +most sumptuous food, excellent water. + +The next day at sunrise we found that the hut in which we had +passed the night formed part of a group of small dwellings on the +borders of the salt lake, the remains of a considerable village +which had formerly stood near the castle. The ruins of a church +were seen partly buried in the sand, and covered with brushwood. +When, in 1762, to save the expense of the garrison, the castle of +Araya was totally dismantled, the Indians and Mulattoes who were +settled in the neighbourhood emigrated by degrees to Maniquarez, to +Cariaco, and in the suburb of the Guayquerias at Cumana. A small +number, bound from affection to their native soil, remained in this +wild and barren spot. These poor people live by catching fish, +which are extremely abundant on the coast and the neighbouring +shoals. They appear satisfied with their condition, and think it +strange when they are asked why they have no gardens or culinary +vegetables. Our gardens, they reply, are beyond the gulf; when we +carry our fish to Cumana, we bring back plantains, cocoa-nuts, and +cassava. This system of economy, which favours idleness, is +followed at Maniquarez, and throughout the whole peninsula of +Araya. The chief wealth of the inhabitants consists in goats, which +are of a very large and very fine breed, and rove in the fields +like those at the Peak of Teneriffe. They have become entirely +wild, and are marked like the mules, because it would be difficult +to recognize them from their colour or the arrangement of their +spots. These wild goats are of a brownish yellow, and are not +varied in colour like domestic animals. If in hunting, a colonist +kills a goat which he does not consider as his own property, he +carries it immediately to the neighbour to whom it belongs. During +two days we heard it everywhere spoken of as a very extraordinary +circumstance, that an inhabitant of Maniquarez had lost a goat, on +which it was probable that a neighbouring family had regaled +themselves. + +Among the Mulattoes, whose huts surround the salt lake, we found it +shoemaker of Castilian descent. He received us with the air of +gravity and self-sufficiency which in those countries characterize +almost all persons who are conscious of possessing some peculiar +talent. He was employed in stretching the string of his bow, and +sharpening his arrows to shoot birds. His trade of a shoemaker +could not be very lucrative in a country where the greater part of +the inhabitants go barefooted; and he only complained that, on +account of the dearness of European gunpowder, a man of his quality +was reduced to employ the same weapons as the Indians. He was the +sage of the plain; he understood the formation of the salt by the +influence of the sun and full moon, the symptoms of earthquakes, +the marks by which mines of gold and silver are discovered, and the +medicinal plants, which, like all the other colonists from Chile to +California, he classified into hot and cold.* (* Exciting or +debilitating, the sthenic and asthenic, of Brown's system.) Having +collected the traditions of the country, he gave us some curious +accounts of the pearls of Cubagua, objects of luxury, which he +treated with the utmost contempt. To show us how familiar to him +were the sacred writings he took a pride in reminding us that Job +preferred wisdom to all the pearls of the Indies. His philosophy +was circumscribed to the narrow circle of the wants of life. The +possession of a very strong ass, able to carry a heavy load of +plantains to the embarcadero, was the consummation of all his +wishes. + +After a long discourse on the emptiness of human greatness, he drew +from a leathern pouch a few very small opaque pearls, which he +forced us to accept, enjoining us at the same time to note on our +tablets that a poor shoemaker of Araya, but a white man, and of +noble Castilian race, had been enabled to give us something which, +on the other side of the sea,* was sought for as very precious. (* +'Por alla,' or, 'del otro lado del charco,' (properly 'beyond,' or +'on the other side of the great lake'), a figurative expression, by +which the people in the Spanish colonies denote Europe.) I here +acquit myself of the promise I made to this worthy man, who +disinterestedly refused to accept of the slightest retribution. The +Pearl Coast presents the same aspect of misery as the countries of +gold and diamonds, Choco and Brazil; but misery is not there +attended with that immoderate desire of gain which is excited by +mineral wealth. + +The pearl-breeding oyster (Avicula margaritifera, Cuvier) abounds +on the shoals which extend from Cape Paria to Cape la Vela. The +islands of Margareta, Cubagua, Coche, Punta Araya, and the mouth of +the Rio la Hacha, were, in the sixteenth century, as celebrated as +were the Persian Gulf and the island of Taprobana among the +ancients. It is incorrectly alleged by some historians that the +natives of America were unacquainted with the luxury of pearls. The +first Spaniards who landed in Terra Firma found the savages decked +with pearl necklaces and bracelets; and among the civilized people +of Mexico and Peru, pearls of a beautiful form were extremely +sought after. I have published a dissertation on the statue of a +Mexican priestess in basalt, whose head-dress, resembling the +calantica of the heads of Isis, is ornamented with pearls. Las +Casas and Benzoni have described, but not without some +exaggeration, the cruelties which were exercised on the unhappy +Indian slaves and negroes employed in the pearl fishery. At the +beginning of the conquest the island of Coche alone furnished +pearls amounting in value to fifteen hundred marks per month. + +The quint which the king's officers drew from the produce of +pearls, amounted to fifteen thousand ducats; which, according to +the value of the precious metals in those times, and the +extensiveness of contraband trade, may be regarded as a very +considerable sum. It appears that till 1530 the value of the pearls +sent to Europe amounted yearly on an average to more than eight +hundred thousand piastres. In order to judge of the importance of +this branch of commerce to Seville, Toledo, Antwerp, and Genoa, we +should recollect that at the same period the whole of the mines of +America did not furnish two millions of piastres; and that the +fleet of Ovando was thought to contain immense wealth, because it +had on board nearly two thousand six hundred marks of silver. +Pearls were the more sought after, as the luxury of Asia had been +introduced into Europe by two ways diametrically opposite: that of +Constantinople, where the Palaeologi wore garments covered with +strings of pearls; and that of Grenada, the residence of the +Moorish kings, who displayed at their court all the luxury of the +East. The pearls of the East were preferred to those of the West; +but the number of the latter which circulated in commerce was +nevertheless considerable at the period immediately following the +discovery of America. In Italy as well as in Spain, the islet of +Cubagua became the object of numerous mercantile speculations. + +Benzoni* relates the adventure of one Luigi Lampagnano, to whom +Charles the Fifth granted the privilege of proceeding with five +caravels to the coasts of Cumana to fish for pearls. (* La Hist. +del Mondo Nuovo page 34. Luigi Lampagnano, a relation of the +assassin of the Duke of Milan, Galeazzo Maria Sforza, could not pay +the merchants of Seville who had advanced the money for his voyage; +he remained five years at Cubagua, and died in a fit of insanity.) +The colonists sent him back with this bold message: "That the +emperor was too liberal of what was not his own, and that he had no +right to dispose of the oysters which live at the bottom of the +sea." + +The pearl fishery diminished rapidly about the end of the sixteenth +century; and, according to Laet, it had long ceased in 1633.* (* +"Insularum Cubaguae et Coches quondam magna fuit dignitas, quum +Unionum captura floreret: nunc, illa deficiente, obscura admodum +fama." Laet Nova Orbis page 669. This accurate compiler, speaking +of Punta Araya, adds, this country is so forgotten, "ut vix ulla +Americae meridionalis pars hodie obscurior sit.") The industry of +the Venetians, who imitated fine pearls with great exactness, and +the frequent use of cut diamonds,* rendered the fisheries of +Cubagua less lucrative. (* The cutting of diamonds was invented by +Lewis de Berquen, in 1456, but the art became common only in the +following century.) At the same time, the oysters which yielded the +pearls became scarcer, not, because, according to a popular +tradition, they were frightened by the sound of the oars, and +removed elsewhere; but because their propagation had been impeded +by the imprudent destruction of the shells by thousands. The +pearl-bearing oyster is of a more delicate nature than most of the +other acephalous mollusca. At the island of Ceylon, where, in the +bay of Condeatchy, the fishery employs six hundred divers, and +where the annual produce is more than half a million of piastres, +it has vainly been attempted to transplant the oysters to other +parts of the coast. The government permits fishing there only +during a single month; while at Cubagua the bank of shells was +fished at all seasons. To form an idea of the destruction of the +species caused by the divers, we must remember that a boat +sometimes collects, in two or three weeks, more than thirty-five +thousand oysters. The animal lives but nine or ten years; and it is +only in its fourth year that the pearls begin to show themselves. +In ten thousand shells there is often not a single pearl of value. +Tradition records that on the bank of Margareta the fishermen +opened the shells one by one: in the island of Ceylon the animals +are thrown into heaps to rot in the air; and to separate the pearls +which are not attached to the shell, the animal pulp is washed, as +miners wash the sand which contains grains of gold, tin, or +diamonds. + +At present Spanish America furnishes no other pearls for trade than +those of the gulf of Panama, and the mouth of the Rio de la Hacha. +On the shoals which surround Cubagua, Coche, and the island of +Margareta, the fishery is as much neglected as on the coasts of +California.* (* I am astonished at never having heard, in the +course of my travels, of pearls found in the fresh-water shells of +South America, though several species of the Unio genus abound in +the rivers of Peru.) It is believed at Cumana, that the +pearl-oyster has greatly multiplied after two centuries of repose; +and in 1812, some new attempts were made at Margareta for the +fishing of pearls. It has been asked, why the pearls found at +present in shells which become entangled in the fishermen's nets +are so small, and have so little brilliancy,* whilst, on the +Spaniards' arrival, they were extremely beautiful, though the +Indians doubtless had not taken the trouble of diving to collect +them. (* The inhabitants of Araya sometimes sell these small pearls +to the retail dealers of Cumana. The ordinary price is one piastre +per dozen.) The problem is so much the more difficult to solve, as +we know not whether earthquakes may have altered the nature of the +bottom of the sea, or whether the changes of the submarine currents +may have had an influence either on the temperature of the water, +or on the abundance of certain mollusca on which the Aronde feeds. + +On the morning of the 20th our host's son, a young and very robust +Indian, conducted us by the way of Barigon and Caney to the village +of Maniquarez, which was four hours' walk. From the effect of the +reverberation of the sands, the thermometer kept up to 31.3 +degrees. The cylindric cactus, which bordered the road, gave the +landscape an appearance of verdure, without affording either +coolness or shade. Before our guide had walked a league, he began +to sit down every moment, and at length he wished to repose under +the shade of a fine tamarind tree near Casas de la Vela, to await +the approach of night. This characteristic trait, which we observed +every time we travelled with Indians, has given rise to very +erroneous ideas of the physical constitutions of the different +races of men. The copper-coloured native, more accustomed to the +burning heat of the climate, than the European traveller, complains +more, because he is stimulated by no interest. Money is without +attraction for him; and if he permits himself to be tempted by gain +for a moment, he repents of his resolution as soon as he is on the +road. The same Indian, who would complain, when in herborizing we +loaded him with a box filled with plants, would row his canoe +fourteen or fifteen hours together, against the strongest current, +because he wished to return to his family. In order to form a true +judgment of the muscular strength of the people, we should observe +them in circumstances where their actions are determined by a +necessity and a will equally energetic. + +We examined the ruins of Santiago,* the structure of which is +remarkable for its extreme solidity. (* On the map accompanying +Robertson's History of America, we find the name of this castle +confounded with that of Nueva Cordoba. This latter denomination was +formerly synonymous with Cumana.--Herrera, page 14.) The walls of +freestone, five feet thick, have been blown up by mines; but we +still found masses of seven or eight hundred feet square, which +have scarcely a crack in them. Our guide showed us a cistern +(aljibe) thirty feet deep, which, though much damaged, furnishes +water to the inhabitants of the peninsula of Araya. This cistern +was finished in 1681, by the governor Don Juan de Padilla +Guardiola, the same who built at Cumana the small fort of Santa +Maria. As the basin is covered with an arched vault, the water, +which is of excellent quality, keeps very cool: the confervae, +while they decompose the carburetted hydrogen, also shelter worms +which hinder the propagation of small insects. It had been believed +for ages, that the peninsula of Araya was entirely destitute of +springs of fresh water; but in 1797, after many useless researches, +the inhabitants of Maniquarez succeeded in discovering some. + +In crossing the arid hills of Cape Cirial, we perceived a strong +smell of petroleum. The wind blew from the direction in which the +springs of this substance are found, and which were mentioned by +the first historians of these countries.* (* Oviedo terms it "A +resinous, aromatic, and medicinal liquor.") Near the village of +Maniquarez, the mica-slate* (* The Piedra pelada of the Creoles.) +comes out from below the secondary rock, forming a chain of +mountains from one hundred and fifty to one hundred and eighty +toises in height. The direction of the primitive rock near Cape +Sotto is from north-east to south-west; its strata incline fifty +degrees to the north-west. The mica-slate is silvery white, of +lamellar and undulated texture, and contains garnets. Strata of +quartz, the thickness of which varies from three to four toises, +traverse the mica-slate, as we may observe in several ravines +hollowed out by the waters. We detached with difficulty a fragment +of cyanite from a block of splintered and milky quartz, which was +isolated on the shore. This was the only time we found this +substance in South America.* (* In New Spain, the cyanite has been +discovered only in the province of Guatimala, at Estancia +Grande,--Del Rio Tablas Min. 1804 page 27.) + +The potteries of Maniquarez, celebrated from time immemorial, form +a branch of industry which is exclusively in the hands of the +Indian women. The manufacture is still carried on according to the +method used before the conquest. It indicates both the infancy of +the art, and that unchangeability of manners which is +characteristic of all the natives of America. Three centuries have +been insufficient to introduce the potter's-wheel, on a coast which +is not above thirty or forty days' sail from Spain. The natives +have some confused notions with respect to the existence of this +machine, and they would no doubt make use of it if it were +introduced among them. The quarries whence they obtain the clay are +half a league to the east of Maniquarez. This clay is produced by +natural decomposition of a mica-slate reddened by oxide of iron. +The Indian women prefer the part most abounding in mica; and with +great skill fashion vessels two or three feet in diameter, giving +them a very regular curve. As they are not acquainted with the use +of ovens, they place twigs of desmanthus, cassia, and the +arborescent capparis, around the pots, and bake them in the open +air. To the east of the quarry which furnishes the clay is the +ravine of La Mina. It is asserted that, a short time after the +conquest, some Venetians extracted gold from the mica-slate. It +appears that this metal was not collected in veins of quartz, but +was found disseminated in the rock, as it is sometimes in granite +and gneiss. + +At Maniquarez we met with some creoles, who had been hunting at +Cubagua. Deer of a small breed are so common in this uninhabited +islet, that a single individual may kill three or four in a day. I +know not by what accident these animals have got thither, for Laet +and other chroniclers of these countries, speaking of the +foundation of New Cadiz, mention only the great abundance of +rabbits. The venado of Cubagua belongs to one of those numerous +species of small American deer, which zoologists have long +confounded under the vague name of Cervus mexicanus. It does not +appear to be the same as the hind of the savannahs of Cayenne, or +the guazuti of Paraguay, which live also in herds. Its colour is a +brownish red on the back, and white under the belly; and it is +spotted like the axis. In the plains of Cari we were shown, as a +thing very rare in these hot climates, a variety quite white. It +was a female of the size of the roebuck of Europe, and of a very +elegant shape. White varieties are found in the New Continent even +among the tigers. Azara saw a jaguar, the skin of which was wholly +white, with merely the shadow, as it might be termed, of a few +circular spots. + +Of all the productions on the coasts of Araya, that which the +people consider as the most extraordinary, or we may say the most +marvellous, is 'the stone of the eyes,' (piedra de los ojos.) This +calcareous substance is a frequent subject of conversation: being, +according to the natural philosophy of the natives, both a stone +and an animal. It is found in the sand, where it is motionless; but +if placed on a polished surface, for instance on a pewter or +earthen plate, it moves when excited by lemon juice. If placed in +the eye, the supposed animal turns on itself, and expels every +other foreign substance that has been accidentally introduced. At +the new salt-works, and at the village of Maniquarez, these stones +of the eyes* were offered to us by hundreds, and the natives were +anxious to show us the experiment of the lemon juice. (* They are +found in the greatest abundance near the battery at the point of +Cape Araya.) They even wished to put sand into our eyes, in order +that we might ourselves try the efficacy of the remedy. It was easy +to see that the stones are thin and porous opercula, which have +formed part of small univalve shells. Their diameter varies from +one to four lines. One of their two surfaces is plane, and the +other convex. These calcareous opercula effervesce with lemon +juice, and put themselves in motion in proportion as the carbonic +acid is disengaged. By the effect of a similar reaction, loaves +placed in an oven move sometimes on a horizontal plane; a +phenomenon that has given occasion, in Europe, to the popular +prejudice of enchanted ovens. The piedras de los ojos, introduced +into the eye, act like the small pearls, and different round grains +employed by the American savages to increase the flowing of tears. +These explanations were little to the taste of the inhabitants of +Araya. Nature has the appearance of greatness to man in proportion +as she is veiled in mystery; and the ignorant are prone to put +faith in everything that borders on the marvellous. + +Proceeding along the southern coast, to the east of Maniquarez, we +find running out into the sea very near each other, three strips of +land, bearing the names of Punta de Soto, Punta de la Brea, and +Punta Guaratarito. In these parts the bottom of the sea is +evidently formed of mica-slate, and from it near Cape de la Brea, +but at eighty feet distant from the shore, there issues a spring of +naphtha, the smell of which penetrates into the interior of the +peninsula. It is necessary to wade into the sea up to the waist, to +examine this interesting phenomenon. The waters are covered with +zostera; and in the midst of a very extensive bank of weeds, we +distinguish a free and circular spot of three feet in diameter, on +which float a few scattered masses of Ulva lactuca. Here the +springs are found. The bottom of the gulf is covered with sand; and +the petroleum, which, from its transparency and its yellow colour, +resembles naphtha, rises in jets, accompanied by air bubbles. On +treading down the bottom with the foot, we perceive that these +little springs change their place. The naphtha covers the surface +of the sea to more than a thousand feet distant. If we suppose the +dip of the strata to be regular, the mica-slate must be but a few +toises below the sand. + +We have already observed, that the muriatiferous clay of Araya +contains solid and friable petroleum. This geological connection +between the muriate of soda and the bitumens is evident wherever +there are mines of sal-gem or salt springs: but a very remarkable +fact is the existence of a fountain of naphtha in a primitive +formation. All those hitherto known belong to secondary mountains;* +(* As at Pietra Mala; Fanano; Mont Zibio; and Amiano (in these +places are found the springs that furnish the naphtha burned in +lamps in Genoa) and also at Baikal.) a circumstance which has been +supposed to favour the idea that all mineral bitumens are owing to +the destruction of vegetables and animals, or to the burning of +coal. In the peninsula of Araya, the naphtha flows from the +primitive rock itself; and this phenomenon acquires new importance, +when we recollect that the same primitive rocks contain the +subterranean fires, that on the brink of burning craters the smell +of petroleum is perceived from time to time, and that the greater +part of the hot springs of America rise from gneiss and micaceous +schist. + +After having examined the environs of Maniquarez, we embarked at +night in a fishing-boat for Cumana. The small crazy boats employed +by the natives here, bear testimony to the extreme calmness of the +sea in these regions. Our boat, though the best we could procure, +was so leaky, that the pilot's son was constantly employed in +baling out the water with a tutuma, or shell of the Crescentia +cujete (calabash). It often happens in the gulf of Cariaco, and +especially to the north of the peninsula of Araya, that canoes +laden with cocoa-nuts are upset in sailing too near the wind, and +against the tide. + +The inhabitants of Araya, whom we visited a second time on +returning from the Orinoco, have not forgotten that their peninsula +was one of the points first peopled by the Spaniards. They love to +talk of the pearl fishery; of the ruins of the castle of Santiago, +which they hope to see some day rebuilt; and of everything that +recalls to mind the ancient splendour of those countries. In China +and Japan those inventions are considered as recent, which have not +been known above two thousand years; in the European colonies an +event appears extremely old, if it dates back three centuries, or +about the period of the discovery of America. + + +CHAPTER 1.6. + +MOUNTAINS OF NEW ANDALUCIA. +VALLEY OF THE CUMANACOA. +SUMMIT OF THE COCOLLAR. +MISSIONS OF THE CHAYMA INDIANS. + +Our first visit to the peninsula of Araya was soon succeeded by an +excursion to the mountains of the missions of the Chayma Indians, +where a variety of interesting objects claimed our attention. We +entered on a country studded with forests, and visited a convent +surrounded by palm-trees and arborescent ferns. It was situated in +a narrow valley, where we felt the enjoyment of a cool and +delicious climate, in the centre of the torrid zone. The +surrounding mountains contain caverns haunted by thousands of +nocturnal birds; and, what affects the imagination more than all +the wonders of the physical world, we find beyond these mountains a +people lately nomad, and still nearly in a state of nature, wild +without being barbarous. It was in the promontory of Paria that +Columbus first descried the continent; there terminate these +valleys, laid waste alternately by the warlike anthropophagic Carib +and by the commercial and polished nations of Europe. At the +beginning of the sixteenth century the ill-fated Indians of the +coasts of Carupano, of Macarapan, and of Caracas, were treated in +the same manner as the inhabitants of the coast of Guinea in our +days. The soil of the islands was cultivated, the vegetable produce +of the Old World was transplanted thither, but a regular system of +colonization remained long unknown on the New Continent. If the +Spaniards visited its shores, it was only to procure, either by +violence or exchange, slaves, pearls, grains of gold, and +dye-woods; and endeavours were made to ennoble the motives of this +insatiable avarice by the pretence of enthusiastic zeal in the +cause of religion. + +The trade in the copper-coloured Indians was accompanied by the +same acts of inhumanity as that which characterizes the traffic in +African negroes; it was attended also by the same result, that of +rendering both the conquerors and the conquered more ferocious. +Thence wars became more frequent among the natives; prisoners were +dragged from the inland countries to the coast, to be sold to the +whites, who Loaded them with chains in their ships. Yet the +Spaniards were at that period, and long after, one of the most +polished nations of Europe. The light which art and literature then +shed over Italy, was reflected on every nation whose language +emanated from the same source as that of Dante and Petrarch. It +might have been expected that a general improvement of manners +would be the natural consequence of this noble awakening of the +mind, this sublime soaring of the imagination. But in distant +regions, wherever the thirst of wealth has introduced the abuse of +power, the nations of Europe, at every period of their history, +have displayed the same character. The illustrious era of Leo X was +signalized in the New World by acts of cruelty that seemed to +belong to the most barbarous ages. We are less surprised, however, +at the horrible picture presented by the conquest of America when +we think of the acts that are still perpetrated on the western +coast of Africa, notwithstanding the benefits of a more humane +legislation. + +The principles adopted by Charles V had abolished the slave trade +on the New Continent. But the Conquistadores, by the continuation +of their incursions, prolonged the system of petty warfare which +diminished the American population, perpetuated national +animosities, and during a long period crushed the seeds of rising +civilization. At length the missionaries, under the protection of +the secular arm, spoke words of peace. It was the privilege of +religion to console humanity for a part of the evils committed in +its name; to plead the cause of the natives before kings, to resist +the violence of the commendatories, and to assemble wandering +tribes into small communities called Missions. + +But these institutions, useful at first in stopping the effusion of +blood, and in laying the first basis of society, have become in +their result hostile to its progress. The effects of this insulated +system have been such that the Indians have remained in a state +little different from that in which they existed whilst yet their +scattered dwellings were not collected round the habitation of a +missionary. Their number has considerably augmented, but the sphere +of their ideas is not enlarged. They have progressively lost that +vigour of character and that natural vivacity which in every state +of society are the noble fruits of independence. By subjecting to +invariable rules even the slightest actions of their domestic life, +they have been rendered stupid by the effort to render them +obedient. Their subsistence is in general more certain, and their +habits more pacific, but subject to the constraint and the dull +monotony of the government of the Missions, they show by their +gloomy and reserved looks that they have not sacrificed their +liberty to their repose without regret. + +On the 4th of September, at five in the morning, we began our +journey to the Missions of the Chayma Indians and the group of +lofty mountains which traverse New Andalusia. On account of the +extreme difficulties of the road, we had been advised to reduce our +baggage to a very small bulk. Two beasts of burden were sufficient +to carry our provision, our instruments, and the paper necessary to +dry our plants. One chest contained a sextant, a dipping-needle, an +apparatus to determine the magnetic variation, a few thermometers, +and Saussure's hygrometer. The greatest changes in the pressure of +the air in these climates, on the coasts, amount only to 1 to 1.3 +of a line; and if at any given hour or place the height of the +mercury be once marked, the variations which that height +experiences throughout the whole year, at every hour of the day or +night, may with some accuracy be determined. + +The morning was deliciously cool. The road, or rather path, which +leads to Cumanacoa, runs along the right bank of the Manzanares, +passing by the hospital of the Capuchins, situated in a small wood +of lignum-vitae and arborescent capparis.* (* These caper-trees are +called in the country, by the names pachaca, olivo, and ajito: they +are the Capparis tenuisiliqua, Jacq., C. ferruginea, C. emarginata, +C. elliptica, C. reticulata, C. racemosa.) On leaving Cumana we +enjoyed during the short duration of the twilight, from the top of +the hill of San Francisco, an extensive view over the sea, the +plain covered with bera* and its golden flowers (* Palo sano, +Zygophyllum arboreum, Jacq. The flowers have the smell of vanilla. +It is cultivated in the gardens of the Havannah under the strange +name of the dictanno real (royal dittany).), and the mountains of +the Brigantine. We were struck by the great proximity in which the +Cordillera appeared before the disk of the rising sun had reached +the horizon. The tint of the summits is of a deeper blue, their +outline is more strongly marked, and their masses are more +detached, as long as the transparency of the air is undisturbed by +the vapours, which, after accumulating during the night in the +valleys, rise in proportion as the atmosphere acquires warmth. + +At the hospital of the Divina Pastora the path turns to north-east, +and stretches for two leagues over a soil without trees, and +formerly levelled by the waters. We there found not only cactuses, +tufts of cistus-leaved tribulus, and the beautiful purple +euphorbia,* (* Euphorbia tithymaloides.) but also the avicennia, +the allionia, the sesuvium, the thalinum, and most of the +portulaceous plants which grow on the banks of the gulf of Cariaco. +This geographical distribution of plants appears to designate the +limits of the ancient coast, and to prove that the hills along the +southern side of which we were passing, formed heretofore a small +island, separated from the continent by an arm of the sea. + +After walking two hours, we arrived at the foot of the high chain +of the interior mountains, which stretches from east to west; from +the Brigantine to the Cerro de San Lorenzo. There, new rocks +appear, and with them another aspect of vegetation. Every object +assumes a more majestic and picturesque character; the soil, +watered by springs, is furrowed in every direction; trees of +gigantic height, covered with lianas, rise from the ravines; their +bark, black and burnt by the double action of the light and the +oxygen of the atmosphere, contrasts with the fresh verdure of the +pothos and dracontium, the tough and shining leaves of which are +sometimes several feet long. The parasite monocotyledons take +between the tropics the place of the moss and lichens of our +northern zone. As we advanced, the forms and grouping of the rocks +reminded us of Switzerland and the Tyrol. The heliconia, costus, +maranta, and other plants of the family of the balisiers (Canna +indica), which near the coasts vegetate only in damp and low +places, flourish in the American Alps at considerable height. Thus, +by a singular similitude, in the torrid zone, under the influence +of an atmosphere continually loaded with vapours the mountain +vegetation presents the same features as the vegetation of the +marshes in the north of Europe on soil moistened by melting snow.* +(* Wahlenberg, de Vegetatione Helvetiae et summi Septentrionis +pages 47, 59.) + +Before we leave the plains of Cumana, and the breccia, or +calcareous sandstone, which constitutes the soil of the seaside, we +will describe the different strata of which this very recent +formation is composed, as we observed it on the back of the hills +that surround the castle of San Antonio. + +This breccia, or calcareous sandstone, is a local and partial +formation, peculiar to the peninsula of Araya, the coasts of +Cumana, and Caracas. We again found it at Cabo Blanco, to the west +of the port of Guayra, where it contains, besides broken shells and +madrepores, fragments, often angular, of quartz and gneiss. This +circumstance assimilates the breccia to that recent sandstone +called by the German mineralogists nagelfluhe, which covers so +great a part of Switzerland to the height of a thousand toises, +without presenting any trace of marine productions. Near Cumana the +formation of the calcareous breccia contains:--first, a compact +whitish grey limestone, the strata of which, sometimes horizontal, +sometimes irregularly inclined, are from five to six inches thick; +some beds are almost unmixed with petrifactions, but in the +greatest part the cardites, the turbinites, the ostracites, and +shells of small dimension, are found so closely connected, that the +calcareous matter forms only a cement, by which the grains of +quartz and the organized bodies are united: second, a calcareous +sandstone, in which the grains of sand are much more frequent than +the petrified shells; other strata form a sandstone entirely free +from organic fragments, yielding but a small effervescence with +acids, and enclosing not lamellae of mica, but nodules of compact +brown iron-ore: third, beds of indurated clay containing selenite +and lamellar gypsum. + +The breccia, or agglomerate of the sea-coast, just described, has a +white tint, and it lies immediately on the calcareous formation of +Cumanacoa, which is of a bluish grey. These two rocks form a +contrast no less striking than the molasse (bur-stone) of the Pays +de Vaud, with the calcareous limestone of the Jura. It must be +observed, that, by contact of the two formations lying upon each +other, the beds of the limestone of Cumanacoa, which I consider as +an Alpine limestone, are always largely mixed with clay and marl. +Lying, like the mica-slate of Araya, north-east and south-west, +they are inclined, near Punta Delgada, under an angle of 60 +degrees to south-east. + +We traversed the forest by a narrow path, along a rivulet, which +rolls foaming over a bed of rocks. We observed, that the vegetation +was more brilliant, wherever the Alpine limestone was covered by a +quartzose sandstone without petrifactions, and very different from +the breccia of the sea-coast. The cause of this phenomenon depends +probably not so much on the nature of the ground, as on the greater +humidity of the soil. The quartzose sandstone contains thin strata +of a blackish clay-slate,* (* Schieferthon.) which might easily be +confounded with the secondary thonschiefer; and these strata hinder +the water from filtering into the crevices, of which the Alpine +limestone is full. This last offers to view here, as in Saltzburg, +and on the chain of the Apennines, broken and steep beds. The +sandstone, on the contrary, wherever it is seated on the calcareous +rock, renders the aspect of the scene less wild. The hills which it +forms appear more rounded, and the gentler slopes are covered with +a thicker mould. + +In humid places, where the sandstone envelopes the Alpine +limestone, some trace of cultivation is constantly found. We met +with huts inhabited by mestizoes in the ravine of Los Frailes, as +well as between the Cuesta de Caneyes, and the Rio Guriental. Each +of these huts stands in the centre of an enclosure, containing +plantains, papaw-trees, sugar-canes, and maize. We might be +surprised at the small extent of these cultivated spots, if we did +not recollect that an acre planted with plantains* (* Musa +paradisiaca.) produces nearly twenty times as much food as the same +space sown with corn. In Europe, our wheat, barley, and rye cover +vast spaces of ground; and in general the arable lands touch each +other, wherever the inhabitants live upon corn. It is different +under the torrid zone, where man obtains food from plants which +yield more abundant and earlier harvests. In those favoured climes, +the fertility of the soil is proportioned to the heat and humidity +of the atmosphere. An immense population finds abundant nourishment +within a narrow space, covered with plantains, cassava, yams, and +maize. The isolated situation of the huts dispersed through the +forest indicates to the traveller the fecundity of nature, where a +small spot of cultivated land suffices for the wants of several +families. + +These considerations on the agriculture of the torrid zone +involuntarily remind us of the intimate connexion existing between +the extent of land cleared, and the progress of society. The +richness of the soil, and the vigour of organic life, by +multiplying the means of subsistence, retard the progress of +nations in the paths of civilization. Under so mild and uniform a +climate, the only urgent want of man is that of food. This want +only, excites him to labour; and we may easily conceive why, in the +midst of abundance, beneath the shade of the plantain and +bread-fruit tree, the intellectual faculties unfold themselves less +rapidly than under a rigorous sky, in the region of corn, where our +race is engaged in a perpetual struggle with the elements. In +Europe we estimate the number of the inhabitants of a country by +the extent of cultivation: within the tropics, on the contrary, in +the warmest and most humid parts of South America, very populous +provinces appear almost deserted; because man, to find nourishment, +cultivates but a small number of acres. These circumstances modify +the physical appearance of the country and the character of its +inhabitants, giving to both a peculiar physiognomy; the wild and +uncultivated stamp which belongs to nature, ere its primitive type +has been altered by art. Without neighbours, almost unconnected +with the rest of mankind, each family of settlers forms a separate +tribe. This insulated state arrests or retards the progress of +civilization, which advances only in proportion as society becomes +numerous, and its connexions more intimate and multiplied. But, on +the other hand, it is solitude that develops and strengthens in man +the sentiment of liberty and independence; and gives birth to that +noble pride of character which has at all times distinguished the +Castilian race. + +From these causes, the land in the most populous regions of +equinoctial America still retains a wild aspect, which is destroyed +in temperate climates by the cultivation of corn. Within the +tropics the agricultural nations occupy less ground: man has there +less extended his empire; he may be said to appear, not as an +absolute master, who changes at will the surface of the soil, but +as a transient guest, who quietly enjoys the gifts of nature. +There, in the neighbourhood of the most populous cities, the land +remains studded with forests, or covered with a thick mould, +unfurrowed by the plough. Spontaneous vegetation still predominates +over cultivated plants, and determines the aspect of the landscape. +It is probable that this state of things will change very slowly. +If in our temperate regions the cultivation of corn contributes to +throw a dull uniformity upon the land we have cleared, we cannot +doubt, that, even with increasing population, the torrid zone will +preserve that majesty of vegetable forms, those marks of an +unsubdued, virgin nature, which render it so attractive and so +picturesque. Thus it is that, by a remarkable concatenation of +physical and moral causes, the choice and production of alimentary +plants have an influence on three important objects at once; the +association or the isolated state of families, the more or less +rapid progress of civilization, and the individual character of the +landscape. + +In proportion as we penetrated into the forest, the barometer +indicated the progressive elevation of the land. The trunks of the +trees presented here an extraordinary phenomenon; a gramineous +plant, with verticillate branches,* climbs, like a liana, eight or +ten feet high, and forms festoons, which cross the path, and swing +about with the wind. (* Carice, analogous to the chusque of Santa +Fe, of the group of the Nastusas. This gramineous plant is +excellent pasture for mules.) We halted, about three o'clock in the +afternoon, on a small flat, known by the name of Quetepe, and +situated about one hundred and ninety toises above the level of the +sea. A few small houses have been erected near a spring, well known +by the natives for its coolness and great salubrity. We found the +water delicious. Its temperature was only 22.5 degrees of the +centigrade thermometer, while that of the air was 28.7 degrees. The +springs which descend from the neighbouring mountains of a greater +height often indicate a too rapid decrement of heat. If indeed we +suppose the mean temperature of the water on the coast of Cumana +equal to 26 degrees, we must conclude, unless other local causes +modify the temperature of the springs, that the spring of Quetepe +acquires its great coolness at more than 350 toises of absolute +elevation. With respect to the springs which gush out in the plains +of the torrid zone, or at a small elevation, it may be observed, in +general, that it is only in regions where the mean temperature of +summer essentially differs from that of the whole year, that the +inhabitants have extremely cold spring water during the season of +great heat. The Laplanders, near Umea and Soersele, in the 65th +degree of latitude, drink spring-water, the temperature of which, +in the month of August, is scarcely two or three degrees above +freezing point; while during the day the heat of the air rises in +the shade, in the same northern regions, to 26 or 27 degrees. In +the temperate climates of France and Germany, the difference +between the air and the springs never exceeds 16 or 17 degrees; +between the tropics it seldom rises to 5 or 6 degrees. It is easy +to account for these phenomena, when we recollect that the interior +of the globe, and the subterraneous waters, have a temperature +almost identical with the annual mean temperature of the air; and +that the latter differs from the mean heat of summer, in proportion +to the distance from the equator. + +From the top of a hill of sandstone, which overlooks the spring of +Quetepe, we had a magnificent view of the sea, of cape Macanao, and +the peninsula of Maniquarez. At our feet an immense forest extended +to the edge of the ocean. The tops of the trees, intertwined with +lianas, and crowned with long wreaths of flowers, formed a vast +carpet of verdure, the dark tint of which augmented the splendour +of the aerial light. This picture struck us the more forcibly, as +we then first beheld those great masses of tropical vegetation. On +the hill of Quetepe, at the foot of the Malpighia cocollobaefolia, +the leaves of which are extremely coriaceous, we gathered, among +tufts of the Polygala montana, the first melastomas, especially +that beautiful species described under the name of the Melastoma +rufescens. + +As we advanced toward the south-west, the soil became dry and +sandy. We climbed a group of mountains, which separate the coast +from the vast plains, or savannahs, bordered by the Orinoco. That +part of the group, over which passes the road to Cumanacoa, is +destitute of vegetation, and has steep declivities both on the +north and the south. It has received the name of the Imposible, +because it is believed that, in the case of hostile invasion, this +ridge of mountains would be inaccessible to the enemy, and would +offer an asylum to the inhabitants of Cumana. We reached the top a +little before sunset, and I had scarcely time to take a few horary +angles, to determine the longitude of the place by means of the +chronometer. + +The view from the Imposible is finer and more extensive than that +from the table-land of Quetepe. We distinguished clearly by the +naked eye the flattened top of the Brigantine (the position of +which it would be important to fix accurately), the embarcadero or +landing-place, and the roadstead of Cumana. The rocky coast of the +peninsula of Araya was discernible in its whole length. We were +particularly struck with the extraordinary configuration of a port, +known by the name of Laguna Grande, or Laguna del Obispo. A vast +basin, surrounded by high mountains, communicates with the gulf of +Cariaco by a narrow channel which admits only of the passage of one +ship at a time. This port is capable of containing several +squadrons at once. It is an uninhabited place, but annually +frequented by vessels, which carry mules to the West India Islands. +There are some pasture grounds at the farther end of the bay. We +traced the sinuosities of this arm of the sea, which, like a river, +has dug a bed between perpendicular rocks destitute of vegetation. +This singular prospect reminded us of the fanciful landscape which +Leonardo da Vinci has made the back-ground of his famous portrait +of Mona Lisa, the wife of Francisco del Giacondo. + +We could observe by the chronometer the moment when the disk of the +sun touched the horizon of the sea. The first contact was at 6 +hours 8 minutes 13 seconds; the second, at 6 hours 10 minutes 26 +seconds; mean time. This observation, which is not unimportant for +the theory of terrestrial refractions, was made on the summit of +the mountain, at the absolute height of 296 toises. The setting of +the sun was attended by a very rapid cooling of the air. Three +minutes after the last apparent contact of the disk with the +horizon of the sea, the thermometer suddenly fell from 25.2 to 21.3 +degrees. Was this extraordinary refrigeration owing to some +descending current? The air was however calm, and no horizontal +wind was felt. + +We passed the night in a house where there was a military post +consisting of eight men, under the command of a Spanish serjeant. +It was an hospital, built by the side of a powder magazine. When +Cumana, after the capture of Trinidad by the English, in 1797, was +threatened with an attack, many of the inhabitants fled to +Cumanacoa, and deposited whatever articles of value they possessed +in sheds hastily constructed on the top of the Imposible. It was +then resolved, in case of any unforeseen invasion, to abandon the +castle of San Antonio, after a short resistance, and to concentrate +the whole force of the province round the mountains, which may be +considered as the key of the Llanos. + +The top of the Imposible, as nearly as I could perceive, is covered +with a quartzose sandstone, free from petrifactions. Here, as on +the ridge of the neighbouring mountains, the strata pretty +regularly take the direction from north-north-east to +south-south-west. This direction is also most common in the +primitive formations in the peninsula of Araya, and along the +coasts of Venezuela. On the northern declivity of the Imposible, +near the Penas Negras, an abundant spring issues from sandstone, +which alternates with a schistose clay. We remarked on this point +fractured strata, which lie from north-west to south-east, and the +dip of which is almost perpendicular. + +The Llaneros, or inhabitants of the plains, send their produce, +especially maize, leather, and cattle, to the port of Cumana by the +road over the Imposible. We continually saw mules arrive, driven by +Indians or mulattoes. Several parts of the vast forests which +surround the mountain, had taken fire. Reddish flames, half +enveloped in clouds of smoke, presented a very grand spectacle. The +inhabitants set fire to the forests, to improve the pasturage, and +to destroy the shrubs that choke the grass. Enormous +conflagrations, too, are often caused by the carelessness of the +Indians, who neglect, when they travel, to extinguish the fires by +which they have dressed their food. These accidents contribute to +diminish the number of old trees in the road from Cumana to +Cumanacoa; and the inhabitants observe justly, that, in several +parts of their province, the dryness has increased, not only +because every year the frequency of earthquakes causes more +crevices in the soil; but also because it is now less thickly +wooded than it was at the time of the conquest. + +I arose during the night to determine the latitude of the place by +the passage of Fomalhaut over the meridian; but the observation was +lost, owing to the time I employed in taking the level of the +artificial horizon. It was midnight, and I was benumbed with cold, +as were also our guides: yet the thermometer kept at 19.7 degrees. +At Cumana I have never seen it sink below 21 degrees; but then the +house in which we dwelt on the Imposible was 258 toises above the +level of the sea. At the Casa de la Polvora I determined the dip of +the magnetic needle, which was 42.5 degrees.* (* The magnetic dip +is always measured in this work, according to the centesimal +division, if the contrary be not expressly mentioned.) The number +of oscillations correspondent to 10 minutes of time was 233. The +intensity of the magnetic forces had consequently augmented from +the coast to the mountain, perhaps from the influence of some +ferruginous matter, hidden in the strata of sandstone which cover +the Alpine limestone. + +We left the Imposible on the 5th of September before sunrise. The +descent is very dangerous for beasts of burden; the path being in +general but fifteen inches broad, and bordered by precipices. In +descending the mountain, we observed the rock of Alpine limestone +reappearing under the sandstone. The strata being generally +inclined to the south and south-east, a great number of springs +gush out on the southern side of the mountain. In the rainy season +of the year, these springs form torrents, which descend in +cascades, shaded by the hura, the cuspa, and the silver-leaved +cecropia or trumpet-tree. + +The cuspa, a very common tree in the environs of Cumana and of +Bordones, is yet unknown to the botanists of Europe. It was long +used only for the building of houses, and has become celebrated +since 1797, under the name of the cascarilla or bark-tree +(cinchona) of New Andalusia. Its trunk rises scarcely above fifteen +or twenty feet. Its alternate leaves are smooth, entire, and oval.* +(* At the summit of the boughs, the leaves are sometimes opposite +to each other, but invariably without stipules.) Its bark very +thin, and of a pale yellow, is a powerful febrifuge. It is even +more bitter than the bark of the real cinchona, but is less +disagreeable. The cuspa is administered with the greatest success, +in a spirituous tincture, and in aqueous infusion, both in +intermittent and in malignant fevers. + +On the coasts of New Andalusia, the cuspa is considered as a kind +of cinchona; and we were assured, that some Aragonese monks, who +had long resided in the kingdom of New Grenada, recognised this +tree from the resemblance of its leaves to those of the real +Peruvian bark-tree. This, however, is unfounded; since it is +precisely by the disposition of the leaves, and the absence of +stipules, that the cuspa differs totally from the trees of the +rubiaceous family. It may be said to resemble the family of the +honeysuckle, or caprifoliaceous plants, one section of which has +alternate leaves, and among which we find several cornel-trees, +remarkable for their febrifuge properties.* (* Cornus florida, and +C. sericea of the United States.--Walker on the Virtues of the +Cornus and the Cinchona compared. Philadelphia 1803.) + +The taste, at once bitter and astringent, and the yellow colour of +the bark led to the discovery of the febrifugal virtue of the +cuspa. As it blossoms at the end of November, we did not see it in +flower, and we know not to what genus it belongs; and I have in +vain for several years past applied to our friends at Cumana for +specimens of the flower and fruit. I hope that the botanical +determination of the bark-tree of New Andalusia will one day fix +the attention of travellers, who visit this region after us; and +that they will not confound, notwithstanding the analogy of the +names, the cuspa with the cuspare. The latter not only vegetates in +the missions of the Rio Carony, but also to the west of Cumana, in +the gulf of Santa Fe. It furnishes the druggists of Europe with the +famous Cortex Angosturae, and forms the genus Bonplandia, described +by M. Willdenouw in the Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin, from +notes communicated to him by us. + +It is singular that, during our long abode on the coast of Cumana +and the Caracas, on the banks of the Apure, the Orinoco, and the +Rio Negro, in an extent of country comprising forty thousand square +leagues, we never met with one of those numerous species of +cinchona, or exostema, which are peculiar to the low and warm +regions of the tropics, especially to the archipelago of the West +India Islands. Yet we are far from affirming, that, throughout the +whole of the eastern part of South America, from Porto Bello to +Cayenne, or from the equator to the 10th degree of north latitude +between the meridians of 54 and 71 degrees, the cinchona absolutely +does not exist. How can we be expected to know completely the flora +of so vast an extent of country? But, when we recollect, that even +in Mexico no species of the genera cinchona and exostema has been +discovered, either in the central table-land or in the plains, we +are led to believe, that the mountainous islands of the West Indies +and the Cordillera of the Andes have peculiar floras; and that they +possess particular species of vegetation, which have neither passed +from the islands to the continent, nor from South America to the +coasts of New Spain. + +It may be observed farther, that, when we reflect on the numerous +analogies which exist between the properties of plants and their +external forms, we are surprised to find qualities eminently +febrifuge in the bark of trees belonging to different genera, and +even different families.* (* It may be somewhat interesting to +chemistry, physiology, and descriptive botany, to consider under +the same point of view the plants which have been employed in +intermittent fevers with different degrees of success. We find +among rubiaceous plants, besides the cinchonas and exostemas, the +Coutarea speciosa or Cayenne bark, the Portlandia grandiflora of +the West Indies, another portlandia discovered by M. Sesse at +Mexico, the Pinkneia pubescens of the United States, the berry of +the coffee-tree, and perhaps the Macrocnemum corymbosum, and the +Guettarda coccinea; among magnoliaceous plants, the tulip-tree and +the Magnolia glauca; among zanthoxylaceous plants, the Cuspare of +Angostura, known in America under the name of Orinoco bark, and the +Zanthoxylon caribaeum; among leguminous plants, the geoffraeas, the +Swietenia febrifuga, the Aeschynomene grandiflora, the Caesalpina +bonducella; among caprifoliaceous plants, the Cornus florida and +the Cuspa of Cumana; among rosaceous plants, the Cerasus virginiana +and the Geum urbanum; among amentaceous plants, the willows, oaks, +and birch-trees, of which the alcoholic tincture is used in Russia +by the common people; the Populus tremuloides, etc.; among +anonaceous plants, the Uvaria febrifuga, the fruit of which we saw +administered with success in the Missions of Spanish Guiana; among +simarubaceous plants, the Quassia amara, celebrated in the feverish +plains of Surinam; among terebinthaceous plants, the Rhus glabrum; +among euphorbiaceous plants, the Croton cascarilla; among composite +plants, the Eupatorium perfoliatum, the febrifuge qualities of +which are known to the savages of North America. Of the tulip-tree +and the quassia, it is the bark of the roots that is used. Eminent +febrifuge virtues have also been found in the cortical part of the +roots of the Cinchona condaminea at Loxa; but it is fortunate, for +the preservation of the species, that the roots of the real +cinchona are not employed in pharmacy. Chemical researches are yet +wanting upon the very powerful bitters contained in the roots of +the Zanthoriza apiifolia, and the Actaea racemosa: the latter have +sometimes been employed with success as a remedy against the +epidemic yellow fever in New York.) Some of these barks so much +resemble each other, that it is not easy to distinguish them at +first sight. But before we examine the question, whether we shall +one day discover, in the real cinchona, in the cuspa of Cumana, the +Cortex Angosturae, the Indian swietenia, the willows of Europe, the +berries of the coffee-tree and uvaria, a matter uniformly diffused, +and exhibiting (like starch, caoutchouc, and camphor) the same +chemical properties in different plants, we may ask whether, in the +present state of physiology and medicine, a febrifuge principle +ought to be admitted. Is it not probable, that the particular +derangement in the organization, known under the vague name of the +febrile state, and in which both the vascular and the nervous +systems are at the same time attacked, yields to remedies which do +not operate by the same principle, by the same mode of action on +the same organs, by the same play of chemical and electrical +attractions? We shall here confine ourselves to this observation, +that, in the species of the genus cinchona, the antifebrile virtues +do not appear to belong to the tannin (which is only accidentally +mingled in them), or to the cinchonate of lime; but in a resiniform +matter, soluble both by alcohol and by water, and which, it is +believed, is composed of two principles, the cinchonic bitter and +the cinchonic red.* (* In French, l'amer et le rouge cinchoniques.) +May it then be admitted, that this resiniform matter, which +possesses different degrees of energy according to the combinations +by which it is modified, is found in all febrifuge substances? +Those by which the sulphate of iron is precipitated of a green +colour, like the real cinchona, the bark of the white willow, and +the horned perisperm of the coffee-tree, do not on this account +denote identity of chemical composition;* and that identity might +even exist, without our concluding that the medical virtues were +analogous. (* The cuspare bark (Cort. Angosturae) yields with iron +a yellow precipitate; yet it is employed on the banks of the +Orinoco, and particularly at the town of St. Thomas of Angostura, +as an excellent cinchona; and on the other hand, the bark of the +common cherry tree, which has scarcely any febrifuge quality, +yields a green precipitate like the real cinchonas. Notwithstanding +the extreme imperfection of vegetable chemistry, the experiments +already made on cinchonas sufficiently show, that to judge of the +febrifuge virtues of a bark, we must not attach too much importance +either to the principle which turns to green the oxides of iron, or +to the tannin, or to the matter which precipitates infusions of +tan.) We see that specimens of sugar and tannin extracted from +plants, not of the same family, present numerous differences: while +the comparative analysis of sugar, gum, and starch; the discovery +of the radical of the prussic acid (the effects of which are so +powerful on the organization), and many other phenomena of +vegetable chemistry, clearly prove that substances composed of +identical elements, few in number and proportional in quantity, +exhibit the most heterogeneous properties, on account of that +particular mode of combination which corpuscular chemistry calls +the arrangement of the particles. + +Leaving the ravine which descends from the Imposible, we entered a +thick forest traversed by many small rivers, which are easily +forded. We observed that the cecropia, which in the disposition of +its branches and its slender trunk, resembles the palm-tree, is +covered with leaves more or less silvery, in proportion as the soil +is dry or moist. We saw some small plants of the cecropia, the +leaves of which were on both sides entirely green.* (* Is not the +Cecropia concolor of Willdenouw a variety of the Cecropia peltata?) +The roots of these trees are hid under tufts of dorstenia, which +flourishes only in humid and shady places. In the midst of the +forest, on the banks of the Rio Cedeno, as well as on the southern +declivity of the Cocollar, we find, in their wild state, papaw and +orange-trees, bearing large and sweet fruit. These are probably the +remains of some conucos, or Indian plantations; for in those +countries the orange-tree cannot be counted among the indigenous +plants, any more than the banana-tree, the papaw-tree, maize, +cassava, and many other useful plants, with the true country of +which we are unacquainted, though they have accompanied man in his +migrations from the remotest times. + +When a traveller newly arrived from Europe penetrates for the first +time into the forests of South America, he beholds nature under an +unexpected aspect. He feels at every step, that he is not on the +confines but in the centre of the torrid zone; not in one of the +West India Islands, but on a vast continent where everything is +gigantic,--mountains, rivers, and the mass of vegetation. If he +feel strongly the beauty of picturesque scenery he can scarcely +define the various emotions which crowd upon his mind; he can +scarcely distinguish what most excites his admiration, the deep +silence of those solitudes, the individual beauty and contrast of +forms, or that vigour and freshness of vegetable life which +characterize the climate of the tropics. It might be said that the +earth, overloaded with plants, does not allow them space enough to +unfold themselves. The trunks of the trees are everywhere concealed +under a thick carpet of verdure; and if we carefully transplanted +the orchideae, the pipers, and the pothoses, nourished by a single +courbaril, or American fig-tree,* (* Ficus nymphaeifolia.) we +should cover a vast extent of ground. By this singular assemblage, +the forests, as well as the flanks of the rocks and mountains, +enlarge the domains of organic nature. The same lianas which creep +on the ground, reach the tops of the trees, and pass from one to +another at the height of more than a hundred feet. Thus, by the +continual interlacing of parasite plants, the botanist is often led +to confound one with another, the flowers, the fruits, and leaves, +which belong to different species. + +We walked for some hours under the shade of these arcades, which +scarcely admit a glimpse of the sky; the latter appeared to me of +an indigo blue, the deeper in shade because the green of the +equinoctial plants is generally of a stronger hue, with somewhat of +a brownish tint. A great fern tree,* (* Possibly our Aspidium +caducum.) very different from the Polypodium arboreum of the West +Indies, rose above masses of scattered rocks. In this place we were +struck for the first time with the sight of those nests in the +shape of bottles, or small bags, which are suspended from the +branches of the lowest trees, and which attest the wonderful +industry of the orioles, which mingle their warbling with the +hoarse cries of the parrots and the macaws. These last, so well +known for their vivid colours, fly only in pairs, while the real +parrots wander about in flocks of several hundreds. A man must have +lived in those regions, particularly in the hot valleys of the +Andes, to conceive how these birds sometimes drown with their +voices the noise of the torrents, which dash down from rock to +rock. + +We left the forests, at the distance of somewhat more than a league +from the village of San Fernando. A narrow path led, after many +windings, into an open but extremely humid country. In such a site +in the temperate zone, the cyperaceous and gramineous plants would +have formed vast meadows; here the soil abounded in aquatic plants, +with sagittate leaves, and especially in basil plants, among which +we noticed the fine flowers of the costus, the thalia, and the +heliconia. These succulent plants are from eight to ten feet high, +and in Europe one of their groups would be considered as a little +wood. + +Near San Fernando the evaporation caused by the action of the sun +was so great that, being very lightly clothed, we felt ourselves as +wet as in a vapour bath. The road was bordered with a kind of +bamboo,* (* Bambusa guadua.) which the Indians call iagua, or +guadua, and which is more than forty feet in height. Nothing can +exceed the elegance of this arborescent gramen. The form and +disposition of its leaves give it a character of lightness which +contrasts agreeably with its height. The smooth and glossy trunk of +the iagua generally bends towards the banks of rivulets, and it +waves with the slightest breath of air. The highest reeds* in the +south of Europe (* Arundo donax.), can give no idea of the aspect +of the arborescent gramina. The bamboo and fern-tree are, of all +the vegetable forms between the tropics, those which make the most +powerful impression on the imagination of the traveller. Bamboos +are less common in South America than is usually believed. They are +almost wanting in the marshes and in the vast inundated plains of +the Lower Orinoco, the Apure, and the Atabapo, while they form +thick woods, several leagues in length, in the north-west, in New +Grenada, and in the kingdom of Quito. It might be said that the +western declivity of the Andes is their true country; and, what is +remarkable enough, we found them not only in the low regions at the +level of the ocean, but also in the lofty valleys of the +Cordilleras, at the height of 860 toises. + +The road skirted with the bamboos above mentioned led us to the +small village of San Fernando, situated in a narrow plain, +surrounded by very steep calcareous rocks. This was the first +Mission* we saw in America. (* A certain number of habitations +collected round a church, with a missionary monk performing the +ministerial duties, is called in the Spanish colonies Mision, or +Pueblo de mision. Indian villages, governed by a priest, are called +Pueblos de doctrina. A distinction is made between the Cura +doctrinero, who is the priest of an Indian parish, and the Cura +rector, priest of a village inhabited by whites and men of mixed +race.) The houses, or rather the huts of the Chayma Indians, though +separate from each other, are not surrounded by gardens. The +streets, which are wide and very straight, cross each other at +right angles. The walls of the huts are made of clay, strengthened +by lianas. The uniformity of these huts, the grave and taciturn air +of their inhabitants, and the extreme neatness of the dwellings, +reminded us of the establishments of the Moravian Brethren. Besides +their own gardens, every Indian family helps to cultivate the +garden of the community, or, as it is called, the conuco de la +comunidad, which is situated at some distance from the village. In +this conuco the adults of each sex work one hour in the morning and +one in the evening. In the missions nearest the coast the garden of +the community is generally a sugar or indigo plantation, under the +direction of the missionary; and its produce, if the law were +strictly observed, could be employed only for the support of the +church and the purchase of sacerdotal ornaments. The great square +of San Fernando, in the centre of the village, contains the church, +the dwelling of the missionary, and a very humble-looking edifice +pompously called the king's house (Casa del Rey). This is a +caravanserai, destined for lodging travellers; and, as we often +experienced, infinitely valuable in a country where the name of an +inn is still unknown. The Casas del Rey are to be found in all the +Spanish colonies, and may be deemed an imitation of the tambos of +Peru, which were established in conformity with the laws of Manco +Capac. + +We had been recommended to the friars who govern the Missions of +the Chayma Indians, by their syndic, who resides at Cumana. This +recommendation was the more useful to us, as the missionaries, +either from zeal for the purity of the morals of their +parishioners, or to conceal the monastic system from the indiscreet +curiosity of strangers, often adhere with rigour to an old +regulation, by which a white man of the secular state is not +permitted to sojourn more than one night in an Indian village. The +Missions form (I will not say according to their primitive and +canonical institutions, but in reality) a distinct and nearly +independent hierarchy, the views of which seldom accord with those +of the secular clergy. + +The missionary of San Fernando was a Capuchin, a native of Aragon, +far advanced in years, but strong and healthy. His extreme +corpulency, his hilarity, the interest he took in battles and +sieges, ill accorded with the ideas we form in northern countries +of the melancholy reveries and the contemplative life of +missionaries. Though extremely busy about a cow which was to be +killed next day, the old monk received us with kindness, and +permitted us to hang up our hammocks in a gallery of his house. +Seated, without doing anything, the greater part of the day, in an +armchair of red wood, he bitterly complained of what he called the +indolence and ignorance of his countrymen. Our missionary, however, +seemed well satisfied with his situation. + +He treated the Indians with mildness; he beheld his Mission +prosper, and he praised with enthusiasm the waters, the bananas, +and the dairy-produce of the district. The sight of our +instruments, our books, and our dried plants, drew from him a +sarcastic smile; and he acknowledged, with the naivete peculiar to +the inhabitants of those countries, that of all the enjoyments of +life, without excepting sleep, none was comparable to the pleasure +of eating good beef (carne de vaca): thus does sensuality obtain an +ascendancy, where there is no occupation for the mind. + +The mission of San Fernando was founded about the end of the 17th +century, near the junction of the small rivers of the Manzanares +and Lucasperez. A fire, which consumed the church and the huts of +the Indians, induced the Capuchins to build the village in its +present fine situation. The number of families is increased to one +hundred, and the missionary observed to us, that the custom of +marrying at thirteen or fourteen years of age contributes greatly +to this rapid increase of population. He denied that old age was so +premature among the Chaymas, as is commonly believed in Europe. The +government of these Indian parishes is very complicated; they have +their governor, their major-alguazils, and their +militia-commanders, all copper-coloured natives. The company of +archers have their colours, and perform their exercise with the bow +and arrow, in shooting at a mark; this is the national guard +(militia) of the country. This military establishment, under a +purely monastic system, seemed to us very singular. + +On the night of the 5th of September, and the following morning, +there was a thick fog; yet we were not more than a hundred toises +above the level of the sea. I determined geometrically, at the +moment of our departure, the height of the great calcareous +mountain which rises at 800 toises distance to the south of San +Fernando, and forms a perpendicular cliff on the north side. It is +only 215 toises higher than the great square; but naked masses of +rock, which here exhibit themselves in the midst of a thick +vegetation, give it a very majestic aspect. + +The road from San Fernando to Cumana passes amidst small +plantations, through an open and humid valley. We forded a number +of rivulets. In the shade the thermometer did not rise above 30 +degrees: but we were exposed to the direct rays of the sun, because +the bamboos, which skirted the road, afforded but small shelter, +and we suffered greatly from the heat. We passed through the +village of Arenas, inhabited by Indians, of the same race as those +at San Fernando. But Arenas is no longer a mission; and the +natives, governed by a regular priest,* (* The four villages of +Arenas, Macarapana, Mariguitar, and Aricagua, founded by Aragonese +Capuchins, are called Doctrinas de Encomienda.) are better clothed, +and more civilized. Their church is also distinguished in the +country by some rude paintings which adorn its walls. A narrow +border encloses figures of armadilloes, caymans, jaguars, and other +animals peculiar to the new world. + +In this village lives a labourer, Francisco Lozano, who presented a +highly curious physiological phenomenon. This man has suckled a +child with his own milk. The mother having fallen sick, the father, +to quiet the infant, took it into his bed, and pressed it to his +bosom. Lozano, then thirty-two years of age, had never before +remarked that he had milk: but the irritation of the nipple, sucked +by the child, caused the accumulation of that liquid. The milk was +thick and very sweet. The father, astonished at the increased size +of his breast, suckled his child two or three times a day during +five months. He drew on himself the attention of his neighbours, +but he never thought, as he probably would have done in Europe, of +deriving any advantage from the curiosity he excited. We saw the +certificate, which had been drawn up on the spot, to attest this +remarkable fact, eye-witnesses of which are still living. They +assured us that, during this suckling, the child had no other +nourishment than the milk of his father. Lozano, who was not at +Arenas during our journey in the missions, came to us at Cumana. He +was accompanied by his son, then thirteen or fourteen years of age. +M. Bonpland examined with attention the father's breasts, and found +them wrinkled like those of a woman who has given suck. He observed +that the left breast in particular was much enlarged; which Lozano +explained to us from the circumstance, that the two breasts did not +furnish milk in the same abundance. Don Vicente Emparan, governor +of the province, sent a circumstantial account of this phenomenon +to Cadiz. + +It is not a very uncommon circumstance, to find, among animals, +males whose breasts contain milk; and climate does not appear to +exercise any marked influence on the greater or less abundance of +this secretion. The ancients cite the milk of the he-goats of +Lemnos and Corsica. In our own time, we have seen in Hanover, a +he-goat, which for a great number of years was milked every other +day, and yielded more milk than a female goat. Among the signs of +the alleged weakness of the Americans, travellers have mentioned +the milk contained in the breasts of men. It is, however, +improbable, that it has ever been observed in a whole tribe, in +some part of America unknown to modern travellers; and I can affirm +that at present it is not more common in the new continent, than in +the old. The labourer of Arenas, whose case has just been +mentioned, was not of the copper-coloured race of Chayma Indians, +but was a white man, descended from Europeans. Moreover, the +anatomists of St. Petersburgh have observed that, among the lower +orders of the people in Russia, milk in the breasts of men is much +more frequent than among the more southern nations: yet the +Russians have never been deemed weak and effeminate. There is among +the varieties of the human species a race of men whose breasts at +the age of puberty acquire a considerable bulk. Lozano did not +belong to that race; and he often repeated to us his conviction, +that it was only the irritation of the nipple, in consequence of +the suction, which caused the flow of milk. + +When we reflect on the whole of the vital phenomena, we find that +no one of them is entirely isolated. In every age examples are +cited of very young girls and women in extreme old age, who have +suckled children. Among men these examples are more rare; and after +numerous researches, I have not found above two or three. One is +cited by the anatomist of Verona, Alexander Benedictus, who lived +about the end of the fifteenth century. He relates the history of +an inhabitant of Syria, who, to calm the fretfulness of his child, +after the death of the mother, pressed it to his bosom. The milk +soon became so abundant, that the father could take on himself the +nourishment of his child without assistance. Other examples are +related by Santorellus, Faria, and Robert, bishop of Cork. The +greater part of these phenomena having been noticed in times very +remote, it is not uninteresting to physiology, that we can confirm +them in our own days. + +On approaching the town of Cumanacoa we found a more level soil, +and a valley enlarging itself progressively. This small town is +situated in a naked plain, almost circular, and surrounded by lofty +mountains. It was founded in 1717 by Domingo Arias, on the return +of an expedition to the mouth of the Guarapiche, undertaken with +the view of destroying an establishment which some French +freebooters had attempted to found. The new town was first called +San Baltazar de las Arias; but the Indian name Cumanacoa prevailed; +in like manner the name of Santiago de Leon, still to be found in +our maps, is forgotten in that of Caracas. + +On opening the barometer we were struck at seeing the column of +mercury scarcely 7.3 lines shorter than on the coasts. The plain, +or rather the table-land, on which the town of Cumanacoa is +situated, is not more than 104 toises above the level of the sea, +which is three or four times less than is supposed by the +inhabitants of Cumana, on account of their exaggerated ideas of the +cold of Cumanacoa. But the difference of climate observable between +places so near each other is perhaps less owing to comparative +height than to local circumstances. Among these causes we may cite +the proximity of the forests; the frequency of descending currents, +so common in these valleys, closed on every side; the abundance of +rain; and those thick fogs which diminish during a great part of +the year the direct action of the solar rays. The decrement of the +heat being nearly the same within the tropics, and during the +summer under the temperate zone, the small difference of level of +one hundred toises should produce only a change in the mean +temperature of 1 or 1.5 degrees. But we shall soon find that at +Cumanacoa the difference rises to more than four degrees. This +coolness of the climate is sometimes the more surprising, as very +great heat is felt at Carthago (in the province of Popayan); at +Tomependa, on the bank of the river Amazon, and in the valleys of +Aragua, to the west of Caracas; though the absolute height of these +different places is between 200 and 480 toises. In plains as well +as on mountains the isothermal lines (lines of similar heat) are +not constantly parallel to the equator, or the surface of the +globe. It is the grand problem of meteorology to determine the +inflections of these lines, and to discover, amid modifications +produced by local causes, the constant laws of the distribution of +heat. + +The port of Cumana is only seven nautical leagues from Cumanacoa. +It scarcely ever rains in the first-mentioned place, while in the +latter there are seven months of wintry weather. At Cumanacoa, the +dry season begins at the winter solstice, and lasts till the vernal +equinox. Light showers are frequent in the months of April, May, +and June. The dry weather then returns again, and lasts from the +summer solstice to the end of August. Then come the real winter +rains, which cease only in the month of November, and during which +torrents of water pour down from the skies. + +It was during the winter season that we took up our first abode in +the Missions. Every night a thick fog covered the sky, and it was +only at intervals that I succeeded in taking some observations of +the stars. The thermometer kept from 18.5 to 20 degrees, which +under this zone, and to the sensations of a traveller coming from +the coasts, appears a great degree of coolness. I never perceived +the temperature in the night at Cumana below 21 degrees. The +greatest heat is felt from noon to 3 o'clock, the thermometer +keeping between 26 and 27 degrees. The maximum of the heat, about +two hours after the passage of the sun over the meridian, was very +regularly marked by a storm which murmured near. Large black and +low clouds dissolved in rain, which came down in torrents: these +rains lasted two or three hours, and lowered the thermometer five +or six degrees. About five o'clock the rain entirely ceased, the +sun reappeared a little before it set, and the hygrometer moved +towards the point of dryness; but at eight or nine we were again +enveloped in a thick stratum of vapour. These different changes +follow successively, we were assured, during whole months, and yet +not a breath of wind is felt. Comparative experiments led us to +believe that in general the nights at Cumanacoa are from two to +three, and the days from four to five centesimal degrees cooler +than at the port of Cumana. These differences are great; and if, +instead of meteorological instruments, we consulted only our own +feelings, we should suppose they were still more considerable. + +The vegetation of the plain which surrounds the town is monotonous, +but, owing to the extreme humidity of the air, remarkable for its +freshness. It is chiefly characterized by an arborescent solanum, +forty feet in height, the Urtica baccifera, and a new species of +the genus Guettarda.* (* These trees are surrounded by Galega +pilosa, Stellaria rotundifolia, Aegiphila elata of Swartz, +Sauvagesia erecta, Martinia perennis, and a great number of +Rivinas. We find among the gramineous plants, in the savannah of +Cumanacoa, the Paspalus lenticularis, Panicum ascendens, Pennisetum +uniflorum, Gynerium saccharoides, Eleusine indica, etc.) The ground +is very fertile, and might be easily watered if trenches were cut +from a great number of rivulets, the springs of which never dry up +during the whole year. The most valuable production of the district +is tobacco. Since the introduction of the farm* (* Estanco real de +tabaco, royal monopoly of tobacco.) in 1779, the cultivation of +tobacco in the province of Cumana is nearly confined to the valley +of Cumanacoa; as in Mexico it is permitted only in the two +districts of Orizaba and Cordova. The farm system is a monopoly +odious to the people. All the tobacco that is gathered must be sold +to government; and to prevent, or rather to diminish fraud, it has +been found most easy to concentrate the cultivation in one point. +Guards scour the country, to destroy any plantations without the +boundaries of the privileged districts; and to inform against those +inhabitants who smoke cigars prepared by their own hands. + +Next to the tobacco of the island of Cuba and of the Rio Negro, +that of Cumana is the most aromatic. It excels all the tobacco of +New Spain and of the province of Varinas. We shall give some +particulars of its culture, which essentially differs from the +method practised in Virginia. The prodigious expansion which is +remarked in the solaneous plants of the valley of Cumanacoa, +especially in the abundant species of the Solanum arborescens, of +aquartia, and of cestrum, seems to indicate the favourable nature +of this spot for plantations of tobacco. The seed is sown in the +open ground, at the beginning of September; though sometimes not +till the month of December, which period is however less favourable +for the harvest. The cotyledons appear on the eighth day, and the +young plants are covered with large leaves of heliconia and +plantain, and shelter them from the direct action of the sun. Great +care also is taken to destroy weeds, which, between the tropics, +spring up with astonishing rapidity. The tobacco is transplanted +into a rich and well-prepared soil, a month or two after it has +risen from the seed. The plants are disposed in regular rows, three +or four feet distant from each other. Care is taken to weed them +often, and the principal stalk is several times topped, till +greenish blue spots indicate to the cultivator the maturity of the +leaves. They begin to gather them in the fourth month, and this +first gathering generally terminates in the space of a few days. It +would be better if the leaves were plucked only as they dry. In +good years the cultivators cut the plant when it is only four feet +high; and the shoot which springs from the root, throws out new +leaves with such rapidity that they may be gathered on the +thirteenth or fourteenth day. These last have the cellular tissue +very much extended, and they contain more water, more albumen and +less of that acrid, volatile principle, which is but little soluble +in water, and in which the stimulant property of tobacco seems to +reside. + +At Cumanacoa the tobacco, after being gathered, undergoes a +preparation which the Spaniards call cura seca. The leaves are +suspended by threads of cocuiza;* (* Agave Americana.) their ribs +are taken out, and they are twisted into cords. The prepared +tobacco should be carried to the king's warehouses in the month of +June; but the indolence of the inhabitants, and the preference they +give to the cultivation of maize and cassava, usually prevent them +from finishing the preparation before the month of August. It is +easy to conceive that the leaves, so long exposed to very moist +air, must lose some of their flavour. The administrator of the farm +keeps the tobacco deposited in the king's warehouses sixty days +without touching it. When this time is expired, the manoques are +opened to examine the quality. If the administrator find the +tobacco well prepared, he pays the cultivator three piastres for +the aroba of twenty-five pounds weight. The same quantity is resold +for the king's profit at twelve piastres and a half. The tobacco +that is rotten (podrido), that is, again gone into a state of +fermentation, is publicly burnt; and the cultivator, who has +received money in advance from the royal farm, loses irrevocably +the fruits of his long labour. We saw heaps, amounting to five +hundred arobas, burnt in the great square, which in Europe might +have served for making snuff. + +The soil of Cumanacoa is so favourable to this branch of culture, +that tobacco grows wild, wherever the seed finds any moisture. It +grows thus spontaneously at Cerro del Cuchivano, and around the +cavern of Caripe. The only kind of tobacco cultivated at Cumanacoa, +as well as in the neighbouring districts of Aricagua and San +Lorenzo, is that with large sessile leaves,* (* Nicotiana tabacum.) +called Virginia tobacco. The tobacco with petiolate leaves,* (* +Nicotiana rustica.) which is the yetl of the ancient Mexicans, is +unknown. + +In studying the history of our cultivated plants, we are surprised +to find that, before the conquest, the use of tobacco was spread +through the greater part of America, while the potato was unknown +both in Mexico and the West India Islands, where it grows well in +the mountainous regions. Tobacco has also been cultivated in +Portugal since the year 1559, though the potato did not become an +object of European agriculture till the end of the seventeenth and +beginning of the eighteenth century. This latter plant, which has +had so powerful an influence on the well-being of society, has +spread in both continents more slowly than tobacco, which can be +considered only as an article of luxury. + +Next to tobacco, the most important culture of the valley of +Cumanacoa is that of indigo. The manufacturers of Cumanacoa, of San +Fernando, and of Arenas, produce indigo of greater commercial value +than that of Caracas; and often nearly equalling in splendour and +richness of colour the indigo of Guatimala. It was from that +province that the coasts of Cumana received the first seeds of the +Indigofera anil,* which is cultivated jointly with the Indigofera +tinctoria. (* The indigo known in commerce is produced by four +species of plants; the Indigofera tinctoria, I. anil, I. argentea, +and I. disperma. At the Rio Negro, near the frontiers of Brazil, we +found the I. argentea growing wild, but only in places anciently +inhabited by Indians.) The rains being very frequent in the valley +of Cumanacoa, a plant of four feet high yields no more colouring +matter than one of a third part that size in the arid valleys of +Aragua, to the west of the town of Caracas. + +The manufactories we examined are all built on uniform principles. +Two steeping vessels, or vats, which receive the plants intended to +be brought into a state of fermentation, are joined together. Each +vat is fifteen feet square, and two and a half deep. From these +upper vats the liquor runs into beaters, between which is placed +the water-mill. The axletree of the great wheel crosses the two +beaters. It is furnished with ladles, fixed to long handles, +adapted for the beating. From a spacious settling-vat, the +colouring fecula is carried to the drying place, and spread on +planks of brasiletto, which, having small wheels, can be sheltered +under a roof in case of sudden rains. Sloping and very low roofs +give the drying place the appearance of hot-houses at some +distance. In the valley of Cumanacoa, the fermentation of the plant +is produced with astonishing rapidity. It lasts in general but four +or five hours. This short duration can be attributed only to the +humidity of the climate, and the absence of the sun during the +development of the plant. I think I have observed, in the course of +my travels, that the drier the climate, the slower the vat works, +and the greater the quantity of indigo, at the minimum of +oxidation, contained in the stalks. In the province of Caracas, +where 562 cubic feet of the plant slightly piled up yield +thirty-five or forty pounds of dry indigo, the liquid does not pass +into the beater till after twenty, thirty, or thirty-five hours. It +is probable that the inhabitants of Cumanacoa would extract more +colouring matter if they left the plants longer steeping in the +first vat.* (* The planters are pretty generally of opinion, that +the fermentation should never continue less than ten hours. +Beauvais-Raseau, Art de l'Indigotier page 81.) During my abode at +Cumana I made solutions of the indigo of Cumanacoa, which is +somewhat heavy and coppery, and that of Caracas, in sulphuric acid, +in order to compare them, and the solution of the former appeared +to me to be of a much more intense blue. + +The plain of Cumanacoa, spotted with farms and small plantations of +indigo and tobacco, is surrounded with mountains, which towards the +south rise to considerable height. Everything indicates that the +valley is the bottom of an ancient lake. The mountains, which in +ancient times formed its shores, all rise perpendicularly in the +direction of the plain. The only outlet for the waters of the lake +was on the side of Arenas. In digging foundations, beds of round +pebbles, mixed with small bivalve shells, are found; and according +to the report of persons worthy of credit, there were discovered, +thirty years ago, at the bottom of the ravine of San Juanillo, two +enormous femoral bones, four feet long, and weighing more than +thirty pounds. The Indians imagined that these were giants' bones; +whilst the half-learned sages of the country, who assume the right +of explaining everything, gravely asserted that they were mere +sports of nature, and little worthy of attention; an opinion +founded on the circumstance that human bones decay rapidly in the +soil of Cumanacoa. In order to decorate their churches on the +festival of the dead, they take skulls from the cemeteries on the +coast, where the earth is impregnated with saline substances. These +pretended thigh-bones of giants were carried to the port of Cumana, +where I sought for them in vain; but from the analogy of some +fossil bones which I brought from other parts of South America, and +which have been carefully examined by M. Cuvier, it is probable +that the gigantic femoral bones of Cumanacoa belonged to elephants +of a species now extinct. It may appear surprising that they were +found in a place so little elevated above the present level of the +waters; since it is a remarkable fact, that the fragments of the +mastodons and fossil elephants which I brought from the equinoctial +regions of Mexico, New Grenada, Quito, and Peru, were not found in +low regions (as were the megatherium of Rio Luxan* (* One league +south-east from the town of Buenos Ayres.) and Virginia,* (* The +megatherium of Virginia is the megalonyx of Mr. Jefferson. All the +enormous remains found in the plains of the new continent, either +north or south of the equator, belong, not to the torrid, but to +the temperate zone. On the other hand, Pallas observes that in +Siberia, consequently also northward of the tropics, fossil bones +are never found in mountainous parts. These facts, intimately +connected together, seem calculated to lead to the discovery of a +great geological law.) the great mastodons of the Ohio, and the +fossil elephants of the Susquehanna, in the temperate zone), but on +table-lands having from six to fourteen hundred toises of +elevation. + +As we approached the southern bank of the basin of Cumanacoa, we +enjoyed the view of the Turimiquiri.* (* Some of the inhabitants +pronounce this name Tumuriquiri, others Turumiquiri, or +Tumiriquiri. During the whole time of our stay at Cumanacoa, the +summit of this mountain was covered with clouds. It appeared +uncovered on the evening of the 11th of September, but only for a +few minutes. The angle of elevation, taken from the great square of +Cumanacoa, was 8 degrees 2 minutes. This determination, and the +barometrical measurement which I made on the 13th, may enable us to +fix, within a certain approximation, the distance of the mountain +at six miles and a third, or 6050 toises; admitting that the part +uncovered by clouds was 850 toises above the plain of Cumanacoa.) +An enormous wall of rocks, the remains of an ancient cliff, rises +in the midst of the forests. Farther to the west, at Cerro del +Cuchivano, the chain of mountains seems as if broken by the effects +of an earthquake. The crevice is more than a hundred and fifty +toises wide, is surrounded by perpendicular rocks, and is filled +with trees, the interwoven branches of which find no room to +spread. This cleft appears like a mine opened by the falling in of +the earth. It is intersected by a torrent, the Rio Juagua, and its +appearance is highly picturesque. It is called Risco del Cuchivano. +The river rises at the distance of seven leagues south-west, at the +foot of the mountain of the Brigantine, and it forms some beautiful +cascades before it spreads through the plain of Cumanacoa. + +We visited several times a small farm, the Conuco of Bermudez, +opposite the Risco del Cuchivano, where tobacco, plantains, and +several species of cotton-trees,* are cultivated in the moist soil +(* Gossypium uniglandulosum, improperly called herbaceum, and G. +barbadense.); especially that tree, the cotton of which is of a +nankeen colour, and which is so common in the island of Margareta.* +(* G. religiosum.) The proprietor of the farm told us that the +Risco or crevice was inhabited by jaguar tigers. These animals pass +the day in caverns, and roam around human habitations at night. +Being well fed, they grow to the length of six feet. One of them +had devoured, in the preceding year, a horse belonging to the farm. +He dragged his prey on a fine moonlight night, across the savannah, +to the foot of a ceiba* of an enormous size. (* Bombax ceiba: +five-leaved silk-cotton tree.) The groans of the dying horse awoke +the slaves of the farm, who went out armed with lances and +machetes.* (* Great knives, with very long blades, like a couteau +de chasse. No one enters the woods in the torrid zone without being +armed with a machete, not only to cut his way through the woods, +but as a defence against wild beasts.) The tiger, crouching over +his prey, awaited their approach with tranquillity, and fell only +after a long and obstinate resistance. This fact, and many others +verified on the spot, prove that the great jaguar* of Terra Firma +(* Felis onca, Linn., which Buffon called panthere oillee, and +which he believed came from Africa.), like the jaguarete of +Paraguay, and the real tiger of Asia, does not flee from man when +it is dared to close combat, and when not intimidated by the number +of its assailants. Naturalists at present admit that Buffon was +entirely mistaken with respect to the greatest of the feline race +of America. What Buffon says of the cowardice of tigers of the new +continent, relates to the small ocelots.* (* Felis pardalis, Linn., +or the chibiguazu of Azara, different from the Tlateo-Ocelotl, or +tiger-cat of the Aztecs.) At the Orinoco, the real jaguar of +America sometimes leaps into the water, to attack the Indians in +their canoes. + +Opposite the farm of Bermudez, two spacious caverns open into the +crevice of Cuchivano, whence at times there issue flames, which may +be seen at a great distance in the night; and, judging by the +elevation of the rocks, above which these fiery exhalations ascend, +we should be led to think that they rise several hundred feet. This +phenomenon was accompanied by a subterranean, dull, and long +continued noise, at the time of the last great earthquake of +Cumana. It is observed chiefly during the rainy season; and the +owners of the farms opposite the mountain of Cuchivano allege that +the flames have become more frequent since December 1797. + +In a herborizing excursion we made at Rinconada we attempted to +penetrate into the crevice, wishing to examine the rocks which +seemed to contain in their bosom the cause of these extraordinary +conflagrations; but the strength of the vegetation, the +interweaving of the lianas, and thorny plants, hindered our +progress. Happily the inhabitants of the valley themselves felt a +warm interest in our researches, less from the fear of a volcanic +explosion, than because their minds were impressed with the idea +that the Risco del Cuchivano contained a gold mine; and although we +expressed our doubts of the existence of gold in a secondary +limestone, they insisted on knowing "what the German miner thought +of the richness of the vein." Ever since the time of Charles V and +the government of the Welsers, the Alfingers, and the Sailers, at +Coro and Caracas, the people of Terra Firma have entertained a +great confidence in the Germans with respect to all that relates to +the working of mines. Wherever I went in South America, when the +place of my birth was known, I was shown samples of ore. In these +colonies every Frenchman is supposed to be a physician, and every +German a miner. + +The farmers, with the aid of their slaves, opened a path across the +woods to the first fall of the Rio Juagua; and on the 10th of +September we made our excursion to the Cuchivano. On entering the +crevice we recognised the proximity of tigers by a porcupine +recently emboweled. For greater security the Indians returned to +the farm, and brought back some dogs of a very small breed. We were +assured that in the event of our meeting a jaguar in a narrow path +he would spring on the dog rather than on a man. We did not proceed +along the brink of the torrent, but on the slope of the rocks which +overhung the water. We walked on the side of a precipice from two +to three hundred feet deep, on a kind of very narrow cornice, like +the road which leads from the Grindelwald along the Mettenberg to +the great glacier. When the cornice was so narrow that we could +find no place for our feet, we descended into the torrent, crossed +it by fording, and then climbed the opposite wall. These descents +are very fatiguing, and it is not safe to trust to the lianas, +which hang like great cords from the tops of the trees. The +creeping and parasite plants cling but feebly to the branches which +they embrace; the united weight of their stalks is considerable, +and you run the risk of pulling down a whole mass of verdure, if, +in walking on a sloping ground, you support your weight by the +lianas. The farther we advanced the thicker the vegetation became. +In several places the roots of the trees had burst the calcareous +rock, by inserting themselves into the clefts that separate the +beds. We had some trouble to carry the plants which we gathered at +every step. The cannas, the heliconias with fine purple flowers, +the costuses, and other plants of the amomum family, here attain +eight or ten feet in height, and their fresh tender verdure, their +silky gloss, and the extraordinary development of the parenchyma, +form a striking contrast with the brown colour of the arborescent +ferns, the foliage of which is delicately shaped. The Indians made +incisions with their large knives in the trunks of the trees, and +fixed our attention on those beautiful red and gold-coloured woods, +which will one day be sought for by our turners and cabinet-makers. +They showed us a plant of the compositae order, twenty feet high +(the Eupatorium laevigatum of Lamarck), the rose of Belveria,* (* +Brownea racemosa.) celebrated for the brilliancy of its purple +flowers, and the dragon's-blood of this country, which is a kind of +croton not yet described.* (* Plants of families entirely different +are called in the Spanish colonies of both continents, sangre de +draco; they are dracaenas, pterocarpi, and crotons. Father Caulin +Descrip. Corografica page 25, in speaking of resins found in the +forests of Cumana, makes a just distinction between the Draco de la +Sierra de Unare, which has pinnate leaves (Pterocarpus Draco), and +the Draco de la Sierra de Paria, with entire and hairy leaves. The +latter is the Croton sanguifluum of Cumanacoa, Caripe, and Cariaco. +) The red and astringent juice of this plant is employed to +strengthen the gums. The Indians recognize the species by the +smell, and more particularly by chewing the woody fibres. Two +natives, to whom the same wood was given to chew, pronounced +without hesitation the same name. We could avail ourselves but +little of the sagacity of our guides, for how could we procure +leaves, flowers, and fruits growing on trunks, the branches of +which commence at fifty or sixty feet high? We were struck at +finding in this hollow the bark of trees, and even the soil, +covered with moss* and lichens. (* Real musci frondosi. We also +found, besides a small Boletus stipitatus, of a snow-white colour, +the Boletus igniarius, and the Lycoperdon stellatum of Europe. I +had found this last only in very dry places in Germany and Poland.) +The cryptogamous plants are here as common as in northern +countries. Their growth is favoured by the moisture of the air, and +the absence of the direct rays of the sun. Nevertheless the +temperature is generally at 25 degrees in the day, and 19 degrees +at night. + +The rocks which bound the crevice of Cuchivano are perpendicular +like walls, and are of the same calcareous formation which we +observed the whole way from Punta Delgada. It is here a blackish +grey, of compact fracture, tending sometimes towards the sandy +fracture, and crossed by small veins of white carbonated lime. In +these characteristic marks we thought we discovered the alpine +limestone of Switzerland and the Tyrol, of which the colour is +always deep, though in a less degree than that of the transition +limestone.* (* Escher, in the Alpina volume 4 page 340.) The first +of these formations constitutes the Cuchivano, the nucleus of the +Imposible, and in general the whole group of the mountains of New +Andalusia. I saw no petrifactions in it; but the inhabitants assert +that considerable masses of shells are found at great heights. The +same phenomenon occurs in the country about Salzburg.* (* In +Switzerland, the solitary beds of shells, at the height of from +1300 to 2000 toises (in the Jungfrauhorn, the Dent de Morcle, and +the Dent du Midi), belong to transition limestone.) At the +Cuchivano the alpine limestone contains beds of marly clay,* +(*Mergelschiefer.) three or four toises thick; and this geological +fact proves on the one hand the identity of the alpenkalkstein with +the zechstein of Thuringia, and on the other the affinity of +formation existing between the alpine limestone and that of the +Jura.* (* The Jura and the Alpine limestone are kindred formations, +and they are sometimes difficult to be distinguished, where they +lie immediately one upon another, as in the Apennines. The alpine +limestone and the zechstein, famous among the geologists of +Freyberg, are identical formations. This identity, which I noticed +in the year 1793 (Uber die Grubenwetter), is a geological fact the +more interesting, as it seems to unite the northern European +formations to those of the central chain. It is known that the +zechstein is situated between the muriatiferous gypsum and the +conglomerate (ancient sandstone); or where there is no +muriatiferous gypsum, between the slaty sandstone with roestones +(buntesandstein, Wern.), and the conglomerate or ancient sandstone. +It contains strata of schistous and coppery marl (bituminoce mergel +and kupferschiefer) which form an important object in the working +of mines at Mansfeld in Saxony, near Riegelsdorf in Hesse, and at +Hasel and Prausnitz, in Silesia. In the southern part of Bavaria +(Oberbaiern), I saw the alpine limestone, containing these same +strata of schistous clay and marl, which, though thinner, whiter, +and especially more frequent, characterize the limestone of Jura. +Respecting the slates of Blattenberg, in the canton of Glaris which +some mineralogists, because of their numerous impressions of fish, +have long mistaken for the cupreous slates of Mansfeld, they +belong, according to M. von Buch, to a real transition formation. +All these geological data tend to prove that strata of marl, more +or less mixed with carbon, are to be found in the limestone of +Jura, in the alpine limestone, and in the transition schists. The +mixture of carbon, sulphuretted iron, and copper, appears to me to +augment with the relative antiquity of the formations.) The strata +of marl effervesce with acids, though silex and alumina predominate +in them: they are strongly impregnated with carbon, and sometimes +blacken the hands, like a real vitriolic schistus. The supposed +gold mine of Cuchivano, which was the object of our examination, is +nothing but an excavation cut into one of those black strata of +marl, which contain pyrites in abundance. The excavation is on the +right bank of the river Juagua, and must be approached with +caution, because the torrent there is more than eight feet deep. +The sulphurous pyrites are found, some massive, and others +crystallized and disseminated in the rock; their colour, of a very +clear golden yellow, does not indicate that they contain copper. +They are mixed with fibrous sulphuret of iron,* (* Haarkies.) and +nodules of swinestone, or fetid carbonate of lime. The marly +stratum crosses the torrent; and, as the water washes out metallic +grains, the people imagine, on account of the brilliancy of the +pyrites, that the torrent bears down gold. It is reported that, +after the great earthquake which took place in 1766, the waters of +the Juagua were so charged with gold that "men who came from a +great distance, and whose country was unknown," established +washing-places on the spot. They disappeared during the night, +after having collected a great quantity of gold. It would be +needless to show that this is a fable. Pyrites dispersed in +quartzose veins, crossing the mica-slate, are often auriferous, no +doubt; but no analogous fact leads to the supposition that the +sulphuretted iron which is found in the schistose marls of the +alpine limestone, contains gold. Some direct experiments, made with +acids, during my abode at Caracas, showed that the pyrites of +Cuchivano are not auriferous. Our guides were amazed at my +incredulity. In vain I repeated that alum and sulphate of iron only +could be obtained from this supposed gold mine; they continued +picking up secretly every bit of pyrites they saw sparkling in the +water. In countries possessing few mines, the inhabitants entertain +exaggerated ideas respecting the facility with which riches are +drawn from the bowels of the earth. How much time did we not lose +during five years' travels, in visiting, on the pressing +invitations of our hosts, ravines, of which the pyritous strata +have borne for ages the imposing names of 'Minas de oro!' How often +have we been grieved to see men of all classes, magistrates, +pastors of villages, grave missionaries, grinding, with +inexhaustible patience, amphibole, or yellow mica, in the hope of +extracting gold from it by means of mercury! This rage for the +search of mines strikes us the more in a climate where the ground +needs only to be slightly raked to produce abundant harvests. + +After visiting the pyritous marls of the Rio Juagua, we continued +following the course of the crevice, which stretches along like a +narrow canal overshadowed by very lofty trees. We observed strata +on the left bank, opposite Cerro del Cuchivano, singularly crooked +and twisted. This phenomenon I had often admired at the Ochsenberg, +* in passing the lake of Lucerne. (* This mountain of Switzerland +is composed of transition limestone. We find these same inflexions +in the strata near Bonneville, at Nante d'Arpenas in Savoy, and in +the valley of Estaubee in the Pyrenees. Another transition rock, +the grauwakke of the Germans (very near the English killas), +exhibits the same phenomenon in Scotland.) The calcareous beds of +the Cuchivano and the neighbouring mountains keep pretty regularly +the direction of north-north-east and south-south-west. Their +inclination is sometimes north and sometimes south; most commonly +they seem to take a direction towards the valley of Cumanacoa; and +it cannot be doubted that the valley has an influence* on the +inclination of the strata. (* The same observation may apply to the +lake of Gemunden in Styria, which I visited with M. von Buch, and +which is one of the most picturesque situations in Europe.) + +We had suffered great fatigue, and were quite drenched by +frequently crossing the torrent, when we reached the caverns of the +Cuchivano. A wall of rock there rises perpendicularly to the height +of eight hundred toises. It is seldom that in a zone where the +force of vegetation everywhere conceals the soil and the rocks, we +behold a great mountain presenting naked strata in a perpendicular +section. In the middle of this section, and in a position +unfortunately inaccessible to man, two caverns open in the form of +crevices. We were assured that they are inhabited by nocturnal +birds, the same as those we were soon to become acquainted with in +the Cueva del Guacharo of Caripe. Near these caverns we saw strata +of schistose marl, and found, with great astonishment, +rock-crystals encased in beds of alpine limestone. They were +hexahedral prisms, terminated with pyramids, fourteen lines long +and eight thick. The crystals, perfectly transparent, were +solitary, and often three or four toises distant from each other. +They were enclosed in the calcareous mass, as the quartz crystals +of Burgtonna,* (* In the duchy of Gotha.) and the boracite of +Lunebourg, are contained in gypsum. There was no crevice near, or +any vestige of calcareous spar.* (* This phenomenon reminds us of +another equally rare, the quartz crystals found by M. Freiesleben +in Saxony, near Burgorner, in the county of Mansfeld, in the middle +of a rock of porous limestone (rauchwakke), lying immediately on +the alpine limestone. The rock crystals, which are pretty common in +the primitive limestone of Carrara, line the insides of cavities in +the rocks, without being enveloped by the rock itself.) + +We reposed at the foot of the cavern whence those flames were seen +to issue, which of late years have become more frequent. Our guides +and the farmer, an intelligent man, equally acquainted with the +localities of the province, discussed, in the manner of the +Creoles, the dangers to which the town of Cumanacoa would be +exposed if the Cuchivano became an active volcano, or, as they +expressed it, "se veniesse a reventar." It appeared to them +evident, that since the great earthquakes of Quito and Cumana in +1797, New Andalusia was every day more and more undermined by +subterranean fires. They cited the flames which had been seen to +issue from the earth at Cumana; and the shocks felt in places where +heretofore the ground had never been shaken. They recollected that +at Macarapan, sulphurous emanations had been frequently perceived +for some months past. We were struck with these facts, upon which +were founded predictions that have since been almost all realized. +Enormous convulsions of the earth took place at Caracas in 1812, +and proved how tumultuously nature is agitated in the north-east +part of Terra Firma. + +But what is the cause of the luminous phenomena which are observed +in the Cuchivano? The column of air which rises from the mouth of a +burning volcano* is sometimes observed to shine with a splendid +light. (* We must not confound this very rare phenomenon with the +glimmering commonly observed a few toises above the brink of a +crater, and which (as I remarked at Mount Vesuvius in 1805) is only +the reflection of great masses of inflamed scoria, thrown up +without sufficient force to pass the mouth of the volcano.) This +light, which is believed to be owing to the hydrogen gas, was +observed from Chillo, on the summit of the Cotopaxi, at a time when +the mountain seemed in the greatest repose. According to the +statements of the ancients, the Mons Albanus, near Rome, known at +present under the name of Monte Cavo, appeared at times on fire +during the night; but the Mons Albanus is a volcano recently +extinguished, which, in the time of Cato, threw out rapilli;* (* +"Albano monte biduum continenter lapidibus pluit."--Livy lib. 25 +cap. 7. (Heyne, Opuscula Acad. tome 3 page 261.)) while the +Cuchivano is a calcareous mountain, remote from any trap formation. +Can these flames be attributed to the decomposition of water, +entering into contact with the pyrites dispersed through the +schistose marl? or is it inflamed hydrogen that issues from the +cavern of Cuchivano? The marls, as the smell indicates, are +pyritous and bituminous at the same time; and the petroleum springs +at the Buen Pastor, and in the island of Trinidad, proceed probably +from these same beds of alpine limestone. It would be easy to +suppose some connexion between the waters filtering through this +calcareous stone, and decomposed by pyrites and the earthquakes of +Cumana, the springs of sulphuretted hydrogen in New Barcelona, the +beds of native sulphur at Carupano, and the emanations of +sulphurous acid which are perceived at times in the savannahs. It +cannot be doubted also, that the decomposition of water by the +pyrites at an elevated temperature, favoured by the affinity of +oxidated iron for earthy substances, may have caused that +disengagement of hydrogen gas, to the action of which several +modern geologists have attributed so much importance. But in +general, sulphurous acid is perceived more commonly than hydrogen +in the eruption of volcanoes, and the odour of that acid +principally prevails while the earth is agitated by violent shocks. +When we take a general view of the phenomena of volcanoes and +earthquakes, when we recollect the enormous distance at which the +commotion is propagated below the basin of the sea, we readily +discard explanations founded on small strata of pyrites and +bituminous marls. I am of opinion that the shocks so frequently +felt in the province of Cumana are as little to be attributed to +the rocks above the surface of the earth, as those which agitate +the Apennines are assignable to asphaltic veins or springs of +burning petroleum. The whole of these phenomena depend on more +general, I would almost say on deeper, causes; and it is not in the +secondary strata which form the exterior crust of our globe, but in +the primitive rocks, at an enormous distance from the soil, that we +should seek the focus of volcanic action. The greater progress we +make in geology, the more we feel the insufficiency of theories +founded on observations merely local. + +On the 12th of September we continued our journey to the convent of +Caripe, the principal settlement of the Chayma missions. We chose, +instead of the direct road, that by the mountains of the +Cocollar* (* Is this name of Indian origin? At Cumana I heard +it derived in a manner somewhat far-fetched from the Spanish word +cogollo, signifying the heart of oleraceous plants. The Cocollar +forms the centre of the whole group of the mountains of New +Andalusia.) and the Turimiquiri, the height of which little exceeds +that of Jura. The road first runs eastward, crossing over the length +of three leagues the table-land of Cumanacoa, in a soil formerly +levelled by the waters: it then turns to the south. We passed the +little Indian village of Aricagua surrounded by woody hills. Thence +we began to ascend, and the ascent lasted more than four hours. We +crossed two-and-twenty times the river of Pututucuar, a rapid +torrent, full of blocks of calcareous rock. When, on the Cuesta del +Cocollar, we reached an elevation two thousand feet above the level +of the sea, we were surprised to find scarcely any forests or great +trees. We passed over an immense plain covered with gramineous +plants. Mimosas with hemispheric tops, and stems only four or five +feet high, alone vary the dull uniformity of the savannahs. Their +branches are bent towards the ground or spread out like umbrellas. +Wherever there are deep declivities, or masses of rocks half +covered with mould, the clusia or cupey, with great nymphaea +flowers, displays its beautiful verdure. The roots of this tree are +eight inches in diameter, and they sometimes shoot out from the +trunk at the height of fifteen feet above the soil. + +After having climbed the mountain for a considerable time, we +reached a small plain at the Hato del Cocollar. This is a solitary +farm, situated on a table-land 408 toises high. We rested three +days in this retreat, where we were treated with great kindness by +the proprietor, Don Mathias Yturburi, a native of Biscay, who had +accompanied us from the port of Cumana. We there found milk, +excellent meat from the richness of the pasture, and above all, a +delightful climate. During the day the centigrade thermometer did +not rise above 22 or 23 degrees; a little before sunset it fell to +19, and at night it scarcely kept up to 14 degrees.* (* 11.2 +degrees Reaum.) The nightly temperature was consequently seven +degrees colder than that of the coasts, which is a fresh proof of +an extremely rapid decrement of heat, the table-land of Cocollar +being less elevated than the site of the town of Caracas. + +As far as the eye could reach, we perceived, from this elevated +point, only naked savannahs. Small tufts of scattered trees rise in +the ravines; and notwithstanding the apparent uniformity of +vegetation, great numbers of curious plants* are found here. (* +Cassia acuta, Andromeda rigida, Casearia hypericifolia, Myrtus +longifolia, Buettneria salicifolia, Glycine picta, G. pratensis, G. +gibba, Oxalis umbrosa, Malpighia caripensis, Cephaelis salicifolia, +Stylosanthes angustifolia, Salvia pseudococcinea, Eryngium +foetidum. We found a second time this last plant, but at a +considerable height, in the great forests of bark trees surrounding +the town of Loxa, in the centre of the Cordilleras.) We shall only +speak of a superb lobelia* with purple flowers (* Lobelia +spectabilis.); the Brownea coccinea, which is upwards of a hundred +feet high; and above all; the pejoa, celebrated in the country on +account of the delightful and aromatic perfume emitted by its +leaves when rubbed between the fingers.* (* It is the Gualtheria +odorata. The pejoa is found round the lake of Cocollar, which gives +birth to the great river Guarapiche. We met with the same shrub at +the Cuchilla de Guanaguana. It is a subalpine plant, which forms at +the Silla de Caracas a zone much higher than in the province of +Cumana. The leaves of the pejoa have even a more agreeable smell +than those of the Myrtus pimenta, but they yield no perfume when +rubbed a few hours after their separation from the tree.) But the +great charms of this solitary place were the beauty and serenity of +the nights. The proprietor of the farm, who spent his evenings with +us, seemed to enjoy the astonishment produced on Europeans newly +transplanted to the tropics, by that vernal freshness of the air +which is felt on the mountains after sunset. In those distant +regions, where men yet feel the full value of the gifts of nature, +a land-holder boasts of the water of his spring, the absence of +noxious insects, the salutary breeze that blows round his hill, as +we in Europe descant on the conveniences of our dwellings, and the +picturesque effect of our plantations. + +Our host had visited the new world with an expedition which was to +form establishments for felling wood for the Spanish navy on the +shores of the gulf of Paria. In the vast forests of mahogany, +cedar, and brazil-wood, which border the Caribbean Sea, it was +proposed to select the trunks of the largest trees, giving them in +a rough way the shape adapted to the building of ships, and sending +them every year to the dockyard near Cadiz. White men, unaccustomed +to the climate, could not support the fatigue of labour, the heat, +and the effect of the noxious air exhaled by the forests. The same +winds which are loaded with the perfume of flowers, leaves, and +woods, infuse also, as we may say, the germs of dissolution into +the vital organs. Destructive fevers carried off not only the +ship-carpenters, but the persons who had the management of the +establishment; and this bay, which the early Spaniards named Golfo +Triste (Melancholy Bay), on account of the gloomy and wild aspect +of its coasts, became the grave of European seamen. Our host had +the rare good fortune to escape these dangers. After having +witnessed the death of a great number of his friends, he withdrew +from the coast to the mountains of Cocollar. + +Nothing can be compared to the majestic tranquillity which the +aspect of the firmament presents in this solitary region. When +tracing with the eye, at night-fall, the meadows which bounded the +horizon,--the plain covered with verdure and gently undulated, we +thought we beheld from afar, as in the deserts of the Orinoco, the +surface of the ocean supporting the starry vault of Heaven. The +tree under which we were seated, the luminous insects flying in the +air, the constellations which shone in the south; every object +seemed to tell us how far we were from our native land. If amidst +this exotic nature we heard from the depth of the valley the +tinkling of a bell, or the lowing of herds, the remembrance of our +country was awakened suddenly. The sounds were like distant voices +resounding from beyond the ocean, and with magical power +transporting us from one hemisphere to the other. Strange mobility +of the imagination of man, eternal source of our enjoyments and our +pains! + +We began in the cool of the morning to climb the Turimiquiri. This +is the name given to the summit of the Cocollar, which, with the +Brigantine, forms one single mass of mountain, formerly called by +the natives the Sierra de los Tageres. We travelled along a part of +the road on horses, which roam about these savannahs; but some of +them are used to the saddle. Though their appearance is very heavy, +they pass lightly over the most slippery turf. We first stopped at +a spring issuing, not from the calcareous rock, but from a layer of +quartzose sandstone. The temperature was 21 degrees, consequently +1.5 degrees less than the spring of Quetepe; and the difference of +the level is nearly 220 toises. Wherever the sandstone appears +above ground the soil is level, and constitutes as it were small +platforms, succeeding each other like steps. To the height of 700 +toises, and even beyond, this mountain, like those in its vicinity, +is covered only with gramineous plants.* (* The most abundant +species are the paspalus; the Andropogon fastigiatum, which forms +the genus Diectomis of M. Palissot de Beauvais; and the Panicum +olyroides.) The absence of trees is attributed at Cumana to the +great elevation of the ground; but a slight reflection on the +distribution of plants in the Cordilleras of the torrid zone will +lead us to conceive that the summits of New Andalusia are very far +from reaching the superior limit of the trees, which in this +latitude is at least 1800 toises of absolute height. The smooth +turf of the Cocollar begins to appear at 350 toises above the level +of the sea, and the traveller may contrive to walk upon this turf +till he reaches a thousand toises in height. Farther on, beyond +this band covered with gramineous plants, we found, amidst peaks +almost inaccessible to man, a small forest of cedrela, javillo,* (* +Huras crepitans, of the family of the euphorbias. The growth of its +trunk is so enormous, that M. Bonpland measured vats of javillo +wood, 14 feet long and 8 wide. These vats, made from one log of +wood, are employed to keep the guarapo, or juice of the sugar-cane, +and the molasses. The seeds of javillo are a very active poison, +and the milk that issues from the petioles, when broken, frequently +produced inflammation in our eyes, if by chance the least quantity +penetrated under the eyelids.) and mahogany. These local +circumstances induce me to think that the mountainous savannahs of +the Cocollar and Turimiquiri owe their existence only to the +destructive custom practised by the natives of setting fire to the +woods when they want to convert the soil into pasturage. Where, +during the lapse of three centuries, grasses and alpine plants have +covered the soil with a thick carpet, the seeds of trees can no +longer germinate and fix themselves in the earth, though birds and +winds convey them continually from the distant forests into the +savannahs. + +The climate of these mountains is so mild that at the farm of the +Cocollar the cotton and coffee tree, and even the sugar cane, are +cultivated with success. Whatever the inhabitants of the coasts may +allege, hoar-frost has never been found in the latitude of 10 +degrees, on heights scarcely exceeding those of the Mont d'Or, or +the Puy-de-Dome. The pastures of Turimiquiri become less rich in +proportion to the elevation. Wherever scattered rocks afford shade, +lichens and some European mosses are found. The Melastoma guacito,* +(* Melastoma xanthostachys, called guacito at Caracas.) and a +shrub, the large and tough leaves of which rustle like parchment* +when shaken by the winds, (* Palicourea rigida, chaparro bovo. In +the savannahs, or llanos, the same Castilian name is given to a +tree of the family of the proteaceae.) rise here and there in the +savannah. But the principal ornament of the turf of these mountains +is a liliaceous plant with golden flowers, the Marica +martinicensis. It is generally observed in the province of Cumana +and Caracas only at 400 or 500 toises of elevation.* (* For +example, in the Montana de Avila, on the road from Caracas to La +Guayra, and in the Silla de Caracas. The seeds of the marica are +ripe at the end of December.) The whole rocky mass of the +Turimiquiri is composed of an alpine limestone, like that of +Cumanacoa, and a pretty thin strata of marl and quartzose +sandstone. The limestone contains masses of brown oxidated iron and +carbonate of iron. I have observed in several places, and very +distinctly, that the sandstone not only reposes on the limestone, +but that this last rock frequently includes and alternates with the +sandstone. + +We distinguished clearly the round summit of the Turimiquiri and +the lofty peaks or, as they are called, the Cucuruchos, covered +with thick vegetation, and infested by tigers which are hunted for +the beauty of their skin. This round summit, which is covered with +turf, is 707 toises above the level of the ocean. A ridge of steep +rocks stretches out westward, and is broken at the distance of a +mile by an enormous crevice that descends toward the gulf of +Cariaco. At the point which might be supposed to be the +continuation of the ridge, two calcareous paps or peaks arise, the +most northern of which is the loftiest. It is this last which is +more particularly called the Cucurucho de Turimiquiri, and which is +considered to be higher than the mountain of the Brigantine, so +well known by the sailors who frequent the coasts of Cumana. We +measured, by angles of elevation, and a basis, rather short, traced +on the round summit, the peak of Cucurucho, which was about 350 +toises higher than our station, so that its absolute height +exceeded 1050 toises. + +The view we enjoyed on the Turimiquiri is of vast extent, and +highly picturesque. From the summer to the ocean we perceived +chains of mountains extended in parallel lines from east to west, +and bounding longitudinal valleys. These valleys are intersected at +right angles by an infinite number of small ravines, scooped out by +the torrents: the consequence is, that the lateral ranges are +transformed into so many rows of paps, some round and others +pyramidal. The ground in general is a gentle slope as far as the +Imposible; Farther on the precipices become bold, and continue so +to the shore of the gulf of Cariaco. The form of this mass of +mountains reminded us of the chain of the Jura; and the only plain +that presents itself is the valley of Cumanacoa. We seemed to look +down into the bottom of a funnel, in which we could distinguish, +amidst tufts of scattered trees, the Indian village of Aricagua. +Towards the north, a narrow slip of land, the peninsula of Araya, +formed a dark stripe on the sea, which, being illumined by the rays +of the sun, reflected a strong light. Beyond the peninsula the +horizon was bounded by Cape Macanao, the black rocks of which rise +amid the waters like an immense bastion. + +The farm of the Cocollar, situated at the foot of the Turimiquiri, +is in latitude 19 degrees 9 minutes 32 seconds. I found the dip of +the needle 42.1 degrees. The needle oscillates 229 times in ten +minutes. Possibly masses of brown iron-ore, included in the +calcareous rock, caused a slight augmentation in the intensity of +the magnetic forces. + +On the 14th of September we descended the Cocollar, toward the +Mission of San Antonio. After crossing several savannahs strewed +with large blocks of calcareous stone, we entered a thick forest. +Having passed two ridges of extremely steep mountains,* (* These +ridges, which are rather difficult to climb towards the end of the +rainy season, are distinguished by the names of Los Yepes and +Fantasma.) we discovered a fine valley five or six leagues in +length, pretty uniformly following the direction of east and west. +In this valley are situated the Missions of San Antonio and +Guanaguana; the first is famous on account of a small church with +two towers, built of brick, in pretty good style, and ornamented +with columns of the Doric order. It is the wonder of the country. +The prefect of the Capuchins completed the building of this church +in less than two summers, though he employed only the Indians of +his village. The mouldings of the capitals, the cornices, and a +frieze decorated with suns and arabesques, are executed in clay +mixed with pounded brick. If we are surprised to find churches in +the purest Grecian style on the confines of Lapland,* (* At +Skelefter, near Torneo.--Buch, Voyage en Norwege.) we are still +more struck with these first essays of art, in a region where +everything indicates the wild state of man, and where the basis of +civilization has not been laid by Europeans more than forty years. + +I stopped at the Mission of San Antonio only to open the barometer, +and to take a few altitudes of the sun. The elevation of the great +square above Cumana is 216 toises. After having crossed the +village, we forded the rivers Colorado and Guarapiche, both of +which rise in the mountains of the Cocollar, and blend their waters +lower down towards the east. The Colorado has a very rapid current, +and becomes at its mouth broader than the Rhine. The Guarapiche, at +its junction with the Rio Areo, is more than twenty-five fathoms +deep. Its banks are ornamented by a superb gramen, of which I made +a drawing two years afterward on ascending the river Magdalena. The +distich-leaved stalk of this gramen often reaches the height of +fifteen or twenty feet.* (* Lata, or cana brava. It is a new genus, +between aira and arundo. This colossal gramen looks like the donax +of Italy. This, the arundinaria of the Mississippi, (ludolfia, +Willd., miegia of Persoon,) and the bamboos, are the highest +gramens of the New Continent. Its seed has been carried to St. +Domingo, where its stalk is employed to thatch the negroes' huts.) + +Towards evening we reached the Mission of Guanaguana, the site of +which is almost on a level with the village of San Antonio. The +missionary received us cordially; he was an old man, and he seemed +to govern his Indians with great intelligence. The village has +existed only thirty years on the spot it now occupies. Before that +time it was more to the south, and was backed by a hill. It is +astonishing with what facility the Indians are induced to remove +their dwellings. There are villages in South America which in less +than half a century have thrice changed their situation. The native +finds himself attached by ties so feeble to the soil he inhabits, +that he receives with indifference the order to take down his house +and to rebuild it elsewhere. A village changes its situation like a +camp. Wherever clay, reeds, and the leaves of the palm or heliconia +are found, a house is built in a few days. These compulsory changes +have often no other motive than the caprice of a missionary, who, +having recently arrived from Spain, fancies that the situation of +the Mission is feverish, or that it is not sufficiently exposed to +the winds. Whole villages have been transported several leagues, +merely because the monk did not find the prospect from his house +sufficiently beautiful or extensive. + +Guanaguana has as yet no church. The old monk, who during thirty +years had lived in the forests of America, observed to us that the +money of the community, or the produce of the labour of the +Indians, was employed first in the construction of the missionary's +house, next in that of the church, and lastly in the clothing of +the Indians. He gravely assured us that this order of things could +not be changed on any pretence, and that the Indians, who prefer a +state of nudity to the slightest clothing, are in no hurry for +their turn in the destination of the funds. The spacious abode of +the padre had just been finished, and we had remarked with +surprise, that the house, the roof of which formed a terrace, was +furnished with a great number of chimneys that looked like turrets. +This, our host told us, was done to remind him of a country dear to +his recollection, and to picture to his mind the winters of Aragon +amid the heat of the torrid zone. The Indians of Guanaguana +cultivate cotton for their own benefit as well as for that of the +church and the missionary. The natives have machines of a very +simple construction to separate the cotton from the seeds. These +are wooden cylinders of extremely small diameter, within which the +cotton passes, and which are made to turn by a treadle. These +machines, however imperfect, are very useful, and they begin to be +imitated in other Missions. The soil of Guanaguana is not less +fertile than that of Aricagua, a small neighbouring village, which +has also preserved its ancient Indian name. An almuda of land, 1850 +square toises, produces in abundant years from 25 to 30 fanegas of +maize, each fanega weighing 100 pounds. But here, as in other +places, where the bounty of nature retards industry, a very small +number of acres are cleared, and the culture of alimentary plants +is neglected. Scarcity of subsistence is felt, whenever the harvest +is lost by a protracted drought. The Indians of Guanaguana related +to us as a fact not uncommon, that in the preceding year they, +their wives, and their children, had been for three months al +monte; by which they meant, wandering in the neighbouring forests, +to live on succulent plants, palm-cabbages, fern roots, and fruits +of wild trees. They did not speak of this nomad life as of a state +of privation. + +The beautiful valley of Guanaguana stretches towards the east, +opening into the plains of Punzera and Terecen. We wished to visit +those plains, and examine the springs of petroleum, lying between +the river Guarapiche and the Rio Areo; but the rainy season had +already arrived, and we were in daily perplexity how to dry and +preserve the plants we had collected. The road from Guanaguana to +the village of Punzera runs either by San Felix or by Caycara and +Guayuta, which is a farm for cattle (hato) of the missionaries. In +this last place, according to the report of the Indians, great +masses of sulphur are found, not in a gypseous or calcareous rock, +but at a small depth below the soil, in a bed of clay. This +singular phenomenon appears to me peculiar to America; we found it +also in the kingdom of Quito, and in New Spain. On approaching +Punzera, we saw in the savannahs small bags, formed of a silky +tissue suspended from the branches of the lowest trees. It is the +seda silvestre, or wild silk of the country, which has a beautiful +lustre, but is very rough to the touch. The phalaena which produces +it is probably analogous with that of the provinces of Gua[?]uato +and Antioquia, which also furnish wild silk. We found in the +beautiful forest of Punzera two trees known by the names of curucay +and canela; the former, of which we shall speak hereafter, yields a +resin very much sought after by the Piaches, or Indian sorcerers; +the leaves of the latter have the smell of the real cinnamon of +Ceylon.* (* Is this the Laurus cinnamomoides of Mutis? What is that +other cinnamon tree which the Indians call tuorco, common in the +mountains of Tocayo, and at the sources of the Rio Uchere, the bark +of which is mixed with chocolate? Father Caulin gives the name of +curucay to the Copaifera officinalis, which yields the Balsam of +Capivi.--Hist. Corograf., pages 24 and 34.) From Punzera the road +leads by Terecin and Nueva Palencia, (a new colony of Canarians,) +to the port of San Juan, situated on the right bank of the river +Areo; and it is only by crossing this river in a canoe, that the +traveller can arrive at the famous petroleum springs (or mineral +tar) of the Buen Pastor. They were described to us as small wells +or funnels, hollowed out by nature in a marshy soil. This +phenomenon reminded us of the lake of asphaltum, or of chopapote, +in the island of Trinidad,* (* Laguna de la Brea, south-east of the +port of Naparima. There is another spring of asphaltum on the +eastern coast of the island, in the bay of Mayaro.) which is +distant from the Buen Pastor, in a straight line, only thirty-five +sea leagues. + +Having long struggled to overcome the desire we felt to descend the +Guarapiche to the Golfo Triste, we took the direct road to the +mountains. The valleys of Guanaguana and Caripe are separated by a +kind of dyke, or calcareous ridge, well known by the name of the +Cuchilla* de Guanaguana. (* Literally "blade of a knife". +Throughout all Spanish America the name of "cuchilla" is given to +the ridge of a mountain terminated on each side by very steep +declivities.) We found this passage difficult, because at that time +we had not climbed the Cordilleras; but it is by no means so +dangerous as the people at Cumana love to represent it. The path is +indeed in several parts only fourteen or fifteen inches broad; and +the ridge of the mountain, along which the road runs, is covered +with a short slippery turf. The slopes on each side are steep, and +the traveller, should he stumble, might slide down to the depth of +seven or eight hundred feet. Nevertheless, the flanks of the +mountain are steep declivities rather than precipices; and the +mules of this country are so sure-footed that they inspire the +greatest confidence. Their habits are identical with those of the +beasts of burden in Switzerland and the Pyrenees. In proportion as +a country is wild, the instinct of domestic animals improves in +address and sagacity. When the mules feel themselves in danger, +they stop, turning their heads to the right and to the left; and +the motion of their ears seems to indicate that they reflect on the +decision they ought to take. Their resolution is slow, but always +just, if it be spontaneous; that is to say, if it be not thwarted +or hastened by the imprudence of the traveller. On the frightful +roads of the Andes, during journeys of six or seven months across +mountains furrowed by torrents, the intelligence of horses and +beasts of burden is manifested in an astonishing manner. Thus the +mountaineers are heard to say, "I will not give you the mule whose +step is the easiest, but the one which is most intelligent (la mas +racional)." This popular expression, dictated by long experience, +bears stronger evidence against the theory of animated machines, +than all the arguments of speculative philosophy. + +When we had reached the highest point of the ridge or cuchilla of +Guanaguana, an interesting spectacle unfolded itself before us. We +saw comprehended in one view the vast savannahs or meadows of +Maturin and of the Rio Tigre;* (* These natural meadows are part of +the llanos or immense steppes bordered by the Orinoco.) the peak of +the Turimiquiri;* (* El Cucurucho.) and an infinite number of +parallel ridges, which, seen at a distance, looked like the waves +of the sea. On the north-east opens the valley in which is situated +the convent of Caripe. The aspect of this valley is peculiarly +attractive, for being shaded by forests, it forms a strong contrast +with the nudity of the neighbouring mountains, which are bare of +trees, and covered with gramineous plants. We found the absolute +height of the Cuchilla to be 548 toises. + +Descending from the ridge by a winding path, we entered into a +completely woody country. The soil is covered with moss, and a new +species of drosera,* (* Drosera tenella.) which by its form +reminded us of the drosera of the Alps. The thickness of the +forests, and the force of vegetation, augmented as we approached +the convent of Caripe. Everything here changes its aspect, even to +the rock that accompanied us from Punta Delgada. The calcareous +strata becomes thinner, forming graduated steps, which stretch out +like walls, cornices, and turrets, as in the mountains of Jura, +those of Pappenheim in Germany, and near Oizow in Galicia. The +colour of the stone is no longer of a smoky or bluish grey; it +becomes white; its fracture is smooth, and sometimes even +imperfectly conchoidal. It is no longer the calcareous formation of +the Higher Alps, but a formation to which this serves as a basis, +and which is analogous to the Jura limestone. In the chain of the +Apennines, between Rome and Nocera, I observed this same immediate +superposition.* (* In like manner, near Geneva, the rock of the +Mole, belonging to the Alpine limestone, lies under the Jura +limestone which forms Mount Saleve.) It indicates, not the +transition from one rock to another, but the geological affinity +existing between two formations. According to the general type of +the secondary strata, recognised in a great part of Europe, the +Alpine limestone is separated from the Jura limestone by the +muriatiferous gypsum; but often this latter is entirely wanting, or +is contained as a subordinate layer in the Alpine limestone. In +this case the two great calcareous formations succeed each other +immediately, or are confounded in one mass. + +The descent from the Cuchilla is far shorter than the ascent. We +found the level of the valley of Caripe 200 toises higher than that +of the valley of Guanaguana.* (* Absolute height of the convent +above the level of the sea, 412 toises.) A group of mountains of +little breadth separates two valleys, one of which is of delicious +coolness, while the other is famed for the heat of its climate. +These contrasts, so common in Mexico, New Grenada, and Peru, are +very rare in the north-east part of South America. Thus Caripe is +the only one of the high valleys of New Andalusia which is much +inhabited. + + + +CHAPTER 1.7. + +CONVENT OF CARIPE. +CAVERN OF THE GUACHARO. +NOCTURNAL BIRDS. + +An alley of perseas led us to the Hospital of the Aragonese +Capuchins. We stopped near a cross of Brazil-wood, erected in the +midst of a square, and surrounded with benches, on which the infirm +monks seat themselves to tell their rosaries. The convent is backed +by an enormous wall of perpendicular rock, covered with thick +vegetation. The stone, which is of resplendent whiteness, appears +only here and there between the foliage. It is difficult to imagine +a more picturesque spot. It recalled forcibly to my remembrance the +valleys of Derbyshire, and the cavernous mountains of Muggendorf, +in Franconia. Instead of the beeches and maple trees of Europe we +here find the statelier forms of the ceiba and the palm-tree, the +praga and irasse. Numberless springs gush from the sides of the +rocks which encircle the basin of Caripe, and of which the abrupt +slopes present, towards the south, profiles of a thousand feet in +height. These springs issue, for the most part, from a few narrow +crevices. The humidity which they spread around favours the growth +of the great trees; and the natives, who love solitary places, form +their conucos along the sides of these crevices. Plantains and +papaw trees are grouped together with groves of arborescent fern; +and this mixture of wild and cultivated plants gives the place a +peculiar charm. Springs are distinguished from afar, on the naked +flanks of the mountains, by tufted masses of vegetation* which at +first sight seem suspended from the rocks, and descending into the +valley, they follow the sinuosities of the torrents.* (* Among the +interesting plants of the valley of Caripe, we found for the first +time a calidium, the trunk of which was twenty feet high (C. +arboreum); the Mikania micrantha, which may probably possess some +of the alexipharmic properties of the famous guaco of the Choco; +the Bauhinia obtusifolia, a very large tree, called guarapa by the +Indians; the Weinnannia glabra; a tree psychotria, the capsules of +which, when rubbed between the fingers, emit a very agreeable +orange smell; the Dorstenia Houstoni (raiz de resfriado); the +Martynia Craniolaria, the white flowers of which are six or seven +inches long; a scrophularia, having the aspect of the Verbascum +miconi, and the leaves of which, all radical and hairy, are marked +with silvery glands.) + +We were received with great hospitality by the monks of Caripe. The +building has an inner court, surrounded by an arcade, like the +convents in Spain. This enclosed place was highly convenient for +setting up our instruments and making observations. We found a +numerous society in the convent. Young monks, recently arrived from +Spain, were just about to settle in the Missions, while old infirm +missionaries sought for health in the fresh and salubrious air of +the mountains of Caripe. I was lodged in the cell of the superior, +which contained a pretty good collection of books. I found there, +to my surprise, the Teatro Critico of Feijoo, the Lettres +Edifiantes, and the Traite d'Electricite by abbe Nollet. It seemed +as if the progress of knowledge advanced even in the forests of +America. The youngest of the capuchin monks of the last Mission had +brought with him a Spanish translation of Chaptal's Treatise on +Chemistry, and he intended to study this work in the solitude where +he was destined to pass the remainder of his days. During our long +abode in the Missions of South America we never perceived any sign +of intolerance. The monks of Caripe were not ignorant that I was +born in the protestant part of Germany. Furnished as I was with +orders from the court of Spain, I had no motives to conceal from +them this fact; nevertheless, no mark of distrust, no indiscreet +question, no attempt at controversy, ever diminished the value of +the hospitality they exercised with so much liberality and +frankness. + +The convent is founded on a spot which was anciently called +Areocuar. Its height above the level of the sea is nearly the same +as that of the town of Caracas, or of the inhabited part of the +Blue Mountains of Jamaica. Thus the mean temperatures of these +three points, all situated within the tropics, are nearly the same. +The necessity of being well clothed at night, and especially at +sunrise, is felt at Caripe. We saw the centigrade thermometer at +midnight, between 16 and 17.5 degrees; in the morning, between 19 +and 20 degrees. About one o'clock it had risen only to 21, or 22.5 +degrees. This temperature is sufficient for the development of the +productions of the torrid zone; though, compared with the excessive +heat of the plains of Cumana, we might call it the temperature of +spring. Water exposed to currents of air in vessels of porous clay, +cools at Caripe, during the night, as low as 13 degrees. + +Experience has proved that the temperate climate and rarefied air +of this spot are singularly favourable to the cultivation of the +coffee-tree, which is well known to flourish on heights. The +prefect of the capuchins, an active and enlightened man, has +introduced into the province this new branch of agricultural +industry. Indigo was formerly planted at Caripe, but the small +quantity of fecula yielded by this plant, which requires great +heat, caused the culture to be abandoned. We found in the conuco of +the community many culinary plants, maize, sugar cane, and five +thousand coffee-trees, which promised a fine harvest. The friars +were in hopes of tripling the number in a few years. We cannot help +remarking the uniform efforts for the cultivation of the soil which +are manifested in the policy of the monastic hierarchy. Wherever +convents have not yet acquired wealth in the New Continent, as +formerly in Gaul, in Syria, and in the north of Europe, they +exercise a happy influence on the clearing of the ground and the +introduction of exotic vegetation. At Caripe, the conuco of the +community presents the appearance of an extensive and beautiful +garden. The natives are obliged to work in it every morning from +six to ten, and the alcaldes and alguazils of Indian race overlook +their labours. These men are looked upon as great state +functionaries, and they alone have the right of carrying a cane. +The selection of them depends on the superior of the convent. The +pedantic and silent gravity of the Indian alcaldes, their cold and +mysterious air, their love of appearing in form at church and in +the assemblies of the people, force a smile from Europeans. We were +not yet accustomed to these shades of the Indian character, which +we found the same at the Orinoco, in Mexico, and in Peru, among +people totally different in their manners and their language. The +alcaldes came daily to the convent, less to treat with the monks on +the affairs of the Mission, than under the pretence of inquiring +after the health of the newly-arrived travellers. As we gave them +brandy, their visits became more frequent than the monks desired. + +That which confers most celebrity on the valley of Caripe, besides +the extraordinary coolness of its climate, is the great Cueva, or +Cavern of the Guacharo.* (* The province of Guacharucu, which +Delgado visited in 1534, in the expedition of Hieronimo de Ortal, +appears to have been situated south or south-east of Macarapana. +Has its name any connexion with those of the cavern and the bird? +or is this last of Spanish origin? (Laet Nova Orbis page 676). +Guacharo means in Castilian "one who cries and laments;" now the +bird of the cavern of Caripe, and the guacharaca (Phasianus +parraka) are very noisy birds.) In a country where the people love +the marvellous, a cavern which gives birth to a river, and is +inhabited by thousands of nocturnal birds, the fat of which is +employed in the Missions to dress food, is an everlasting object of +conversation and discussion. The cavern, which the natives call "a +mine of fat" is not in the valley of Caripe itself, but three short +leagues distant from the convent, in the direction of +west-south-west. It opens into a lateral valley, which terminates +at the Sierra del Guacharo. + +We set out for the Sierra on the 18th of September, accompanied by +the alcaldes, or Indian magistrates, and the greater part of the +monks of the convent. A narrow path led us at first towards the +south, across a fine plain, covered with beautiful turf. We then +turned westward, along the margin of a small river which issues +from the mouth of the cavern. We ascended during three quarters of +an hour, sometimes in the water, which was shallow, sometimes +between the torrent and a wall of rocks, on a soil extremely +slippery and miry. The falling down of the earth, the scattered +trunks of trees, over which the mules could scarcely pass, and the +creeping plants that covered the ground, rendered this part of the +road fatiguing. We were surprised to find here, at scarcely 500 +toises above the level of the sea, a cruciferous plant, Raphanus +pinnatus. Plants of this family are very rare in the tropics; they +have in some sort a northern character, and therefore we never +expected to see one on the plain of Caripe at so inconsiderable an +elevation. The northern character also appears in the Galium +caripense, the Valeriana scandens, and a sanicle not unlike the S. +marilandica. + +At the foot of the lofty mountain of the Guacharo, we were only +four hundred paces from the cavern, without yet perceiving the +entrance. The torrent runs in a crevice hollowed out by the waters, +and we went on under a cornice, the projection of which prevented +us from seeing the sky. The path winds in the direction of the +river; and at the last turning we came suddenly before the immense +opening of the grotto. The aspect of this spot is majestic, even to +the eye of a traveller accustomed to the picturesque scenery of the +higher Alps. I had before this seen the caverns of the peak of +Derbyshire, where, lying down flat in a boat, we proceeded along a +subterranean river, under an arch two feet high. I had visited the +beautiful grotto of Treshemienshiz, in the Carpathian mountains, +the caverns of the Hartz, and those of Franconia, which are vast +cemeteries,* containing bones of tigers, hyenas, and bears, as +large as our horses. (* The mould, which has covered for thousands +of years the soil of the caverns of Gaylenreuth and Muggendorf in +Franconia, emits even now choke-damps, or gaseous mixtures of +hydrogen and nitrogen, which rise to the roof of the caves. This +fact is known to the persons who show these caverns to travellers; +and when I was director of the mines of the Fichtelberg, I observed +it frequently in the summer-time. M. Laugier found in the mould of +Muggendorf, besides phosphate of lime, 0.10 of animal matter. I was +struck, during my stay at Steeben, with the ammoniacal and fetid +smell produced by it, when thrown on a red-hot iron.) Nature in +every zone follows immutable laws in the distribution of rocks, in +the form of mountains, and even in those changes which the exterior +crust of our planet has undergone. So great a uniformity led me to +believe that the aspect of the cavern of Caripe would differ little +from what I had observed in my preceding travels. The reality far +exceeded my expectations. If the configuration of the grottoes, the +splendour of the stalactites, and all the phenomena of inorganic +nature, present striking analogies, the majesty of equinoctial +vegetation gives at the same time an individual character to the +aperture of the cavern. + +The Cueva del Guacharo is pierced in the vertical profile of a +rock. The entrance is towards the south, and forms an arch eighty +feet broad and seventy-two high. The rock which surmounts the +grotto is covered with trees of gigantic height. The mammee-tree +and the genipa,* (* Caruto, Genipa americana. The flower at Caripe, +has sometimes five, sometimes six stamens.) with large and shining +leaves, raise their branches vertically towards the sky; whilst +those of the courbaril and the erythrina form, as they extend, a +thick canopy of verdure. Plants of the family of pothos, with +succulent stems, oxalises, and orchideae of a singular structure,* +(* A dendrobium, with a gold-coloured flower, spotted with black, +three inches long.) rise in the driest clefts of the rocks; while +creeping plants waving in the winds are interwoven in festoons +before the opening of the cavern. We distinguished in these +festoons a bignonia of a violet blue, the purple dolichos, and for +the first time, that magnificent solandra,* (* Solandra scandens. +It is the gousaticha of the Chayma Indians.) which has an +orange-coloured flower and a fleshy tube more than four inches +long. + +But this luxury of vegetation embellishes not only the external +arch, it appears even in the vestibule of the grotto. We saw with +astonishment plantain-leaved heliconias eighteen feet high, the +praga palm-tree, and arborescent arums, following the course of the +river, even to those subterranean places. The vegetation continues +in the cave of Caripe as in those deep crevices of the Andes, +half-excluded from the light of day, and does not disappear till, +penetrating into the interior, we advance thirty or forty paces +from the entrance. We measured the way by means of a cord; and we +went on about four hundred and thirty feet without being obliged to +light our torches. Daylight penetrates far into this region, +because the grotto forms but one single channel, keeping the same +direction, from south-east to north-west. Where the light began to +fail, we heard from afar the hoarse sounds of the nocturnal birds; +sounds which the natives think belong exclusively to those +subterraneous places. + +The guacharo is of the size of our fowls. It has the mouth of the +goat-suckers and procnias, and the port of those vultures whose +crooked beaks are surrounded with stiff silky hairs. Suppressing, +with M. Cuvier, the order of picae, we must refer this +extraordinary bird to the passeres, the genera of which are +connected with each other by almost imperceptible transitions. It +forms a new genus, very different from the goatsucker, in the +loudness of its voice, in the vast strength of its beak (containing +a double tooth), and in its feet without the membranes which unite +the anterior phalanges of the claws. It is the first example of a +nocturnal bird among the Passeres dentirostrati. Its habits present +analogies both with those of the goatsuckers and of the alpine +crow.* (* Corvus Pyrrhocorax.) The plumage of the guacharo is of a +dark bluish grey, mixed with small streaks and specks of black. +Large white spots of the form of a heart, and bordered with black, +mark the head, wings, and tail. The eyes of the bird, which are +dazzled by the light of day, are blue, and smaller than those of +the goatsucker. The spread of the wings, which are composed of +seventeen or eighteen quill feathers, is three feet and a half. The +guacharo quits the cavern at nightfall, especially when the moon +shines. It is almost the only frugiferous nocturnal bird yet known; +the conformation of its feet sufficiently shows that it does not +hunt like our owls. It feeds on very hard fruits, like the +nutcracker* (* Corvus caryocatactes, C. glandarius. Our Alpine crow +builds its nest near the top of Mount Libanus, in subterranean +caverns, nearly like the guacharo. It also has the horribly shrill +cry of the latter.) and the pyrrhocorax. The latter nestles also in +clefts of rocks, and is known by the name of the night-crow. The +Indians assured us that the guacharo does not pursue either the +lamellicornous insects or those phalaenae which serve as food to +the goatsuckers. A comparison of the beaks of the guacharo and the +goatsucker serves to denote how much their habits must differ. It +would be difficult to form an idea of the horrible noise occasioned +by thousands of these birds in the dark part of the cavern. Their +shrill and piercing cries strike upon the vaults of the rocks, and +are repeated by the subterranean echoes. The Indians showed us the +nests of the guacharos by fixing a torch to the end of a long pole. +These nests were fifty or sixty feet high above our heads, in holes +in the shape of funnels, with which the roof of the grotto is +pierced like a sieve. The noise increased as we advanced, and the +birds were scared by the light of the torches of copal. When this +noise ceased a few minutes around us, we heard at a distance the +plaintive cries of the birds roosting in other ramifications of the +cavern. It seemed as if different groups answered each other +alternately. + +The Indians enter the Cueva del Guacharo once a year, near +midsummer. They go armed with poles, with which they destroy the +greater part of the nests. At that season several thousand birds +are killed; and the old ones, as if to defend their brood, hover +over the heads of the Indians, uttering terrible cries. The young,* +(* Called Los pollos del Guacharo.) which fall to the ground, are +opened on the spot. Their peritoneum is found extremely loaded with +fat, and a layer of fat reaches from the abdomen to the anus, +forming a kind of cushion between the legs of the bird. This +quantity of fat in frugivorous animals, not exposed to the light, +and exerting very little muscular motion, reminds us of what has +been observed in the fattening of geese and oxen. It is well known +how greatly darkness and repose favour this process. The nocturnal +birds of Europe are lean, because, instead of feeding on fruits, +like the guacharo, they live on the scanty produce of their prey. +At the period commonly called, at Caripe, the oil harvest,* (* La +cosecha de la manteca.) the Indians build huts with palm-leaves, +near the entrance, and even in the porch of the cavern. There, with +a fire of brushwood, they melt in pots of clay the fat of the young +birds just killed. This fat is known by the name of butter or oil +(manteca, or aceite) of the guacharo. It is half liquid, +transparent, without smell, and so pure that it may be kept above a +year without becoming rancid. At the convent of Caripe no other oil +is used in the kitchen of the monks but that of the cavern; and we +never observed that it gave the aliments a disagreeable taste or +smell. + +The race of the guacharos would have been long ago extinct, had not +several circumstances contributed to its preservation. The natives, +restrained by their superstitious ideas, seldom have courage to +penetrate far into the grotto. It appears also, that birds of the +same species dwell in neighbouring caverns, which are too narrow to +be accessible to man. Perhaps the great cavern is repeopled by +colonies which forsake the small grottoes; for the missionaries +assured us that hitherto no sensible diminution of the birds has +been observed. Young guacharos have been sent to the port of +Cumana, and have lived there several days without taking any +nourishment, the seeds offered to them not suiting their taste. +When the crops and gizzards of the young birds are opened in the +cavern, they are found to contain all sorts of hard and dry fruits, +which furnish, under the singular name of guacharo seed (semilla +del guacharo), a very celebrated remedy against intermittent +fevers. The old birds carry these seeds to their young. They are +carefully collected, and sent to the sick at Cariaco, and other +places of the low regions, where fevers are generally prevalent. + +As we continued to advance into the cavern, we followed the banks +of the small river which issues from it, and is from twenty-eight +to thirty feet wide. We walked on the banks, as far as the hills +formed of calcareous incrustations permitted us. Where the torrent +winds among very high masses of stalactites, we were often obliged +to descend into its bed, which is only two feet deep. We learned +with surprise, that this subterranean rivulet is the origin of the +river Caripe, which, at the distance of a few leagues, where it +joins the small river of Santa Maria, is navigable for canoes. It +flows into the river Areo under the name of Cano do Terezen. We +found on the banks of the subterranean rivulet a great quantity of +palm-tree wood, the remains of trunks, on which the Indians climb +to reach the nests hanging from the roofs of the cavern. The rings, +formed by the vestiges of the old footstalks of the leaves, furnish +as it were the steps of a ladder perpendicularly placed. + +The Grotto of Caripe preserves the same direction, the same +breadth, and its primitive height of sixty or seventy feet, to the +distance of 472 metres, or 1458 feet, accurately measured. We had +great difficulty in persuading the Indians to pass beyond the +anterior portion of the grotto, the only part which they annually +visit to collect the fat. The whole authority of 'los padres' was +necessary to induce them to advance as far as the spot where the +soil rises abruptly at an inclination of sixty degrees, and where +the torrent forms a small subterranean cascade.* (* We find the +phenomenon of a subterranean cascade, but on a much larger scale, +in England, at Yordas Cave, near Kingsdale in Yorkshire.) The +natives connect mystic ideas with this cave, inhabited by nocturnal +birds; they believe that the souls of their ancestors sojourn in +the deep recesses of the cavern. "Man," say they, "should avoid +places which are enlightened neither by the sun (zis), nor by the +moon (nuna)." 'To go and join the guacharos,' is with them a phrase +signifying to rejoin their fathers, to die. The magicians (piaches) +and the poisoners (imorons) perform their nocturnal tricks at the +entrance of the cavern, to conjure the chief of the evil spirits +(ivorokiamo). Thus in every region of the earth a resemblance may +be traced in the early fictions of nations, those especially which +relate to two principles governing the world, the abode of souls +after death, the happiness of the virtuous and the punishment of +the guilty. The most different and most barbarous languages present +a certain number of images, which are the same, because they have +their source in the nature of our intelligence and our sensations. +Darkness is everywhere connected with the idea of death. The Grotto +of Caripe is the Tartarus of the Greeks; and the guacharos, which +hover over the rivulet, uttering plaintive cries, remind us of the +Stygian birds. + +At the point where the river forms the subterranean cascade, a hill +covered with vegetation, which is opposite to the opening of the +grotto, presents a very picturesque aspect. It is seen at the +extremity of a straight passage, 240 toises in length. The +stalactites descending from the roof, and resembling columns +suspended in the air, are relieved on a back-ground of verdure. The +opening of the cavern appeared singularly contracted, when we saw +it about the middle of the day, illumined by the vivid light +reflected at once from the sky, the plants, and the rocks. The +distant light of day formed a strange contrast with the darkness +which surrounded us in the vast cavern. We discharged our guns at a +venture, wherever the cries of the nocturnal birds and the flapping +of their wings, led us to suspect that a great number of nests were +crowded together. After several fruitless attempts M. Bonpland +succeeded in killing a couple of guacharos, which, dazzled by the +light of the torches, seemed to pursue us. This circumstance +afforded me the means of making a drawing of this bird, which had +previously been unknown to naturalists. We climbed, not without +difficulty, the small hill whence the subterranean rivulet +descends. We saw that the grotto was perceptibly contracted, +retaining only forty feet in height, and that it continued +stretching to north-east, without deviating from its primitive +direction, which is parallel to that of the great valley of Caripe. + +In this part of the cavern, the rivulet deposits a blackish mould, +very like the matter which, in the grotto of Muggendorf, in +Franconia, is called "the earth of sacrifice."* (* Opfer-erde of +the cavern of Hohle Berg (or Hole Mountain,--a mountain pierced +entirely through.)) We could not discover whether this fine and +spongy mould falls through the cracks which communicate with the +surface of the ground above, or is washed down by the rain-water +penetrating into the cavern. It was a mixture of silex, alumina, +and vegetable detritus. We walked in thick mud to a spot where we +beheld with astonishment the progress of subterranean vegetation. +The seeds which the birds carry into the grotto to feed their +young, spring up wherever they fix in the mould which covers the +calcareous incrustations. Blanched stalks, with some half-formed +leaves, had risen to the height of two feet. It was impossible to +ascertain the species of these plants, their form, colour, and +aspect having been changed by the absence of light. These traces of +organization amidst darkness forcibly excited the curiosity of the +natives, who examined them with silent meditation inspired by a +place they seemed to dread. They evidently regarded these +subterranean plants, pale and deformed, as phantoms banished from +the face of the earth. To me the scene recalled one of the happiest +periods of my early youth, a long abode in the mines of Freyberg, +where I made experiments on the effects of blanching (etiolement), +which are very different, according as the air is pure or +overcharged with hydrogen or azote. + +The missionaries, with all their authority, could not prevail on +the Indians to penetrate farther into the cavern. As the roof +became lower the cries of the guacharos were more and more shrill. +We were obliged to yield to the pusillanimity of our guides, and +trace back our steps. The appearance of the cavern was however very +uniform. We found that a bishop of St. Thomas of Guiana had gone +farther than ourselves. He had measured nearly 2500 feet from the +mouth to the spot where he stopped, but the cavern extended still +farther. The remembrance of this fact was preserved in the convent +of Caripe, without the exact period being noted. The bishop had +provided himself with great torches of white Castile wax. We had +torches composed only of the bark of trees and native resin. The +thick smoke which issued from these torches, in a narrow +subterranean passage, hurts the eyes and obstructs the respiration. + +On turning back to go out of the cavern, we followed the course of +the torrent. Before our eyes became dazzled with the light of day +we saw on the outside of the grotto the water of the river +sparkling amid the foliage of the trees which shaded it. It was +like a picture placed in the distance, the mouth of the cavern +serving as a frame. Having at length reached the entrance, we +seated ourselves on the bank of the rivulet, to rest after our +fatigues. We were glad to be beyond the hoarse cries of the birds, +and to leave a place where darkness does not offer even the charm +of silence and tranquillity. We could scarcely persuade ourselves +that the name of the Grotto of Caripe had hitherto been unknown in +Europe;* for the guacharos alone might have sufficed to render it +celebrated. (* It is surprising that Father Gili, author of the +Saggio di Storia Americana, does not mention it, though he had in +his possession a manuscript written in 1780 at the convent of +Caripe. I gave the first information respecting the Cueva del +Guacharo in 1800, in my letters to Messrs. Delambre and +Delametherie, published in the Journal de Physique.) These +nocturnal birds have been no where yet discovered, except in the +mountains of Caripe and Cumanacoa. The missionaries had prepared a +repast at the entry of the cavern. Leaves of the banana and the +vijao,* (* Heliconia bihai, Linn. The Creoles have changed the b of +the Haitian word bihao into v, and the h into j, agreeably to the +Castilian pronunciation.) which have a silky lustre, served us as a +table-cloth, according to the custom of the country. Nothing was +wanting to our enjoyment, not even remembrances, which are so rare +in those countries, where generations disappear without leaving a +trace of their existence. + +Before we quit the subterranean rivulet and the nocturnal birds, +let us cast a last glance at the cavern of the Guacharo, and the +whole of the physical phenomena it presents. When we have step by +step pursued a long series of observations modified by the +localities of a place, we love to stop and raise our views to +general considerations. Do the great cavities, which are +exclusively called caverns, owe their origin to the same causes as +those which have produced the lodes of veins and of metalliferous +strata, or the extraordinary phenomenon of the porosity of rocks? +Do grottoes belong to every formation, or to that period only when +organized beings began to people the surface of the globe? These +geological questions can be solved only so far as they are directed +by the actual state of things, that is, of facts susceptible of +being verified by observation. + +Considering rocks according to the succession of eras, we find that +primitive formations exhibit very few caverns. The great cavities +which are observed in the oldest granite, and which are called +fours (ovens) in Switzerland and in the south of France, when they +are lined with rock crystals, arise most frequently from the union +of several contemporaneous veins of quartz,* (* Gleichzeitige +Trummer. To these stone veins which appear to be of the same age as +the rock, belong the veins of talc and asbestos in serpentine, and +those of quartz traversing schist (Thonschiefer). Jameson on +Contemporaneous Veins, in the Mem. of the Wernerian Soc.) of +feldspar, or of fine-grained granite. The gneiss presents, though +more seldom, the same phenomenon; and near Wunsiedel,* (* In +Franconia, south-east of Luchsburg.) at the Fichtelgebirge, I had +an opportunity of examining crystal fours of two or three feet +diameter, in a part of the rock not traversed by veins. We are +ignorant of the extent of the cavities which subterranean fires and +volcanic agitations may have produced in the bowels of the earth in +those primitive rocks, which, containing considerable quantities of +amphibole, mica, garnet, magnetic iron-stone, and red schorl +(titanite), appear to be anterior to granite. We find some +fragments of these rocks among the matters ejected by volcanoes. +The cavities can be considered only as partial and local phenomena; +and their existence is scarcely any contradiction to the notions we +have acquired from the experiments of Maskelyne and Cavendish on +the mean density of the earth. + +In the primitive mountains open to our researches, real grottoes, +those which have some extent, belong only to calcareous formations, +such as the carbonate or sulphate of lime. The solubility of these +substances appears to have favoured the action of the subterranean +waters for ages. The primitive limestone presents spacious caverns +as well as transition limestone,* and that which is exclusively +called secondary. (* In the primitive limestone are found the +Kuetzel-loch, near Kaufungen in Silesia, and probably several +caverns in the islands of the Archipelago. In the transition +limestone we remark the caverns of Elbingerode, of Rubeland, and of +Scharzfeld, in the Hartz; those of the Salzfluhe in the Grisons; +and, according to Mr. Greenough, that of Torbay in Devonshire.) If +these caverns be less frequent in the first, it is because this +stone forms in general only layers subordinate to the mica-slate,* +(* Sometimes to gneiss, as at the Simplon, between Dovredo and +Crevola.) and not a particular system of mountains, into which the +waters may filter, and circulate to great distances. The erosions +occasioned by this element depend not only on its quantity, but +also on the length of time during which it remains, the velocity it +acquires by its fall, and the degree of solubility of the rock. I +have observed in general, that the waters act more easily on the +carbonates and the sulphates of lime of secondary mountains than on +the transition limestones, which have a considerable mixture of +silex and carbon. On examining the internal structure of the +stalactites which line the walls of caverns, we find in them all +the characters of a chemical precipitate. + +As we approach those periods in which organic life develops itself +in a greater number of forms, the phenomenon of grottoes becomes +more frequent. There exist several under the name of baumen,* (* In +the dialect of the German Swiss, Balmen. The Baumen of the Sentis, +of the Mole, and of the Beatenberg, on the borders of the lake of +Thun, belong to the Alpine limestone.) not in the ancient sandstone +to which the great coal formation belongs, but in the Alpine +limestone, and in the Jura limestone, which is often only the +superior part of the Alpine formation. The Jura limestone* (* I may +mention only the grottoes of Boudry, Motiers-Travers, and Valorbe, +in the Jura; the grotto of Balme near Geneva; the caverns between +Muggendorf and Gaylenreuth in Franconia; Sowia Jama, Ogrodzimiec, +and Wlodowice, in Poland.) so abounds with caverns in both +continents, that several geologists of the school of Freyberg have +given it the name of cavern-limestone (hohlenkalkstein). It is this +rock which so often interrupts the course of rivers, by engulfing +them into its bosom. In this also is formed the famous Cueva del +Guacharo, and the other grottoes of the valley of Caripe. The +muriatiferous gypsum,* (* Gypsum of Bottendorf, schlottengyps.) +whether it be found in layers in the Jura or Alpine limestone, or +whether it separate these two formations, or lie between the Alpine +limestone and argillaceous sandstone, also presents, on account of +its great solubility, enormous cavities, sometimes communicating +with each other at several leagues distance. After the limestone +and gypseous formations, there would remain to be examined, among +the secondary rocks, a third formation, that of the argillaceous +sandstone, newer than the brine-spring formations; but this rock, +composed of small grains of quartz cemented by clay, seldom +contains caverns; and when it does, they are not extensive. +Progressively narrowing towards their extremity, their walls are +covered with a brown ochre. + +We have just seen, that the form of grottoes depends partly on the +nature of the rocks in which they are found; but this form, +modified by exterior agents, often varies even in the same +formation. The configuration of caverns, like the outline of +mountains, the sinuosity of valleys, and so many other phenomena, +present at first sight only irregularity and confusion. The +appearance of order is resumed, when we can extend our observations +over a vast space of ground, which has undergone violent, but +periodical and uniform revolutions. From what I have seen in the +mountains of Europe, and in the Cordilleras of America, caverns may +be divided, according to their interior structure, into three +classes. Some have the form of large clefts or crevices, like veins +not filled with ore; such as the cavern of Rosenmuller, in +Franconia, Elden-hole, in the peak of Derbyshire, and the Sumideros +of Chamacasapa in Mexico. Other caverns are open to the light at +both ends. These are rocks really pierced; natural galleries, which +run through a solitary mountain: such are the Hohleberg of +Muggendorf, and the famous cavern called Dantoe by the Ottomite +Indians, and the Bridge of the Mother of God, by the Mexican +Spaniards. It is difficult to decide respecting the origin of these +channels, which sometimes serve as beds for subterranean rivers. +Are these pierced rocks hollowed out by the impulse of a current? +or should we rather admit that one of the openings of the cavern is +owing to a falling down of the earth subsequent to its original +formation; to a change in the external form of the mountain, for +instance, to a new valley opened on its flank? A third form of +caverns, and the most common of the whole, exhibits a succession of +cavities, placed nearly on the same level, running in the same +direction, and communicating with each other by passages of greater +or less breadth. + +To these differences of general form are added other circumstances +not less remarkable. It often happens, that grottoes of little +space have extremely wide openings; whilst we have to creep under +very low vaults, in order to penetrate into the deepest and most +spacious caverns. The passages which unite partial grottoes, are +generally horizontal. I have seen some, however, which resemble +funnels or wells, and which may be attributed to the escape of some +elastic fluid through a mass before being hardened. When rivers +issue from grottoes, they form only a single, horizontal, +continuous channel, the dilatations of which are almost +imperceptible; as in the Cueva del Guacharo we have just described, +and the cavern of San Felipe, near Tehuilotepec in the western +Cordilleras of Mexico. The sudden disappearance* of the river (* In +the night of the 16th April, 1802.), which took its rise from this +last cavern, has impoverished a district in which farmers and +miners equally require water for refreshing the soil and for +working hydraulic machinery. + +Considering the variety of structure exhibited by grottoes in both +hemispheres, we cannot but refer their formation to causes totally +different. When we speak of the origin of caverns we must choose +between two systems of natural philosophy: one of these systems +attributes every thing to instantaneous and violent commotions (for +example, to the elastic force of vapours, and to the heavings +occasioned by volcanoes); while the other rests on the operation of +small powers, which produce effects almost insensibly by +progressive action. Those who love to indulge in geological +hypotheses must not, however, forget the horizontality so often +remarked amidst gypseous and calcareous mountains, in the position +of grottoes communicating with each other by passages. This almost +perfect horizontality, this gentle and uniform slope, appears to be +the result of a long abode of the waters, which enlarge by erosion +clefts already existing, and carry off the softer parts the more +easily, as clay or muriate of soda is found mixed with the gypsum +and fetid limestone. These effects are the same, whether the +caverns form one long and continued range, or several of these +ranges lie one over another, as happens almost exclusively in +gypseous mountains. + +That which in shelly or Neptunean rocks is caused by the action of +the waters, appears sometimes to be in the volcanic rocks the +effect of gaseous emanations* acting in the direction where they +find the least resistance. (* At Vesuvius, the Duke de la Torre +showed me, in 1805, in currents of recent lava, cavities extending +in the direction of the current, six or seven feet long and three +feet high. These little volcanic caverns were lined with specular +iron, which cannot be called oligiste iron, since M. Gay-Lussac's +last experiments on the oxides of iron.) When melted matter moves +on a very gentle slope, the great axis of the cavity formed by the +elastic fluids is nearly horizontal, or parallel to the plane on +which the movement of transition takes place. A similar +disengagement of vapours, joined to the elastic force of the gases, +which penetrate strata softened and raised up, appears sometimes to +have given great extent to the caverns found in trachytes or +trappean porphyries. These porphyritic caverns, in the Cordilleras +of Quito and Peru, bear the Indian name of Machays.* (* Machay is a +word of the Quichua language, commonly called by the Spaniards the +Incas' language. Callancamachay means a cavern as large as a house, +a cavern that serves as a tambo or caravansarai.) They are in +general of little depth. They are lined with sulphur, and differ by +the enormous size of their openings from those observed in volcanic +tufas* in Italy, at Teneriffe, and in the Andes. (*Sometimes fire +acts like water in carrying off masses, and thus the cavities may +be caused by an igneous, though more frequently by an aqueous +erosion or solution.) It is by connecting in the mind the +primitive, secondary, and volcanic rocks, and distinguishing +between the oxidated crust of the globe, and the interior nucleus, +composed perhaps of metallic and inflammable substances, that we +may account for the existence of grottoes everywhere. They act in +the economy of nature as vast reservoirs of water and of elastic +fluids. + +The gypseous caverns glitter with crystallized selenites. Vitreous +crystallized plates of brown and yellow stand out on a striated +ground composed of layers of alabaster and fetid limestone. The +calcareous grottoes have a more uniform tint. They are more +beautiful, and richer in stalactites, in proportion as they are +narrower, and the circulation of air is less free. By being +spacious, and accessible to air, the cavern of Caripe is almost +destitute of those incrustations, the imitative forms of which are +in other countries objects of popular curiosity. I also sought in +vain for subterranean plants, those cryptogamia of the family of +the Usneaceae, which we sometimes find fixed on the stalactites, +like ivy on walls, when we penetrate for the first time into a +lateral grotto.* (* Lichen tophicola was discovered when the +beautiful cavern of Rosenmuller in Franconia was first opened. The +cavity containing the lichen was found closed on all sides by +enormous masses of stalactite.) + +The caverns in mountains of gypsum often contain mephitic +emanations and deleterious gases. It is not the sulphate of lime +that acts on the atmospheric air, but the clay slightly mixed with +carbon, and the fetid limestone, so often mingled with the gypsum. +We cannot yet decide, whether the swinestone acts as a +hydrosulphuret, or by means of a bituminous principle.* (* That +description of fetid limestone called by the German mineralogists +stinkstein is always of a blackish brown colour. It is only by +decomposition that it becomes white, after having acted on the +surrounding air. The stinkstein which is of secondary formation, +must not be confounded with a very white primitive granular +limestone of the island of Thasos, which emits, when scraped, a +smell of sulphuretted hydrogen. This marble is coarser grained than +Carrara (Marmor lunense). It was frequently employed by the Grecian +sculptors, and I often picked up fragments of it at the Villa +Adriani, near Rome.) Its property of absorbing oxygen gas is known +to all the miners of Thuringia. It is the same as the action of the +carburetted clay of the gypseous grottoes, and of the great +chambers (sinkwerke) dug in mines of fossil salt which are worked +by the introduction of fresh water. The caverns of calcareous +mountains are not exposed to those decompositions of the +atmospheric air, unless they contain bones of quadrupeds, or the +mould mixed with animal gluten and phosphate of lime, from which +arise inflammable and fetid gases. + +Though we made many enquiries among the inhabitants of Caripe, +Cumanacoa, and Cariaco, we did not learn that they had ever +discovered in the cavern of Guacharo either the remains of +carnivorous animals, or those bony breccias of herbivorous animals, +which are found in the caverns of Germany and Hungary, and in the +clefts of the calcareous rocks of Gibraltar. The fossil bones of +the megatherium, of the elephant, and of the mastodon, which +travellers have brought from South America, have all been found in +the light soil of the valleys and table-lands. Excepting the +megalonyx,* a kind of sloth of the size of an ox, described by Mr. +Jefferson, I know not a single instance of the skeleton of an +animal buried in a cavern of the New World. (* The megalonyx was +found in the caverns of Green Briar, in Virginia, at the distance +of 1500 leagues from the megatherium, which resembles it very much, +and is of the size of the rhinoceros.) The extreme scarcity of this +geological phenomenon will appear the less surprising to us, if we +recollect, that in France, England, and Italy, there are also a +great number of grottoes in which we have never met with any +vestige of fossil bones. + +Although, in primitive nature, whatever relates to ideas of extent +and mass is of no great importance, yet I may observe, that the +cavern of Caripe is one of the most spacious known to exist in +limestone formations. It is at least 900 metres or 2800 feet in +length.* (* The famous Baumannshohle in the Hartz, according to +Messrs. Gilbert and Ilsen, is only 578 feet in length; the cavern +of Scharzfeld 350; that of Gaylenreuth 304; that of Antiparos 300. +But according to Saussure, the Grotto of Balme is 1300 feet.) Owing +to the different degrees of solubility in rocks, it is generally +not in calcareous mountains, but in gypseous formations, that we +find the most extensive succession of grottoes. In Saxony there are +some in gypsum several leagues in length; for instance, that of +Wimelburg, which communicates with the cavern of Cresfield. + +The determination of the temperature of grottoes presents a field +for interesting observation. The cavern of Caripe, situated nearly +in the latitude of 10 degrees 10 minutes, consequently in the +centre of the torrid zone, is elevated 506 toises above the level +of the sea in the gulf of Cariaco. We found that, in every part of +it, in the month of September, the temperature of the internal air +was between 18.4 and 18.9 degrees of the centesimal thermometer; +the external atmosphere being at 16.2 degrees. At the entrance of +the cavern, the thermometer in the open air was at 17.6 degrees; +but when immersed in the water of the little subterranean river, it +marked, even to the end of the cavern, 16.8 degrees. These +experiments are very interesting, if we reflect on the tendency to +equilibrium of heat, in the waters, the air, and the earth. When I +left Europe, men of science were regretting that they had not +sufficient data on what is called the temperature of the interior +of the globe; and it is but very recently that efforts have been +made, and with some success, to solve the grand problem of +subterranean meteorology. The stony strata that form the crust of +our planet, are alone accessible to our examination; and we now +know that the mean temperature of these strata varies not only with +latitudes and heights, but that, according to the position of the +several places, it performs also, in the space of a year, regular +oscillations round the mean heat of the neighbouring atmosphere. +The time is gone by when men were surprised to find, in other +zones, the heat of grottoes and wells differing from that observed +in the caves of the observatory at Paris. The same instrument which +in those caves marks 12 degrees, rises in the subterraneous caverns +of the island of Madeira, near Funchal, to 16.2 degrees; in +Joseph's Well, at Cairo* to 21.2 degrees (* At Funchal (latitude 32 +degrees 37 minutes) the mean temperature of the air is 20.4 +degrees, and at Cairo (latitude 30 degrees 2 minutes), according to +Nouet, it is 22.4 degrees.); in the grottoes of the island of Cuba +to 22 or 23 degrees.* (* The mean temperature of the air at the +Havannah, according to Mr. Ferrer, is 25.6 degrees.) This increase +is nearly in proportion to that of the mean temperature of the +atmosphere, from latitude 48 degrees to the tropics. + +We have just seen that, in the Cueva del Guacharo, the water of the +river is nearly 2 degrees colder than the ambient air of the +cavern. The water, whether in filtering through the rocks, or in +running over stony beds, doubtless imbibes the temperature of these +beds. The air contained in the grotto, on the contrary, is not in +repose; it communicates with the external atmosphere. Though under +the torrid zone, the changes of the external temperature are +exceedingly trifling, currents are formed, which modify +periodically the internal air. It is consequently the temperature +of the waters, that of 16.8 degrees, which we might look upon as +the temperature of the earth in those mountains, if we were sure +that the waters do not descend rapidly from more elevated +neighbouring mountains. + +It follows from these observations, that when we cannot obtain +results perfectly exact, we find at least under each zone certain +numbers which indicate the maximum and minimum. At Caripe, in the +equinoctial zone, at an elevation of 500 toises, the mean +temperature of the globe is not below 16.8 degrees, which was the +degree indicated by the water of the subterranean river. We can +even prove that this temperature of the globe is not above 19 +degrees, since the air of the cavern, in the month of September, +was found to be at 18.7 degrees. As the mean temperature of the +atmosphere, in the hottest month, does not exceed 19.5 degrees,* it +is probable that a thermometer in the grotto would not rise higher +than 19 degrees at any season of the year. (* The mean temperature +of the month of September at Caripe is 18.5 degrees; and on the +coast of Cumana, where we had opportunities of making numerous +observations, the mean heat of the warmest months differs only 1.8 +degrees from that of the coldest.) + + +CHAPTER 1.8. + +DEPARTURE FROM CARIPE. +MOUNTAIN AND FOREST OF SANTA MARIA. +MISSION OF CATUARO. +PORT OF CARIACO. + +The days we passed at the Capuchin convent in the mountains of +Caripe, glided swiftly away, though our manner of living was simple +and uniform. From sunrise to nightfall we traversed the forests and +neighbouring mountains, to collect plants. When the winter rains +prevented us from undertaking distant excursions, we visited the +huts of the Indians, the conuco of the community, or those +assemblies in which the alcaldes every evening arrange the labours +of the succeeding day. We returned to the monastery only when the +sound of the bell called us to the refectory to share the repasts +of the missionaries. Sometimes, very early in the morning, we +followed them to the church, to attend the doctrina, that is to +say, the religious instruction of the Indians. It was rather a +difficult task to explain dogmas to the neophytes, especially those +who had but a very imperfect knowledge of the Spanish language. On +the other hand, the monks are as yet almost totally ignorant of the +language of the Chaymas; and the resemblance of sounds confuses the +poor Indians and suggests to them the most whimsical ideas. Of this +I may cite an example. I saw a missionary labouring earnestly to +prove that infierno, hell, and invierno, winter, were not one and +the same thing; but as different as heat and cold. The Chaymas are +acquainted with no other winter than the season of rains; and +consequently they imagined the Hell of the whites to be a place +where the wicked are exposed to frequent showers. The missionary +harangued to no purpose: it was impossible to efface the first +impression produced by the analogy between the two consonants. He +could not separate in the minds of the neophytes the ideas of rain +and hell; invierno and infierno. + +After passing almost the whole day in the open air, we employed our +evenings, at the convent, in making notes, drying our plants, and +sketching those that appeared to form new genera. Unfortunately the +misty atmosphere of a valley, where the surrounding forests fill +the air with an enormous quantity of vapour, was unfavourable to +astronomical observations. I spent a part of the nights waiting to +take advantage of the moment when some star should be visible +between the clouds, near its passage over the meridian. I often +shivered with cold, though the thermometer only sunk to 16 degrees, +which is the temperature of the day in our climates towards the end +of September. The instruments remained set up in the court of the +convent for several hours, yet I was almost always disappointed in +my expectations. Some good observations of Fomalhaut and of Deneb +have given 10 degrees 10 minutes 14 seconds as the latitude of +Caripe; which proves that the position indicated in the maps of +Caulin is 18 minutes wrong, and in that of Arrowsmith 14 minutes. + +Observations of corresponding altitudes of the sun having given me +the true time, within about 2 seconds, I was enabled to determine +the magnetic variation with precision, at noon. It was, on the 20th +of September, 1799, 3 degrees 15 minutes 30 seconds north-east; +consequently 0 degrees 58 minutes 15 seconds less than at Cumana. +If we attend to the influence of the horary variations, which in +these countries do not in general exceed 8 minutes, we shall find, +that at considerable distances the variation changes less rapidly +than is usually supposed. The dip of the needle was 42.75 degrees, +centesimal division, and the number of oscillations, expressing the +intensity of the magnetic forces, rose to 229 in ten minutes. + +The vexation of seeing the stars disappear in a misty sky was the +only disappointment we felt in the valley of Caripe. The aspect of +this spot presents a character at once wild and tranquil, gloomy +and attractive. In the solitude of these mountains we are perhaps +less struck by the new impressions we receive at every step, than +with the marks of resemblance we trace in climates the most remote +from each other. The hills by which the convent is backed, are +crowned with palm-trees and arborescent ferns. In the evenings, +when the sky denotes rain, the air resounds with the monotonous +howling of the alouate apes, which resembles the distant sound of +wind when it shakes the forest. Yet amid these strange sounds, +these wild forms of plants, and these prodigies of a new world, +nature everywhere speaks to man in a voice familiar to him. The +turf that overspreads the soil: the old moss and fern that cover +the roots of the trees; the torrents that gush down the sloping +banks of the calcareous rocks; in fine, the harmonious accordance +of tints reflected by the waters, the verdure, and the sky; +everything recalls to the traveller, sensations which he has +already felt. + +The beauties of this mountain scenery so much engaged us, that we +were very tardy in observing the embarrassment felt by our kind +entertainers the monks. They had but a slender provision of wine +and wheaten bread; and although in those high regions both are +considered as belonging merely to the luxuries of the table, yet we +saw with regret, that our hosts abstained from them on our account. +Our portion of bread had already been diminished three-fourths, yet +violent rains still obliged us to delay our departure for two days. +How long did this delay appear! It made us dread the sound of the +bell that summoned us to the refectory. + +We departed at length on the 22nd of September, followed by four +mules, laden with our instruments and plants. We had to descend the +north-east slope of the calcareous Alps of New Andalusia, which we +have called the great chain of the Brigantine and the Cocollar. The +mean elevation of this chain scarcely exceeds six or seven hundred +toises: in respect to height and geological constitution, we may +compare it to the chain of the Jura. Notwithstanding the +inconsiderable elevation of the mountains of Cumana, the descent is +extremely difficult and dangerous in the direction of Cariaco. The +Cerro of Santa Maria, which the missionaries ascend in their +journey from Cumana to their convent at Caripe, is famous for the +difficulties it presents to travellers. On comparing these +mountains with the Andes of Peru, the Pyrenees, and the Alps, which +we successively visited, it has more than once occurred to us, that +the less lofty summits are sometimes the most inaccessible. + +On leaving the valley of Caripe, we first crossed a ridge of hills +north-east of the convent. The road led us along a continual ascent +through a vast savannah, as far as the table-land of Guardia de San +Augustin. We there halted to wait for the Indian who carried the +barometer. We found ourselves to be at 533 toises of absolute +elevation, or a little higher than the bottom of the cavern of +Guacharo. The savannahs or natural meadows, which yield excellent +pasture for the cows of the convent, are totally devoid of trees or +shrubs. It is the domain of the monocotyledonous plants; for amidst +the gramina only a few Maguey* plants rise here and there (* Agave +Americana.); their flowery stalks being more than twenty-six feet +high. Having reached the table-land of Guardia, we appeared to be +transported to the bed of an old lake, levelled by the +long-continued abode of the waters. We seemed to trace the +sinuosities of the ancient shore in the tongues of land which jut +out from the craggy rock, and even in the distribution of the +vegetation. The bottom of the basin is a savannah, while its banks +are covered with trees of full growth. This is probably the most +elevated valley in the provinces of Venezuela and Cumana. One +cannot but regret, that a spot favoured by so temperate a climate, +and which without doubt would be fit for the culture of corn, is +totally uninhabited. + +From the table-land of Guardia we continued to descend, till we +reached the Indian village of Santa Cruz. We passed at first along +a slope extremely slippery and steep, to which the missionaries had +given the name of Baxada del Purgatorio, or Descent of Purgatory. +It is a rock of schistose sandstone, decomposed, covered with clay, +the talus of which appears frightfully steep, from the effect of a +very common optical illusion. When we look down from the top to the +bottom of the hill the road seems inclined more than 60 degrees. +The mules in going down draw their hind legs near to their fore +legs, and lowering their cruppers, let themselves slide at a +venture. The rider runs no risk, provided he slacken the bridle, +thereby leaving the animal quite free in his movements. From this +point we perceived towards the left the great pyramid of Guacharo. +The appearance of this calcareous peak is very picturesque, but we +soon lost sight of it, on entering the thick forest, known by the +name of the Montana de Santa Maria. We descended without +intermission for seven hours. It is difficult to conceive a more +tremendous descent; it is absolutely a road of steps, a kind of +ravine, in which, during the rainy season, impetuous torrents dash +from rock to rock. The steps are from two to three feet high, and +the beasts of burden, after measuring with their eyes the space +necessary to let their load pass between the trunks of the trees, +leap from one rock to another. Afraid of missing their mark, we saw +them stop a few minutes to scan the ground, and bring together +their four feet like wild goats. If the animal does not reach the +nearest block of stone, he sinks half his depth into the soft +ochreous clay, that fills up the interstices of the rock. When the +blocks are wanting, enormous roots serve as supports for the feet +of men and beasts. Some of these roots are twenty inches thick, and +they often branch out from the trunks of the trees much above the +level of the soil. The Creoles have sufficient confidence in the +address and instinct of the mules, to remain in their saddles +during this long and dangerous descent. Fearing fatigue less than +they did, and being accustomed to travel slowly for the purpose of +gathering plants and examining the nature of the rocks, we +preferred going down on foot; and, indeed, the care which our +chronometers demanded, left us no liberty of choice. + +The forest that covers the steep flank of the mountain of Santa +Maria, is one of the thickest I ever saw. The trees are of +stupendous height and size. Under their bushy, deep green foliage, +there reigns continually a kind of dim daylight, a peculiar sort of +obscurity, of which our forests of pines, oaks, and beech-trees, +convey no idea. Notwithstanding its elevated temperature, it is +difficult to believe that the air can dissolve the quantity of +water exhaled from the surface of the soil, the foliage of the +trees, and their trunks: the latter are covered with a drapery of +orchideae, peperomia, and other succulent plants. With the aromatic +odour of the flowers, the fruit, and even the wood, is mingled that +which we perceive in autumn in misty weather. Here, as in the +forests of the Orinoco, fixing our eyes on the top of the trees, we +discerned streams of vapour, whenever a solar ray penetrated, and +traversed the dense atmosphere. Our guides pointed out to us among +those majestic trees, the height of which exceeded 120 or 130 feet, +the curucay of Terecen. It yields a whitish liquid, and very +odoriferous resin, which was formerly employed by the Cumanagoto +and Tagiri Indians, to perfume their idols. The young branches have +an agreeable taste, though somewhat astringent. Next to the curucay +and enormous trunks of hymenaea, (the diameter of which was more +than nine or ten feet), the trees which most excited our attention +were the dragon's blood (Croton sanguifluum), the purple-brown +juice of which flows down a whitish bark; the calahuala fern, +different from that of Peru, but almost equally medicinal;* (* The +calahuala of Caripe is the Polypodium crassifolium; that of Peru, +the use of which has been so much extended by Messrs. Ruiz and +Pavon, comes from the Aspidium coriaceum, Willd. (Tectaria +calahuala, Cav.) In commerce the diaphoretic roots of the +Polypodium crassifolium, and of the Acrostichum huascaro, are mixed +with those of the calahuala or Aspidium coriaceum.) and the +palm-trees, irasse, macanilla, corozo, and praga.* (* Aiphanes +praga.) The last yields a very savoury palm-cabbage, which we had +sometimes eaten at the convent of Caripe. These palms with pinnated +and thorny leaves formed a pleasing contrast to the fern-trees. One +of the latter, the Cyathea speciosa,* grows to the height of more +than thirty-five feet, a prodigious size for plants of this family. +(* Possibly a hemitelia of Robert Brown. The trunk alone is from 22 +to 24 feet long. This and the Cyathea excelsa of the Mauritius, are +the most majestic of all the fern-trees described by botanists. The +total number of these gigantic cryptogamous plants amounts at +present to 25 species, that of the palm-trees to 80. With the +cyathea grow, on the mountain of Santa Maria, Rhexia juniperina, +Chiococca racemosa, and Commelina spicata.) We discovered here, and +in the valley of Caripe, five new kinds of arborescent ferns.* (* +Meniscium arborescens, Aspidium caducum, A. rostratum, Cyathea +villosa, and C. speciosa.) In the time of Linnaeus, botanists knew +no more than four on both continents. + +We observed that the fern-trees are in general much more rare than +the palm-trees. Nature has confined them to temperate, moist, and +shady places. They shun the direct rays of the sun, and while the +pumos, the corypha of the steppes and other palms of America, +flourish on the barren and burning plains, these ferns with +arborescent trunks, which at a distance look like palm-trees, +preserve the character and habits of cryptogamous plants. They love +solitary places, little light, moist, temperate and stagnant air. +If they sometimes descend towards the sea-coast, it is only under +cover of a thick shade. The old trunks of the cyathea and the +meniscium are covered with a carbonaceous powder, which, probably +being deprived of hydrogen, has a metallic lustre like plumbago. No +other plant presents this phenomenon; for the trunks of the +dicotyledons, in spite of the heat of the climate, and the +intensity of the light, are less burnt within the tropics than in +the temperate zone. It may be said that the trunks of the ferns, +which, like the monocotyledons, are enlarged by the remains of the +petioles, decay from the circumference to the centre; and that, +deprived of the cortical organs through which the elaborated juices +descend to the roots, they are burnt more easily by the action of +the oxygen of the atmosphere. I brought to Europe some powders with +metallic lustre, taken from very old trunks of Meniscium and +Aspidium. + +In proportion as we descended the mountain of Santa Maria, we saw +the arborescent ferns diminish, and the number of palm-trees +increase. The beautiful large-winged butterflies (nymphales), which +fly at a prodigious height, became more common. Everything denoted +our approach to the coast, and to a zone in which the mean +temperature of the day is from 28 to 30 degrees. + +The weather was cloudy, and led us to fear one of those heavy +rains, during which from 1 to 1.3 inches of water sometimes falls +in a day. The sun at times illumined the tops of the trees; and, +though sheltered from its rays, we felt an oppressive heat. Thunder +rolled at a distance; the clouds seemed suspended on the top of the +lofty mountains of the Guacharo; and the plaintive howling of the +araguatoes, which we had so often heard at Caripe, denoted the +proximity of the storm. We now for the first time had a near view +of these howling apes. They are of the family of the alouates,* (* +Stentor, Geoffroy.) the different species of which have long been +confounded one with another. The small sapajous of America, which +imitate in whistling the tones of the passeres, have the bone of +the tongue thin and simple, but the apes of large size, as the +alouates and marimondes,* (* Ateles, Geoffroy.) have the tongue +placed on a large bony drum. Their superior larynx has six pouches, +in which the voice loses itself; and two of which, shaped like +pigeons' nests, resemble the inferior larynx of birds. The air +driven with force into the bony drum produces that mournful sound +which characterises the araguatoes. I sketched on the spot these +organs, which are imperfectly known to anatomists, and published +the description of them on my return to Europe. + +The araguato, which the Tamanac Indians call aravata,* (* In the +writings of the early Spanish missionaries, this monkey is +described by the names of aranata and araguato. In both names we +easily discover the same root. The v has been transformed into g +and n. The name of arabata, which Gumilla gives to the howling apes +of the Lower Orinoco, and which Geoffroy thinks belongs to the S. +straminea of Great Paria, is the same Tamanac word aravata. This +identity of names need not surprise us. The language of the Chayma +Indians of Cumana is one of the numerous branches of the Tamanac +language, and the latter is connected with the Caribbee language of +the Lower Orinoco.) and the Maypures marave, resembles a young +bear.* (* Alouate ourse (Simia ursina).) It is three feet long, +reckoning from the top of the head (which is small and very +pyramidal) to the beginning of the prehensile tail. Its fur is +bushy, and of a reddish brown; the breast and belly are covered +with fine hair, and not bare as in the mono colorado, or alouate +roux of Buffon, which we carefully examined in going from +Carthagena to Santa Fe de Bogota. The face of the araguato is of a +blackish blue, and is covered with a fine and wrinkled skin: its +beard is pretty long; and, notwithstanding the direction of the +facial line, the angle of which is only thirty degrees, the +araguato has, in the expression of the countenance, as much +resemblance to man as the marimonde (S. belzebuth, Bresson) and the +capuchin of the Orinoco (S. chiropotes). Among thousands of +araguatoes which we observed in the provinces of Cumana, Caracas, +and Guiana, we never saw any change in the reddish brown fur of the +back and shoulders, whether we examined individuals or whole +troops. It appeared to me in general, that variety of colour is +less frequent among monkeys than naturalists suppose. + +The araguato of Caripe is a new species of the genus Stentor, which +I have above described. It differs equally from the ouarine (S. +guariba) and the alouate roux (S. seniculus, old man of the woods). +Its eye, voice, and gait, denote melancholy. I have seen young +araguatoes brought up in Indian huts. They never play like the +little sagoins, and their gravity was described with much +simplicity by Lopez de Gomara, in the beginning of the sixteenth +century. "The Aranata de los Cumaneses," says this author, "has the +face of a man, the beard of a goat, and a grave demeanour (honrado +gesto.)" Monkeys are more melancholy in proportion as they have +more resemblance to man. Their sprightliness diminishes, as their +intellectual faculties appear to increase. + +We stopped to observe some howling monkeys, which, to the number of +thirty or forty, crossed the road, passing in a file from one tree +to another over the horizontal and intersecting branches. While we +were observing their movements, we saw a troop of Indians going +towards the mountains of Caripe. They were without clothing, as the +natives of this country generally are. The women, laden with rather +heavy burdens, closed the march. The men were all armed; and even +the youngest boys had bows and arrows. They moved on in silence, +with their eyes fixed on the ground. We endeavoured to learn from +them whether we were yet far from the Mission of Santa Cruz, where +we intended passing the night. We were overcome with fatigue, and +suffered from thirst. The heat increased as the storm drew near, +and we had not met with a single spring on the way. The words si, +patre; no, patre; which the Indians continually repeated, led us to +think they understood a little Spanish. In the eyes of a native +every white man is a monk, a padre; for in the Missions the colour +of the skin characterizes the monk, more than the colour of the +garment. In vain we questioned them respecting the length of the +way: they answered, as if by chance, si and no, without our being +able to attach any precise sense to their replies. This made us the +more impatient, as their smiles and gestures indicated their wish +to direct us; and the forest seemed at every step to become thicker +and thicker. At length we separated from the Indians; our guides +were able to follow us only at a distance, because the beasts of +burden fell at every step in the ravines. + +After journeying for several hours, continually descending on +blocks of scattered rock, we found ourselves unexpectedly at the +outlet of the forest of Santa Maria. A savannah, the verdure of +which had been renewed by the winter rains, stretched before us +farther than the eye could reach. On the left we discovered a +narrow valley, extending as far as the mountains of the Guacharo, +and covered with a thick forest. Looking downward, the eye rested +on the tops of the trees, which, at eight hundred feet below the +road, formed a carpet of verdure of a dark and uniform tint. The +openings in the forest appeared like vast funnels, in which we +could distinguish by their elegant forms and pinnated leaves, the +Praga and Irasse palms. But what renders this spot eminently +picturesque, is the aspect of the Sierra del Guacharo. Its northern +slope, in the direction of the gulf of Cariaco, is abrupt. It +presents a wall of rock, an almost vertical profile, exceeding 3000 +feet in height. The vegetation which covers this wall is so scanty, +that the eye can follow the lines of the calcareous strata. The +summit of the Sierra is flat, and it is only at its eastern +extremity, that the majestic peak of the Guacharo rises like an +inclined pyramid, its form resembles that of the needles and horns* +of the Alps. (* The Shreckhorner, the Finsteraarhorn, etc.) + +The savannah we crossed to the Indian village of Santa Cruz is +composed of several smooth plateaux, lying above each other like +terraces. This geological phenomenon, which is repeated in every +climate, seems to indicate a long abode of the waters in basins +that have poured them from one to the other. The calcareous rock is +no longer visible, but is covered with a thick layer of mould. The +last time we saw it in the forest of Santa Maria it was slightly +porous, and looked more like the limestone of Cumanacoa than that +of Caripe. We there found brown iron-ore disseminated in patches, +and if we were not deceived in our observation, a Cornu-ammonis, +which we could not succeed in our attempt to detach. It was seven +inches in diameter. This fact is the more important, as in this +part of America we have never seen ammonites. The Mission of Santa +Cruz is situated in the midst of the plain. We reached it towards +the evening, suffering much from thirst, having travelled nearly +eight hours without finding water. The thermometer kept at 26 +degrees; accordingly we were not more than 190 toises above the +level of the sea. + +We passed the night in one of those ajupas called King's houses, +which, as I have already said, serve as tambos or caravanserais to +travellers. The rains prevented any observations of the stars; and +the next day, the 23rd of September, we continued our descent +towards the gulf of Cariaco. Beyond Santa Cruz a thick forest again +appears; and in it we found, under tufts of melastomas, a beautiful +fern, with osmundia leaves, which forms a new genus of the order of +polypodiaceous plants.* (* Polybotya.) + +Having reached the mission of Catuaro, we were desirous of +continuing our journey eastward by Santa Rosalia, Casanay, San +Josef, Carupano, Rio Carives, and the Montana of Paria; but we +learnt with great regret, that torrents of rain had rendered the +roads impassable, and that we should run the risk of losing the +plants we had already gathered. A rich planter of cacao-trees was +to accompany us from Santa Rosalia to the port of Carupano; but +when the time of departure approached, we were informed that his +affairs had called him to Cumana. We resolved in consequence to +embark at Cariaco, and to return directly by the gulf, instead of +passing between the island of Margareta and the isthmus of Araya. +The Mission of Catuaro is situated on a very wild spot. Trees of +full growth still surround the church, and the tigers come by night +to devour the poultry and swine belonging to the Indians. We lodged +at the dwelling of the priest, a monk of the congregation of the +Observance, to whom the Capuchins had confided the Mission, because +priests of their own community were wanting. + +At this Mission we met Don Alexandro Mexia, the corregidor of the +district, an amiable and well-educated man. He gave us three +Indians, who, armed with their machetes, were to precede us, and +cut our way through the forest. In this country, so little +frequented, the power of vegetation is such at the period of the +great rains, that a man on horseback can with difficulty make his +way through narrow paths, covered with lianas and intertwining +branches. To our great annoyance, the missionary of Catuaro +insisted on conducting us to Cariaco; and we could not decline the +proposal. The movement for independence, which had nearly broken +out at Caracas in 1798, had been preceded and followed by great +agitation among the slaves at Coro, Maracaybo, and Cariaco. At the +last of these places an unfortunate negro had been condemned to +die, and our host, the vicar of Catuaro, was going thither to offer +him spiritual comfort. During our journey we could not escape +conversations, in which the missionary pertinaciously insisted on +the necessity of the slave-trade, on the innate wickedness of the +blacks, and the benefit they derived from their state of slavery +among the Christians! The mildness of Spanish legislation, compared +with the Black Code of most other nations that have possessions in +either of the Indies, cannot be denied. But such is the state of +the negroes, that justice, far from efficaciously protecting them +during their lives, cannot even punish acts of barbarity which +cause their death. + +The road we took across the forest of Catuaro resembled the descent +of the mountain Santa Maria; here also, the most difficult and +dangerous places have fanciful names. We walked as in a narrow +furrow, scooped out by torrents, and filled with fine tenacious +clay. The mules lowered their cruppers and slid down the steepest +slopes. This descent is called Saca Manteca.* (* Or the +Butter-Slope. Manteca in Spanish signifies butter.) There is no +danger in the descent, owing to the great address of the mules of +this country. The clay, which renders the soil so slippery, is +produced by the numerous layers of sandstone and schistose clay +crossing the bluish grey alpine limestone. This last disappears as +we draw nearer to Cariaco. When we reached the mountain of Meapira, +we found it formed in great part of a white limestone, filled with +fossil remains, and from the grains of quartz agglutinated in the +mass, it appeared to belong to the great formation of the sea-coast +breccias. We descended this mountain on the strata of the rock, the +section of which forms steps of unequal height. Farther on, going +out of the forest, we reached the hill of Buenavista,* (* Mountain +of the Fine Prospect.) well deserving the name it bears; since it +commands a view of the town of Cariaco, situated in the midst of a +vast plain filled with plantations, huts, and scattered groups of +cocoa-palms. To the west of Cariaco extends the wide gulf; which a +wall of rock separates from the ocean: and towards the east are +seen, like bluish clouds, the high mountains of Paria and Areo. +This is one of the most extensive and magnificent prospects that +can be enjoyed on the coast of New Andalusia. In the town of +Cariaco we found a great part of the inhabitants suffering from +intermittent fever; a disease which in autumn assumes a formidable +character. When we consider the extreme fertility of the +surrounding plains, their moisture, and the mass of vegetation with +which they are covered, we may easily conceive why, amidst so much +decomposition of organic matter, the inhabitants do not enjoy that +salubrity of air which characterizes the climate of Cumana. + +The chain of calcareous mountains of the Brigantine and the +Cocollar sends off a considerable branch to the north, which joins +the primitive mountains of the coast. This branch bears the name of +Sierra de Meapire; but towards the town of Cariaco it is called +Cerro Grande de Curiaco. Its mean height did not appear to be more +than 150 or 200 toises. It was composed, where I could examine it, +of the calcareous breccias of the sea-coast. Marly and calcareous +beds alternate with other beds containing grains of quartz. It is a +very striking phenomenon for those who study the physical aspect of +a country, to see a transverse ridge connect at right angles two +parallel ridges, of which one, the more southern, is composed of +secondary rocks, and the other, the more northern, of primitive +rocks. The latter presents, nearly as far as the meridian of +Carupano, only mica-slate; but to the east of this point, where it +communicates by a transverse ridge (the Sierra de Meapire) with the +limestone range, it contains lamellar gypsum, compact limestone, +and other rocks of secondary formation. It might be supposed that +the southern ridge has transferred these rocks to the northern +chain. + +When standing on the summit of the Cerro del Meapire, we see the +mountain currents flow on one side to the gulf of Paria, and on the +other to the gulf of Cariaco. East and west of the ridge there are +low and marshy grounds, spreading out without interruption; and if +it be admitted that both gulfs owe their origin to the sinking of +the earth, and to rents caused by earthquakes, we must suppose that +the Cerro de Meapire has resisted the convulsive movements of the +globe, and hindered the waters of the gulf of Paria from uniting +with those of the gulf of Cariaco. But for this rocky dyke, the +isthmus itself in all probability would have had no existence; and +from the castle of Araya as far as Cape Paria, the whole mass of +the mountains of the coast would have formed a narrow island, +parallel to the island of Santa Margareta, and four times as long. +Not only do the inspection of the ground, and considerations +deduced from its relievo, confirm these opinions; but a mere glance +of the configuration of the coasts, and a geological map of the +country, would suggest the same ideas. It would appear that the +island of Margareta has been heretofore attached to the coast-chain +of Araya by the peninsula of Chacopata and the Caribbee islands, +Lobo and Coche, in the same manner as this chain is still connected +with that of the Cocollar and Caripe by the ridge of Meapire. + +At present we perceive that the humid plains which stretch east and +west of the ridge, and which are improperly called the valleys San +Bonifacio and Cariaco, are enlarging by gaining on the sea. The +waters are receding, and these changes of the shore are very +remarkable, more particularly on the coast of Cumana. If the level +of the soil seem to indicate that the two gulfs of Cariaco and +Paria formerly occupied a much more considerable space, we cannot +doubt that at present the land is progressively extending. Near +Cumana, a battery, called La Boca, was built in 1791 on the very +margin of the sea; in 1799 we saw it very far inland. At the mouth +of the Rio Neveri, near the Morro of Nueva Barcelona, the retreat +of the waters is still more rapid. This local phenomenon is +probably assignable to accumulations of sand, the progress of which +has not yet been sufficiently examined. Descending the Sierra de +Meapire, which forms the isthmus between the plains of San +Bonifacio and Cariaco, we find towards the east the great lake of +Putacuao, which communicates with the river Areo, and is four or +five leagues in diameter. The mountainous lands that surround this +basin are known only to the natives. There are found those great +boa serpents known to the Chayma Indians by the name of guainas, +and to which they fabulously attribute a sting under the tail. +Descending the Sierra de Meapire to the west, we find at first a +hollow ground (tierra hueca) which, during the great earthquakes of +1766, threw out asphaltum enveloped in viscous petroleum. Farther +on, a numberless quantity of sulphureous thermal springs* are seen +issuing from the soil (* El Llano de Aguas calientes, +east-north-east of Cariaco, at the distance of two leagues.); and +at length we reach the borders of the lake of Campoma, the +exhalations from which contribute to the insalubrity of the climate +of Cariaco. The natives believe that the hollow is formed by the +engulfing of the hot springs; and, judging from the sound heard +under the hoofs of the horses, we must conclude that the +subterranean cavities are continued from west to east nearly as far +as Casanay, a length of three or four thousand toises. A little +river, the Rio Azul, runs through these plains which are rent into +crevices by earthquakes. These earthquakes have a particular centre +of action, and seldom extend as far as Cumana. The waters of the +Rio Azul are cold and limpid; they rise on the western declivity of +the mountain of Meapire, and it is believed that they are augmented +by infiltrations from the lake Putacuao, situated on the other side +of the chain. The little river, together with the sulphureous hot +springs, fall into the Laguna de Campoma. This is a name given to a +great lagoon, which is divided in dry weather into three basins +situated north-west of the town of Cariaco, near the extremity of +the gulf. Fetid exhalations arise continually from the stagnant +water of this lagoon. The smell of sulphuretted hydrogen is mingled +with that of putrid fishes and rotting plants. + +Miasms are formed in the valley of Cariaco, as in the Campagna of +Rome; but the hot climate of the tropics increases their +deleterious energy. These miasms are probably ternary or quaternary +combinations of azote, phosphorus, hydrogen, carbon, and sulphur. + +The situation of the lagoon of Campoma renders the north-west wind, +which blows frequently after sunset, very pernicious to the +inhabitants of the little town of Cariaco. Its influence can be the +less doubted, as intermitting fevers are observed to degenerate +into typhoid fevers, in proportion as we approach the lagoon, which +is the principal focus of putrid miasms. Whole families of free +negroes, who have small plantations on the northern coast of the +gulf of Cariaco, languish in their hammocks from the beginning of +the rainy season. These intermittent fevers assume a dangerous +character, when persons, debilitated by long labour and copious +perspiration, expose themselves to the fine rains, which frequently +fall as evening advances. Nevertheless, the men of colour, and +particularly the Creole negroes, resist much better than any other +race, the influence of the climate. Lemonade and infusions of +Scoparia dulcis are given to the sick; but the cuspare, which is +the cinchona of Angostura, is seldom used. + +It is generally observed, that in these epidemics of the town of +Cariaco the mortality is less considerable than might be supposed. +Intermitting fevers, when they attack the same individual during +several successive years, enfeeble the constitution; but this state +of debility, so common on the unhealthy coasts, does not cause +death. What is remarkable enough, is the belief which prevails here +as in the Campagna of Rome, that the air has become progressively +more vitiated in proportion as a greater number of acres have been +cultivated. The miasms exhaled from these plains have, however, +nothing in common with those which arise from a forest when the +trees are cut down, and the sun heats a thick layer of dead leaves. +Near Cariaco the country is but thinly wooded. Can it be supposed +that the mould, fresh stirred and moistened by rains, alters and +vitiates the atmosphere more than the thick wood of plants which +covers an uncultivated soil? To local causes are joined other +causes less problematic. The neighbouring shores of the sea are +covered with mangroves, avicennias, and other shrubs with +astringent bark. All the inhabitants of the tropics are aware of +the noxious exhalations of these plants; and they dread them the +more, as their roots and stocks are not always under water, but +alternately wetted and exposed to the heat of the sun.* The +mangroves produce miasms, because they contain vegeto-animal matter +combined with tannin. (* The following is a list of the social +plants that cover those sandy plains on the sea-side, and +characterize the vegetation of Cumana and the gulf of Cariaco. +Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia nitida, Gomphrena flava, G. brachiata, +Sesuvium portulacastrum (vidrio), Talinum cuspidatum (vicho), T. +cumanense, Portulacca pilosa (zargasso), P. lanuginosa, Illecebrum +maritimum, Atriplex cristata, Heliotropium viride, H. latifolium, +Verbena cuneata, Mollugo verticillata, Euphorbia maritima, +Convolvulus cumanensis.) + +The town of Cariaco has been repeatedly sacked in former times by +the Caribs. Its population has augmented rapidly since the +provincial authorities, in spite of prohibitory orders from the +court of Madrid have often favoured the trade with foreign +colonies. The population amounted, in 1800, to more than 6000 +souls. The inhabitants are active in the cultivation of cotton, +which is of a very fine quality. The capsules of the cotton-tree, +when separated from the woolly substance, are carefully burnt; as +those husks if thrown into the river, and exposed to putrefaction, +yield noxious exhalations. The culture of the cacao-tree has of +late considerably diminished. This valuable tree bears only after +eight or ten years. Its fruit keeps very badly in the warehouses, +and becomes mouldy at the expiration of a year, notwithstanding all +the precautions employed for drying it. + +It is only in the interior of the province, to the east of the +Sierra de Meapire, that new plantations of the cacao-tree are seen. +They become there the more productive, as the lands, newly cleared +and surrounded by forests, are in contact with an atmosphere damp, +stagnant, and loaded with mephitic exhalations. We there see +fathers of families, attached to the old habits of the colonists, +slowly amass a little fortune for themselves and their children. +Thirty thousand cacao-trees will secure competence to a family for +a generation and a half. If the culture of cotton and coffee have +led to the diminution of cacao in the province of Caracas and in +the small valley of Cariaco, it must be admitted that this last +branch of colonial industry has in general increased in the +interior of the provinces of New Barcelona and Cumana. The causes +of the progressive movement of the cacao-tree from west to east may +be easily conceived. The province of Caracas has been from a remote +period cultivated: and, in the torrid zone, in proportion as a +country has been cleared, it becomes drier and more exposed to the +winds. These physical changes have been adverse to the propagation +of cacao-trees, the plantations of which, diminishing in the +province of Caracas, have accumulated eastward on a newly-cleared +and virgin soil. The cacao of Cumana is infinitely superior to that +of Guayaquil. The best is produced in the valley of San Bonifacio; +as the best cacao of New Barcelona, Caracas, and Guatimala, is that +of Capiriqual, Uritucu, and Soconusco. Since the island of Trinidad +has become an English colony, the whole of the eastern extremity of +the province of Cumana, especially the coast of Paria, and the gulf +of the same name, have changed their appearance. Foreigners have +settled there, and have introduced the cultivation of the +coffee-tree, the cotton-tree, and the sugar-cane of Otaheite. The +population has greatly increased at Carupano, in the beautiful +valley of Rio Caribe, at Guira, and at the new town of Punta di +Piedra, built opposite Spanish Harbour, in the island of Trinidad. +The soil is so fertile in the Golfo Triste, that maize yields two +harvests in the year, and produces three hundred and eighty fold +the quantity sown. + +Early in the morning we embarked in a sort of narrow canoe, called +a lancha, in hopes of crossing the gulf of Cariaco during the day. +The motion of the waters resembles that of our great lakes, when +they are agitated by the winds. From the embarcadero to Cumana the +distance is only twelve nautical leagues. On quitting the little +town of Cariaco, we proceeded westward along the river of +Carenicuar, which, in a straight line like an artificial canal, +runs through gardens and plantations of cotton-trees. On the banks +of the river of Cariaco we saw the Indian women washing their linen +with the fruit of the parapara (Sapindus saponaria, or soap-berry), +an operation said to be very injurious to the linen. The bark of +the fruit produces a strong lather; and the fruit is so elastic +that if thrown on a stone it rebounds three or four times to the +height of seven or eight feet. Being a spherical form, it is +employed in making rosaries. + +After we embarked we had to contend against contrary winds. The +rain fell in torrents, and the thunder rolled very near. Swarms of +flamingoes, egrets, and cormorants filled the air, seeking the +shore, whilst the alcatras, a large species of pelican, alone +continued peaceably to fish in the middle of the gulf. The gulf of +Cariaco is almost everywhere forty-five or fifty fathoms deep; but +at its eastern extremity, near Curaguaca, along an extent of five +leagues, the lead does not indicate more than three or four +fathoms. Here is found the Baxo de la Cotua, a sand-bank, which at +low-water appears like a small island. The canoes which carry +provisions to Cumana sometimes ground on this bank; but always +without danger, because the sea is never rough or heavy. We crossed +that part of the gulf where hot springs gush from the bottom of the +sea. It was flood-tide, so that the change of temperature was not +very perceptible: besides, our canoe drove too much towards the +southern shore. It may be supposed that strata of water must be +found of different temperatures, according to the greater or less +depth, and according as the mingling of the hot waters with those +of the gulf is accelerated by the winds and currents. The existence +of these hot springs, which we were assured raise the temperature +of the sea through an extent of ten or twelve thousand square +toises, is a very remarkable phenomenon. (* In the island of +Guadaloupe, there is a fountain of boiling water, which rushes out +on the beach. Hot-water springs rise from the bottom of the sea in +the gulf of Naples, and near the island of Palma, in the +archipelago of the Canary Islands.) Proceeding from the promontory +of Paria westward, by Irapa, Aguas Calientes, the gulf of Cariaco, +the Brigantine, and the valley of Aragua, as far as the snowy +mountains of Merida, a continued band of thermal waters is found in +an extent of 150 leagues. + +Adverse winds and rainy weather forced us to go on shore at +Pericantral, a small farm on the south side of the gulf. The whole +of this coast, though covered with beautiful vegetation, is almost +wholly uncultivated. There are scarcely seven hundred inhabitants: +and, excepting in the village of Mariguitar, we saw only +plantations of cocoa-trees, which are the olives of the country. +This palm occupies on both continents a zone, of which the mean +temperature of the year is not below 20 degrees.* (* The cocoa-tree +grows in the northern hemisphere from the equator to latitude 28 +degrees. Near the equator we find it from the plains to the height +of 700 toises above the level of the sea.) It is, like the +chamaerops of the basin of the Mediterranean, a true palm-tree of +the coast. It prefers salt to fresh water; and flourishes less +inland, where the air is not loaded with saline particles, than on +the shore. When cocoa-trees are planted in Terra Firma, or in the +Missions of the Orinoco, at a distance from the sea, a considerable +quantity of salt, sometimes as much as half a bushel, is thrown +into the hole which receives the nut. Among the plants cultivated +by man, the sugar-cane, the plantain, the mammee-apple, and +alligator-pear (Laurus persea), alone have the property of the +cocoa-tree; that of being watered equally well with fresh and salt +water. This circumstance is favourable to their migrations; and if +the sugarcane of the sea-shore yield a syrup that is a little +brackish, it is believed at the same time to be better fitted for +the distillation of spirit than the juice produced from the canes +in inland situations. + +The cocoa-tree, in the other parts of America, is in general +cultivated around farm-houses, and the fruit is eaten; in the gulf +of Cariaco, it forms extensive plantations. In a fertile and moist +ground, the tree begins to bear fruit abundantly in the fourth +year; but in dry soils it bears only at the expiration of ten +years. The duration of the tree does not in general exceed eighty +or a hundred years; and its mean height at that age is from seventy +to eighty feet. This rapid growth is so much the more remarkable, +as other palm-trees, for instance, the moriche,* (* Mauritia +flexuosa.) and the palm of Sombrero,* (* Corypha tectorum.) the +longevity of which is very great, frequently do not attain a +greater height than fourteen or eighteen feet in the space of sixty +years. In the first thirty or forty years, a cocoa-tree of the gulf +of Cariaco bears every lunation a cluster of ten or fourteen nuts, +all of which, however, do not ripen. It may be reckoned that, on an +average, a tree produces annually a hundred nuts, which yield eight +flascos* of oil. (One flasco contains 70 or 80 cubic inches, Paris +measure.) In Provence, an olive-tree thirty years old yields twenty +pounds, or seven flascos of oil, so that it produces something less +than a cocoa-tree. There are in the gulf of Cariaco plantations +(haciendas) of eight or nine thousand cocoa-trees. They resemble, +in their picturesque appearance, those fine plantations of +date-trees near Elche, in Murcia, where, over the superficies of +one square league, there may be found upwards of 70,000 palms. The +cocoa-tree bears fruit in abundance till it is thirty or forty +years old; after that age the produce diminishes, and a trunk a +hundred years old, without being altogether barren, yields very +little. In the town of Cumana there is prepared a great quantity of +cocoa-nut oil, which is limpid, without smell, and very fit for +burning. The trade in this oil is not less active than that on the +coast of Africa for palm-oil, which is obtained from the Elais +guineensis, and is used as food. I have often seen canoes arrive at +Cumana laden with 3000 cocoa-nuts. + +We did not quit the farm of Pericantral till after sunset. The +south coast of the gulf presents a most fertile aspect, while the +northern coast is naked, dry, and rocky. In spite of this aridity, +and the scarcity of rain, of which sometimes none falls for the +space of fifteen months,* the peninsula of Araya, like the desert +of Canound in India, produces patillas, or water-melons, weighing +from fifty to seventy pounds. (* The rains appear to have been more +frequent at the beginning of the 16th century. At any rate, the +canon of Granada (Peter Martyr d'Anghiera), speaking in the year +1574, of the salt-works of Araya, or of Haraia, described in the +fifth chapter of this work, mentions showers (cadentes imbres) as a +very common phenomenon. The same author, who died in 1526, affirms +that the Indians wrought the salt-works before the arrival of the +Spaniards. They dried the salt in the form of bricks; and our +writer even then discussed the geological question, whether the +clayey soil of Haraia contained salt-springs, or whether it had +been impregnated with salt by the periodical inundations of the +ocean for ages.) In the torrid zone, the vapours contained by the +air form about nine-tenths of the quantity necessary to its +saturation: and vegetation is maintained by the property which the +leaves possess of attracting the water dissolved in the atmosphere. + +At sunrise, we saw the Zamuro vultures,* (* Vultur aura.) in flocks +of forty or fifty, perched on the cocoa-trees. These birds range +themselves in files to roost together like fowls. They go to roost +long before sunset, and do not awake till after the sun is above +the horizon. This sluggishness seems as if it were shared in those +climates by the trees with pinnate leaves. The mimosas and the +tamarinds close their leaves, in a clear and serene sky, +twenty-five or thirty-five minutes before sunset, and unfold them +in the morning when the solar disk has been visible for an equal +space of time. As I noticed pretty regularly the rising and setting +of the sun, for the purpose of observing the effect of the mirage, +or of the terrestrial refractions, I was enabled to give continued +attention to the phenomena of the sleep of plants. I found them the +same in the steppes, where no irregularity of the ground +interrupted the view of the horizon. It appears, that, accustomed +during the day to an extreme brilliancy of light, the sensitive and +other leguminous plants with thin and delicate leaves are affected +in the evening by the smallest decline in the intensity of the +sun's rays; so that for vegetation, night begins there, as with us, +before the total disappearance of the solar disk. But why, in a +zone where there is scarcely any twilight, do not the first rays of +the sun stimulate the leaves with the more strength, as the absence +of light must have rendered them more susceptible? Does the +humidity deposited on the parenchyma by the cooling of the leaves, +which is the effect of the nocturnal radiation, prevent the action +of the first rays of the sun? In our climates, the leguminous +plants with irritable leaves awake during the twilight of the +morning, before the sun appears. + + +CHAPTER 1.9. + +PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION AND MANNERS OF THE CHAYMAS. +THEIR LANGUAGE. +FILIATION OF THE NATIONS WHICH INHABIT NEW ANDALUCIA. +PARIAGOTOS SEEN BY COLUMBUS. + +I did not wish to mingle with the narrative of our journey to the +Missions of Caripe any general considerations on the different +tribes of the indigenous inhabitants of New Andalusia; their +manners, their languages, and their common origin. Having returned +to the spot whence we set out, I shall now bring into one point of +view these considerations which are so nearly connected with the +history of the human race. As we advance into the interior of the +country, these subjects will become even more interesting than the +phenomena of the physical world. The north-east part of equinoctial +America, Terra Firma, and the banks of the Orinoco, resemble in +respect to the numerous races of people who inhabit them, the +defiles of the Caucasus, the mountains of Hindookho, at the +northern extremity of Asia, beyond the Tungouses, and the Tartare +settled at the mouth of the Lena. The barbarism which prevails +throughout these different regions is perhaps less owing to a +primitive absence of all kind of civilization, than to the effects +of long degradation; for most of the hordes which we designate +under the name of savages, are probably the descendants of nations +highly advanced in cultivation. How can we distinguish the +prolonged infancy of the human race (if, indeed, it anywhere +exists), from that state of moral degradation in which solitude, +want, compulsory misery, forced migration, or rigour of climate, +obliterate even the traces of civilization? If everything connected +with the primitive state of man, and the first population of a +continent, could from its nature belong to the domain of history, +we might appeal to the traditions of India. According to the +opinion frequently expressed in the laws of Menou and in the +Ramajan, savages were regarded as tribes banished from civilized +society, and driven into the forests. The word barbarian, which we +have borrowed from the Greeks and Romans, was possibly merely the +proper name of one of those rude hordes. + +In the New World, at the beginning of the conquest, the natives +were collected into large societies only on the ridge of the +Cordilleras and the coasts opposite to Asia. The plains, covered +with forests, and intersected by rivers; the immense savannahs, +extending eastward, and bounding the horizon; were inhabited by +wandering hordes, separated by differences of language and manners, +and scattered like the remnants of a vast wreck. In the absence of +all other monuments, we may endeavour, from the analogy of +languages, and the study of the physical constitution of man, to +group the different tribes, to follow the traces of their distant +emigrations, and to discover some of those family features by which +the ancient unity of our species is manifested. + +In the mountainous regions which we have just traversed,--in the +two provinces of Cumana and New Barcelona, the natives, or +primitive inhabitants, still constitute about one-half of the +scanty population. Their number may be reckoned at sixty thousand; +of which twenty-four thousand inhabit New Andalusia. This number is +very considerable, when compared with that of the hunting nations +of North America; but it appears small, when we consider those +parts of New Spain in which agriculture has existed more than eight +centuries: for instance, the Intendencia of Oaxaca, which includes +the Mixteca and the Tzapoteca of the old Mexican empire. This +Intendencia is one-third smaller than the two provinces of Cumana +and Barcelona; yet it contains more than four hundred thousand +natives of pure copper-coloured race. The Indians of Cumana do not +all live within the Missions. Some are dispersed in the +neighbourhood of the towns, along the coasts, to which they are +attracted by the fisheries, and some dwell in little farms on the +plains or savannahs. The Missions of the Aragonese Capuchins which +we visited, alone contain fifteen thousand Indians, almost all of +the Chayma race. The villages, however, are less populous there +than in the province of Barcelona. Their average population is only +between five or six hundred Indians; while more to the west, in the +Missions of the Franciscans of Piritu, we find Indian villages +containing two or three thousand inhabitants. In computing at sixty +thousand the number of natives in the provinces of Cumana and +Barcelona, I include only those who inhabit the mainland, and not +the Guayquerias of the island of Margareta, and the great mass of +the Guaraunos, who have preserved their independence in the islands +formed by the Delta of the Orinoco. The number of these is +generally reckoned at six or eight thousand; but this estimate +appears to me to be exaggerated. Except a few families of Guaraunos +who roam occasionally in the marshy grounds, called Los Morichales, +and between the Cano de Manamo and the Rio Guarapiche, +consequently, on the continent itself, there have not been for +these thirty years, any Indian savages in New Andalusia. + +I use with regret the word savage, because it implies a difference +of cultivation between the reduced Indian, living in the Missions, +and the free or independent Indian; a difference which is often +belied by fact. In the forests of South America there are tribes of +natives, peacefully united in villages, and who render obedience to +chiefs.* (* These chiefs bear the designations of Pecannati, Apoto, +or Sibierne.) They cultivate the plantain-tree, cassava, and +cotton, on a tolerably extensive tract of ground, and they employ +the cotton for weaving hammocks. These people are scarcely more +barbarous than the naked Indians of the Missions, who have been +taught to make the sign of the cross. It is a common error in +Europe, to look on all natives not reduced to a state of +subjection, as wanderers and hunters. Agriculture was practised on +the American continent long before the arrival of Europeans. It is +still practised between the Orinoco and the river Amazon, in lands +cleared amidst the forests, places to which the missionaries have +never penetrated. It would be to imbibe false ideas respecting the +actual condition of the nations of South America, to consider as +synonymous the denominations of 'Christian,' 'reduced,' and +'civilized;' and those of 'pagan,' 'savage,' and 'independent.' The +reduced Indian is often as little of a Christian as the independent +Indian is of an idolater. Both, alike occupied by the wants of the +moment, betray a marked indifference for religious sentiments, and +a secret tendency to the worship of nature and her powers. This +worship belongs to the earliest infancy of nations; it excludes +idols, and recognises no other sacred places than grottoes, +valleys, and woods. + +If the independent Indians have nearly disappeared for a century +past northward of the Orinoco and the Apure, that is, from the +Snowy Mountains of Merida to the promontory of Paria, it must not +thence be concluded, that there are fewer natives at present in +those regions, than in the time of the bishop of Chiapa, Bartolomeo +de las Casas. In my work on Mexico, I have shown that it is +erroneous to regard as a general fact the destruction and +diminution of the Indians in the Spanish colonies. There still +exist more than six millions of the copper-coloured race, in both +Americas; and, though numberless tribes and languages are either +extinct, or confounded together, it is beyond a doubt that, within +the tropics, in that part of the New World where civilization has +penetrated only since the time of Columbus, the number of natives +has considerably increased. Two of the Carib villages in the +Missions of Piritu or of Carony, contain more families than four or +five of the settlements on the Orinoco. The state of society among +the Caribbees who have preserved their independence, at the sources +of the Essequibo and to the south of the mountains of Pacaraimo, +sufficiently proves how much, even among that fine race of men, the +population of the Missions exceeds in number that of the free and +confederate Caribbees. Besides, the state of the savages of the +torrid zone is not like that of the savages of the Missouri. The +latter require a vast extent of country, because they live only by +hunting; whilst the Indians of Spanish Guiana employ themselves in +cultivating cassava and plantains. A very little ground suffices to +supply them with food. They do not dread the approach of the +whites, like the savages of the United States; who, being +progressively driven back behind the Alleghany mountains, the Ohio, +and the Mississippi, lose their means of subsistence, in proportion +as they find themselves reduced within narrow limits. Under the +temperate zone, whether in the provincias internas of Mexico, or in +Kentucky, the contact of European colonists has been fatal to the +natives, because that contact is immediate. + +These causes have no existence in the greater part of South +America. Agriculture, within the tropics, does not require great +extent of ground. The whites advance slowly. The religious orders +have founded their establishments between the domain of the +colonists and the territory of the free Indians. The Missions may +be considered as intermediary states. They have doubtless +encroached on the liberty of the natives; but they have almost +everywhere tended to the increase of population, which is +incompatible with the restless life of the independent Indians. As +the missionaries advance towards the forests, and gain on the +natives, the white colonists in their turn seek to invade in the +opposite direction the territory of the Missions. In this +protracted struggle, the secular arm continually tends to withdraw +the reduced Indian from the monastic hierarchy, and the +missionaries are gradually superseded by vicars. The whites, and +the castes of mixed blood, favoured by the corregidors, establish +themselves among the Indians. The Missions become Spanish villages, +and the natives lose even the remembrance of their natural +language. Such is the progress of civilization from the coasts +toward the interior; a slow progress, retarded by the passions of +man, but nevertheless sure and steady. + +The provinces of New Andalusia and Barcelona, comprehended under +the name of Govierno de Cumana, at present include in their +population more than fourteen tribes. Those in New Andalusia are +the Chaymas, Guayqueries, Pariagotos, Quaquas, Aruacas, Caribbees, +and Guaraunos; in the province of Barcelona, Cumanagotos, Palenkas, +Caribbees, Piritus, Tomuzas, Topocuares, Chacopatas, and Guarivas. +Nine or ten of these fifteen tribes consider themselves to be of +races entirely distinct. The exact number of the Guaraunos, who +make their huts on the trees at the mouth of the Orinoco, is +unknown; the Guayqueries, in the suburbs of Cumana and in the +peninsula of Araya, amount to two thousand. Among the other Indian +tribes, the Chaymas of the mountains of Caripe, the Caribs of the +southern savannahs of New Barcelona, and the Cumanagotos in the +Missions of Piritu, are most numerous. Some families of Guaraunos +have been reduced and dwell in Missions on the left bank of the +Orinoco, where the Delta begins. The languages of the Guaraunos and +that of the Caribs, of the Cumanagotos and of the Chaymas, are the +most general. They seem to belong to the same stock; and they +exhibit in their grammatical forms those affinities, which, to use +a comparison taken from languages more known, connect the Greek, +the German, the Persian, and the Sanscrit. + +Notwithstanding these affinities, we must consider the Chaymas, the +Guaraunos, the Caribbees, the Quaquas, the Aruacas or Arrawaks, and +the Cumanagotos, as different nations. I would not venture to +affirm the same of the Guayqueries, the Pariagotos, the Piritus, +the Tomuzas, and the Chacopatas. The Guayquerias themselves admit +the analogy between their language and that of the Guaraunos. Both +are a littoral race, like the Malays of the ancient continent. With +respect to the tribes who at present speak the Cumanagota, +Caribbean, and Chayma tongues, it is difficult to decide on their +first origin, and their relations with other nations formerly more +powerful. The historians of the conquest, as well as the +ecclesiastics who have described the progress of the Missions, +continually confound, like the ancients, geographical denominations +with the names of races. They speak of Indians of Cumana and of the +coast of Paria, as if the proximity of abode proved the identity of +origin. They most commonly even give to tribes the names of their +chiefs, or of the mountains or valleys they inhabit. This +circumstance, by infinitely multiplying the number of tribes, gives +an air of uncertainty to all that the monks relate respecting the +heterogeneous elements of which the population of their Missions +are composed. How can we now decide, whether the Tomuza and Piritu +be of different races, when both speak the Cumanagoto language, +which is the prevailing tongue in the western part of the Govierno +of Cumana; as the Caribbean and the Chayma are in the southern and +eastern parts. A great analogy of physical constitution increases +the difficulty of these inquiries. In the new continent a +surprising variety of languages is observed among nations of the +same origin, and which European travellers scarcely distinguish by +their features; while in the old continent very different races of +men, the Laplanders, the Finlanders, and the Estonians, the +Germanic nations and the Hindoos, the Persians and the Kurds, the +Tartar and Mongol tribes, speak languages, the mechanism and roots +of which present the greatest analogy. + +The Indians of the American Missions are all agriculturists. +Excepting those who inhabit the high mountains, they all cultivate +the same plants; their huts are arranged in the same manner; their +days of labour, their work in the conuco of the community; their +connexions with the missionaries and the magistrates chosen from +among themselves, are all subject to uniform regulations. +Nevertheless (and this fact is very remarkable in the history of +nations), these analogous circumstances have not effaced the +individual features, or the shades of character which distinguish +the American tribes. We observe in the men of copper hue, a moral +inflexibility, a steadfast perseverance in habits and manners, +which, though modified in each tribe, characterise essentially the +whole race. These peculiarities are found in every region; from the +equator to Hudson's Bay on the one hand, and to the Straits of +Magellan on the other. They are connected with the physical +organization of the natives, but they are powerfully favoured by +the monastic system. + +There exist in the missions few villages in which the different +families do not belong to different tribes and speak different +languages. Societies composed of elements thus heterogeneous are +difficult to govern. In general, the monks have united whole +nations, or great portions of the same nations, in villages +situated near to each other. The natives see only those of their +own tribe; for the want of communication, and the isolated state of +the people, are essential points in the policy of the missionaries. +The reduced Chaymas, Caribs, and Tamanacs, retain their natural +physiognomy, whilst they have preserved their languages. If the +individuality of man be in some sort reflected in his idioms, these +in their turn re-act on his ideas and sentiments. It is this +intimate connection between language, character, and physical +constitution, which maintains and perpetuates the diversity of +nations; that unfailing source of life and motion in the +intellectual world. + +The missionaries may have prohibited the Indians from following +certain practices and observing certain ceremonies; they may have +prevented them from painting their skin, from making incisions on +their chins, noses and cheeks; they may have destroyed among the +great mass of the people superstitious ideas, mysteriously +transmitted from father to son in certain families; but it has been +easier for them to proscribe customs and efface remembrances, than +to substitute new ideas in the place of the old ones. + +The Indian of the Mission is secure of subsistence; and being +released from continual struggles against hostile powers, from +conflicts with the elements and man, he leads a more monotonous +life, less active, and less fitted to inspire energy of mind, than +the habits of the wild or independent Indian. He possesses that +mildness of character which belongs to the love of repose; not that +which arises from sensibility and the emotions of the soul. The +sphere of his ideas is not enlarged, where, having no intercourse +with the whites, he remains a stranger to those objects with which +European civilization has enriched the New World. All his actions +seem prompted by the wants of the moment. Taciturn, serious, and +absorbed in himself; he assumes a sedate and mysterious air. When a +person has resided but a short time in the Missions, and is but +little familiarized with the aspect of the natives, he is led to +mistake their indolence, and the torpid state of their faculties, +for the expression of melancholy, and a meditative turn of mind. + +I have dwelt on these features of the Indian character, and on the +different modifications which that character exhibits under the +government of the missionaries, with the view of rendering more +intelligible the observations which form the subject of the present +chapter. I shall begin by the nation of the Chaymas, of whom more +than fifteen thousand inhabit the Missions above noticed. The +Chayma nation, which Father Francisco of Pampeluna* began to reduce +to subjection in the middle of the seventeenth century (* The name +of this monk, celebrated for his intrepidity, is still revered in +the province. He sowed the first seeds of civilization among these +mountains. He had long been captain of a ship; and before he became +a monk, was known by the name of Tiburtio Redin.), has the +Cumanagotos on the west, the Guaraunos on the east, and the +Caribbees on the south. Their territory occupies a space along the +elevated mountains of the Cocollar and the Guacharo, the banks of +the Guarapiche, of the Rio Colorado, of the Areo, and of the Cano +de Caripe. According to a statistical survey made with great care +by the father prefect, there were, in the Missions of the Aragonese +Capuchins of Cumana, nineteen Mission villages, of which the oldest +was established in 1728, containing one thousand four hundred and +sixty-five families, and six thousand four hundred and thirty-three +persons: sixteen doctrina villages, of which the oldest dates from +1660, containing one thousand seven hundred and sixty-six families, +and eight thousand one hundred and seventy persons. These Missions +suffered greatly in 1681, 1697, and 1720, from the invasions of the +Caribbees (then independent), who burnt whole villages. From 1730 +to 1736, the population was diminished by the ravages of the +small-pox, a disease always more fatal to the copper-coloured +Indians than to the whites. Many of the Guaraunos, who had been +assembled together, fled back again to their native marshes. +Fourteen old Missions were deserted, and have not been rebuilt. + +The Chaymas are in general short of stature and thick-set. Their +shoulders are extremely broad, and their chests flat. Their limbs +are well rounded, and fleshy. Their colour is the same as that of +the whole American race, from the cold table-lands of Quito and New +Grenada to the burning plains of the Amazon. It is not changed by +the varied influence of climate; it is connected with organic +peculiarities which for ages past have been unalterably transmitted +from generation to generation. If the uniform tint of the skin be +redder and more coppery towards the north, it is, on the contrary, +among the Chaymas, of a dull brown inclining to tawny. The +denomination of copper-coloured men could never have originated in +equinoctial America to designate the natives. + +The expression of the countenance of the Chaymas, without being +hard or stern, has something sedate and gloomy. The forehead is +small, and but little prominent, and in several languages of these +countries, to express the beauty of a woman, they say that 'she is +fat, and has a narrow forehead.' The eyes of the Chaymas are black, +deep-set, and very elongated: but they are neither so obliquely +placed, nor so small, as in the people of the Mongol race. The +corner of the eye is, however, raised up towards the temple; the +eyebrows are black, or dark brown, thin, and but little arched; the +eyelids are edged with very long eyelashes, and the habit of +casting them down, as if from lassitude, gives a soft expression to +the women, and makes the eye thus veiled appear less than it really +is. Though the Chaymas, and in general all the natives of South +America and New Spain, resemble the Mongol race in the form of the +eye, in their high cheek-bones, their straight and smooth hair, and +the almost total absence of beard; yet they essentially differ from +them in the form of the nose. In the South Americans this feature +is rather long, prominent through its whole length, and broad at +the nostrils, the openings of which are directed downward, as with +all the nations of the Caucasian race. Their wide mouths, with lips +but little protuberant though broad, have generally an expression +of good nature. The passage from the nose to the mouth is marked in +both sexes by two furrows, which run diverging from the nostrils +towards the corners of the mouth. The chin is extremely short and +round; and the jaws are remarkable for strength and width. + +Though the Chaymas have fine white teeth, like all people who lead +a very simple life, they are, however, not so strong as those of +the Negroes. The habit of blackening the teeth, from the age of +fifteen, by the juices of certain herbs* and caustic lime, +attracted the attention of the earliest travellers; but the +practice has now fallen quite into disuse. (* The early historians +of the conquest state that the blackening of the teeth was effected +by the leaves of a tree which the natives called hay, and which +resembled the myrtle. Among nations very distant from each other, +the pimento bears a similar name; among the Haitians aji or ahi, +among the Maypures of the Orinoco, ai. Some stimulant and aromatic +plants, which mostly belonging to the genus capsicum, were +designated by the same name.) Such have been the migrations of the +different tribes in these countries, particularly since the +incursions of the Spaniards, who carried on the slave-trade, that +it may be inferred the inhabitants of Paria visited by Christopher +Columbus and by Ojeda, were not of the same race as the Chaymas. I +doubt much whether the custom of blackening the teeth was +originally suggested, as Gomara supposed, by absurd notions of +beauty, or was practised with the view of preventing the toothache. +* This disorder is, however, almost unknown to the Indians; and the +whites suffer seldom from it in the Spanish colonies, at least in +the warm regions, where the temperature is so uniform. They are +more exposed to it on the back of the Cordilleras, at Santa Fe, and +at Popayan. (* The tribes seen by the Spaniards on the coast of +Paria, probably observed the practice of stimulating the organs of +taste by caustic lime, as other races employed tobacco, the chimo, +the leaves of the coca, or the betel. This practice exists even in +our days, but more towards the west, among the Guajiros, at the +mouth of the Rio de la Hacha. These Indians, still savage, carry +small shells, calcined and powdered, in the husk of a fruit, which +serves them as a vessel for various purposes, suspended to their +girdle. The powder of the Guajiros is an article of commerce, as +was anciently, according to Gomara, that of the Indians of Paria. +The immoderate habit of smoking also makes the teeth yellow and +blackens them; but would it be just to conclude from this fact, +that Europeans smoke because we think yellow teeth handsomer than +white?) + +The Chaymas, like almost all the native nations I have seen, have +small, slender hands. Their feet are large, and their toes retain +an extraordinary mobility. All the Chaymas have a sort of family +look; and this resemblance, so often observed by travellers, is the +more striking, as between the ages of twenty and fifty, difference +of years is no way denoted by wrinkles of the skin, colour of the +hair, or decrepitude of the body. On entering a hut, it is often +difficult among adult persons to distinguish the father from the +son, and not to confound one generation with another. I attribute +this air of family resemblance to two different causes, the local +situation of the Indian tribes, and their inferior degree of +intellectual culture. Savage nations are subdivided into an +infinity of tribes, which, bearing violent hatred one to another, +form no intermarriages, even when their languages spring from the +same root, and when only a small arm of a river, or a group of +hills, separates their habitations. The less numerous the tribes, +the more the intermarriages repeated for ages between the same +families tend to fix a certain similarity of conformation, an +organic type, which may be called national. This type is preserved +under the system of the Missions, each Mission being formed by a +single horde, and marriages being contracted only between the +inhabitants of the same hamlet. Those ties of blood which unite +almost a whole nation, are indicated in a simple manner in the +language of the Indians born in the Missions, or by those who, +after having been taken from the woods, have learned Spanish. To +designate the individuals who belong to the same tribe, they employ +the expression mis parientes, my relations. + +With these causes, common to all isolated classes, and the effects +of which are observable among the Jews of Europe, among the +different castes of India, and among mountain nations in general, +are combined some other causes hitherto unnoticed. I have observed +elsewhere, that it is intellectual culture which most contributes +to diversify the features. Barbarous nations have a physiognomy of +tribe or of horde, rather than individuality of look or features. +The savage and civilized man are like those animals of an +individual species, some of which roam in the forest, while others, +associated with mankind, share the benefits and evils which +accompany civilization. Varieties of form and colour are frequent +only in domestic animals. How great is the difference, with respect +to mobility of features and variety of physiognomy, between dogs +which have again returned to the savage state in the New World, and +those whose slightest caprices are indulged in the houses of the +opulent! Both in men and animals the emotions of the soul are +reflected in the features; and the countenance acquires the habit +of mobility, in proportion as the emotions of the mind are +frequent, varied, and durable. But the Indian of the Missions, +being remote from all cultivation, influenced only by his physical +wants, satisfying almost without difficulty his desires, in a +favoured climate, drags on a dull, monotonous life. The greatest +equality prevails among the members of the same community; and this +uniformity, this sameness of situation, is pictured on the features +of the Indians. + +Under the system of the monks, violent passions, such as resentment +and anger, agitate the native more rarely than when he lives in the +forest. When man in a savage state yields to sudden and impetuous +emotions, his physiognomy, till then calm and unruffled, changes +instantly to convulsive contortions. His passion is transient in +proportion to its violence. With the Indians of the Missions, as I +have often observed on the Orinoco, anger is less violent, less +earnest, but of longer duration. Besides, in every condition of +man, it is not the energetic or the transient outbreaks of the +passions, which give expression to the features. It is rather that +sensibility of the soul, which brings us continually into contact +with the external world, multiplies our sufferings and our +pleasures, and re-acts at once on the physiognomy, the manners, and +the language. If the variety and mobility of the features embellish +the domain of animated nature, we must admit also, that both +increase by civilization, without being solely produced by it. In +the great family of nations, no other race unites these advantages +in so high a degree as the Caucasian or European. It is only in +white men that the instantaneous penetration of the dermoidal +system by the blood can produce that slight change of the colour of +the skin which adds so powerful an expression to the emotions of +the soul. "How can those be trusted who know not how to blush?" +says the European, in his dislike of the Negro and the Indian. We +must also admit, that immobility of features is not peculiar to +every race of men of dark complexion: it is much less marked in the +African than in the natives of America. + +The Chaymas, like all savage people who dwell in excessively hot +regions, have an insuperable aversion to clothing. The writers of +the middle ages inform us, that in the north of Europe, articles of +clothing distributed by missionaries, greatly contributed to the +conversion of the pagan. In the torrid zone, on the contrary, the +natives are ashamed (as they say) to be clothed; and flee to the +woods, when they are compelled to cover themselves. Among the +Chaymas, in spite of the remonstrances of the monks, men and women +remain unclothed within their houses. When they go into the +villages they put on a kind of tunic of cotton, which scarcely +reaches to the knees. The men's tunics have sleeves; but women, and +young boys to the age of ten or twelve, have the arms, shoulders, +and upper part of the breast uncovered. The tunic is so shaped, +that the fore-part is joined to the back by two narrow bands, which +cross the shoulders. When we met the natives, out of the boundaries +of the Mission, we saw them, especially in rainy weather, stripped +of their clothes, and holding their shirts rolled up under their +arms. They preferred letting the rain fall on their bodies to +wetting their clothes. The elder women hid themselves behind trees, +and burst into loud fits of laughter when they saw us pass. The +missionaries complain that in general the young girls are not more +alive to feelings of decency than the men. Ferdinand Columbus* +relates that, in 1498, his father found the women in the island of +Trinidad without any clothing (* Life of the Adelantado: +Churchill's Collection 1723. This Life, written after the year +1537, from original notes in the handwriting of Christopher +Columbus himself, is the most valuable record of the history of his +discoveries. It exists only in the Italian and Spanish translations +of Alphonso de Ulloa and Gonzales Barcia: for the original, carried +to Venice in 1571 by the learned Fornari, has not been published, +and is supposed to be lost. Napione della Patria di Colombo 1804. +Cancellieri sopra Christ. Colombo 1809. ); while the men wore the +guayuco, which is rather a narrow bandage than an apron. At the +same period, on the coast of Paria, young girls were distinguished +from married women, either, as Cardinal Bembo states, by being +quite unclothed, or, according to Gomara, by the colour of the +guayuco. This bandage, which is still in use among the Chaymas, and +all the naked nations of the Orinoco, is only two or three inches +broad, and is tied on both sides to a string which encircles the +waist. Girls are often married at the age of twelve; and until they +are nine years old, the missionaries allow them to go to church +unclothed, that is to say, without a tunic. Among the Chaymas, as +well as in all the Spanish Missions and the Indian villages, a pair +of drawers, a pair of shoes, or a hat, are objects of luxury +unknown to the natives. An Indian servant, who had been with us +during our journey to Caripe and the Orinoco, and whom I brought to +France, was so much struck, on landing, when he saw the ground +tilled by a peasant with his hat on, that he thought himself in a +miserable country, where even the nobles (los mismos caballeros) +followed the plough. The Chayma women are not handsome, according +to the ideas we annex to beauty; yet the young girls have a look of +softness and melancholy, contrasting agreeably with the expression +of the mouth, which is somewhat harsh and wild. They wear their +hair plaited in two long tresses; they do not paint their skin; and +wear no other ornaments than necklaces and bracelets made of +shells, birds' bones, and seeds. Both men and women are very +muscular, but at the same time fleshy and plump. I saw no person +who had any natural deformity; and I may say the same of thousands +of Caribs, Muyscas, and Mexican and Peruvian Indians, whom we +observed during the course of five years. Bodily deformities, and +deviations from nature, are exceedingly rare among certain races of +men, especially those who have the epidermis highly coloured; but I +cannot believe that they depend solely on the progress of +civilization, a luxurious life, or the corruption of morals. In +Europe a deformed or very ugly girl marries, if she happen to have +a fortune, and the children often inherit the deformity of the +mother. In the savage state, which is a state of equality, no +consideration can induce a man to unite himself to a deformed +woman, or one who is very unhealthy. Such a woman, if she resist +the accidents of a restless and troubled life, dies without +children. We might be tempted to think, that savages all appear +well-made and vigorous, because feeble children die young for want +of care, and only the strongest survive; but these causes cannot +operate among the Indians of the Missions, whose manners are like +those of our peasants, or among the Mexicans of Cholula and +Tlascala, who enjoy wealth, transmitted to them by ancestors more +civilized than themselves. If, in every state of cultivation, the +copper-coloured race manifests the same inflexibility, the same +resistance to deviation from a primitive type, are we not forced to +admit that this peculiarity belongs in great measure to hereditary +organization, to that which constitutes the race? With +copper-coloured men, as with whites, luxury and effeminacy weaken +the physical constitution, and heretofore deformities were more +common at Cuzco and Tenochtitlan. Among the Mexicans of the present +day, who are all labourers, leading the most simple lives, +Montezuma would not have found those dwarfs and humpbacks whom +Bernal Diaz saw waiting at his table when he dined.* (* Bernal Diaz +Hist. Verd. de la Nueva Espana 1630.) The custom of marrying very +young, according to the testimony of the monks, is no way +detrimental to population. This precocious nubility depends on the +race, and not on the influence of a climate excessively warm. It is +found on the north-west coast of America, among the Esquimaux, and +in Asia, among the Kamtschatdales, and the Koriaks, where girls of +ten years old are often mothers. It may appear astonishing, that +the time of gestation--the duration of pregnancy, never alters in a +state of health, in any race, or in any climate. + +The Chaymas are almost without beard on the chin, like the +Tungouses, and other nations of the Mongol race. They pluck out the +few hairs which appear; but independently of that practice, most of +the natives would be nearly beardless.* (* Physiologists would +never have entertained any difference of opinion respecting the +existence of the beard among the Americans, if they had considered +what the first historians of the Conquest have said on this +subject; for example, Pigafetta, in 1519, in his journal, preserved +in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, and published (in 1800) by +Amoretti; Benzoni Hist. del Mundo Nuovo 1572; Bembo Hist. Venet. +1557.) I say most of them, because there are tribes which, as they +appear distinct from the others, are more worthy of fixing our +attention. Such are, in North America, the Chippewas visited by +Mackenzie, and the Yabipaees, near the Toltec ruins at Moqui, with +bushy beards; in South America, the Patagonians and the Guaraunos. +Among these last are some who have hairs on the breast. When the +Chaymas, instead of extracting the little hair they have on the +chin, attempt to shave themselves frequently, their beards grow. I +have seen this experiment tried with success by young Indians, who +officiated at mass, and who anxiously wished to resemble the +Capuchin fathers, their missionaries and masters. The great mass of +the people, however, dislike the beard, no less than the Eastern +nations hold it in reverence. This antipathy is derived from the +same source as the predilection for flat foreheads, which is +evinced in so singular a manner in the statues of the Aztec heroes +and divinities. Nations attach the idea of beauty to everything +which particularly characterizes their own physical conformation, +their national physiognomy.* (* Thus, in their finest statues, the +Greeks exaggerated the form of the forehead, by elevating beyond +proportion the facial line.) Hence it ensues that among a people to +whom Nature has given very little beard, a narrow forehead, and a +brownish red skin, every individual thinks himself handsome in +proportion as his body is destitute of hair, his head flattened, +and his skin besmeared with annatto, chica, or some other +copper-red colour. + +The Chaymas lead a life of singular uniformity. They go to rest +very regularly at seven in the evening, and rise long before +daylight, at half-past four in the morning. Every Indian has a fire +near his hammock. The women are so chilly, that I have seen them +shiver at church when the centigrade thermometer was not below 18 +degrees. The huts of the Indians are extremely clean. Their +hammocks, their reed mats, their pots for holding cassava and +fermented maize, their bows and arrows, everything is arranged in +the greatest order. Men and women bathe every day; and being almost +constantly unclothed, they are exempted from that uncleanliness, of +which the garments are the principal cause among the lower class of +people in cold countries. Besides a house in the village, they have +generally, in their conucos, near some spring, or at the entrance +of some solitary valley, a small hut, covered with the leaves of +the palm or plantain-tree. Though they live less commodiously in +the conuco, they love to retire thither as often as they can. The +irresistible desire the Indians have to flee from society, and +enter again on a nomad life, causes even young children sometimes +to leave their parents, and wander four or five days in the +forests, living on fruits, palm-cabbage, and roots. When travelling +in the Missions, it is not uncommon to find whole villages almost +deserted, because the inhabitants are in their gardens, or in the +forests (al monte). Among civilized nations, the passion for +hunting arises perhaps in part from the same causes: the charm of +solitude, the innate desire of independence, the deep impression +made by Nature, whenever man finds himself in contact with her in +solitude. + +The condition of the women among the Chaymas, like that in all +semi-barbarous nations, is a state of privation and suffering. The +hardest labour devolves on them. When we saw the Chaymas return in +the evening from their gardens, the man carried nothing but the +knife or hatchet (machete), with which he clears his way among the +underwood; whilst the woman, bending under a great load of +plantains, carried one child in her arms, and sometimes two other +children placed upon the load. Notwithstanding this inequality of +condition, the wives of the Indians of South America appear to be +in general happier than those of the savages of the North. Between +the Alleghany mountains and the Mississippi, wherever the natives +do not live chiefly on the produce of the chase, the women +cultivate maize, beans, and gourds; and the men take no share in +the labours of the field. In the torrid zone, hunting tribes are +not numerous, and in the Missions, the men work in the fields as +well as the women. + +Nothing can exceed the difficulty experienced by the Indians in +learning Spanish, to which language they have an absolute aversion. +Whilst living separate from the whites, they have no ambition to be +called educated Indians, or, to borrow the phrase employed in the +Missions, 'latinized Indians' (Indios muy latinos). Not only among +the Chaymas, but in all the very remote Missions which I afterwards +visited, I observed that the Indians experience vast difficulty in +arranging and expressing the most simple ideas in Spanish, even +when they perfectly understand the meaning of the words and the +turn of the phrases. When a European questions them concerning +objects which have surrounded them from their cradles, they seem to +manifest an imbecility exceeding that of infancy. The missionaries +assert that this embarrassment is neither the effect of timidity +nor of natural stupidity, but that it arises from the impediments +they meet with in the structure of a language so different from +their native tongue. In proportion as man is remote from +cultivation, the greater is his mental inaptitude. It is not, +therefore, surprising that the isolated Indians in the Missions +should experience in the acquisition of the Spanish language, less +facility than Indians who live among mestizoes, mulattoes, and +whites, in the neighbourhood of towns. Nevertheless, I have often +wondered at the volubility with which, at Caripe, the native +alcalde, the governador, and the sergento mayor, will harangue for +whole hours the Indians assembled before the church; regulating the +labours of the week, reprimanding the idle, or threatening the +disobedient. Those chiefs who are also of the Chayma race, and who +transmit the orders of the missionary, speak all together in a loud +voice, with marked emphasis, but almost without action. Their +features remain motionless; but their look is imperious and severe. + +These same men, who manifest quickness of intellect, and who were +tolerably well acquainted with the Spanish, were unable to connect +their ideas, when, in our excursions in the country around the +convent, we put questions to them through the intervention of the +monks. They were made to affirm or deny whatever the monks pleased: +and that wily civility, to which the least cultivated Indian is no +stranger, induced them sometimes to give to their answers the turn +that seemed to be suggested by our questions. Travellers cannot be +enough on their guard against this officious assent, when they seek +to confirm their own opinions by the testimony of the natives. To +put an Indian alcalde to the proof, I asked him one day, whether he +did not think the little river of Caripe, which issues from the +cavern of the Guacharo, returned into it on the opposite side by +some unknown entrance, after having ascended the slope of the +mountain. The Indian seemed gravely to reflect on the subject, and +then answered, by way of supporting my hypothesis: "How else, if it +were not so, would there always be water in the bed of the river at +the mouth of the cavern?" + +The Chaymas are very dull in comprehending anything relating to +numerical facts. I never knew one of these people who might not +have been made to say that he was either eighteen or sixty years of +age. Mr. Marsden observed the same peculiarity in the Malays of +Sumatra, though they have been civilized more than five centuries. +The Chayma language contains words which express pretty large +numbers, yet few Indians know how to apply them; and having felt, +from their intercourse with the missionaries, the necessity of so +doing, the more intelligent among them count in Spanish, but +apparently with great effort of mind, as far as thirty, or perhaps +fifty. The same persons, however, cannot count in the Chayma +language beyond five or six. It is natural that they should employ +in preference the words of a language in which they have been +taught the series of units and tens. Since learned Europeans have +not disdained to study the structure of the idioms of America with +the same care as they study those of the Semitic languages, and of +the Greek and Latin, they no longer attribute to the imperfection +of a language, what belongs to the rudeness of the nation. It is +acknowledged, that almost everywhere the Indian idioms display +greater richness, and more delicate gradations, than might be +supposed from the uncultivated state of the people by whom they are +spoken. I am far from placing the languages of the New World in the +same rank with the finest languages of Asia and Europe; but no one +of these latter has a more neat, regular, and simple system of +numeration, than the Quichua and the Aztec, which were spoken in +the great empires of Cuzco and Anahuac. It is a mistake to suppose +that those languages do not admit of counting beyond four, because +in villages where they are spoken by the poor labourers of Peruvian +and Mexican race, individuals are found, who cannot count beyond +that number. The singular opinion, that so many American nations +reckon only as far as five, ten, or twenty, has been propagated by +travellers, who have not reflected, that, according to the genius +of different idioms, men of all nations stop at groups of five, +ten, or twenty units (that is, the number of the fingers of one +hand, or of both hands, or of the fingers and toes together); and +that six, thirteen, or twenty are differently expressed, by +five-one, ten-three, and feet-ten.* (* Savages, to express great +numbers with more facility, are in the habit of forming groups of +five, ten, or twenty grains of maize, according as they reckon in +their language by fives, tens, or twenties.) Can it be said that +the numbers of the Europeans do not extend beyond ten, because we +stop after having formed a group of ten units? + +The construction of the languages of America is so opposite to that +of the languages derived from the Latin, that the Jesuits, who had +thoroughly examined everything that could contribute to extend +their establishments, introduced among their neophytes, instead of +the Spanish, some Indian tongues, remarkable for their regularity +and copiousness, such as the Quichua and the Guarani. They +endeavoured to substitute these languages for others which were +poorer and more irregular in their syntax. This substitution was +found easy: the Indians of the different tribes adopted it with +docility, and thenceforward those American languages generalized +became a ready medium of communication between the missionaries and +the neophytes. It would be a mistake to suppose, that the +preference given to the language of the Incas over the Spanish +tongue had no other aim than that of isolating the Missions, and +withdrawing them from the influence of two rival powers, the +bishops and civil governors. The Jesuits had other motives, +independently of their policy, for wishing to generalize certain +Indian tongues. They found in those languages a common tie, easy to +be established between the numerous hordes which had remained +hostile to each other, and had been kept asunder by diversity of +idioms; for, in uncultivated countries, after the lapse of several +ages, dialects often assume the form, or at least the appearance, +of mother tongues. + +When it is said that a Dane learns the German, and a Spaniard the +Italian or the Latin, more easily than they learn any other +language, it is at first thought that this facility results from +the identity of a great number of roots, common to all the Germanic +tongues, or to those of Latin Europe; it is not considered, that, +with this resemblance of sounds, there is another resemblance, +which acts more powerfully on nations of a common origin. Language +is not the result of an arbitrary convention. The mechanism of +inflections, the grammatical constructions, the possibility of +inversions, all are the offspring of our own minds, of our +individual organization. There is in man an instinctive and +regulating principle, differently modified among nations not of the +same race. A climate more or less severe, a residence in the +defiles of mountains, or on the sea-coasts, or different habits of +life, may alter the pronunciation, render the identity of the roots +obscure, and multiply the number; but all these causes do not +affect that which constitutes the structure and mechanism of +languages. The influence of climate, and of external circumstances, +vanishes before the influence which depends on the race, on the +hereditary and individual dispositions of men. + +In America (and this result of recent researches* (* See Vater's +Mithridates.) is extremely important with respect to the history of +our species) from the country of the Esquimaux to the banks of the +Orinoco, and again from these torrid regions to the frozen climate +of the Straits of Magellan, mother-tongues, entirely different in +their roots, have, if we may use the expression, the same +physiognomy. Striking analogies of grammatical construction are +acknowledged, not only in the more perfect languages, as in that of +the Incas, the Aymara, the Guarauno, the Mexican, and the Cora, but +also in languages extremely rude. Idioms, the roots of which do not +resemble each other more than the roots of the Sclavonic and the +Biscayan, have those resemblances of internal mechanism which are +found in the Sanscrit, the Persian, the Greek, and the German +languages. Almost everywhere in the New World we recognize a +multiplicity of forms and tenses in the verb,* (* In the Greenland +language, for example, the multiplicity of the pronouns governed by +the verb produces twenty-seven forms for every tense of the +Indicative mood. It is surprising to find, among nations now +ranking in the lowest degree of civilization, this desire of +graduating the relations of time, this superabundance of +modifications introduced into the verb, to characterise the object. +Matarpa, he takes it away: mattarpet, thou takest it away: +mattarpatit, he takes it away from thee: mattarpagit, I take away +from thee. And in the preterite of the same verb, mattara, he has +taken it away: mattaratit, he has taken it away from thee. This +example from the Greenland language shows how the governed and the +personal pronouns form one compound, in the American languages, +with the root of the verb. These slight differences in the form of +the verb, according to the nature of the pronouns governed by it, +is found in the Old World only in the Biscayan and Congo languages +(Vater, Mithridates. William von Humboldt, On the Basque Language). +Strange conformity in the structure of languages on spots so +distant, and among three races of men so different,--the white +Catalonians, the black Congos, and the copper-coloured Americans!) +an ingenious method of indicating beforehand, either by inflexion +of the personal pronouns, which form the terminations of the verb, +or by an intercalated suffix, the nature and the relation of its +object and its subject, and of distinguishing whether the object be +animate or inanimate, of the masculine or the feminine gender, +simple or in complex number. It is on account of this general +analogy of structure,--it is because American languages which have +no words in common (for instance, the Mexican and the Quichua), +resemble each other by their organization, and form complete +contrasts to the languages of Latin Europe, that the Indians of the +Missions familiarize themselves more easily with an American idiom +than with the Spanish. In the forests of the Orinoco I have seen +the rudest Indians speak two or three tongues. Savages of different +nations often communicate their ideas to each other by an idiom not +their own. + +If the system of the Jesuits had been followed, languages, which +already occupy a vast extent of country, would have become almost +general. In Terra Firma and on the Orinoco, the Caribbean and the +Tamanac alone would now be spoken; and in the south and south-west, +the Quichua, the Guarano, the Omagua, and the Araucan. By +appropriating to themselves these languages, the grammatical forms +of which are very regular, and almost as fixed as those of the +Greek and Sanscrit, the missionaries would place themselves in more +intimate connection with the natives whom they govern. The +numberless difficulties which occur in the system of a Mission +consisting of Indians of ten or a dozen different nations would +disappear with the confusion of idioms. Those which are little +diffused would become dead languages; but the Indian, in preserving +an American idiom, would retain his individuality--his national +character. Thus by peaceful means might be effected what the Incas +began to establish by force of arms. + +How indeed can we be surprised at the little progress made by the +Chaymas, the Caribbees, the Salives, or the Otomacs, in the +knowledge of the Spanish language, when we recollect that one white +man, one single missionary, finds himself alone amidst five or six +hundred Indians? and that it is difficult for him to establish +among them a governador, an alcalde, or a fiscal, who may serve him +as an interpreter? If, instead of the missionary system, some other +means of civilization were substituted, if, instead of keeping the +whites at a distance, they could be mingled with the natives +recently united in villages, the American idioms would soon be +superseded by the languages of Europe, and the natives would +receive in those languages the great mass of new ideas which are +the fruit of civilization. Then the introduction of general +tongues, such as that of the Incas, or the Guaranos, without doubt +would become useless. But after having lived so long in the +Missions of South America, after having so closely observed the +advantages and the abuses of the system of the missionaries, I may +be permitted to doubt whether that system could be easily +abandoned, though it is doubtless very capable of being improved, +and rendered more conformable with our ideas of civil liberty. To +this it may be answered, that the Romans* succeeded in rapidly +introducing their language with their sovereignty into the country +of the Gauls, into Boetica, and into the province of Africa. (* For +the reason of this rapid introduction of Latin among the Gauls, I +believe we must look into the character of the natives and the +state of their civilization, and not into the structure of their +language. The brown-haired Celtic nations were certainly different +from the race of the light-haired Germanic nations; and though the +Druid caste recalls to our minds one of the institutions of the +Ganges, this does not demonstrate that the idiom of the Celts +belongs, like that of the nations of Odin, to a branch of the +Indo-Pelasgic languages. From analogy of structure and of roots, +the Latin ought to have penetrated more easily on the other side of +the Danube, than into Gaul; but an uncultivated state, joined to +great moral inflexibility, probably opposed its introduction among +the Germanic nations.) But the natives of these countries were not +savages;--they inhabited towns; they were acquainted with the use +of money; and they possessed institutions denoting a tolerably +advanced state of cultivation. The allurement of commerce, and a +long abode of the Roman legions, had promoted intercourse between +them and their conquerors. We see, on the contrary, that the +introduction of the languages of the mother-countries was met by +obstacles almost innumerable, wherever Carthaginian, Greek, or +Roman colonies were established on coasts entirely barbarous. In +every age, and in every climate, the first impulse of the savage is +to shun the civilized man. + +The language of the Chayma Indians was less agreeable to my ear +than the Caribbee, the Salive, and other languages of the Orinoco. +It has fewer sonorous terminations in accented vowels. We are +struck with the frequent repetition of the syllables guaz, ez, +puec, and pur. These terminations are derived in part from the +inflexion of the verb to be, and from certain prepositions, which +are added at the ends of words, and which, according to the genius +of the American idioms, are incorporated with them. It would be +wrong to attribute this harshness of sound to the abode of the +Chaymas in the mountains. They are strangers to that temperate +climate. They have been led thither by the missionaries; and it is +well known that, like all the inhabitants of warm regions, they at +first dreaded what they called the cold of Caripe. I employed +myself, with M. Bonpland, during our abode at the hospital of the +Capuchins, in forming a small catalogue of Chayma words. I am aware +that languages are much more strongly characterised by their +structure and grammatical forms than by the analogy of their sounds +and of their roots; and that the analogy of sounds is sometimes so +disguised in different dialects of the same tongue, as not to be +recognizable; for the tribes into which a nation is divided, often +designate the same objects by words altogether heterogeneous. Hence +it follows that we readily fall into mistakes, if, neglecting the +study of the inflexions, and consulting only the roots (for +instance, in the words which designate the moon, sky, water, and +earth), we decide on the absolute difference of two idioms from the +mere want of resemblance in sounds. But, while aware of this source +of error, travellers would do well to continue to collect such +materials as may be within their reach. If they do not make known +the internal structure, and general arrangement of the edifice, +they may point out some important parts. + +The three languages now most used in the provinces of Cumana and +Barcelona, are the Chayma, the Cumanagota, and the Caribbee. They +have always been regarded in these countries as different idioms, +and a dictionary of each has been written for the use of the +Missions, by Fathers Tauste, Ruiz-blanco, and Breton. The +Vocabulario y Arte de la Lengua de los Indios Chaymas has become +extremely scarce. The few American grammars, printed for the most +part in the seventeenth century, passed into the Missions, and have +been lost in the forests. The dampness of the air and the voracity +of insects* render the preservation of books almost impossible in +those regions (* The termites, so well known in Spanish America +under the name of comegen, or 'devourer,' is one of these +destructive insects.): they are destroyed in a short space of time, +notwithstanding every precaution that may be employed. I had much +difficulty to collect in the Missions, and in the convents, those +grammars of American languages, which, on my return to Europe, I +placed in the hands of Severin Vater, professor and librarian at +the university of Konigsberg. They furnished him with useful +materials for his great work on the idioms of the New World. I +omitted, at the time, to transcribe from my journal, and +communicate to that learned gentleman, what I had collected in the +Chayma tongue. Since neither Father Gili, nor the Abbe Hervas, has +mentioned this language, I shall here explain succinctly the result +of my researches. + +On the right bank of the Orinoco, south-east of the Mission of +Encaramada, and at the distance of more than a hundred leagues from +the Chaymas, live the Tamanacs (Tamanacu), whose language is +divided into several dialects. This nation, formerly very powerful, +is separated from the mountains of Caripe by the Orinoco, by the +vast steppes of Caracas and of Cumana; and by a barrier far more +difficult to surmount, the nations of Caribbean origin. But +notwithstanding distance, and the numerous obstacles in the way of +intercourse, the language of the Chayma Indians is a branch of the +Tamanac tongue. The oldest missionaries of Caripe are ignorant of +this curious fact, because the Capuchins of Aragon seldom visit the +southern banks of the Orinoco, and scarcely know of the existence +of the Tamanacs. I recognized the analogy between the idiom of this +nation, and that of the Chayma Indians long after my return to +Europe, in comparing the materials which I had collected with the +sketch of a grammar published in Italy by an old missionary of the +Orinoco. Without knowing the Chaymas, the Abbe Gili conjectured +that the language of the inhabitants of Paria must have some +relation to the Tamanac.* (* Vater has also advanced some +well-founded conjectures on the connexion between the Tamanac and +Caribbean tongues and those spoken on the north-east coast of South +America. I may acquaint the reader, that I have written the words +of the American languages according to the Spanish orthography, so +that the u should be pronounced oo, the ch like ch in English, etc. +Having during a great number of years spoken no other language than +the Castilian, I marked down the sounds according to the +orthography of that language, and now I am afraid of changing the +value of these signs, by substituting others no less imperfect. It +is a barbarous practice, to express, like the greater part of the +nations of Europe, the most simple and distinct sounds by many +vowels, or many united consonants, while they might be indicated by +letters equally simple. What a chaos is exhibited by the +vocabularies written according to English, German, French, or +Spanish notations! A new essay, which the illustrious author of the +travels in Egypt, M. Volney, is about to publish on the analysis of +sounds found in different nations, and on the notation of those +sounds according to a uniform system, will lead to great progress +In the study of languages.) + +I will prove this connection by two means which serve to show the +analogy of idioms; namely, the grammatical construction, and the +identity of words and roots. The following are the personal +pronouns of the Chaymas, which are at the same time possessive +pronouns; u-re, I, me; eu-re, thou, thee; teu-re, he, him. In the +Tamanac, u-re, I; amare or anja, thou; iteu-ja, he. The radical of +the first and of third person is in the Chayma u and teu.* (* We +must not wonder at those roots which reduce themselves to a single +vowel. In a language of the Old Continent, the structure of which +is so artificially complicated, (the Biscayan,) the family name +Ugarte (between the waters) contains the u of ura (water) and arte +between. The g is added for the sake of euphony.) The same roots +are found in the Tamanac. + +TABLE OF CHAYMA AND TAMANAC WORDS COMPARED: + +COLUMN 1 : English. + +COLUMN 2 : CHAYMA. + +COLUMN 3 : TAMANAC. + + I : Ure : Ure. + water : Tuna : Tuna. + rain : Conopo* : Canopo.* (* The same word, conopo, + signifies rain and year. The years + are counted by the number of winters, + or rainy seasons. They say in Chayma, + as in Sanscrit, 'so many rains,' + meaning so many years. In the Basque + language, the word urtea, year, is + derived from urten, to bring forth + leaves in spring.) + to know : Poturu : Puturo. + fire : Apoto : Uapto (in Caribbean uato). +the moon, a month : Nuna : Nuna.* (* In the Tamanac and Caribbean + languages, Nono signifies the earth, + Nuna the moon; as in the Chayma. + This affinity appears to me very + curious; and the Indians of the + Rio Caura say, that the moon is + 'another earth.' Among savage nations, + amidst so many confused ideas, we find + certain reminiscences well worthy of + attention. Among the Greenlanders Nuna + signifies the earth, and Anoningat + the moon.) + a tree : Je : Jeje. + a house : Ata : Aute. + to you : Euya : Auya. + to you : Toya : Iteuya. + honey : Guane : Uane. + he has said it : Nacaramayre : Nacaramai. + a physician, + a sorcerer : Piache : Psiache. + one : Tibin : Obin (in Jaoi, Tewin). + two : Aco : Oco (in Caribbean, Occo). + two : Oroa : Orua (in Caribbean, Oroa). + flesh : Pun : Punu. + no (negation) : Pra : Pra. + +The verb to be, is expressed in Chayma by az. On adding to the verb +the personal pronoun I (u from u-re), a g is placed, for the sake +of euphony, before the u, as in guaz, I am, properly g-u-az. As the +first person is known by an u, the second is designated by an m, +the third by an i; maz, thou art; muerepuec araquapemaz? why art +thou sad? properly what for sad thou art; punpuec topuchemaz, thou +art fat in body, properly flesh (pun) for (puec) fat (topuche) thou +art (maz). The possessive pronouns precede the substantive; upatay, +in my house, properly my house in. All the prepositions and the +negation pra are incorporated at the end, as in the Tamanac. They +say in Chayma, ipuec, with him, properly him with; euya, to thee, +or thee to; epuec charpe guaz, I am gay with thee, properly thee +with gay I am; ucarepra, not as I, properly I as not; quenpotupra +quoguaz, I do not know him, properly him knowing not I am; quenepra +quoguaz, I have not seen him, properly him seeing not I am. In the +Tamanac tongue, acurivane means beautiful, and acurivanepra, +ugly--not beautiful; outapra, there is no fish, properly fish none; +uteripipra, I will not go, properly I to go will not, composed of +uteri,* to go, ipiri, to choose, and pra, not. (* In Chayma: +utechire, I will go also, properly I (u) to go (the radical ute, +or, because of the preceding vowel, te) also (chere, or ere, or +ire). In utechire we find the Tamanac verb to go, uteri, of which +ute is also the radical, and ri the termination of the Infinitive. +In order to show that in Chayma chere or ere indicates the adverb +also, I shall cite from the fragment of a vocabulary in my +possession, u-chere, I also; nacaramayre, he said so also; +guarzazere, I carried also; charechere, to carry also. In the +Tamanac, as in the Chayma, chareri signifies to carry.) Among the +Caribbees, whose language also bears some relation to the Tamanac, +though infinitely less than the Chayma, the negation is expressed +by an m placed before the verb: amoyenlengati, it is very cold; and +mamoyenlengati, it is not very cold. In an analogous manner, the +particle mna added to the Tamanac verb, not at the end, but by +intercalation, gives it a negative sense, as taro, to say, +taromnar, not to say. + +The verb to be, very irregular in all languages, is az or ats in +Chayma; and uochiri (in composition uac, uatscha) in Tamanac. It +serves not only to form the Passive, but it is added also, as by +agglutination, to the radical of attributive verbs, in a number of +tenses.* (* The present in the Tamanac, jarer-bae-ure, appears to +me nothing else then the verb bac, or uac (from uacschiri, to be ), +added to the radical to carry, jare (in the infinitive jareri), the +result of which is carrying to be I.) These agglutinations remind +us of the employment in the Sanscrit of the auxiliary verbs as and +bhu (asti and bhavati* (* In the branch of the Germanic languages +we find bhu under the forms bim, bist; as, in the forms vas, vast, +vesum (Bopp page 138).)); the Latin, of es and fu, or fus;* (* +Hence fu-ero; amav-issem; amav-eram; pos-sum (pot-sum).) the +Biscayan, of izan, ucan, and eguin. There are certain points in +which idioms the most dissimilar concur one with another. That +which is common in the intellectual organization of man is +reflected in the general structure of language; and every idiom, +however barbarous it may appear, discloses a regulating principle +which has presided at its formation. + +The plural, in Tamanac, is indicated in seven different ways, +according to the termination of the substantive, or according as it +designates an animate or inanimate object.* (* Tamanacu, a Tamanac +(plur. Tamanakemi): Pongheme, a Spaniard (properly a man clothed); +Pongamo, Spaniards, or men clothed. The plural in cne characterizes +inanimate objects: for example, cene, a thing; cenecne, things: +jeje, a tree; jejecne, trees.) In Chayma the plural is formed as in +Caribbee, in on; teure, himself; teurecon, themselves; tanorocon, +those here; montaonocon, those below, supposing that the +interlocutor is speaking of a place where he was himself present; +miyonocon, those below, supposing he speaks of a place where he was +not present. The Chaymas have also the Castilian adverbs aqui and +alla, shades of difference which can be expressed only by +periphrasis, in the idioms of Germanic and Latin origin. + +Some Indians, who were acquainted with Spanish, assured us, that +zis signified not only the sun, but also the Deity. This appeared +to me the more extraordinary, as among all other American nations +we find distinct words for God and the sun. The Carib does not +confound Tamoussicabo, the Ancient of Heaven, with veyou, the sun. +Even the Peruvian, though a worshipper of the sun, raises his mind +to the idea of a Being who regulates the movements of the stars. +The sun, in the language of the Incas, bears the name of inti,* (* +In the Quichua, or language of the Incas, the sun is inti; love, +munay; great, veypul; in Sanscrit, the sun, indre: love, manya; +great, vipulo. (Vater Mithridates tome 3 page 333.) These are the +only examples of analogy of sound, that have yet been noticed. The +grammatical character of the two languages is totally different.) +nearly the same as in Sanscrit; while God is called Vinay Huayna, +the eternally young.'* (* Vinay, always, or eternal; huayna, in the +flower of age.) + +The arrangement of words in the Chayma is similar to that found in +all the languages of both continents, which have preserved a +certain primitive character. The object is placed before the verb, +the verb before the personal pronoun. The object, on which the +attention should be principally fixed, precedes all the +modifications of that object. The American would say, liberty +complete love we, instead of we love complete liberty; Thee with +happy am I, instead of I am happy with thee. There is something +direct, firm, demonstrative, in these turns, the simplicity of +which is augmented by the absence of the article. May it be +presumed that, with advancing civilization, these nations, left to +themselves, would have gradually changed the arrangement of their +phrases? We are led to adopt this idea, when we reflect on the +changes which the syntax of the Romans has undergone in the +precise, clear, but somewhat timid languages of Latin Europe. + +The Chayma, like the Tamanac and most of the American languages, is +entirely destitute of certain letters, as f, b, and d. No word +begins with an l. The same observation has been made on the Mexican +tongue, though it is overcharged with the syllables tli, tla, and +itl, at the end or in the middle of words. The Chaymas substitute r +for l; a substitution that arises from a defect of pronunciation +common in every zone.* (* For example, the substitution of r for l, +characterizes the Bashmurie dialect of the Coptic language.) Thus, +the Caribbees of the Orinoco have been transformed into Galibi in +French Guiana by confounding r with l, and softening the c. The +Tamanac has made choraro and solalo of the Spanish word soldado +(soldier). The disappearance of the f and b in so many American +idioms arises out of that intimate connection between certain +sounds, which is manifested in all languages of the same origin. +The letters f, v, b, and p, are substituted one for the other; for +instance, in the Persian, peder, father (pater); burader,* (* +Whence the German bruder, with the same consonants.) brother +(frater); behar, spring (ver); in Greek, phorton (forton), a +burthen; pous (pous) a foot, (fuss, Germ.). In the same manner, +with the Americans, f and b become p; and d becomes t. The Chayma +pronounces patre, Tios, Atani, aracapucha, for padre, Dios, Adan, +and arcabuz (harquebuss). + +In spite of the relations just pointed out, I do not think that the +Chayma language can be regarded as a dialect of the Tamanac, as the +Maitano, Cuchivero, and Crataima undoubtedly are. There are many +essential differences; and between the two languages there appears +to me to exist merely the same connection as is found in the +German, the Swedish, and the English. They belong to the same +subdivision of the great family of the Tamanac, Caribbean, and +Arowak tongues. As there exists no absolute measure of resemblance +between idioms, the degrees of parentage can be indicated only by +examples taken from known tongues. We consider those as being of +the same family, which bear affinity one to the other, as the +Greek, the German, the Persian, and the Sanscrit. + +Some philologists have imagined, on comparing languages, that they +may all be divided into two classes, of which some, comparatively +perfect in their organization, easy and rapid in their movements, +indicate an interior development by inflexion; while others, more +rude and less susceptible of improvement, present only a crude +assemblage of small forms or agglutinated particles, each +preserving the physiognomy peculiar to itself; when it is +separately employed. This very ingenious view would be deficient in +accuracy were it supposed that there exist polysyllabic idioms +without any inflexion, or that those which are organically +developed as by interior germs, admit no external increase by means +of suffixes and affixes;* (* Even in the Sanscrit several tenses +are formed by aggregation; for example, in the first future, the +substantive verb to be is added to the radical. In a similar manner +we find in the Greek mach-eso, if the s be not the effect of +inflexion, and in Latin pot-ero (Bopp pages 26 and 66). These are +examples of incorporation and agglutination in the grammatical +system of languages which are justly cited as models of an interior +development by inflexion. In the grammatical system of the American +tongues, for example in the Tamanac, tarecschi, I will carry, is +equally composed of the radical ar (infin. jareri, to carry) and of +the verb ecschi (Infin. nocschiri, to be). There hardly exists in +the American languages a triple mode of aggregation, of which we +cannot find a similar and analogous example in some other language +that is supposed to develop itself only by inflexion.) an increase +which we have already mentioned several times under the name of +agglutination or incorporation. Many things, which appear to us at +present inflexions of a radical, have perhaps been in their origin +affixes, of which there have barely remained one or two consonants. +In languages, as in everything in nature that is organized, nothing +is entirely isolated or unlike. The farther we penetrate into their +internal structure, the more do contrasts and decided characters +vanish. It may be said that they are like clouds, the outlines of +which do not appear well defined, except when viewed at a distance. + +But though we may not admit one simple and absolute principle in +the classification of languages, yet it cannot be decided, that in +their present state some manifest a greater tendency to inflexion, +others to external aggregation. It is well known, that the +languages of the Indian, Pelasgic, and German branch, belong to the +first division; the American idioms, the Coptic or ancient +Egyptian, and to a certain degree, the Semitic languages and the +Biscayan, to the second. The little we have made known of the idiom +of the Chaymas of Caripe, sufficiently proves that constant +tendency towards the incorporation or aggregation of certain forms, +which it is easy to separate; though from a somewhat refined +sentiment of euphony some letters have been dropped and others have +been added. Those affixes, by lengthening words, indicate the most +varied relations of number, time, and motion. + +When we reflect on the peculiar structure of the American +languages, we imagine we discover the source of the opinion +generally entertained from the most remote time in the Missions, +that these languages have an analogy with the Hebrew and the +Biscayan. At the convent of Caripe as well as at the Orinoco, in +Peru as well as in Mexico, I heard this opinion expressed, +particularly by monks who had some vague notions of the Semitic +languages. Did motives supposed to be favourable to religion, give +rise to this extraordinary theory? In the north of America, among +the Choctaws and the Chickasaws, travellers somewhat credulous have +heard the strains of the Hallelujah* of the Hebrews (* L'Escarbot, +Charlevoix, and even Adair (Hist. of the American Indians 1775).); +as, according to the Pundits, the three sacred words of the +mysteries of the Eleusis* (konx om pax) resound still in the +Indies. (* Asiat. Res. volume 5, Ouvaroff on the Eleusinian +Mysteries 1816.) I do not mean to suggest, that the nations of +Latin Europe may have called whatever has a foreign physiognomy +Hebrew or Biscayan, as for a long time all those monuments were +called Egyptian, which were not in the Grecian or Roman style. I am +rather disposed to think that the grammatical system of the +American idioms has confirmed the missionaries of the sixteenth +century in their ideas respecting the Asiatic origin of the nations +of the New World. The tedious compilation of Father Garcia, Tratado +del Origen de los Indios,* (* Treatise on the Origin of the +Indians.) is a proof of this. The position of the possessive and +personal pronouns at the end of the noun and the verb, as well as +the numerous tenses of the latter, characterize the Hebrew and the +other Semitic languages. Some of the missionaries were struck at +finding the same peculiarities in the American tongues: they did +not reflect, that the analogy of a few scattered features does not +prove languages to belong to the same stock. + +It appears less astonishing, that men, who are well acquainted with +only two languages extremely heterogeneous, the Castilian and the +Biscayan, should have found in the latter a family resemblance to +the American languages. The composition of words, the facility with +which the partial elements are detected, the forms of the verbs, +and their different modifications, may have caused and kept up this +illusion. But we repeat, an equal tendency towards aggregation or +incorporation does not constitute an identity of origin. The +following are examples of the relations between the American and +Biscayan languages; idioms totally different in their roots. + +In Chayma, quenpotupra quoguaz, I do not know, properly, knowing +not I am. In Tamanac, jarer-uac-ure, bearing am I,--I bear; +anarepra aichi, he will not bear, properly, bearing not will he; +patcurbe, good; patcutari, to make himself good; Tamanacu, a +Tamanac; Tamanacutari, to make himself a Tainanac; Pongheme, a +Spaniard; ponghemtari, to Spaniardize himself; tenecchi, I will +see; teneicre, I will see again; teecha, I go; tecshare, I return; +maypur butke, a little Maypure Indian; aicabutke, a little woman; +maypuritaje, an ugly Maypure Indian; aicataje, an ugly woman.* (* +The diminutive of woman (aica) or of Maypure Indian is formed by +adding butke, which is the termination of cujuputke, little: taje +answers to the accio of the Italians.) + +In Biscayan: maitetutendot, I love him, properly, I loving have +him; beguia, the eye, and beguitsa, to see; aitagana, towards the +father: by adding tu, we form the verb aitaganatu, to go towards +the father; ume-tasuna, soft and infantile ingenuity; umequeria, +disagreeable childishness. + +I may add to these examples some descriptive compounds, which call +to mind the infancy of nations, and strike us equally in the +American and Biscayan languages, by a certain ingenuousness of +expression. In Tamanac, the wasp (uane-imu), father (im-de) of +honey (uane);* (* It may not be unnecessary here to acquaint the +reader that honey is produced by an insect of South America, +belonging to, or nearly allied, to the wasp genus. This honey, +however, possesses noxious qualities which are by some naturalists +attributed to the plant Paulinia Australis, the juices of which are +collected by the insect.) the toes, ptarimucuru, properly, the sons +of the foot; the fingers, amgnamucuru, the sons of the hand; +mushrooms, jeje-panari, properly, the ears (panari) of a tree +(jeje); the veins of the hand, amgna-mitti, properly, the ramified +roots; leaves, prutpe-jareri, properly, the hair at the top of the +tree; puirene-veju, properly, the sun (veju), straight or +perpendicular; lightning, kinemeru-uaptori, properly, the fire +(uapto) of the thunder, or of the storm. (I recognise in kinemeru, +thunder or storm, the root kineme black.) In Biscayan, becoquia, +the forehead, what belongs (co and quia) to the eye (beguia); +odotsa, the noise (otsa) of the cloud (odeia), or thunder; +arribicia, an echo, properly, the animated stone, from arria, +stone, and bicia, life. + +The Chayma and Tamanac verbs have an enormous complication of +tenses: two Presents, four Preterites, three Futures. This +multiplicity characterises the rudest American languages. Astarloa +reckons, in like manner, in the grammatical system of the Biscayan, +two hundred and six forms of the verb. Those languages, the +principal tendency of which is inflexion, are to the common +observer less interesting than those which seem formed by +aggregation. In the first, the elements of which words are +composed, and which are generally reduced to a few letters, are no +longer recognisable: these elements, when isolated, exhibit no +meaning; the whole is assimilated and mingled together. The +American languages, on the contrary, are like complicated machines, +the wheels of which are exposed to view. The mechanism of their +construction is visible. We seem to be present at their formation, +and we should pronounce them to be of very recent origin, did we +not recollect that the human mind steadily follows an impulse once +given; that nations enlarge, improve, and repair the grammatical +edifice of their languages, according to a plan already determined; +finally, that there are countries, whose languages, institutions, +and arts, have remained unchanged, we might almost say stereotyped, +during the lapse of ages. + +The highest degree of intellectual development has been hitherto +found among the nations of the Indian and Pelasgic branch. The +languages formed principally by aggregation seem themselves to +oppose obstacles to the improvement of the mind. They are devoid of +that rapid movement, that interior life, to which the inflexion of +the root is favourable, and which impart such charms to works of +imagination. Let us not, however, forget, that a people celebrated +in remote antiquity, a people from whom the Greeks themselves +borrowed knowledge, had perhaps a language, the construction of +which recalls involuntarily that of the languages of America. What +a structure of little monosyllabic and disyllabic forms is added to +the verb and to the substantive, in the Coptic language! The +semi-barbarous Chayma and Tamanac have tolerably short abstract +words to express grandeur, envy, and lightness, cheictivate, uoite, +and uonde; but in Coptic, the word malice,* metrepherpetou, is +composed of five elements, easy to be distinguished. (* See, on the +incontestable identity of the ancient Egyptian and Coptic, and on +the particular system of synthesis of the latter language, the +ingenious reflexions of M. Silvestre de Sacy, in the Notice des +Recherches de M. Etienne Quatremere sur La Litterature de l'Epypte. +) This compound signifies the quality (met) of a subject (reph), +which makes (er) the thing which is (pet), evil (ou). Nevertheless +the Coptic language has had its literature, like the Chinese, the +roots of which, far from being aggregated, scarcely approach each +other without immediate contact. We must admit that nations once +roused from their lethargy, and tending towards civilization, find +in the most uncouth languages the secret of expressing with +clearness the conceptions of the mind, and of painting the emotions +of the soul. Don Juan de la Rea, a highly estimable man, who +perished in the sanguinary revolutions of Quito, imitated with +graceful simplicity some Idylls of Theocritus in the language of +the Incas; and I have been assured, that, excepting treatises on +science and philosophy, there is scarcely any work of modern +literature that might not be translated into the Peruvian. + +The intimate connection established between the natives of the New +World and the Spaniards since the conquest, have introduced a +certain number of American words into the Castilian language. Some +of these words express things not unknown before the discovery of +the New World, and scarcely recall to our minds at present their +barbarous origin.* (* For example savannah, and cannibal.) Almost +all belong to the language of the great Antilles, formerly termed +the language of Haiti, of Quizqueja, or of Itis.* (* The word Itis, +for Haiti or St. Domingo (Hispaniola), is found in the Itinerarium +of Bishop Geraldini (Rome 1631.)--"Quum Colonus Itim insulam +cerneret.") I shall confine myself to citing the words maiz, +tabaco, canoa, batata, cacique, balsa, conuco, etc. When the +Spaniards, after the year 1498, began to visit the mainland, they +already had words* to designate the vegetable productions most +useful to man, and common both to the islands and to the coasts of +Cumana and Paria. (* The following are Haitian words, in their real +form, which have passed into the Castilian language since the end +of the 15th century. Many of them are not uninteresting to +descriptive botany. Ahi (Capsicum baccatum), batata (Convolvus +batatas), bihao (Heliconia bihai), caimito (Chrysophyllum caimito), +cahoba (Swietenia mahagoni), jucca and casabi (Jatropba manihot); +the word casabi or cassava is employed only for the bread made with +the roots of the Jatropha (the name of the plant jucca was also +heard by Americo Vespucci on the coast of Paria); age or ajes +(Dioscorea alata), copei (Clusia alba), guayacan (Guaiacum +officinale), guajaba (Psidium pyriferum), guanavano (Anona +muricata), mani (Arachis hypogaea), guama (Inga), henequen (was +supposed from the erroneous accounts of the first travellers to be +an herb with which the Haitians used to cut metals; it means now +every kind of strong thread), hicaco (Chrysobalanus icaco), maghei +(Agave Americana), mahiz or maiz (Zea, maize), mamei (Mammea +Americana), mangle (Rhizophora), pitahaja (Cactus pitahaja), ceiba +(Bombax), tuna (Cactus tuna), hicotea (a tortoise), iguana (Lacerta +iguana), manatee (Trichecus manati), nigua (Pulex penetrans), +hamaca (a hammock), balsa (a raft; however balsa is an old +Castilian word signifying a pool of water), barbacoa (a small bed +of light wood, or reeds), canei or buhio (a hut), canoa (a canoe), +cocujo (Elater noctilucus, the fire-fly), chicha (fermented +liquor), macana (a large stick or club, made with the petioles of a +palm-tree), tabaco (not the herb, but the pipe through which it is +smoked), cacique (a chief). Other American words, now as much in +use among the Creoles, as the Arabic words naturalized in the +Spanish, do not belong to the Haitian tongue; for example, caiman, +piragua, papaja (Carica), aguacate (Persea), tarabita, paramo. Abbe +Gili thinks with some probability, that they are derived from the +tongue of some people who inhabited the temperate climate between +Coro, the mountains of Merida, and the tableland of Bogota. (Saggio +volume 3 page 228.) How many Celtic and German words would not +Julius Caesar and Tacitus have handed down to us, had the +productions of the northern countries visited by the Romans +differed as much from the Italian and Roman, as those of +equinoctial America!) Not satisfied with retaining these words +borrowed from the Haitians, they helped also to spread them all +over America (at a period when the language of Haiti was already a +dead language), and to diffuse them among nations who were ignorant +even of the existence of the West India Islands. Some words, which +are in daily use in the Spanish colonies, are attributed +erroneously to the Haitians. Banana is from the Chaconese, the +Mbaja language; arepa (bread of manioc, or of the Jatropha manihot) +and guayuco (an apron, perizoma) are Caribbee: curiara (a very long +boat) is Tamanac: chinchorro (a hammock), and tutuma (the fruit of +the Crescentia cujete, or a vessel to contain a liquid), are Chayma +words. + +I have dwelt thus long on considerations respecting the American +tongues, because I am desirous of directing attention to the deep +interest attached to this kind of research. This interest is +analogous to that inspired by the monuments of semi-barbarous +nations, which are examined not because they deserve to be ranked +among works of art, but because the study of them throws light on +the history of our species, and the progressive development of our +faculties. + +It now remains for me to speak of the other Indian nations +inhabiting the provinces of Cumana and Barcelona. These I shall +only succinctly enumerate. + +1. The Pariagotos or Parias. + +It is thought that the terminations in goto, as Pariagoto, +Purugoto, Avarigoto, Acherigoto, Cumanagoto, Arinagoto, +Kirikirisgoto,* (* The Kirikirisgotos (or Kirikiripas) are of Dutch +Guiana. It is very remarkable, that among the small Brazilian +tribes who do not speak the language of the Tupis, the Kiriris, +notwithstanding the enormous distance of 650 leagues, have several +Tamanac words.) imply a Caribbean origin.* (* In the Tamanac +tongue, which is of the same branch as the Caribbean, we find also +the termination goto, as in anekiamgoto an animal. Often an analogy +in the termination of names, far from showing an identity of race, +only indicates that the names of the nations are borrowed from one +language.) All these tribes, excepting the Purugotos of the Rio +Caura, formerly occupied the country which has been so long under +the dominion of the Caribbees; namely, the coasts of Berbice and of +Essequibo, the peninsula of Paria, the plains of Piritu and Parima. +By this last name the little-known country, between the sources of +the Cujuni, the Caroni, and the Mao, is designated in the Missions. +The Paria Indians are mingled in part with the Chaymas of Cumana; +others have been settled by the Capuchins of Aragon in the Missions +of Caroni; for instance, at Cupapuy and Alta-Gracia, where they +still speak their own language, apparently a dialect between the +Tamanac and the Caribbee. But it may be asked, is the name Parias +or Pariagotos, a name merely geographical? Did the Spaniards, who +frequented these coasts from their first establishment in the +island of Cubagua and in Macarapana, give the name of the +promontory of Paria* to the tribe by which it was inhabited? (* +Paria, Uraparia, even Huriaparia and Payra, are the ancient names +of the country, written as the first navigators thought they heard +them pronounced. It appears to me by no means probable, that the +promontory of Paria should derive its name from that of a cacique +Uriapari, celebrated for the manner in which he resisted Diego +Ordaz in 1530, thirty-two years after Columbus had heard the name +of Paria from the mouths of the natives themselves. The Orinoco at +its mouth had also the name of Uriapari, Yuyapari, or Iyupari. In +all these denominations of a great river, of a shore, and of a +rainy country, I think I recognise the radical par, signifying +water, not only in the languages of these countries, but also in +those of nations very distant from one another on the eastern and +western coasts of America. The sea, or great water, is in the +Caribbean, Maypure, and Brazilian languages, parana: in the +Tamanac, parava. In Upper Guiana also the Orinoco is called Parava. +In the Peruvian, or Quichua, I find rain, para; to rain, parani. +Besides, there is a lake in Peru that has been very anciently +called Paria. (Garcia, Origen de los Indios, page 292.) I have +entered into these minute details concerning the word Paria, +because it has recently been supposed that some connection might be +traced between this word and the country of the Hindoo caste called +the Parias.) This we will not positively affirm; for the Caribbees +themselves give the name of Caribana to a country which they +occupied, and which extended from the Rio Sinu to the gulf of +Darien. This is a striking example of identity of name between an +American nation and the territory it possessed. We may conceive, +that in a state of society, where residence is not long fixed, such +instances must be very rare. + +2. The Guaraons or Gu-ara-una, almost all free and independent, are +dispersed in the Delta of the Orinoco, with the variously ramified +channels of which they alone are well acquainted. The Caribbees +call the Guaraons U-ara-u. They owe their independence to the +nature of their country; for the missionaries, in spite of their +zeal, have not been tempted to follow them to the tree-tops. The +Guaraons, in order to raise their abodes above the surface of the +waters at the period of the great inundations, support them on the +hewn trunks of the mangrove-tree and of the Mauritia palm-tree.* (* +Their manners have been the same from time immemorial. Cardinal +Bembo described them at the beginning of the 16th century, +"quibusdam in locis propter paludes incolae domus in arboribus +aedificant." (Hist. Venet. 1551.) Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1595, +speaks of the Guaraons under the names of Araottes, Trivitivas, and +Warawites. These were perhaps the names of some tribes, into which +the great Guaraonese nation was divided. (Barrere Essai sur l'Hist. +Naturelle de la France Equinoctiale.)) They make bread of the +medullary flour of this palm-tree, which is the sago of America. +The flour bears the name of yuruma: I have eaten it at the town of +St. Thomas, in Guiana, and it was very agreeable to the taste, +resembling rather the cassava-bread than the sago of India.* (* M. +Kunth has combined together three genera of the palms, Calamus, +Sigus, and Mauritia, in a new section, the Calameae.) The Indians +assured me that the trunks of the Mauritia, the tree of life so +much vaunted by father Gumilla, do not yield meal in any abundance, +unless the palm-tree is cut down just before the flowers appear. +Thus too the maguey,* (* Agave Americana, the aloe of our gardens.) +cultivated in New Spain, furnishes a saccharine liquor, the wine +(pulque) of the Mexicans, only at the period when the plant shoots +forth its long stem. By interrupting the blossoming, nature is +obliged to carry elsewhere the saccharine or amylaceous matter, +which would accumulate in the flowers of the maguey and in the +fruit of the Mauritia. Some families of Guaraons, associated with +the Chaymas, live far from their native land, in the Missions of +the plains or llanos of Cumana; for instance, at Santa Rosa de +Ocopi. Five or six hundred of them voluntarily quitted their +marshes, a few years ago, and formed, on the northern and southern +banks of the Orinoco, twenty-five leagues distant from Cape Barima, +two considerable villages, under the names of Zacupana and Imataca. +When I made my journey in Caripe, these Indians were still without +missionaries, and lived in complete independence. Their excellent +qualities as boatmen, their perfect knowledge of the mouths of the +Orinoco, and of the labyrinth of branches communicating with each +other, give the Guaraons a certain political importance. They +favour that clandestine commerce of which the island of Trinidad is +the centre. The Guaraons run with extreme address on muddy lands, +where the European, the Negro, or other Indians except themselves, +would not dare to walk; and it is, therefore, commonly believed, +that they are of lighter weight than the rest of the natives. This +is also the opinion that is held in Asia of the Burat Tartars. The +few Guaraons whom I saw were of middle size, squat, and very +muscular. The lightness with which they walk in places newly dried, +without sinking in, when even they have no planks tied to their +feet, seemed to me the effect of long habit. Though I sailed a +considerable time on the Orinoco, I never went so low as its mouth. +Future travellers, who may visit those marshy regions, will rectify +what I have advanced. + +3. The Guaiqueries or Guaikeri, are the most able and most intrepid +fishermen of these countries. These people alone are well +acquainted with the bank abounding with fish, which surrounds the +islands of Coche, Margareta, Sola, and Testigos; a bank of more +than four hundred square leagues, extending east and west from +Maniquarez to the Boca del Draco. The Guaiqueries inhabit the +island of Margareta, the peninsula of Araya, and that suburb of +Cumana which bears their name. Their language is believed to be a +dialect of that of the Guaraons. This would connect them with the +great family of the Caribbee nations; and the missionary Gili is of +opinion that the language of the Guaiqueries is one of the numerous +branches of the Caribbean tongue.* (* If the name of the port +Pam-patar, in the island of Margareta, be Guaiquerean, as we have +no reason to doubt, it exhibits a feature of analogy with the +Cumanagoto tongue, which approaches the Caribbean and Tamanac. In +Terra Firma, in the Piritu Missions, we find the village of +Cayguapatar, which signifies house of Caygua.) These affinities are +interesting, because they lead us to perceive an ancient connection +between nations dispersed over a vast extent of country, from the +mouth of the Rio Caura and the sources of the Erevato, in Parima, +to French Guiana, and the coasts of Paria.* (* Are the Guaiqueries, +or O-aikeries, now settled on the borders of the Erevato, and +formerly between the Rio Caura and the Cuchivero near the little +town of Alta Gracia, of a different origin from the Guaikeries of +Cumana? I know also, in the interior of the country, in the +Missions of the Piritus, near the village of San Juan Evangelista +del Guarive, a ravine very anciently called Guayquiricuar. These +resemblances seem to prove migrations from the south-west towards +the coast. The termination cuar, found so often in Cumanagoto and +Caribbean names, means a ravine, as in Guaymacuar (ravine of +lizards), Pirichucuar (a ravine overshaded by pirichu or piritu +palm-trees), Chiguatacuar (a ravine of land-shells). Raleigh +describes the Guaiqueries under the name of Ouikeries. He calls the +Chaymas, Saimas, changing (according to the Caribbean +pronunciation) the ch into s.) + +4. The Quaquas, whom the Tamanacs call Mapoje, are a tribe formerly +very warlike and allied to the Caribbees. It is a curious +phenomenon to find the Quaquas mingled with the Chaymas in the +Missions of Cumana, for their language, as well as the Atura, of +the cataracts of the Orinoco, is a dialect of the Salive tongue; +and their original abode was on the banks of the Assiveru, which +the Spaniards call Cuchivero. They have extended their migrations +one hundred leagues to the north-east. I have often heard them +mentioned on the Orinoco, above the mouth of the Meta; and, what is +very remarkable, it is asserted* that missionary Jesuits have found +Quaquas as far distant as the Cordilleras of Popayan. (* Vater tome +3 part 2 page 364. The name of Quaqua is found on the coast of +Guinea. The Europeans apply it to a horde of Negroes to the east of +Cape Lahou.) Raleigh enumerates, among the natives of the island of +Trinidad, the Salives, a people remarkable for their mild manners; +they came from the Orinoco, and settled south of the Quaquas. +Perhaps these two nations, which speak almost the same language, +travelled together towards the coasts. + +5. The Cumanagotos, or, according to the pronunciation of the +Indians, Cumanacoto, are now settled westward of Cumana, in the +Missions of Piritu, where they live by cultivating the ground. They +number more than twenty-six thousand. Their language, like that of +the Palencas, or Palenques, and Guarivas, is between the Tamanac +and the Caribbee, but nearer to the former. These are indeed idioms +of the same family; but if we are to consider them as simple +dialects, the Latin must be also called a dialect of the Greek, and +the Swedish a dialect of the German. In considering the affinity of +languages one with another, it must not be forgotten that these +affinities may be very differently graduated; and that it would be +a source of confusion not to distinguish between simple dialects +and languages of the same family. The Cumanagotos, the Tamanacs, +the Chaymas, the Guaraons, and the Caribbees, do not understand +each other, in spite of the frequent analogy of words and of +grammatical structure exhibited in their respective idioms. The +Cumanagotos inhabited, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, +the mountains of the Brigantine and of Parabolata. I am unable to +determine whether the Piritus, Cocheymas, Chacopatas, Tomuzas, and +Topocuares, now confounded in the same villages with the +Cumanagotos, and speaking their language, were originally tribes of +the same nation. The Piritus take their name from the ravine +Pirichucuar, where the small thorny palm-tree,* called piritu, +grows in abundance (* Caudice gracili aculeato, foliis pinnatis. +Possibly of the genus Aiphanes of Willdenouw.); the wood of this +tree, which is excessively hard, and little combustible, serves to +make pipes. On this spot the village of La Concepcion de Piritu was +founded in 1556; it is the chief settlement of the Cumanagoto +Missions, known by the name of the Misiones de Piritu. + +6. The Caribbees (Carives). This name, which was given them by the +first navigators, is retained throughout all Spanish America. The +French and the Germans have transformed it, I know not why, into +Caraibes. The people call themselves Carina, Calina, and Callinago. +I visited some Caribbean Missions in the Llanos,* (* I shall in +future use the word Llanos (loca plana, suppressing the p), without +adding the equivalent words pampas, savannahs, meadows, steppes, or +plains. The country between the mountains of the coast and the left +bank of the Orinoco, constitutes the llanos of Cumana, Barcelona, +and Caracas.) on returning from my journey to the Orinoco; and I +shall merely mention that the Galibes (Caribi of Cayenne), the +Tuapocas, and the Cunaguaras, who originally inhabited the plains +between the mountains of Caripe (Caribe) and the village of +Maturin, the Jaoi of the island of Trinidad and of the province of +Cumana, and perhaps also the Guarivas, allies of the Palencas, are +all tribes of the great Caribbee nation. + +With respect to the other nations whose affinities of language with +the Tamanac and Caribbee have been mentioned, they are not +necessarily to be considered as of the same race. In Asia, the +nations of Mongol origin differ totally in their physical +organisation from those of Tartar origin. Such has been, however, +the intermixture of these nations, that, according to the able +researches of Klaproth, the Tartar languages (branches of the +ancient Oigour) are spoken at present by hordes incontestably of +Mongol race. Neither the analogy nor the diversity of language +suffice to solve the great problem of the filiation of nations; +they merely serve to point out probabilities. The Caribbees, +properly speaking, those who inhabit the Missions of the Cari, in +the llanos of Cumana, the banks of the Caura, and the plains to the +north-east of the sources of the Orinoco, are distinguished by +their almost gigantic size from all the other nations I have seen +in the new continent. Must it on this account be admitted, that the +Caribbees are an entirely distinct race? and that the Guaraons and +the Tamanacs, whose languages have an affinity with the Caribbee, +have no bond of relationship with them? I think not. Among the +nations of the same family, one branch may acquire an extraordinary +development of organization. The mountaineers of the Tyrol and +Salzburgh are taller than the other Germanic races; the Samoiedes +of the Altai are not so little and squat as those of the sea-coast. +In like manner it would be difficult to deny that the Galibis are +really Caribbees; and yet, notwithstanding the identity of +languages, how striking is the difference in their stature and +physical constitution! + +Before Cortez entered the capital of Montezuma in 1521, the +attention of Europe was fixed on the regions we have just +traversed. In depicting the manners of the inhabitants of Paria and +Cumana, it was thought that the manners of all the inhabitants of +the new continent were described. This remark cannot escape those +who read the historians of the Conquest, especially the letters of +Peter Martyr of Anghiera, written at the court of Ferdinand the +Catholic. These letters are full of ingenious observations upon +Christopher Columbus, Leo X, and Luther, and are stamped by noble +enthusiasm for the great discoveries of an age so rich in +extraordinary events. Without entering into any detail on the +manners of the nations which have been so long confounded one with +another, under the vague denomination of Cumanians (Cumaneses), it +appears to me important to clear up a fact which I have often heard +discussed in Spanish America. + +The Pariagotos of the present time are of a brown red colour, as +are the Caribbees, the Chaymas, and almost all the nations of the +New World. Why do the historians of the sixteenth century affirm +that the first navigators saw white men with fair hair at the +promontory of Paria? Were they of the same race as those Indians of +a less tawny hue, whom M. Bonpland and myself saw at Esmeralda, +near the sources of the Orinoco? But these Indians had hair as +black as the Otomacs and other tribes, whose complexion is the +darkest. Were they albinos, such as have been found heretofore in +the isthmus of Panama? But examples of that degeneration are very +rare in the copper-coloured race; and Anghiera, as well as Gomara, +speaks of the inhabitants of Paria in general, and not of a few +individuals. Both describe them as if they were people of Germanic +origin,* (* "Aethiopes nigri, crispi lanati; Pariae incolae albi, +capillis oblongis protensis flavis."--Pet. Martyr Ocean., dec. 50 +lib. 6 (edition 1574). "Utriusque sexus indigenae albi veluti +nostrates, praeter eos qui sub sole versantur." (The natives of +both sexes are as white as our people [Spaniards], except those who +are exposed to the sun.)--Ibid. Gomara, speaking of the natives +seen by Columbus at the mouth of the river of Cumana, says: "Las +donzellas eran amorosas, desnudas y blancas (las de la casa); los +Indios que van al campo estan negros del sol." (The young women are +engaging in their manners: they wear no clothing, and those who +live in the houses ARE WHITE. The Indians who are much in the open +country are black, from the effect of the sun.)--Hist. de los +Indios, cap. 74. "Los Indios de Paria son BLANCOS y rubios."--(The +Indians of Paria are WHITE and red.) Garcia, Origen de los Indios +1729, lib. 4 cap. 9.) they call them 'Whites with light hair;' they +even add, that they wore garments like those of the Turks.* (* +"They wear round their head a striped cotton handkerchief"--Ferd. +Columb. cap. 71. (Churchill volume 2.) Was this kind of head-dress +taken for a turban? (Garcia, Origen de los Ind., page 303). I am +surprised that people of these regions should have worn a +head-dress; but, what is more curious still, Pinzon, in a voyage +which he made alone to the coast of Paria, the particulars of which +have been transmitted to us by Peter Martyr of Anghiera, professes +to have seen natives who were clothed: "Incolas omnes genu tenus +mares, foeminas surarum tenus, gossampinis vestibus amictos +simplicibus repererunt; sed viros more Turcorum insuto minutim +gossypio ad belli usum duplicibus." (The natives were clothed in +thin cotton garments; the men's reaching to the knee, and the +women's to the calf of the leg. Their war-dress was thicker, and +closely stitched with cotton after the Turkish manner.)--Pet. +Martyr, dec. 2 lib. 7. Who were these people described as being +comparatively civilized, and clothed with tunics (like those who +lived an the summit of the Andes), and seen on a coast, where +before and since the time of Pinzon, only naked men have ever been +seen?) Gomara and Anghiera wrote from such oral information as they +had been able to collect. + +These marvels disappear, if we examine the recital which Ferdinand +Columbus drew up from his father's papers. There we find simply, +that "the admiral was surprised to see the inhabitants of Paria, +and those of the island of Trinidad, better made, more civilized +(de buena conversacion), and whiter than the natives whom he had +previously seen."* (* Churchill's Collection volume 2, Herrera +pages 80, 83, 84. Munoz, Hist. del Nuevo Mundo volume 1, "El color +era baxo como es regular en los Indios, pero mas clara que en las +islas reconocidas." (Their colour was dark, as is usual among the +Indians; but lighter than that of the people of the islands +previously known.) The missionaries are accustomed to call those +Indians who are less black, less tawny, WHITISH, and even ALMOST +WHITE.--Gumilla, Hist. de l'Orenoque volume 1 chapter 5 paragraph +2. Such incorrect expressions may mislead those who are not +accustomed to the exaggerations in which travellers often indulge.) +This certainly did not mean that the Pariagotos are white. The +lighter colour of the skin of the natives and the great coolness of +the mornings on the coast of Paria, seemed to confirm the fantastic +hypothesis which that great man had framed, respecting the +irregularity of the curvature of the earth, and the height of the +plains in this region, which he regarded as the effect of an +extraordinary swelling of the globe in the direction of the +parallels of latitude. Amerigo Vespucci (in his pretended FIRST +voyage, apparently written from the narratives of other navigators) +compares the natives to the Tartar nations,* (* Vultu non multum +speciosi sunt, quoniam latas facies Tartariis adsimilatas habent. +(Their countenances are not handsome, their cheek-bones being broad +like those of the Tartars.)--Americi Vesputii Navigatio Prima, in +Gryn's Orbis Novus 1555.) not in regard to their colour, but on +account of the breadth of their faces, and the general expression +of their physiognomy. + +But if it be certain, that at the end of the fifteenth century +there were on the coast of Cumana a few men with white skins, as +there are in our days, it must not thence be concluded, that the +natives of the New World exhibit everywhere a similar organization +of the dermoidal system. It is not less inaccurate to say, that +they are all copper-coloured, than to affirm that they would not +have a tawny hue, if they were not exposed to the heat of the sun, +or tanned by the action of the air. The natives may be divided into +two very unequal portions with respect to numbers; to the first +belong the Esquimaux of Greenland, of Labrador, and the northern +coast of Hudson's Bay, the inhabitants of Behring's Straits, of the +peninsula of Alaska, and of Prince William's Sound. The eastern and +western branches* of this polar race (* Vater, in Mithridates +volume 3. Egede, Krantz, Hearne, Mackenzie, Portlock, Chwostoff, +Davidoff, Resanoff, Merk, and Billing, have described the great +family of these Tschougaz-Esquimaux.), the Esquimaux and the +Tschougases, though at the vast distance of eight hundred leagues +apart, are united by the most intimate analogy of languages. This +analogy extends even to the inhabitants of the north-east of Asia; +for the idiom of the Tschouktsches* at the mouth of the Anadir (* I +mean here only the Tschouktsches who have fixed dwelling-places, +for the wandering Tschouktsches approach very near the Koriaks.), +has the same roots as the language of the Esquimaux who inhabit the +coast of America opposite to Europe. The Tschouktsches are the +Esquimaux of Asia. Like the Malays, that hyperborean race reside +only on the sea-coasts. They are almost all smaller in stature than +the other Americans, and are quick, lively, and talkative. Their +hair is almost straight, and black; but their skin (and this is +very characteristic of the race, which I shall designate under the +name of Tschougaz-Esquimaux) is originally whitish. It is certain +that the children of the Greenlanders are born white; some retain +that whiteness; and often in the brownest (the most tanned) the +redness of the blood is seen to appear on their cheeks.* (* Krantz, +Hist. of Greenland 1667 tome 1. Greenland does not seem to have +been inhabited in the eleventh century; at least the Esquimaux +appeared only in the fourteenth, coming from the west.) + +The second portion of the natives of America includes all those +nations which are not Tschougaz-Esquimaux, beginning from Cook's +River to the Straits of Magellan, from the Ugaljachmouzes and the +Kinaese of Mount St. Elias, to the Puelches and Tehuelhets of the +southern hemisphere. The men who belong to this second branch, are +taller, stronger, more warlike, and more taciturn than the others. +They present also very remarkable differences in the colour of +their skin. In Mexico, Peru, New Grenada, Quito, on the banks of +the Orinoco and of the river Amazon, in every part of South America +which I have explored, in the plains as well as on the coldest +table-lands, the Indian children of two or three months old have +the same bronze tint as is observed in adults. The idea that the +natives may be whites tanned by the air and the sun, could never +have occurred to a Spanish inhabitant of Quito, or of the banks of +the Orinoco. In the north-east of America, on the contrary, we meet +with tribes among whom the children are white, and at the age of +virility they acquire the bronze colour of the natives of Mexico +and Peru. Michikinakoua, chief of the Miamis, had his arms, and +those parts of his body not exposed to the sun, almost white. This +difference of hue between the parts covered and not covered is +never observed among the natives of Peru and Mexico, even in +families who live much at their ease, and remain almost constantly +within doors. To the west of the Miamis, on the coast opposite to +Asia, among the Kolouches and Tchinkitans* of Norfolk Sound (* +Between 54 and 58 degrees of latitude. These white nations have +been visited successively by Portlock, Marchand, Baranoff, and +Davidoff. The Tchinkitans, or Schinkit, are the inhabitants of the +island of Sitka. Vater Mithridates volume 3 page 2. Marchand +Voyages volume 2.), grown-up girls, when they have gashed their +skin, display the white hue of Europeans. This whiteness is found +also, according to some accounts, among the mountaineers of Chile.* +(* Molina, Saggio sull' Istoria Nat. del Chile edition 2 page 293. +May we believe the existence of those blue eyes of the Boroas of +Chile and Guayanas of Uruguay; represented to us as nations of the +race of Odin? Azara Voyage tome 2.) + +These facts are very remarkable, and contrary to the opinion so +generally spread, of the extreme conformity of organization among +the natives of America. If we divide them into Esquimaux and +non-Esquimaux, we readily admit that this classification is not +more philosophical than that of the ancients, who saw in the whole +of the habitable world only Celts and Scythians, Greeks, and +Barbarians. When, however, our purpose is to group numerous +nations, we gain something by proceeding in the mode of exclusion. +All we have sought to establish here is, that, in separating the +whole race of Tschougaz-Esquimaux, there remain still, among the +coppery-brown Americans, other races, the children of which are +born white, without our being able to prove, by going back as far +as the history of the Conquest, that they have been mingled with +European blood. This fact deserves to be cleared up by travellers +who may possess a knowledge of physiology, and may have +opportunities of examining the brown children of the Mexicans at +the age of two years, as well as the white children of the Miamis, +and those hordes* on the Orinoco (* These whitish tribes are the +Guaycas, the Ojos, and the Maquiritares.), who, living in the most +sultry regions, retain during their whole life, and in the fulness +of their strength, the whitish skin of the Mestizoes. + +In man, the deviations from the common type of the whole race are +apparent in the stature, the physiognomy, or the form of the body, +rather than on the colour of the skin.* (* The circumpolar nations +of the two continents are small and squat, though of races entirely +different.) It is not so with animals, where varieties are found +more in colour than in form. The hair of the mammiferous class of +animals, the feathers of birds, and even the scales of fishes, +change their hue, according to the lengthened influence of light +and darkness, and the intensity of heat and cold. In man, the +colouring matter seems to be deposited in the epidermis by the +roots or the bulbs of the hair:* (* Adverting to the interesting +researches of M. Gaultier, on the organisation of the human skin, +John Hunter observes, that in several animals the colorating of the +hair is independent of that of the skin.) and all sound +observations prove, that the skin varies in colour from the action +of external stimuli on individuals, and not hereditarily in the +whole race. The Esquimaux of Greenland and the Laplanders are +tanned by the influence of the air; but their children are born +white. We will not decide on the changes which nature may have +produced in a space of time exceeding all historical tradition. +Reason stops short in these matters, when no longer under the +guidance of experience and analogy. + +All white-skinned nations begin their cosmogony by white men; they +allege that the negroes and all tawny people have been blackened or +embrowned by the excessive heat of the sun. This theory, adopted by +the Greeks,* (* Strabo, liv. 15.) though it did not pass without +contradiction,* (* Onesicritus, apud Strabonem, lib. 15. +Alexander's expedition appears to have contributed greatly to fix +the attention of the Greeks on the great question of the influence +of climates. They had learned from the accounts of travellers, that +in Hindostan the nations of the south were of darker colour than +those of the north, near the mountains: and they supposed that they +were both of the same race.) has been propagated even to our own +times. Buffon has repeated in prose what Theodectes had expressed +in verse two thousand years before: "that nations wear the livery +of the climate in which they live." If history had been written by +black nations, they would have maintained what even Europeans have +recently advanced,* that man was originally black, or of a very +tawny colour (* See the work of Mr. Prichard, abounding with +curious research. "Researches into the Physical History of Man, +1813," page 239.); and that mankind have become white in some +races, from the effect of civilization and progressive +debilitation, as animals, in a state of domestication, pass from +dark to lighter colours. In plants and in animals, accidental +varieties, formed under our own eyes, have become fixed, and have +been propagated;* (* For example, the sheep with very short legs, +called ancon sheep in Connecticut, and examined by Sir Everard +Home. This variety dates only from the year 1791.) but nothing +proves, that in the present state of human organization, the +different races of black, yellow, copper-coloured, and white men, +when they remain unmixed, deviate considerably from their primitive +type, by the influence of climate, of food, and other external +agents. + +These opinions are founded on the authority of Ulloa.* (* "The +Indians [Americans] are of a copper-colour, which by the action of +the sun and the air grows darker. I must remark, that neither heat +nor cold produces any sensible change in the colour, so that the +Indians of the Cordilleras of Peru are easily confounded with those +of the hottest plains; and those who live under the Line cannot be +distinguished, by their colour, from those who inhabit the fortieth +degree of north and south latitude."--Noticias Americanas. No +ancient author has so clearly stated the two forms of reasoning, by +which we still explain in our days the differences of colour and +features among neighbouring nations, as Tacitus. He makes a just +distinction between the influence of climate, and hereditary +dispositions; and, like a philosopher persuaded of our profound +ignorance of the origin of things, he leaves the question +undecided. "Habitus corporum varii; atque ex eo argumenta, seu +durante originis vi, seu procurrentibus in diversa terris, positio +coeli corporibus habitum dedit."--Agricola, cap 2.) That learned +writer saw the Indians of Chile, of the Andes of Peru, of the +burning coasts of Panama, and those of Louisiana, situated in the +northern temperate zone. He had the good fortune to live at a +period when theories were less numerous; and, like me, he was +struck by seeing the natives equally bronzed under the Line, in the +cold climate of the Cordilleras, and in the plains. Where +differences of colour are observed, they depend on the race. We +shall soon find on the burning banks of the Orinoco Indians with a +whitish skin. Durans originis vis est. + + +CHAPTER 1.10. + +SECOND ABODE AT CUMANA. +EARTHQUAKES. +EXTRAORDINARY METEORS. + +We remained a month longer at Cumana, employing ourselves in the +necessary preparations for our proposed visit to the Orinoco and +the Rio Negro. We had to choose such instruments as could be most +easily transported in narrow boats; and to engage guides for an +inland journey of ten months, across a country without +communication with the coasts. The astronomical determination of +places being the most important object of this undertaking, I felt +desirous not to miss the observation of an eclipse of the sun, +which was to be visible at the end of October: and in consequence I +preferred remaining till that period at Cumana, where the sky is +generally clear and serene. It was now too late to reach the banks +of the Orinoco before October; and the high valleys of Caracas +promised less favourable opportunities, on account of the vapours +which accumulate round the neighbouring mountains. + +I was, however, near being compelled by a deplorable occurrence, to +renounce, or at least to delay for a long time, my journey to the +Orinoco. On the 27th of October, the day before the eclipse, we +went as usual, to take the air on the shore of the gulf, and to +observe the instant of high water, which in those parts is only +twelve or thirteen inches. It was eight in the evening, and the +breeze was not yet stirring. The sky was cloudy; and during a dead +calm it was excessively hot. We crossed the beach which separates +the suburb of the Guayqueria Indians from the embarcadero. I heard +some one walking behind us, and on turning, I saw a tall man of the +colour of the Zambos, naked to the waist. He held almost over my +head a macana, which is a great stick of palm-tree wood, enlarged +to the end like a club. I avoided the stroke by leaping towards the +left; but M. Bonpland, who walked on my right, was less fortunate. +He did not see the Zambo so soon as I did, and received a stroke +above the temple, which levelled him with the ground. We were +alone, without arms, half a league from any habitation, on a vast +plain bounded by the sea. The Zambo, instead of attacking me, moved +off slowly to pick up M. Bonpland's hat, which, having somewhat +deadened the violence of the blow, had fallen off and lay at some +distance. Alarmed at seeing my companion on the ground, and for +some moments senseless, I thought of him only. I helped him to +raise himself, and pain and anger doubled his strength. We ran +toward the Zambo, who, either from cowardice, common enough in +people of this caste, or because he perceived at a distance some +men on the beach, did not wait for us, but ran off in the direction +of the Tunal, a little thicket of cactus and arborescent avicennia. +He chanced to fall in running; and M. Bonpland, who reached him +first, seized him round the body. The Zambo drew a long knife; and +in this unequal struggle we should infallibly have been wounded, if +some Biscayan merchants, who were taking the air on the beach, had +not come to our assistance. The Zambo seeing himself surrounded, +thought no longer of defence. He again ran away, and we pursued him +through the thorny cactuses. At length, tired out, he took shelter +in a cow-house, whence he suffered himself to be quietly led to +prison. + +M. Bonpland was seized with fever during the night; but being +endowed with great energy and fortitude, and possessing that +cheerful disposition which is one of the most precious gifts of +nature, he continued his labours the next day. The stroke of the +macana had extended to the top of his head, and he felt its effect +for the space of two or three months during the stay we made at +Caracas. When stooping to collect plants, he was sometimes seized +with giddiness, which led us to fear that an internal abscess was +forming. Happily these apprehensions were unfounded, and the +symptoms, at first alarming, gradually disappeared. The inhabitants +of Cumana showed us the kindest interest. It was ascertained that +the Zambo was a native of one of the Indian villages which surround +the great lake of Maracaybo. He had served on board a privateer +belonging to the island of St. Domingo, and in consequence of a +quarrel with the captain he had been left on the coast of Cumana, +when the ship quitted the port. Having seen the signal which we had +fixed up for the purpose of observing the height of the tides, he +had watched the moment when he could attack us on the beach. But +why, after having knocked one of us down, was he satisfied with +simply stealing a hat? In an examination he underwent, his answers +were so confused and stupid, that it was impossible to clear up our +doubts. Sometimes he maintained that his intention was not to rob +us; but that, irritated by the bad treatment he had suffered on +board the privateer of St. Domingo, he could not resist the desire +of attacking us, when he heard us speak French. Justice is so tardy +in this country, that prisoners, of whom the jail is full, may +remain seven or eight years without being brought to trial; we +learnt, therefore, with some satisfaction, that a few days after +our departure from Cumana, the Zambo had succeeded in breaking out +of the castle of San Antonio. + +On the day after this occurrence, the 28th of October, I was, at +five in the morning, on the terrace of our house, making +preparations for the observation of the eclipse. The weather was +fine and serene. The crescent of Venus, and the constellation of +the Ship, so splendid from the disposition of its immense nebulae, +were lost in the rays of the rising sun. I had a complete +observation of the progress and the close of the eclipse. I +determined the distance of the horns, or the differences of +altitude and azimuth, by the passage over the threads of the +quadrant. The eclipse terminated at 2 hours 14 minutes 23.4 seconds +mean time, at Cumana. + +During a few days which preceded and followed the eclipse of the +sun, very remarkable atmospherical phenomena were observable. It +was what is called in those countries the season of winter; that +is, of clouds and small electrical showers. From the 10th of +October to the 3rd of November, at nightfall, a reddish vapour +arose in the horizon, and covered, in a few minutes, with a veil +more or less thick, the azure vault of the sky. Saussure's +hygrometer, far from indicating greater humidity, often went back +from 90 to 83 degrees. The heat of the day was from 28 to 32 +degrees, which for this part of the torrid zone is very +considerable. Sometimes, in the midst of the night, the vapours +disappeared in an instant; and at the moment when I had arranged my +instruments, clouds of brilliant whiteness collected at the zenith, +and extended towards the horizon. On the 18th of October these +clouds were so remarkably transparent, that they did not hide stars +even of the fourth magnitude. I could distinguish so perfectly the +spots of the moon, that it might have been supposed its disk was +before the clouds. The latter were at a prodigious height, disposed +in bands, and at equal distances, as from the effect of electric +repulsions:--these small masses of vapour, similar to those I saw +above my head on the ridge of the highest Andes, are, in several +languages, designated by the name of sheep. When the reddish vapour +spreads lightly over the sky, the great stars, which in general, at +Cumana, scarcely scintillate below 20 or 25 degrees, did not retain +even at the zenith, their steady and planetary light. They +scintillated at all altitudes, as after a heavy storm of rain.* (* +I have not observed any direct relation between the scintillation +of the stars and the dryness of that part of the atmosphere open to +our researches. I have often seen at Cumana a great scintillation +of the stars of Orion and Sagittarius, when Saussure's hygrometer +was at 85 degrees. At other times, these same stars, considerably +elevated above the horizon, emitted a steady and planetary light, +the hygrometer being at 90 or 93 degrees. Probably it is not the +quantity of vapour, but the manner in which it is diffused, and +more or less dissolved in the air, which determines the +scintillation. The latter is invariably attended with a coloration +of light. It is remarkable enough, that, in northern countries, at +a time when the atmosphere appears perfectly dry, the scintillation +is most decided in very cold weather.) It was curious that the +vapour did not affect the hygrometer at the surface of the earth. I +remained a part of the night seated in a balcony, from which I had +a view of a great part of the horizon. In every climate I feel a +peculiar interest in fixing my eyes, when the sky is serene, on +some great constellation, and seeing groups of vesicular vapours +appear and augment, as around a central nucleus, then, +disappearing, form themselves anew. + +After the 28th of October, the reddish mist became thicker than it +had previously been. The heat of the nights seemed stifling, though +the thermometer rose only to 26 degrees. The breeze, which +generally refreshed the air from eight or nine o'clock in the +evening, was no longer felt. The atmosphere was burning hot, and +the parched and dusty ground was cracked on every side. On the 4th +of November, about two in the afternoon, large clouds of peculiar +blackness enveloped the high mountains of the Brigantine and the +Tataraqual. They extended by degrees as far as the zenith. About +four in the afternoon thunder was heard over our heads, at an +immense height, not regularly rolling, but with a hollow and often +interrupted sound. At the moment of the strongest electric +explosion, at 4 hours 12 minutes, there were two shocks of +earthquake, which followed each other at the interval of fifteen +seconds. The people ran into the streets, uttering loud cries. M. +Bonpland, who was leaning over a table examining plants, was almost +thrown on the floor. I felt the shock very strongly, though I was +lying in a hammock. Its direction was from north to south, which is +rare at Cumana. Slaves, who were drawing water from a well more +than eighteen or twenty feet deep, near the river Manzanares, heard +a noise like the explosion of a strong charge of gunpowder. The +noise seemed to come from the bottom of the well; a very curious +phenomenon, though very common in most of the countries of America +which are exposed to earthquakes. + +A few minutes before the first shock there was a very violent blast +of wind, followed by electrical rain falling in great drops. I +immediately tried the atmospherical electricity by the electrometer +of Volta. The small balls separated four lines; the electricity +often changed from positive to negative, as is the case during +storms, and, in the north of Europe, even sometimes in a fall of +snow. The sky remained cloudy, and the blast of wind was followed +by a dead calm, which lasted all night. The sunset presented a +picture of extraordinary magnificence. The thick veil of clouds was +rent asunder, as in shreds, quite near the horizon; the sun +appeared at 12 degrees of altitude on a sky of indigo-blue. Its +disk was enormously enlarged, distorted, and undulated toward the +edges. The clouds were gilded; and fascicles of divergent rays, +reflecting the most brilliant rainbow hues, extended over the +heavens. A great crowd of people assembled in the public square. +This celestial phenomenon,--the earthquake,--the thunder which +accompanied it,--the red vapour seen during so many days, all were +regarded as the effect of the eclipse. + +About nine in the evening there was another shock, much slighter +than the former, but attended with a subterraneous noise. The +barometer was a little lower than usual; but the progress of the +horary variations or small atmospheric tides, was no way +interrupted. The mercury was precisely at the minimum of height at +the moment of the earthquake; it continued rising till eleven in +the evening, and sank again till half after four in the morning, +conformably to the law which regulates barometrical variations. In +the night between the 3rd and 4th of November the reddish vapour +was so thick that I could not distinguish the situation of the +moon, except by a beautiful halo of 20 degrees diameter. + +Scarcely twenty-two months had elapsed since the town of Cumana had +been almost totally destroyed by an earthquake. The people regard +vapours which obscure the horizon, and the subsidence of wind +during the night, as infallible pregnostics of disaster. We had +frequent visits from persons who wished to know whether our +instruments indicated new shocks for the next day; and alarm was +great and general when, on the 5th of November, exactly at the same +hour as on the preceding day, there was a violent gust of wind, +attended by thunder, and a few drops of rain. No shock was felt. +The wind and storm returned during five or six days at the same +hour, almost at the same minute. The inhabitants of Cumana, and of +many other places between the tropics, have long since observed +that atmospherical changes, which are, to appearance, the most +accidental, succeed each other for whole weeks with astonishing +regularity. The same phenomenon occurs in summer, in the temperate +zone; nor has it escaped the perception of astronomers, who often +observe, in a serene sky, during three or four days successively, +clouds which have collected at the same part of the firmament, take +the same direction, and dissolve at the same height; sometimes +before, sometimes after the passage of a star over the meridian, +consequently within a few minutes of the same point of true time.* +(* M. Arago and I paid a great deal of attention to this phenomenon +during a long series of observations made in the year 1809 and +1810, at the Observatory of Paris, with the view of verifying the +declination of the stars.) + +The earthquake of the 4th of November, the first I had felt, made +the greater impression on me, as it was accompanied with remarkable +meteorological variations. It was, moreover, a positive movement +upward and downward, and not a shock by undulation. I did not then +imagine, that after a long abode on the table-lands of Quito and +the coasts of Peru, I should become almost as familiar with the +abrupt movements of the ground as we are in Europe with the sound +of thunder. In the city of Quito, we never thought of rising from +our beds when, during the night, subterraneous rumblings +(bramidos), which seem always to come from the volcano of +Pichincha, announced a shock, the force of which, however, is +seldom in proportion to the intensity of the noise. The +indifference of the inhabitants, who bear in mind that for three +centuries past their city has not been destroyed, readily +communicates itself to the least intrepid traveller. It is not so +much the fear of the danger, as the novelty of the sensation, which +makes so forcible an impression when the effect of the slightest +earthquake is felt for the first time. + +From our infancy, the idea of certain contrasts becomes fixed in +our minds: water appears to us an element that moves; earth, a +motionless and inert mass. These impressions are the result of +daily experience; they are connected with everything that is +transmitted to us by the senses. When the shock of an earthquake is +felt, when the earth which we had deemed so stable is shaken on its +old foundations, one instant suffices to destroy long-fixed +illusions. It is like awakening from a dream; but a painful +awakening. We feel that we have been deceived by the apparent +stability of nature; we become observant of the least noise; we +mistrust for the first time the soil we have so long trod with +confidence. But if the shocks be repeated, if they become frequent +during several successive days, the uncertainty quickly disappears. +In 1784, the inhabitants of Mexico were accustomed to hear the +thunder roll beneath their feet,* (* Los bramidos de Guanazuato.) +as it is heard by us in the region of the clouds. Confidence easily +springs up in the human breast: on the coasts of Peru we become +accustomed to the undulations of the ground, as the sailor becomes +accustomed to the tossing of the ship, caused by the motion of the +waves. + +The reddish vapour which at Cumana had spread a mist over the +horizon a little before sunset, disappeared after the 7th of +November. The atmosphere resumed its former purity, and the +firmament appeared, at the zenith, of that deep blue tint peculiar +to climates where heat, light, and a great equality of electric +charge seem all to promote the most perfect dissolution of water in +the air. I observed, on the night of the 7th, the immersion of the +second satellite of Jupiter. The belts of the planet were more +distinct than I had ever seen them before. + +I passed a part of the night in comparing the intensity of the +light emitted by the beautiful stars which shine in the southern +sky. I pursued this task carefully in both hemispheres, at sea, and +during my abode at Lima, at Guayaquil, and at Mexico. Nearly half a +century has now elapsed since La Caille examined that region of the +sky which is invisible in Europe. The stars near the south pole are +usually observed with so little perseverance and attention, that +the greatest changes may take place in the intensity of their light +and their own motion, without astronomers having the slightest +knowledge of them. I think I have remarked changes of this kind in +the constellation of the Crane and in that of the Ship. I compared, +at first with the naked eye, the stars which are not very distant +from each other, for the purpose of classing them according to the +method pointed out by Herschel, in a paper read to the Royal +Society of London in 1796. I afterwards employed diaphragms +diminishing the aperture of the telescope, and coloured and +colourless glasses placed before the eye-glass. I moreover made use +of an instrument of reflexion calculated to bring simultaneously +two stars into the field of the telescope, after having equalized +their light by receiving it with more or fewer rays at pleasure, +reflected by the silvered part of the mirror. I admit that these +photometric processes are not very precise; but I believe the last, +which perhaps had never before been employed, might he rendered +nearly exact, by adding a scale of equal parts to the moveable +frame of the telescope of the sextant. It was by taking the mean of +a great number of valuations, that I saw the relative intensity of +the light of the great stars decrease in the following manner: +Sirius, Canopus, a Centauri, Acherner, b Centauri, Fomalhaut, +Rigel, Procyon, Betelgueuse, e of the Great Dog, d of the Great +Dog, a of the Crane, a of the Peacock. These experiments will +become more interesting when travellers shall have determined anew, +at intervals of forty or fifty years, some of those changes which +the celestial bodies seem to undergo, either at their surface or +with respect to their distances from our planetary system. + +After having made astronomical observations with the same +instruments, in our northern climates and in the torrid zone, we +are surprised at the effect produced in the latter (by the +transparency of the air, and the less extinction of light), on the +clearness with which the double stars, the satellites of Jupiter, +or certain nebulae, present themselves. Beneath a sky equally +serene in appearance, it would seem as if more perfect instruments +were employed; so much more distinct and well defined do the +objects appear between the tropics. It cannot be doubted, that at +the period when equinoctial America shall become the centre of +extensive civilization, physical astronomy will make immense +improvements, in proportion as the skies will be explored with +excellent glasses, in the dry and hot climates of Cumana, Coro, and +the island of Margareta. I do not here mention the ridge of the +Cordilleras, because, with the exception of some high and nearly +barren plains in Mexico and Peru, the very elevated table-lands, in +which the barometric pressure is from ten to twelve inches less +than at the level of the sea, have a misty and extremely variable +climate. The extreme purity of the atmosphere which constantly +prevails in the low regions during the dry season, counterbalances +the elevation of site and the rarity of the air on the table-lands. +The elevated strata of the atmosphere, when they envelope the +ridges of mountains, undergo rapid changes in their transparency. + +The night of the 11th of November was cool and extremely fine. From +half after two in the morning, the most extraordinary luminous +meteors were seen in the direction of the east. M. Bonpland, who +had risen to enjoy the freshness of the air, perceived them first. +Thousands of bolides and falling stars succeeded each other during +the space of four hours. Their direction was very regular from +north to south. They filled a space in the sky extending from due +east 30 degrees to north and south. In an amplitude of 60 degrees +the meteors were seen to rise above the horizon at east-north-east +and at east, to describe arcs more or less extended, and to fall +towards the south, after having followed the direction of the +meridian. Some of them attained a height of 40 degrees, and all +exceeded 25 or 30 degrees. There was very little wind in the low +regions of the atmosphere, and that little blew from the east. No +trace of clouds was to be seen. M. Bonpland states that, from the +first appearance of the phenomenon, there was not in the firmament +a space equal in extent to three diameters of the moon, which was +not filled every instant with bolides and falling stars. The first +were fewer in number, but as they were of different sizes, it was +impossible to fix the limit between these two classes of phenomena. +All these meteors left luminous traces from five to ten degrees in +length, as often happens in the equinoctial regions. The +phosphorescence of these traces, or luminous bands, lasted seven or +eight seconds. Many of the falling stars had a very distinct +nucleus, as large as the disk of Jupiter, from which darted sparks +of vivid light. The bolides seem to burst as by explosion; but the +largest, those from 1 to 1 degree 15 minutes in diameter, +disappeared without scintillation, leaving behind them +phosphorescent bands (trabes) exceeding in breadth fifteen or +twenty minutes. The light of these meteors was white, and not +reddish, which must doubtless be attributed to the absence of +vapour and the extreme transparency of the air. For the same +reason, within the tropics, the stars of the first magnitude have, +at their rising, a light decidedly whiter than in Europe. + +Almost all the inhabitants of Cumana witnessed this phenomenon, +because they had left their houses before four o'clock, to attend +the early morning mass. They did not behold these bolides with +indifference; the oldest among them remembered that the great +earthquakes of 1766 were preceded by similar phenomena. The +Guaiqueries in the Indian suburb alleged "that the bolides began to +appear at one o'clock; and that as they returned from fishing in +the gulf, they had perceived very small falling stars towards the +east." They assured us that igneous meteors were extremely rare on +those coasts after two o'clock in the morning. + +The phenomenon ceased by degrees after four o'clock, and the +bolides and falling stars became less frequent; but we still +distinguished some to north-east by their whitish light, and the +rapidity of their movement, a quarter of an hour after sunrise. +This circumstance will appear less extraordinary, when I mention +that in broad daylight, in 1788, the interior of the houses in the +town of Popayan was brightly illumined by an aerolite of immense +magnitude. It passed over the town, when the sun was shining +clearly, about one o'clock. M. Bonpland and myself, during our +second residence at Cumana, after having observed, on the 26th of +September, 1800, the immersion of the first satellite of Jupiter, +succeeded in seeing the planet distinctly with the naked eye, +eighteen minutes after the disk of the sun had appeared in the +horizon. There was a very slight vapour in the east, but Jupiter +appeared on an azure sky. These facts bear evidence of the extreme +purity and transparency of the atmosphere in the torrid zone. The +mass of diffused light is the less, in proportion as the vapours +are more perfectly dissolved. The same cause which checks the +diffusion of the solar light, diminishes the extinction of that +which emanates either from bolides from Jupiter, or from the moon, +seen on the second day after its conjunction. The 12th of November +was an extremely hot day, and the hygrometer indicated a very +considerable degree of dryness for those climates. The reddish +vapour clouded the horizon anew, and rose to the height of 14 +degrees. This was the last time it appeared that year; and I must +here observe, that it is no less rare under the fine sky of Cumana, +than it is common at Acapulco, on the western coast of Mexico. + +We did not neglect, during the course of our journey from Caracas +to the Rio Negro, to enquire everywhere, whether the meteors of the +12th of November had been perceived. In a wild country, where the +greater number of the inhabitants sleep in the open air, so +extraordinary a phenomenon could not fail to be remarked, unless it +had been concealed from observation by clouds. The Capuchin +missionary at San Fernando de Apure,* (* North latitude 7 degrees +53 minutes 12 seconds; west longitude 70 degrees 20 minutes.), a +village situated amid the savannahs of the province of Varinas; the +Franciscan monks stationed near the cataracts of the Orinoco and at +Maroa,* (* North latitude 2 degrees 42 minutes 0 seconds; west +longitude 70 degrees 21 minutes.) on the banks of the Rio Negro; +had seen numberless falling-stars and bolides illumine the heavens. +Maroa is south-west of Cumana, at one hundred and seventy-four +leagues distance. All these observers compared the phenomenon to +brilliant fireworks; and it lasted from three till six in the +morning. Some of the monks had marked the day in their rituals; +others had noted it by the proximate festivals of the Church. +Unfortunately, none of them could recollect the direction of the +meteors, or their apparent height. From the position of the +mountains and thick forests which surround the Missions of the +Cataracts and the little village of Maroa, I presume that the +bolides were still visible at 20 degrees above the horizon. On my +arrival at the southern extremity of Spanish Guiana, at the little +fort of San Carlos, I found some Portuguese, who had gone up the +Rio Negro from the Mission of St. Joseph of the Maravitans. They +assured me that in that part of Brazil the phenomenon had been +perceived at least as far as San Gabriel das Cachoeiras, +consequently as far as the equator itself.* (* A little to the +north-west of San Antonio de Castanheiro. I did not meet with any +persons who had observed this meteor, at Santa Fe de Bogota, at +Popayan, or in the southern hemisphere, at Quito and Peru. Perhaps +the state of the atmosphere, so changeable in these western regions, +prevented observation.) + +I was forcibly struck by the immense height which these bolides +must have attained, to have rendered them visible simultaneously at +Cumana, and on the frontiers of Brazil, in a line of two hundred +and thirty leagues in length. But what was my astonishment, when, +on my return to Europe, I learned that the same phenomenon had been +perceived on an extent of the globe of 64 degrees of latitude, and +91 degrees of longitude; at the equator, in South America, at +Labrador, and in Germany! I saw accidentally, during my passage +from Philadelphia to Bordeaux,* (* In the Memoirs of the +Pennsylvanian Society.) the corresponding observation of Mr. +Ellicot (latitude 30 degrees 42); and upon my return from Naples to +Berlin, I read the account of the Moravian missionaries among the +Esquimaux, in the Bibliothek of Gottingen. + +The following is a succinct enumeration of the facts: + +First. The fiery meteors were seen in the east, and the +east-north-east, at 40 degrees of elevation, from 2 to 6 a.m. at +Cumana (latitude 10 degrees 27 minutes 52 seconds, longitude 66 +degrees 30 minutes); at Porto Cabello (latitude 10 degrees 6 +minutes 52 seconds, longitude 67 degrees 5 minutes); and on the +frontiers of Brazil, near the equator, in longitude 70 degrees +west of the meridian of Paris. + +Second. In French Guiana (latitude 4 degrees 56 minutes, longitude +54 degrees 35 minutes) "the northern part of the sky was suffused +with fire. Numberless falling-stars traversed the heavens during +the space of an hour and a half, and shed so vivid a light, that +those meteors might be compared to the blazing sheaves which shoot +out from fireworks." The knowledge of this fact rests upon the +highly trustworthy testimony of the Count de Marbois, then living +in exile at Cayenne, a victim to his love of justice and of +rational, constitutional liberty. + +Third. Mr. Ellicot, astronomer to the United States, having +completed his trigonometric operations for the rectification of the +limits on the Ohio, being on the 12th of November in the gulf of +Florida, in latitude 25 degrees, and longitude 81 degrees 50 +minutes, saw in all parts of the sky, "as many meteors as stars, +moving in all directions. Some appeared to fall perpendicularly; +and it was expected every minute that they would drop into the +vessel." The same phenomenon was perceived upon the American +continent as far as latitude 30 degrees 42 minutes. + +Fourth. In Labrador, at Nain (latitude 56 degrees 55 minutes), and +Hoffenthal (latitude 58 degrees 4 minutes); in Greenland, at +Lichtenau (latitude 61 degrees 5 minutes), and at New Herrnhut +(latitude 64 degrees 14 minutes, longitude 52 degrees 20 minutes); +the Esquimaux were terrified at the enormous quantity of bolides +which fell during twilight at all points of the firmament, and some +of which were said to be a foot broad. + +Fifth. In Germany, Mr. Zeissing, vicar of Ittetsadt, near Weimar +(latitude 50 degrees 59 minutes, longitude 9 degrees 1 minute +east), perceived, on the 12th of November, between the hours of six +and seven in the morning (half-past two at Cumana), some +falling-stars which shed a very white light. Soon after, in the +direction of south and south-west, luminous rays appeared from four +to six feet long; they were reddish, and resembled the luminous +track of a sky-rocket. During the morning twilight, between the +hours of seven and eight, the sky, in the direction of south-west, +was observed from time to time to be brightly illumined by white +lightning, running in serpentine lines along the horizon. At night +the cold increased and the barometer rose. It is very probable, +that the meteors might have been observed more to the east, in +Poland and in Russia.* (* In Paris and in London the sky was +cloudy. At Carlsruhe, before dawn, lightning was seen in the +north-west and south-east. On the 13th of November a remarkable +glare of light was seen at the same place in the south-east.) + +The distance from Weimar to the Rio Negro is 1800 nautical leagues; +and from the Rio Negro to Herrnhut in Greenland, 1300 leagues. +Admitting that the same fiery meteors were seen at points so +distant from each other, we must suppose that their height was at +least 411 leagues. Near Weimar, the appearance like sky-rockets was +observed in the south and south-east; at Cumana, in the east and +east-north-east. We may therefore conclude, that numberless +aerolites must have fallen into the sea, between Africa and South +America, westward of the Cape Verd Islands. But since the direction +of the bolides was not the same at Labrador and at Cumana, why were +they not perceived in the latter place towards the north, as at +Cayenne? We can scarcely be too cautious on a subject, on which +good observations made in very distant places are still wanting. I +am rather inclined to think, that the Chayma Indians of Cumana did +not see the same bolides as the Portuguese in Brazil and the +missionaries in Labrador; but at the same time it cannot be doubted +(and this fact appears to me very remarkable) that in the New +World, between the meridians of 46 and 82 degrees, between the +equator and 64 degrees north, at the same hour, an immense number +of bolides and falling-stars were perceived; and that those meteors +had everywhere the same brilliancy, throughout a space of 921,000 +square leagues. + +Astronomers who have lately been directing minute attention to +falling-stars and their parallaxes, consider them as meteors +belonging to the farthest limits of our atmosphere, between the +region of the Aurora Borealis and that of the lightest clouds.* (* +According to the observations which I made on the ridge of the +Andes, at an elevation of 2700 toises, on the moutons, or little +white fleecy clouds, it appeared to me, that their elevation is +sometimes not less than 6000 toises above the level of the coast.) +Some have been seen, which had not more than 14,000 toises, or +about five leagues of elevation. The highest do not appear to +exceed thirty leagues. They are often more than a hundred feet in +diameter: and their swiftness is such, that they dart in a few +seconds through a space of two leagues. Of some which have been +measured, the direction was almost perpendicularly upward, or +forming an angle of 50 degrees with the vertical line. This +extremely remarkable circumstance has led to the conclusion, that +falling-stars are not aerolites which, after having hovered a long +time in space, unite on accidentally entering into our atmosphere, +and fall towards the earth.* (* M. Chladni, who at first considered +falling-stars to be aerolites, subsequently abandoned that idea.) + +Whatever may be the origin of these luminous meteors, it is +difficult to conceive an instantaneous inflammation taking place in +a region where there is less air than in the vacuum of our +air-pumps; and where (at the height of 25,000 toises) the mercury +in the barometer would not rise to 0.012 of a line. We have +ascertained the uniform mixture of atmospheric air to be about 0. +003, only to an elevation of 3000 toises; consequently not beyond +the last stratum of fleecy clouds. It may be admitted that, in the +first revolutions of the globe, gaseous substances, which yet +remain unknown to us, have risen towards that region through which +the falling-stars pass; but accurate experiments, made upon +mixtures of gases which have not the same specific gravity, show +that there is no reason for supposing a superior stratum of the +atmosphere entirely different from the inferior strata. Gaseous +substances mingle and penetrate each other on the least movement; +and a uniformity of their mixture may have taken place in the lapse +of ages, unless we believe them to possess a repulsive action of +which there is no example in those substances we can subject to our +observations. Farther, if we admit the existence of particular +aerial fluids in the inaccessible regions of luminous meteors, of +falling-stars, bolides, and the Aurora Borealis; how can we +conceive why the whole stratum of those fluids does not at once +ignite, but that the gaseous emanations, like the clouds, occupy +only limited spaces? How can we suppose an electrical explosion +without some vapours collected together, capable of containing +unequal charges of electricity, in air, the mean temperature of +which is perhaps 25 degrees below the freezing point of the +centigrade thermometer, and the rarefaction of which is so +considerable, that the compression of the electrical shock could +scarcely disengage any heat? These difficulties would in great part +be removed, if the direction of the movement of falling-stars +allowed us to consider them as bodies with a solid nucleus, as +cosmic phenomena (belonging to space beyond the limits of our +atmosphere), and not as telluric phenomena (belonging to our planet +only). + +Supposing the meteors of Cumana to have been only at the usual +height at which falling-stars in general move, the same meteors +were seen above the horizon in places more than 310 leagues distant +from each other.* (* It was this circumstance that induced Lambert +to propose the observation of falling-stars for the determination +of terrestrial longitudes. He considered them to be celestial +signals seen at great distances.) How great a disposition to +incandescence must have prevailed on the 12th November, in the +higher regions of the atmosphere, to have rendered during four +hours myriads of bolides and falling stars visible at the equator, +in Greenland, and in Germany! + +M. Benzenberg observes, that the same cause which renders the +phenomenon more frequent, has also an influence on the large size +of the meteors, and the intensity of their light. In Europe, the +greatest number of falling stars are seen on those nights on which +very bright ones are mingled with very small ones. The periodical +nature of the phenomenon augments the interest it excites. There +are months in which M. Brandes has reckoned in our temperate zone +only sixty or eighty falling-stars in one night; and in other +months their number has risen to two thousand. Whenever one is +observed, which has the diameter of Sirius or of Jupiter, we are +sure of seeing the brilliant meteor succeeded by a great number of +smaller ones. If the falling stars be very numerous during one +night, it is probable that they will continue equally so during +several weeks. It would seem, that in the higher regions of the +atmosphere, near that extreme limit where the centrifugal force is +balanced by gravity, there exists at regular periods a particular +disposition for the production of bolides, falling-stars, and the +Aurora Borealis.* (* Ritter, like several others, makes a +distinction between bolides mingled with falling-stars and those +luminous meteors which, enveloped in vapour and smoke, explode with +great noise, and let fall (chiefly in the day-time) aerolites. The +latter certainly do not belong to our atmosphere.) Does the +periodical recurrence of this great phenomenon depend upon the +state of the atmosphere? or upon something which the atmosphere +receives from without, while the earth advances in the ecliptic? Of +all this we are still as ignorant as mankind were in the days of +Anaxagoras. + +With respect to the falling-stars themselves, it appears to me, +from my own experience, that they are more frequent in the +equinoctial regions than in the temperate zone; and more frequent +above continents, and near certain coasts, than in the middle of +the ocean. Do the radiation of the surface of the globe, and the +electric charge of the lower regions of the atmosphere (which +varies according to the nature of the soil and the positions of the +continents and seas), exert their influence as far as those heights +where eternal winter reigns? The total absence of even the smallest +clouds, at certain seasons, or above some barren plains destitute +of vegetation, seems to prove that this influence can be felt as +far as five or six thousand toises high. + +A phenomenon analogous to that which appeared on the 12th of +November at Cumana, was observed thirty years previously on the +table-land of the Andes, in a country studded with volcanoes. In +the city of Quito there was seen in one part of the sky, above the +volcano of Cayamba, such great numbers of falling-stars, that the +mountain was thought to be in flames. This singular sight lasted +more than an hour. The people assembled in the plain of Exido, +which commands a magnificent view of the highest summits of the +Cordilleras. A procession was on the point of setting out from the +convent of San Francisco, when it was perceived that the blaze on +the horizon was caused by fiery meteors, which ran along the skies +in all directions, at the altitude of twelve or thirteen degrees. + + +CHAPTER 1.11. + +PASSAGE FROM CUMANA TO LA GUAYRA. +MORRO OF NUEVA BARCELONA. +CAPE CODERA. +ROAD FROM LA GUAYRA TO CARACAS. + +On the 16th of November, at eight in the evening, we were under +sail to proceed along the coast from Cumana to the port of La +Guayra, whence the inhabitants of the province of Venezuela export +the greater part of their produce. The passage is only a distance +of sixty leagues, and it usually occupies from thirty-six to forty +hours. The little coasting vessels are favoured at once by the wind +and by the currents, which run with more or less force from east to +west, along the coasts of Terra Firma, particularly from cape Paria +to the cape of Chichibacoa. The road by land from Cumana to New +Barcelona, and thence to Caracas, is nearly in the same state as +that in which it was before the discovery of America. The traveller +has to contend with the obstacles presented by a miry soil, large +scattered rocks, and strong vegetation. He must sleep in the open +air, pass through the valleys of the Unare, the Tuy, and the +Capaya, and cross torrents which swell rapidly on account of the +proximity of the mountains. To these obstacles must be added the +dangers arising from the extreme insalubrity of the country. The +very low lands, between the sea-shore and the chain of hills +nearest the coast, from the bay of Mochima as far as Coro, are +extremely unhealthy. But the last-mentioned town, which is +surrounded by an immense wood of thorny cactuses, owes its great +salubrity, like Cumana, to its barren soil and the absence of rain. + +In returning from Caracas to Cumana, the road by land is sometimes +preferred to the passage by sea, to avoid the adverse current. The +postman from Caracas is nine days in performing this journey. We +often saw persons, who had followed him, arrive at Cumana ill of +nervous and miasmatic fevers. The tree of which the bark* furnishes +a salutary remedy for those fevers (* Cortex Angosturae of our +pharmacopaeias, the bark of the Bonplandia trifoliata.), grows in +the same valleys, and upon the edge of the same forests which send +forth the pernicious exhalations. M. Bonpland recognised the +cuspare in the vegetation of the gulf of Santa Fe, situated between +the ports of Cumana and Barcelona. The sickly traveller may +perchance repose in a cottage, the inhabitants of which are +ignorant of the febrifuge qualities of the trees that shade the +surrounding valleys. + +Having proceeded by sea from Cumana to La Guayra, we intended to +take up our abode in the town of Caracas, till the end of the rainy +season. From Caracas we proposed to direct our course across the +great plains or llanos, to the Missions of the Orinoco; to go up +that vast river, to the south of the cataracts, as far as the Rio +Negro and the frontiers of Brazil; and thence to return to Cumana +by the capital of Spanish Guiana, commonly called, on account of +its situation, Angostura, or the Strait. We could not determine the +time we might require to accomplish a tour of seven hundred +leagues, more than two-thirds of that distance having to be +traversed in boats. The only parts of the Orinoco known on the +coasts are those near its mouth. No commercial intercourse is kept +up with the Missions. The whole of the country beyond the llanos is +unknown to the inhabitants of Cumana and Caracas. Some think that +the plains of Calabozo, covered with turf, stretch eight hundred +leagues southward, communicating with the Steppes or Pampas of +Buenos Ayres; others, recalling to mind the great mortality which +prevailed among the troops of Iturriaga and Solano, during their +expedition to the Orinoco, consider the whole country, south of the +cataracts of Atures, as extremely pernicious to health. In a region +where travelling is so uncommon, people seem to feel a pleasure in +exaggerating to strangers the difficulties arising from the +climate, the wild animals, and the Indians. Nevertheless we +persisted in the project we had formed. We could rely upon the +interest and solicitude of the governor of Cumana, Don Vicente +Emparan, as well as on the recommendations of the Franciscan monks, +who are in reality masters of the shores of the Orinoco. + +Fortunately for us, one of those monks, Juan Gonzales, was at that +time in Cumana. This young monk, who was only a lay-brother, was +highly intelligent, and full of spirit and courage. He had the +misfortune shortly after his arrival on the coast to displease his +superiors, upon the election of a new director of the Missions of +Piritu, which is a period of great agitation in the convent of New +Barcelona. The triumphant party exercised a general retaliation, +from which the lay-brother could not escape. He was sent to +Esmeralda, the last Mission of the Upper Orinoco, famous for the +vast quantity of noxious insects with which the air is continually +filled. Fray Juan Gonzales was thoroughly acquainted with the +forests which extend from the cataracts towards the sources of the +Orinoco. Another revolution in the republican government of the +monks had some years before brought him to the coast, where he +enjoyed (and most justly) the esteem of his superiors. He confirmed +us in our desire of examining the much-disputed bifurcation of the +Orinoco. He gave us useful advice for the preservation of our +health, in climates where he had himself suffered long from +intermitting fevers. We had the satisfaction of finding Fray Juan +Gonzales at New Barcelona, on our return from the Rio Negro. +Intending to go from the Havannah to Cadiz, he obligingly offered +to take charge of part of our herbals, and our insects of the +Orinoco; but these collections were unfortunately lost with himself +at sea. This excellent young man, who was much attached to us, and +whose zeal and courage might have rendered him very serviceable to +the missions of his order, perished in a storm on the coast of +Africa, in 1801. + +The boat which conveyed us from Cumana to La Guayra, was one of +those employed in trading between the coasts and the West India +Islands. They are thirty feet long, and not more than three feet +high at the gunwale; they have no decks, and their burthen is +generally from two hundred to two hundred and fifty quintals. +Although the sea is extremely rough from Cape Codera to La Guayra, +and although the boats have an enormous triangular sail, somewhat +dangerous in those gusts which issue from the mountain-passes, no +instance has occurred during thirty years, of one of these boats +being lost in the passage from Cumana to the coast of Caracas. The +skill of the Guaiqueria pilots is so great, that accidents are very +rare, even in the frequent trips they make from Cumana to +Guadaloupe, or the Danish islands, which are surrounded with +breakers. These voyages of 120 or 150 leagues, in an open sea, out +of sight of land, are performed in boats without decks, like those +of the ancients, without observations of the meridian altitude of +the sun, without charts, and generally without a compass. The +Indian pilot directs his course at night by the pole-star, and in +the daytime by the sun and the wind. I have seen Guaiqueries and +pilots of the Zambo caste, who could find the pole-star by the +direction of the pointers alpha and beta of the Great Bear, and +they seemed to me to steer less from the view of the pole-star +itself, than from the line drawn through these stars. It is +surprising, that at the first sight of land, they can find the +island of Guadaloupe, Santa Cruz, or Porto Rico; but the +compensation of the errors of their course is not always equally +fortunate. The boats, if they fall to leeward in making land, beat +up with great difficulty to the eastward, against the wind and the +current. + +We descended rapidly the little river Manzanares, the windings of +which are marked by cocoa-trees, as the rivers of Europe are +sometimes bordered by poplars and old willows. On the adjacent arid +land, the thorny bushes, on which by day nothing is visible but +dust, glitter during the night with thousands of luminous sparks. +The number of phosphorescent insects augments in the stormy season. +The traveller in the equinoctial regions is never weary of admiring +the effect of those reddish and moveable fires, which, being +reflected by limpid water, blend their radiance with that of the +starry vault of heaven. + +We quitted the shore of Cumana as if it had long been our home. +This was the first land we had trodden in a zone, towards which my +thoughts had been directed from earliest youth. There is a powerful +charm in the impression produced by the scenery and climate of +these regions; and after an abode of a few months we seemed to have +lived there during a long succession of years. In Europe, the +inhabitant of the north feels an almost similar emotion, when he +quits even after a short abode the shores of the Bay of Naples, the +delicious country between Tivoli and the lake of Nemi, or the wild +and majestic scenery of the Upper Alps and the Pyrenees. Yet +everywhere in the temperate zone, the effects of vegetable +physiognomy afford little contrast. The firs and the oaks which +crown the mountains of Sweden have a certain family air in common +with those which adorn Greece and Italy. Between the tropics, on +the contrary, in the lower regions of both Indies, everything in +nature appears new and marvellous. In the open plains and amid the +gloom of forests, almost all the remembrances of Europe are +effaced; for it is vegetation that determines the character of a +landscape, and acts upon the imagination by its mass, the contrast +of its forms, and the glow of its colours. In proportion as +impressions are powerful and new, they weaken antecedent +impressions, and their force imparts to them the character of +duration. I appeal to those who, more sensible to the beauties of +nature than to the charms of society, have long resided in the +torrid zone. How dear, how memorable during life, is the land on +which they first disembarked! A vague desire to revisit that spot +remains rooted in their minds to the most advanced age. Cumana and +its dusty soil are still more frequently present to my imagination, +than all the wonders of the Cordilleras. Beneath the bright sky of +the south, the light, and the magic of the aerial hues, embellish a +land almost destitute of vegetation. The sun does not merely +enlighten, it colours the objects, and wraps them in a thin vapour, +which, without changing the transparency of the air, renders its +tints more harmonious, softens the effects of the light, and +diffuses over nature a placid calm, which is reflected in our +souls. To explain this vivid impression which the aspect of the +scenery in the two Indies produces, even on coasts but thinly +wooded, it is sufficient to recollect that the beauty of the sky +augments from Naples to the equator, almost as much as from +Provence to the south of Italy. + +We passed at high water the bar formed at the mouth of the little +river Manzanares. The evening breeze gently swelled the waves in +the gulf of Cariaco. The moon had not risen, but that part of the +milky way which extends from the feet of the Centaur towards the +constellation of Sagittarius, seemed to pour a silvery light over +the surface of the ocean. The white rock, crowned by the castle of +San Antonio, appeared from time to time between the high tops of +the cocoa-trees which border the shore; and we soon recognized the +coasts only by the scattered lights of the Guaiqueria fishermen. + +We sailed at first to north-north-west, approaching the peninsula +of Araya; we then ran thirty miles to west and west-south-west. As +we advanced towards the shoal that surrounds Cape Arenas and +stretches as far as the petroleum springs of Maniquarez, we enjoyed +one of those varied sights which the great phosphorescence of the +sea so often displays in those climates. Bands of porpoises +followed our bark. Fifteen or sixteen of these animals swam at +equal distances from each other. When turning on their backs, they +struck the surface of the water with their broad tails; they +diffused a brilliant light, which seemed like flames issuing from +the depth of the ocean.* (* See Views of Nature Bohn's edition page +246.) Each band of porpoises, ploughing the surface of the waters, +left behind it a track of light, the more striking as the rest of +the sea was not phosphorescent. As the motion of an oar, and the +track of the bark, produced on that night but feeble sparks, it is +natural to suppose that the vivid phosphorescence caused by the +porpoises was owing not only to the stroke of their tails, but also +to the gelatinous matter that envelopes their bodies, and is +detached by the shock of the waves. + +We found ourselves at midnight between some barren and rocky +islands, which uprise like bastions in the middle of the sea, and +form the group of the Caracas and Chimanas.* (* There are three of +the Caracas islands and eight of the Chimanas.) The moon was above +the horizon, and lighted up these cleft rocks which are bare of +vegetation and of fantastic aspect. The sea here forms a sort of +bay, a slight inward curve of the land between Cumana and Cape +Codera. The islets of Picua, Picuita, Caracas, and Boracha, appear +like fragments of the ancient coast, which stretches from Bordones +in the same direction east and west. The gulfs of Mochima and Santa +Fe, which will no doubt one day become frequented ports, lie behind +those little islands. The rents in the land, the fracture and dip +of the strata, all here denote the effects of a great revolution: +possibly that which clove asunder the chain of the primitive +mountains, and separated the mica-schist of Araya and the island of +Margareta from the gneiss of Cape Codera. Several of the islands +are visible at Cumana, from the terraces of the houses, and they +produce, according to the superposition of layers of air more or +less heated, the most singular effects of suspension and mirage. +The height of the rocks does not probably exceed one hundred and +fifty toises; but at night, when lighted by the moon, they seem to +be of a very considerable elevation. + +It may appear extraordinary, to find the Caracas Islands so distant +from the city of that name, opposite the coast of the Cumanagotos; +but the denomination of Caracas denoted at the beginning of the +Conquest, not a particular spot, but a tribe of Indians, neighbours +of the Tecs, the Taramaynas, and the Chagaragates. As we came very +near this group of mountainous islands, we were becalmed; and at +sunrise, small currents drifted us toward Boracha, the largest of +them. As the rocks rise nearly perpendicular, the shore is abrupt; +and in a subsequent voyage I saw frigates at anchor almost touching +the land. The temperature of the atmosphere became sensibly higher +whilst we were sailing among the islands of this little +archipelago. The rocks, heated during the day, throw out at night, +by radiation, a part of the heat absorbed. As the sun arose on the +horizon, the rugged mountains projected their vast shadows on the +surface of the ocean. The flamingoes began to fish in places where +they found in a creek calcareous rocks bordered by a narrow beach. +All these islands are now entirely uninhabited; but upon one of the +Caracas are found wild goats of large size, brown, and extremely +swift. Our Indian pilot assured us that their flesh has an +excellent flavour. Thirty years ago a family of whites settled on +this island, where they cultivated maize and cassava. The father +alone survived his children. As his wealth increased, he purchased +two black slaves; and by these slaves he was murdered. The goats +became wild, but the cultivated plants perished. Maize in America, +like wheat in Europe, connected with man since his first +migrations, appears to be preserved only by his care. We sometimes +see these nutritive gramina disseminate themselves; but when left +to nature the birds prevent their reproduction by destroying the +seeds. + +We anchored for some hours in the road of New Barcelona, at the +mouth of the river Neveri, of which the Indian (Cumanagoto) name is +Enipiricuar. This river is full of crocodiles, which sometimes +extend their excursions into the open sea, especially in calm +weather. They are of the species common in the Orinoco, and bear so +much resemblance to the crocodile of Egypt, that they have long +been confounded together. It may easily be conceived that an +animal, the body of which is surrounded with a kind of armour, must +be nearly indifferent to the saltness of the water. Pigafetta +relates in his journal recently published at Milan that he saw, on +the shores of the island of Borneo, crocodiles which inhabit alike +land and sea. These facts must be interesting to geologists, since +attention has been fixed on the fresh-water formations, and the +curious mixture of marine and fluviatile petrifactions sometimes +observed in certain very recent rocks. + +The port of Barcelona has maintained a very active commerce since +1795. From Barcelona is exported most of the produce of those vast +steppes which extend from the south side of the chain of the coast +as far as the Orinoco, and in which cattle of every kind are almost +as abundant as in the Pampas of Buenos Ayres. The commercial +industry of these countries depends on the demand in the West India +Islands for salted provision, oxen, mules, and horses. The coasts +of Terra Firma being opposite to the island of Cuba, at a distance +of fifteen or eighteen days' sail, the merchants of the Havannah +prefer, especially in time of peace, obtaining their provision from +the port of Barcelona, to the risk of a long voyage in another +hemisphere to the mouth of the Rio de la Plata. The situation of +Barcelona is singularly advantageous for the trade in cattle. The +animals have only three days' journey from the llanos to the port, +while it requires eight or nine days to reach Cumana, on account of +the chain of mountains of the Brigantine and the Imposible. + +Having landed on the right bank of the Neveri, we ascended to a +little fort called El Morro de Barcelona, situated at the elevation +of sixty or seventy toises above the level of the sea. The Morro is +a calcareous rock which has been lately fortified. + +The view from the summit of the Morro is not without beauty. The +rocky island of Boracha lies on the east, the lofty promontory of +Unare is on the west, and below are seen the mouth of the river +Neveri, and the arid shores on which the crocodiles come to sleep +in the sun. Notwithstanding the extreme heat of the air, for the +thermometer, exposed to the reflection of the white calcareous +rock, rose to 38 degrees, we traversed the whole of the eminence. A +fortunate chance led us to observe some very curious geological +phenomena, which we again met with in the Cordilleras of Mexico. +The limestone of Barcelona has a dull, even, or conchoidal +fracture, with very flat cavities. It is divided into very thin +strata, and exhibits less analogy with the limestone of Cumanacoa, +than with that of Caripe, forming the cavern of the Guacharo. It is +traversed by banks of schistose jasper,* (Kieselschiefer of Werner. +)* black, with a conchoidal fracture, and breaking into fragments +of a parallelopipedal figure. This fossil does not exhibit those +little streaks of quartz so common in the Lydian stone. It is found +decomposed at its surface into a yellowish grey crust, and it does +not act upon the magnet. Its edges, a little translucid, give it +some resemblance to the hornstone, so common in secondary +limestones.* (* In Switzerland, the hornstone passing into common +jasper is found in kidney-stones, and in layers both in the Alpine +and Jura limestone, especially in the former.) It is remarkable +that we find the schistose jasper which in Europe characterizes the +transition rocks,* (The transition-limestone and schist.) in a +limestone having great analogy with that of Jura. In the study of +formations, which is the great end of geognosy, the knowledge +acquired in the old and new worlds should be made to furnish +reciprocal aid to each other. It appears that these black strata +are found also in the calcareous mountains of the island of +Boracha.* (* We saw some of it as ballast, in a fishing boat at +Punta Araya. Its fragments might have been mistaken for basalt.) +Another jasper, that known by the name of the Egyptian pebble, was +found by M. Bonpland near the Indian village of Curacatiche or +Curacaguitiche, fifteen leagues south of the Morro of Barcelona, +when, on our return from the Orinoco, we crossed the llanos, and +approached the mountains on the coast. This stone presented +yellowish concentric lines and bands, on a reddish brown ground. It +appeared to me that the round pieces of Egyptian jasper belonged +also to the Barcelona limestone. Yet, according to M. Cordier, the +fine pebbles of Suez owe their origin to a breccia formation, or +siliceous agglomerate. + +At the moment of our setting sail, on the 19th of November, at +noon, I took some altitudes of the moon, to determine the longitude +of the Morro. The difference of meridian between Cumana and the +town of Barcelona, where I made a great number of astronomical +observations in 1800, is 34 minutes 48 seconds. I found the dip of +the needle 42.20 degrees: the intensity of the forces was equal to +224 oscillations. + +From the Morro of Barcelona to Cape Codera, the land becomes low, +as it recedes southward; and the soundings extend to the distance +of three miles. Beyond this we find the bottom at forty-five or +fifty fathoms. The temperature of the sea at its surface was 25.9 +degrees; but when we were passing through the narrow channel which +separates the two Piritu Islands, in three fathoms water, the +thermometer was only 24.5 degrees. The difference would perhaps be +greater, if the current, which runs rapidly westward, stirred up +deeper water; and if, in a pass of such small width, the land did +not contribute to raise the temperature of the sea. The Piritu +Islands resemble those shoals which become visible when the tide +falls. They do not rise more than eight or nine inches above the +mean height of the sea. Their surface is smooth, and covered with +grass. We might have thought we were gazing on some of our own +northern meadows. The disk of the setting sun appeared like a globe +of fire suspended over the savannah; and its last rays, as they +swept the earth, illumined the grass, which was at the same time +agitated by the evening breeze. In the low and humid parts of the +equinoctial zone, even when the gramineous plants and reeds present +the aspect of a meadow, a rich accessory of the picture is usually +wanting; I allude to that variety of wild flowers, which, scarcely +rising above the grass, seem as it were, to lie upon a smooth bed +of verdure. Within the tropics, the strength and luxury of +vegetation give such a development to plants, that the smallest of +the dicotyledonous family become shrubs. It would seem as if the +liliaceous plants, mingling with the gramina, assumed the place of +the flowers of our meadows. Their form is indeed striking; they +dazzle by the variety and splendour of their colours; but being too +high above the soil, they disturb that harmonious proportion which +characterizes the plants of our European meadows. Nature has in +every zone stamped on the landscape the peculiar type of beauty +proper to the locality. + +We must not be surprised that fertile islands, so near Terra Firma, +are not now inhabited. It was only at the early period of the +discovery, and whilst the Caribbees, Chaymas, and Cumanagotos were +still masters of the coast, that the Spaniards formed settlements +at Cubagua and Margareta. When the natives were subdued, or driven +southward in the direction of the savannahs, the preference was +given to settlements on the continent, where there was a choice of +land, and where there were Indians, who might be treated like +beasts of burden. Had the little islands of Tortuga, Blanquilla, +and Orchilla been situated in the group of the Antilles, they would +not have remained without traces of cultivation. + +Vessels of heavy burthen pass between the main land and the most +southern of the Piritu Islands. Being very low, their northern +point is dreaded by pilots who near the coast in those latitudes. +When we found ourselves to westward of the Morro of Barcelona, and +the mouth of the river Unare, the sea, till then calm, became +agitated and rough in proportion as we approached Cape Codera. The +influence of that vast promontory is felt from afar, in that part +of the Caribbean Sea. The length of the passage from Cumana to La +Guayra depends on the degree of ease or difficulty with which Cape +Codera can be doubled. Beyond this cape the sea constantly runs so +high, that we can scarcely believe we are near a coast where (from +the point of Paria as far as Cape San Roman) a gale of wind is +never known. On the 20th of November at sunrise we were so far +advanced, that we might expect to double the cape in a few hours. +We hoped to reach La Guayra the same day; but our Indian pilot +being afraid of the privateers who were near that port, thought it +would be prudent to make for land, and anchor in the little harbour +of Higuerote, which we had already passed, and await the shelter of +night to proceed on our voyage. + +On the 20th of November at nine in the morning we were at anchor in +the bay just mentioned, situated westward of the mouth of the Rio +Capaya. We found there neither village nor farm, but merely two or +three huts, inhabited by Mestizo fishermen. Their livid hue, and +the meagre condition of their children, sufficed to remind us that +this spot is one of the most unhealthy of the whole coast. The sea +has so little depth along these shores, that even with the smallest +barks it is impossible to reach the shore without wading through +the water. The forests come down nearly to the beach, which is +covered with thickets of mangroves, avicennias, manchineel-trees, +and that species of suriana which the natives call romero de la +mar.* (* Suriana maritima.) To these thickets, and particularly to +the exhalations of the mangroves, the extreme insalubrity of the +air is attributed here, as in other places in both Indies. On +quitting the boats, and whilst we were yet fifteen or twenty toises +distant from land, we perceived a faint and sickly smell, which +reminded me of that diffused through the galleries of deserted +mines, where the lights begin to be extinguished, and the timber is +covered with flocculent byssus. The temperature of the air rose to +34 degrees, heated by the reverberation from the white sands which +form a line between the mangroves and the great trees of the +forest. As the shore descends with a gentle slope, small tides are +sufficient alternately to cover and uncover the roots and part of +the trunks of the mangroves. It is doubtless whilst the sun heats +the humid wood, and causes the fermentation, as it were, of the +ground, of the remains of dead leaves and of the molluscs enveloped +in the drift of floating seaweed, that those deleterious gases are +formed, which escape our researches. We observed that the +sea-water, along the whole coast, acquired a yellowish brown tint, +wherever it came into contact with the mangrove trees. + +Struck with this phenomenon, I gathered at Higuerote a considerable +quantity of branches and roots, for the purpose of making some +experiments on the infusion of the mangrove, on my arrival at +Caracas. The infusion in warm water had a brown colour and an +astringent taste. It contained a mixture of extractive matter and +tannin. The rhizophora, the mistletoe, the cornel-tree, in short, +all the plants which belong to the natural families of the +lorantheous and the caprifoliaceous plants, have the same +properties. The infusion of mangrove-wood, kept in contact with +atmospheric air under a glass jar for twelve days, was not sensibly +deteriorated in purity. A little blackish flocculent sediment was +formed, but it was attended by no sensible absorption of oxygen. +The wood and roots of the mangrove placed under water were exposed +to the rays of the sun. I tried to imitate the daily operations of +nature on the coasts at the rise of the tide. Bubbles of air were +disengaged, and at the expiration of ten days they formed a volume +of thirty-three cubic inches. They were a mixture of azotic gas and +carbonic acid. Nitrous gas scarcely indicated the presence of +oxygen.* (* In a hundred parts there were eighty-four of nitrogen, +fifteen of carbonic acid gas that the water had not absorbed, and +one of oxygen.) Lastly, I set the wood and the roots of the +mangrove thoroughly wetted, to act on a given volume of atmospheric +air in a phial with a ground-glass stopple. The whole of the oxygen +disappeared; and, far from being superseded by carbonic acid, +lime-water indicated only 0.02. There was even a diminution of the +volume of air, more than correspondent with the oxygen absorbed. +These slight experiments led me to conclude that it is the +moistened bark and wood which act upon the atmosphere in the +forests of mangrove-trees, and not the water strongly tinged with +yellow, forming a distinct band along the coasts. In pursuing the +different stages of the decomposition of the ligneous matter, I +observed no appearance of a disengagement of sulphuretted hydrogen, +to which many travellers attribute the smell perceived amidst +mangroves. The decomposition of the earthy and alkaline sulphates, +and their transition to the state of sulphurets, may no doubt +favour this disengagement in many littoral and marine plants; for +instance, in the fuci: but I am rather inclined to think that the +rhizophora, the avicennia, and the conocarpus, augment the +insalubrity of the air by the animal matter which they contain +conjointly with tannin. These shrubs belong to the three natural +families of the Lorantheae, the Combretaceae, and the Pyrenaceae, +in which the astringent principle abounds; this principle +accompanies gelatin, even in the bark of beech, alder, and +nut-trees. + +Moreover, a thick wood spreading over marshy grounds would diffuse +noxious exhalations in the atmosphere, even though that wood were +composed of trees possessing in themselves no deleterious +properties. Wherever mangroves grow on the sea-shore, the beach is +covered with infinite numbers of molluscs and insects. These +animals love shade and faint light, and they find themselves +sheltered from the shock of the waves amid the scaffolding of thick +and intertwining roots, which rises like lattice-work above the +surface of the waters. Shell-fish cling to this lattice; crabs +nestle in the hollow trunks; and the seaweeds, drifted to the coast +by the winds and tides, remain suspended on the branches which +incline towards the earth. Thus, maritime forests, by the +accumulation of a slimy mud between the roots of the trees, +increase the extent of land. But whilst these forests gain on the +sea, they do not enlarge their own dimensions; on the contrary, +their progress is the cause of their destruction. Mangroves, and +other plants with which they live constantly in society, perish in +proportion as the ground dries and they are no longer bathed with +salt water. Their old trunks, covered with shells, and half-buried +in the sand, denote, after the lapse of ages, the path they have +followed in their migrations, and the limits of the land which they +have wrested from the ocean. + +The bay of Higuerote is favourably situated for examining Cape +Codera, which is there seen in its full extent seven miles distant. +This promontory is more remarkable for its size than for its +elevation, being only about two hundred toises high. It is +perpendicular on the north-west and east. In these grand profiles +the dip of the strata appears to be distinguishable. Judging from +the fragments of rock found along the coast, and from the hills +near Higuerote, Cape Codera is not composed of granite with a +granular texture, but of a real gneiss with a foliated texture. Its +laminae are very broad and sometimes sinuous.* (* Dickflasriger +gneiss.) They contain large nodules of reddish feldspar and but +little quartz. The mica is found in superposed lamellae, not +isolated. The strata nearest the bay were in the direction of 60 +degrees north-east, and dipped 80 degrees to north-west. These +relations of direction and of dip are the same at the great +mountain of the Silla, near Caracas, and to the east of Maniquarez, +in the isthmus of Araya. They seem to prove that the primitive +chain of that isthmus, after having been ruptured or swallowed up +by the sea along a space of thirty-five leagues,* (* Between the +meridians of Maniquarez and Higuerote.) appears anew in Cape +Codera, and continues westward as a chain of the coast. + +I was assured that, in the interior of the earth, south of +Higuerote, limestone formations are found. The gneiss did not act +upon the magnetic needle; yet along the coast, which forms a cove +near Cape Codera, and which is covered with a fine forest, I saw +magnetic sand mixed with spangles of mica, deposited by the sea. +This phenomenon occurs again near the port of La Guayra. Possibly +it may denote the existence of some strata of hornblende-schist +covered by the waters, in which schist the sand is disseminated. +Cape Codera forms on the north an immense spherical segment. A +shallow which stretches along its foot is known to navigators by +the name of the points of Tutumo and of San Francisco. + +The road by land from Higuerote to Caracas, runs through a wild and +humid tract of country, by the Montana of Capaya, north of +Caucagua, and the valley of Rio Guatira and Guarenas. Some of our +fellow-travellers determined on taking this road, and M. Bonpland +also preferred it, notwithstanding the continual rains and the +overflowing of the rivers. It afforded him the opportunity of +making a rich collection of new plants.* (* Bauhinia ferruginea, +Brownea racemosa, B ed. Inga hymenaeifolia, I. curiepensis (which +Willdenouw has called by mistake I. caripensis), etc.) For my part, +I continued alone with the Guaiqueria pilot the voyage by sea; for +I thought it hazardous to lose sight of the instruments which we +were to make use of on the banks of the Orinoco. + +We set sail at night-fall. The wind was unfavourable, and we +doubled Cape Codera with difficulty. The surges were short, and +often broke one upon another. The sea ran the higher, owing to the +wind being contrary to the current, till after midnight. The +general motion of the waters within the tropics towards the west is +felt strongly on the coast during two-thirds of the year. In the +months of September, October, and November, the current often flows +eastward for fifteen or twenty days in succession; and vessels on +their way from Guayra to Porto Cabello have sometimes been unable +to stem the current which runs from west to east, although they +have had the wind astern. The cause of these anomalies is not yet +discovered. The pilots think they are the effect of gales of wind +from the north-west in the gulf of Mexico. + +On the 21st of November, at sunrise, we were to the west of Cape +Codera, opposite Curuao. The coast is rocky and very elevated, the +scenery at once wild and picturesque. We were sufficiently near +land to distinguish scattered huts surrounded by cocoa-trees, and +masses of vegetation, which stood out from the dark ground of the +rocks. The mountains are everywhere perpendicular, and three or +four thousand feet high; their sides cast broad and deep shadows +upon the humid land, which stretches out to the sea, glowing with +the freshest verdure. This shore produces most of those fruits of +the hot regions, which are seen in such great abundance in the +markets of the Caracas. The fields cultivated with sugar-cane and +maize, between Camburi and Niguatar, stretch through narrow +valleys, looking like crevices or clefts in the rocks: and +penetrated by the rays of the sun, then above the horizon, they +presented the most singular contrasts of light and shade. + +The mountain of Niguatar and the Silla of Caracas are the loftiest +summits of this littoral chain. The first almost reaches the height +of Canigou; it seems as if the Pyrenees or the Alps, stripped of +their snows, had risen from the bosom of the ocean; so much more +stupendous do mountains appear when viewed for the first time from +the sea. Near Caravalleda, the cultivated lands enlarge; we find +hills with gentle declivities, and the vegetation rises to a great +height. The sugar-cane is here cultivated, and the monks of La +Merced have a plantation with two hundred slaves. This spot was +formerly extremely subject to fever; and it is said that the air +has acquired salubrity since trees have been planted round a small +lake, the emanations of which were dreaded, and which is now less +exposed to the ardour of the sun. To the west of Caravalleda, a +wall of bare rock again projects forward in the direction of the +sea, but it has little extent. After having passed it, we +immediately discovered the pleasantly situated village of Macuto; +the black rocks of La Guayra, studded with batteries rising in +tiers one over another, and in the misty distance, Cabo Blanco, a +long promontory with conical summits, and of dazzling whiteness. +Cocoa-trees border the shore, and give it, under that burning sky, +an appearance of fertility. + +I landed in the port of La Guayra, and the same evening made +preparations for transporting my instruments to Caracas. Having +been recommended not to sleep in the town, where the yellow fever +had been raging only a few weeks previously, I fixed my lodging in +a house on a little hill, above the village of Maiquetia, a place +more exposed to fresh winds than La Guayra. I reached Caracas on +the 21st of November, four days sooner than M. Bonpland, who, with +the other travellers on the land journey, had suffered greatly from +the rain and the inundations of the torrents, between Capaya and +Curiepe. + +Before proceeding further, I will here subjoin a description of La +Guayra, and the extraordinary road which leads from thence to the +town of Caracas, adding thereto all the observations made by M. +Bonpland and myself, in an excursion to Cabo Blanco about the end +of January 1800. + +La Guayra is rather a roadstead than a port. The sea is constantly +agitated, and ships suffer at once by the violence of the wind, the +tideways, and the bad anchorage. The lading is taken in with +difficulty, and the swell prevents the embarkation of mules here, +as at New Barcelona and Porto Cabello. The free mulattoes and +negroes, who carry the cacao on board the ships, are a class of men +remarkable for muscular strength. They wade up to their waists +through the water; and it is remarkable that they are never +attacked by the sharks, so common in this harbour. This fact seems +connected with what I have often observed within the tropics, with +respect to other classes of animals which live in society, for +instance monkeys and crocodiles. In the Missions of the Orinoco, +and on the banks of the river Amazon, the Indians, who catch +monkeys to sell them, know very well that they can easily succeed +in taming those which inhabit certain islands; while monkeys of the +same species, caught on the neighbouring continent, die of terror +or rage when they find themselves in the power of man. The +crocodiles of one lake in the llanos are cowardly, and flee even +when in the water; whilst those of another lake will attack with +extreme intrepidity. It would be difficult to explain this +difference of disposition and habits, by the mere aspect of the +respective localities. The sharks of the port of La Guayra seem to +furnish an analogous example. They are dangerous and blood-thirsty +at the island opposite the coast of Caracas, at the Roques, at +Bonayre, and at Curassao; while they forbear to attack persons +swimming in the ports of La Guayra and Santa Martha. The natives, +who like the ignorant mass of people in every country, in seeking +the explanation of natural phenomena, always have recourse to the +marvellous, affirm that in the ports just mentioned, a bishop gave +his benediction to the sharks. + +The situation of La Guayra is very singular, and can only be +compared to that of Santa Cruz in Teneriffe. The chain of mountains +which separates the port from the high valley of Caracas, descends +almost directly into the sea; and the houses of the town are backed +by a wall of steep rocks. There scarcely remains one hundred or one +hundred and forty toises breadth of flat ground between the wall +and the ocean. The town has six or eight thousand inhabitants, and +contains only two streets, running parallel with each other east +and west. It is commanded by the battery of Cerro Colorado; and its +fortifications along the sea-shore are well disposed, and kept in +repair. The aspect of this place has in it something solitary and +gloomy; we seemed not to be on a continent, covered with vast +forests, but on a rocky island, destitute of vegetation. With the +exception of Cabo Blanco and the cocoa-trees of Maiquetia, no view +meets the eye but that of the horizon, the sea, and the azure vault +of heaven. The heat is excessive during the day, and most +frequently during the night. The climate of La Guayra is justly +considered to be hotter than that of Cumana, Porto Cabello, and +Coro, because the sea-breeze is less felt, and the air is heated by +the radiant caloric which the perpendicular rocks emit from the +time the sun sets. The examination of the thermometric observations +made during nine months at La Guayra by an eminent physician, +enabled me to compare the climate of this port, with those of +Cumana, of the Havannah, and of Vera Cruz. This comparison is the +more interesting, as it furnishes an inexhaustible subject of +conversation in the Spanish colonies, and among the mariners who +frequent those latitudes. As nothing is more deceiving in such +matters than the testimony of the senses, we can judge of the +difference of climates only by numerical calculations. + +The four places of which we have been speaking are considered as +the hottest on the shores of the New World. A comparison of them +may serve to confirm what we have several times observed, that it +is generally the duration of a high temperature, and not the excess +of heat, or its absolute quantity, which occasions the sufferings +of the inhabitants of the torrid zone. + +A series of thermometric observations shows, that La Guayra is one +of the hottest places on the earth; that the quantity of heat which +it receives in the course of a year is a little greater than that +felt at Cumana; but that in the months of November, December, and +January (at equal distance from the two passages of the sun through +the zenith of the town), the atmosphere cools more at La Guayra. +May not this cooling, much slighter than that which is felt almost +at the same time at Vera Cruz and at the Havannah, be the effect of +the more westerly position of La Guayra? The aerial ocean, which +appears to form only one mass, is agitated by currents, the limits +of which are fixed by immutable laws; and its temperature is +variously modified by the configuration of the lands and seas by +which it is sustained. It may be subdivided into several basins, +which overflow into each other, and of which the most agitated (for +instance, that over the gulf of Mexico, or between the sierra of +Santa Martha and the gulf of Darien) have a powerful influence on +the refrigeration and the motion of the neighbouring columns of +air. The north winds sometimes cause influxes and counter-currents +in the south-west part of the Caribbean Sea, which seem, during +particular months, to diminish the heat as far as Terra Firma. + +At the time of my abode at La Guayra, the yellow fever, or +calentura amarilla, had been known only two years; and the +mortality it occasioned had not been very great, because the +confluence of strangers on the coast of Caracas was less +considerable than at the Havannah or Vera Cruz. A few individuals, +even creoles and mulattoes, were sometimes carried off suddenly by +certain irregular remittent fevers; which, from being complicated +with bilious appearances, hemorrhages, and other symptoms equally +alarming, appeared to have some analogy with the yellow fever. The +victims of these maladies were generally men employed in the hard +labour of cutting wood in the forests, for instance, in the +neighbourhood of the little port of Carupano, or the gulf of Santa +Fe, west of Cumana. Their death often alarmed the unacclimated +Europeans, in towns usually regarded as peculiarly healthy; but the +seeds of the sporadic malady were propagated no farther. On the +coast of Terra Firma, the real typhus of America, which is known by +the names vomito prieto (black vomit) and yellow fever, and which +must be considered as a morbid affection sui generis, was known +only at Porto Cabello, at Carthagena, and at Santa Martha, where +Gastelbondo observed and described it in 1729. The Spaniards +recently disembarked, and the inhabitants of the valley of Caracas, +were not then afraid to reside at La Guayra. They complained only +of the oppressive heat which prevailed during a great part of the +year. If they exposed themselves to the immediate action of the +sun, they dreaded at most only those attacks of inflammation of the +skin or eyes, which are felt everywhere in the torrid zone, and are +often accompanied by a febrile affection and congestion in the +head. Many individuals preferred the ardent but uniform climate of +La Guayra to the cool but extremely variable climate of Caracas; +and scarcely any mention was made of the insalubrity of the former +port. + +Since the year 1797 everything has changed. Commerce being thrown +open to other vessels besides those of the mother country, seamen +born in colder parts of Europe than Spain, and consequently more +susceptible to the climate of the torrid zone, began to frequent La +Guayra. The yellow fever broke out. North Americans, seized with +the typhus, were received in the Spanish hospitals; and it was +affirmed that they had imported the contagion, and that the disease +had appeared on board a brig from Philadelphia, even before the +vessel had entered the roads of La Guayra. The captain of the brig +denied the fact; and asserted that, far from having introduced the +malady, his crew had caught it in the port. We know from what +happened at Cadiz in 1800, how difficult it is to elucidate facts, +when their uncertainty serves to favour theories diametrically +opposite one to another. The more enlightened inhabitants of +Caracas and La Guayra, divided in opinion, like the physicians of +Europe and the United States, on the question of the contagion of +yellow fever, cited the instance of the American vessel; some for +the purpose of proving that the typhus had come from abroad, and +others, to show that it had taken birth in the country itself. +Those who advocated the latter opinion, admitted that an +extraordinary alteration had been caused in the constitution of the +atmosphere by the overflowings of the Rio de La Guayra. This +torrent, which in general is not ten inches deep, was swelled after +sixty hours' rain in the mountains, in so extraordinary a manner, +that it bore down trunks of trees and masses of rock of +considerable size. During this flood the waters were from thirty to +forty feet in breadth, and from eight to ten feet deep. It was +supposed that, issuing from some subterranean basin, formed by +successive infiltrations, they had flowed into the recently cleared +arable lands. Many houses were carried away by the torrent; and the +inundation became the more dangerous for the stores, in consequence +of the gate of the town, which could alone afford an outlet to the +waters, being accidentally closed. It was necessary to make a +breach in the wall on the sea-side. More than thirty persons +perished, and the damage was computed at half a million of +piastres. The stagnant water, which infected the stores, the +cellars, and the dungeons of the public prison, no doubt diffused +miasms in the air, which, as a predisposing cause, may have +accelerated the development of the yellow fever; but I believe that +the inundation of the Rio de la Guayra was no more the primary +cause, than the overflowings of the Guadalquivir, the Xenil, and +the Gual-Medina, were at Seville, at Ecija, and at Malaga, the +primary causes of the fatal epidemics of 1800 and 1804. I examined +with attention the bed of the torrent of La Guayra; and found it to +consist merely of a barren soil, blocks of mica-slate, and gneiss, +containing pyrites detached from the Sierra de Avila, but nothing +that could have had any effect in deteriorating the purity of the +air. + +Since the years 1797 and 1798, at which periods there prevailed +dreadful mortality at Philadelphia, St. Lucia, and St. Domingo, the +yellow fever has continued its ravages at La Guayra. It has proved +fatal not only to the troops newly arrived from Spain, but also to +those levied in parts remote from the coasts, in the llanos between +Calabozo and Uritucu, regions almost as hot as La Guayra, but +favourable to health. This latter fact would seem more surprising, +did we not know, that even the natives of Vera Cruz, who are not +attacked with typhus in their own town, sometimes sink under it +during the epidemics of the Havannah and the United States. As the +black vomit finds an insurmountable barrier at the Encero (four +hundred and seventy-six toises high), on the declivity of the +mountains of Mexico, in the direction of Xalapa, where oaks begin +to appear, and the climate begins to be cool and pleasant, so the +yellow fever scarcely ever passes beyond the ridge of mountains +which separates La Guayra from the valley of Caracas. This valley +has been exempt from the malady for a considerable time; for we +must not confound the vomito and the yellow fever with the +irregular and bilious fevers. The Cumbre and the Cerro do Avila +form a very useful rampart to the town of Caracas, the elevation of +which a little exceeds that of the Encero, but of which the mean +temperature is above that of Xalapa. + +I have published in another work* (* Nouvelle Espagne tome 2.) the +observations made by M. Bonpland and myself on the locality of the +towns periodically subject to the visitation of yellow fever; and I +shall not hazard here any new conjectures on the changes observed +in the pathogenic constitution of particular localities. The more I +reflect on this subject, the more mysterious appears to me all that +relates to those gaseous emanations which we call so vaguely the +seeds of contagion, and which are supposed to be developed by a +corrupted air, destroyed by cold, conveyed from place to place in +garments, and attached to the walls of houses. How can we explain +why, for the space of eighteen years prior to 1794, there was not a +single instance of the vomito at Vera Cruz, though the concourse of +unacclimated Europeans and of Mexicans from the interior, was very +considerable; though sailors indulged in the same excesses with +which they are still reproached; and though the town was not so +clean as it has been since the year 1800? + +The following is the series of pathological facts, considered in +their simplest point of view. When a great number of persons, born +in a cold climate, arrive at the same period in a port of the +torrid zone, not particularly dreaded by navigators, the typhus of +America begins to appear. Those persons have not had typhus during +their passage; it appears among them only after they have landed. +Is the atmospheric constitution changed? or is it that a new form +of disease develops itself among individuals whose susceptibility +is highly increased? + +The typhus soon begins to extend its ravages among other Europeans, +born in more southern countries. If propagated by contagion, it +seems surprising that in the towns of the equinoctial continent it +does not attach itself to certain streets; and that immediate +contact* does not augment the danger, any more than seclusion +diminishes it. (* In the oriental plague (another form of typhus +characterised by great disorder of the lymphatic system) immediate +contact is less to be feared than is generally thought. Larrey +maintains that the tumified glands may be touched or cauterized +without danger; but he thinks we ought not to risk putting on the +clothes of persons attacked with the plague.--Memoire sur les +Maladies de l'Armee Francoise en Egypte page 35.) The sick, when +removed to the inland country, and especially to cooler and more +elevated spots, to Xalapa, for instance, do not communicate typhus +to the inhabitants of those places, either because the disease is +not contagious in its nature, or because the predisposing causes +are not the same as in the regions of the shore. When there is a +considerable lowering of the temperature, the epidemic usually +ceases, even on the spot where it first appeared. It again breaks +out at the approach of the hot season, and sometimes long before; +though during several months there may have been no sick person in +the harbour, and no ship may have entered it. + +The typhus of America appears to be confined to the shore, either +because persons who bring the disease disembark there, and goods +supposed to be impregnated with deleterious miasms are there +accumulated; or because on the sea-side gaseous emanations of a +particular nature are formed. The aspect of the places subject to +the ravages of typhus seems often to exclude all idea of a local or +endemical origin. It has been known to prevail in the Canaries, the +Bermudas, and among the small West India Islands, in dry places +formerly distinguished for the great salubrity of their climate. +Examples of the propagation of the yellow fever in the inland parts +of the torrid zone appear very doubtful: that malady may have been +confounded with remitting bilious fevers. With respect to the +temperate zone, in which the contagious character of the American +typhus is more decided, the disease has unquestionably spread far +from the shore, even into very elevated places, exposed to cool and +dry winds, as in Spain at Medina-Sidonia, at Carlotta, and in the +city of Murcia. That variety of phenomena which the same epidemic +exhibits, according to the difference of climate, the union of +predisposing causes, its shorter or longer duration, and the degree +of its exacerbation, should render us extremely circumspect in +tracing the secret causes of the American typhus. M. Bailly, who, +at the time of the violent epidemics in 1802 and 1803, was chief +physician to the colony of St. Domingo, and who studied that +disease in the island of Cuba, the United States, and Spain, is of +opinion that the typhus is very often, but not always, contagious. + +Since the yellow fever has made such ravages in La Guayra, +exaggerated accounts have been given of the uncleanliness in that +little town as well as of Vera Cruz, and of the quays or wharfs of +Philadelphia. In a place where the soil is extremely dry, destitute +of vegetation, and where scarcely a few drops of water fall in the +course of seven or eight months, the causes that produce what are +called miasms, cannot be of very frequent occurrence. La Guayra +appeared to me in general to be tolerably clean, with the exception +of the quarter of the slaughter-houses. The sea-side has no beach +on which the remains of fuci or molluscs are heaped up; but the +neighbouring coast, which stretches eastward towards Cape Codera, +and consequently to the windward of La Guayra, is extremely +unhealthy. Intermitting, putrid, and bilious fevers often prevail +at Macuto and at Caravalleda; and when from time to time the breeze +is interrupted by a westerly wind, the little bay of Cotia sends +air loaded with putrid emanations towards the coast of La Guayra, +notwithstanding the rampart opposed by Cabo Blanco. + +The irritability of the organs being so different in the people of +the north and those of the south, it cannot be doubted, that with +greater freedom of commerce, and more frequent and intimate +communication between countries situated in different climates, the +yellow fever will extend its ravages in the New World. It is even +probable that the concurrence of so many exciting causes, and their +action on individuals so differently organized, may give birth to +new forms of disease and new deviations of the vital powers. This +is one of the evils that inevitably attend rising civilization. + +The yellow fever and the black vomit cease periodically at the +Havannah and Vera Cruz, when the north winds bring the cold air of +Canada towards the gulf of Mexico. But from the extreme equality of +temperature which characterizes the climates of Porto Cabello, La +Guayra, New Barcelona, and Cumana, it may be feared that the typhus +will there become permanent, whenever, from a great influx of +strangers, it has acquired a high degree of exacerbation. + +Tracing the granitic coast of La Guayra westward, we find between +that port (which is in fact but an ill-sheltered roadstead) and +that of Porto Cabello, several indentations of the land, furnishing +excellent anchorage for ships. Such are the small bay of Catia, Los +Arecifes, Puerto-la-Cruz, Choroni, Sienega de Ocumare, Turiamo, +Burburata, and Patanebo. All these ports, with the exception of +that of Burburata, from which mules are exported to Jamaica, are +now frequented only by small coasting vessels, which are there +laden with provisions and cacao from the surrounding plantations. +The inhabitants of Caracas are desirous to avail themselves of the +anchorage of Catia, to the west of Cabo Blanco. M. Bonpland and +myself examined that point of the coast during our second abode at +La Guayra. A ravine, called the Quebrada de Tipe, descends from the +table-land of Caracas towards Catia. A plan has long been in +contemplation for making a cart-road through this ravine and +abandoning the old road to La Guayra, which resembles the passage +over St. Gothard. According to this plan, the port of Catia, +equally large and secure, would supersede that of La Guayra. +Unfortunately, however, all that shore, to leeward of Cabo Blanco, +abounds with mangroves, and is extremely unhealthy. I ascended to +the summit of the promontory, which forms Cabo Blanco, in order to +observe the passage of the sun over the meridian. I wished to +compare in the morning the altitudes taken with an artificial +horizon and those taken with the horizon of the sea; to verify the +apparent depression of the latter, by the barometrical measurement +of the hill. By this method, hitherto very little employed, on +reducing the heights of the sun to the same time, a reflecting +instrument may be used like an instrument furnished with a level. I +found the latitude of the cape to be 10 degrees 36 minutes 45 +seconds; I could only make use of the angles which gave the image +of the sun reflected on a plane glass; the horizon of the sea was +very misty, and the windings of the coast prevented me from taking +the height of the sun on that horizon. + +The environs of Cabo Blanco are not uninteresting for the study of +rocks. The gneiss here passes into the state of mica-slate +(Glimmerschiefer.), and contains, along the sea-coast, layers of +schistose chlorite. (Chloritschiefer.) In this latter I found +garnets and magnetical sand. On the road to Catia we see the +chloritic schist passing into hornblende schist. +(Hornblendschiefer.) All these formations are found together in the +primitive mountains of the old world, especially in the north of +Europe. The sea at the foot of Cabo Blanco throws up on the beach +rolled fragments of a rock, which is a granular mixture of +hornblende and lamellar feldspar. It is what is rather vaguely +called PRIMITIVE GRUNSTEIN. In it we can recognize traces of quartz +and pyrites. Submarine rocks probably exist near the coast, which +furnish these very hard masses. I have compared them in my journal +to the PATERLESTEIN of Fichtelberg, in Franconia, which is also a +diabase, but so fusible, that glass buttons are made of it, which +are employed in the slave-trade on the coast of Guinea. I believed +at first, according to the analogy of the phenomena furnished by +the mountains of Franconia, that the presence of these hornblende +masses with crystals of common (uncompact) feldspar indicated the +proximity of transition rocks; but in the high valley of Caracas, +near Antimano, balls of the same diabase fill a vein crossing the +mica-slate. On the western declivity of the hill of Cabo Blanco, +the gneiss is covered with a formation of sandstone, or +conglomerate, extremely recent. This sandstone combines angular +fragments of gneiss, quartz, and chlorite, magnetical sand, +madrepores, and petrified bivalve shells. Is this formation of the +same date as that of Punta Araya and Cumana? + +Scarcely any part of the coast has so burning a climate as the +environs of Cabo Blanco. We suffered much from the heat, augmented +by the reverberation of a barren and dusty soil; but without +feeling any bad consequences from the effects of insolation. The +powerful action of the sun on the cerebral functions is extremely +dreaded at La Guayra, especially at the period when the yellow +fever begins to be felt. Being one day on the terrace of the house, +observing at noon the difference of the thermometer in the sun and +in the shade, a man approached me holding in his hand a potion, +which he conjured me to swallow. He was a physician, who from his +window, had observed me bareheaded, and exposed to the rays of the +sun. He assured me, that, being a native of a very northern +climate, I should infallibly, after the imprudence I had committed, +be attacked with the yellow fever that very evening, if I refused +to take the remedy against it. I was not alarmed by this +prediction, however serious, believing myself to have been long +acclimated; but I could not resist yielding to entreaties, prompted +by such benevolent feelings. I swallowed the dose; and the +physician doubtless counted me among the number of those he had +saved. + +The road leading from the port to Caracas (the capital of a +government of near 900,000 inhabitants) resembles, as I have +already observed, the passage over the Alps, the road of St. +Gothard, and of the Great St. Bernard. Taking the level of the road +had never been attempted before my arrival in the province of +Venezuela. No precise idea had even been formed of the elevation of +the valley of Caracas. It had indeed been long observed, that the +descent was much less from La Cumbre and Las Vueltas (the latter is +the culminating point of the road towards the Pastora at the +entrance of the valley of Caracas), than towards the port of La +Guayra; but the mountain of Avila having a very considerable bulk, +the eye cannot discern simultaneously the points to be compared. It +is even impossible to form a precise idea of the elevation of +Caracas, from the climate of the valley, where the atmosphere is +cooled by the descending currents of air, and by the mists, which +envelope the lofty summit of the Silla during a great part of the +year. + +When in the season of the great heats we breathe the burning +atmosphere of La Guayra, and turn our eyes towards the mountains, +it seems scarcely possible that, at the distance of five or six +thousand toises, a population of forty thousand individuals +assembled in a narrow valley, enjoys the coolness of spring, a +temperature which at night descends to 12 degrees of the centesimal +thermometer. This near approach of different climates is common in +the Cordillera of the Andes; but everywhere, at Mexico, at Quito, +in Peru, and in New Granada, it is only after a long journey into +the interior, either across plains or along rivers, that we reach +the great cities, which are the central points of civilization. The +height of Caracas is but a third of that of Mexico, Quito, and +Santa Fe de Bogota; yet of all the capitals of Spanish America +which enjoy a cool and delicious climate in the midst of the torrid +zone, Caracas is nearest to the coast. What a privilege for a city +to possess a seaport at three leagues distance, and to be situated +among mountains, on a table-land, which would produce wheat, if the +cultivation of the coffee-tree were not preferred! + +The road from La Guayra to the valley of Caracas is infinitely +finer than the road from Honda to Santa Fe, or that from Guayaquil +to Quito. It is kept in better order than the old road, which led +from the port of Vera Cruz to Perote, on the eastern declivity of +the mountains of New Spain. With good mules it takes but three +hours to go from the port of La Guayra to Caracas; and only two +hours to return. With loaded mules, or on foot, the journey is from +four to five hours. The road runs along a ridge of rocks extremely +steep, and after passing the stations bearing respectively the +names of Torre Quemada, Curucuti, and Salto, we arrive at a large +inn (La Venta) built at six hundred toises above the level of the +sea. The name Torre Quemada, or Burnt Tower, indicates the +sensation that is felt in descending towards La Guayra. A +suffocating heat is reflected from the walls of rock, and +especially from the barren plains on which the traveller looks +down. On this road, as on that from Vera Cruz to Mexico, and +wherever on a rapid declivity the climate changes, the increase of +muscular strength and the sensation of well-being, which we +experience as we advance into strata of cooler air, have always +appeared to me less striking than the feeling of languor and +debility which pervades the frame, when we descend towards the +burning plains of the coast. But such is the organization of man; +and even in the moral world, we are less soothed by that which +ameliorates our condition than annoyed by a new sensation of +discomfort. + +From Curucuti to Salto the ascent is somewhat less laborious. The +sinuosities of the way render the declivity easier, as in the old +road over Mont Cenis. The Salto (or Leap) is a crevice, which is +crossed by a draw-bridge. Fortifications crown the summit of the +mountain. At La Venta the thermometer at noon stood at 19.3 +degrees, when at La Guayra it kept up at the same hour at 26.2 +degrees. La Venta enjoys some celebrity in Europe and in the United +States, for the beauty of its surrounding scenery. When the clouds +permit, this spot affords a magnificent view of the sea, and the +neighbouring coasts. An horizon of more than twenty-two leagues +radius is visible; the white and barren shore reflects a dazzling +mass of light; and the spectator beholds at his feet Cabo Blanco, +the village of Maiquetia with its cocoa-trees, La Guayra, and the +vessels in the port. But I found this view far more extraordinary, +when the sky was not serene, and when trains of clouds, strongly +illumined on their upper surface, seemed projected like floating +islands on the ocean. Strata of vapour, hovering at different +heights, formed intermediary spaces between the eye and the lower +regions. By an illusion easily explained, they enlarged the scene, +and rendered it more majestic. Trees and dwellings appeared at +intervals through the openings, which were left by the clouds when +driven on by the winds, and rolling over one another. Objects then +appear at a greater depth than when seen through a pure and +uniformly serene air. On the declivity of the mountains of Mexico, +at the same height (between Las Trancas and Xalapa), the sea is +twelve leagues distant, and the view of the coast is confused; +while on the road from La Guayra to Caracas we command the plains +(the tierra caliente), as from the top of a tower. How +extraordinary must be the impression created by this prospect on +natives of the inland parts of the country, who behold the sea and +ships for the first time from this point. + +I determined by direct observations the latitude of La Venta, that +I might be enabled to give a more precise idea of the distance of +the coasts. The latitude is 10 degrees 33 minutes 9 seconds. Its +longitude appeared to me by the chronometer, nearly 2 minutes 47 +seconds west of the town of Caracas. I found the dip of the needle +at this height to be 41.75 degrees, and the intensity of the +magnetic forces equal to two hundred and thirty-four oscillations. +From the Venta, called also La Venta Grande, to distinguish it from +three or four small inns formerly established along the road, but +now destroyed, there is still an ascent of one hundred and fifty +toises to Guayavo. This is nearly the most lofty point of the road. + +Whether we gaze on the distant horizon of the sea, or turn our eyes +south-eastward, in the direction of the serrated ridge of rocks, +which seems to unite the Cumbre and the Silla, though separated +from them by the ravine (quebrada) of Tocume, everywhere we admire +the grand character of the landscape. From Guayavo we proceed for +half an hour over a smooth table-land, covered with alpine plants. +This part of the way, on account of its windings, is called Las +Vueltas. We find a little higher up the barracks or magazines of +flour, which were constructed in a spot of cool temperature by the +Guipuzcoa Company, when they had the exclusive monopoly of the +trade of Caracas, and supplied that place with provision. On the +road to Las Vueltas we see for the first time the capital, situated +three hundred toises below, in a valley luxuriantly planted with +coffee and European fruit-trees. Travellers are accustomed to halt +near a fine spring, known by the name of Fuente de Sanchorquiz, +which flows down from the Sierra on sloping strata of gneiss. I +found its temperature 16.4 degrees; which, for an elevation of +seven hundred and twenty-six toises, is considerably cool, and it +would appear much cooler to those who drink its limpid water, if, +instead of gushing out between La Cumbre and the temperate valley +of Caracas, it were found on the descent towards La Guayra. But at +this descent on the northern side of the mountain, the rock, by an +uncommon exception in this country, does not dip to north-west, but +to south-east, which prevents the subterranean waters from forming +springs there. + +We continued to descend from the small ravine of Sanchorquiz to la +Cruz de la Guayra, a cross erected on an open spot, six hundred and +thirty-two toises high, and thence (entering by the custom-house +and the quarter of the Pastora) to the city of Caracas. On the +south side of the mountain of Avila, the gneiss presents several +geognostical phenomena worthy of the attention of travellers. It is +traversed by veins of quartz, containing cannulated and often +articulated prisms of rutile titanite two or three lines in +diameter. In the fissures of the quartz we find, on breaking it, +very thin crystals, which crossing each other form a kind of +network. Sometimes the red schorl occurs only in dendritic crystals +of a bright red.* (* Especially below the Cross of La Guayra, at +594 toises of absolute elevation.) The gneiss of the valley of +Caracas is characterized by the red and green garnets it contains; +they however disappear when the rock passes into mica-slate. This +same phenomenon has been remarked by Von Buch in Sweden; but in the +temperate parts of Europe garnets are in general contained in +serpentine and mica-slates, not in gneiss. In the walls which +enclose the gardens of Caracas, constructed partly of fragments of +gneiss, we find garnets of a very fine red, a little transparent, +and very difficult to detach. The gneiss near the Cross of La +Guayra, half a league from Caracas, presented also vestiges of +azure copper-ore* (* Blue carbonate of copper.) disseminated in +veins of quartz, and small strata of plumbago (black lead), or +earthy carburetted iron. This last is found in pretty large masses, +and sometimes mingled with sparry iron-ore, in the ravine of +Tocume, to the west of the Silla. + +Between the spring of Sanchorquiz and the Cross of La Guayra, as +well as still higher up, the gneiss contains considerable beds of +saccharoidal bluish-grey primitive limestone, coarse-grained, +containing mica, and traversed by veins of white calcareous spar. +The mica, with large folia, lies in the direction of the dip of the +strata. I found in the primitive limestone a great many +crystallized pyrites, and rhomboidal fragments of sparry iron-ore +of Isabella yellow. I endeavoured, but without success, to find +tremolite (Grammatite of Hauy. The primitive limestone above the +spring of Sanchorquiz, is directed, as the gneiss in that place, +hor. 5.2, and dips 45 degrees north; but the general direction of +the gneiss is, in the Cerro de Avila, hor. 3.4 with 60 degrees of +dip north-west. Exceptions merely local are observed in a small +space of ground near the Cross of La Guayra (hor. 6.2, dip 8 +degrees north); and higher up, opposite the Quebrada of Tipe (hor. +12, dip 50 degrees west).), which in the Fichtelberg, in Franconia, +is common in the primitive limestone without dolomite. In Europe +beds of primitive limestone are generally observed in the +mica-slates; but we find also saccharoidal limestone in gneiss of +the most ancient formation, in Sweden near Upsala, in Saxony near +Burkersdorf, and in the Alps in the road over the Simplon. These +situations are analogous to that of Caracas. The phenomena of +geognosy, particularly those which are connected with the +stratification of rocks, and their grouping, are never solitary; +but are found the same in both hemispheres. I was the more struck +with these relations, and this identity of formations, as, at the +time of my journey in these countries, mineralogists were +unacquainted with the name of a single rock of Venezuela, New +Grenada, and the Cordilleras of Quito. + + +CHAPTER 1.12. + +GENERAL VIEW OF THE PROVINCES OF VENEZUELA. +DIVERSITY OF THEIR INTERESTS. +CITY AND VALLEY OF CARACAS. +CLIMATE. + +In all those parts of Spanish America in which civilization did not +exist to a certain degree before the Conquest (as it did in Mexico, +Guatimala, Quito, and Peru), it has advanced from the coasts to the +interior of the country, following sometimes the valley of a great +river, sometimes a chain of mountains, affording a temperate +climate. Concentrated at once in different points, it has spread as +if by diverging rays. The union into provinces and kingdoms was +effected on the first immediate contact between civilized parts, or +at least those subject to permanent and regular government. Lands +deserted, or inhabited by savage tribes, now surround the countries +which European civilization has subdued. They divide its conquests +like arms of the sea difficult to be passed, and neighbouring +states are often connected with each other only by slips of +cultivated land. It is less difficult to acquire a knowledge of the +configuration of coasts washed by the ocean, than of the +sinuosities of that interior shore, on which barbarism and +civilization, impenetrable forests and cultivated land, touch and +bound each other. From not having reflected on the early state of +society in the New World, geographers have often made their maps +incorrect, by marking the different parts of the Spanish and +Portuguese colonies, as though they were contiguous at every point +in the interior. The local knowledge which I obtained respecting +these boundaries, enables me to fix the extent of the great +territorial divisions with some certainty, to compare the wild and +inhabited parts, and to appreciate the degree of political +influence exercised by certain towns of America, as centres of +power and of commerce. + +Caracas is the capital of a country nearly twice as large as Peru, +and now little inferior in extent to the kingdom of New Grenada.* +(* The Capitania-General of Caracas contains near 48,000 square +leagues (twenty-five to a degree). Peru, since La Paz, Potosi, +Charcas and Santa Cruz de la Sierra, have been separated from it, +contains only 30,000. New Grenada, including the province of Quito, +contains 65,000. Reinos, Capitanias-Generales, Presidencies, +Goviernos, and Provincias, are the names by which Spain formerly +distinguished her transmarine possessions, or, as they were called, +Dominios de Ultramar (Dominions beyond Sea.)) This country which +the Spanish government designates by the name of Capitania-General +de Caracas,* (* The captain-general of Caracas has the title of +"Capitan-General de las Provincias de Venezuela y Ciudad do +Caracas.") or of the united provinces of Venezuela, has nearly a +million of inhabitants, among whom are sixty thousand slaves. It +comprises, along the coasts, New Andalusia, or the province of +Cumana (with the island of Margareta),* (* This island, near the +coast of Cumana, forms a separate govierno, depending immediately +on the captain-general of Caracas.) Barcelona, Venezuela or +Caracas, Coro, and Maracaybo; in the interior, the provinces of +Varinas and Guiana; the former situated on the rivers of Santo +Domingo and the Apure, the latter stretching along the Orinoco, the +Casiquiare, the Atabapo, and the Rio Negro. In a general view of +the seven united provinces of Terra Firma, we perceive that they +form three distinct zones, extending from east to west. + +We find, first, cultivated land along the sea-shore, and near the +chain of the mountains on the coast; next, savannahs or pasturages; +and finally, beyond the Orinoco, a third zone, that of the forests, +into which we can penetrate only by the rivers which traverse them. +If the native inhabitants of the forests lived entirely on the +produce of the chase, like those of the Missouri, we might say that +the three zones into which we have divided the territory of +Venezuela, picture the three states of human society; the life of +the wild hunter, in the woods of the Orinoco; pastoral life, in the +savannahs or llanos; and the agricultural state, in the high +valleys, and at the foot of the mountains on the coast. Missionary +monks and some few soldiers occupy here, as throughout all Spanish +America, advanced posts along the frontiers of Brazil. In this +first zone are felt the preponderance of force, and the abuse of +power, which is its necessary consequence. The natives carry on +civil war, and sometimes devour one another. The monks endeavour to +augment the number of little villages of their Missions, by taking +advantage of the dissensions of the natives. The military live in a +state of hostility to the monks, whom they were intended to +protect. Everything presents a melancholy picture of misery and +privation. We shall soon have occasion to examine more closely that +state of man, which is vaunted as a state of nature, by those who +inhabit towns. In the second region, in the plains and +pasture-grounds, food is extremely abundant, but has little +variety. Although more advanced in civilization, the people beyond +the circle of some scattered towns are not less isolated from one +another. At sight of their dwellings, partly covered with skins and +leather, it might be supposed that, far from being fixed, they are +scarcely encamped in those vast plains which extend to the horizon. +Agriculture, which alone consolidates the bases, and strengthens +the bonds of society, occupies the third zone, the shore, and +especially the hot and temperate valleys among the mountains near +the sea. + +It may be objected, that in other parts of Spanish and Portuguese +America, wherever we can trace the progressive development of +civilization, we find the three ages of society combined. But it +must be remembered that the position of the three zones, that of +the forests, the pastures, and the cultivated land, is not +everywhere the same, and that it is nowhere so regular as in +Venezuela. It is not always from the coast to the interior, that +population, commercial industry, and intellectual improvement, +diminish. In Mexico, Peru, and Quito, the table-lands and central +mountains possess the greatest number of cultivators, the most +numerous towns situated near to each other, and the most ancient +institutions. We even find, that, in the kingdom of Buenos Ayres, +the region of pasturage, known by the name of the Pampas, lies +between the isolated part of Buenos Ayres and the great mass of +Indian cultivators, who inhabit the Cordilleras of Charcas, La Paz, +and Potosi. This circumstance gives birth to a diversity of +interests, in the same country, between the people of the interior +and those who inhabit the coasts. + +To form an accurate idea of those vast provinces which have been +governed for ages, almost like separate states, by viceroys and +captains-general, we must fix our attention at once on several +points. We must distinguish the parts of Spanish America opposite +to Asia from those on the shores of the Atlantic; we must ascertain +where the greater portion of the population is placed; whether near +the coast, or concentrated in the interior, on the cold and +temperate table-lands of the Cordilleras. We must verify the +numerical proportions between the natives and other castes; search +into the origin of the European families, and examine to what race, +in each part of the colonies, belongs the greater number of whites. +The Andalusian-Canarians of Venezuela, the Mountaineers* (* +Montaneses. The inhabitants of the mountains of Santander are +called by this name in Spain.) and the Biscayans of Mexico, the +Catalonians of Buenos Ayres, differ essentially in their aptitude +for agriculture, for the mechanical arts, for commerce, and for all +objects connected with intellectual development. Each of those +races has preserved, in the New as in the Old World, the shades +that constitute its national physiognomy; its asperity or mildness +of character; its freedom from sordid feelings, or its excessive +love of gain; its social hospitality, or its taste for solitude. In +the countries where the population is for the most part composed of +Indians and mixed races, the difference between the Europeans and +their descendants cannot indeed be so strongly marked, as that +which existed anciently in the colonies of Ionian and Doric origin. +The Spaniards transplanted to the torrid zone, estranged from the +habits of their mother-country, must have felt more sensible +changes than the Greeks settled on the coasts of Asia Minor, and of +Italy, where the climates differ so little from those of Athens and +Corinth. It cannot be denied that the character of the Spanish +Americans has been variously modified by the physical nature of the +country; the isolated sites of the capitals on the table-lands or +in the vicinity of the coasts; the agricultural life; the labour of +the mines, and the habit of commercial speculation: but in the +inhabitants of Caracas, Santa Fe, Quito, and Buenos Ayres, we +recognize everywhere something which belongs to the race and the +filiation of the people. + +If we examine the state of the Capitania-General of Caracas, +according to the principles here laid down, we perceive that +agricultural industry, the great mass of population, the numerous +towns, and everything connected with advanced civilization, are +found near the coast. This coast extends along a space of two +hundred leagues. It is washed by the Caribbean Sea, a sort of +Mediterranean, on the shores of which almost all the nations of +Europe have founded colonies; which communicates at several points +with the Atlantic; and which has had a considerable influence on +the progress of knowledge in the eastern part of equinoctial +America, from the time of the Conquest. The kingdoms of New Grenada +and Mexico have no connection with foreign colonies, and through +them with the nations of Europe, except by the ports of Carthagena, +of Santa Martha, of Vera Cruz, and of Campeachy. These vast +countries, from the nature of their coasts, and the isolation of +their inhabitants on the back of the Cordilleras, have few points +of contact with foreign lands. The gulf of Mexico also is but +little frequented during a part of the year, on account of the +danger of gales of wind from the north. The coasts of Venezuela, on +the contrary, from their extent, their eastward direction, the +number of their ports, and the safety of their anchorage at +different seasons, possess all the advantages of the Caribbean Sea. +The communications with the larger islands, and even with those +situated to windward, can nowhere be more frequent than from the +ports of Cumana, Barcelona, La Guayra, Porto Cabello, Coro, and +Maracaybo. Can we wonder that this facility of commercial +intercourse with the inhabitants of free America, and the agitated +nations of Europe, should in the provinces united under the +Capitania-General of Venezuela, have augmented opulence, knowledge, +and that restless desire of a local government, which is blended +with the love of liberty and republican forms? + +The copper-coloured natives, or Indians, constitute an important +mass of the agricultural population only in those places where the +Spaniards, at the time of the Conquest, found regular governments, +social communities, and ancient and very complicated institutions; +as, for example, in New Spain, south of Durango; and in Peru, from +Cuzco to Potosi. In the Capitania-General of Caracas, the Indian +population is inconsiderable, at least beyond the Missions and in +the cultivated zone. Even in times of great political excitement, +the natives do not inspire any apprehension in the whites or the +mixed castes. Computing, in 1800, the total population of the seven +united provinces at nine hundred thousand souls, it appeared to me +that the Indians made only one-ninth; while at Mexico they form +nearly one half of the inhabitants. + +Considering the Caribbean Sea, of which the gulf of Mexico makes a +part, as an interior sea with several mouths, it is important to +fix our attention on the political relations arising out of this +singular configuration of the New Continent, between countries +placed around the same basin. Notwithstanding the isolated state in +which most of the mother-countries endeavour to hold their +colonies, the agitations that take place are not the less +communicated from one to the other. The elements of discord are +everywhere the same; and, as if by instinct, an understanding is +established between men of the same colour, although separated by +difference of language, and inhabiting opposite coasts. That +American Mediterranean formed by the shores of Venezuela, New +Grenada, Mexico, the United States, and the West India Islands, +counts upon its borders near a million and a half of free and +enslaved blacks; but so unequally distributed, that there are very +few to the south, and scarcely any in the regions of the west. +Their great accumulation is on the northern and eastern coasts, +which may be said to be the African part of the interior basin. The +commotions which since 1792 have broken out in St. Domingo, have +naturally been propagated to the coasts of Venezuela. So long as +Spain possessed those fine colonies in tranquillity, the little +insurrections of the slaves were easily repressed; but when a +struggle of another kind, that for independence, began, the blacks +by their menacing position excited alternately the apprehensions of +the opposite parties; and the gradual or instantaneous abolition of +slavery has been proclaimed in different regions of Spanish +America, less from motives of justice and humanity, than to secure +the aid of an intrepid race of men, habituated to privation, and +fighting for their own cause. I found in the narrative of the +voyage of Girolamo Benzoni, a curious passage, which proves that +the apprehensions caused by the increase of the black population +are of very old date. These apprehensions will cease only where +governments shall second by laws the progressive reforms which +refinement of manners, opinion, and religious sentiment, introduce +into domestic slavery. "The negroes," says Benzoni, "multiply so +much at St. Domingo, that in 1545, when I was in Terra Firma [on +the coast of Caracas], I saw many Spaniards who had no doubt that +the island would shortly be the property of the blacks."* (* "Vi +sono molti Spagnuoli che tengono per cosa certa, che quest' isola +(San Dominico) in breve tempo sara posseduta da questi Mori di +Guinea." (Benzoni Istoria del Mondo Nuovo ediz. 2da 1672 page 65.) +The author, who is not very scrupulous in the adoption of +statistical facts, believes that in his time there were at St. +Domingo seven thousand fugitive negroes (Mori cimaroni), with whom +Don Luis Columbus made a treaty of peace and friendship.) It was +reserved for our age to see this prediction accomplished; and a +European colony of America transform itself into an African state. + +The sixty thousand slaves which the seven united provinces of +Venezuela are computed to contain, are so unequally divided, that +in the province of Caracas alone there are nearly forty thousand, +one-fifth of whom are mulattoes; in Maracaybo, there are ten or +twelve thousand; but in Cumana and Barcelona, scarcely six +thousand. To judge of the influence which the slaves and men of +colour exercise on the public tranquility, it is not enough to know +their number, we must consider their accumulation at certain +points, and their manner of life, as cultivators or inhabitants of +towns. In the province of Venezuela, the slaves are assembled +together on a space of no great extent, between the coast, and a +line which passes (at twelve leagues from the coast) through +Panaquire, Yare, Sabana de Ocumare, Villa de Cura, and Nirgua. The +llanos or vast plains of Calaboso, San Carlos, Guanare, and +Barquecimeto, contain only four or five thousand slaves, who are +scattered among the farms, and employed in the care of cattle. The +number of free men is very considerable; the Spanish laws and +customs being favourable to affranchisement. A master cannot refuse +liberty to a slave who offers him the sum of three hundred +piastres, even though the slave may have cost double that price, on +account of his industry, or a particular aptitude for the trade he +practises. Instances of persons who voluntarily bestow liberty on a +certain number of their slaves, are more common in the province of +Venezuela than in any other place. A short time before we visited +the fertile valleys of Aragua and the lake of Valencia, a lady who +inhabited the great village of Victoria, ordered her children, on +her death-bed, to give liberty to all her slaves, thirty in number. +I feel pleasure in recording facts that do honour to the character +of a people from whom M. Bonpland and myself received so many marks +of kindness. + +If we compare the seven united provinces of Venezuela with the +kingdom of Mexico and the island of Cuba, we shall succeed in +finding the approximate number of white Creoles, and even of +Europeans. The white Creoles, whom I may call Hispano-Americans,* +(* In imitation of the word Anglo-American, adapted in all the +languages of Europe. In the Spanish colonies, the whites born in +America are called Spaniards; and the real Spaniards, those born in +the mother country, are called Europeans, Gachupins, or Chapetons.) +form in Mexico nearly a fifth, and in the island of Cuba, according +to the very accurate enumeration of 1801, a third of the whole +population. When we reflect that the kingdom of Mexico contains two +millions and a half of natives of the copper-coloured race; when we +consider the state of the coasts bordering on the Pacific, and the +small number of whites in the intendencias of Puebla and Oaxaca, +compared with the natives, we cannot doubt that the province of +Venezuela at least, if not the capitania-general, has a greater +proportion than that of one to five. The island of Cuba,* (* I do +not mention the kingdom of Buenos Ayres, where, among a million of +inhabitants, the whites are extremely numerous in parts near the +coast; while the table-lands, or provinces of the sierra are almost +entirely peopled with natives.) in which the whites are even more +numerous than in Chile, may furnish us with a limiting number, that +is to say, the maximum which may be supposed in the +capitania-general of Caracas. I believe we must stop at two +hundred, or two hundred and ten thousand Hispano-Americans, in a +total population of nine hundred thousand souls. The number of +Europeans included in the white race (not comprehending the troops +sent from the mother-country) does not exceed twelve or fifteen +thousand. It certainly is not greater at Mexico than sixty +thousand; and I find by several statements, that, if we estimate +the whole of the Spanish colonies at fourteen or fifteen millions +of inhabitants, there are in that number at most three millions of +Creole whites, and two hundred thousand Europeans. + +When Tupac-Amaru, who believed himself to be the legitimate heir to +the empire of the Incas, made the conquest of several provinces of +Upper Peru, in 1781, at the head of forty thousand Indian +mountaineers, all the whites were filled with alarm. The +Hispano-Americans felt, like the Spaniards born in Europe, that the +contest was between the copper-coloured race and the whites; +between barbarism and civilization. Tupac-Amaru, who himself was +not destitute of intellectual cultivation, began with flattering +the creoles and the European clergy; but soon, impelled by events, +and by the spirit of vengeance that inspired his nephew, Andres +Condorcanqui, he changed his plan. A rising for independence became +a cruel war between the different castes; the whites were +victorious, and excited by a feeling of common interest, from that +period they kept watchful attention on the proportions existing in +the different provinces between their numbers and those of the +Indians. It was reserved for our times to see the whites direct +this attention towards themselves; and examine, from motives of +distrust, the elements of which their own caste is composed. Every +enterprise in favour of independence and liberty puts the national +or American party in opposition to the men of the mother-country. +When I arrived at Caracas, the latter had just escaped from the +danger with which they thought they were menaced by the +insurrection projected by Espana. The consequences of that bold +attempt were the more deplorable, because, instead of investigating +the real causes of the popular discontent, it was thought that the +mother-country would be saved by employing vigorous measures. At +present, the commotions which have arisen throughout the country, +from the banks of the Rio de la Plata to New Mexico, an extent of +fourteen hundred leagues, have divided men of a common origin. + +The Indian population in the united provinces of Venezuela is not +considerable, and is but recently civilized. All the towns were +founded by the Spanish conquerors, who could not carry out, as in +Mexico and Peru, the old civilization of the natives. Caracas, +Maracaybo, Cumana, and Coro, have nothing Indian but their names. +Compared with the three capitals of equinoctial America,* (* +Mexico, Santa Fe de Bogota, and Quito. The elevation of the site of +the capital of Guatimala is still unknown. Judging from the +vegetation, we may infer that it is less than 500 toises.) situated +on the mountains, and enjoying a temperate climate, Caracas is the +least elevated. It is not a central point of commerce, like Mexico, +Santa Fe de Bogota, and Quito. Each of the seven provinces united +in one capitania-general has a port, by which its produce is +exported. It is sufficient to consider the position of the +provinces, their respective degree of intercourse with the Windward +Islands, the direction of the mountains, and the course of the +great rivers, to perceive that Caracas can never exercise any +powerful political influence over the territories of which it is +the capital. The Apure, the Meta, and the Orinoco, running from +west to east, receive all the streams of the llanos, or the region +of pasturage. St. Thomas de la Guiana will necessarily, at some +future day, be a trading-place of high importance, especially when +the flour of New Grenada, embarked above the confluence of the Rio +Negro and the Umadea, and descending by the Meta and Orinoco, shall +be preferred at Caracas and Guiana to the flour of New England. It +is a great advantage to the provinces of Venezuela, that their +territorial wealth is not directed to one point, like that of +Mexico and New Grenada, which flows to Vera Cruz and Carthagena; +but that they possess a great number of towns equally well peopled, +and forming various centres of commerce and civilization. + +The city of Caracas is seated at the entrance of the plain of +Chacao, which extends three leagues eastward, in the direction of +Caurimare and the Cuesta de Auyamas, and is two leagues and a half +in breadth. This plain, through which runs the Rio Guayra, is at +the elevation of four hundred and fourteen toises above the level +of the sea. The ground on which the city of Caracas is built is +uneven, and has a steep slope from north-north-west to +south-south-east. To form an accurate idea of the situation of +Caracas, we must bear in mind the general direction of the +mountains of the coast, and the great longitudinal valleys by which +they are traversed. The Rio Guayra rises in the group of primitive +mountains of Higuerote, which separates the valley of Caracas from +that of Aragua. It is formed near Las Ajuntas, by the junction of +the little rivers of San Pedro and Macarao, and runs first eastward +as far as the Cuesta of Auyamas, and then southward, uniting its +waters with those of the Rio Tuy, below Yare. The Rio Tuy is the +only considerable river in the northern and mountainous part of the +province. + +The river flows in a direct course from west to east, the distance +of thirty leagues, and it is navigable along more than three +quarters of that distance. By barometrical measurements I found the +slope of the Tuy along this length, from the plantation of +Manterola* (* At the foot of the high mountain of Cocuyza, 3 east +from Victoria.) to its mouth, east of Cape Codera, to be two +hundred and ninety-five toises. This river forms in the chain of +the coast a kind of longitudinal valley, while the waters of the +llanos, or of five-sixths of the province of Caracas, follow the +slope of the land southward, and join the Orinoco. This +hydrographic sketch may throw some light on the natural tendency of +the inhabitants of each particular province, to export their +productions by different roads. + +The valleys of Caracas and of the Tuy run parallel for a +considerable length. They are separated by a mountainous tract, +which is crossed in going from Caracas to the high savannahs of +Ocumare, passing by La Valle and Salamanca. These savannahs +themselves are beyond the Tuy; and the valley of the Tuy being a +great deal lower than that of Caracas, the descent is almost +constantly from north to south. As Cape Codera, the Silla, the +Cerro de Avila between Caracas and La Guayra, and the mountains of +Mariara, constitute the most northern and elevated range of the +coast chain; so the mountains of Panaquire, Ocumare, Guiripa, and +of the Villa de Cura, form the most southern range. The general +direction of the strata composing this vast chain of the coast is +from south-east to north-west; and the dip is generally towards +north-west: hence it follows, that the direction of the primitive +strata is independent of that of the whole chain. It is extremely +remarkable, tracing this chain* from Porto Cabello as far as +Maniquarez and Macanao, in the island of Margareta (* I have +spoken, in the preceding chapter, of the interruption in the chain +of the coast to the east of Cape Codera.), to find, from west to +east, first granite, then gneiss, mica-slate, and primitive schist; +and finally, compact limestone, gypsum, and conglomerates +containing sea-shells. + +It is to be regretted that the town of Caracas was not built +farther to the east, below the entrance of the Anauco into the +Guayra; on that spot near Chacao, where the valley widens into an +extensive plain, which seems to have been levelled by the waters. +Diego de Losada, when he founded* the town, followed no doubt the +traces of the first establishment made by Faxardo. At that time, +the Spaniards, attracted by the high repute of the two gold mines +of Los Teques and Baruta, were not yet masters of the whole valley, +and preferred remaining near the road leading to the coast. (* The +foundation of Santiago de Leon de Caracas dates from 1567, and is +posterior to that of Cumana, Coro, Nueva Barcelona, and +Caravalleda, or El Collado.) The town of Quito is also built in the +narrowest and most uneven part of a valley, between two fine +plains, Turupamba and Rumipamba. + +The descent is uninterrupted from the custom-house of the Pastora, +by the square of Trinidad and the Plaza Mayor, to Santa Rosalia, +and the Rio Guayra. This declivity of the ground does not prevent +carriages from going about the town; but the inhabitants make +little use of them. Three small rivers, descending from the +mountains, the Anauco, the Catuche, and the Caraguata, intersect +the town, running from north to south. Their banks are very high; +and, with the dried-up ravines which join them, furrowing the +ground, they remind the traveller of the famous Guaicos of Quito, +only on a smaller scale. The water used for drinking at Caracas is +that of the Rio Catuche; but the richer class of the inhabitants +have their water brought from La Valle, a village a league distant +on the south. This water and that of Gamboa are considered very +salubrious, because they flow over the roots of sarsaparilla.* (* +Throughout America water is supposed to share the properties of +those plants under the shade of which it flows. Thus, at the +Straits of Magellan, that water is much praised which comes in +contact with the roots of the Canella winterana.) I could not +discover in them any aromatic or extractive matter. The water of +the valley does not contain lime, but a little more carbonic acid +than the water of the Anauco. The new bridge over this river is a +handsome structure. Caracas contains eight churches, five convents, +and a theatre capable of holding fifteen or eighteen hundred +persons. When I was there, the pit, in which the seats of the men +are apart from those of the women, was uncovered. By this means the +spectators could either look at the actors or gaze at the stars. As +the misty weather made me lose a great many observations of +Jupiter's satellites, I was able to ascertain, as I sat in a box in +the theatre, whether the planet would be visible that night. The +streets of Caracas are wide and straight, and they cross each other +at right angles, as in all the towns built by the Spaniards in +America. The houses are spacious, and higher than they ought to be +in a country subject to earthquakes. In 1800, the two squares of +Alta Gracia and San Francisco presented a very agreeable aspect; I +say in the year 1800, because the terrible shocks of the 26th of +March, 1812, almost destroyed the whole city, which is only now +slowly rising from its ruins. The quarter of Trinidad, in which I +resided, was destroyed as completely as if a mine had been sprung +beneath it. + +The small extent of the valley, and the proximity of the high +mountains of Avila and the Silla, give a gloomy and stern character +to the scenery of Caracas; particularly in that part of the year +when the coolest temperature prevails, namely, in the months of +November and December. The mornings are then very fine; and on a +clear and serene sky we could perceive the two domes or rounded +pyramids of the Silla, and the craggy ridge of the Cerro de Avila. +But towards evening the atmosphere thickens; the mountains are +overhung with clouds; streams of vapour cling to their evergreen +slopes, and seem to divide them into zones one above another. These +zones are gradually blended together; the cold air which descends +from the Silla, accumulates in the valley, and condenses the light +vapours into large fleecy clouds. These often descend below the +Cross of La Guayra, and advance, gliding on the soil, in the +direction of the Pastora of Caracas, and the adjacent quarter of +Trinidad. Beneath this misty sky, I could scarcely imagine myself +to be in one of the temperate valleys of the torrid zone; but +rather in the north of Germany, among the pines and the larches +that cover the mountains of the Hartz. + +But this gloomy aspect, this contrast between the clearness of +morning and the cloudy sky of evening, is not observable in the +midst of summer. The nights of June and July are clear and +delicious. The atmosphere then preserves, almost without +interruption, the purity and transparency peculiar to the +table-lands and elevated valleys of these regions in calm weather, +as long as the winds do not mingle together strata of air of +unequal temperature. That is the season for enjoying the beauty of +the landscape, which, however, I saw clearly illumined only during +a few days at the end of January. The two rounded summits of the +Silla are seen at Caracas, almost under the same angles of +elevation* as the peak of Teneriffe at the port of Orotava.* (* I +found, at the square of Trinidad, the apparent height of the Silla +to be 11 degrees 12 minutes 49 seconds. It was about four thousand +five hundred toises distant.) The first half of the mountain is +covered with short grass; then succeeds the zone of evergreen trees, +reflecting a purple light at the season when the befaria, the +alpine rose-tree* (* Rhododendron ferrugineum of the Alps.) of +equinoctial America, is in blossom. The rocky masses rise above +this wooded zone in the form of domes. Being destitute of +vegetation, they increase by the nakedness of their surface the +apparent height of a mountain which, in the temperate parts of +Europe, would scarcely rise to the limit of perpetual snow. The +cultivated region of the valley, and the gay plains of Chacao, +Petare, and La Vega, form an agreeable contrast to the imposing +aspect of the Silla, and the great irregularities of the ground on +the north of the town. + +The climate of Caracas has often been called a perpetual spring. +The same sort of climate exists everywhere, halfway up the +Cordilleras of equinoctial America, between four hundred and nine +hundred toises of elevation, except in places where the great +breadth of the valleys, combined with an arid soil, causes an +extraordinary intensity* of radiant caloric. (* As at Carthago and +Ibague in New Grenada.) What can we conceive to be more delightful +than a temperature which in the day keeps between 20 and 26 degrees +(Between 16 and 20.8 degrees Reaum.); and at night between 16 and +18 degrees (Between 12.8 and 14.4 degrees Reaum.), which is equally +favourable to the plantain, the orange-tree, the coffee-tree, the +apple, the apricot, and corn? Jose de Oviedo y Banos, the +historiographer of Venezuela, calls the situation of Caracas that +of a terrestrial paradise, and compares the Anauco and the +neighbouring torrents to the four rivers of the Garden of Eden. + +It is to be regretted that this delightful climate is generally +inconstant and variable. The inhabitants of Caracas complain of +having several seasons in one and the same day; and of the rapid +change from one season to another. In the month of January, for +instance, a night, of which the mean temperature is 16 degrees, is +sometimes followed by a day when the thermometer during eight +successive hours keeps above 22 degrees in the shade. In the same +day, we may find the temperature of 24 and 18 degrees. These +variations are extremely common in our temperate climates of +Europe, but in the torrid zone, Europeans themselves are so +accustomed to the uniform action of exterior stimulus, that they +suffer from a change of temperature of 6 degrees. At Cumana, and +everywhere in the plains, the temperature from eleven in the +morning to eleven at night changes only 2 or 3 degrees. Moreover, +these variations act on the human frame at Caracas more violently +than might be supposed from the mere indications of the +thermometer. In this narrow valley the atmosphere is in some sort +balanced between two winds, one blowing from the west, or the +seaside, the other from the east, or the inland country. The first +is known by the name of the wind of Catia, because it blows from +Catia westward of Cabo Blanco through the ravine of Tipe. It is, +however, only a westerly wind in appearance, and it is oftener the +breeze of the east and north-east, which, rushing with extreme +impetuosity, engulfs itself in the Quebrada de Tipe. Rebounding +from the high mountains of Aguas Negras, this wind finds its way +back to Caracas, in the direction of the hospital of the Capuchins +and the Rio Caraguata. It is loaded with vapours, which it deposits +as its temperature decreases, and consequently the summit of the +Silla is enveloped in clouds, when the catia blows in the valley. +This wind is dreaded by the inhabitants of Caracas; it causes +headache in persons whose nervous system is irritable. In order to +shun its effects, people sometimes shut themselves up in their +houses, as they do in Italy when the sirocco is blowing. I thought +I perceived, during my stay at Caracas, that the wind of Catia was +purer (a little richer in oxygen) than the wind of Petare. I even +imagined that its purity might explain its exciting property. The +wind of Petare coming from the east and south-east, by the eastern +extremity of the valley of the Guayra, brings from the mountains +and the interior of the country, a drier air, which dissipates the +clouds, and the summit of the Silla rises in all its beauty. + +We know that the modifications produced by winds in the composition +of the air in various places, entirely escape our eudiometrical +experiments, the most precise of which can estimate only as far +as .0003 degrees of oxygen. Chemistry does not yet possess any +means of distinguishing two jars of air, the one filled during the +prevalence of the sirocco or the catia, and the other before these +winds have commenced. It appears to me probable, that the singular +effects of the catia, and of all those currents of air, to the +influence of which popular opinion attaches so much importance, +must be looked for rather in the changes of humidity and of +temperature, than in chemical modifications. We need not trace +miasms to Caracas from the unhealthy shore on the coast: it may be +easily conceived that men accustomed to the drier air of the +mountains and the interior, must be disagreeably affected when the +very humid air of the sea, pressed through the gap of Tipe, reaches +in an ascending current the high valley of Caracas, and, getting +cooler by dilatation, and by contact with the adjacent strata, +deposits a great portion of the water it contains. This inconstancy +of climate, these somewhat rapid transitions from dry and +transparent to humid and misty air, are inconveniences which +Caracas shares in common with the whole temperate region of the +tropics--with all places situated between four and eight hundred +toises of elevation, either on table-lands of small extent, or on +the slope of the Cordilleras, as at Xalapa in Mexico, and Guaduas +in New Granada. A serenity, uninterrupted during a great part of +the year, prevails only in the low regions at the level of the sea, +and at considerable heights on those vast table-lands, where the +uniform radiation of the soil seems to contribute to the perfect +dissolution of vesicular vapours. The intermediate zone is at the +same height as the first strata of clouds which surround the +surface of the earth; and the climate of this zone, the temperature +of which is so mild, is essentially misty and variable. + +Notwithstanding the elevation of the spot, the sky is generally +less blue at Caracas than at Cumana. The aqueous vapour is less +perfectly dissolved; and here, as in our climates, a greater +diffusion of light diminishes the intensity of the aerial colour, +by introducing white into the blue of the air. This intensity, +measured with the cyanometer of Saussure, was found from November +to January generally 18, never above 20 degrees. On the coasts it +was from 22 to 25 degrees. I remarked, in the village of Caracas, +that the wind of Petare sometimes contributes singularly to give a +pale tint to the celestial vault. On the 22nd of January, the blue +of the sky was at noon in the zenith feebler than I ever saw it in +the torrid zone.* (* At noon, thermometer in the shade 23.7 (in the +sun, out of the wind, 30.4 degrees); De Luc's hygrometer, 36.2; +cyanometer, at the zenith, 12, at the horizon 9 degrees. The wind +ceased at three in the afternoon. Thermometer 21; hygrometer 39.3; +cyanometer 16 degrees. At six o'clock, thermometer 20.2; hygrometer +39 degrees.) It corresponded only to 12 degrees of the cyanometer. +The atmosphere was then remarkably transparent, without clouds, and +of extraordinary dryness. The moment the wind of Petare ceased, the +blue colour rose at the zenith as high as 16 degrees. I have often +observed at sea, but in a smaller degree, a similar effect of the +wind on the colour of the serenest sky. + +We know less exactly the mean temperature of Caracas, than that of +Santa Fe de Bogota and of Mexico. I believe, however, I can +demonstrate, that it cannot be very distant from twenty to +twenty-two degrees. I found by my own observations, during the +three very cool months of November, December, and January, taking +each day the maximum and minimum of the temperature, the heights +were 20.2; 20.1; 20.2 degrees. + +Rains are extremely frequent at Caracas in the months of April, +May, and June. The storms always come from the east and south-east, +from the direction of Petare and La Valle. No hail falls in the low +regions of the tropics; yet it occurs at Caracas almost every four +or five years. Hail has even been seen in valleys still lower; and +this phenomenon, when it does happen, makes a powerful impression +on the people. Falls of aerolites are less rare with us than hail +in the torrid zone, notwithstanding the frequency of thunder-storms +at the elevation of three hundred toises above the level of the +sea. + +The cool and delightful climate we have just been describing is +also suited for the culture of equinoctial productions. The +sugar-cane is reared with success, even at heights exceeding that +of Caracas; but in the valley, owing to the dryness of the climate, +and the stony soil, the cultivation of the coffee-tree is +preferred: it yields indeed but little fruit, but that little is of +the finest quality. When the shrub is in blossom, the plain +extending beyond Chacao presents a delightful aspect. The +banana-tree, which is seen in the plantations near the town, is not +the great Platano harton; but the varieties camburi and dominico, +which require less heat. The great plantains are brought to the +market of Caracas from the haciendas of Turiamo, situated on the +coast between Burburata and Porto Cabello. The finest flavoured +pine-apples are those of Baruto, of Empedrado, and of the heights +of Buenavista, on the road to Victoria. When a traveller for the +first time visits the valley of Caracas, he is agreeably surprised +to find the culinary plants of our climates, as well as the +strawberry, the vine, and almost all the fruit-trees of the +temperate zone, growing beside the coffee and banana-tree. The +apples and peaches esteemed the best come from Macarao, or from the +western extremity of the valley. There, the quince-tree, the trunk +of which attains only four or five feet in height, is so common, +that it has almost become wild. Preserved apples and quinces, +particularly the latter,* (* "Dulce de manzana y de membrillo," are +the Spanish names of these preserves.) are much used in a country +where it is thought that, before drinking water, thirst should be +excited by sweetmeats. In proportion as the environs of the town +have been planted with coffee, and the establishment of plantations +(which dates only from the year 1795) has increased the number of +agricultural negroes,* the apple and quince-trees scattered in the +savannahs have given place, in the valley of Caracas, to maize and +pulse. (* The consumption of provisions, especially meat, is so +considerable in the towns of Spanish America, that at Caracas, in +1800, there were 40,000 oxen killed every year: while in Paris, in +1793, with a population fourteen times as great, the number +amounted only to 70,000.) Rice, watered by means of small trenches, +was formerly more common than it now is in the plain of Chacao. I +observed in this province, as in Mexico and in all the elevated +lands of the torrid zone, that, where the apple-tree is most +abundant, the culture of the pear-tree is attended with great +difficulty. I have been assured, that near Caracas the excellent +apples sold in the markets come from trees not grafted. There are +no cherry-trees. The olive-trees which I saw in the court of the +convent of San Felipe de Neri, were large and fine; but the +luxuriance of their vegetation prevented them from bearing fruit. + +If the atmospheric constitution of the valley be favourable to the +different kinds of culture on which colonial industry is based, it +is not equally favourable to the health of the inhabitants, or to +that of foreigners settled in the capital of Venezuela. The extreme +inconstancy of the weather, and the frequent suppression of +cutaneous perspiration, give birth to catarrhal affections, which +assume the most various forms. A European, once accustomed to the +violent heat, enjoys better health at Cumana, in the valley of +Aragua, and in every place where the low region of the tropics is +not very humid, than at Caracas, and in those mountain-climates +which are vaunted as the abode of perpetual spring. + +Speaking of the yellow fever of La Guayra, I mentioned the opinion +generally adopted, that this disease is propagated as little from +the coast of Venezuela to the capital, as from the coast of Mexico +to Xalapa. This opinion is founded on the experience of the last +twenty years. The contagious disorders which were severely felt in +the port of La Guayra, were scarcely felt at Caracas. I am not +convinced that the American typhus, rendered endemic on the coast +as the port becomes more frequented, if favoured by particular +dispositions of the climate, may not become common in the valley: +for the mean temperature of Caracas is considerable enough to allow +the thermometer, in the hottest months, to keep between twenty-two +and twenty-six degrees. The situation of Xalapa, on the declivity +of the Mexican mountains, promises more security, because that town +is less populous, and is five times farther distant from the sea +than Caracas, and two hundred and thirty toises higher: its mean +temperature being three degrees cooler. In 1696, a bishop of +Venezuela, Diego de Banos, dedicated a church (ermita) to Santa +Rosalia of Palermo, for having delivered the capital from the +scourge of the black vomit (vomito negro), which is said to have +raged for the space of sixteen months. A mass celebrated every year +in the cathedral, in the beginning of September, perpetuates the +remembrance of this epidemic, in the same manner as processions +fix, in the Spanish colonies, the date of the great earthquakes. +The year 1696 was indeed very remarkable for the yellow fever, +which raged with violence in all the West India Islands, where it +had only begun to gain an ascendancy in 1688. But how can we give +credit to an epidemical black vomit, having lasted sixteen months +without interruption, and which may be said to have passed through +that very cool season when the thermometer at Caracas falls to +twelve or thirteen degrees? Can the typhus be of older date in the +elevated valley of Caracas, than in the most frequented ports of +Terra Firma. According to Ulloa, it was unknown in Terra Firma +before 1729. I doubt, therefore, the epidemic of 1696 having been +the yellow fever, or real typhus of America. Some of the symptoms +which accompany yellow fever are common to bilious remittent +fevers; and are no more characteristic than haematemeses of that +severe disease now known at the Havannah and Vera Cruz by the name +of vomito. But though no accurate description satisfactorily +demonstrates that the typhus of America existed at Caracas as early +as the end of the seventeenth century, it is unhappily too certain, +that this disease carried off in that capital a great number of +European soldiers in 1802. We are filled with dismay when we +reflect that, in the centre of the torrid zone, a table-land four +hundred and fifty toises high, but very near the sea, does not +secure the inhabitants against a scourge which was believed to +belong only to the low regions of the coast. + + +CHAPTER 1.13. + +ABODE AT CARACAS. +MOUNTAINS IN THE VICINITY OF THE TOWN. +EXCURSION TO THE SUMMIT OF THE SILLA. +INDICATIONS OF MINES. + +I remained two months at Caracas, where M. Bonpland and I lived in +a large house in the most elevated part of the town. From a gallery +we could survey at once the summit of the Silla, the serrated ridge +of the Galipano, and the charming valley of the Guayra, the rich +culture of which was pleasingly contrasted with the gloomy curtain +of the surrounding mountains. It was in the dry season, and to +improve the pasturage, the savannahs and the turf covering the +steepest rocks were set on fire. These vast conflagrations, viewed +from a distance, produce the most singular effects of light. +Wherever the savannahs, following the undulating slope of the +rocks, have filled up the furrows hollowed out by the waters, the +flame appears in a dark night like currents of lava suspended over +the valley. The vivid but steady light assumes a reddish tint, when +the wind, descending from the Silla, accumulates streams of vapour +in the low regions. At other times (and this effect is still more +curious) these luminous bands, enveloped in thick clouds, appear +only at intervals where it is clear; and as the clouds ascend, +their edges reflect a splendid light. These various phenomena, so +common in the tropics, acquire additional interest from the form of +the mountains, the direction of the slopes, and the height of the +savannahs covered with alpine grasses. During the day, the wind of +Petare, blowing from the east, drives the smoke towards the town, +and diminishes the transparency of the air. + +If we had reason to be satisfied with the situation of our house, +we had still greater cause for satisfaction in the reception we met +with from all classes of the inhabitants. Though I have had the +advantage, which few Spaniards have shared with me, of having +successively visited Caracas, the Havannah, Santa Fe de Bogota, +Quito, Lima, and Mexico, and of having been connected in these six +capitals of Spanish America with men of all ranks, I will not +venture to decide on the various degrees of civilization, which +society has attained in the several colonies. It is easier to +indicate the different shades of national improvement, and the +point towards which intellectual development tends, than to compare +and class things which cannot all be considered under one point of +view. It appeared to me, that a strong tendency to the study of +science prevailed at Mexico and Santa Fe de Bogota; more taste for +literature, and whatever can charm an ardent and lively +imagination, at Quito and Lima; more accurate notions of the +political relations of countries, and more enlarged views on the +state of colonies and their mother-countries, at the Havannah and +Caracas. The numerous communications with commercial Europe, with +the Caribbean Sea (which we have described as a Mediterranean with +many outlets), have exercised a powerful influence on the progress +of society in the five provinces of Venezuela and in the island of +Cuba. In no other part of Spanish America has civilization assumed +a more European character. The great number of Indian cultivators +who inhabit Mexico and the interior of New Grenada, impart a +peculiar, I may almost say, an exotic aspect, on those vast +countries. Notwithstanding the increase of the black population, we +seem to be nearer to Cadiz and the United States, at Caracas and +the Havannah, than in any other part of the New World. + +When, in the reign of Charles V, social distinctions and their +consequent rivalries were introduced from the mother-country to the +colonies, there arose in Cumana and in other commercial towns of +Terra Firma, exaggerated pretensions to nobility on the part of +some of the most illustrious families of Caracas, distinguished by +the designation of los Mantuanos. The progress of knowledge, and +the consequent change in manners, have, however, gradually and +pretty generally neutralized whatever is offensive in those +distinctions among the whites. In all the Spanish colonies there +exist two kinds of nobility. One is composed of creoles, whose +ancestors only from a very recent period filled great stations in +America. Their prerogatives are partly founded on the distinction +they enjoy in the mother-country; and they imagine they can retain +those distinctions beyond the sea, whatever may be the date of +their settlement in the colonies. The other class of nobility has +more of an American character. It is composed of the descendants of +the Conquistadores, that is to say, of the Spaniards who served in +the army at the time of the first conquest. Among the warriors who +fought with Cortez, Losada, and Pizarro, several belonged to the +most distinguished families of the Peninsula; others, sprung from +the inferior classes of the people, have shed lustre on their +names, by that chivalrous spirit which prevailed at the beginning +of the sixteenth century. In the records of those times of +religious and military enthusiasm, we find, among the followers of +the great captains, many simple, virtuous, and generous characters, +who reprobated the cruelties which then stained the glory of the +Spanish name, but who, being confounded in the mass, have not +escaped the general proscription. The name of Conquistadares +remains the more odious, as the greater number of them, after +having outraged peaceful nations, and lived in opulence, did not +end their career by suffering those misfortunes which appease the +indignation of mankind, and sometimes soothe the severity of the +historian. + +But it is not only the progress of ideas, and the conflict between +two classes of different origin, which have induced the privileged +castes to abandon their pretensions, or at least cautiously to +conceal them. Aristocracy in the Spanish colonies has a +counterpoise of another kind, the action of which becomes every day +more powerful. A sentiment of equality, among the whites, has +penetrated every bosom. Wherever men of colour are either +considered as slaves or as having been enfranchised, that which +constitutes nobility is hereditary liberty--the proud boast of +having never reckoned among ancestors any but freemen. In the +colonies, the colour of the skin is the real badge of nobility. In +Mexico, as well as Peru, at Caracas as in the island of Cuba, a +bare-footed fellow with a white skin, is often heard to exclaim: +"Does that rich man think himself whiter than I am?" The population +which Europe pours into America being very considerable, it may +easily be supposed, that the axiom, 'every white man is noble' +(todo blanco es caballero), must singularly wound the pretensions +of many ancient and illustrious European families. But it may be +further observed, that the truth of this axiom has long since been +acknowledged in Spain, among a people justly celebrated for +probity, industry, and national spirit. Every Biscayan calls +himself noble; and there being a greater number of Biscayans in +America and the Philippine Islands, than in the Peninsula, the +whites of that race have contributed, in no small degree, to +propagate in the colonies the system of equality among all men +whose blood has not been mixed with that of the African race. + +Moreover, the countries of which the inhabitants, even without a +representative government, or any institution of peerage, annex so +much importance to genealogy and the advantages of birth, are not +always those in which family aristocracy is most offensive. We do +not find among the natives of Spanish origin, that cold and +assuming air which the character of modern civilization seems to +have rendered less common in Spain than in the rest of Europe. +Conviviality, candour, and great simplicity of manner, unite the +different classes of society in the colonies, as well as in the +mother-country. It may even be said, that the expression of vanity +and self-love becomes less offensive, when it retains something of +simplicity and frankness. + +I found in several families at Caracas a love of information, an +acquaintance with the masterpieces of French and Italian +literature, and a marked predilection for music, which is greatly +cultivated, and which (as always results from a taste for the fine +arts) brings the different classes of society nearer to each other. +The mathematical sciences, drawing, and painting, cannot here boast +of any of those establishments with which royal munificence and the +patriotic zeal of the inhabitants have enriched Mexico. In the +midst of the marvels of nature, so rich in interesting productions, +it is strange that we found no person on this coast devoted to the +study of plants and minerals. In a Franciscan convent I met, it is +true, with an old monk who drew up the almanac for all the +provinces of Venezuela, and who possessed some accurate knowledge +of astronomy. Our instruments interested him deeply, and one day +our house was filled with all the monks of San Francisco, begging +to see a dipping-needle. The curiosity excited by physical +phenomena is naturally great in countries undermined by volcanic +fires, and in a climate where nature is at once so majestic and so +mysteriously convulsed. + +When we remember, that in the United States of North America, +newspapers are published in small towns not containing more than +three thousand inhabitants, it seems surprising that Caracas, with +a population of forty or fifty thousand souls, should have +possessed no printing office before 1806; for we cannot give the +name of a printing establishment to a few presses which served only +from year to year to promulgate an almanac of a few pages, or the +pastoral letter of a bishop. Though the number of those who feel +reading to be a necessity is not very considerable, even in the +Spanish colonies most advanced in civilization, yet it would be +unjust to reproach the colonists for a state of intellectual +lassitude which has been the result of a jealous policy. A +Frenchman, named Delpeche, has the merit of having established the +first printing office in Caracas. It appears somewhat extraordinary +that an establishment of this kind should have followed, and not +preceded, a political revolution. + +In a country abounding in such magnificent scenery, and at a period +when, notwithstanding some symptoms of popular commotion, most of +the inhabitants seem only to direct attention to physical objects, +such as the fertility of the year, the long drought, or the +conflicting winds of Petare and Catia, I expected to find many +individuals well acquainted with the lofty surrounding mountains. +But I was disappointed; and we could not find in Caracas a single +person who had visited the summit of the Silla. Hunters do not +ascend so high on the ridges of mountains; and in these countries +journeys are not undertaken for such purposes as gathering alpine +plants, carrying a barometer to an elevated point, or examining the +nature of rocks. Accustomed to a uniform and domestic life, the +people dread fatigue and sudden changes of climate. They seem to +live not to enjoy life, but only to prolong it. + +Our walks led us often in the direction of two coffee plantations, +the proprietors of which, Don Andres de Ibarra and M. Blandin, were +men of agreeable manners. These plantations were situated opposite +the Silla de Caracas. Surveying, by a telescope, the steep +declivity of the mountains, and the form of the two peaks by which +it is terminated, we could form an idea of the difficulties we +should have to encounter in reaching its summit. Angles of +elevation, taken with the sextant at our house, had led me to +believe that the summit was not so high above sea-level as the +great square of Quito. This estimate was far from corresponding +with the notions entertained by the inhabitants of the city. +Mountains which command great towns, have acquired, from that very +circumstance, an extraordinary celebrity in both continents. Long +before they have been accurately measured, a conventional height is +assigned to them; and to entertain the least doubt respecting that +height is to wound a national prejudice. + +The captain-general, Senor de Guevara, directed the teniente of +Chacao to furnish us with guides to conduct us on our ascent of the +Silla. These guides were negroes, and they knew something of the +path leading over the ridge of the mountain, near the western peak +of the Silla. This path is frequented by smugglers, but neither the +guides, nor the most experienced of the militia, accustomed to +pursue the smugglers in these wild spots, had been on the eastern +peak, forming the most elevated summit of the Silla. During the +whole month of December, the mountain (of which the angles of +elevation made me acquainted with the effects of the terrestrial +refractions) had appeared only five times free of clouds. In this +season two serene days seldom succeed each other, and we were +therefore advised not to choose a clear day for our excursion, but +rather a time when, the clouds not being elevated, we might hope, +after having crossed the first layer of vapours uniformly spread, +to enter into a dry and transparent air. We passed the night of the +2nd of January in the Estancia de Gallegos, a plantation of +coffee-trees, near which the little river of Chacaito, flowing in a +luxuriantly shaded ravine, forms some fine cascades in descending +the mountains. The night was pretty clear; and though on the day +preceding a fatiguing journey it might have been well to have +enjoyed some repose, M. Bonpland and I passed the whole night in +watching three occultations of the satellites of Jupiter. I had +previously determined the instant of the observation, but we missed +them all, owing to some error of calculation in the Connaissance +des Temps. The apparent time had been mistaken for mean time. + +I was much disappointed by this accident; and after having observed +at the foot of the mountain the intensity of the magnetic forces, +before sunrise, we set out at five in the morning, accompanied by +slaves carrying our instruments. Our party consisted of eighteen +persons, and we all walked one behind another, in a narrow path, +traced on a steep acclivity, covered with turf. We endeavoured +first to reach a hill, which towards the south-east seems to form a +promontory of the Silla. It is connected with the body of the +mountain by a narrow dyke, called by the shepherds the Gate, or +Puerta de la Silla. We reached this dyke about seven. The morning +was fine and cool, and the sky till then seemed to favour our +excursion. I saw that the thermometer kept a little below 14 +degrees (11.2 degrees Reaum.). The barometer showed that we were +already six hundred and eighty-five toises above the level of the +sea, that is, nearly eighty toises higher than at the Venta, where +we enjoyed so magnificent a view of the coast. Our guides thought +that it would require six hours more to reach the summit of the +Silla. + +We crossed a narrow dyke of rocks covered with turf; which led us +from the promontory of the Puerta to the ridge of the great +mountain. Here the eye looks down on two valleys, or rather narrow +defiles, filled with thick vegetation. On the right is perceived +the ravine which descends between the two peaks to the farm of +Munoz; on the left we see the defile of Chacaito, with its waters +flowing out near the farm of Gallegos. The roaring of the cascades +is heard, while the water is unseen, being concealed by thick +groves of erythrina, clusia, and the Indian fig-tree.* (* Ficus +nymphaeifolia, Erythrina mitis. Two fine species of mimosa are +found in the same valley; Inga fastuosa, and I. cinerea.) Nothing +can be more picturesque, in a climate where so many plants have +broad, large, shining, and coriaceous leaves, than the aspect of +trees when the spectator looks down from a great height above them, +and when they are illumined by the almost perpendicular rays of the +sun. + +From the Puerta de la Silla the steepness of the ascent increases, +and we were obliged to incline our bodies considerably forwards as +we advanced. The slope is often from 30 to 32 degrees.* (* Since my +experiments on slopes, mentioned above in Chapter 1.2, I have +discovered in the Figure de la Terre of Bouguer, a passage, which +shows that this astronomer, whose opinions are of such weight, +considered also 36 degrees as the inclination of a slope quite +inaccessible, if the nature of the ground did not admit of forming +steps with the foot.) We felt the want of cramp-irons, or sticks +shod with iron. Short grass covered the rocks of gneiss, and it was +equally impossible to hold by the grass, or to form steps as we +might have done in softer ground. This ascent, which was attended +with more fatigue than danger, discouraged those who accompanied us +from the town, and who were unaccustomed to climb mountains. We +lost a great deal of time in waiting for them, and we did not +resolve to proceed alone till we saw them descending the mountain +instead of climbing up it. The weather was becoming cloudy; the +mist already issued in the form of smoke, and in slender and +perpendicular streaks, from a small humid wood which bordered the +region of alpine savannahs above us. It seemed as if a fire had +burst forth at once on several points of the forest. These streaks +of vapour gradually accumulated together, and rising above the +ground, were carried along by the morning breeze, and glided like a +light cloud over the rounded summit of the mountain. + +M. Bonpland and I foresaw from these infallible signs, that we +should soon be covered by a thick fog; and lest our guides should +take advantage of this circumstance and leave us, we obliged those +who carried the most necessary instruments to precede us. We +continued climbing the slopes which lead towards the ravine of +Chacaito. The familiar loquacity of the Creole blacks formed a +striking contrast with the taciturn gravity of the Indians, who had +constantly accompanied us in the missions of Caripe. The negroes +amused themselves by laughing at the persons who had been in such +haste to abandon an expedition so long in preparation; above all, +they did not spare a young Capuchin monk, a professor of +mathematics, who never ceased to boast of the superior physical +strength and courage possessed by all classes of European Spaniards +over those born in Spanish America. He had provided himself with +long slips of white paper, which were to be cut, and flung on the +savannah, to indicate to those who might stray behind, the +direction they ought to follow. The professor had even promised the +friars of his order to fire off some rockets, to announce to the +whole town of Caracas that we had succeeded in an enterprise which +to him appeared of the utmost importance. He had forgotten that his +long and heavy garments would embarrass him in the ascent. Having +lost courage long before the creoles, he passed the rest of the day +in a neighbouring plantation, gazing at us through a glass directed +to the Silla, as we climbed the mountain. Unfortunately for us, he +had taken charge of the water and the provision so necessary in an +excursion to the mountains. The slaves, who were to rejoin us, were +so long detained by him, that they arrived very late, and we were +ten hours without either bread or water. + +The eastern peak is the most elevated of the two which form the +summit of the mountain, and to this we directed our course with our +instruments. The hollow between these two peaks has suggested the +Spanish name of Silla (saddle), which is given to the whole +mountain. The narrow defile which we have already mentioned, +descends from this hollow toward the valley of Caracas, commencing +near the western dome. The eastern summit is accessible only by +going first to the west of the ravine over the promontory of the +Puerta, proceeding straight forward to the lower summit; and not +turning to the east till the ridge, or the hollow of the Silla +between the two peaks, is nearly reached. The general aspect of the +mountain points out this path; the rocks being so steep on the east +of the ravine that it would be extremely difficult to reach the +summit of the Silla by ascending straight to the eastern dome, +instead of going by the way of the Puerta. + +From the foot of the cascade of Chacaito to one thousand toises of +elevation, we found only savannahs. Two small liliaceous plants, +with yellow flowers,* alone lift up their heads, among the grasses +which cover the rocks. (* Cypura martinicensis, and Sisyrinchium +iridifolium. This last is found also near the Venta of La Guayra, +at 600 toises of elevation.) A few brambles* (* Rubus jamaicensis.) +remind us of the form of our European vegetation. We in vain hoped +to find on the mountains of Caracas, and subsequently on the back +of the Andes, an eglantine near these brambles. We did not find one +indigenous rose-tree in all South America, notwithstanding the +analogy existing between the climates of the high mountains of the +torrid zone and the climate of our temperate zone. It appears that +this charming shrub is wanting in all the southern hemisphere, +within and beyond the tropics. It was only on the Mexican mountains +that we were fortunate enough to discover, in the nineteenth degree +of latitude, American eglantines.* (* M. Redoute, in his superb +work on rose-trees, has given our Mexican eglantine, under the name +of Rosier de Montezuma, Montezuma rose.) + +We were sometimes so enveloped in mist, that we could not, without +difficulty, find our way. At this height there is no path, and we +were obliged to climb with our hands, when our feet failed us, on +the steep and slippery acclivity. A vein filled with porcelain-clay +attracted our attention.* (* The breadth of the vein is three feet. +This porcelain-clay, when moistened, readily absorbs oxygen from +the atmosphere. I found, at Caracas, the residual nitrogen very +slightly mingled with carbonic acid, though the experiment was made +in phials with ground-glass stoppers, not filled with water.) It is +of snowy whiteness, and is no doubt the remains of a decomposed +feldspar. I forwarded a considerable portion of it to the intendant +of the province. In a country where fuel is not scarce, a mixture +of refractory earths may be useful, to improve the earthenware, and +even the bricks. Every time that the clouds surrounded us, the +thermometer sunk as low as 12 degrees (to 9.6 degrees R.); with a +serene sky it rose to 21 degrees. These observations were made in +the shade. But it is difficult, on such rapid declivities, covered +with a dry, shining, yellow turf, to avoid the effects of radiant +heat. We were at nine hundred and forty toises of elevation; and +yet at the same height, towards the east, we perceived in a ravine, +not merely a few solitary palm-trees, but a whole grove. It was the +palma real; probably a species of the genus Oreodoxa. This group of +palms, at so considerable an elevation, formed a striking contrast +with the willows* scattered on the depth of the more temperate +valley of Caracas. (* Salix Humboldtiana of Willdenouw. On the +alpine palm-trees, see my Prolegomena de Dist. Plant. page 235.) We +here discovered plants of European forms, situated below those of +the torrid zone. + +After proceeding for the space of four hours across the savannahs, +we entered into a little wood composed of shrubs and small trees, +called el Pejual; doubtless from the great abundance here of the +pejoa (Gaultheria odorata), a plant with very odoriferous leaves.* +(* It is a great advantage of the Spanish language, and a +peculiarity which it shares in common with the Latin, that, from +the name of a tree, may be derived a word designating an +association or group of trees of the same species. Thus are formed +the words olivar, robledar, and pinal, from olivo, roble, and pino. +The Hispano-Americans have added tunal, pejual, guayaval, etc., +places where a great many Cactuses, Gualtheria odoratas, and +Psidiums, grow together.) The steepness of the mountain became less +considerable, and we felt an indescribable pleasure in examining +the plants of this region. Nowhere, perhaps, can be found collected +together, in so small a space, productions so beautiful, and so +remarkable in regard to the geography of plants. At the height of a +thousand toises, the lofty savannahs of the hills terminate in a +zone of shrubs which, by their appearance, their tortuous branches, +their stiff leaves, and the magnitude and beauty of their purple +flowers, remind us of what is called, in the Cordilleras of the +Andes, the vegetation of the paramos and the punas.* (* For the +explanation of these words, see above Chapter 1.5.) We there find +the family of the alpine rhododendrons, the thibaudias, the +andromedas, the vacciniums, and those befarias with resinous +leaves, which we have several times compared to the rhododendron of +our European Alps. + +Even when nature does not produce the same species in analogous +climates, either in the plains of isothermal parallels,* (We may +compare together either latitudes which in the same hemisphere +present the same mean temperature (as, for instance, Pennsylvania +and the central part of France, Chile and the southern part of New +Holland); or we may consider the relations that may exist between +the vegetation of the two hemispheres under isothermal parallels.) +or on table-lands, the temperature of which resembles that of +places nearer the poles,* we still remark a striking resemblance of +appearance and physiognomy in the vegetation of the most distant +countries. (* The geography of plants comprises not merely an +examination of the analogies observed in the same hemisphere; as +between the vegetation of the Pyrenees and that of the Scandinavian +plains; or between that of the Cordilleras of Peru and of the +coasts of Chile. It also investigates the relations between the +alpine plants of both hemispheres. It compares the vegetation of +the Alleghanies and the Cordilleras of Mexico, with that of the +mountains of Chile and Brazil. Bearing in mind that every +isothermal line has an alpine branch (as, for instance, that which +connects Upsala with a point in the Swiss Alps), the great problem +of the analogy of vegetable forms may be defined as follows: 1st, +examining in each hemisphere, and at the level of the coasts, the +vegetation on the same isothermal line, especially near convex or +concave summits; 2nd, comparing, with respect to the form of +plants, on the same isothermal line north and south of the equator, +the alpine branch with that traced in the plains; 3rd, comparing +the vegetation on homonymous isothermal lines in the two +hemispheres, either in the low regions, or in the alpine regions.) +This phenomenon is one of the most curious in the history of +organic forms. I say the history; for in vain would reason forbid +man to form hypotheses on the origin of things; he still goes on +puzzling himself with insoluble problems relating to the +distribution of beings. + +A gramen of Switzerland grows on the granitic rocks of the straits +of Magellan.* (* Phleum alpinum, examined by Mr. Brown. The +investigations of this great botanist prove that a certain number +of plants are at once common to both hemispheres. Potentilla +anserina, Prunella vulgaris, Scirpus mucronatus, and Panicum +crus-galli, grow in Germany, in Australia, and in Pennsylvania.) +New Holland contains above forty European phanerogamous plants: and +the greater number of those plants, which are found equally in the +temperate zones of both hemispheres, are entirely wanting in the +intermediary or equinoctial region, as well in the plains as on the +mountains. A downy-leaved violet, which terminates in some sort the +zone of the phanerogamous plants at Teneriffe, and which was long +thought peculiar to that island,* is seen three hundred leagues +farther north, near the snowy summit of the Pyrenees. (* The Viola +cheiranthifolia has been found by MM. Kunth and Von Buch among the +alpine plants which Jussieu brought from the Pyrenees.) Gramina and +cyperaceous plants of Germany, Arabia, and Senegal, have been +recognized among those that were gathered by M. Bonpland and myself +on the cold table-lands of Mexico, along the burning shores of the +Orinoco, and in the southern hemisphere on the Andes and Quito.* (* +Cyperus mucronatus, Poa eragrostis, Festuca myurus, Andropogos +avenaceus, Lapago racemosa. (See the Nova Genera et Species +Plantarum volume 1 page 25.)) How can we conceive the migration of +plants through regions now covered by the ocean? How have the germs +of organic life, which resemble each other in their appearance, and +even in their internal structure, unfolded themselves at unequal +distances from the poles and from the surface of the seas, wherever +places so distant present any analogy of temperature? +Notwithstanding the influence exercised on the vital functions of +plants by the pressure of the air, and the greater or less +extinction of light, heat, unequally distributed in different +seasons of the year, must doubtless be considered as the most +powerful stimulus of vegetation. + +The number of identical species in the two continents and in the +two hemispheres is far less than the statements of early travellers +would lead us to believe. The lofty mountains of equinoctial +America have certainly plantains, valerians, arenarias, +ranunculuses, medlars, oaks, and pines, which from their +physiognomy we might confound with those of Europe; but they are +all specifically different. When nature does not present the same +species, she loves to repeat the same genera. Neighbouring species +are often placed at enormous distances from each other, in the low +regions of the temperate zone, and on the alpine heights of the +equator. At other times (and the Silla of Caracas affords a +striking example of this phenomenon), they are not the European +genera, which have sent species to people like colonists the +mountains of the torrid zone, but genera of the same tribe, +difficult to be distinguished by their appearance, which take the +place of each other in different latitudes. + +The mountains of New Grenada surrounding the table-lands of Bogota +are more than two hundred leagues distant from those of Caracas, +and yet the Silla, the only elevated peak in the chain of low +mountains, presents those singular groupings of befarias with +purple flowers, of andromedas, of gualtherias, of myrtilli, of uvas +camaronas,* (* The names vine-tree, and uvas camaronas, are given +in the Andes to plants of the genus Thibaudia, on account of their +large succulent fruits. Thus the ancient botanists gave the name of +bear's vine, uva ursi, and vine of Mount Ida (Vitis idaea), to an +arbutus and a myrtillus, which belong, like the thibaudia, to the +family of the Ericineae.) of nerteras, and of aralias with hoary +leaves,* (* Nertera depressa, Aralia reticulata, Hedyotis +blaerioides.) which characterize the vegetation of the paramos on +the high Cordilleras of Santa Fe. We found the same Thibaudia +glandulosa at the entrance of the table-land of Bogota, and in the +Pejual of the Silla. The coast-chain of Caracas is unquestionably +connected (by the Torito, the Palomera, Tocuyo, and the paramos of +Rosas, of Bocono, and of Niquitao) with the high Cordilleras of +Merida, Pamplona, and Santa Fe; but from the Silla to Tocuyo, along +a distance of seventy leagues, the mountains of Caracas are so low, +that the shrubs of the family of the ericineous plants, just cited, +do not find the cold climate which is necessary for their +development. Supposing, as is probable, that the thibaudias and the +rhododendron of the Andes, or befaria, exist in the paramo of +Niquitao and in the Sierra de Merida, covered with eternal snow, +these plants would nevertheless want a ridge sufficiently lofty and +long for their migration towards the Silla of Caracas. + +The more we study the distribution of organized beings on the +globe, the more we are inclined, if not to abandon the ideas of +migration, at least to consider them as hypotheses not entirely +satisfactory. The chain of the Andes divides the whole of South +America into two unequal longitudinal parts. At the foot of this +chain, on the east and west, we found a great number of plants +specifically the same. The various passages of the Cordilleras +nowhere permit the vegetable productions of the warm regions to +proceed from the coasts of the Pacific to the banks of the Amazon. +When a peak attains a great elevation, either in the middle of very +low mountains and plains, or in the centre of an archipelago heaved +up by volcanic fires, its summit is covered with alpine plants, +many of which are again found, at immense distances, on other +mountains having an analogous climate. Such are the general +phenomena of the distribution of plants. + +It is now said that a mountain is high enough to enter into the +limits of the rhododendrons and the befarias, as it has long been +said that such a mountain reached the limit of perpetual snow. In +using this expression, it is tacitly admitted, that under the +influence of certain temperatures, certain vegetable forms must +necessarily be developed. Such a supposition, however, taken in all +its generality, is not strictly accurate. The pines of Mexico are +wanting on the Cordilleras of Peru. The Silla of Caracas is not +covered with the oaks which flourish in New Grenada at the same +height. Identity of forms indicates an analogy of climate; but in +similar climates the species may be singularly diversified. + +The charming rhododendron of the Andes (the befaria) was first +described by M. Mutis, who observed it near Pamplona and Santa Fe +de Bogota, in the fourth and seventh degree of north latitude. It +was so little known before our expedition to the Silla, that it was +scarcely to be found in any herbal in Europe. The learned editors +of the Flora of Peru had even described it under another name, that +of acunna. In the same manner as the rhododendrons of Lapland, +Caucasus, and the Alps* (* Rhododendron lapponicum, R. caucasicum, +R. ferrugineum, and R. hirsutum.) differ from each other, the two +species of befaria we brought from the Silla* (* Befaria glauca, B. +ledifolia.) are also specifically different from that of Santa Fe +and Bogota.* (* Befaria aestuans, and B. resinosa.) Near the +equator the rhododendrons of the Andes (Particularly B. aestuans of +Mutis, and two new species of the southern hemisphere, which we +have described under the name of B. coarctata, and B. grandiflora.) +cover the mountains as far as the highest paramos, at sixteen and +seventeen hundred toises of elevation. Advancing northward, on the +Silla de Caracas, we find them much lower, a little below one +thousand toises. The befaria recently discovered in Florida, in +latitude 30 degrees, grows even on hills of small elevation. Thus +in a space of six hundred leagues in latitude, these shrubs descend +towards the plains in proportion as their distance from the equator +augments. The rhododendron of Lapland grows also at eight or nine +hundred toises lower than the rhododendron of the Alps and the +Pyrenees. We were surprised at not meeting with any species of +befaria in the mountains of Mexico, between the rhododendrons of +Santa Fe and Caracas, and those of Florida. + +In the small grove which crowns the Silla, the Befaria ledifolia is +only three or four feet high. The trunk is divided from its root +into a great many slender and even verticillate branches. The +leaves are oval, lanceolate, glaucous on their inferior part, and +curled at the edges. The whole plant is covered with long and +viscous hairs, and emits a very agreeable resinous smell. The bees +visit its fine purple flowers, which are very abundant, as in all +the alpine plants, and, when in full blossom, they are often nearly +an inch wide. + +The rhododendron of Switzerland, in those places where it grows, at +the elevation of between eight hundred and a thousand toises, +belongs to a climate, the mean temperature of which is +2 and-1 +degrees, like that of the plains of Lapland. In this zone the +coldest months are-4, and-10 degrees: the hottest, 12 and 7 +degrees. Thermometrical observations, made at the same heights and +in the same latitudes, render it probable that, at the Pejual of +the Silla, one thousand toises above the Caribbean Sea, the mean +temperature of the air is still 17 or 18 degrees; and that the +thermometer keeps, in the coolest season, between 15 and 20 degrees +in the day, and in the night between 10 and 12 degrees. At the +hospital of St. Gothard, situated nearly on the highest limit of +the rhododendron of the Alps, the maximum of heat, in the month of +August at noon, in the shade, is usually 12 or 13 degrees; in the +night, at the same season, the air is cooled by the radiation of +the soil down to +1 or-1.5 degrees. Under the same barometric +pressure, consequently at the same height, but thirty degrees of +latitude nearer the equator, the befaria of the Silla is often, at +noon, in the sun, exposed to a heat of 23 or 24 degrees. The +greatest nocturnal refrigeration probably never exceeds 7 degrees. +We have carefully compared the climate, under the influence of +which, at different latitudes, two groups of plants of the same +family vegetate at equal heights above the level of the sea. The +results would have been far different, had we compared zones +equally distant, either from the perpetual snow, or from the +isothermal line of 0 degrees.* (* The stratum of air, the mean +temperature of which is 0 degrees, and which scarcely coincides +with the superior limit of perpetual snow, is found in the parallel +of the rhododendrons of Switzerland at nine hundred toises; in the +parallel of the befarias of Caracas, at two thousand seven hundred +toises of elevation.) + +In the little thicket of the Pejual, near the purple-flowered +befaria, grows a heath-leaved hedyotis, eight feet high; the +caparosa,* which is a large arborescent hypericum (* Vismia +caparosa (a loranthus clings to this plant, and appropriates to +itself the yellow juice of the vismia); Davallia meifolia, Heracium +avilae, Aralia arborea, Jacq., and Lepidium virginicum. Two new +species of lycopodium, the thyoides, and the aristatum, are seen +lower down, near the Puerto de la Silla.); a lepidium, which +appears identical with that of Virginia; and lastly, lycopodiaceous +plants and mosses, which cover the rocks and roots of the trees. +That which gives most celebrity in the country to the little +thicket, is a shrub ten or fifteen feet high, of the corymbiferous +family. The Creoles call it incense (incienso).* (* Trixis +nereifolia of M. Bonpland.) Its tough and crenate leaves, as well +as the extremities of the branches, are covered with a white wool. +It is a new species of Trixis, extremely resinous, the flowers of +which have the agreeable odour of storax. This smell is very +different from that emitted by the leaves of the Trixis +terebinthinacea of the mountains of Jamaica, opposite to those of +Caracas. The people sometimes mix the incienso of the Silla with +the flowers of the pevetera, another composite plant, the smell of +which resembles that of the heliotropium of Peru. The pevetera does +not, however, grow on the mountains so high as the zone of the +befarias; it vegetates in the valley of Chacao, and the ladies of +Caracas prepare from it an extremely pleasant odoriferous water. + +We spent a long time in examining the fine resinous and fragrant +plants of the Pejual. The sky became more and more cloudy, and the +thermometer sank below 11 degrees, a temperature at which, in this +zone, people begin to suffer from the cold. Quitting the little +thicket of alpine plants, we found ourselves again in a savannah. +We climbed over a part of the western dome, in order to descend +into the hollow of the Silla, a valley which separates the two +summits of the mountain. We there had great difficulties to +overcome, occasioned by the force of the vegetation. A botanist +would not readily guess that the thick wood covering this valley is +formed by the assemblage of a plant of the musaceous family.* +(*Scitamineous plants, or family of the plantains.) It is probably +a maranta, or a heliconia; its leaves are large and shining; it +reaches the height of fourteen or fifteen feet, and its succulent +stalks grow near one another like the stems of the reeds found in +the humid regions of the south of Europe.* (* Arundo donax.) We +were obliged to cut our way through this forest. The negroes walked +before with their cutlasses or machetes. The people confound this +alpine scitamineous plant with the arborescent gramina, under the +name of carice. We saw neither its fruit nor flowers. We are +surprised to meet with a monocotyledonous family, believed to be +exclusively found in the hot and low regions of the tropics, at +eleven hundred toises of elevation; much higher than the +andromedas, the thibaudias, and the rhododendron of the +Cordilleras.* (* Befaria.) In a chain of mountains no less +elevated, and more northern (the Blue Mountains of Jamaica), the +Heliconia of the parrots and the bihai, rather grow in the alpine +shaded situations.* (* Heliconia psittacorum, and H. bihai. These +two heliconias are very common in the plains of Terra Firma.) + +Wandering in this thick wood of musaceae or arborescent plants, we +constantly directed our course towards the eastern peak, which we +perceived from time to time through an opening. On a sudden we +found ourselves enveloped in a thick mist; the compass alone could +guide us; but in advancing northward we were in danger at every +step of finding ourselves on the brink of that enormous wall of +rocks, which descends almost perpendicularly to the depth of six +thousand feet towards the sea. We were obliged to halt. Surrounded +by clouds sweeping the ground, we began to doubt whether we should +reach the eastern peak before night. Happily, the negroes who +carried our water and provisions, rejoined us, and we resolved to +take some refreshment. Our repast did not last long. Possibly the +Capuchin father had not thought of the great number of persons who +accompanied us, or perhaps the slaves had made free with our +provisions on the way; be that as it may, we found nothing but +olives, and scarcely any bread. Horace, in his retreat at Tibur, +never boasted of a repast more light and frugal; but olives, which +might have afforded a satisfactory meal to a poet, devoted to +study, and leading a sedentary life, appeared an aliment by no +means sufficiently substantial for travellers climbing mountains. +We had watched the greater part of the night, and we walked for +nine hours without finding a single spring. Our guides were +discouraged; they wished to go back, and we had great difficulty in +preventing them. + +In the midst of the mist I made trial of the electrometer of Volta, +armed with a smoking match. Though very near a thick wood of +heliconias, I obtained very sensible signs of atmospheric +electricity. It often varied from positive to negative, its +intensity changing every instant. These variations, and the +conflict of several small currents of air, which divided the mist, +and transformed it into clouds, the borders of which were visible, +appeared to me infallible prognostics of a change in the weather. +It was only two o'clock in the afternoon; we entertained some hope +of reaching the eastern summit of the Silla before sunset, and of +re-descending into the valley separating the two peaks, intending +there to pass the night, to light a great fire, and to make our +negroes construct a hut with the leaves of the heliconia. We sent +off half of our servants with orders to hasten the next morning to +meet us, not with olives, but with a supply of salt beef. + +We had scarcely made these arrangements when the east wind began to +blow violently from the sea. The thermometer rose to 12.5 degrees. +It was no doubt an ascending wind, which, by heightening the +temperature, dissolved the vapours. In less than two minutes the +clouds dispersed, and the two domes of the Silla appeared to us +singularly near. We opened the barometer in the lowest part of the +hollow that separates the two summits, near a little pool of very +muddy water. Here, as in the West India Islands, marshy plains are +found at great elevations; not because the woody mountains attract +the clouds, but because they condense the vapours by the effect of +nocturnal refrigeration, occasioned by the radiation of heat from +the ground, and from the parenchyma of the leaves. The mercury was +at 21 inches 5.7 lines. We shaped our course direct to the eastern +summit. The obstruction caused by the vegetation gradually +diminished; it was, however, necessary to cut down some heliconias; +but these arborescent plants were not now very thick or high. The +peaks of the Silla themselves, as we have several times mentioned, +are covered only with gramina and small shrubs of befaria. Their +barrenness, however, is not owing to their height: the limit of +trees in this region is four hundred toises higher; since, judging +according to the analogy of other mountains, this limit would be +found here only at a height of eighteen hundred toises. The absence +of large trees on the two rocky summits of the Silla may be +attributed to the aridity of the soil, the violence of the winds +blowing from the sea, and the conflagrations so frequent in all the +mountains of the equinoctial region. + +To reach the eastern peak, which is the highest, it is necessary to +approach as near as possible the great precipice which descends +towards Caravalleda and the coast. The gneiss as far as this spot +preserves its lamellar texture and its primitive direction; but +where we climbed the summit of the Silla, we found it had passed +into granite. Its texture becomes granular; the mica, less +frequent, is more unequally spread through the rock. Instead of +garnets we met with a few solitary crystals of hornblende. It is, +however, not a syenite, but rather a granite of new formation. We +were three quarters of an hour in reaching the summit of the +pyramid. This part of the way is not dangerous, provided the +traveller carefully examines the stability of each fragment of rock +on which he places his foot. The granite superposed on the gneiss +does not present a regular separation into beds: it is divided by +clefts, which often cross one another at right angles. Prismatic +blocks, one foot wide and twelve long, stand out from the ground +obliquely, and appear on the edges of the precipice like enormous +beams suspended over the abyss. + +Having arrived at the summit, we enjoyed, for a few minutes only, +the serenity of the sky. The eye ranged over a vast extent of +country: looking down to the north was the sea, and to the south, +the fertile valley of Caracas. The barometer was at 20 inches 7.6 +lines; the thermometer at 13.7 degrees. We were at thirteen hundred +and fifty toises of elevation. We gazed on an extent of sea, the +radius of which was thirty-six leagues. Persons who are affected by +looking downward from a considerable height should remain at the +centre of the small flat which crowns the eastern summit of the +Silla. The mountain is not very remarkable for height: it is nearly +eighty toises lower than the Canigou; but it is distinguished among +all the mountains I have visited by an enormous precipice on the +side next the sea. The coast forms only a narrow border; and +looking from the summit of the pyramid on the houses of +Caravalleda, this wall of rocks seems, by an optical illusion, to +be nearly perpendicular. The real slope of the declivity appeared +to me, according to an exact calculation, 53 degrees 28 minutes.* +(* Observations of the latitude give for the horizontal distance +between the foot of the mountain near Caravalleda, and the vertical +line passing through its summit, scarcely 1000 toises.) The mean +slope of the peak of Teneriffe is scarcely 12 degrees 30 minutes. A +precipice of six or seven thousand feet, like that of the Silla of +Caracas, is a phenomenon far more rare than is generally believed +by those who cross mountains without measuring their height, their +bulk, and their slope. Since the experiments on the fall of bodies, +and on their deviation to the south-east, have been resumed in +several parts of Europe, a rock of two hundred and fifty toises of +perpendicular elevation has been in vain sought for among all the +Alps of Switzerland. The declivity of Mont Blanc towards the Allee +Blanche does not even reach an angle of 45 degrees; though in the +greater number of geological works, Mont Blanc is described as +perpendicular on the south side. + +At the Silla of Caracas, the enormous northern cliff is partly +covered with vegetation, notwithstanding the extreme steepness of +its slope. Tufts of befaria and andromedas appear as if suspended +from the rock. The little valley which separates the domes towards +the south, stretches in the direction of the sea. Alpine plants +fill this hollow; and, not confined to the ridge of the mountain, +they follow the sinuosities of the ravine. It would seem as if +torrents were concealed under that fresh foliage; and the +disposition of the plants, the grouping of so many inanimate +objects, give the landscape all the charm of motion and of life. + +Seven months had now elapsed since we had been on the summit of the +peak of Teneriffe, whence we surveyed a space of the globe equal to +a fourth part of France. The apparent horizon of the sea is there +six leagues farther distant than at the top of the Silla, and yet +we saw that horizon, at least for some time, very distinctly. It +was strongly marked, and not confounded with the adjacent strata of +air. At the Silla, which is five hundred and fifty toises lower +than the peak of Teneriffe, the horizon, though nearer, continued +invisible towards the north and north-north-east. Following with +the eye the surface of the sea, which was smooth as glass, we were +struck with the progressive diminution of the reflected light. +Where the visual ray touched the last limit of that surface, the +water was lost among the superposed strata of air. This appearance +has something in it very extraordinary. We expect to see the +horizon level with the eye; but, instead of distinguishing at this +height a marked limit between the two elements, the more distant +strata of water seem to be transformed into vapour, and mingled +with the aerial ocean. I observed the same appearance, not in one +spot of the horizon alone, but on an extent of more than a hundred +and sixty degrees, along the Pacific, when I found myself for the +first time on the pointed rock that commands the crater of +Pichincha; a volcano, the elevation of which exceeds that of Mont +Blanc.* (* See Views of Nature, Bohn's edition, page 358.) The +visibility of a very distant horizon depends, when there is no +mirage, upon two distinct things: the quantity of light received on +that part of the sea where the visual ray terminates; and the +extinction of the reflected light during its passage through the +intermediate strata of air. It may happen, notwithstanding the +serenity of the sky and the transparency of the atmosphere, that +the ocean is feebly illuminated at thirty or forty leagues' +distance; or that the strata of air nearest the earth may +extinguish a great deal of the light, by absorbing the rays that +traverse them. + +The rounded peak, or western dome of the Silla, concealed from us +the view of the town of Caracas; but we distinguished the nearest +houses, the villages of Chacao and Petare, the coffee plantations, +and the course of the Rio Guayra, a slender streak of water +reflecting a silvery light. The narrow band of cultivated ground +was pleasingly contrasted with the wild and gloomy aspect of the +neighbouring mountains. Whilst contemplating these grand scenes, we +feel little regret that the solitudes of the New World are not +embellished with the monuments of antiquity. + +But we could not long avail ourselves of the advantage arising from +the position of the Silla, in commanding all the neighbouring +summits. While we were examining with our glasses that part of the +sea, the horizon of which was clearly defined, and the chain of the +mountains of Ocumare, behind which begins the unknown world of the +Orinoco and the Amazon, a thick fog from the plains rose to the +elevated regions, first filling the bottom of the valley of +Caracas. The vapours, illumined from above, presented a uniform +tint of a milky white. The valley seemed overspread with water, and +looked like an arm of the sea, of which the adjacent mountains +formed the steep shore. In vain we waited for the slave who carried +Ramsden's great sextant. Eager to avail myself of the favourable +state of the sky, I resolved to take a few solar altitudes with a +sextant by Troughton of two inches radius. The disk of the sun was +half-concealed by the mist. The difference of longitude between the +quarter of the Trinidad and the eastern peak of the Silla appears +scarcely to exceed 0 degrees 3 minutes 22 seconds.* (* The difference +of longitude between the Silla and La Guayra, according to Fidalgo, +is 0 degrees 6 minutes 40 seconds.) + +Whilst, seated on the rock, I was determining the dip of the +needle, I found my hands covered with a species of hairy bee, a +little smaller than the honey-bee of the north of Europe. These +insects make their nests in the ground. They seldom fly; and, from +the slowness of their movements, I should have supposed they were +benumbed by the cold of the mountains. The people, in these +regions, call them angelitos (little angels), because they very +seldom sting. They are no doubt of the genus Apis, of the division +melipones. It has been erroneously affirmed that these bees, which +are peculiar to the New World, are destitute of all offensive +weapons. Their sting is indeed comparatively feeble, and they use +it seldom; but a person, not fully convinced of the harmlessness of +these angelitos, can scarcely divest himself of a sensation of +fear. I must confess, that, whilst engaged in my astronomical +observations, I was often on the point of letting my instruments +fall, when I felt my hands and face covered with these hairy bees. +Our guides assured us that they attempt to defend themselves only +when irritated by being seized by their legs. I was not tempted to +try the experiment on myself. + +The dip of the needle at the Silla was one centesimal degree less +than in the town of Caracas. In collecting the observations which I +made during calm weather and in very favourable circumstances, on +the mountains as well as along the coast, it would at first seem, +that we discover, in that part of the globe, a certain influence of +the heights on the dip of the needle, and the intensity of the +magnetical forces; but we must remark, that the dip at Caracas is +much greater than could be supposed, from the situation of the +town, and that the magnetical phenomena are modified by the +proximity of certain rocks, which constitute so many particular +centres or little systems of attraction.* (* I have seen fragments +of quartz traversed by parallel bands of magnetic iron, carried +into the valley of Caracas by the waters descending from the +Galipano and the Cerro de Avila. This banded magnetic iron-ore is +found also in the Sierra Nevada of Merida. Between the two peaks of +the Silla, angular fragments of cellular quartz are found, covered +with red oxide of iron. They do not act on the needle. This oxide +is of a cinnabar-red colour.) + +The temperature of the atmosphere varied on the summit of the Silla +from eleven to fourteen degrees, according as the weather was calm +or windy. Every one knows how difficult it is to verify, on the +summit of a mountain, the temperature, which is to serve for the +barometric calculation. The wind was east, which would seem to +prove that the trade-winds extend in this latitude much higher than +fifteen hundred toises. Von Buch had observed that, at the peak of +Teneriffe, near the northern limit of the trade-winds, there exists +generally at the elevation of one thousand nine hundred toises, a +contrary current from the west. The Academy of Sciences recommended +the men of science who accompanied the unfortunate La Perouse, to +employ small air-balloons for the purpose of ascertaining at sea +the extent of the trade-winds within the tropics. Such experiments +are very difficult. Small balloons do not in general reach the +height of the Silla; and the light clouds which are sometimes +perceived at an elevation of three or four thousand toises, for +instance, the fleecy clouds, called by the French moutons, remain +almost fixed, or have such a slow motion, that it is impossible to +judge of the direction of the wind. + +During the short space of time that the sky was serene at the +zenith, I found the blue of the atmosphere sensibly deeper than on +the coasts. It is probable that, in the months of July and August, +the difference between the colour of the sky on the coasts and on +the summit of the Silla is still more considerable, but the +meteorological phenomenon with which M. Bonpland and myself were +most struck during the hour we passed on the mountain, was the +apparent dryness of the air, which seemed to increase as the fog +augmented. + +This fog soon became so dense that it would have been imprudent to +remain longer on the edge of a precipice of seven or eight thousand +feet deep.* (* In the direction of north-west the slopes appear +more accessible; and I have been told of a path frequented by +smugglers, which leads to Caravalleda, between the two peaks of the +Silla. From the eastern peak I took the bearings of the western +peak, 64 degrees 40 minutes south-west; and of the houses, which I +was told belonged to Caravalleda, 55 degrees 20 minutes north-west. +) We descended the eastern dome of the Silla, and gathered in our +descent a gramen, which not only forms a new and very remarkable +genus, but which, to our great astonishment, we found again some +time after on the summit of the volcano of Pichincha, at the +distance of four hundred leagues from the Silla, in the southern +hemisphere.* (* Aegopogon cenchroides.) The Lichen floridus, so +common in the north of Europe, covered the branches of the befaria +and the Gualtheria odorata, descending even to the roots of these +shrubs. Examining the mosses which cover the rocks of gneiss in the +valley between the two peaks, I was surprised at finding real +pebbles,--rounded fragments of quartz.* (* Fragments of brown +copper-ore were found mixed with these pebbles, at an elevation of +1170 toises.) It may be conceived that the valley of Caracas was +once an inland lake, before the Rio Guayra found an issue to the +east near Caurimare, at the foot of the hill of Auyamas, and before +the ravine of Tipe opened on the west, in the direction of Gatia +and Cabo Blanco. But how can we imagine that these waters could +ascend as high as the Silla, when the mountains opposite this peak, +those of Ocumare, were too low to prevent their overflow into the +llanos? The pebbles could not have been brought by torrents from +more elevated points, since there is no height that commands the +Silla. Must we admit that they have been heaved up, like all the +mountains which border the coast. + +It was half after four in the afternoon when we finished our +observations. Satisfied with the success of our journey, we forgot +that there might be danger in descending in the dark, steep +declivities covered by a smooth and slippery turf. The mist +concealed the valley from us; but we distinguished the double hill +of La Puerta, which, like all objects lying almost perpendicularly +beneath the eye, appeared extremely near. We relinquished our +design of passing the night between the two summits of the Silla, +and having again found the path we had cut through the thick wood +of heliconia, we soon arrived at the Pejual, the region of +odoriferous and resinous plants. The beauty of the befarias, and +their branches covered with large purple flowers, again rivetted +our attention. When, in these climates, a botanist gathers plants +to form his herbal, he becomes difficult in his choice in +proportion to the luxuriance of vegetation. He casts away those +which have been first cut, because they appear less beautiful than +those which were out of reach. Though loaded with plants before +quitting the Pejual, we still regretted not having made a more +ample harvest. We tarried so long in this spot, that night +surprised us as we entered the savannah, at the elevation of +upwards of nine hundred toises. + +As there is scarcely any twilight in the tropics, we pass suddenly +from bright daylight to darkness. The moon was on the horizon; but +her disk was veiled from time to time by thick clouds, drifted by a +cold and rough wind. Rapid slopes, covered with yellow and dry +grass, now seen in shade, and now suddenly illumined, seemed like +precipices, the depth of which the eye sought in vain to measure. +We proceeded onwards, in single file, and endeavoured to support +ourselves by our hands, lest we should roll down. The guides, who +carried our instruments, abandoned us successively, to sleep on the +mountain. Among those who remained with us was a Congo black, who +evinced great address, bearing on his head a large dipping-needle: +he held it constantly steady, notwithstanding the extreme declivity +of the rocks. The fog had dispersed by degrees in the bottom of the +valley; and the scattered lights we perceived below us caused a +double illusion. The steeps appeared still more dangerous than they +really were; and, during six hours of continual descent, we seemed +to be always equally near the farms at the foot of the Silla. We +heard very distinctly the voices of men and the notes of guitars. +Sound is generally so well propagated upwards, that in a balloon at +the elevation of three thousand toises, the barking of dogs is +sometimes heard.* (* Gay-Lussac's account of his ascent on the 15th +of September, 1805.) + +We did not arrive till ten at night at the bottom of the valley. We +were overcome with fatigue and thirst, having walked for fifteen +hours, nearly without stopping. The soles of our feet were cut and +torn by the asperities of a rocky soil and the hard and dry stalks +of the gramina, for we had been obliged to pull off our boots, the +soles having become too slippery. On declivities devoid of shrubs +or ligneous herbs, which may be grasped by the hand, the danger of +the descent is diminished by walking barefoot. In order to shorten +the way, our guides conducted us from the Puerta de la Silla to the +farm of Gallegos by a path leading to a reservoir of water, called +el Tanque. They missed their way, however; and this last descent, +the steepest of all, brought us near the ravine of Chacaito. The +noise of the cascades gave this nocturnal scene a grand and wild +character. + +We passed the night at the foot of the Silla. Our friends at +Caracas had been able to distinguish us with glasses on the summit +of the eastern peak. They felt interested in hearing the account of +our expedition, but they were not satisfied with the result of our +measurement, which did not assign to the Silla even the elevation +of the highest summit of the Pyrenees.* (* It was formerly believed +that the height of the Silla of Caracas scarcely differed from that +of the peak of Teneriffe.) One cannot blame the national feeling +which suggests exaggerated ideas of the monuments of nature, in a +country in which the monuments of art are nothing; nor can we +wonder that the inhabitants of Quito and Riobamba, who have prided +themselves for ages on the height of Chimborazo, mistrust those +measurements which elevate the mountains of Himalaya above all the +colossal Cordilleras? + +During our journey to the Silla, and in all our excursions in the +valley of Caracas, we were very attentive to the lodes and +indications of ore which we found in the strata of gneiss. No +regular diggings having been made, we could only examine the +fissures, the ravines, and the land-slips occasioned by torrents in +the rainy season. The rock of gneiss, passing sometimes into a +granite of new formation, sometimes into mica-slate,* (* Especially +at great elevations.) belongs in Germany to the most metalliferous +rocks; but in the New Continent, the gneiss has not hitherto been +remarked as very rich in ores worth working. The most celebrated +mines of Mexico and Peru are found in the primitive and transition +schists, in the trap-porphyries, the grauwakke, and the alpine +limestones. In several spots of the valley of Caracas, the gneiss +contains a small quantity of gold, disseminated in small veins of +quartz, sulphuretted silver, azure copper-ore, and galena; but it +is doubtful whether these different metalliferous substances are +not too poor to encourage any attempt at working them. Such +attempts were, however, made at the conquest of the province, about +the middle of the sixteenth century. + +From the promontory of Paria to beyond cape Vela, the early +navigators had seen gold ornaments and gold dust, in the possession +of the inhabitants of the coast. They penetrated into the interior +of the country, to discover whence the precious metal came; and +though the information obtained in the province of Coro, and the +markets of Curiana and Cauchieto,* (* The Spaniards found, in 1500, +in the country of Curiana (now Coro), little birds, frogs, and +other ornaments made of gold. Those who had cast these figures +lived at Cauchieto, a place nearer the Rio de la Hacha. I have seen +ornaments resembling those described by Peter Martyr of Anghiera +(which indicate tolerable skill in goldsmiths' work), among the +remains of the ancient inhabitants of Cundinamarca. The same art +appears to have been practised in places along the coasts, and also +farther to the south, among the mountains of New Grenada.) clearly +proved that real mineral wealth was to be found only to the west +and south-west of Coro (that is to say, in the mountains near those +of New Grenada), the whole province of Caracas was nevertheless +eagerly explored. A governor, newly arrived on that coast, could +recommend himself to the Spanish court only by boasting of the +mines of his province; and in order to take from cupidity what was +most ignoble and repulsive, the thirst of gold was justified by the +purpose to which it was pretended the riches acquired by fraud and +violence might be employed. "Gold," says Christopher Columbus, in +his last letter* (Lettera rarissima data nelle Indie nella isola di +Jamaica a 7 Julio dei 1503.--"Le oro e metallo sopra gli altri +excellentissimo; e dell' oro si fanno li tesori e chi lo tiene fa e +opera quanto vuole nel mondo[?], e finel[?]mente aggionge a mandare +le anime al Paradiso.") to King Ferdinand, "gold is a thing so much +the more necessary to your majesty, because, in order to fulfil the +ancient prophecy, Jerusalem is to be rebuilt by a prince of the +Spanish monarchy. Gold is the most excellent of metals. What +becomes of those precious stones, which are sought for at the +extremities of the globe? They are sold, and are finally converted +into gold. With gold we not only do whatever we please in this +world, but we can even employ it to snatch souls from Purgatory, +and to people Paradise." These words bear the stamp of the age in +which Columbus lived; but we are surprised to see this pompous +eulogium of riches written by a man whose whole life was marked by +the most noble disinterestedness. + +The conquest of the province of Venezuela having been begun at its +western extremity, the neighbouring mountains of Coro, Tocuyo, and +Barquisimeto, first attracted the attention of the Conquistadores. +These mountains join the Cordilleras of New Grenada (those of Santa +Fe, Pamplona, la Grita, and Merida) to the littoral chain of +Caracas. It is a land the more interesting in a geognostical point +of view, as no map has yet made known the mountainous ramifications +which the paramos of Niquitao and Las Rosas send out towards the +north-east. Between Tocuyo, Araure, and Barquisimeto, rises the +group of the Altar Mountains, connected on the south-east with the +paramo of Las Rosas. A branch of the Altar stretches north-east by +San Felipe el Fuerte, joining the granitic mountains of the coast +near Porto Cabello. The other branch takes an eastward direction +towards Nirgua and Tinaco, and joins the chain of the interior, +that of Yusma, Villa de Cura, and Sabana de Ocumare. + +The region we have been here describing separates the waters which +flow to the Orinoco from those which run into the immense lake of +Maracaybo and the Caribbean Sea. It includes climates which may be +termed temperate rather than hot; and it is looked upon in the +country, notwithstanding the distance of more than a hundred +leagues, as a prolongation of the metalliferous soil of Pamplona. +It was in the group of the western mountains of Venezuela, that the +Spaniards, in the year 1551, worked the gold mine of Buria,* (* +Real de Minas de San Felipe de Buria.) which was the origin of the +foundation of the town of Barquisimeto.* (* Nueva Segovia.) But +these works, like many other mines successively opened, were soon +abandoned. Here, as in all the mountains of Venezuela, the produce +of the ore has been found to be very variable. The lodes are very +often divided, or they altogether cease; and the metals appear only +in kidney-ores, and present the most delusive appearances. It is, +however, only in this group of mountains of San Felipe and +Barquisimeto, that the working of mines has been continued till the +present time. Those of Aroa, near San Felipe el Fuerte, situated in +the centre of a very insalubrious country, are the only mines which +are wrought in the whole capitania-general of Caracas. They yield a +small quantity of copper. + +Next to the works at Buria, near Barquisimeto, those of the valley +of Caracas, and of the mountains near the capital, are the most +ancient. Francisco Faxardo and his wife Isabella, of the nation of +the Guaiquerias,* often visited the table-land where the capital of +Venezuela is now situated. (* Faxardo and his wife were the +founders of the town of the Collado, now called Caravalleda.) They +had given this table-land the name of Valle de San Francisco; and +having seen some bits of gold in the hands of the natives, Faxardo +succeeded, in the year 1560, in discovering the mines of Los +Teques,* to the south-west of Caracas, near the group of the +mountains of Cocuiza, which separate the valleys of Caracas and +Aragua. (* Thirteen years later, in 1573, Gabriel de Avila, one of +the alcaldes of the new town of Caracas, renewed the working of +these mines, which were from that time called the "Real de Minas de +Nuestra Senora." Probably this same Avila, on account of a few +farms which he possessed in the mountains adjacent to La Guayra and +Caracas, has occasioned the Cumbre to receive the name of Montana +de Avila. This name has subsequently been applied erroneously to +the Silla, and to all the chain which extends towards cape Codera.) +It is thought that in the first of these valleys, near Baruta, +south of the village of Valle, the natives had made some +excavations in veins of auriferous quartz; and that, when the +Spaniards first settled there, and founded the town of Caracas, +they filled the shafts, which had been dry, with water. It is now +impossible to ascertain this fact; but it is certain that, long +before the Conquest, grains of gold were a medium of exchange, I do +not say generally, but among certain nations of the New Continent. +They gave gold for the purchase of pearls; and it does not appear +extraordinary, that, after having for a long time picked up grains +of gold in the rivulets, people who had fixed habitations, and were +devoted to agriculture, should have tried to trace the auriferous +veins in the superior surface of the soil. The mines of Los Teques +could not be peaceably wrought, till the defeat of the Cacique +Guaycaypuro, a celebrated chief of the Teques, who long contested +with the Spaniards the possession of the province of Venezuela. + +We have yet to mention a third point to which the attention of the +Conquistadores was called by indications of mines, so early as the +end of the sixteenth century. In following the valley of Caracas +eastward beyond Caurimare, on the road to Caucagua, we reach a +mountainous and woody country, where a great quantity of charcoal +is now made, and which anciently bore the name of the Province of +Los Mariches. In these eastern mountains of Venezuela, the gneiss +passes into the state of talc. It contains, as at Salzburg, lodes +of auriferous quartz. The works anciently begun in those mines have +often been abandoned and resumed. + +The mines of Caracas were forgotten during more than a hundred +years. But at a period comparatively recent, about the end of the +last century, an Intendant of Venezuela, Don Jose Avalo, again fell +into the illusions which had flattered the cupidity of the +Conquistadores. He fancied that all the mountains near the capital +contained great metallic riches. Some Mexican miners were engaged, +and their operations were directed to the ravine of Tipe, and the +ancient mines of Baruta to the south of Caracas, where the Indians +gather even now some little gold-washings. But the zeal which had +prompted the enterprise soon diminished, and after much useless +expense, the working of the mines of Caracas was totally abandoned. +A small quantity of auriferous pyrites, sulphuretted silver, and a +little native gold, were found; but these were only feeble +indications; and in a country where labour is extremely dear, there +was no inducement to pursue works so little productive. + +We visited the ravine of Tipe, situated in that part of the valley +which opens in the direction of Cabo Blanco. Proceeding from +Caracas, we traverse, in the direction of the great barracks of San +Carlos, a barren and rocky soil. Only a very few plants of Argemone +mexicana are to be found. The gneiss appears everywhere above +ground. We might have fancied ourselves on the table-land of +Freiberg. We crossed first the little rivulet of Agua Salud, a +limpid stream, which has no mineral taste, and then the Rio +Garaguata. The road is commanded on the right by the Cerro de Avila +and the Cumbre; and on the left, by the mountains of Aguas Negras. +This defile is very interesting in a geological point of view. At +this spot the valley of Caracas communicates, by the valleys of +Tacagua and of Tipe, with the coast near Catia. A ridge of rock, +the summit of which is forty toises above the bottom of the valley +of Caracas, and more than three hundred toises above the valley of +Tacagua, divides the waters which flow into the Rio Guayra and +towards Cabo Blanco. On this point of division, at the entrance of +the branch, the view is highly pleasing. The climate changes as we +descend westward. In the valley of Tacagua we found some new +habitations, and also conucos of maize and plantains. A very +extensive plantation of tuna, or cactus, stamps this barren country +with a peculiar character. The cactuses reach the height of fifteen +feet, and grow in the form of candelabra, like the euphorbia of +Africa. They are cultivated for the purpose of selling their +refreshing fruits in the market of Caracas. The variety which has +no thorns is called, strangely enough, in the colonies, tuna de +Espana (Spanish cactus). We measured, at the same place, magueys or +agaves, the long stems of which, laden with flowers, were +forty-four feet high. However common this plant is become in the +south of Europe, the native of a northern climate is never weary of +admiring the rapid development of a liliaceous plant, which +contains at once a sweet juice and astringent and caustic liquids, +employed to cauterize wounds. + +We found several veins of quartz in the valley of Tipe visible +above the soil. They contained pyrites, carbonated iron-ore, traces +of sulphuretted silver (glasserz), and grey copper-ore (fahlerz). +The works which had been undertaken, either for extracting the ore, +or exploring the nature of its bed, appeared to be very +superficial. The earth falling in had filled up those excavations, +and we could not judge of the richness of the lode. Notwithstanding +the expense incurred under the intendancy of Don Jose Avalo, the +great question whether the province of Venezuela contains mines +rich enough to be worked, is yet problematical. Though in countries +where hands are wanting, the culture of the soil demands +unquestionably the first care of the government, yet the example of +New Spain sufficiently proves that mining is not always +unfavourable to the progress of agriculture. The best-cultivated +Mexican lands, those which remind the traveller of the most +beautiful districts of France and the south of Germany, extend from +Silao towards the Villa of Leon: they are in the neighbourhood of +the mines of Guanaxuato, which alone furnish a sixth part of all +the silver of the New World. + + +CHAPTER 1.14. + +EARTHQUAKES AT CARACAS. +CONNECTION OF THOSE PHENOMENA WITH THE VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS + OF THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. + +On the evening of the 7th of February we took our departure from +Caracas. Since the period of our visit to that place, tremendous +earthquakes have changed the surface of the soil. The city, which I +have described, has disappeared; and on the same spot, on the +ground fissured in various directions, another city is now slowly +rising. The heaps of ruins, which were the grave of a numerous +population, are becoming anew the habitation of men. In retracing +changes of so general an interest, I shall be led to notice events +which took place long after my return to Europe. I shall pass over +in silence the popular commotions which have taken place, and the +modifications which society has undergone. Modern nations, careful +of their own remembrances, snatch from oblivion the history of +human revolutions, which is, in fact, the history of ardent +passions and inveterate hatred. It is not the same with respect to +the revolutions of the physical world. These are described with +least accuracy when they happen to be contemporary with civil +dissensions. Earthquakes and eruptions of volcanoes strike the +imagination by the evils which are their necessary consequence. +Tradition seizes on whatever is vague and marvellous; and amid +great public calamities, as in private misfortunes, man seems to +shun that light which leads us to discover the real causes of +events, and to understand the circumstances by which they are +attended. + +I have recorded in this work all I have been able to collect, and +on the accuracy of which I can rely, respecting the earthquake of +the 26th of March, 1812. By that catastrophe the town of Caracas +was destroyed, and more than twenty thousand persons perished +throughout the extent of the province of Venezuela. The intercourse +which I have kept up with persons of all classes has enabled me to +compare the description given by many eye-witnesses, and to +interrogate them on objects that may throw light on physical +science in general. The traveller, as the historian of nature, +should verify the dates of great catastrophes, examine their +connection and their mutual relations, and should mark in the rapid +course of ages, in the continual progress of successive changes, +those fixed points with which other catastrophes may one day be +compared. All epochs are proximate to each other in the immensity +of time comprehended in the history of nature. Years which have +passed away seem but a few instants; and the physical descriptions +of a country, even when they offer subjects of no very powerful and +general interest, have at least the advantage of never becoming +old. Similar considerations, no doubt, led M. de la Condamine to +describe in his Voyage a l'Equateur, the memorable eruptions of the +volcano of Cotopaxi,* which took place long after his departure +from Quito. (* Those of the 30th of November, 1744, and of the 3rd +of September, 1750.) I feel the less hesitation in following the +example of that celebrated traveller, as the events I am about to +relate will help to elucidate the theory of volcanic reaction, or +the influence of a system of volcanoes on a vast space of +circumjacent territory. + +At the time when M. Bonpland and myself visited the provinces of +New Andalusia, New Barcelona, and Caracas, it was generally +believed that the most eastern parts of those coasts were +especially exposed to the destructive effects of earthquakes. The +inhabitants of Cumana dreaded the valley of Caracas, on account of +its damp and variable climate, and its gloomy and misty sky; whilst +the inhabitants of the temperate valley regarded Cumana as a town +whose inhabitants incessantly inhaled a burning atmosphere, and +whose soil was periodically agitated by violent commotions. +Unmindful of the overthrow of Riobamba and other very elevated +towns, and not aware that the peninsula of Araya, composed of +mica-slate, shares the commotions of the calcareous coast of +Cumana, well-informed persons imagined they discerned security in +the structure of the primitive rocks of Caracas, as well as in the +elevated situation of this valley. Religious ceremonies celebrated +at La Guayra, and even in the capital, in the middle of the night,* +doubtless called to mind the fact that the province of Venezuela +had been subject at intervals to earthquakes; but dangers of rare +occurrence are slightly feared. (* For instance, the nocturnal +procession of the 21st of October, instituted in commemoration of +the great earthquake which took place on that day of the month, at +one o'clock in the morning, in 1778. Other very violent shocks were +those of 1641, 1703, and 1802.) However, in the year 1811, fatal +experience destroyed the illusion of theory and of popular opinion. +Caracas, situated in the mountains, three degrees west of Cumana, +and five degrees west of the volcanoes of the Caribbee islands, has +suffered greater shocks than were ever experienced on the coast of +Paria or New Andalusia. + +At my arrival in Terra Firma, I was struck with the connection +between the destruction of Cumana on the 14th of December, 1797, +and the eruption of the volcanoes in the smaller West India +Islands. This connection was again manifest in the destruction of +Caracas on the 26th of March, 1812. The volcano of Guadaloupe +seemed in 1797 to have exercised a reaction on the coasts of +Cumana. Fifteen years later, it was a volcano situated nearer the +continent (that of St. Vincent), which appeared to have extended +its influence as far as Caracas and the banks of Apure. Possibly, +at both those periods, the centre of the explosion was, at an +immense depth, equally distant from the regions towards which the +motion was propagated at the surface of the globe. + +From the beginning of 1811 to 1813, a vast superficies of the +earth,* (* Between latitudes 5 and 36 degrees north, and 31 and 91 +degrees west longitude from Paris.) bound by the meridian of the +Azores, the valley of the Ohio, the Cordilleras of New Grenada, the +coasts of Venezuela, and the volcanoes of the smaller West India +Islands, was shaken throughout its whole extent, by commotions +which may be attributed to subterranean fires. The following series +of phenomena seems to indicate communications at enormous +distances. On the 30th of January, 1811, a submarine volcano broke +out near the island of St. Michael, one of the Azores. At a place +where the sea was sixty fathoms deep, a rock made its appearance +above the surface of the waters. The heaving-up of the softened +crust of the globe appears to have preceded the eruption of flame +at the crater, as had already been observed at the volcanoes of +Jorullo in Mexico, and on the appearance of the little island of +Kameni, near Santorino. The new islet of the Azores was at first a +mere shoal; but on the 15th of June, an eruption, which lasted six +days, enlarged its extent, and carried it progressively to the +height of fifty toises above the surface of the sea. This new land, +of which captain Tillard took possession in the name of the British +government, giving it the name of Sabrina Island, was nine hundred +toises in diameter. It has again, it seems, been swallowed up by +the ocean. This is the third time that submarine volcanoes have +presented this extraordinary spectacle near the island of St. +Michael; and, as if the eruptions of these volcanoes were subject +to periodical recurrence, owing to a certain accumulation of +elastic fluids, the island raised up has appeared at intervals of +ninety-one or ninety-two years.* (* Malte-Brun, Geographie +Universelle. There is, however, some doubt respecting the eruption +of 1628, to which some accounts assign the date of 1638. The rising +always happened near the island of St. Michael, though not +identically on the same spot. It is remarkable that the small +island of 1720 reached the same elevation as the island of Sabrina +in 1811.) + +At the time of the appearance of the new island of Sabrina, the +smaller West India Islands, situated eight hundred leagues +south-west of the Azores, experienced frequent earthquakes. More +than two hundred shocks were felt from the month of May 1811, to +April 1812, at St. Vincent; one of the three islands in which there +are still active volcanoes. The commotion was not circumscribed to +the insular portion of eastern America; and from the 16th of +December, 1811, till the year 1813, the earth was almost +incessantly agitated in the valleys of the Mississippi, the +Arkansas river, and the Ohio. The oscillations were more feeble on +the east of the Alleghanies, than to the west of these mountains, +in Tennessee and Kentucky. They were accompanied by a great +subterranean noise, proceeding from the south-west. In some places +between New Madrid and Little Prairie, as at the Saline, north of +Cincinnati, in latitude 37 degrees 45 minutes, shocks were felt +every day, nay almost every hour, during several months. The whole +of these phenomena continued from the 16th of December 1811, till +the year 1813. The commotion, confined at first to the south, in +the valley of the lower Mississippi, appeared to advance slowly +northward. + +Precisely at the period when this long series of earthquakes +commenced in the Transalleghanian States (in the month of December +1811), the town of Caracas felt the first shock in calm and serene +weather. This coincidence of phenomena was probably not accidental; +for it must be borne in mind that, notwithstanding the distance +which separates these countries, the low grounds of Louisiana and +the coasts of Venezuela and Cumana belong to the same basin, that +of the Gulf of Mexico. When we consider geologically the basin of +the Caribbean Sea, and of the Gulf of Mexico, we find it bounded on +the south by the coast-chain of Venezuela and the Cordilleras of +Merida and Pamplona; on the east by the mountains of the West India +Islands, and the Alleghanies; on the west by the Andes of Mexico, +and the Rocky Mountains; and on the north by the very +inconsiderable elevations which separate the Canadian lakes from +the rivers which flow into the Mississippi. More than two-thirds of +this basin are covered with water. It is bordered by two ranges of +active volcanoes; on the east, in the Carribee Islands, between +latitudes 13 and 16 degrees; and on the west in the Cordilleras of +Nicaragua, Guatimala, and Mexico, between latitudes 11 and 20 +degrees. When we reflect that the great earthquake at Lisbon, of +the 1st of November, 1755, was felt almost simultaneously on the +coasts of Sweden, at lake Ontario, and at the island of Martinique, +it may not seem unreasonable to suppose, that all this basin of the +West Indies, from Cumana and Caracas as far as the plains of +Louisiana, should be simultaneously agitated by commotions +proceeding from the same centre of action. + +It is an opinion very generally prevalent on the coasts of Terra +Firma, that earthquakes become more frequent when electric +explosions have been during some years rare. It is supposed to have +been observed, at Cumana and at Caracas, that the rains were less +frequently attended with thunder from the year 1792; and the total +destruction of Cumana in 1797, as well as the commotions felt in +1800, 1801, and 1802, at Maracaibo, Porto Cabello, and Caracas, +have not failed to be attributed to an accumulation of electricity +in the interior of the earth. Persons who have lived long in New +Andalusia, or in the low regions of Peru, will admit that the +period most to be dreaded for the frequency of earthquakes is the +beginning of the rainy season, which, however, is also the season +of thunder-storms. The atmosphere and the state of the surface of +the globe seem to exercise an influence unknown to us on the +changes which take place at great depths; and I am inclined to +think that the connection which it is supposed has been traced +between the absence of thunder-storms and the frequency of +earthquakes, is rather a physical hypothesis framed by the +half-learned of the country than the result of long experience. The +coincidence of certain phenomena may be favoured by chance. The +extraordinary commotions felt almost continually during the space +of two years on the banks of the Mississippi and the Ohio, and +which corresponded in 1812 with those of the valley of Caracas, +were preceded at Louisiana by a year almost exempt from +thunder-storms. The public mind was again struck with this +phenomenon. We cannot be surprised that there should be in the +native land of Franklin a great readiness to receive explanations +founded on the theory of electricity. + +The shock felt at Caracas in the month of December 1811, was the +only one which preceded the terrible catastrophe of the 26th of +March, 1812. The inhabitants of Terra Firma were alike ignorant of +the agitations of the volcano in the island of St. Vincent, and of +those felt in the basin of the Mississippi, where, on the 7th and +8th of February, 1812, the earth was day and night in perpetual +oscillation. A great drought prevailed at this period in the +province of Venezuela. Not a single drop of rain had fallen at +Caracas or in the country to the distance of ninety leagues round, +during five months preceding the destruction of the capital. The +26th of March was a remarkably hot day. The air was calm, and the +sky unclouded. It was Ascension-day, and a great portion of the +population was assembled in the churches. Nothing seemed to presage +the calamities of the day. At seven minutes after four in the +afternoon the first shock was felt. It was sufficiently forcible to +make the bells of the churches toll; and it lasted five or six +seconds. During that interval the ground was in a continual +undulating movement, and seemed to heave up like a boiling liquid. +The danger was thought to be past, when a tremendous subterranean +noise was heard, resembling the rolling of thunder, but louder and +of longer continuance than that heard within the tropics in the +time of storms. This noise preceded a perpendicular motion of three +or four seconds, followed by an undulatory movement somewhat +longer. The shocks were in opposite directions, proceeding from +north to south, and from east to west. Nothing could resist the +perpendicular movement and the transverse undulations. The town of +Caracas was entirely overthrown, and between nine and ten thousand +of the inhabitants were buried under the ruins of the houses and +churches. The procession of Ascension-day had not yet begun to pass +through the streets, but the crowd was so great within the churches +that nearly three or four thousand persons were crushed by the fall +of the roofs. The explosion was most violent towards the north, in +that part of the town situated nearest the mountain of Avila and +the Silla. The churches of la Trinidad and Alta Gracia, which were +more than one hundred and fifty feet high, and the naves of which +were supported by pillars of twelve or fifteen feet diameter, were +reduced to a mass of ruins scarcely exceeding five or six feet in +elevation. The sinking of the ruins has been so considerable that +there now scarcely remain any vestiges of pillars or columns. The +barracks, called el Quartel de San Carlos, situated north of the +church of la Trinidad, on the road from the custom-house of La +Pastora, almost entirely disappeared. A regiment of troops of the +line, under arms, and in readiness to join the procession, was, +with the exception of a few men, buried beneath the ruins of the +barracks. Nine-tenths of the fine city of Caracas were entirely +destroyed. The walls of some houses not thrown down, as those in +the street San Juan, near the Capuchin Hospital, were cracked in +such a manner as to render them uninhabitable. The effects of the +earthquake were somewhat less violent in the western and southern +parts of the city, between the principal square and the ravine of +Caraguata. There, the cathedral, supported by enormous buttresses, +remains standing. + +It is computed that nine or ten thousand persons were killed in the +city of Caracas, exclusive of those who, being dangerously wounded, +perished several months after, for want of food and proper care. +The night of the Festival of the Ascension witnessed an awful scene +of desolation and distress. The thick cloud of dust which, rising +above the ruins, darkened the sky like a fog, had settled on the +ground. No commotion was felt, and never was a night more calm or +more serene. The moon, then nearly at the full, illumined the +rounded domes of the Silla, and the aspect of the sky formed a +perfect contrast to that of the earth, which was covered with the +bodies of the dead, and heaped with ruins. Mothers were seen +bearing in their arms their children, whom they hoped to recall to +life. Desolate families were wandering through the city, seeking a +brother, a husband, or a friend, of whose fate they were ignorant, +and whom they believed to be lost in the crowd. The people pressed +along the streets, which could be traced only by long lines of +ruins. + +All the calamities experienced in the great catastrophes of Lisbon, +Messina, Lima, and Riobamba were renewed at Caracas on the fatal +26th of March, 1812. Wounded persons, buried beneath the ruins, +were heard imploring by their cries the help of the passers-by, and +nearly two thousand were dug out. Never was pity more tenderly +evinced; never was it more ingeniously active than in the efforts +employed to save the miserable victims whose groans reached the +ear. Implements for digging and clearing away the ruins were +entirely wanting; and the people were obliged to use their bare +hands, to disinter the living. The wounded, as well as the invalids +who had escaped from the hospitals, were laid on the banks of the +small river Guayra, where there was no shelter but the foliage of +trees. Beds, linen to dress the wounds, instruments of surgery, +medicines, every object of the most urgent necessity, was buried in +the ruins. Everything, even food, was wanting; and for the space of +several days water became scarce in the interior of the city. The +commotion had rent the pipes of the fountains; and the falling in +of the earth had choked up the springs that supplied them. To +procure water it was necessary to go down to the river Guayra, +which was considerably swelled; and even when the water was +obtained vessels for conveying it were wanting. + +There was a duty to be fulfilled to the dead, enjoined at once by +piety and the dread of infection. It being impossible to inter so +many thousand bodies, half-buried under the ruins, commissioners +were appointed to burn them: and for this purpose funeral piles +were erected between the heaps of ruins. This ceremony lasted +several days. Amidst so many public calamities, the people devoted +themselves to those religious duties which they thought best fitted +to appease the wrath of heaven. Some, assembling in processions, +sang funeral hymns; others, in a state of distraction, made their +confessions aloud in the streets. In Caracas was then repeated what +had been remarked in the province of Quito, after the tremendous +earthquake of 1797; a number of marriages were contracted between +persons who had neglected for many years to sanction their union by +the sacerdotal benediction. Children found parents, by whom they +had never till then been acknowledged; restitutions were promised +by persons who had never been accused of fraud; and families who +had long been at enmity were drawn together by the tie of common +calamity. But if this feeling seemed to calm the passions of some, +and open the heart to pity, it had a contrary effect on others, +rendering them more rigorous and inhuman. In great calamities +vulgar minds evince less of goodness than of energy. Misfortune +acts in the same manner as the pursuits of literature and the study +of nature; the happy influence of which is felt only by a few, +giving more ardour to sentiment, more elevation to the thoughts, +and increased benevolence to the disposition. + +Shocks as violent as those which in about the space of a minute* +overthrew the city of Caracas, could not be confined to a small +portion of the continent. (* The duration of the earthquake, that +is to say the whole of the movements of undulation and rising +(undulacion y trepidacion), which occasioned the horrible +catastrophe of the 26th of March, 1812, was estimated by some at 50 +seconds, by others at 1 minute 12 seconds.) Their fatal effects +extended as far as the provinces of Venezuela, Varinas, and +Maracaibo, along the coast; and especially to the inland mountains. +La Guayra, Mayquetia, Antimano, Baruta, La Vega, San Felipe, and +Merida, were almost entirely destroyed. The number of the dead +exceeded four or five thousand at La Guayra, and at the town of San +Felipe, near the copper-mines of Aroa. It would appear that on a +line running east-north-east and west-south-west from La Guayra and +Caracas to the lofty mountains of Niquitao and Merida, the violence +of the earthquake was principally directed. It was felt in the +kingdom of New Grenada from the branches of the high Sierra de +Santa Martha* (* As far as Villa de Los Remedios, and even to +Carthagena.) as far as Santa Fe de Bogota and Honda, on the banks +of the Magdalena, one hundred and eighty leagues from Caracas. It +was everywhere more violent in the Cordilleras of gneiss and +mica-slate, or immediately at their base, than in the plains; and +this difference was particularly striking in the savannahs of +Varinas and Casanara.* (* This is easily explained according to the +system of those geologists who are of opinion that all chains of +mountains, volcanic and not volcanic, have been formed by being +raised up, as if through crevices.) In the valleys of Aragua, +between Caracas and the town of San Felipe, the commotions were +very slight; and La Victoria, Maracay, and Valencia, scarcely +suffered at all, notwithstanding their proximity to the capital. At +Valecillo, a few leagues from Valencia, the yawning earth threw out +such an immense quantity of water, that it formed a new torrent. +The same phenomenon took place near Porto-Cabello.* (* It is +asserted that, in the mountains of Aroa, the ground, immediately +after the great shocks, was found covered with a very fine and +white earth, which appeared to have been projected through +crevices.) On the other hand, the lake of Maracaybo diminished +sensibly. At Coro no commotion was felt, though the town is +situated on the coast, between other towns which suffered from the +earthquake. Fishermen, who had passed the day of the 26th of March +in the island of Orchila, thirty leagues north-east of La Guayra, +felt no shock. These differences in the direction and propagation +of the shock, are probably owing to the peculiar position of the +stony strata. + +Having thus traced the effects of the earthquake to the west of +Caracas, as far as the snowy mountains of Santa Martha, and the +table-land of Santa Fe de Bogota, we will proceed to consider their +action on the country eastward of the capital. The commotions were +very violent beyond Caurimare, in the valley of Capaya, where they +extended as far as the meridian of Cape Codera: but it is extremely +remarkable that they were very feeble on the coasts of Nueva +Barcelona, Cumana, and Paria; though these coasts are the +continuation of the shore of La Guayra, and were formerly known to +have been often agitated by subterranean commotions. Admitting that +the destruction of the four towns of Caracas, La Guayra, San +Felipe, and Merida, may be attributed to a volcanic focus situated +under or near the island of St. Vincent, we may conceive that the +motion might have been propagated from north-east to south-west in +a line passing through the islands of Los Hermanos, near +Blanquilla, without touching the coasts of Araya, Cumana, and Nueva +Barcelona. This propagation of the shock might even have taken +place without any commotion having been felt at the intermediate +points on the surface of the globe (the Hermanos Islands for +instance). This phenomenon is frequently remarked at Peru and +Mexico, in earthquakes which have followed during ages a fixed +direction. The inhabitants of the Andes say, speaking of an +intermediary tract of ground, not affected by the general +commotion, "that it forms a bridge" (que hace puente): as if they +mean to indicate by this expression that the undulations are +propagated at an immense depth under an inert rock. + +At Caracas, fifteen or eighteen hours after the great catastrophe, +the earth was tranquil. The night, as has already been observed, +was fine and calm; and the commotions did not recommence till after +the 27th. They were then attended by a very loud and long continued +subterranean noise (bramido). The inhabitants of the destroyed city +wandered into the country; but the villages and farms having +suffered as much as the town, they could find no shelter till they +were beyond the mountains of los Teques, in the valleys of Aragua, +and in the llanos or savannahs. No less than fifteen oscillations +were felt in one day. On the 5th of April there was almost as +violent an earthquake as that which overthrew the capital. During +several hours the ground was in a state of perpetual undulation. +Large heaps of earth fell in the mountains; and enormous masses of +rock were detached from the Silla of Caracas. It was even asserted, +and this opinion prevails still in the country, that the two domes +of the Silla sunk fifty or sixty toises; but this statement is not +founded on any measurement. I am informed that, in like manner, in +the province of Quito, the people, at every period of great +commotions, imagine that the volcano of Tunguragua diminishes in +height. It has been affirmed, in many published accounts of the +destruction of Caracas, that the mountain of the Silla is an +extinguished volcano; that a great quantity of volcanic substances +are found on the road from La Guayra to Caracas; that the rocks do +not present any regular stratification; and that everything bears +the stamp of the action of fire. It has even been stated that +twelve years prior to the great catastrophe, M. Bonpland and myself +had, from our own observations, considered the Silla as a very +dangerous neighbour to the city of Caracas, because the mountain +contained a great quantity of sulphur, and the commotions must come +from the north-east. It is seldom that observers of nature have to +justify themselves for an accomplished prediction; but I think it +my duty to oppose ideas which are too easily adopted on the LOCAL +CAUSES of earthquakes. + +In all places where the soil has been incessantly agitated for +whole months, as at Jamaica in 1693, Lisbon in 1755, Cumana in +1766, and Piedmont in 1808, a volcano is expected to open. People +forget that we must seek the focus or centre of action, far from +the surface of the earth; that, according to undeniable evidence, +the undulations are propagated almost at the same instant across +seas of immense depth, at the distance of a thousand leagues; and +that the greatest commotions take place not at the foot of active +volcanoes, but in chains of mountains composed of the most +heterogeneous rocks. In our geognostical observation of the country +round Caracas we found gneiss, and mica-slate containing beds of +primitive limestone. The strata are scarcely more fractured or +irregularly inclined than near Freyburg in Saxony, or wherever +mountains of primitive formation rise abruptly to great heights. I +found at Caracas neither basalt nor dorolite, nor even trachytes or +trap-porphyries; nor in general any trace of an extinguished +volcano, unless we choose to regard the diabases of primitive +grunstein, contained in gneiss, as masses of lava, which have +filled up fissures. These diabases are the same as those of +Bohemia, Saxony, and Franconia;* (* These grunsteins are found in +Bohemia, near Pilsen, in granite; in Saxony, in the mica-slates of +Scheenberg; in Franconia, between Steeben and Lauenstein, in +transition-slates.) and whatever opinion may be entertained +respecting the ancient causes of the oxidation of the globe at its +surface, all those primitive mountains, which contain a mixture of +hornblende and feldspar, either in veins or in balls with +concentric layers, will not, I presume, be called volcanic +formations. Mont Blanc and Mont d'Or will not be ranged in one and +the same class. Even the partisans of the Huttonian or volcanic +theory make a distinction between the lavas melted under the mere +pressure of the atmosphere at the surface of the globe, and those +layers formed by fire beneath the immense weight of the ocean and +superincumbent rocks. They would not confound Auvergne and the +granitic valley of Caracas in the same denomination; that of a +country of extinct volcanoes. + +I never could have pronounced the opinion, that the Silla and the +Cerro de Avila, mountains of gneiss and mica-slate, were in +dangerous proximity to the city of Caracas because they contained a +great quantity of pyrites in subordinate beds of primitive +limestone. But I remember having said, during my stay at Caracas, +that the eastern extremity of Terra Firma appeared, since the great +earthquake of Quito, in a state of agitation, which warranted +apprehension that the province of Venezuela would gradually be +exposed to violent commotions. I added, that when a country had +been long subject to frequent shocks, new subterranean +communications seemed to open with neighbouring countries; and that +the volcanoes of the West India Islands, lying in the direction of +the Silla, north-east of the city, were perhaps the vents, at the +time of an eruption, for those elastic fluids which cause +earthquakes on the coasts of the continent. These considerations, +founded on local knowledge of the place, and on simple analogies, +are very far from a prediction justified by the course of physical +events. + +On the 30th of April, 1812, whilst violent commotions were felt +simultaneously in the valley of the Mississippi, in the island of +St. Vincent, and in the province of Venezuela, a subterranean noise +resembling frequent discharges of large cannon was heard at +Caracas, at Calabozo (situated in the midst of the steppes), and on +the borders of the Rio Apure, over a superficies of four thousand +square leagues. This noise began at two in the morning. It was +accompanied by no shock; and it is very remarkable, that it was as +loud on the coast as at the distance of eighty leagues inland. It +was everywhere believed to be transmitted through the air; and was +so far from being thought a subterranean noise, that in several +places, preparations were made for defence against an enemy, who +seemed to be advancing with heavy artillery. Senor Palacio, +crossing the Rio Apure below the Orivante, near the junction of the +Rio Nula, was told by the inhabitants, that the firing of cannon +had been heard distinctly at the western extremity of the province +of Varinas, as well as at the port of La Guayra to the north of the +chain of the coast. + +The day on which the inhabitants of Terra Firma were alarmed by a +subterranean noise was that of the great eruption of the volcano in +the island of St. Vincent. That mountain, near five hundred toises +high, had not thrown out lava since the year 1718. Scarcely was any +smoke perceived to issue from it, when, in the month of May 1811, +frequent shocks announced that the volcanic fire was either +rekindled, or directed anew to that part of the West Indies. The +first eruption did not take place till the 27th of April, 1812, at +noon. It was merely an ejection of ashes, but attended with a +tremendous noise. On the 30th, the lava overflowed the brink of the +crater, and, after a course of four hours, reached the sea. The +sound of the explosion is described as resembling that of alternate +discharges of very large cannon and musketry; and it is worthy of +remark, that it seemed much louder to persons out at sea, and at a +great distance from land, than to those within sight of land, and +near the burning volcano. + +The distance in a straight line from the volcano of St. Vincent to +the Rio Apure, near the mouth of the Nula, is two hundred and ten +leagues.* (* Where the contrary is not expressly stated, nautical +leagues of twenty to a degree, or two thousand eight hundred and +fifty-five toises, are always to be understood.) The explosions +were consequently heard at a distance equal to that between +Vesuvius and Paris. This phenomenon, in conjunction with a great +number of facts observed in the Cordilleras of the Andes, shows +that the sphere of the subterranean activity of a volcano is much +more extensive than we should be disposed to admit, if we judged +merely from the small changes effected at the surface of the globe. +The detonations heard during whole days together in the New World, +eighty, one hundred, or even two hundred leagues distant from a +crater, do not reach us by the propagation of the sound through the +air; they are transmitted by the earth, perhaps in the very place +where we happen to be. If the eruptions of the volcano of St. +Vincent, Cotopaxi, or Tunguragua, resounded from afar, like a +cannon of immense magnitude, the noise ought to increase in the +inverse ratio of the distance: but observations prove, that this +augmentation does not take place. I must further observe, that M. +Bonpland and I, going from Guayaquil to the coast of Mexico, +crossed latitudes in the Pacific, where the crew of our ship were +dismayed by a hollow sound coming from the depth of the ocean, and +transmitted by the waters. At that time a new eruption of Cotopaxi +took place, but we were as far distant from the volcano, as Etna +from the city of Naples. The little town of Honda, on the banks of +the Magdalena, is not less than one hundred and forty-five leagues* +(* This is the distance from Vesuvius to Mont Blanc.) from +Cotopaxi; and yet, in the great explosions of this volcano, in +1744, a subterranean noise was heard at Honda, and supposed to be +discharges of heavy artillery. The monks of San Francisco spread a +report that the town of Carthagena was besieged and bombarded by +the English; and the intelligence was believed throughout the +country. Now the volcano of Cotopaxi is a cone, more than one +thousand eight hundred toises above the basin of Honda, and it +rises from a table-land, the elevation of which is more than one +thousand five hundred toises above the valley of the Magdalena. In +all the colossal mountains of Quito, of the province of los Pastos, +and of Popayan, crevices and valleys without number intervene. It +cannot be admitted, under these circumstances, that the noise was +transmitted through the air, or over the surface of the globe, and +that it came from the point at which the cone and crater of +Cotapaxi are situated. It appears probable, that the more elevated +part of the kingdom of Quito and the neighbouring Cordilleras, far +from being a group of distinct volcanoes, constitute a single +swollen mass, an enormous volcanic wall, stretching from south to +north, and the crest of which presents a superficies of more than +six hundred square leagues. Cotopaxi, Tunguragua, Antisana, and +Pichincha, are on this same raised ground. They have different +names, but they are merely separate summits of the same volcanic +mass. The fire issues sometimes from one, sometimes from another of +these summits. The obstructed craters appear to be extinguished +volcanoes; but we may presume, that, while Cotopaxi or Tunguragua +have only one or two eruptions in the course of a century, the fire +is not less continually active under the town of Quito, under +Pichincha and Imbabura. + +Advancing northward we find, between the volcano of Cotopaxi and +the town of Honda, two other systems of volcanic mountains, those +of los Pastos and of Popayan. The connection between these systems +was manifested in the Andes by a phenomenon which I have already +had occasion to notice, in speaking of the last destruction of +Cumana. In the month of November 1796 a thick column of smoke began +to issue from the volcano of Pasto, west of the town of that name, +and near the valley of Rio Guaytara. The mouths of the volcano are +lateral, and situated on its western declivity, yet during three +successive months the column of smoke rose so much higher than the +ridge of the mountain that it was constantly visible to the +inhabitants of the town of Pasto. They described to us their +astonishment when, on the 4th of February, 1797, they observed the +smoke disappear in an instant, whilst no shock whatever was felt. +At that very moment, sixty-five leagues southward, between +Chimborazo, Tunguragua, and the Altar (Capac-Urcu), the town of +Riobamba was overthrown by the most terrible earthquake on record. +Is it possible to doubt, from this coincidence of phenomena, that +the vapours issuing from the small apertures or ventanillas of the +volcano of Pasto had an influence on the pressure of those elastic +fluids which convulsed the earth in the kingdom of Quito, and +destroyed in a few minutes thirty or forty thousand inhabitants? + +To explain these great effects of volcanic reactions, and to prove +that the group or system of the volcanoes of the West India Islands +may sometimes shake the continent, I have cited the Cordillera of +the Andes. Geological reasoning can be supported only by the +analogy of facts which are recent, and consequently well +authenticated: and in what other region of the globe could we find +greater and more varied volcanic phenomena than in that double +chain of mountains heaved up by fire? in that land where nature has +covered every mountain and every valley with her marvels? If we +consider a burning crater only as an isolated phenomenon, if we be +satisfied with merely examining the mass of stony substances which +it has thrown up, the volcanic action at the surface of the globe +will appear neither very powerful nor very extensive. But the image +of this action becomes enlarged in the mind when we study the +relations which link together volcanoes of the same group; for +instance, those of Naples and Sicily, of the Canary Islands,* of +the Azores, of the Caribbee islands of Mexico, of Guatimala, and of +the table-land of Quito; when we examine either the reactions of +these different systems of volcanoes on one another, or the +distance at which, by subterranean communication, they +simultaneously convulse the earth. (I have already observed +(Chapter 1.2) that the whole group of the Canary Islands rises, as +we may say, above one and the same submarine volcano. Since the +sixteenth century, the fire of this volcano has burst forth +alternately in Palma, Teneriffe, and Lancerote. Auvergne presents a +whole system of volcanoes, the action of which has now ceased; but +in the middle of a system of active volcanoes, for instance, in +that of Quito, we must not consider as an extinguished volcano a +mountain, the crater of which is obstructed, and through which the +subterraneous fire has not issued for ages. Etna, the Aeolian +Isles, Vesuvius, and Epomeo; the peak of Teyde, Palma, and +Lancerote; St. Michael, La Caldiera of Fayal, and Pico; St. +Vincent, St. Lucia, and Guadaloupe; Orizava, Popocatepetl, Jorullo, +and La Colima; Bombacho, the volcano of Grenada, Telica, Momotombo, +Isalco, and the volcano of Guatimala; Cotopaxi, Tunguragua, +Pichincha, Antisana, and Sangai, belong to the same system of +burning volcanoes; they are generally ranged in rows, as if they +had issued from a crevice, or vein not filled up; and, it is very +remarkable, that their position is in some parts in the general +direction of the Cordilleras, and in others in a contrary +direction.) + +The study of volcanoes may be divided into two distinct branches; +one, simply mineralogical, is directed to the examination of the +stony strata, altered or produced by the action of fire; from the +formation of the trachytes or trap-porphyries, of basalts, +phonolites, and dolerites, to the most recent lavas: the other +branch, less accessible and more neglected, comprehends the +physical relations which link volcanoes together, the influence of +one volcanic system on another, the connection existing between the +action of burning mountains and the commotions which agitate the +earth at great distances, and during long intervals, in the same +direction. This study cannot progress till the various epochs of +simultaneous action, the direction, the extent, and the force of +the convulsions are carefully noted; till we have attentively +observed their progressive advance to regions which they had not +previously reached; and the coincidence between distant volcanic +eruptions and those noises which the inhabitants of the Andes very +expressively term subterraneous thunders, or roarings.* (* Bramidos +y truenos subterraneos.) All these objects are comprehended in the +domain of the history of nature. + +Though the narrow circle within which all certain traditions are +confined, does not present any of those general revolutions which +have heaved up the Cordilleras and buried myriads of pelagian +animals; yet Nature, acting under our eyes, nevertheless exhibits +violent though partial changes, the study of which may throw light +on the most remote epochs. In the interior of the earth those +mysterious powers exist, the effects of which are manifested at the +surface by the production of vapours, of incandescent scoriae, of +new volcanic rocks and thermal springs, by the appearance of new +islands and mountains, by commotions propagated with the rapidity +of an electric shock, finally by those subterranean thunders,* +heard during whole months, without shaking the earth, in regions +far distant from active volcanoes. (* In the town of Guanaxuato, in +Mexico, these thunders lasted from the 9th of January till the 12th +of February, 1784. Guanaxuato is situated forty leagues north of +the volcano of Jorullo, and sixty leagues north west of the volcano +of Popocatepetl. In places nearer these two volcanoes, three +leagues distant from Guanaxuato, the subterranean thunders were not +heard. The noise was circumscribed within a very narrow space, in +the region of a primitive schist, which approaches a +transition-schist, containing the richest silver mines of the known +world, and on which rest trap-porphyries, slates, and diabasis +(grunstein.)) + +In proportion as equinoctial America shall increase in culture and +population, and the system of volcanoes of the central table-land +of Mexico, of the Caribbee Islands, of Popayan, of los Pastos, and +Quito, shall be more attentively observed, the connection of +eruptions and of earthquakes, which precede and sometimes accompany +those eruptions, will be more generally recognized. The volcanoes +just mentioned, particularly those of the Andes, which rise above +the enormous height of two thousand five hundred toises, present +great advantages for observation. The periods of their eruptions +are singularly regular. They remain thirty or forty years without +emitting scoriae, ashes, or even vapours. I could not perceive the +smallest trace of smoke on the summit of Tunguragua or Cotopaxi. A +gust of vapour issuing from the crater of Mount Vesuvius scarcely +attracts the attention of the inhabitants of Naples, accustomed to +the movements of that little volcano, which throws out scoriae +sometimes during two or three years successively. Thence it becomes +difficult to judge whether the emission of scoriae may have been +more frequent at the time when an earthquake has been felt in the +Apennines. On the ridge of the Cordilleras everything assumes a +more decided character. An eruption of ashes, which lasts only a +few minutes, is often followed by a calm of ten years. In such +circumstances it is easy to mark the periods, and to observe the +coincidence of phenomena. + +If, as there appears to be little reason to doubt, that the +destruction of Cumana in 1797, and of Caracas in 1812, indicate the +influence of the volcanoes of the West India Islands* on the +commotions felt on the coasts of Terra Firma, it may be desirable, +before we close this chapter, to take a cursory view of this +Mediterranean archipelago. + +(* The following is the series of the phenomena:-- + +27th of September, 1796. Eruption in the West India Islands. +(Volcano of Guadaloupe). + +November, 1796. The volcano of Pasto began to emit smoke. + +14th of December, 1796. Destruction of Cumana. + +4th of February, 1797. Destruction of Riobamba. + +30th of January, 1811. Appearance of Sabrina Island, in the Azores. +The island enlarged very considerably on the 15th of June, 1811. + +May, 1811. Commencement of the earthquakes in the island of St. +Vincent, which lasted till May 1812. + +16th of December, 1811. Commencement of the commotions in the +valley of the Mississippi and the Ohio, which lasted till 1813. + +December, 1811. Earthquake at Caracas. + +26th of March, 1811. Destruction of Caracas. Earthquakes, which +continued till 1813. + +30th of April, 1811. Eruption of the volcano in St. Vincent; and +the same day subterranean noises at Caracas, and on the banks of +the Apure.) + +The volcanic islands form one-fifth of that great arc extending +from the coast of Paria to the peninsula of Florida. Running from +south to north, they close the Caribbean Sea on the eastern side, +while the greater West India Islands appear like the remains of a +group of primitive mountains, the summit of which seems to have +been between Cape Abacou, Point Morant, and the Copper Mountains, +in that part where the islands of St. Domingo, Cuba, and Jamaica, +are nearest to each other. Considering the basin of the Atlantic as +an immense valley* which separates the two continents, and where, +from 20 degrees south to 30 degrees north, the salient angles +(Brazil and Senegambia) correspond to the receding angles (the gulf +of Guinea and the Caribbean Sea), we are led to think that the +latter sea owes its formation to the action of currents, which, +like the current of rotation now existing, have flowed from east to +west; and have given the southern coast of Porto Rico, St. Domingo, +and the island of Cuba their uniform configuration. (* The valley +is narrowest (300 leagues) between Cape St. Roque and Sierra Leone. +Proceeding toward the north along the Coasts of the New Continent, +from its pyramidal extremity, or the Straits of Magellan, we +imagine we recognise the effects of a repulsion directed first +toward the north-east, then toward the north-west, and finally +again to the north-east.) This supposition of an oceanic irruption +has been the source of two other hypotheses on the origin of the +smaller West India Islands. Some geologists admit that the +uninterrupted chain of islands from Trinidad to Florida exhibits +the remains of an ancient chain of mountains. They connect this +chain sometimes with the granite of French Guiana, sometimes with +the calcareous mountains of Pari. Others, struck with the +difference of geological constitution between the primitive +mountains of the Greater and the volcanic cones of the Lesser +Antilles, consider the latter as having risen from the bottom of +the sea. + +If we recollect that volcanic upheavings, when they take place +through elongated crevices, usually take a straight direction, we +shall find it difficult to judge from the disposition of the +craters alone, whether the volcanoes have belonged to the same +chain, or have always been isolated. Supposing an irruption of the +ocean to take place either into the eastern part of the island of +Java* (* Raffles, History of Java, 1817, pages 23-28. The principal +line of the volcanoes of Java, on a distance of 160 leagues, runs +from west to east, through the mountains of Gagak, Gede, +Tankuban-Prahu, Ungarang Merapi, Lawu, Wilis, Arjuna, Dasar, and +Tashem.) or into the Cordilleras of Guatimala and Nicaragua, where +so many burning mountains form but one chain, that chain would be +divided into several islands, and would perfectly resemble the +Caribbean Archipelago. The union of primitive formations and +volcanic rocks in the same range of mountain is not extraordinary; +it is very distinctly seen in my geological sections of the +Cordillera of the Andes. The trachytes and basalts of Popayan are +separated from the system of the volcanoes of Quito by the +mica-slates of Almaguer; the volcanoes of Quito from the trachytes +of Assuay by the gneiss of Condorasta and Guasunto. There does not +exist a real chain of mountains running south-east and north-west +from Oyapoc to the mouths of the Orinoco, and of which the smaller +West India Islands might be a northern prolongation. The granites +of Guiana, as well as the hornblende-slates, which I saw near +Angostura, on the banks of the Lower Orinoco, belong to the +mountains of Pacaraimo and of Parime, stretching from west to east, +* (From the cataracts of Atures towards the Essequibo River. This +chain of Pacaraimo divides the waters of the Carony from those of +the Rio Parime, or Rio de Aguas Blancas.) in the interior of the +continent, and not in a direction parallel with the coast, between +the mouths of the river Amazon and the Orinoco. But though we find +no chain of mountains at the north-east extremity of Terra Firma, +having the same direction as the archipelago of the smaller West +India Islands, it does not therefore follow that the volcanic +mountains of the archipelago may not have belonged originally to +the continent, and formed a part of the littoral chain of Caracas +and Cumana.* (* Among many such examples which the structure of the +globe displays, we shall mention only the inflexion at a right +angle formed by the Higher Alps towards the maritime Alps, in +Europe; and the Belour-Tagh, which joins transversely the Mouz-Tagh +and the Himalaya, in Asia. Amid the prejudices which impede the +progress of mineralogical geography, we may reckon, 1st, the +supposition of a perfect uniformity of direction in the chains of +mountains; 2nd, the hypothesis of the continuity of all chains; +3rd, the supposition that the highest summits determine the +direction of a central chain; 4th, the idea that, in all places +where great rivers take rise, we may suppose the existence of great +tablelands, or very high mountains.) + +In opposing the objections of some celebrated naturalists, I am far +from maintaining the ancient contiguity of all the smaller West +India Islands. I am rather inclined to consider them as islands +heaved up by fire, and ranged in that regular line, of which we +find striking examples in so many volcanic hills in Auvergne, in +Mexico, and in Peru. The geological constitution of the Archipelago +appears, from the little we know respecting it, to be very similar +to that of the Azores and the Canary Islands. Primitive formations +are nowhere seen above ground; we find only what belongs +unquestionably to volcanoes: feldspar-lava, dolerite, basalt, +conglomerated scoriae, tufa, and pumice-stone. Among the limestone +formations we must distinguish those which are essentially +subordinate to volcanic tufas* from those which appear to be the +work of madrepores and other zoophytes. (* We have noticed some of +the above, following Von Buch, at Lancerote, and at Fortaventura, +in the system of the Canary Islands. Among the smaller islands of +the West Indies, the following islets are entirely calcareous, +according to M. Cortes: Mariegalante, La Desirade, the Grande Terre +of Guadaloupe, and the Grenadillas. According to the observations +of that naturalist, Curacoa and Buenos Ayres present only +calcareous formations. M. Cortes divides the West India Islands +into, 1st, those containing at once primitive, secondary, and +volcanic formations, like the greater islands; 2nd, those entirely +calcareous, (or at least so considered) as Mariegalante and +Curacoa; 3rd, those at once volcanic and calcareous, as Antigua, +St. Bartholomew, St. Martin, and St. Thomas; 4th, those which have +volcanic rocks only, as St. Vincent, St. Lucia, and St. Eustache.) +The latter, according to M. Moreau de Jonnes, seem to lie on shoals +of a volcanic nature. Those mountains, which present traces of the +action of fire more or less recent, and some of which reach nearly +nine hundred toises of elevation, are all situated on the western +skirt of the smaller West India Islands.* (* Journal des Mines, +tome 3 page 59. In order to exhibit in one point of view the whole +system of the volcanoes of the smaller West India Islands, I will +here trace the direction of the islands from south to north.--Grenada, +an ancient crater, filled with water; boiling springs; +basalts between St. George and Goave.--St. Vincent, a burning +volcano.--St. Lucia, a very active solfatara, named Oualibou, two +or three hundred toises high; jets of hot water, by which small +basins are periodically filled.--Martinique, three great +extinguished volcanoes; Vauclin, the Paps of Carbet, which are +perhaps the most elevated summits of the smaller islands, and +Montagne Pelee. (The height of this last mountain is probably 800 +toises; according to Leblond it is 670 toises; according to +Dupuget, 736 toises. Between Vauclin and the feldspar-lavas of the +Paps of Carbet is found, as M. Moreau de Jonnes asserts, in a neck +of land, a region of early basalt called La Roche Carree). Thermal +waters of Precheur and Lameutin.--Dominica, completely +volcanic.--Guadaloupe, an active volcano, the height of which, +according to Leboucher, is 799 toises; according to Amie, 850 +toises.--Montserrat, a solfatara; fine porphyritic lavas with large +crystals of feldspar and hornblende near Galloway, according to Mr. +Nugent.--Nevis, a solfatara.--St. Christopher's, a solfatara at +Mount Misery.--St. Eustache, a crater of an extinguished volcano, +surrounded by pumice-stone. (Trinidad, which is traversed by a +chain of primitive slate, appears to have anciently formed a part +of the littoral chain of Cumana, and not of the system of the +mountains of the Caribbee Islands.)) Each island is not the effect +of one single heaving-up: most of them appear to consist of +isolated masses which have been progressively united together. The +matter has not been emitted from one crater, but from several; so +that a single island of small extent contains a whole system of +volcanoes, regions purely basaltic, and others covered with recent +lavas. The volcanoes still burning are those of St. Vincent, St. +Lucia, and Guadaloupe. The first threw out lava in 1718 and 1812; +in the second there is a continual formation of sulphur by the +condensation of vapours, which issue from the crevices of an +ancient crater. The last eruption of the volcano of Guadaloupe took +place in 1797. The Solfatara of St. Christopher's was still burning +in 1692. At Martinique, Vauclin, Montagne Pelee, and the crater +surrounded by the five Paps of Carbet, must be considered as three +extinguished volcanoes. The effects of thunder have been often +confounded in that place with subterranean fire. No good +observation has confirmed the supposed eruption of the 22nd of +January, 1792. The group of volcanoes in the Caribbee Islands +resembles that of the volcanoes of Quito and Los Pastos; craters +with which the subterranean fire does not appear to communicate are +ranged on the same line with burning craters, and alternate with +them. + +Notwithstanding the intimate connection manifested in the action of +the volcanoes of the smaller West India Islands and the earthquakes +of Terra Firma, it often happens that shocks felt in the volcanic +archipelago are not propagated to the island of Trinidad, or to the +coasts of Caracas and Cumana. This phenomenon is in no way +surprising: even in the Caribbees the commotions are often confined +to one place. The great eruption of the volcano in St. Vincent's +did not occasion an earthquake at Martinique or Guadaloupe. Loud +explosions were heard there as well as at Venezuela, but the ground +was not convulsed. + +These explosions must not be confounded with the rolling noise +which everywhere precedes the slightest commotions; they are often +heard on the banks of the Orinoco, and (as we were assured by +persons living on the spot) between the Rio Arauca and Cuchivero. +Father Morello relates that at the Mission of Cabruta the +subterranean noise so much resembles discharges of small cannon +(pedreros) that it has seemed as if a battle were being fought at a +distance. On the 21st of October, 1766, the day of the terrible +earthquake which desolated the province of New Andalusia, the +ground was simultaneously shaken at Cumana, at Caracas, at +Maracaybo, and on the banks of the Casanare, the Meta, the Orinoco, +and the Ventuario. Father Gili has described these commotions at +the Mission of Encaramada, a country entirely granitic, where they +were accompanied by loud explosions. Great fallings-in of the earth +took place in the mountain Paurari, and near the rock Aravacoto a +small island disappeared in the Orinoco. The undulatory motion +continued during a whole hour. This seemed the first signal of +those violent commotions which shook the coasts of Cumana and +Cariaco for more than ten months. It might be supposed that men +living in woods, with no other shelter than huts of reeds and +palm-leaves, could have little to dread from earthquakes. But at +Erevato and Caura, where these phenomena are of rare occurrence, +they terrify the Indians, frighten the beasts of the forests, and +impel the crocodiles to quit the waters for the shore. Nearer the +sea, where shocks are frequent, far from being dreaded by the +inhabitants, they are regarded with satisfaction as the prognostics +of a wet and fertile year. + +In this dissertation on the earthquakes of Terra Firma and on the +volcanoes of the neighbouring archipelago of the West India +Islands, I have pursued the plan of first relating a number of +particular facts, and then considering them in one general point of +view. Everything announces in the interior of the globe the +operation of active powers, which, by mutual reaction, balance and +modify one another. The greater our ignorance of the causes of +these undulatory movements, these evolutions of heat, these +formations of elastic fluids, the more it becomes the duty of +persons who apply themselves to the study of physical science to +examine the relations which these phenomena so uniformly present at +great distances apart. It is only by considering these various +relations under a general point of view, and tracing them over a +great extent of the surface of the globe, through formations of +rocks the most different, that we are led to abandon the +supposition of trifling local causes, strata of pyrites, or of +ignited coal.* (* See "Views of Nature"--On the structure and +action of volcanoes in different parts of the world, page 353 +(Bohn's edition); also "Cosmos" pages 199-225 (Bohn's edition).) + +The following is the series of phenomena remarked on the northern +coasts of Cumana, Nueva Barcelona, and Caracas; and presumed to be +connected with the causes which produce earthquakes and eruptions +of lava. We shall begin with the most eastern extremity, the island +of Trinidad; which seems rather to belong to the shore of the +continent than to the system of the mountains of the West India +Islands. + +1. The pit which throws up asphaltum in the bay of Mayaro, on the +eastern coast of the island of Trinidad, southward of Point +Guataro. This is the mine of chapapote or mineral tar of the +country. I was assured that in the months of March and June the +eruptions are often attended with violent explosions, smoke, and +flames. Almost on the same parallel, and also in the sea, but +westward of the island (near Punta de la Brea, and to the south of +the port of Naparaimo), we find a similar vent. On the neighbouring +coast, in a clayey ground, appears the celebrated lake of asphaltum +(Laguna de la Brea), a marsh, the waters of which have the same +temperature as the atmosphere. The small cones situated at the +south-western extremity of the island, between Point Icacos and the +Rio Erin, appear to have some analogy with the volcanoes of air and +mud which I met with at Turbaco in the kingdom of New Grenada. I +mention these situations of asphaltum on account of the remarkable +circumstances peculiar to them in these regions; for I am not +unaware that naphtha, petroleum, and asphaltum are found equally in +volcanic and secondary regions,* and even more frequently in the +latter. (* The inflammable emanations of Pietra Mala, (consisting +of hydrogen gas containing naphtha in a state of suspension) issue +from the Alpine limestone, which may be traced from Covigliano to +Raticofa, and which lies on ancient sandstone near Scarica l'Asino. +Under this sandstone (old red sandstone) we find black transition +limestone and the grauwack (quartzose psammite) of Florence.) +Petroleum is found floating on the sea thirty leagues north of +Trinidad, around the island of Grenada, which contains an +extinguished crater and basalts. + +2. Hot Springs of Irapa, at the north-eastern extremity of New +Andalusia, between Rio Caribe, Soro, and Yaguarapayo. + +3. Air-volcano, or Salce, of Cumacatar, to the south of San Jose +and Carupano, near the northern coast of the continent, between La +Montana de Paria and the town of Cariaco. Almost constant +explosions are felt in a clayey soil, which is affirmed to be +impregnated with sulphur. Hot sulphureous waters gush out with such +violence that the ground is agitated by very sensible shocks. It is +said that flames have been frequently seen issuing out since the +great earthquake of 1797. These facts are well worthy of being +examined. + +4. Petroleum-spring of the Buen Pastor, near Rio Areo. Large masses +of sulphur have been found in clayey soils at Guayuta, as in the +valley of San Bonifacio, and near the junction of the Rio Pao with +the Orinoco. + +5. The Hot Waters (Aguas Calientes) south of the Rio Azul, and the +Hollow Ground of Cariaco, which, at the time of the great +earthquake of Cumana, threw up sulphuretted water and viscous +petroleum. + +6. Hot waters of the gulf of Cariaco. + +7. Petroleum-spring in the same gulf, near Maniquarez. It issues +from mica-slate. + +8. Flames issuing from the earth, near Cumana, on the banks of the +Manzanares, and at Mariguitar, on the southern coast of the gulf of +Cariaco, at the time of the great earthquake of 1797. + +9. Igneous phenomena of the mountain of Cuchivano, near Cumanacoa. + +10. Petroleum-spring gushing from a shoal to the north of the +Caracas Islands. The smell of this spring warns ships of the danger +of this shoal, on which there is only one fathom of water. + +11. Thermal springs of the mountain of the Brigantine, near Nueva +Barcelona. Temperature 43.2 degrees (centigrade). + +12. Thermal springs of Provisor, near San Diego, in the province of +New Barcelona. + +13. Thermal springs of Onoto, between Turmero and Maracay, in the +valleys of Aragua, west of Caracas. + +14. Thermal springs of Mariara, in the same valleys. Temperature +58.9 degrees. + +15. Thermal springs of Las Trincheras, between Porto Cabello and +Valencia, issuing from granite like those of Mariara, and forming a +river of warm water (Rio de Aguas Calientes). Temperature 90.4 +degrees. + +16. Boiling springs of the Sierra Nevada of Merida. + +17. Aperture of Mena, on the borders of Lake Maracaybo. It throws +up asphaltum, and is said to emit gaseous emanations, which ignite +spontaneously, and are seen at a great distance. + +These are the springs of petroleum and of thermal waters, the +igneous meteors, and the ejections of muddy substances attended +with explosions, of which I acquired a knowledge in the vast +provinces of Venezuela, whilst travelling over a space of two +hundred leagues from east to west. These various phenomena have +occasioned great excitement among the inhabitants since the +catastrophes of 1797 and 1812: yet they present nothing which +constitutes a volcano, in the sense hitherto attributed to that +word. If the apertures, which throw up vapours and water with +violent noise, be sometimes called volcancitos, it is only by such +of the inhabitants as persuade themselves that volcanoes must +necessarily exist in countries so frequently exposed to +earthquakes. Advancing from the burning crater of St. Vincent in +the directions of south, west and south-west, first by the chain of +the Caribbee Islands, then by the littoral chain of Cumana and +Venezuela, and finally by the Cordilleras of New Grenada, along a +distance of three hundred and eighty leagues, we find no active +volcano before we arrive at Purace, near Popayan. The total absence +of apertures, through which melted substances can issue, in that +part of the continent, which stretches eastward of the Cordillera +of the Andes, and eastward of the Rocky Mountains, is a most +remarkable geological fact. + +In this chapter we have examined the great commotions which from +time to time convulse the stony crust of the globe, and scatter +desolation in regions favoured by the most precious gifts of +nature. An uninterrupted calm prevails in the upper atmosphere; +but, to use an expression of Franklin, more ingenious than +accurate, thunder often rolls in the subterranean atmosphere, +amidst that mixture of elastic fluids, the impetuous movements of +which are frequently felt at the surface of the earth. The +destruction of so many populous cities presents a picture of the +greatest calamities which afflict mankind. A people struggling for +independence are suddenly exposed to the want of subsistence, and +of all the necessaries of life. Famished and without shelter, the +inhabitants are dispersed through the country, and numbers who have +escaped from the ruin of their dwellings are swept away by disease. +Far from strengthening mutual confidence among the citizens, the +feeling of misfortune destroys it; physical calamities augment +civil discord; nor does the aspect of a country bathed in tears and +blood appease the fury of the victorious party. + +After the recital of so many calamities, the mind is soothed by +turning to consolatory remembrances. When the great catastrophe of +Caracas was known in the United States, the Congress, assembled at +Washington, unanimously decreed that five ships laden with flour +should be sent to the coast of Venezuela; their cargoes to be +distributed among the most needy of the inhabitants. The generous +contribution was received with the warmest gratitude; and this +solemn act of a free people, this mark of national interest, of +which the advanced civilization of the Old World affords but few +examples, seemed to be a valuable pledge of the mutual sympathy +which ought for ever to unite the nations of North and South +America. + + +CHAPTER 1.15. + +DEPARTURE FROM CARACAS. +MOUNTAINS OF SAN PEDRO AND OF LOS TEQUES. +LA VICTORIA. +VALLEYS OF ARAGUA. + +To take the shortest road from Caracas to the banks of the Orinoco, +we should have crossed the southern chain of mountains between +Baruta, Salamanca, and the savannahs of Ocumare, passed over the +steppes or llanos of Orituco, and embarked at Cabruta, near the +mouth of the Rio Guarico. But this direct route would have deprived +us of the opportunity of surveying the valleys of Aragua, which are +the finest and most cultivated portion of the province; of taking +the level of an important part of the chain of the coast by means +of the barometer; and of descending the Rio Apure as far as its +junction with the Orinoco. A traveller who has the intention of +studying the configuration and natural productions of a country is +not guided by distances, but by the peculiar interest attached to +the regions he may traverse. This powerful motive led us to the +mountains of Los Teques, to the hot springs of Mariara, to the +fertile banks of the lake of Valencia, and through the immense +savannahs of Calabozo to San Fernando de Apure, in the eastern part +of the province of Varinas. Having determined on this route, our +first direction was westward, then southward, and finally to +east-south-east, so that we might enter the Orinoco by the Apure in +latitude 7 degrees 36 minutes 23 seconds. + +On the day on which we quitted the capital of Venezuela, we reached +the foot of the woody mountains which close the valley on the +south-west. There we halted for the night, and on the following day +we proceeded along the right bank of the Rio Guayra as far as the +village of Antimano, by a very fine road, partly scooped out of the +rock. We passed by La Vega and Carapa. The church of La Vega rises +very picturesquely above a range of hills covered with thick +vegetation. Scattered houses surrounded with date-trees seem to +denote the comfort of their inhabitants. A chain of low mountains +separates the little river Guayra from the valley of La Pascua* (so +celebrated in the history of the country) (* Valley of Cortes, or +Easter Valley, so called because Diego de Losada, after having +defeated the Teques Indians, and their cacique Guaycaypuro, in the +mountains of San Pedro, spent the Easter there in 1567, before +entering the valley of San Francisco. In the latter place he +founded the city of Caracas.), and from the ancient gold-mines of +Baruta and Oripoto. Ascending in the direction of Carapa, we enjoy +once more the sight of the Silla, which appears like an immense +dome with a cliff on the side next the sea. This rounded summit, +and the ridge of Galipano crenated like a wall, are the only +objects which in this basin of gneiss and mica-slate impress a +peculiar character on the landscape. The other mountains have a +uniform and monotonous aspect. + +A little before reaching the village of Antimano we observed on the +right a very curious geological phenomenon. In hollowing the new +road out of the rock, two large veins of gneiss were discovered in +the mica-slate. They are nearly perpendicular, intersecting all the +mica-slate strata, and are from six to eight toises thick. These +veins contain not fragments, but balls or spheres of granular +diabasis,* formed of concentric layers. (* Ur-grunstein. I remember +having seen similar balls filling a vein in transition-slate, near +the castle of Schauenstein in the margravate of Bayreuth. I sent +several balls from Antimano to the collection of the king of Spain +at Madrid.) These balls are composed of lamellar feldspar and +hornblende closely commingled. The feldspar approximates sometimes +to vitreous feldspar when disseminated in very thin laminae in a +mass of granular diabasis, decomposed, and emitting a strong +argillaceous smell. The diameter of the spheres is very unequal, +sometimes four or eight inches, sometimes three or four feet; their +nucleus, which is more dense, is without concentric layers, and of +a very dark green hue, inclining to black. I could not perceive any +mica in them; but, what is very remarkable, I found great +quantities of disseminated garnets. These garnets are of a very +fine red, and are found in the grunstein only. They are neither in +the gneiss, which serves as a cement to the balls, nor in the +mica-slate, which the veins traverse. The gneiss, the constituent +parts of which are in a state of considerable disintegration, +contains large crystals of feldspar; and, though it forms the body +of the vein in the mica-slate, it is itself traversed by threads of +quartz two inches thick, and of very recent formation. The aspect +of this phenomenon is very curious: it appears as if cannon-balls +were embedded in a wall of rock. I also thought I recognized in +these same regions, in the Montana de Avila, and at Cabo Blanco, +east of La Guayra, a granular diabasis, mixed with a small quantity +of quartz and pyrites, and destitute of garnets, not in veins, but +in subordinate strata in the mica-slate. This position is +unquestionably to be found in Europe in primitive mountains; but in +general the granular diabasis is more frequently connected with the +system of transition rocks, especially with a schist +(ubergangs-thonschiefer) abounding in beds of Lydian stone strongly +carburetted, of schistose jasper,* (Kieselschiefer.) ampelites,* +(Alaunschiefer.) and black limestone. + +Near Antimano all the orchards were full of peach-trees loaded with +blossom. This village, the Valle, and the banks of the Macarao, +furnish great abundance of peaches, quinces, and other European +fruits for the market of Caracas. Between Antimano and Ajuntas we +crossed the Rio Guayra seventeen times. The road is very fatiguing; +yet, instead of making a new one, it would perhaps be better to +change the bed of the river, which loses a great quantity of water +by the combined effects of filtration and evaporation. Each +sinuosity forms a marsh more or less extensive. This loss of water +is to be regretted in a province, nearly all the cultivated +portions of which are extremely dry. The rains are much less +frequent and less violent in this place than in the interior of New +Andalusia, at Cumanacoa, and on the banks of the Guarapiche. Many +of the mountains of Caracas enter the region of the clouds; but the +strata of primitive rocks dip at an angle of 70 or 80 degrees, and +generally to northwest, so that the waters are either lost in the +interior of the earth, or gush out in copious springs not southward +but northward of the mountains of the coast of Niguatar, Avila, and +Mariara. The rising of the gneiss and mica-slate strata to the +south appears to me to explain in a considerable degree the extreme +humidity of the coast. In the interior of the province we meet with +portions of land, two or three leagues square, in which there are +no springs; consequently sugar-cane, indigo, and coffee, grow only +in places where running waters can be made to supply artificial +irrigation during very dry weather. The early colonists imprudently +destroyed the forests. Evaporation is enormous on a stony soil +surrounded with rocks, which radiate heat on every side. The +mountains of the coast, like a wall, extending east and west from +Cape Codera toward Point Tucacas, prevent the humid air of the +shore (that is to say, those inferior strata of the atmosphere +resting immediately on the sea, and dissolving the largest +proportion of water) from penetrating to the islands. There are few +openings, few ravines, which, like those of Catia or of Tipe, lead +from the coast to the high longitudinal valleys, and there is no +bed of a great river, no gulf allowing the sea to flow inland, +spreading moisture by abundant evaporation. In the eighth and tenth +degrees of latitude, in regions where the clouds do not, as it +were, skim the surface of the soil, many trees are stripped of +their leaves in the months of January and February; not by the +sinking of the temperature as in Europe, but because the air at +this period, the most distant from the rainy season, nearly attains +its maximum of dryness. Only those plants which have very tough and +glossy leaves resist this absence of humidity. Beneath the fine sky +of the tropics the traveller is struck with the almost hibernal +aspect of the country; but the freshest verdure again appears when +he reaches the banks of the Orinoco, where another climate +prevails; and the great forests preserve by their shade a certain +quantity of moisture in the soil, by sheltering it from the +devouring heat of the sun. + +Beyond the small village of Antimano the valley becomes much +narrower. The river is bordered with Lata, a fine gramineous plant +with distich leaves, which sometimes reaches the height of thirty +feet.* (* G. saccharoides.) Every hut is surrounded with enormous +trees of persea,* (* Laurus persea (alligator pear).) at the foot +of which the aristolochiae, paullinia, and other creepers vegetate. +The neighbouring mountains, covered with forests, seem to spread +humidity over the western extremity of the valley of Caracas. We +passed the night before our arrival at Las Ajuntas at a sugar-cane +plantation. A square house (the hacienda or farm of Don Fernando +Key-Munoz) contained nearly eighty negroes; they were lying on +skins of oxen spread upon the ground. In each apartment of the +house were four slaves: it looked like a barrack. A dozen fires +were burning in the farm-yard, where people were employed in +dressing food, and the noisy mirth of the blacks almost prevented +us from sleeping. The clouds hindered me from observing the stars; +the moon appeared only at intervals. The aspect of the landscape +was dull and uniform, and all the surrounding hills were covered +with aloes. Workmen were employed at a small canal, intended for +conveying the waters of the Rio San Pedro to the farm, at a height +of more than seventy feet. According to a barometric calculation, +the site of the hacienda is only fifty toises above the bed of the +Rio Guayra at La Noria, near Caracas. + +The soil of these countries is found to be but little favourable to +the cultivation of the coffee-tree, which in general is less +productive in the valley of Caracas than was imagined when the +first plantations were made near Chacao. The finest +coffee-plantations are now found in the savannah of Ocumare, near +Salamanca, and at Rincon, in the mountainous countries of Los +Mariches, San Antonio Hatillo, and Los Budares. The coffee of the +three last mentioned places, situated eastward of Caracas, is of a +superior quality; but the trees bear a smaller quantity, which is +attributed to the height of the spot and the coolness of the +climate. The greater plantations of the province of Venezuela (as +Aguacates, near Valencia and Rincon) yield in good years a produce +of three thousand quintals. + +The extreme predilection entertained in this province for the +culture of the coffee-tree is partly founded on the circumstance +that the berry can be preserved during a great number of years; +whereas, notwithstanding every possible care, cacao spoils in the +warehouses after ten or twelve months. During the long dissensions +of the European powers, at a time when Spain was too weak to +protect the commerce of her colonies, industry was directed in +preference to productions of which the sale was less urgent, and +could await the chances of political and commercial events. I +remarked that in the coffee-plantations the nurseries are formed +not so much by collecting together young plants, accidentally +rising under trees which have yielded a crop, as by exposing the +seeds of coffee to germination during five days, in heaps, between +plantain leaves. These seeds are taken out of the pulp, but yet +retaining a part of it adherent to them. When the seed has +germinated it is sown, and it produces plants capable of bearing +the heat of the sun better than those which spring up in the shade +in coffee-plantations. In this country five thousand three hundred +coffee-trees are generally planted in a fanega of ground, amounting +to five thousand four hundred and seventy-six square toises. This +land, if it be capable of artificial irrigation, costs five hundred +piastres in the northern part of the province. The coffee-tree +flowers only in the second year, and its flowering lasts only +twenty-four hours. At this time the shrub has a charming +appearance; and, when seen from afar, it appears covered with snow. +The produce of the third year becomes very abundant. In plantations +well weeded and watered, and recently cultivated, trees will bear +sixteen, eighteen, and even twenty pounds of coffee. In general, +however, more than a pound and a half or two pounds cannot be +expected from each plant; and even this is superior to the mean +produce of the West India Islands. The coffee trees suffer much +from rain at the time of flowering, as well as from the want of +water for artificial irrigation, and also from a parasitic plant, a +new species of loranthus, which clings to the branches. When, in +plantations of eighty or a hundred thousand shrubs, we consider the +immense quantity of organic matter contained in the pulpy berry of +the coffee-tree, we may be astonished that no attempts have been +made to extract a spirituous liquor from them.* (* The berries +heaped together produce a vinous fermentation, during which a very +pleasant alcoholic smell is emitted. Placing, at Caracas, the ripe +fruit of the coffee-tree under an inverted jar, quite filled with +water, and exposed to the rays of the sun, I remarked that no +extrication of gas took place in the first twenty-four hours. After +thirty-six hours the berries became brown, and yielded gas. A +thermometer, enclosed in the jar in contact with the fruit, kept at +night 4 or 5 degrees higher than the external air. In the space of +eighty-seven hours, sixty berries, under various jars, yielded me +from thirty-eight to forty cubic inches of a gas, which underwent +no sensible diminution with nitrous gas. Though a great quantity of +carbonic acid had been absorbed by the water as it was produced, I +still found 0.78 in the forty inches. The remainder, or 0.22, was +nitrogen. The carbonic acid had not been formed by the absorption +of the atmospheric oxygen. That which is evolved from the berries +of the coffee-tree slightly moistened, and placed in a phial with a +glass stopple filled with air, contains alcohol in suspension; like +the foul air which is formed in our cellars during the fermentation +of must. On agitating the gas in contact with water, the latter +acquires a decidedly alcoholic flavour. How many substances are +perhaps contained in a state of suspension in those mixtures of +carbonic acid and hydrogen, which are called deleterious miasmata, +and which rise everywhere within the tropics, in marshy grounds, on +the sea-shore, and in forests where the soil is strewed with dead +leaves, rotten fruits, and putrefying insects.) + +If the troubles of St. Domingo, the temporary rise in the price of +colonial produce, and the emigration of French planters, were the +first causes of the establishment of coffee plantations on the +continent of America, in the island of Cuba, and in Jamaica; their +produce has far more than compensated the deficiency of the +exportation from the French West India Islands. This produce has +augmented in proportion to the population, the change of customs, +and the increasing luxury of the nations of Europe. The island of +St. Domingo exported, in 1700, at the time of Necker's +administration, nearly seventy-six million pounds of coffee.* (* +French pounds, containing 9216 grains. 112 English pounds = 105 +French pounds; and 160 Spanish pounds = 93 French pounds. The +island of St. Domingo was at that time, it must be remembered, a +French colony.) + +Tea could be cultivated as well as coffee in the mountainous parts +of the provinces of Caracas and Cumana. Every climate is there +found rising in stages one above another; and this new culture +would succeed there as well as in the southern hemisphere, where +the government of Brazil, protecting at the same time industry and +religious toleration, suffered at once the introduction of Chinese +tea and of the dogmas of Fo. It is not yet a century since the +first coffee-trees were planted at Surinam and in the West India +Islands, and already the produce of America amounts to fifteen +millions of piastres, reckoning the quintal of coffee at fourteen +piastres only. + +On the eighth of February we set out at sunrise, to cross the +Higuerote, a group of lofty mountains, separating the two +longitudinal valleys of Caracas and Aragua. After passing, near Las +Ajuntas, the junction of the two small rivers San Pedro and +Macarao, which form the Rio Guayra, we ascended a steep hill to the +table-land of La Buenavista, where we saw a few lonely houses. The +view extends on the north-west to the city of Caracas, and on the +south to the village of Los Teques. The country has a very wild +aspect, and is thickly wooded. We had now gradually lost the plants +of the valley of Caracas.* (* The Flora of Caracas is characterized +chiefly by the following plants, which grow between the heights of +four hundred and six hundred toises. Cipura martinicensis, Panicum +mieranthum, Parthenium hysterophorus, Vernonia odoratissima, +(Pevetera, with flowers having a delicious odour of heliotropium), +Tagetes caracasana, T. scoparia of Lagasca (introduced by M. +Bonpland into the gardens of Spain), Croton hispidus, Smilax +scabriusculus, Limnocharis Humboldti, Rich., Equisetum +ramosissimum, Heteranthera alismoides, Glycine punctata, Hyptis +Plumeri, Pavonia cancellata, Cav., Spermacoce rigida, Crotalaria +acutifolia, Polygala nemorosa, Stachytarpheta mutabilis, +Cardiospermum ulmaceum, Amaranthus caracasanus, Elephantopus +strigosus, Hydrolea mollis, Alternanthera caracasana, Eupatorium +amydalinum, Elytraria fasciculata, Salvia fimbriata, Angelonia +salicaria, Heliotropium strictum, Convolvulus batarilla, Rubus +jamaicensis, Datura arborea, Dalea enneaphylla, Buchnera rosea, +Salix Humboldtiana, Willd., Theophrasta longifolia, Tournefortia +caracasana, Inga cinerea, I. ligustrina, I. sapindioides, I. +fastuosa, Schwenkia patens, Erythrina mitis. The most agreeable +places for herborizing near Caracas are the ravines of Tacagua, +Tipe, Cotecita, Catoche, Anauco, and Chacaito.) We were eight +hundred and thirty-five toises above the level of the ocean, which +is almost the height of Popayan; but the mean temperature of this +place is probably only 17 or 18 degrees. The road over these +mountains is much frequented; we met continually long files of +mules and oxen; it is the great road leading from the capital to La +Victoria, and the valleys of Aragua. This road is cut out of a +talcose gneiss* in a state of decomposition. (* The direction of +the strata of gneiss varies; it is either hor. 3.4, dipping to the +north-west or hor. 8.2, dipping to the south-east.) A clayey soil +mixed with spangles of mica covered the rock, to the depth of three +feet. Travellers suffer from the dust in winter, while in the rainy +season the place is changed into a slough. On descending the +table-land of Buenavista, about fifty toises to the south-east, an +abundant spring, gushing from the gneiss, forms several cascades +surrounded with thick vegetation. The path leading to the spring is +so steep that we could touch with our hands the tops of the +arborescent ferns, the trunks of which reach a height of more than +twenty-five feet. The surrounding rocks are covered with +jungermannias and hypnoid mosses. The torrent, formed by the +spring, and shaded with heliconias, uncovers, as it falls, the +roots of the plumerias,* (* The red jasmine-tree, frangipanier of +the French West India Islands. The plumeria, so common in the +gardens of the Indians, has been very seldom found in a wild state. +It is mixed here with the Piper flagellare, the spadix of which +sometimes reaches three feet long. With the new kind of fig-tree +(which we have called Ficus gigantea, because it frequently attains +the height of a hundred feet), we find in the mountains of +Buenavista and of Los Teques, the Ficus nymphaeifolia of the garden +of Schonbrunn, introduced into our hot-houses by M. Bredemeyer. I +am certain of the identity of the species found in the same places; +but I doubt really whether it be really the F. nymphaeifolia of +Linnaeus, which is supposed to be a native of the East Indies.) +cupeys,* (* In the experiments I made at Caracas, on the air which +circulates in plants, I was struck with the fine appearance +presented by the petioles and leaves of the Clusia rosea, when cut +open under water, and exposed to the rays of the sun. Each trachea +gives out a current of gas, purer by 0.08 than atmospheric air. The +phenomenon ceases the moment the apparatus is placed in the shade. +There is only a very slight disengagement of air at the two +surfaces of the leaves of the clusia exposed to the sun without +being cut open. The gas enclosed in the capsules of the +Cardiospermum vesicarium appeared to me to contain the same +proportion of oxygen as the atmosphere, while that contained +between the knots, in the hollow of the stalk, is generally less +pure, containing only from 0.12 to 0.15 of oxygen. It is necessary +to distinguish between the air circulating in the tracheae, and +that which is stagnant in the great cavities of the stems and +pericarps.) browneas, and Ficus gigantea. This humid spot, though +infested by serpents, presents a rich harvest to the botanist. The +Brownea, which the inhabitants call rosa del monte, or palo de +cruz, bears four or five hundred purple flowers together in one +thyrsus; each flower has invariably eleven stamina, and this +majestic plant, the trunk of which grows to the height of fifty or +sixty feet, is becoming rare, because its wood yields a highly +valued charcoal. The soil is covered with pines (ananas), +hemimeris, polygala, and melastomas. A climbing gramen* (* Carice. +See Chapter 6.) with its light festoons unites trees, the presence +of which attests the coolness of the climate of these mountains. +Such are the Aralia capitata,* (* Candelero. We found it also at La +Cumbre, at a height of 700 toises.) the Vismia caparosa, and the +Clethra fagifolia. Among these plants, peculiar to the fine region +of the arborescent ferns,* (* Called by the inhabitants of the +country Region de los helechos.) some palm-trees rise in the +openings, and some scattered groups of guarumo, or cecropia with +silvery leaves. The trunks of the latter are not very thick, and +are of a black colour towards the summit, as if burnt by the oxygen +of the atmosphere. We are surprised to find so noble a tree, which +has the port of the theophrasta and the palm-tree, bearing +generally only eight or ten terminal leaves. The ants, which +inhabit the trunk of the guarumo, or jarumo, and destroy its +interior cells, seem to impede its growth. We had already made one +herborization in the temperate mountains of the Higuerote in the +month of December, accompanying the capitan-general, Senor de +Guevara, in an excursion with the intendant of the province to the +Valles de Aragua. M. Bonpland then found in the thickest part of +the forest some plants of aguatire, the wood of which, celebrated +for its fine red colour, will probably one day become an article of +exportation to Europe. It is the Sickingia erythroxylon described +by Bredemeyer and Willdenouw. + +Descending the woody mountain of the Higuerote to the south-west, +we reached the small village of San Pedro, situated in a basin +where several valleys meet, and almost three hundred toises lower +than the table-land of Buenavista. Plantain-trees, potatoes,* (* +Solanum tuberosum.) and coffee are cultivated together on this +spot. The village is very small, and the church not yet finished. +We met at an inn (pulperia) several European Spaniards employed at +the government tobacco farm. Their dissatisfaction formed a strange +contrast to our feelings. They were fatigued with their journey, +and they vented their displeasure in complaints and maledictions on +the wretched country, or to use their own phrase, estas tierras +infelices, in which they were doomed to live. We, on the other +hand, were enchanted with the wild scenery, the fertility of the +soil, and the mildness of the climate. Near San Pedro, the talcose +gneiss of Buenavista passes into a mica-slate filled with garnets, +and containing subordinate beds of serpentine. Something analogous +to this is met with at Zoblitz in Saxony. The serpentine, which is +very pure and of a fine green, varied with spots of a lighter tint, +often appears only superimposed on the mica-slate. I found in it a +few garnets, but no metaloid diallage. + +The valley of San Pedro, through which flows the river of the same +name, separates two great masses of mountains, the Higuerote and +Las Cocuyzas. We ascended westward in the direction of the small +farms of Las Lagunetos and Garavatos. These are solitary houses, +which serve as inns, and where the mule-drivers obtain their +favourite beverage, the guarapo, or fermented juice of the +sugar-cane: intoxication is very common among the Indians who +frequent this road. Near Garavatos there is a mica-slate rock of +singular form; it is a ridge, or steep wall, crowned by a tower. We +opened the barometer at the highest point of the mountain Las +Cocuyzas,* (* Absolute height 845 toises.) and found ourselves +almost at the same elevation as on the table-land of Buenavista, +which is scarcely ten toises higher. + +The prospect at Las Lagunetas is extensive, but rather uniform. +This mountainous and uncultivated tract of ground between the +sources of the Guayra and the Tuy is more than twenty-five square +leagues in extent. We there found only one miserable village, that +of Los Teques, south-east of San Pedro. The soil is as it were +furrowed by a multitude of valleys, the smallest of which, parallel +with each other, terminate at right angles in the largest valleys. +The back of the mountains presents an aspect as monotonous as the +ravines; it has no pyramidal forms, no ridges, no steep +declivities. I am inclined to think that the undulation of this +ground, which is for the most part very gentle, is less owing to +the nature of the rocks, (to the decomposition of the gneiss for +instance), than to the long presence of the water and the action of +currents. The limestone mountains of Cumana present the same +phenomenon north of Tumiriquiri. + +From Las Lagunetas we descended into the valley of the Rio Tuy. +This western slope of the mountains of Los Teques bears the name of +Las Cocuyzas, and it is covered with two plants with agave leaves; +the maguey of Cocuyza, and the maquey of Cocuy. The latter belongs +to the genus Yucca.* (* Yucca acaulis, Humb.) Its sweet and +fermented juice yields a spirit by distillation; and I have seen +the young leaves of this plant eaten. The fibres of the full-grown +leaves furnish cords of extraordinary strength.* (* At the clock of +the cathedral of Caracas, a cord of maguey, half an inch in +diameter, sustained for fifteen years a weight of 350 pounds.) +Leaving the mountains of the Higuerote and Los Teques, we entered a +highly cultivated country, covered with hamlets and villages; +several of which would in Europe be called towns. From east to +west, on a line of twelve leagues in extent, we passed La Victoria, +San Mateo, Turmero, and Maracay, containing together more than 28, +000 inhabitants. The plains of the Tuy may be considered as the +eastern extremity of the valleys of Aragua, extending from Guigne, +on the borders of the lake of Valencia, as far as the foot of Las +Cocuyzas. A barometrical measurement gave me 295 toises for the +absolute height of the Valle del Tuy, near the farm of Manterola, +and 222 toises for that of the surface of the lake. The Rio Tuy, +flowing from the mountains of Las Cocuyzas, runs first towards the +west, then turning to the south and to the east, it takes its +course along the high savannahs of Ocumare, receives the waters of +the valley of Caracas, and reaches the sea near cape Codera. It is +the small portion of its basin in the westward direction which, +geologically speaking, would seem to belong to the valley of +Aragua, if the hills of calcareous tufa, breaking the continuity of +these valleys between Consejo and La Victoria, did not deserve some +consideration. We shall here again remind the reader that the group +of the mountains of Los Teques, eight hundred and fifty toises +high, separates two longitudinal valleys, formed in gneiss, +granite, and mica-slate. The most eastern of these valleys, +containing the capital of Caracas, is 200 toises higher than the +western valley, which may be considered as the centre of +agricultural industry. + +Having been for a long time accustomed to a moderate temperature, +we found the plains of the Tuy extremely hot, although the +thermometer kept, in the day-time, between eleven in the morning +and five in the afternoon, at only 23 or 24 degrees. The nights +were delightfully cool, the temperature falling as low as 17.5 +degrees. As the heat gradually abated, the air became more and more +fragrant with the odour of flowers. We remarked above all the +delicious perfume of the Lirio hermoso,* (* Pancratium undulatum.) +a new species of pancratium, of which the flower, eight or nine +inches long, adorns the banks of the Rio Tuy. We spent two very +agreeable days at the plantation of Don Jose de Manterola, who in +his youth had accompanied the Spanish embassy to Russia. The farm +is a fine plantation of sugar-canes; and the ground is as smooth as +the bottom of a drained lake. The Rio Tuy winds through districts +covered with plantains, and a little wood of Hura crepitans, +Erythrina corallodendron, and fig-trees with nymphaea leaves. The +bed of the river is formed of pebbles of quartz. I never met with +more agreeable bathing than in the Tuy. The water, as clear as +crystal, preserves even during the day a temperature of 18.6 +degrees; a considerable coolness for these climates, and for a +height of three hundred toises; but the sources of the river are in +the surrounding mountains. The house of the proprietor, situated on +a hillock, of fifteen or twenty toises of elevation, is surrounded +by the huts of the negroes. Those who are married provide food for +themselves; and here, as everywhere else in the valleys of Aragua, +a small spot of ground is allotted to them to cultivate. They +labour on that ground on Saturdays and Sundays, the only days in +the week on which they are free. They keep poultry, and sometimes +even a pig. Their masters boast of their happiness, as in the north +of Europe the great landholders love to descant upon the ease +enjoyed by peasants who are attached to the glebe. On the day of +our arrival we saw three fugitive negroes brought back; they were +slaves newly purchased. I dreaded having to witness one of those +punishments which, wherever slavery prevails, destroys all the +charm of a country life. Happily these blacks were treated with +humanity. + +In this plantation, as in all those of the province of Venezuela, +three species of sugar-cane can be distinguished even at a distance +by the colour of their leaves; the old Creole sugar-cane, the +Otaheite cane, and the Batavia cane. The first has a deep-green +leaf, the stem not very thick, and the knots rather near together. +This sugar-cane was the first introduced from India into Sicily, +the Canary Islands, and West Indies. The second is of a lighter +green; and its stem is higher, thicker, and more succulent. The +whole plant exhibits a more luxuriant vegetation. We owe this plant +to the voyages of Bougainville, Cook, and Bligh. Bougainville +carried it to the Mauritius, whence it passed to Cayenne, +Martinique, and, since 1792, to the rest of the West India Islands. +The sugar-cane of Otaheite, called by the people of that island To, +is one of the most important acquisitions for which colonial +agriculture is indebted to the travels of naturalists. It yields +not only one-third more juice than the creolian cane on the same +space of ground; but from the thickness of its stem, and the +tenacity of its ligneous fibres, it furnishes much more fuel. This +last advantage is important in the West Indies, where the +destruction of the forests has long obliged the planters to use +canes deprived of juice, to keep up the fire under the boilers. But +for the knowledge of this new plant, together with the progress of +agriculture on the continent of Spanish America, and the +introduction of the East India and Java sugar, the prices of +colonial produce in Europe would have been much more sensibly +affected by the revolutions of St. Domingo, and the destruction of +the great sugar plantations of that island. The Otaheite sugar-cane +was carried from the island of Trinidad to Caracas, under the name +of Cana solera, and it passed from Caracas to Cucuta and San Gil in +the kingdom of New Grenada. In our days its cultivation during +twenty-five years has almost entirely removed the apprehension at +first entertained, that being transplanted to America, the cane +would by degrees degenerate, and become as slender as the creole +cane. The third species, the violet sugar-cane, called Cana de +Batavia, or de Guinea, is certainly indigenous in the island of +Java, where it is cultivated in preference in the districts of +Japara and Pasuruan.* (* Raffles History of Java tome 1 page 124.) +Its foliage is purple and very broad; and this cane is preferred in +the province of Caracas for rum. The tablones, or grounds planted +with sugar-canes, are divided by hedges of a colossal gramen; the +lata, or gynerium, with distich leaves. At the Tuy, men were +employed in finishing a dyke, to form a canal of irrigation. This +enterprise had cost the proprietor seven thousand piastres for the +expense of labour, and four thousand piastres for the costs of +lawsuits in which he had become engaged with his neighbours. While +the lawyers were disputing about a canal of which only one-half was +finished, Don Jose de Manterola began to doubt even of the +possibility of carrying the plan into execution. I took the level +of the ground with a lunette d'epreuve, on an artificial horizon, +and found, that the dam had been constructed eight feet too low. +What sums of money have I seen expended uselessly in the Spanish +colonies, for undertakings founded on erroneous levelling! + +The valley of the Tuy has its 'gold mine,' like almost every part +of America inhabited by whites, and backed by primitive mountains. +I was assured, that in 1780, foreign gold-gatherers had been +engaged in picking up grains of that metal, and had established a +place for washing the sand in the Quebrada del Oro. An overseer of +a neighbouring plantation had followed these indications; and after +his death, a waistcoat with gold buttons being found among his +clothes, this gold, according to the logic of the people here, +could only have proceeded from a vein, which the falling in of the +earth had rendered invisible. In vain I objected, that I could not, +by the mere view of the soil, without digging a large trench in the +direction of the vein, judge of the existence of the mine; I was +compelled to yield to the desire of my hosts. For twenty years past +the overseer's waistcoat had been the subject of conversation in +the country. Gold extracted from the bosom of the earth is far more +alluring in the eyes of the vulgar, than that which is the produce +of agricultural industry, favoured by the fertility of the soil, +and the mildness of the climate. + +North-west of the Hacienda del Tuy, in the northern range of the +chain of the coast, we find a deep ravine, called the Quebrada +Seca, because the torrent, by which it was formed, loses its waters +through the crevices of the rock, before it reaches the extremity +of the ravine. The whole of this mountainous country is covered +with thick vegetation. We there found the same verdure as had +charmed us by its freshness in the mountains of Buenavista and Las +Lagunetas, wherever the ground rises as high as the region of the +clouds, and where the vapours of the sea have free access. In the +plains, on the contrary, many trees are stripped of a part of their +leaves during the winter; and when we descend into the valley of +the Tuy, we are struck with the almost hibernal aspect of the +country. The dryness of the air is such that the hygrometer of +Deluc keeps day and night between 36 and 40 degrees. At a distance +from the river scarcely any huras or piper-trees extend their +foliage over thickets destitute of verdure. This seems owing to the +dryness of the air, which attains its maximum in the month of +February; and not, as the European planters assert, "to the seasons +of Spain, of which the empire extends as far as the torrid zone." +It is only plants transported from one hemisphere to the other, +which, in their organic functions, in the development of their +leaves and flowers, still retain their affinity to a distant +climate: faithful to their habits, they follow for a long time the +periodical changes of their native hemisphere. In the province of +Venezuela the trees stripped of their foliage begin to renew their +leaves nearly a month before the rainy season. It is probable, that +at this period the electrical equilibrium of the air is already +disturbed, and the atmosphere, although not yet clouded, becomes +gradually more humid. The azure of the sky is paler, and the +elevated regions are loaded with light vapours, uniformly diffused. +This season may be considered as the awakening of nature; it is a +spring which, according to the received language of the Spanish +colonies, proclaims the beginning of winter, and succeeds to the +heats of summer.* (* That part of the year most abundant in rain is +called winter; so that in Terra Firma, the season which begins by +the winter solstice, is designated by the name of summer; and it is +usual to hear, that it is winter on the mountains, at the time when +summer prevails in the neighbouring plains.) + +Indigo was formerly cultivated in the Quebrada Seca; but as the +soil covered with vegetation cannot there concentrate so much heat +as the plains and the bottom of the Tuy valley receive and radiate, +the cultivation of coffee has been substituted in its stead. As we +advanced in the ravine we found the moisture increase. Near the +Hato, at the northern extremity of the Quebrada, a torrent rolls +down over sloping beds of gneiss. An aqueduct was being formed +there to convey the water to the plain. Without irrigation, +agriculture makes no progress in these climates. A tree of +monstrous size fixed our attention.* (* Hura crepitans.) It lay on +the slope of the mountain, above the house of the Hato. On the +least dislodgment of the earth, its fall would have crushed the +habitation which it shaded: it had therefore been burnt near its +foot, and cut down in such a manner, that it fell between some +enormous fig-trees, which prevented it from rolling into the +ravine. We measured the fallen tree; and though its summit had been +burnt, the length of its trunk was still one hundred and fifty-four +feet.* (* French measure, nearly fifty metres.) It was eight feet +in diameter near the roots, and four feet two inches at the upper +extremity. + +Our guides, less anxious than ourselves to measure the bulk of +trees, continually pressed us to proceed onward and seek the 'gold +mine.' This part of the ravine is little frequented, and is not +uninteresting. We made the following observations on the geological +constitution of the soil. At the entrance of the Quebrada Seca we +remarked great masses of primitive saccharoidal limestone, +tolerably fine grained, of a bluish tint, and traversed by veins of +calcareous spar of dazzling whiteness. These calcareous masses must +not be confounded with the very recent depositions of tufa, or +carbonate of lime, which fill the plains of the Tuy; they form beds +of mica-slate, passing into talc-slate.* (* Talkschiefer of Werner, +without garnets or serpentine; not eurite or weisstein. It is in +the mountains of Buenavista that the gneiss manifests a tendency to +pass into eurite.) The primitive limestone often simply covers this +latter rock in concordant stratification. Very near the Hato the +talcose slate becomes entirely white, and contains small layers of +soft and unctuous graphic ampelite.* (* Zeichenschiefer.) Some +pieces, destitute of veins of quartz, are real granular plumbago, +which might be of use in the arts. The aspect of the rock is very +singular in those places where thin plates of black ampelite +alternate with thin, sinuous, and satiny plates of a talcose slate +as white as snow. It would seem as if the carbon and iron, which in +other places colour the primitive rocks, are here concentrated in +the subordinate strata. + +Turning westward we reached at length the ravine of gold (Quebrada +del Oro). On examining the slope of a hill, we could hardly +recognize the vestige of a vein of quartz. The falling of the earth +caused by the rains had changed the surface of the ground, and +rendered it impossible to make any observation. Great trees were +growing in the places where the gold-washers had worked twenty +years before. It is probable that the mica-slate contains here, as +near Goldcronach in Franconia, and in Salzburgh, auriferous veins; +but how is it possible to judge whether they be worth the expense +of being wrought, or whether the ore is only in nodules, and in the +less abundance in proportion as it is rich? We made a long +herborization in a thick forest, extending beyond the Hato, and +abounding in cedrelas, browneas, and fig-trees with nymphaea +leaves. The trunks of these last are covered with very odoriferous +plants of vanilla, which in general flower only in the month of +April. We were here again struck with those ligneous excrescences, +which in the form of ridges, or ribs, augment to the height of +twenty feet above the ground, the thickness of the trunk of the +fig-trees of America. I found trees twenty-two feet and a half in +diameter near the roots. These ligneous ridges sometimes separate +from the trunk at a height of eight feet, and are transformed into +cylindrical roots two feet thick. The tree looks as if it were +supported by buttresses. This scaffolding however does not +penetrate very deep into the earth. The lateral roots wind at the +surface of the ground, and if at twenty feet distance from the +trunk they are cut with a hatchet, we see gushing out the milky +juice of the fig-tree, which, when deprived of the vital influence +of the organs of the tree, is altered and coagulates. What a +wonderful combination of cells and vessels exist in these vegetable +masses, in these gigantic trees of the torrid zone, which without +interruption, perhaps during the space of a thousand years, prepare +nutritious fluids, raise them to the height of one hundred and +eighty feet, convey them down again to the ground, and conceal, +beneath a rough and hard bark, under inanimate layers of ligneous +matter, all the movements of organic life! + +I availed myself of the clearness of the nights, to observe at the +plantation of Tuy two emersions of the first and third satellites +of Jupiter. These two observations gave, according to the tables of +Delambre, longitude 4 hours 39 minutes 14 seconds; and by the +chronometer I found 4 hours 39 minutes 10 seconds. During my stay +in the valleys of the Tuy and Aragua the zodiacal light appeared +almost every night with extraordinary brilliancy. I had perceived +it for the first time between the tropics at Caracas, on the 18th +of January, after seven in the evening. The point of the pyramid +was at the height of 53 degrees. The light totally disappeared at +9 hours 35 minutes (apparent time), nearly 3 hours 50 minutes after +sunset, without any diminution in the serenity of the sky. La Caille, +in his voyage to Rio Janeiro and the Cape, was struck with the +beautiful appearance displayed by the zodiacal light within the +tropics, not so much on account of its less inclined position, +as of the greater transparency of the air.* (* The great serenity +of the air caused this phenomenon to be remarked, in 1668, in the +arid plains of Persia.) It may appear singular, that Childrey and +Dominic Cassini, navigators who were well acquainted with the seas +of the two Indies, did not at a much earlier period direct the +attention of scientific Europe to this light, and its regular form +and progress. Until the middle of the eighteenth century mariners +were little interested by anything not having immediate relation +to the course of a ship, and the demands of navigation. + +However brilliant the zodiacal light in the dry valley of Tuy, I +have observed it more beautiful still at the back of the +Cordilleras of Mexico, on the banks of the lake of Tezcuco, eleven +hundred and sixty toises above the surface of the ocean. In the +month of January, 1804, the light rose sometimes to more than 60 +degrees above the horizon. The Milky Way appeared to grow pale +compared with the brilliancy of the zodiacal light; and if small, +bluish, scattered clouds were accumulated toward the west, it +seemed as if the moon were about to rise. + +I must here relate another very singular fact. On the 18th of +January, and the 15th of February, 1800, the intensity of the +zodiacal light changed in a very perceptible manner, at intervals +of two or three minutes. Sometimes it was very faint, at others it +surpassed the brilliancy of the Milky Way in Sagittarius. The +changes took place in the whole pyramid, especially toward the +interior, far from the edges. During these variations of the +zodiacal light, the hygrometer indicated considerable dryness. The +stars of the fourth and fifth magnitude appeared constantly to the +naked eye with the same degree of light. No stream of vapour was +visible: nothing seemed to alter the transparency of the +atmosphere. In other years I saw the zodiacal light augment in the +southern hemisphere half an hour before its disappearance. Cassini +admitted "that the zodiacal light was feebler in certain years, and +then returned to its former brilliancy." He thought that these slow +changes were connected with "the same emanations which render the +appearance of spots and faculae periodical on the solar disk." But +this excellent observer does not mention those changes of intensity +in the zodiacal light which I have several times remarked within +the tropics, in the space of a few minutes. Mairan asserts, that in +France it is common enough to see the zodiacal light, in the months +of February and March, mingling with a kind of Aurora Borealis, +which he calls 'undecided,' and the nebulous matter of which +spreads itself all around the horizon, or appears toward the west. +I very much doubt, whether, in the observations I have been +describing, there was any mixture of these two species of light. +The variations in intensity took place at considerable altitudes; +the light was white, and not coloured; steady, and not undulating. +Besides, the Aurora Borealis is so seldom visible within the +tropics, that during five years, though almost constantly sleeping +in the open air, and observing the heavens with unremitting +attention, I never perceived the least traces of that phenomenon. + +I am rather inclined to think that the variations of the zodiacal +light are not all appearances dependent on certain modifications in +the state of our atmosphere. Sometimes, during nights equally +clear, I sought in vain for the zodiacal light, when, on the +previous night, it had appeared with the greatest brilliancy. Must +we admit that emanations which reflect white light, and seem to +have some analogy with the tails of comets, are less abundant at +certain periods? Researches on the zodiacal light have acquired a +new degree of interest since geometricians have taught us that we +are ignorant of the real causes of this phenomenon. The illustrious +author of "La Mecanique Celeste" has shown that the solar +atmosphere cannot reach even the planet Mercury; and that it could +not in any case display the lenticular form which has been +attributed to the zodiacal light. We may also entertain the same +doubts respecting the nature of this light, as with regard to that +of the tails of comets. Is it in fact a reflected or a direct +light? + +We left the plantation of Manterola on the 11th of February, at +sunrise. The road runs along the smiling banks of the Tuy; the +morning was cool and humid, and the air seemed embalmed by the +delicious odour of the Pancratium undulatum, and other large +liliaceous plants. In our way to La Victoria, we passed the pretty +village of Mamon or of Consejo, celebrated in the country for a +miraculous image of the Virgin. A little before we reached Mamon, +we stopped at a farm belonging to the family of Monteras. A negress +more than a hundred years old was seated before a small hut built +of earth and reeds. Her age was known because she was a creole +slave. She seemed still to enjoy very good health. "I keep her in +the sun" (la tengo al sol), said her grandson; "the heat keeps her +alive." This appeared to us not a very agreeable mode of prolonging +life, for the sun was darting his rays almost perpendicularly. The +brown-skinned nations, blacks well seasoned, and Indians, +frequently attain a very advanced age in the torrid zone. A native +of Peru named Hilario Pari died at the extraordinary age of one +hundred and forty-three years, after having been ninety years +married. + +Don Francisco Montera and his brother, a well-informed young +priest, accompanied us with the view of conducting us to their +house at La Victoria. Almost all the families with whom we had +lived in friendship at Caracas were assembled in the fine valleys +of Aragua, and they vied with each other in their efforts to render +our stay agreeable. Before we plunged into the forests of the +Orinoco, we enjoyed once more all the advantages which advanced +civilization affords. + +The road from Mamon to La Victoria runs south and south-west. We +soon lost sight of the river Tuy, which, turning eastward, forms an +elbow at the foot of the high mountains of Guayraima. As we drew +nearer to Victoria the ground became smoother; it seemed like the +bottom of a lake, the waters of which had been drained off. We +might have fancied ourselves in the valley of Hasli, in the canton +of Berne. The neighbouring hills, only one hundred and forty toises +in height, are composed of calcareous tufa; but their abrupt +declivities project like promontories on the plain. Their form +indicates the ancient shore of the lake. The eastern extremity of +this valley is parched and uncultivated. No advantage has been +derived from the ravines which water the neighbouring mountains; +but fine cultivation is commencing in the proximity of the town. I +say of the town, though in my time Victoria was considered only as +a village (pueblo). + +The environs of La Victoria present a very remarkable agricultural +aspect. The height of the cultivated ground is from two hundred and +seventy to three hundred toises above the level of the ocean, and +yet we there find fields of corn mingled with plantations of +sugar-cane, coffee, and plantains. Excepting the interior of the +island of Cuba,* (* The district of Quatro Villas.) we scarcely +find elsewhere in the equinoctial regions European corn cultivated +in large quantities in so low a region. The fine fields of wheat in +Mexico are between six hundred and twelve hundred toises of +absolute elevation; and it is rare to see them descend to four +hundred toises. We shall soon perceive that the produce of grain +augments sensibly, from high latitudes towards the equator, with +the mean temperature of the climate, in comparing spots of +different elevations. The success of agriculture depends on the +dryness of the air; on the rains distributed through different +seasons, or accumulated in one season; on winds blowing constantly +from the east; or bringing the cold air of the north into very low +latitudes, as in the gulf of Mexico; on mists, which for whole +months diminish the intensity of the solar rays; in short, on a +thousand local circumstances which have less influence on the mean +temperature of the whole year than on the distribution of the same +quantity of heat through the different parts of the year. It is a +striking spectacle to see the grain of Europe cultivated from the +equator as far as Lapland in the latitude of 69 degrees, in regions +where the mean heat is from 22 to-2 degrees, in every place where +the temperature of summer is above 9 or 10 degrees. We know the +minimum of heat requisite to ripen wheat, barley, and oats; but we +are less certain in respect to the maximum which these species of +grain, accommodating as they are, can support. We are even ignorant +of all the circumstances which favour the culture of corn within +the tropics at very small heights. La Victoria and the neighbouring +village of San Mateo yield an annual produce of four thousand +quintals of wheat. It is sown in the month of December, and the +harvest is reaped on the seventieth or seventy-fifth day. The grain +is large, white, and abounding in gluten; its pellicle is thinner +and not so hard as that of the wheat of the very cold table-lands +of Mexico. An acre* (* An arpent des eaux et forets, or legal acre +of France, of which 1.95 = 1 hectare. It is about 1 1/4 acre +English.) near Victoria generally yields from three thousand to +three thousand two hundred pounds weight of wheat. The average +produce is consequently here, as at Buenos Ayres, three or four +times as much as that of northern countries. Nearly sixteenfold of +the quantity of seed is reaped; while, according to Lavoisier, the +surface of France yields on an average only five or six for one, or +from one thousand to twelve hundred pounds per acre. +Notwithstanding this fecundity of the soil, and this happy +influence of the climate, the culture of the sugar-cane is more +productive in the valleys of Aragua than that of corn. + +La Victoria is traversed by the little river Calanchas, running, +not into the Tuy, but into the Rio Aragua: it thence results that +this fine country, producing at once sugar and corn, belongs to the +basin of the lake of Valencia, to a system of interior rivers not +communicating with the sea. The quarter of the town west of the Rio +Calanchas is called la otra banda; it is the most commercial part; +merchandize is everywhere exhibited, and ranges of shops form the +streets. Two commercial roads pass through La Victoria, that of +Valencia, or of Porto Cabello, and the road of Villa de Cura, or of +the plains, called camino de los Llanos. We here find more whites +in proportion than at Caracas. We visited at sunset the little hill +of Calvary, where the view is extremely fine and extensive. We +discover on the west the lovely valleys of Aragua, a vast space +covered with gardens, cultivated fields, clumps of wild trees, +farms, and hamlets. Turning south and south-east, we see, extending +as far as the eye can reach, the lofty mountains of La Palma, +Guayraima, Tiara, and Guiripa, which conceal the immense plains or +steppes of Calabozo. This interior chain stretches westward along +the lake of Valencia, towards the Villa de Cura, the Cuesta de +Yusma, and the denticulated mountains of Guigne. It is very steep, +and constantly covered with that light vapour which in hot climates +gives a vivid blue tint to distant objects, and, far from +concealing their outlines, marks them the more strongly. It is +believed that among the mountains of the interior chain, that of +Guayraima reaches an elevation of twelve hundred toises. I found in +the night of the eleventh of February the latitude of La Victoria +10 degrees 13 minutes 35 seconds, the magnetic dip 40.8 degrees, the +intensity of the forces equal to 236 oscillations in ten minutes of +time, and the variation of the needle 4.4 degrees north-east. + +We proceeded slowly on our way by the villages of San Mateo, +Turmero, and Maracay, to the Hacienda de Cura, a fine plantation +belonging to Count Tovar, where we arrived on the evening of the +fourteenth of February. The valley, which gradually widens, is +bordered with hills of calcareous tufa, called here tierra blanca. +The scientific men of the country have made several attempts to +calcine this earth, mistaking it for the porcelain earth proceeding +from decomposed strata of feldspar. We stayed some hours with a +very intelligent family, named Ustariz, at Concesion. Their house, +which contains a collection of choice books, stands on an eminence, +and is surrounded by plantations of coffee and sugar-cane. A grove +of balsam-trees (balsamo* (* Amyris elata.)) gives coolness and +shade to this spot. It was gratifying to observe the great number +of scattered houses in the valley inhabited by freedmen. In the +Spanish colonies, the laws, the institutions, and the manners, are +more favourable to the liberty of the negroes than in other +European settlements. + +San Mateo, Turmero, and Maracay, are charming villages, where +everything denotes the comfort of the inhabitants. We seemed to be +transported to the most industrious districts of Catalonia. Near +San Mateo we find the last fields of wheat, and the last mills with +horizontal hydraulic wheels. A harvest of twenty for one was +expected; and, as if that produce were but moderate, I was asked +whether corn yielded more in Prussia and in Poland. By an error +generally prevalent under the tropics, the produce of grain is +supposed to degenerate in advancing towards the equator, and +harvests are believed to be more abundant in northern climates. +Since calculations have been made on the progress of agriculture in +the different zones, and on the temperatures under the influence of +which corn will flourish, it has been found that, beyond the +latitude of 45 degrees, the produce of wheat is nowhere so +considerable as on the northern coasts of Africa, and on the +table-lands of New Grenada, Peru, and Mexico. Without comparing the +mean temperature of the whole year, but only the mean temperature +of the season which embraces the corn cycle of vegetation, we find +for three months of summer,* in the north of Europe, from 15 to 19 +degrees; in Barbary and in Egypt, from 27 to 29 degrees; within the +tropics, between fourteen and three hundred toises of height, from +14 to 25.5 degrees of the centigrade thermometer. (* The mean heat +of the summers of Scotland in the environs of Edinburgh, (latitude +56 degrees), is found again on the table-lands of New Grenada, so +rich in wheat, at 1400 toises of elevation, and at 4 degrees north +latitude. On the other hand, we find the mean temperature of the +valleys of Aragua, latitude 10 degrees 13 minutes, and of all the +plains which are not very elevated in the torrid zone, in the +summer temperature of Naples and Sicily, latitude 39 to 40 degrees. +These figures indicate the situation of the isotheric lines (lines +of the same summer heat), and not that of the isothermal lines +(those of equal annual temperature). Considering the quantity of +heat received on the same spot of the globe during a whole year, +the mean temperatures of the valleys of Aragua, and the table-lands +of New Grenada, at 300 and 1400 toises of elevation, correspond to +the mean temperatures of the coasts at 23 and 45 degrees of +latitude.) + +The fine harvests of Egypt and of Algiers, as well as those of the +valleys of Aragua and the interior of the island of Cuba, +sufficiently prove that the augmentation of heat is not prejudicial +to the harvest of wheat and other alimentary grain, unless it be +attended with an excess of drought or moisture. To this +circumstance no doubt we must attribute the apparent anomalies +sometimes observed within the tropics, in the lower limit of corn. +We are astonished to see, eastward of the Havannah, in the famous +district of Quatro Villas, that this limit descends almost to the +level of the ocean; whilst west of the Havannah, on the slope of +the mountains of Mexico and Xalapa, at six hundred and +seventy-seven toises of height, the luxuriance of vegetation is +such, that wheat does not form ears. At the beginning of the +Spanish conquest, the corn of Europe was cultivated with success in +several regions now supposed to be too hot, or too damp, for this +branch of agriculture. The Spaniards on their first removal to +America were little accustomed to live on maize. They still adhered +to their European habits. They did not calculate whether corn would +be less profitable than coffee or cotton. They tried seeds of every +kind, making experiments the more boldly because their reasonings +were less founded on false theories. The province of Carthagena, +crossed by the chain of the mountains Maria and Guamoco, produced +wheat till the sixteenth century. In the province of Caracas, this +culture is of very ancient date in the mountainous lands of Tocuyo, +Quibor, and Barquisimeto, which connect the littoral chain with the +Sierra Nevada of Merida. Wheat is still successfully cultivated +there, and the environs of the town of Tocuyo alone export annually +more than eight thousand quintals of excellent flour. But, though +the province of Caracas, in its vast extent, includes several spots +very favourable to the cultivation of European corn, I believe that +in general this branch of agriculture will never acquire any great +importance there. The most temperate valleys are not sufficiently +wide; they are not real table-lands; and their mean elevation above +the level of the sea is not so considerable but that the +inhabitants cannot fail to perceive that it is more their interest +to establish plantations of coffee, than to cultivate corn. Flour +now comes to Caracas either from Spain or from the United States. + +The village of Turmero is four leagues distant from San Mateo. The +road leads through plantations of sugar, indigo, cotton, and +coffee. The regularity observable in the construction of the +villages, reminded us that they all owe their origin to monks and +missions. The streets are straight and parallel, crossing each +other at right angles; and the church is invariably erected in the +great square, situated in the centre of the village. The church of +Turmero is a fine edifice, but overloaded with architectural +ornaments. Since the missionaries have been replaced by vicars, the +whites have mingled their habitations with those of the Indians. +The latter are gradually disappearing as a separate race; that is +to say, they are represented in the general statement of the +population by the Mestizoes and the Zamboes, whose numbers daily +increase. I still found, however, four thousand tributary Indians +in the valleys of Aragua. Those of Turmero and Guacara are the most +numerous. They are of small stature, but less squat than the +Chaymas; their eyes denote more vivacity and intelligence, owing +less perhaps to a diversity in the race, than to a superior state +of civilization. They work like freemen by the day. Though active +and laborious during the short time they allot to labour, yet what +they earn in two months is spent in one week, in the purchase of +strong liquors at the small inns, of which unhappily the numbers +daily increase. + +We saw at Turmero the remains of the assembled militia of the +country, and their appearance alone sufficiently indicated that +these valleys had enjoyed for ages undisturbed peace. The +capitan-general, in order to give a new impulse to the military +service, had ordered a grand review; and the battalion of Turmero, +in a mock fight, had fired on that of La Victoria. Our host, a +lieutenant of the militia, was never weary of describing to us the +danger of these manoeuvres, which seemed more burlesque than +imposing. With what rapidity do nations, apparently the most +pacific, acquire military habits! Twelve years afterwards, those +valleys of Aragua, those peaceful plains of La Victoria and +Turmero, the defile of Cabrera, and the fertile banks of the lake +of Valencia, became the scenes of obstinate and sanguinary +conflicts between the natives and the troops of the mother-country. + +South of Turmero, a mass of limestone mountains advances into the +plain, separating two fine sugar-plantations, Guayavita and Paja. +The latter belongs to the family of Count Tovar, who have property +in every part of the province. Near Guayavita, brown iron-ore has +been discovered. To the north of Turmero, a granitic summit (the +Chuao) rises in the Cordillera of the coast, from the top of which +we discern at once the sea and the lake of Valencia. Crossing this +rocky ridge, which runs towards the west farther than the eye can +reach, paths somewhat difficult lead to the rich plantations of +cacao on the coast, to Choroni, Turiamo, and Ocumare, noted alike +for the fertility of the soil and the insalubrity of their climate. +Turmero, Maracay, Cura, Guacara, every point of the valley of +Aragua, has its mountain-road, which terminates at one of the small +ports on the coast. + +On quitting the village of Turmero, we discover, at a league +distant, an object, which appears at the horizon like a round +hillock, or tumulus, covered with vegetation. It is neither a hill, +nor a group of trees close to each other, but one single tree, the +famous zamang del Guayre, known throughout the province for the +enormous extent of its branches, which form a hemispheric head five +hundred and seventy-six feet in circumference. The zamang is a fine +species of mimosa, and its tortuous branches are divided by +bifurcation. Its delicate and tender foliage was agreeably relieved +on the azure of the sky. We stopped a long time under this +vegetable roof. The trunk of the zamang del Guayre,* (* The mimos +of La Guayre; zamang being the Indian name for the genera mimosa, +desmanthus, and acacia. The place where the tree is found is called +El Guayre.) which is found on the road from Turmero to Maracay, is +only sixty feet high, and nine thick; but its real beauty consists +in the form of its head. The branches extend like an immense +umbrella, and bend toward the ground, from which they remain at a +uniform distance of twelve or fifteen feet. The circumference of +this head is so regular, that, having traced different diameters, I +found them one hundred and ninety-two and one hundred and +eighty-six feet. One side of the tree was entirely stripped of its +foliage, owing to the drought; but on the other side there remained +both leaves and flowers. Tillandsias, lorantheae, Cactus Pitahaya, +and other parasite plants, cover its branches, and crack the bark. +The inhabitants of these villages, but particularly the Indians, +hold in veneration the zamang del Guayre, which the first +conquerors found almost in the same state in which it now remains. +Since it has been observed with attention, no change has appeared +in its thickness or height. This zamang must be at least as old as +the Orotava dragon-tree. There is something solemn and majestic in +the aspect of aged trees; and the violation of these monuments of +nature is severely punished in countries destitute of monuments of +art. We heard with satisfaction that the present proprietor of the +zamang had brought an action against a cultivator who had been +guilty of cutting off a branch. The cause was tried, and the +tribunal condemned the offender. We find near Turmero and the +Hacienda de Cura other zamangs, having trunks larger than that of +Guayre, but their hemispherical heads are not of equal extent. + +The culture and population of the plains augment in the direction +of Cura and Guacara, on the northern side of the lake. The valleys +of Aragua contain more than 52,000 inhabitants, on a space thirteen +leagues in length, and two in width. This is a relative population +of two thousand souls on a square league. The village or rather the +small town of Maracay was heretofore the centre of the indigo +plantations, when this branch of colonial industry was in its +greatest prosperity. The houses are all of masonry, and every court +contains cocoa-trees, which rise above the habitations. The aspect +of general wealth is still more striking at Maracay, than at +Turmero. The anil, or indigo, of these provinces has always been +considered in commerce as equal and sometimes superior to that of +Guatemala. The indigo plant impoverishes the soil, where it is +cultivated during a long series of years, more than any other. The +lands of Maracay, Tapatapa, and Turmero, are looked upon as +exhausted; and indeed the produce of indigo has been constantly +decreasing. But in proportion as it has diminished in the valleys +of Aragua, it has increased in the province of Varinas, and in the +burning plains of Cucuta, where, on the banks of the Rio Tachira, +virgin land yields an abundant produce, of the richest colour. + +We arrived very late at Maracay, and the persons to whom we were +recommended were absent. The inhabitants perceiving our +embarrassment, contended with each other in offering to lodge us, +to place our instruments, and take care of our mules. It has been +said a thousand times, but the traveller always feels desirous of +repeating it again, that the Spanish colonies are the land of +hospitality; they are so even in those places where industry and +commerce have diffused wealth and improvement. A family of +Canarians received us with the most amiable cordiality; an +excellent repast was prepared, and everything was carefully avoided +that might act as any restraint on us. The master of the house, Don +Alexandro Gonzales, was travelling on commercial business, and his +young wife had lately had the happiness of becoming a mother. She +was transported with joy when she heard that on our return from the +Rio Negro we should proceed by the banks of the Orinoco to +Angostura, where her husband was. We were to bear to him the +tidings of the birth of his first child. In those countries, as +among the ancients, travellers are regarded as the safest means of +communication. There are indeed posts established, but they make +such great circuits that private persons seldom entrust them with +letters for the llanos or savannahs of the interior. The child was +brought to us at the moment of our departure: we had seen him +asleep at night, but it was deemed indispensable that we should see +him awake in the morning. We promised to describe his features +exactly to his father, but the sight of our books and instruments +somewhat chilled the mother's confidence. She said "that in a long +journey, amidst so many cares of another kind, we might well forget +the colour of her child's eyes." + +On the road from Maracay to the Hacienda de Cura we enjoyed from +time to time the view of the lake of Valencia. An arm of the +granitic chain of the coast stretches southward into the plain. It +is the promontory of Portachuelo which would almost close the +valley, were it not separated by a narrow defile from the rock of +La Cabrera. This place has acquired a sad celebrity in the late +revolutionary wars of Caracas; each party having obstinately +disputed its possession, as opening the way to Valencia, and to the +Llanos. La Cabrera now forms a peninsula: not sixty years ago it +was a rocky island in the lake, the waters of which gradually +diminish. We spent seven very agreeable days at the Hacienda da +Cura, in a small habitation surrounded by thickets. + +We lived after the manner of the rich in this country; we bathed +twice, slept three times, and made three meals in the twenty-four +hours. The temperature of the water of the lake is rather warm, +being from twenty-four to twenty-five degrees; but there is another +cool and delicious bathing-place at Toma, under the shade of ceibas +and large zamangs, in a torrent gushing from the granitic mountains +of the Rincon del Diablo. In entering this bath, we had not to fear +the sting of insects, but to guard against the little brown hairs +which cover the pods of the Dolichos pruriens. When these small +hairs, well characterised by the name of picapica, stick to the +body, they excite a violent irritation on the skin; the dart is +felt, but the cause is unperceived. + +Near Cura we found all the people occupied in clearing the ground +covered with mimosa, sterculia, and Coccoloba excoriata, for the +purpose of extending the cultivation of cotton. This product, which +partly supplies the place of indigo, has succeeded so well during +some years, that the cotton-tree now grows wild on the borders of +the lake of Valencia. We have found shrubs of eight or ten feet +high entwined with bignonia and other ligneous creepers. The +exportation of cotton from Caracas, however, is yet of small +importance. It amounted at an average at La Guayra scarcely to +three or four hundred thousand pounds in a year; but including all +the ports of the Capitania-general, it arose, on account of the +flourishing culture of Cariaco, Nueva Barcelona, and Maracaybo, to +more than 22,000 quintals. The cotton of the valleys of Aragua is +of fine quality, being inferior only to that of Brazil; for it is +preferred to that of Carthagena, St. Domingo, and the Caribbee +Islands. The cultivation of cotton extends on one side of the lake +from Maracay to Valencia; and on the other from Guayca to Guigue. +The large plantations yield from sixty to seventy thousand pounds a +year. + +During our stay at Cura we made numerous excursions to the rocky +islands (which rise in the midst of the lake of Valencia,) to the +warm springs of Mariara, and to the lofty granitic mountain called +El Cucurucho de Coco. A dangerous and narrow path leads to the port +of Turiamo and the celebrated cacao-plantations of the coast. In +all these excursions we were agreeably surprised, not only at the +progress of agriculture, but at the increase of a free laborious +population, accustomed to toil, and too poor to rely on the +assistance of slaves. White and mulatto farmers had everywhere +small separate establishments. Our host, whose father had a revenue +of 40,000 piastres, possessed more lands than he could clear; he +distributed them in the valleys of Aragua among poor families who +chose to apply themselves to the cultivation of cotton. He +endeavoured to surround his ample plantations with freemen, who, +working as they chose, either in their own land or in the +neighbouring plantations, supplied him with day-labourers at the +time of harvest. Nobly occupied on the means best adapted gradually +to extinguish the slavery of the blacks in these provinces, Count +Tovar flattered himself with the double hope of rendering slaves +less necessary to the landholders, and furnishing the freedmen with +opportunities of becoming farmers. On departing for Europe he had +parcelled out and let a part of the lands of Cura, which extend +towards the west at the foot of the rock of Las Viruelas. Four +years after, at his return to America, he found on this spot, +finely cultivated in cotton, a little hamlet of thirty or forty +houses, which is called Punta Zamuro, and which we visited with +him. The inhabitants of this hamlet are almost all mulattos, +Zamboes, or free blacks. This example of letting out land has been +happily followed by several other great proprietors. The rent is +ten piastres for a fanega of ground, and is paid in money or in +cotton. As the small farmers are often in want, they sell their +cotton at a very moderate price. They dispose of it even before the +harvest: and the advances, made by rich neighbours, place the +debtor in a situation of dependence, which frequently obliges him +to offer his services as a labourer. The price of labour is cheaper +here than in France. A freeman, working as a day-labourer (peon), +is paid in the valleys of Aragua and in the llanos four or five +piastres per month, not including food, which is very cheap on +account of the abundance of meat and vegetables. I love to dwell on +these details of colonial industry, because they serve to prove to +the inhabitants of Europe, a fact which to the enlightened +inhabitants of the colonies has long ceased to be doubtful, namely, +that the continent of Spanish America can produce sugar, cotton, +and indigo by free hands, and that the unhappy slaves are capable +of becoming peasants, farmers, and landholders. + +END OF VOLUME 1. + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Equinoctial Regions of America, by +Alexander von Humboldt + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EQUINOCTIAL REGIONS OF AMERICA *** + +***** This file should be named 6322.txt or 6322.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/2/6322/ + +Produced by Sue Asscher and Robert Prince + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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WHEELER AND CO. + + +EDITOR'S PREFACE. + +The increasing interest attached to all that part of the American +Continent situated within and near the tropics, has suggested the +publication of the present edition of Humboldt's celebrated work, +as a portion of the SCIENTIFIC LIBRARY. + +Prior to the travels of Humboldt and Bonpland, the countries +described in the following narrative were but imperfectly known to +Europeans. For our partial acquaintance with them we were chiefly +indebted to the early navigators, and to some of the followers of +the Spanish Conquistadores. The intrepid men whose courage and +enterprise prompted them to explore unknown seas for the discovery +of a New World, have left behind them narratives of their +adventures, and descriptions of the strange lands and people they +visited, which must ever be perused with curiosity and interest; +and some of the followers of Pizarro and Cortez, as well as many +learned Spaniards who proceeded to South America soon after the +conquest, were the authors of historical and other works of high +value. But these writings of a past age, however curious and +interesting, are deficient in that spirit of scientific +investigation which enhances the importance and utility of accounts +of travels in distant regions. In more recent times, the researches +of La Condamine tended in a most important degree to promote +geographical knowledge; and he, as well as other eminent botanists +who visited the coasts of South America, and even ascended the +Andes, contributed by their discoveries and collections to augment +the vegetable riches of the Old World. But, in their time, geology +as a science had little or no existence. Of the structure of the +giant mountains of our globe scarcely anything was understood; +whilst nothing was known beneath the earth in the New World, except +what related to her mines of gold and silver. + +It remained for Humboldt to supply all that was wanting, by the +publication of his Personal Narrative. In this, more than in any +other of his works, he shows his power of contemplating nature in +all her grandeur and variety. + +The researches and discoveries of Humboldt's able coadjutor and +companion, M. Bonpland, afford not only a complete picture of the +botany of the equinoctial regions of America, but of that of other +places visited by the travellers on their voyage thither. The +description of the Island of Teneriffe and the geography of its +vegetation, show how much was discovered by Humboldt and Bonpland +which had escaped the observation of discerning travellers who had +pursued the same route before them. Indeed, the whole account of +the Canary Islands presents a picture which cannot be contemplated +without the deepest interest, even by persons comparatively +indifferent to the study of nature. + +It is, perhaps, scarcely necessary to remind the reader that since +the time when this work was first published in Paris, the +separation of the Spanish Colonies from the mother-country, +together with subsequent political events, have wrought great +changes in the governments of the South American States, as well as +in the social condition of their inhabitants. One consequence of +these changes has been to render obsolete some facts and +observations relating to subjects, political, commercial, and +statistical, interspersed through this work. However useful such +matter might have been on its original publication, it is wholly +irrelevant to the existing state of things, and consequently it has +been deemed advisable to omit it. By this curtailment, together +with that of some meteorological tables and discussions of very +limited interest, the work has been divested of its somewhat +lengthy and discursive character, and condensed within dimensions +better adapted to the taste and requirements of the present time. + +An English translation of this work by Helen Maria Williams, was +published many years ago, and is now out of print. Though faultless +as respects correctness of interpretation, it abounds in foreign +turns of expression, and is somewhat deficient in that fluency of +style without which a translated work is unsatisfactory to the +English reader. In the edition now presented to the public it is +hoped that these objections are in some degree removed. + +A careful English version is given of all the Spanish and +Portuguese terms, phrases, and quotations which occur in this work. +Though the author has only in some few instances given a French +translation of these passages, yet it is presumed that the +interpretation of the whole in English will not be deemed +superfluous; this new edition of the "Personal Narrative" having +been undertaken with the view of presenting the work in the form +best suited for the instruction and entertainment of the general +reader. + +T.R. + +London, December 1851. + +*** + +MEASURES: + +In this narrative, as well as in the Political Essay on New Spain, +all the prices are reckoned in piastres, and silver reals (reales +de plata). Eight of these reals are equivalent to a piastre, or one +hundred and five sous, French money (4 shillings 4 1/2 pence +English). Nouv. Esp. volume 2 pages 519, 616 and 866. + +The magnetic dip is always measured in this work, according to the +centesimal division, if the contrary be not expressly mentioned. + +One flasco contains 70 or 80 cubic inches, Paris measure. + +112 English pounds = 105 French pounds; and 160 Spanish pounds = 93 +French pounds. + +An arpent des eaux et forets, or legal acre of France, of which 1. +95 = 1 hectare. It is about 1 1/4 acre English. + +A tablon, equal to 1849 square toises, contains nearly an acre and +one-fifth: a legal acre has 1344 square toises, and 1.95 legal acre +is equal one hectare. + +For the sake of accuracy, the French Measures, as given by the +Author, and the indications of the Centigrade Thermometer, are +retained in the translation. The following tables may, therefore, +be found useful. + +TABLE OF LINEAR MEASURE. + + 1 toise = 6 feet 4.73 inches. + 1 foot = 12.78 inches. + 1 metre = 3 feet 3.37 inches. + +(Transcriber's Note: The 'toise' was introduced by Charlemagne +in 790; it originally represented the distance between the +fingertips of a man with outstretched arms, and is thus the same +as the British 'fathom'. During the founding of the Metric System, +less than 20 years before the date of this work, the 'toise' was +assigned a value of 1.949 meters, or a little over two yards. The +'foot'; actually the 'French foot', or 'pied', is defined as +1/6 of a 'toise', and is a little over an English foot.) + +CENTIGRADE THERMOMETER REDUCED TO FAHRENHEIT'S SCALE. + +Cent. Fahr. Cent. Fahr. Cent. Fahr. Cent. Fahr. +100 212 65 149 30 86 -5 23 + 99 210.2 64 147.2 29 84.2 -6 21.2 + 98 208.4 63 145.4 28 82.4 -7 19.4 + 97 206.6 62 143.6 27 80.6 -8 17.6 + 96 204.8 61 141.8 26 78.8 -9 15.8 + 95 203 60 140 25 77 -10 14 + 94 201.2 59 138.2 24 75.2 -11 12.2 + 93 199.4 58 136.4 23 73.4 -12 10.4 + 92 197.6 57 134.6 22 71.6 -13 8.6 + 91 195.8 56 132.8 21 69.8 -14 6.8 + 90 194 55 131 20 68 -15 5 + 89 192.2 54 129.2 19 66.2 -16 3.2 + 88 190.4 53 127.4 18 64.4 -17 1.4 + 87 188.6 52 125.6 17 62.6 -18 -0.4 + 86 186.8 51 123.8 16 60.8 -19 -2.2 + 85 185 50 122 15 59 -20 -4 + 84 183.2 49 120.2 14 57.2 -21 -5.8 + 83 181.4 48 118.4 13 55.4 -22 -7.6 + 82 179.6 47 116.6 12 53.6 -23 -9.4 + 81 177.8 46 114.8 11 51.8 -24 -11.2 + 80 176 45 113 10 50 -25 -13 + 79 174.2 44 111.2 9 48.2 -26 -14.8 + 78 172.4 43 109.4 8 46.4 -27 -16.6 + 77 170.6 42 107.6 7 44.6 -28 -18.4 + 76 168.8 41 105.8 6 42.8 -29 -20.2 + 75 167 40 104 5 41 -30 -22 + 74 165.2 39 102.2 4 39.2 -31 -23.8 + 73 163.4 38 100.4 3 37.4 -32 -25.6 + 72 161.6 37 98.6 2 35.6 -33 -27.4 + 71 159.8 36 96.8 1 33.8 -34 -29.2 + 70 158 35 95 0 32 -35 -31 + 69 156.2 34 93.2 -1 30.2 -36 -32.8 + 68 154.4 33 91.4 -2 28.4 -37 -34.6 + 67 152.6 32 89.6 -3 26.6 -38 -36.4 + 66 150.8 31 87.8 -4 24.8 -39 -38.2 + + +*** + +VOLUME 1. + +CONTENTS. + +EDITOR'S PREFACE. + +INTRODUCTION BY THE AUTHOR. + +CHAPTER 1.1. + +PREPARATIONS.--INSTRUMENTS.--DEPARTURE FROM SPAIN.-- + LANDING AT THE CANARY ISLANDS. + +CHAPTER 1.2. + +STAY AT TENERIFE.--JOURNEY FROM SANTA CRUZ TO OROTAVA.--EXCURSION + TO THE SUMMIT OF THE PEAK OF TEYDE. + +CHAPTER 1.3. + +PASSAGE FROM TENERIFE TO SOUTH AMERICA.-- + THE ISLAND OF TOBAGO.--ARRIVAL AT CUMANA. + +CHAPTER 1.4. + +FIRST ABODE AT CUMANA.--BANKS OF THE MANZANARES. + +CHAPTER 1.5. + +PENINSULA OF ARAYA.--SALT-MARSHES.-- + RUINS OF THE CASTLE OF SANTIAGO. + +CHAPTER 1.6. + +MOUNTAINS OF NEW ANDALUCIA.--VALLEY OF THE CUMANACOA.-- + SUMMIT OF THE COCOLLAR.--MISSIONS OF THE CHAYMA INDIANS. + +CHAPTER 1.7. + +CONVENT OF CARIPE.--CAVERN OF THE GUACHARO.--NOCTURNAL BIRDS. + +CHAPTER 1.8. + +DEPARTURE FROM CARIPE.--MOUNTAIN AND FOREST OF SANTA MARIA.-- + MISSION OF CATUARO.--PORT OF CARIACO. + +CHAPTER 1.9. + +PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION AND MANNERS OF THE CHAYMAS.--THEIR LANGUAGE.-- + FILIATION OF THE NATIONS WHICH INHABIT NEW ANDALUCIA.-- + PARIAGOTOS SEEN BY COLUMBUS. + +CHAPTER 1.10. + +SECOND ABODE AT CUMANA.--EARTHQUAKES.--EXTRAORDINARY METEORS. + +CHAPTER 1.11. + +PASSAGE FROM CUMANA TO LA GUAYRA.--MORRO OF NUEVA BARCELONA.-- + CAPE CODERA.--ROAD FROM LA GUAYRA TO CARACAS. + +CHAPTER 1.12. + +GENERAL VIEW OF THE PROVINCES OF VENEZUELA.-- + DIVERSITY OF THEIR INTERESTS.--CITY AND VALLEY OF CARACAS.-- + CLIMATE. + +CHAPTER 1.13. + +ABODE AT CARACAS.--MOUNTAINS IN THE VICINITY OF THE TOWN.-- + EXCURSION TO THE SUMMIT OF THE SILLA.--INDICATIONS OF MINES. + +CHAPTER 1.14. + +EARTHQUAKES AT CARACAS.--CONNECTION OF THOSE PHENOMENA WITH THE + VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS OF THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. + +CHAPTER 1.15. + +DEPARTURE FROM CARACAS.--MOUNTAINS OF SAN PEDRO AND OF LOS TEQUES.-- + LA VICTORIA.--VALLEYS OF ARAGUA. + +*** + +INTRODUCTION BY THE AUTHOR. + +Many years have elapsed since I quitted Europe, to explore the +interior of the New Continent. Devoted from my earliest youth to +the study of nature, feeling with enthusiasm the wild beauties of a +country guarded by mountains and shaded by ancient forests, I +experienced in my travels, enjoyments which have amply compensated +for the privations inseparable from a laborious and often agitated +life. These enjoyments, which I endeavoured to impart to my readers +in my 'Remarks upon the Steppes,' and in the 'Essay on the +Physiognomy of Plants,' were not the only fruits I reaped from an +undertaking formed with the design of contributing to the progress +of natural philosophy. I had long prepared myself for the +observations which were the principal object of my journey to the +torrid zone. I was provided with instruments of easy and convenient +use, constructed by the ablest makers, and I enjoyed the special +protection of a government which, far from presenting obstacles to +my investigations, constantly honoured me with every mark of regard +and confidence. I was aided by a courageous and enlightened friend, +and it was singularly propitious to the success of our participated +labour, that the zeal and equanimity of that friend never failed, +amidst the fatigues and dangers to which we were sometimes exposed. + +Under these favourable circumstances, traversing regions which for +ages have remained almost unknown to most of the nations of Europe, +I might add even to Spain, M. Bonpland and myself collected a +considerable number of materials, the publication of which may +throw some light on the history of nations, and advance the study +of nature. + +I had in view a two-fold purpose in the travels of which I now +publish the historical narrative. I wished to make known the +countries I had visited; and to collect such facts as are fitted to +elucidate a science of which we as yet possess scarcely the +outline, and which has been vaguely denominated Natural History of +the World, Theory of the Earth, or Physical Geography. The last of +these two objects seemed to me the most important. I was +passionately devoted to botany and certain parts of zoology, and I +flattered myself that our investigations might add some new species +to those already known, both in the animal and vegetable kingdoms; +but preferring the connection of facts which have been long +observed, to the knowledge of insulated facts, although new, the +discovery of an unknown genus seemed to me far less interesting +than an observation on the geographical relations of the vegetable +world, on the migrations of the social plants, and the limit of the +height which their different tribes attain on the flanks of the +Cordilleras. + +The natural sciences are connected by the same ties which link +together all the phenomena of nature. The classification of the +species, which must be considered as the fundamental part of +botany, and the study of which is rendered attractive and easy by +the introduction of natural methods, is to the geography of plants +what descriptive mineralogy is to the indication of the rocks +constituting the exterior crust of the globe. To comprehend the +laws observed in the position of these rocks, to determine the age +of their successive formations, and their identity in the most +distant regions, the geologist should be previously acquainted with +the simple fossils which compose the mass of mountains, and of +which the names and character are the object of oryctognostical +knowledge. It is the same with that part of the natural history of +the globe which treats of the relations plants have to each other, +to the soil whence they spring, or to the air which they inhale and +modify. The progress of the geography of plants depends in a great +measure on that of descriptive botany; and it would be injurious to +the advancement of science, to attempt rising to general ideas, +whilst neglecting the knowledge of particular facts. + +I have been guided by these considerations in the course of my +inquiries; they were always present to my mind during the period of +my preparatory studies. When I began to read the numerous +narratives of travels, which compose so interesting a part of +modern literature, I regretted that travellers, the most +enlightened in the insulated branches of natural history, were +seldom possessed of sufficient variety of knowledge to avail +themselves of every advantage arising from their position. It +appeared to me, that the importance of the results hitherto +obtained did not keep pace with the immense progress which, at the +end of the eighteenth century, had been made in several departments +of science, particularly geology, the history of the modifications +of the atmosphere, and the physiology of animals and plants. I saw +with regret, (and all scientific men have shared this feeling) that +whilst the number of accurate instruments was daily increasing, we +were still ignorant of the height of many mountains and elevated +plains; of the periodical oscillations of the aerial ocean; of the +limit of perpetual snow within the polar circle and on the borders +of the torrid zone; of the variable intensity of the magnetic +forces, and of many other phenomena equally important. + +Maritime expeditions and circumnavigatory voyages have conferred +just celebrity on the names of the naturalists and astronomers who +have been appointed by various governments to share the dangers of +those undertakings; but though these eminent men have given us +precise notions of the external configuration of countries, of the +natural history of the ocean, and of the productions of islands and +coasts, it must be admitted that maritime expeditions are less +fitted to advance the progress of geology and other parts of +physical science, than travels into the interior of a continent. +The advancement of the natural sciences has been subordinate to +that of geography and nautical astronomy. During a voyage of +several years, the land but seldom presents itself to the +observation of the mariner, and when, after lengthened expectation, +it is descried, he often finds it stripped of its most beautiful +productions. Sometimes, beyond a barren coast, he perceives a ridge +of mountains covered with verdure, but its distance forbids +examination, and the view serves only to excite regret. + +Journeys by land are attended with considerable difficulties in the +conveyance of instruments and collections, but these difficulties +are compensated by advantages which it is unnecessary to enumerate. +It is not by sailing along a coast that we can discover the +direction of chains of mountains, and their geological +constitution, the climate of each zone, and its influence on the +forms and habits of organized beings. In proportion to the extent +of continents, the greater on the surface of the soil are the +riches of animal and vegetable productions; the more distant the +central chain of mountains from the sea-shore, the greater is the +variety in the bosom of the earth, of those stony strata, the +regular succession of which unfolds the history of our planet. As +every being considered apart is impressed with a particular type, +so, in like manner, we find the same distinctive impression in the +arrangement of brute matter organized in rocks, and also in the +distribution and mutual relations of plants and animals. The great +problem of the physical description of the globe, is the +determination of the form of these types, the laws of their +relations with each other, and the eternal ties which link the +phenomena of life, and those of inanimate nature. + +Having stated the general object I had in view in my expeditions, I +will now hasten to give a slight sketch of the whole of the +collections and observations which we have accumulated, and the +union of which is the aim and end of every scientific journey. The +maritime war, during our abode in America, having rendered +communication with Europe very uncertain, we found ourselves +compelled, in order to diminish the chance of losses, to form three +different collections. Of these, the first was embarked for Spain +and France, the second for the United States and England, and the +third, which was the most considerable, remained almost constantly +under our own eyes. Towards the close of our expedition, this last +collection formed forty-two boxes, containing an herbal of six +thousand equinoctial plants, seeds, shells, insects, and (what had +hitherto never been brought to Europe) geological specimens, from +the Chimborazo, New Grenada, and the banks of the river Amazon. + +After our journey to the Orinoco, we left a part of these +collections at the island of Cuba, intending to take them on our +return from Peru to Mexico. The rest followed us during the space +of five years, on the chain of the Andes, across New Spain, from +the shores of the Pacific to the coasts of the Caribbean Sea. The +conveyance of these objects, and the minute care they required, +occasioned embarrassments scarcely conceiveable even by those who +have traversed the most uncultivated parts of Europe. Our progress +was often retarded by the necessity of dragging after us, during +expeditions of five or six months, twelve, fifteen, and sometimes +more than twenty loaded mules, exchanging these animals every eight +or ten days, and superintending the Indians who were employed in +driving the numerous caravan. Often, in order to add to our +collections of new mineral substances, we found ourselves obliged +to throw away others, which we had collected a considerable time +before. These sacrifices were not less vexatious than the losses we +accidentally sustained. Sad experience taught us but too late, that +from the sultry humidity of the climate, and the frequent falls of +the beasts of burden, we could preserve neither the skins of +animals hastily prepared, nor the fishes and reptiles placed in +phials filled with alcohol. I enter into these details, because, +though little interesting in themselves, they serve to show that we +had no means of bringing back, in their natural state, many objects +of zoology and comparative anatomy, of which we have published +descriptions and drawings. Notwithstanding some obstacles, and the +expense occasioned by the carriage of these articles, I had reason +to applaud the resolution I had taken before my departure, of +sending to Europe the duplicates only of the productions we +collected. I cannot too often repeat, that when the seas are +infested with privateers, a traveller can be sure only of the +objects in his own possession. A very few of the duplicates, which +we shipped for Europe during our abode in America, were saved; the +greater part fell into the hands of persons who feel no interest +for science. When a ship is condemned in a foreign port, boxes +containing only dried plants or stones, instead of being sent to +the scientific men to whom they are addressed, are put aside and +forgotten. Some of our geological collections taken in the Pacific +were, however, more fortunate. We were indebted for their +preservation to the generous activity of Sir Joseph Banks, +President of the Royal Society of London, who, amidst the political +agitations of Europe, unceasingly laboured to strengthen the bonds +of union between scientific men of all nations. + +In our investigations we have considered each phenomenon under +different aspects, and classed our remarks according to the +relations they bear to each other. To afford an idea of the method +we have followed, I will here add a succinct enumeration of the +materials with which we were furnished for describing the volcanoes +of Antisana and Pichincha, as well as that of Jorullo: the latter, +during the night of the 20th of September, 1759, rose from the +earth one thousand five hundred and seventy-eight French feet above +the surrounding plains of Mexico. The position of these singular +mountains in longitude and latitude was ascertained by astronomical +observations. We took the heights of the different parts by the aid +of the barometer, and determined the dip of the needle and the +intensity of the magnetic forces. Our collections contain the +plants which are spread over the flanks of these volcanoes, and +specimens of different rocks which, superposed one upon another, +constitute their external coat. We are enabled to indicate, by +measures sufficiently exact, the height above the level of the +ocean, at which we found each group of plants, and each volcanic +rock. Our journals furnish us with a series of observations on the +humidity, the temperature, the electricity, and the degree of +transparency of the air on the brinks of the craters of Pichincha +and Jorullo; they also contain topographical plans and geological +profiles of these mountains, founded in part on the measure of +vertical bases, and on angles of altitude. Each observation has +been calculated according to the tables and the methods which are +considered most exact in the present state of our knowledge; and in +order to judge of the degree of confidence which the results may +claim, we have preserved the whole detail of our partial +operations. + +It would have been possible to blend these different materials in a +work devoted wholly to the description of the volcanoes of Peru and +New Spain. Had I given the physical description of a single +province, I could have treated separately everything relating to +its geography, mineralogy, and botany; but how could I interrupt +the narrative of a journey, a disquisition on the manners of a +people, or the great phenomena of nature, by an enumeration of the +productions of the country, the description of new species of +animals and plants, or the detail of astronomical observations. Had +I adopted a mode of composition which would have included in one +and the same chapter all that has been observed on one particular +point of the globe, I should have prepared a work of cumbrous +length, and devoid of that clearness which arises in a great +measure from the methodical distribution of matter. Notwithstanding +the efforts I have made to avoid, in this narrative, the errors I +had to dread, I feel conscious that I have not always succeeded in +separating the observations of detail from those general results +which interest every enlightened mind. These results comprise in +one view the climate and its influence on organized beings, the +aspect of the country, varied according to the nature of the soil +and its vegetable covering, the direction of the mountains and +rivers which separate races of men as well as tribes of plants; and +finally, the modifications observable in the condition of people +living in different latitudes, and in circumstances more or less +favourable to the development of their faculties. I do not fear +having too much enlarged on objects so worthy of attention: one of +the noblest characteristics which distinguish modern civilization +from that of remoter times is, that it has enlarged the mass of our +conceptions, rendered us more capable of perceiving the connection +between the physical and intellectual world, and thrown a more +general interest over objects which heretofore occupied only a few +scientific men, because those objects were contemplated separately, +and from a narrower point of view. + +As it is probable that these volumes will obtain the attention of a +greater number of readers than the detail of my observations merely +scientific, or my researches on the population, the commerce, and +the mines of New Spain, I may be permitted here to enumerate all +the works which I have hitherto published conjointly with M. +Bonpland. When several works are interwoven in some sort with each +other, it may perhaps be interesting to the reader to know the +sources whence he may obtain more circumstantial information. + +1.I.1. ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS, TRIGONOMETRICAL OPERATIONS, AND + BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS MADE DURING THE COURSE OF A JOURNEY TO + THE EQUINOCTIAL REGIONS OF THE NEW CONTINENT, FROM 1799 TO 1804. + +This work, to which are added historical researches on the position +of several points important to navigators, contains, first, the +original observations which I made from the twelfth degree of +southern to the forty-first degree of northern latitude; the +transits of the sun and stars over the meridian; distances of the +moon from the sun and the stars; occultations of the satellites; +eclipses of the sun and moon; transits of Mercury over the disc of +the sun; azimuths; circum-meridian altitudes of the moon, to +determine the longitude by the differences of declination; +researches on the relative intensity of the light of the austral +stars; geodesical measures, etc. Secondly, a treatise on the +astronomical refractions in the torrid zone, considered as the +effect of the decrement of caloric in the strata of the air; +thirdly, the barometric measurement of the Cordillera of the Andes, +of Mexico, of the province of Venezuela, of the kingdom of Quito, +and of New Grenada; followed by geological observations, and +containing the indication of four hundred and fifty-three heights, +calculated according to the method of M. Laplace, and the new +co-efficient of M. Ramond; fourthly, a table of near seven hundred +geographical positions on the New Continent; two hundred and +thirty-five of which have been determined by my own observations, +according to the three co-ordinates of longitude, latitude, and +height. + +1.I.2. EQUINOCTIAL PLANTS COLLECTED IN MEXICO, IN THE ISLAND OF + CUBA, IN THE PROVINCES OF CARACAS, CUMANA, AND BARCELONA, ON THE + ANDES OF NEW GRENADA, QUITO, AND PERU, AND ON THE BANKS OF THE RIO + NEGRO, THE ORINOCO, AND THE RIVER AMAZON. + +M. Bonpland has in this work given figures of more than forty new +genera of plants of the torrid zone, classed according to their +natural families. The methodical descriptions of the species are +both in French and Latin, and are accompanied by observations on +the medicinal properties of the plants, their use in the arts, and +the climate of the countries in which they are found. + +1.I.3. MONOGRAPHY OF THE MELASTOMA, RHEXIA, AND OTHER GENERA OF + THIS ORDER OF PLANTS. + +Comprising upwards of a hundred and fifty species of melastomaceae, +which we collected during the course of our expeditions, and which +form one of the most beautiful ornaments of tropical vegetation. M. +Bonpland has added the plants of the same family, which, among many +other rich stores of natural history, M. Richard collected in his +interesting expedition to the Antilles and French Guiana, and the +descriptions of which he has communicated to us. + +1.I.4. ESSAY ON THE GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS, ACCOMPANIED BY A PHYSICAL + TABLE OF THE EQUINOCTIAL REGIONS, FOUNDED ON MEASURES TAKEN FROM + THE TENTH DEGREE OF NORTHERN TO THE TENTH DEGREE OF SOUTHERN + LATITUDE. + +I have endeavoured to collect in one point of view the whole of the +physical phenomena of that part of the New Continent comprised +within the limits of the torrid zone from the level of the Pacific +to the highest summit of the Andes; namely, the vegetation, the +animals, the geological relations, the cultivation of the soil, the +temperature of the air, the limit of perpetual snow, the chemical +constitution of the atmosphere, its electrical intensity, its +barometrical pressure, the decrement of gravitation, the intensity +of the azure colour of the sky, the diminution of light during its +passage through the successive strata of the air, the horizontal +refractions, and the heat of boiling water at different heights. +Fourteen scales, disposed side by side with a profile of the Andes, +indicate the modifications to which these phenomena are subject +from the influence of the elevation of the soil above the level of +the sea. Each group of plants is placed at the height which nature +has assigned to it, and we may follow the prodigious variety of +their forms from the region of the palms and arborescent ferns to +those of the johannesia (chuquiraga, Juss.), the gramineous plants, +and lichens. These regions form the natural divisions of the +vegetable empire; and as perpetual snow is found in each climate at +a determinate height, so, in like manner, the febrifuge species of +the quinquina (cinchona) have their fixed limits, which I have +marked in the botanical chart belonging to this essay. + +1.I.5. OBSERVATIONS ON ZOOLOGY AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. + +I have comprised in this work the history of the condor; +experiments on the electrical action of the gymnotus; a treatise on +the larynx of the crocodiles, the quadrumani, and birds of the +tropics; the description of several new species of reptiles, +fishes, birds, monkeys, and other mammalia but little known. M. +Cuvier has enriched this work with a very comprehensive treatise on +the axolotl of the lake of Mexico, and on the genera of the Protei. +That naturalist has also recognized two new species of mastodons +and an elephant among the fossil bones of quadrupeds which we +brought from North and South America. For the description of the +insects collected by M. Bonpland we are indebted to M. Latreille, +whose labours have so much contributed to the progress of +entomology in our times. The second volume of this work contains +figures of the Mexican, Peruvian, and Aturian skulls, which we have +deposited in the Museum of Natural History at Paris, and respecting +which Blumenbach has published observations in the 'Decas quinta +Craniorum diversarum gentium.' + +1.I.6. POLITICAL ESSAY ON THE KINGDOM OF NEW SPAIN, WITH A PHYSICAL + AND GEOGRAPHICAL ATLAS, FOUNDED ON ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS AND + TRIGONOMETRICAL AND BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. + +This work, based on numerous official memoirs, presents, in six +divisions, considerations on the extent and natural appearance of +Mexico, on the population, on the manners of the inhabitants, their +ancient civilization, and the political division of their +territory. It embraces also the agriculture, the mineral riches, +the manufactures, the commerce, the finances, and the military +defence of that vast country. In treating these different subjects +I have endeavoured to consider them under a general point of view; +I have drawn a parallel not only between New Spain, the other +Spanish colonies, and the United States of North America, but also +between New Spain and the possessions of the English in Asia; I +have compared the agriculture of the countries situated in the +torrid zone with that of the temperate climates; and I have +examined the quantity of colonial produce necessary to Europe in +the present state of civilization. In tracing the geological +description of the richest mining districts in Mexico, I have, in +short, given a statement of the mineral produce, the population, +the imports and exports of the whole of Spanish America. I have +examined several questions which, for want of precise data, had not +hitherto been treated with the attention they demand, such as the +influx and reflux of metals, their progressive accumulation in +Europe and Asia, and the quantity of gold and silver which, since +the discovery of America down to our own times, the Old World has +received from the New. The geographical introduction at the +beginning of this work contains the analysis of the materials which +have been employed in the construction of the Mexican Atlas. + +1.I.7. VIEWS OF THE CORDILLERAS, AND MONUMENTS OF THE INDIGENOUS + NATIONS OF THE NEW CONTINENT.* (*Atlas Pittoresque, ou Vues des + Cordilleres, 1 volume folio, with 69 plates, part of which are + coloured, accompanied by explanatory treatises. This work may be + considered as the Atlas to the historical narrative of the travels.) + +This work is intended to represent a few of the grand scenes which +nature presents in the lofty chain of the Andes, and at the same +time to throw some light on the ancient civilization of the +Americans, through the study of their monuments of architecture, +their hieroglyphics, their religious rites, and their astrological +reveries. I have given in this work a description of the teocalli, +or Mexican pyramids, and have compared their structure with that of +the temple of Belus. I have described the arabesques which cover +the ruins of Mitla, the idols in basalt ornamented with the +calantica of the heads of Isis; and also a considerable number of +symbolical paintings, representing the serpent-woman (the Mexican +Eve), the deluge of Coxcox, and the first migrations of the natives +of the Aztec race. I have endeavoured to prove the striking +analogies existing between the calendar of the Toltecs and the +catasterisms of their zodiac, and the division of time of the +people of Tartary and Thibet, as well as the Mexican traditions on +the four regenerations of the globe, the pralayas of the Hindoos, +and the four ages of Hesiod. In this work I have also included (in +addition to the hieroglyphical paintings I brought to Europe), +fragments of all the Aztec manuscripts, collected in Rome, Veletri, +Vienna, and Dresden, and one of which reminds us, by its lineary +symbols, of the kouas of the Chinese. Together with the rude +monuments of the aborigines of America, this volume contains +picturesque views of the mountainous countries which those people +inhabited; for example, the cataract of Tequendama, Chimborazo, the +volcano of Jorullo and Cayambe, the pyramidal summit of which, +covered with eternal ice, is situated directly under the +equinoctial line. In every zone the configuration of the ground, +the physiognomy of the plants, and the aspect of lovely or wild +scenery, have great influence on the progress of the arts, and on +the style which distinguishes their productions. This influence is +so much the more perceptible in proportion as man is farther +removed from civilization. + +I could have added to this work researches on the character of +languages, which are the most durable monuments of nations. I have +collected a number of materials on the languages of America, of +which MM. Frederic Schlegel and Vater have made use; the former in +his Considerations on the Hindoos, the latter in his Continuation +of the Mithridates of Adelung, in the Ethnographical Magazine, and +in his Inquiries into the Population of the New Continent. These +materials are now in the hands of my brother, William von Humboldt, +who, during his travels in Spain, and a long abode at Rome, formed +the richest collection of American vocabularies in existence. His +extensive knowledge of the ancient and modern languages has enabled +him to trace some curious analogies in relation to this subject, so +important to the philosophical study of the history of man. A part +of his labours will find a place in this narrative. + +Of the different works which I have here enumerated, the second and +third were composed by M. Bonpland, from the observations which he +made in a botanical journal. This journal contains more than four +thousand methodical descriptions of equinoctial plants, a ninth +part only of which have been made by me. They appear in a separate +publication, under the title of Nova Genera et Species Plantariem. +In this work will be found, not only the new species we collected, +which, after a careful examination by one of the first botanists of +the age, Professor Willdenouw, are computed to amount to fourteen +or fifteen hundred, but also the interesting observations made by +M. Bonpland on plants hitherto imperfectly described. The plates of +this work are all engraved according to the method followed by M. +Labillardiere, in the Specimen Planterum Novae Hollandiae, a work +remarkable for profound research and clearness of arrangement. + +After having distributed into separate works all that belongs to +astronomy, botany, zoology, the political description of New Spain, +and the history of the ancient civilization of certain nations of +the New Continent, there still remained many general results and +local descriptions, which I might have collected into separate +treatises. I had, during my journey, prepared papers on the races +of men in South America; on the Missions of the Orinoco; on the +obstacles to the progress of society in the torrid zone arising +from the climate and the strength of vegetation; on the character +of the landscape in the Cordilleras of the Andes compared with that +of the Alps in Switzerland; on the analogies between the rocks of +the two hemispheres; on the physical constitution of the air in the +equinoctial regions, etc. I had left Europe with the firm intention +of not writing what is usually called the historical narrative of a +journey, but to publish the fruit of my inquiries in works merely +descriptive; and I had arranged the facts, not in the order in +which they successively presented themselves, but according to the +relation they bore to each other. Amidst the overwhelming majesty +of Nature, and the stupendous objects she presents at every step, +the traveller is little disposed to record in his journal matters +which relate only to himself, and the ordinary details of life. + +I composed a very brief itinerary during the course of my +excursions on the rivers of South America, and in my long journeys +by land. I regularly described (and almost always on the spot) the +visits I made to the summits of volcanoes, or mountains remarkable +for their height; but the entries in my journal were interrupted +whenever I resided in a town, or when other occupations prevented +me from continuing a work which I considered as having only a +secondary interest. Whenever I wrote in my journal, I had no other +motive than the preservation of some of those fugitive ideas which +present themselves to a naturalist, whose life is almost wholly +passed in the open air. I wished to make a temporary collection of +such facts as I had not then leisure to class, and note down the +first impressions, whether agreeable or painful, which I received +from nature or from man. Far from thinking at the time that those +pages thus hurriedly written would form the basis of an extensive +work to be offered to the public, it appeared to me, that my +journal, though it might furnish certain data useful to science, +would present very few of those incidents, the recital of which +constitutes the principal charm of an itinerary. + +The difficulties I have experienced since my return, in the +composition of a considerable number of treatises, for the purpose +of making known certain classes of phenomena, insensibly overcame +my repugnance to write the narrative of my journey. In undertaking +this task, I have been guided by the advice of many estimable +persons, who honour me with their friendship. I also perceived that +such a preference is given to this sort of composition, that +scientific men, after having presented in an isolated form the +account of their researches on the productions, the manners, and +the political state of the countries through which they have +passed, imagine that they have not fulfilled their engagements with +the public, till they have written their itinerary. + +An historical narrative embraces two very distinct objects; the +greater or the less important events connected with the purpose of +the traveller, and the observations he has made during his journey. +The unity of composition also, which distinguishes good works from +those on an ill-constructed plan, can be strictly observed only +when the traveller describes what has passed under his own eye; and +when his principal attention has been fixed less on scientific +observations than on the manners of different people and the great +phenomena of nature. Now, the most faithful picture of manners is +that which best displays the relations of men towards each other. +The character of savage or civilized life is portrayed either in +the obstacles a traveller meets with, or in the sensations he +feels. It is the traveller himself whom we continually desire to +see in contact with the objects which surround him; and his +narration interests us the more, when a local tint is diffused over +the description of a country and its inhabitants. Such is the +source of the interest excited by the history of those early +navigators, who, impelled by intrepidity rather than by science, +struggled against the elements in their search for the discovery of +a new world. Such is the irresistible charm attached to the fate of +that enterprising traveller (Mungo Park.), who, full of enthusiasm +and energy, penetrated alone into the centre of Africa, to discover +amidst barbarous nations the traces of ancient civilization. + +In proportion as travels have been undertaken by persons whose +views have been directed to researches into descriptive natural +history, geography, or political economy, itineraries have partly +lost that unity of composition, and that simplicity which +characterized those of former ages. It is now become scarcely +possible to connect so many different materials with the detail of +other events; and that part of a traveller's narrative which we may +call dramatic gives way to dissertations merely descriptive. The +numerous class of readers who prefer agreeable amusement to solid +instruction, have not gained by the exchange; and I am afraid that +the temptation will not be great to follow the course of travellers +who are incumbered with scientific instruments and collections. + +To give greater variety to my work, I have often interrupted the +historical narrative by descriptions. I first represent phenomena +in the order in which they appeared; and I afterwards consider them +in the whole of their individual relations. This mode has been +successfully followed in the journey of M. de Saussure, whose most +valuable work has contributed more than any other to the +advancement of science. Often, amidst dry discussions on +meteorology, it contains many charming descriptions; such as those +of the modes of life of the inhabitants of the mountains, the +dangers of hunting the chamois, and the sensations felt on the +summit of the higher Alps. + +There are details of ordinary life which it may be useful to note +in an itinerary, because they serve for the guidance of those who +afterwards journey through the same countries. I have preserved a +few, but have suppressed the greater part of those personal +incidents which present no particular interest, and which can be +rendered amusing only by the perfection of style. + +With respect to the country which has been the object of my +investigations, I am fully sensible of the great advantages enjoyed +by persons who travel in Greece, Egypt, the banks of the Euphrates, +and the islands of the Pacific, in comparison with those who +traverse the continent of America. In the Old World, nations and +the distinctions of their civilization form the principal points in +the picture; in the New World, man and his productions almost +disappear amidst the stupendous display of wild and gigantic +nature. The human race in the New World presents only a few +remnants of indigenous hordes, slightly advanced in civilization; +or it exhibits merely the uniformity of manners and institutions +transplanted by European colonists to foreign shores. Information +which relates to the history of our species, to the various forms +of government, to monuments of art, to places full of great +remembrances, affect us far more than descriptions of those vast +solitudes which seem destined only for the development of vegetable +life, and to be the domain of wild animals. The savages of America, +who have been the objects of so many systematic reveries, and on +whom M. Volney has lately published some accurate and intelligent +observations, inspire less interest since celebrated navigators +have made known to us the inhabitants of the South Sea islands, in +whose character we find a striking mixture of perversity and +meekness. The state of half-civilization existing among those +islanders gives a peculiar charm to the description of their +manners. A king, followed by a numerous suite, presents the fruits +of his orchard; or a funeral is performed amidst the shade of the +lofty forest. Such pictures, no doubt, have more attraction than +those which pourtray the solemn gravity of the inhabitant of the +banks of the Missouri or the Maranon. + +America offers an ample field for the labours of the naturalist. On +no other part of the globe is he called upon more powerfully by +nature to raise himself to general ideas on the cause of phenomena +and their mutual connection. To say nothing of that luxuriance of +vegetation, that eternal spring of organic life, those climates +varying by stages as we climb the flanks of the Cordilleras, and +those majestic rivers which a celebrated writer (M. Chateaubriand.) +has described with such graceful accuracy, the resources which the +New World affords for the study of geology and natural philosophy +in general have been long since acknowledged. Happy the traveller +who may cherish the hope that he has availed himself of the +advantages of his position, and that he has added some new facts to +the mass of those previously acquired! + +Since I left America, one of those great revolutions, which at +certain periods agitate the human race, has broken out in the +Spanish colonies, and seems to prepare new destinies for a +population of fourteen millions of inhabitants, spreading from the +southern to the northern hemisphere, from the shores of the Rio de +la Plata and Chile to the remotest part of Mexico. Deep +resentments, excited by colonial legislation, and fostered by +mistrustful policy, have stained with blood regions which had +enjoyed, for the space of nearly three centuries, what I will not +call happiness but uninterrupted peace. At Quito several of the +most virtuous and enlightened citizens have perished, victims of +devotion to their country. While I am giving the description of +regions, the remembrance of which is so dear to me, I continually +light on places which recall to my mind the loss of a friend. + +When we reflect on the great political agitations of the New World, +we observe that the Spanish Americans are by no means in so +favourable a position as the inhabitants of the United States; the +latter having been prepared for independence by the long enjoyment +of constitutional liberty. Internal dissensions are chiefly to be +dreaded in regions where civilization is but slightly rooted, and +where, from the influence of climate, forests may soon regain their +empire over cleared lands if their culture be abandoned. It may +also be feared that, during a long series of years, no foreign +traveller will be enabled to traverse all the countries which I +have visited. This circumstance may perhaps add to the interest of +a work which pourtrays the state of the greater part of the Spanish +colonies at the beginning of the 19th century. I even venture to +indulge the hope that this work will be thought worthy of attention +when passions shall be hushed into peace, and when, under the +influence of a new social order, those countries shall have made +rapid progress in public welfare. If then some pages of my book are +snatched from oblivion, the inhabitant of the banks of the Orinoco +and the Atabapo will behold with delight populous cities enriched +by commerce, and fertile fields cultivated by the hands of free +men, on those very spots where, at the time of my travels, I found +only impenetrable forests and inundated lands. + +*** + +PERSONAL NARRATIVE OF A JOURNEY TO THE EQUINOCTIAL REGIONS + OF THE NEW CONTINENT. + +VOLUME 1. + + +CHAPTER 1.1. +PREPARATIONS. +INSTRUMENTS. +DEPARTURE FROM SPAIN. +LANDING AT THE CANARY ISLANDS. + +From my earliest youth I felt an ardent desire to travel into +distant regions, seldom visited by Europeans. This desire is +characteristic of a period of our existence when appears an +unlimited horizon, and when we find an irresistible attraction in +the impetuous agitations of the mind, and the image of positive +danger. Though educated in a country which has no direct +communication with either the East or the West Indies, living +amidst mountains remote from coasts, and celebrated for their +numerous mines, I felt an increasing passion for the sea and +distant expeditions. Objects with which we are acquainted only by +the animated narratives of travellers have a peculiar charm; +imagination wanders with delight over that which is vague and +undefined; and the pleasures we are deprived of seem to possess a +fascinating power, compared with which all we daily feel in the +narrow circle of sedentary life appears insipid. The taste for +herborisation, the study of geology, rapid excursions to Holland, +England, and France, with the celebrated Mr. George Forster, who +had the happiness to accompany captain Cook in his second +expedition round the globe, contributed to give a determined +direction to the plan of travels which I had formed at eighteen +years of age. No longer deluded by the agitation of a wandering +life, I was anxious to contemplate nature in all her variety of +wild and stupendous scenery; and the hope of collecting some facts +useful to the advancement of science, incessantly impelled my +wishes towards the luxuriant regions of the torrid zone. As +personal circumstances then prevented me from executing the +projects by which I was so powerfully influenced, I had leisure to +prepare myself during six years for the observations I proposed to +make on the New Continent, as well as to visit different parts of +Europe, and to explore the lofty chain of the Alps, the structure +of which I might afterwards compare with that of the Andes of Quito +and of Peru. + +I had traversed a part of Italy in 1795, but had not been able to +visit the volcanic regions of Naples and Sicily; and I regretted +leaving Europe without having seen Vesuvius, Stromboli, and Etna. I +felt, that in order to form a proper judgment of many geological +phenomena, especially of the nature of the rocks of trap-formation, +it was necessary to examine the phenomena presented by burning +volcanoes. I determined therefore to return to Italy in the month +of November, 1797. I made a long stay at Vienna, where the fine +collections of exotic plants, and the friendship of Messrs. de +Jacquin, and Joseph van der Schott, were highly useful to my +preparatory studies. I travelled with M. Leopold von Buch, through +several cantons of Salzburg and Styria, countries alike interesting +to the landscape-painter and the geologist; but just when I was +about to cross the Tyrolese Alps, the war then raging in Italy +obliged me to abandon the project of going to Naples. + +A short time before, a gentleman passionately fond of the fine +arts, and who had visited the coasts of Greece and Illyria to +inspect their monuments, made me a proposal to accompany him in an +expedition to Upper Egypt. This expedition was to occupy only eight +months. Provided with astronomical instruments and able +draughtsmen, we were to ascend the Nile as far as Assouan, after +minutely examining the positions of the Said, between Tentyris and +the cataracts. Though my views had not hitherto been fixed on any +region but the tropics, I could not resist the temptation of +visiting countries so celebrated in the annals of human +civilization. I therefore accepted this proposition, but with the +express condition, that on our return to Alexandria I should be at +liberty to continue my journey through Syria and Palestine. The +studies which I entered upon with a view to this new project, I +afterwards found useful, when I examined the relations between the +barbarous monuments of Mexico, and those belonging to the nations +of the old world. I thought myself on the point of embarking for +Egypt, when political events forced me to abandon a plan which +promised me so much satisfaction. + +An expedition of discovery in the South Sea, under the direction of +captain Baudin, was then preparing in France. The plan was great, +bold, and worthy of being executed by a more enlightened commander. +The purpose of this expedition was to visit the Spanish possessions +of South America, from the mouth of the river Plata to the kingdom +of Quito and the isthmus of Panama. After visiting the archipelago +of the Pacific, and exploring the coasts of New Holland, from Van +Diemen's Land to that of Nuyts, both vessels were to stop at +Madagascar, and return by the Cape of Good Hope. I was in Paris +when the preparations for this voyage were begun. I had but little +confidence in the personal character of captain Baudin, who had +given cause of discontent to the court of Vienna, when he was +commissioned to conduct to Brazil one of my friends, the young +botanist, Van der Schott; but as I could not hope, with my own +resources, to make a voyage of such extent, and view so fine a +portion of the globe, I determined to take the chances of this +expedition. I obtained permission to embark, with the instruments I +had collected, in one of the vessels destined for the South Sea, +and I reserved to myself the liberty of leaving captain Baudin +whenever I thought proper. M. Michaux, who had already visited +Persia and a part of North America, and M. Bonpland, with whom I +then formed the friendship that still unites us, were appointed to +accompany this expedition as naturalists. + +I had flattered myself during several months with the idea of +sharing the labours directed to so great and honourable an object +when the war which broke out in Germany and Italy, determined the +French government to withdraw the funds granted for their voyage of +discovery, and adjourn it to an indefinite period. Deeply mortified +at finding the plans I had formed during many years of my life +overthrown in a single day, I sought at any risk the speediest +means of quitting Europe, and engaging in some enterprise which +might console me for my disappointment. + +I became acquainted with a Swedish consul, named Skioldebrand, who +having been appointed by his court to carry presents to the dey of +Algiers, was passing through Paris, to embark at Marseilles. This +estimable man had resided a long time on the coast of Africa; and +being highly respected by the government of Algiers, he could +easily procure me permission to visit that part of the chain of the +Atlas which had not been the object of the important researches of +M. Desfontaines. He despatched every year a vessel for Tunis, where +the pilgrims embarked for Mecca, and he promised to convey me by +the same medium to Egypt. I eagerly seized so favourable an +opportunity, and thought myself on the point of executing a plan +which I had formed previously to my arrival in France. No +mineralogist had yet examined that lofty chain of mountains which, +in the empire of Morocco, rises to the limits of the perpetual +snow. I flattered myself, that, after executing some operations in +the alpine regions of Barbary, I should receive in Egypt from those +illustrious men who had for some months formed the Institute of +Cairo, the same kind attentions with which I had been honoured +during my abode in Paris. I hastily completed my collection of +instruments, and purchased works relating to the countries I was +going to visit. I parted from a brother who, by his advice and +example, had hitherto exercised a great influence on the direction +of my thoughts. He approved the motives which determined me to quit +Europe; a secret voice assured us that we should meet again; and +that hope, which did not prove delusive, assuaged the pain of a +long separation. I left Paris with the intention of embarking for +Algiers and Egypt; but by one of those vicissitudes which sway the +affairs of this life, I returned to my brother from the river +Amazon and Peru, without having touched the continent of Africa. + +The Swedish frigate which was to convey M. Skioldebrand to Algiers, +was expected at Marseilles toward the end of October. M. Bonpland +and myself repaired thither with great celerity, for during our +journey we were tormented with the fear of being too late, and +missing our passage. + +M. Skioldebrand was no less impatient than ourselves to reach his +place of destination. Several times a day we climbed the mountain +of Notre Dame de la Garde, which commands an extensive view of the +Mediterranean. Every sail we descried in the horizon excited in us +the most eager emotion; but after two months of anxiety and vain +expectation, we learned by the public papers, that the Swedish +frigate which was to convey us, had suffered greatly in a storm on +the coast of Portugal, and had been forced to enter the port of +Cadiz, to refit. This news was confirmed by private letters, +assuring us that the Jaramas, which was the name of the frigate, +would not reach Marseilles before the spring. + +We felt no inclination to prolong our stay in Provence till that +period. The country, and especially the climate, were delightful, +but the aspect of the sea reminded us of the failure of our +projects. In an excursion we made to Hyeres and Toulon, we found in +the latter port the frigate la Boudeuse, which had been commanded +by M. de Bougainville, in his voyage round the world. She was then +fitting out for Corsica. M. de Bougainville had honoured me with +particular kindness during my stay in Paris, when I was preparing +to accompany the expedition of captain Baudin. I cannot describe +the impression made upon my mind by the sight of the vessel which +had carried Commerson to the islands of the South Sea. In some +conditions of the mind, a painful emotion blends itself with all +our feelings. + +We still persisted in the intention of visiting the African coast, +and were nearly becoming the victims of our perseverance. A small +vessel of Ragusa, on the point of setting sail for Tunis, was at +that time in the port of Marseilles; we thought the opportunity +favourable for reaching Egypt and Syria, and we agreed with the +captain for our passage. The vessel was to sail the following day; +but a circumstance trivial in itself happily prevented our +departure. The live-stock intended to serve us for food during our +passage, was kept in the great cabin. We desired that some changes +should be made, which were indispensable for the safety of our +instruments; and during this interval we learnt at Marseilles, that +the government of Tunis persecuted the French residing in Barbary, +and that every person coming from a French port was thrown into a +dungeon. Having escaped this imminent danger, we were compelled to +suspend the execution of our projects. We resolved to pass the +winter in Spain, in hopes of embarking the next spring, either at +Carthagena, or at Cadiz, if the political situation of the East +permitted. + +We crossed Catalonia and the kingdom of Valencia, on our way to +Madrid. We visited the ruins of Tarragona and those of ancient +Saguntum; and from Barcelona we made an excursion to Montserrat, +the lofty peaks of which are inhabited by hermits, and where the +contrast between luxuriant vegetation and masses of naked and arid +rocks, forms a landscape of a peculiar character. I employed myself +in ascertaining by astronomical observations the position of +several points important for the geography of Spain, and determined +by means of the barometer the height of the central plain. I +likewise made several observations on the inclination of the +needle, and on the intensity of the magnetic forces. + +On my arrival at Madrid I had reason to congratulate myself on the +resolution I had formed of visiting the Peninsula. Baron de Forell, +minister from the court of Saxony, treated me with a degree of +kindness, of which I soon felt the value. He was well versed in +mineralogy, and was full of zeal for every undertaking that +promoted the progress of knowledge. He observed to me, that under +the administration of an enlightened minister, Don Mariano Luis de +Urquijo, I might hope to obtain permission to visit, at my own +expense, the interior of Spanish America. After the disappointments +I had suffered, I did not hesitate a moment to adopt this idea. + +I was presented at the court of Aranjuez in March 1799 and the king +received me graciously. I explained to him the motives which led me +to undertake a voyage to the new world and the Philippine Islands, +and I presented a memoir on the subject to the secretary of state. +Senor de Urquijo supported my demand, and overcame every obstacle. +I obtained two passports, one from the first secretary of state, +the other from the council of the Indies. Never had so extensive a +permission been granted to any traveller, and never had any +foreigner been honoured with more confidence on the part of the +Spanish government. + +Many considerations might have induced us to prolong our abode in +Spain. The abbe Cavanilles, no less remarkable for the variety of +his attainments than his acute intelligence; M. Nee, who, together +with M. Haenke, had, as botanist, made part of the expedition of +Malaspina, and who had formed one of the greatest herbals ever seen +in Europe; Don Casimir Ortega, the abbe Pourret, and the learned +authors of the Flora of Peru, Messrs. Ruiz and Pavon, all opened to +us without reserve their rich collections. We examined part of the +plants of Mexico, discovered by Messrs. Sesse, Mocino, and +Cervantes, whose drawings had been sent to the Museum of Natural +History of Madrid. This great establishment, the direction of which +was confided to Senor Clavijo, author of an elegant translation of +the works of Buffon, offered us, it is true, no geological +representation of the Cordilleras, but M. Proust, so well known by +the great accuracy of his chemical labours, and a distinguished +mineralogist, M. Hergen, gave us curious details on several mineral +substances of America. It would have been useful to us to have +employed a longer time in studying the productions of the countries +which were to be the objects of our research, but our impatience to +take advantage of the permission given us by the court was too +great to suffer us to delay our departure. For a year past, I had +experienced so many disappointments, that I could scarcely persuade +myself that my most ardent wishes would be at length fulfilled. + +We left Madrid about the middle of May, crossed a part of Old +Castile, the kingdoms of Leon and Galicia, and reached Corunna, +whence we were to embark for Cuba. The winter having been +protracted and severe, we enjoyed during the journey that mild +temperature of the spring, which in so southern a latitude usually +occurs during March and April. The snow still covered the lofty +granitic tops of the Guadarama; but in the deep valleys of Galicia, +which resemble the most picturesque spots of Switzerland and the +Tyrol, cistuses loaded with flowers; and arborescent heaths clothed +every rock. We quitted without regret the elevated plain of the two +Castiles, which is everywhere devoid of vegetation, and where the +severity of the winter's cold is followed by the overwhelming heat +of summer. From the few observations I personally made, the +interior of Spain forms a vast plain, elevated three hundred toises +(five hundred and eighty-four metres) above the level of the ocean, +is covered with secondary formations, grit-stone, gypsum, sal-gem, +and the calcareous stone of Jura. The climate of the Castiles is +much colder than that of Toulon and Genoa; its mean temperature +scarcely rises to 15 degrees of the centigrade thermometer. + +We are astonished to find that, in the latitude of Calabria, +Thessaly, and Asia Minor, orange-trees do not flourish in the open +air. The central elevated plain is encircled by a low and narrow +zone, where the chamaerops, the date-tree, the sugar-cane, the +banana, and a number of plants common to Spain and the north of +Africa, vegetate on several spots, without suffering from the +rigours of winter. From the 36th to 40th degrees of latitude, the +medium temperature of this zone is from 17 to 20 degrees; and by a +concurrence of circumstances, which it would be too long to +explain, this favoured region has become the principal seat of +industry and intellectual improvement. + +When, in the kingdom of Valencia, we ascend from the shore of the +Mediterranean towards the lofty plains of La Mancha and the +Castiles, we seem to discern, far inland, from the lengthened +declivities, the ancient coast of the Peninsula. This curious +phenomenon recalls the traditions of the Samothracians, and other +historical testimonies, according to which it is supposed that the +irruption of the waters through the Dardanelles, augmenting the +basin of the Mediterranean, rent and overflowed the southern part +of Europe. If we admit that these traditions owe their origin, not +to mere geological reveries, but to the remembrance of some ancient +catastrophe, we may conceive the central elevated plain of Spain +resisting the efforts of these great inundations, till the draining +of the waters, by the straits formed between the pillars of +Hercules, brought the Mediterranean progressively to its present +level, lower Egypt emerging above its surface on the one side, and +the fertile plains of Tarragona, Valencia, and Murcia, on the +other. Everything that relates to the formation of that sea,* (* +Some of the ancient geographers believed that the Mediterranean, +swelled by the waters of the Euxine, the Palus Maeotis, the Caspian +Sea, and the Sea of Aral, had broken the pillars of Hercules; +others admitted that the irruption was made by the waters of the +ocean. In the first of these hypotheses, the height of the land +between the Black Sea and the Baltic, and between the ports of +Cette and Bordeaux, determine the limit which the accumulation of +the waters may have reached before the junction of the Black Sea, +the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic, as well to the north of the +Dardanelles, as to the east of this strip of land which formerly +joined Europe to Mauritania, and of which, in the time of Strabo, +certain vestiges remained in the Islands of Juno and the Moon.) +which has had so powerful an influence on the first civilization of +mankind, is highly interesting. We might suppose, that Spain, +forming a promontory amidst the waves, was indebted for its +preservation to the height of its land; but in order to give weight +to these theoretic ideas, we must clear up the doubts that have +arisen respecting the rupture of so many transverse dikes;--we must +discuss the probability of the Mediterranean having been formerly +divided into several separate basins, of which Sicily and the +island of Candia appear to mark the ancient limits. We will not +here risk the solution of these problems, but will satisfy +ourselves in fixing attention on the striking contrast in the +configuration of the land in the eastern and western extremities of +Europe. Between the Baltic and the Black Sea, the ground is at +present scarcely fifty toises above the level of the ocean, while +the plain of La Mancha, if placed between the sources of the Niemen +and the Borysthenes, would figure as a group of mountains of +considerable height. If the causes, which may have changed the +surface of our planet, be an interesting speculation, +investigations of the phenomena, such as they offer themselves to +the measures and observations of the naturalist, lead to far +greater certainty. + +From Astorga to Corunna, especially from Lugo, the mountains rise +gradually. The secondary formations gently disappear, and are +succeeded by the transition rocks, which indicate the proximity of +primitive strata. We found considerable mountains composed of that +ancient grey stone which the mineralogists of the school of +Freyberg name grauwakke, and grauwakkenschiefer. I do not know +whether this formation, which is not frequent in the south of +Europe, has hitherto been discovered in other parts of Spain. +Angular fragments of Lydian stone, scattered along the valleys, +seemed to indicate that the transition schist is the basis of the +strata of greywacke. Near Corunna even granitic ridges stretch as +far as Cape Ortegal. These granites, which seem formerly to have +been contiguous to those of Britanny and Cornwall, are perhaps the +wrecks of a chain of mountains destroyed and sunk in the waves. +Large and beautiful crystals of feldspar characterise this rock. +Common tin ore is sometimes discovered there, but working the mines +is a laborious and unprofitable operation for the inhabitants of +Galicia. + +The first secretary of state had recommended us very particularly +to brigadier Don Raphael Clavijo, who was employed in forming new +dock-yards at Corunna. He advised us to embark on board the sloop +Pizarro,* (* According to the Spanish nomenclature, the Pizarro was +a light frigate (fragata lijera).) which was to sail in company +with the Alcudia, the packet-boat of the month of May, which, on +account of the blockade, had been detained three weeks in the port. +Senor Clavijo ordered the necessary arrangements to be made on +board the sloop for placing our instruments, and the captain of the +Pizarro received orders to stop at Teneriffe, as long as we should +judge necessary to enable us to visit the port of Orotava, and +ascend the peak. + +We had yet ten days to wait before we embarked. During this +interval, we employed ourselves in preparing the plants we had +collected in the beautiful valleys of Galicia, which no naturalist +had yet visited: we examined the fuci and the mollusca which the +north-west winds had cast with great profusion at the foot of the +steep rock, on which the lighthouse of the Tower of Hercules is +built. This edifice, called also the Iron Tower, was repaired in +1788. It is ninety-two feet high, its walls are four feet and a +half thick, and its construction clearly proves that it was built +by the Romans. An inscription discovered near its foundation, a +copy of which M. Laborde obligingly gave me, informs us, that this +pharos was constructed by Caius Sevius Lupus, architect of the city +of Aqua Flavia (Chaves), and that it was dedicated to Mars. Why is +the Iron Tower called in the country by the name of Hercules? Was +it built by the Romans on the ruins of a Greek or Phoenician +edifice? Strabo, indeed, affirms that Galicia, the country of the +Callaeci, had been peopled by Greek colonies. According to an +extract from the geography of Spain, by Asclepiades the Myrlaean, +an ancient tradition stated that the companions of Hercules had +settled in these countries. + +The ports of Ferrol and Corunna both communicate with one bay, so +that a vessel driven by bad weather towards the coast may anchor in +either, according to the wind. This advantage is invaluable where +the sea is almost always tempestuous, as between capes Ortegal and +Finisterre, which are the promontories Trileucum and Artabrum of +ancient geography. A narrow passage, flanked by perpendicular rocks +of granite, leads to the extensive basin of Ferrol. No port in +Europe has so extraordinary an anchorage, from its very inland +position. The narrow and tortuous passage by which vessels enter +this port, has been opened, either by the irruption of the waves, +or by the reiterated shocks of very violent earthquakes. In the New +World, on the coasts of New Andalusia, the Laguna del Obispo +(Bishop's lake) is formed exactly like the port of Ferrol. The most +curious geological phenomena are often repeated at immense +distances on the surface of continents; and naturalists who have +examined different parts of the globe, are struck with the extreme +resemblance observed in the rents on coasts, in the sinuosities of +the valleys, in the aspect of the mountains, and in their +distribution by groups. The accidental concurrence of the same +causes must have everywhere produced the same effects; and amidst +the variety of nature, an analogy of structure and form is observed +in the arrangement of inanimate matter, as well as in the internal +organization of plants and of animals. + +Crossing from Corunna to Ferrol, over a shallow, near the White +Signal, in the bay, which according to D'Anville is the Portus +Magnus of the ancients, we made several experiments by means of a +valved thermometrical sounding lead, on the temperature of the +ocean, and on the decrement of caloric in the successive strata of +water. The thermometer on the bank, and near the surface, was from +12.5 to 13.3 degrees centigrades, while in deep water it constantly +marked 15 or 15.3 degrees, the air being at 12.8 degrees. The +celebrated Franklin and Mr. Jonathan Williams* (* Author of a work +entitled "Thermometrical Navigation," published at Philadelphia.) +were the first to invite the attention of naturalists to the +phenomena of the temperature of the Atlantic over shoals, and in +that zone of tepid and flowing waters which runs from the gulf of +Mexico to the banks of Newfoundland and the northern coasts of +Europe. The observation, that the proximity of a sand-bank is +indicated by a rapid descent of the temperature of the sea at its +surface, is not only interesting to the naturalist, but may become +also very important for the safety of navigators. The use of the +thermometer ought certainly not to lead us to neglect the use of +the lead; but experiments sufficiently prove, that variations of +temperature, sensible to the most imperfect instruments, indicate +danger long before the vessel reaches the shoals. In such cases, +the frigidity of the water may induce the pilot to heave the lead +in places where he thought himself in the most perfect safety. The +waters which cover the shoals owe in a great measure the diminution +of their temperature to their mixture with the lower strata of +water, which rise towards the surface on the edge of the banks. + +The moment of leaving Europe for the first time is attended with a +solemn feeling. We in vain summon to our minds the frequency of the +communication between the two worlds; we in vain reflect on the +great facility with which, from the improved state of navigation, +we traverse the Atlantic, which compared to the Pacific is but a +larger arm of the sea; the sentiment we feel when we first +undertake so distant a voyage is not the less accompanied by a deep +emotion, unlike any other impression we have hitherto felt. +Separated from the objects of our dearest affections, entering in +some sort on a new state of existence, we are forced to fall back +on our own thoughts, and we feel within ourselves a dreariness we +have never known before. Among the letters which, at the time of +our embarking, I wrote to friends in France and Germany, one had a +considerable influence on the direction of our travels, and on our +succeeding operations. When I left Paris with the intention of +visiting the coast of Africa, the expedition for discoveries in the +Pacific seemed to be adjourned for several years. I had agreed with +captain Baudin, that if, contrary to his expectation, his voyage +took place at an earlier period, and intelligence of it should +reach me in time, I would endeavour to return from Algiers to a +port in France or Spain, to join the expedition. I renewed this +promise on leaving Europe, and wrote to M. Baudin, that if the +government persisted in sending him by Cape Horn, I would endeavour +to meet him either at Monte Video, Chile, or Lima, or wherever he +should touch in the Spanish colonies. In consequence of this +engagement, I changed the plan of my journey, on reading in the +American papers, in 1801, that the French expedition had sailed +from Havre, to circumnavigate the globe from east to west. I hired +a small vessel from Batabano, in the island of Cuba, to Portobello, +and thence crossed the isthmus to the coast of the Pacific; this +mistake of a journalist led M. Bonpland and myself to travel eight +hundred leagues through a country we had no intention to visit. It +was only at Quito, that a letter from M. Delambre, perpetual +secretary of the first class of the Institute, informed us, that +captain Baudin went by the Cape of Good Hope, without touching on +the eastern or western coasts of America. + +We spent two days at Corunna, after our instruments were embarked. +A thick fog, which covered the horizon, at length indicated the +change of weather we so anxiously desired. On the 4th of June, in +the evening, the wind turned to north-east, a point which, on the +coast of Galicia, is considered very constant during the summer. +The Pizarro prepared to sail on the 5th, though we had intelligence +that only a few hours previously an English squadron had been seen +from the watch-tower of Sisarga, appearing to stand towards the +mouth of the Tagus. Those who saw our ship weigh anchor asserted +that we should be captured in three days, and that, forced to +follow the fate of the vessel, we should be carried to Lisbon. This +prognostic gave us the more uneasiness, as we had known some +Mexicans at Madrid, who, in order to return to Vera Cruz, had +embarked three times at Cadiz, and having been each time taken at +the entrance of the port, were at length obliged to return to Spain +through Portugal. + +The Pizarro set sail at two in the afternoon. As the long and +narrow passage by which a ship sails from the port of Corunna opens +towards the north, and the wind was contrary, we made eight short +tacks, three of which were useless. A fresh tack was made, but very +slowly, and we were for some moments in danger at the foot of fort +St. Amarro, the current having driven us very near the rock, on +which the sea breaks with considerable violence. We remained with +our eyes fixed on the castle of St. Antonio, where the unfortunate +Malaspina was then a captive in a state prison. On the point of +leaving Europe to visit the countries which this illustrious +traveller had visited with so much advantage, I could have wished +to have fixed my thoughts on some object less affecting. + +At half-past six we passed the Tower of Hercules, which is the +lighthouse of Corunna, as already mentioned, and where, from a very +remote time, a coal-fire has been kept up for the direction of +vessels. The light of this fire is in no way proportionate to the +noble construction of so vast an edifice, being so feeble that +ships cannot perceive it till they are in danger of striking on the +shore. Towards the close of day the wind increased and the sea ran +high. We directed our course to north-west, in order to avoid the +English frigates, which we supposed were cruising off these coasts. +About nine we spied the light of a fishing-hut at Sisarga, which +was the last object we beheld in the west of Europe. + +On the 7th we were in the latitude of Cape Finisterre. The group of +granitic rocks, which forms part of this promontory, like that of +Torianes and Monte de Corcubion, bears the name of the Sierra de +Torinona. Cape Finisterre is lower than the neighbouring lands, but +the Torinona is visible at seventeen leagues' distance, which +proves that the elevation of its highest summit is not less than +300 toises (582 metres). Spanish navigators affirm that on these +coasts the magnetic variation differs extremely from that observed +at sea. M. Bory, it is true, in the voyage of the sloop Amaranth, +found in 1751, that the variation of the needle determined at the +Cape was four degrees less than could have been conjectured from +the observations made at the same period along the coasts. In the +same manner as the granite of Galicia contains tin disseminated in +its mass, that of Cape Finisterre probably contains micaceous iron. +In the mountains of the Upper Palatinate there are granitic rocks +in which crystals of micaceous iron take the place of common mica. + +On the 8th, at sunset, we descried from the mast-head an English +convoy sailing along the coast, and steering towards south-east. In +order to avoid it we altered our course during the night. From this +moment no light was permitted in the great cabin, to prevent our +being seen at a distance. This precaution, which was at the time +prescribed in the regulations of the packet-ships of the Spanish +navy, was extremely irksome to us during the voyages we made in the +course of the five following years. We were constantly obliged to +make use of dark-lanterns to examine the temperature of the water, +or to read the divisions on the limb of the astronomical +instruments. In the torrid zone, where twilight lasts but a few +minutes, our operations ceased almost at six in the evening. This +state of things was so much the more vexatious to me as from the +nature of my constitution I never was subject to sea-sickness, and +feel an extreme ardour for study during the whole time I am at sea. + +On the 9th of June, in latitude 39 degrees 50 minutes, and +longitude 16 degrees 10 minutes west of the meridian of the +observatory of Paris, we began to feel the effects of the great +current which from the Azores flows towards the straits of +Gibraltar and the Canary Islands. This current is commonly +attributed to that tendency towards the east, which the straits of +Gibraltar give to the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. M. de Fleurieu +observes that the Mediterranean, losing by evaporation more water +than the rivers can supply, causes a movement in the neighbouring +ocean, and that the influence of the straits is felt at the +distance of six hundred leagues. Without derogating from the +respect I entertain for the opinion of that celebrated navigator, I +may be permitted to consider this important object in a far more +general point of view. + +When we cast our eyes over the Atlantic, or that deep valley which +divides the western coasts of Europe and Africa from the eastern +coasts of the new world, we distinguish a contrary direction in the +motion of the waters. Within the tropics, especially from the coast +of Senegal to the Caribbean Sea, the general current, that which +was earliest known to mariners, flows constantly from east to west. +This is called the equinoctial current. Its mean rapidity, +corresponding to different latitudes, is nearly the same in the +Atlantic and in the Pacific, and may be estimated at nine or ten +miles in twenty-four hours, consequently from 0.59 to 0.65 of a +foot every second! In those latitudes the waters run towards the +west with a velocity equal to a fourth of the rapidity of the +greater part of the larger rivers of Europe. The movement of the +ocean in a direction contrary to that of the rotation of the globe, +is probably connected with this last phenomenon only as far as the +rotation converts into trade winds* (* The limits of the trade +winds were, for the first time, determined by Dampier in 1666.) the +polar winds, which, in the low regions of the atmosphere bring back +the cold air of the high latitudes toward the equator. To the +general impulsion which these trade-winds give the surface of the +sea, we must attribute the equinoctial current, the force and +rapidity of which are not sensibly modified by the local variations +of the atmosphere. + +In the channel which the Atlantic has dug between Guiana and +Guinea, on the meridian of 20 or 23 degrees, and from the 8th or +9th to the 2nd or 3rd degrees of northern latitude, where the +trade-winds are often interrupted by winds blowing from the south +and south-south-west, the equinoctial current is more inconstant in +its direction. Towards the coasts of Africa, vessels are drawn in +the direction of south-east; whilst towards the Bay of All Saints +and Cape St. Augustin, the coasts of which are dreaded by +navigators sailing towards the mouth of the Plata, the general +motion of the waters is masked by a particular current (the effects +of which extend from Cape St. Roche to the Isle of Trinidad) +running north-west with a mean velocity of a foot and a half every +second. + +The equinoctial current is felt, though feebly, even beyond the +tropic of Cancer, in the 26th and 28th degrees of latitude. In the +vast basin of the Atlantic, at six or seven hundred leagues from +the coasts of Africa, vessels from Europe bound to the West Indies, +find their sailing accelerated before they reach the torrid zone. +More to the north, in 28 and 35 degrees, between the parallels of +Teneriffe and Ceuta, in 46 and 48 degrees of longitude, no constant +motion is observed: there, a zone of 140 leagues in breadth +separates the equinoctial current (the tendency of which is towards +the west) from that great mass of water which runs eastward, and is +distinguished for its extraordinary high temperature. To this mass +of waters, known by the name of the Gulf-stream,* (* Sir Francis +Drake observed this extraordinary movement of the waters, but he +was unacquainted with their high temperature.) the attention of +naturalists was directed in 1776 by the curious observations of +Franklin and Sir Charles Blagden. + +The equinoctial current drives the waters of the Atlantic towards +the coasts inhabited by the Mosquito Indians, and towards the +shores of Honduras. The New Continent, stretching from south to +north, forms a sort of dyke to this current. The waters are carried +at first north-west, and passing into the Gulf of Mexico through +the strait formed by Cape Catoche and Cape St. Antonio, follow the +bendings of the Mexican coast, from Vera Cruz to the mouth of the +Rio del Norte, and thence to the mouths of the Mississippi, and the +shoals west of the southern extremity of Florida. Having made this +vast circuit west, north, east, and south, the current takes a new +direction northward, and throws itself with impetuosity into the +Gulf of Florida. At the end of the Gulf of Florida, in the parallel +of Cape Cannaveral, the Gulf-stream, or current of Florida, runs +north-east. Its rapidity resembles that of a torrent, and is +sometimes five miles an hour. The pilot may judge, with some +certainty, of the proximity of his approach to New York, +Philadelphia, or Charlestown when he reaches the edge of the +stream; for the elevated temperature of the waters, their saltness, +indigo-blue colour, and the shoals of seaweed which cover their +surface, as well as the heat of the surrounding atmosphere, all +indicate the Gulf-stream. Its rapidity diminishes towards the +north, at the same time that its breadth increases and the waters +become cool. Between Cayo Biscaino and the bank of Bahama the +breadth is only 15 leagues, whilst in the latitude of 28 1/2 +degrees, it is 17, and in the parallel of Charlestown, opposite +Cape Henlopen, from 40 to 50 leagues. The rapidity of the current +is from three to five miles an hour where the stream is narrowest, +and is only one mile as it advances towards the north. The waters +of the Mexican Gulf; forcibly drawn to north-east, preserve their +warm temperature to such a point, that in 40 and 41 degrees of +latitude I found them at 22.5 degrees (18 degrees R.) when, out of +the current, the heat of the ocean at its surface was scarcely 17.5 +degrees (14 degrees R.). In the parallel of New York and Oporto, +the temperature of the Gulf-stream is consequently equal to that of +the seas of the tropics in the 18th degree of latitude, as, for +instance, in the parallel of Porto Rico and the islands of Cape +Verd. + +To the east of the port of Boston, and on the meridian of Halifax, +in latitude 41 degrees 25 minutes, and longitude 67 degrees, the +current is near 80 leagues broad. From this point it turns suddenly +to the east, so that its western edge, as it bends, becomes the +western limit of the running waters, skirting the extremity of the +great bank of Newfoundland, which M. Volney ingeniously calls the +bar of the mouth of this enormous sea-river. The cold waters of +this bank, which according to my experiments are at a temperature +of 8.7 or 10 degrees (7 or 8 degrees R.) present a striking +contrast with the waters of the torrid zone, driven northward by +the Gulf-stream, the temperature of which is from 21 to 22.5 +degrees (17 to 18 degrees R.). in these latitudes, the caloric is +distributed in a singular manner throughout the ocean; the waters +of the bank are 9.4 degrees colder than the neighbouring sea; and +this sea is 3 degrees colder than the current. These zones can have +no equilibrium of temperature, having a source of heat, or a cause +of refrigeration, which is peculiar to each, and the influence of +which is permanent. + +From the bank of Newfoundland, or from the 52nd degree of longitude +to the Azores, the Gulf-stream continues its course to east and +east-south-east. The waters are still acted upon by the impulsion +they received near a thousand leagues distance, in the straits of +Florida, between the island of Cuba and the shoals of Tortoise +Island. This distance is double the length of the course of the +river Amazon, from Jaen or the straits of Manseriche to Grand Para. +On the meridian of the islands of Corvo and Flores, the most +western of the group of the Azores, the breadth of the current is +160 leagues. When vessels, on their return from South America to +Europe, endeavour to make these two islands to rectify their +longitude, they are always sensible of the motion of the waters to +south-east. At the 33rd degree of latitude the equinoctial current +of the tropics is in the near vicinity of the Gulf-stream. In this +part of the ocean, we may in a single day pass from waters that +flow towards the west, into those which run to the south-east or +east-south-east. + +From the Azores, the current of Florida turns towards the straits +of Gibraltar, the isle of Madeira, and the group of the Canary +Islands. The opening of the Pillars of Hercules has no doubt +accelerated the motion of the waters towards the east. We may in +this point of view assert, that the strait, by which the +Mediterranean communicates with the Atlantic, produces its effects +at a great distance; but it is probable also, that, without the +existence of this strait, vessels sailing to Teneriffe would be +driven south-east by a cause which we must seek on the coasts of +the New World. Every motion is the cause of another motion in the +vast basin of the seas as well as in the aerial ocean. Tracing the +currents to their most distant sources, and reflecting on their +variable celerity, sometimes decreasing as between the gulf of +Florida and the bank of Newfoundland; at other times augmenting, as +in the neighbourhood of the straits of Gibraltar, and near the +Canary Islands, we cannot doubt but the same cause which impels the +waters to make the circuitous sweep of the gulf of Mexico, agitates +them also near the island of Madeira. + +On the south of that island, we may follow the current, in its +direction south-east and south-south-east towards the coast of +Africa, between Cape Cantin and Cape Bojador. In those latitudes a +vessel becalmed is running on the coast, while, according to the +uncorrected reckoning, it was supposed to be a good distance out at +sea. Were the motion of the waters caused by the opening at the +straits of Gibraltar, why, on the south of those straits, should it +not follow an opposite direction? On the contrary, in the 25th and +26th degrees of latitude, the current flows at first direct south, +and then south-west. Cape Blanc, which, after Cape Verd, is the +most salient promontory, seems to have an influence on this +direction, and in this parallel the waters, of which we have +followed the course from the coasts of Honduras to those of Africa, +mingle with the great current of the tropics to resume their tour +from east to west. Several hundred leagues westward of the Canary +Islands, the motion peculiar to the equinoctial waters is felt in +the temperate zone from the 28th and 29th degrees of north +latitude; but on the meridian of the island of Ferro, vessels sail +southward as far as the tropic of Cancer, before they find +themselves, by their reckoning, eastward of their right course.* (* +See Humboldt's Cosmos volume 1 page 312 Bohn's edition.) + +We have just seen that between the parallels of 11 and 43 degrees, +the waters of the Atlantic are driven by the currents in a +continual whirlpool. Supposing that a molecule of water returns to +the same place from which it departed, we can estimate, from our +present knowledge of the swiftness of currents, that this circuit +of 3800 leagues is not terminated in less than two years and ten +months. A boat, which may be supposed to receive no impulsion from +the winds, would require thirteen months to go from the Canary +Islands to the coast of Caracas, ten months to make the tour of the +gulf of Mexico and reach Tortoise Shoals opposite the port of the +Havannah, while forty or fifty days might be sufficient to carry it +from the straits of Florida to the bank of Newfoundland. It would +be difficult to fix the rapidity of the retrograde current from +this bank to the shores of Africa; estimating the mean velocity of +the waters at seven or eight miles in twenty-four hours, we may +allow ten or eleven months for this last distance. Such are the +effects of the slow but regular motion which agitates the waters of +the Atlantic. Those of the river Amazon take nearly forty-five days +to flow from Tomependa to Grand Para. + +A short time before my arrival at Teneriffe, the sea had left in +the road of Santa Cruz the trunk of a cedrela odorata covered with +the bark. This American tree vegetates within the tropics, or in +the neighbouring regions. It had no doubt been torn up on the coast +of the continent, or of that of Honduras. The nature of the wood, +and the lichens which covered its bark, bore evidence that this +trunk had not belonged to these submarine forests which ancient +revolutions of the globe have deposited in the polar regions. If +the cedrela, instead of having been cast on the strand of +Teneriffe, had been carried farther south, It would probably have +made the whole tour of the Atlantic, and returned to its native +soil with the general current of the tropics. This conjecture is +supported by a fact of more ancient date, recorded in the history +of the Canaries by the abbe Viera. In 1770, a small vessel laden +with corn, and bound from the island of Lancerota, to Santa Cruz, +in Teneriffe, was driven out to sea, while none of the crew were on +board. The motion of the waters from east to west, carried it to +America, where it went on shore at La Guayra, near Caracas. + +Whilst the art of navigation was yet in its infancy, the +Gulf-stream suggested to the mind of Christopher Columbus certain +indications of the existence of western regions. Two corpses, the +features of which indicated a race of unknown men, were cast ashore +on the Azores, towards the end of the 15th century. Nearly at the +same period, the brother-in-law of Columbus, Peter Correa, governor +of Porto Santo, found on the strand of that island pieces of bamboo +of extraordinary size, brought thither by the western currents. The +dead bodies and the bamboos attracted the attention of the Genoese +navigator, who conjectured that both came from a continent situate +towards the west. We now know that in the torrid zone the +trade-winds and the current of the tropics are in opposition to +every motion of the waves in the direction of the earth's rotation. +The productions of the new world cannot reach the old but by the +very high latitudes, and in following the direction of the current +of Florida. The fruits of several trees of the Antilles are often +washed ashore on the coasts of the islands of Ferro and Gomera. +Before the discovery of America, the Canarians considered these +fruits as coming from the enchanted isle of St. Borondon, which +according to the reveries of pilots, and certain legends, was +situated towards the west in an unknown part of the ocean, buried, +as was supposed, in eternal mists. + +My chief view in tracing a sketch of the currents of the Atlantic +is to prove that the motion of the waters towards the south-east, +from Cape St. Vincent to the Canary Islands, is the effect of the +general motion to which the surface of the ocean is subjected at +its western extremity. We shall give but a very succinct account of +the arm of the Gulf-stream, which in the 45th and 50th degrees of +latitude, near the bank called the Bonnet Flamand, runs from +south-west to north-east towards the coasts of Europe. This partial +current becomes very strong at those times when the west winds are +of long continuance: and, like that which flows along the isles of +Ferro and Gomera, it deposits every year on the western coasts of +Ireland and Norway the fruit of trees which belong to the torrid +zone of America. On the shores of the Hebrides, we collect seeds of +Mimosa scandens, of Dolichos urens, of Guilandina bonduc, and +several other plants of Jamaica, the isle of Cuba, and of the +neighbouring continent. The current carries thither also barrels of +French wine, well preserved, the remains of the cargoes of vessels +wrecked in the West Indian seas. To these examples of the distant +migration of the vegetable world, others no less striking may be +added. The wreck of an English vessel, the Tilbury, burnt near +Jamaica, was found on the coast of Scotland. On these same coasts +are sometimes found various kinds of tortoises, that inhabit the +waters of the Antilles. When the western winds are of long +duration, a current is formed in the high latitudes, which runs +directly towards east-south-east, from the coasts of Greenland and +Labrador, as far as the north of Scotland. Wallace relates, that +twice (in 1682 and 1684), American savages of the race of the +Esquimaux, driven out to sea in their leathern canoes, during a +storm, and left to the guidance of the currents, reached the +Orkneys. This last example is the more worthy of attention, as it +proves at the same time how, at a period when the art of navigation +was yet in its infancy, the motion of the waters of the ocean may +have contributed to disseminate the different races of men over the +face of the globe. + +In reflecting on the causes of the Atlantic currents, we find that +they are much more numerous than is generally believed; for the +waters of the sea may be put in motion by an external impulse, by +difference of heat and saltness, by the periodical melting of the +polar ice, or by the inequality of evaporation, in different +latitudes. Sometimes several of these causes concur to one and the +same effect, and sometimes they produce several contrary effects. +Winds that are light, but which, like the trade-winds, are +continually acting on the whole of a zone, cause a real movement of +transition, which we do not observe in the heaviest tempests, +because these last are circumscribed within a small space. When, in +a great mass of water, the particles at the surface acquire a +different specific gravity, a superficial current is formed, which +takes its direction towards the point where the water is coldest, +or where it is most saturated with muriate of soda, sulphate of +lime, and muriate or sulphate of magnesia. In the seas of the +tropics we find, that at great depths the thermometer marks 7 or 8 +centesimal degrees. Such is the result of the numerous experiments +of commodore Ellis and of M. Peron. The temperature of the air in +those latitudes being never below 19 or 20 degrees, it is not at +the surface that the waters can have acquired a degree of cold so +near the point of congelation, and of the maximum of the density of +water. The existence of this cold stratum in the low latitudes is +an evident proof of the existence of an under-current, which runs +from the poles towards the equator: it also proves that the saline +substances which alter the specific gravity of the water, are +distributed in the ocean, so as not to annihilate the effect +produced by the differences of temperature. + +Considering the velocity of the molecules, which, on account of the +rotatory motion of the globe, vary with the parallels, we may be +tempted to admit that every current, in the direction from south to +north, tends at the same time eastward, while the waters which run +from the pole towards the equator, have a tendency to deviate +westward. We may also be led to think that these tendencies +diminish to a certain point the speed of the tropical current, in +the same manner as they change the direction of the polar current, +which in July and August, is regularly perceived during the melting +of the ice, on the parallel of the bank of Newfoundland, and +farther north. Very old nautical observations, which I have had +occasion to confirm by comparing the longitude given by the +chronometer with that which the pilots obtained by their reckoning, +are, however, contrary to these theoretical ideas. In both +hemispheres, the polar currents, when they are perceived, decline a +little to the east; and it would seem that the cause of this +phenomenon should be sought in the constancy of the westerly winds +which prevail in the high latitudes. Besides, the particles of +water do not move with the same rapidity as the particles of air; +and the currents of the ocean, which we consider as most rapid, +have only a swiftness of eight or nine feet a second; it is +consequently very probable, that the water, in passing through +different parallels, gradually acquires a velocity correspondent to +those parallels, and that the rotation of the earth does not change +the direction of the currents. + +The variable pressure on the surface of the sea, caused by the +changes in the weight of the air, is another cause of motion which +deserves particular attention. It is well known, that the +barometric variations do not in general take place at the same +moment in two distant points, which are on the same level. If in +one of these points the barometer stands a few lines lower than in +the other, the water will rise where it finds the least pressure of +air, and this local intumescence will continue, till, from the +effect of the wind, the equilibrium of the air is restored. M. +Vaucher thinks that the tides in the lake of Geneva, known by the +name of the seiches, arise from the same cause. We know not whether +it be the same, when the movement of progression, which must not be +confounded with the oscillation of the waves, is the effect of an +external impulse. M. de Fleurieu, in his narrative of the voyage of +the Isis, cites several facts, which render it probable that the +sea is not so still at the bottom as naturalists generally suppose. +Without entering here into a discussion of this question, we shall +only observe that, if the external impulse is constant in its +action, like that of the trade-winds, the friction of the particles +of water on each other must necessarily propagate the motion of the +surface of the ocean even to the lower strata; and in fact this +propagation in the Gulf-stream has long been admitted by +navigators, who think they discover the effects in the great depth +of the sea wherever it is traversed by the current of Florida, even +amidst the sand-banks which surround the northern coasts of the +United States. This immense river of hot waters, after a course of +fifty days, from the 24th to the 45th degree of latitude, or 450 +leagues, does not lose, amidst the rigours of winter in the +temperate zone, more than 3 or 4 degrees of the temperature it had +under the tropics. The greatness of the mass, and the small +conductibility of water for heat, prevent a more speedy +refrigeration. If, therefore, the Gulf-stream has dug a channel at +the bottom of the Atlantic ocean, and if its waters are in motion +to considerable depths, they must also in their inferior strata +keep up a lower temperature than that observed in the same +parallel, in a part of the sea which has neither currents nor deep +shoals. These questions can be cleared up only by direct +experiments, made by thermometrical soundings. + +Sir Erasmus Gower remarks, that, in the passage from England to the +Canary islands, the current, which carries vessels towards the +south-east, begins at the 39th degree of latitude. During our +voyage from Corunna to the coast of South America, the effect of +this motion of the waters was perceived farther north. From the +37th to the 30th degree, the deviation was very unequal; the daily +average effect was 12 miles, that is, our sloop drove towards the +east 75 miles in six days. In crossing the parallel of the straits +of Gibraltar, at a distance of 140 leagues, we had occasion to +observe, that in those latitudes the maximum of the rapidity does +not correspond with the mouth of the straits, but with a more +northerly point, which lies on the prolongation of a line passing +through the strait and Cape St. Vincent. This line is parallel to +the direction which the waters follow from the Azores to Cape +Cantin. We should moreover observe (and this fact is not +uninteresting to those who examine the nature of fluids), that in +this part of the retrograde current, on a breadth of 120 or 140 +leagues, the whole mass of water has not the same rapidity, nor +does it follow precisely the same direction. When the sea is +perfectly calm, there appears at the surface narrow stripes, like +small rivulets, in which the waters run with a murmur very sensible +to the ear of an experienced pilot. On the 13th of June, in 34 +degrees 36 minutes north latitude, we found ourselves in the midst +of a great number of these beds of currents. We took their +direction with the compass, and some ran north-east, others +east-north-east, though the general movement of the ocean, +indicated by comparing the reckoning with the chronometrical +longitude, continued to be south-east. It is very common to see a +mass of motionless waters crossed by threads of water, which run in +different directions, and we may daily observe this phenomenon on +the surface of lakes; but it is much less frequent to find partial +movements, impressed by local causes on small portions of waters in +the midst of an oceanic river, which occupies an immense space, and +which moves, though slowly, in a constant direction. In the +conflict of currents, as in the oscillation of the waves, our +imagination is struck by those movements which seem to penetrate +each other, and by which the ocean is continually agitated. + +We passed Cape St. Vincent, which is of basaltic formation, at the +distance of more than eighty leagues. It is not distinctly seen at +a greater distance than 15 leagues, but the granitic mountain +called the Foya de Monchique, situated near the Cape, is +perceptible, as pilots allege, at the distance of 26 leagues. If +this assertion be exact, the Foya is 700 toises (1363 metres), and +consequently 116 toises (225 metres) higher than Vesuvius. + +From Corunna to the 36th degree of latitude we had scarcely seen +any organic being, excepting sea-swallows and a few dolphins. We +looked in vain for sea-weeds (fuci) and mollusca, when on the 11th +of June we were struck with a curious sight which afterwards was +frequently renewed in the southern ocean. We entered on a zone +where the whole sea was covered with a prodigious quantity of +medusas. The vessel was almost becalmed, but the mollusca were +borne towards the south-east, with a rapidity four times greater +than the current. Their passage lasted near three quarters of an +hour. We then perceived but a few scattered individuals, following +the crowd at a distance as if tired with their journey. Do these +animals come from the bottom of the sea, which is perhaps in these +latitudes some thousand fathoms deep? or do they make distant +voyages in shoals? We know that the mollusca haunt banks; and if +the eight rocks, near the surface, which captain Vobonne mentions +having seen in 1732, to the north of Porto Santo, really exist, we +may suppose that this innumerable quantity of medusas had been +thence detached; for we were but 28 leagues from the reef. We +found, beside the Medusa aurita of Baster, and the Medusa pelagica +of Bosc with eight tentacula (Pelagia denticulata, Peron), a third +species which resembles the Medusa hysocella, and which Vandelli +found at the mouth of the Tagus. It is known by its brownish-yellow +colour, and by its tentacula, which are longer than the body. +Several of these sea-nettles were four inches in diameter: their +reflection was almost metallic: their changeable colours of violet +and purple formed an agreeable contrast with the azure tint of the +ocean. + +In the midst of these medusas M. Bonpland observed bundles of +Dagysa notata, a mollusc of a singular construction, which Sir +Joseph Banks first discovered. These are small gelatinous bags, +transparent, cylindrical, sometimes polygonal, thirteen lines long +and two or three in diameter. These bags are open at both ends. In +one of these openings, we observed a hyaline bladder, marked with a +yellow spot. The cylinders lie longitudinally, one against another, +like the cells of a bee-hive, and form chaplets from six to eight +inches in length. I tried the galvanic electricity on these +mollusca, but it produced no contraction. It appears that the genus +dagysa, formed at the time of Cook's first voyage, belongs to the +salpas (biphores of Bruguiere), to which M. Cuvier joins the Thalia +of Brown, and the Tethys vagina of Tilesius. The salpas journey +also by groups, joining in chaplets, as we have observed of the +dagysa. + +On the morning of the 13th of June, in 34 degrees 33 minutes +latitude, we saw large masses of this last mollusc in its passage, +the sea being perfectly calm. We observed during the night, that, +of three species of medusas which we collected, none yielded any +light but at the moment of a very slight shock. This property does +not belong exclusively to the Medusa noctiluca, which Forskael has +described in his Fauna Aegyptiaca, and which Gmelin has applied to +the Medusa pelagica of Loefling, notwithstanding its red tentacula, +and the brownish tuberosities of its body. If we place a very +irritable medusa on a pewter plate, and strike against the plate +with any sort of metal, the slight vibrations of the plate are +sufficient to make this animal emit light. Sometimes, in +galvanising the medusa, the phosphorescence appears at the moment +that the chain closes, though the exciters are not in immediate +contact with the organs of the animal. The fingers with which we +touch it remain luminous for two or three minutes, as is observed +in breaking the shell of the pholades. If we rub wood with the body +of a medusa, and the part rubbed ceases shining, the +phosphorescence returns if we pass a dry hand over the wood. When +the light is extinguished a second time, it can no longer be +reproduced, though the place rubbed be still humid and viscous. In +what manner ought we to consider the effect of the friction, or +that of the shock? This is a question of difficult solution. Is it +a slight augmentation of temperature which favours the +phosphorescence? or does the light return, because the surface is +renewed, by putting the animal parts proper to disengage the +phosphoric hydrogen in contact with the oxygen of the atmospheric +air? I have proved by experiments published in 1797, that the +shining of wood is extinguished in hydrogen gas, and in pure azotic +gas, and that its light reappears whenever we mix with it the +smallest bubble of oxygen gas. These facts, to which several others +may be added, tend to explain the causes of the phosphorescence of +the sea, and of that peculiar influence which the shock of the +waves exercises on the production of light. + +When we were between the island of Madeira and the coast of Africa, +we had slight breezes and dead calms, very favourable for the +magnetic observations, which occupied me during this passage. We +were never weary of admiring the beauty of the nights; nothing can +be compared to the transparency and serenity of an African sky. We +were struck with the innumerable quantity of falling stars, which +appeared at every instant. The farther progress we made towards the +south, the more frequent was this phenomenon, especially near the +Canaries. I have observed during my travels, that these igneous +meteors are in general more common and luminous in some regions of +the globe than in others; but I have never beheld them so +multiplied as in the vicinity of the volcanoes of the province of +Quito, and in that part of the Pacific ocean which bathes the +volcanic coasts of Guatimala. The influence which place, climate, +and season appear to exercise on the falling stars, distinguishes +this class of meteors from those to which we trace stones that drop +from the sky (aerolites), and which probably exist beyond the +boundaries of our atmosphere. According to the observations of +Messrs. Benzenberg and Brandes, many of the falling stars seen in +Europe have been only thirty thousand toises high. One was even +measured which did not exceed fourteen thousand toises, or five +nautical leagues. These measures, which can give no result but by +approximation, deserve well to be repeated. In warm climates, +especially within the tropics, falling stars leave a tail behind +them, which remains luminous 12 or 15 seconds: at other times they +seem to burst into sparks, and they are generally lower than those +in the north of Europe. We perceive them only in a serene and azure +sky; they have perhaps never been below a cloud. Falling stars +often follow the same direction for several hours, which direction +is that of the wind. In the bay of Naples, M. Gay-Lussac and myself +observed luminous phenomena very analogous to those which fixed my +attention during a long abode at Mexico and Quito. These meteors +are perhaps modified by the nature of the soil and the air, like +certain effects of the looming or mirage, and of the terrestrial +refraction peculiar to the coasts of Calabria and Sicily. + +When we were forty leagues east of the island of Madeira, a +swallow* (* Hirundo rustica, Linn.) perched on the topsail-yard. It +was so fatigued, that it suffered itself to be easily taken. It was +remarkable that a bird, in that season, and in calm weather, should +fly so far. In the expedition of d'Entrecasteaux, a common swallow +was seen 60 leagues distant from Cape Blanco; but this was towards +the end of October, and M. Labillardiere thought it had newly +arrived from Europe. We crossed these latitudes in June, at a +period when the seas had not for a long time been agitated by +tempests. I mention this last circumstance, because small birds and +even butterflies, are sometimes forced out to sea by the +impetuosity of the winds, as we observed in the Pacific ocean, when +we were on the western coast of Mexico. + +The Pizarro had orders to touch at the isle of Lancerota, one of +the seven great Canary Islands; and at five in the afternoon of the +16th of June, that island appeared so distinctly in view that I was +able to take the angle of altitude of a conic mountain, which +towered majestically over the other summits, and which we thought +was the great volcano which had occasioned such devastation on the +night of the 1st of September, 1730. + +The current drew us toward the coast more rapidly than we wished. +As we advanced, we discovered at first the island of Forteventura, +famous for its numerous camels;* (* These camels, which serve for +labour, and sometimes for food, did not exist till the Bethencourts +made the conquest of the Canaries. In the sixteenth century, asses +were so abundant in the island of Forteventura, that they became +wild and were hunted. Several thousands were killed to save the +harvest. The horses of Forteventura are of singular beauty, and of +the Barbary race.--"Noticias de la Historia General de las Islas +Canarias" por Don Jose de Viera, tome 2 page 436.) and a short time +after we saw the small island of Lobos in the channel which +separates Forteventura from Lancerota. We spent part of the night +on deck. The moon illumined the volcanic summits of Lancerota, the +flanks of which, covered with ashes, reflected a silver light. +Antares threw out its resplendent rays near the lunar disk, which +was but a few degrees above the horizon. The night was beautifully +serene and cool. Though we were but a little distance from the +African coast, and on the limit of the torrid zone, the centigrade +thermometer rose no higher than 18 degrees. The phosphorescence of +the ocean seemed to augment the mass of light diffused through the +air. After midnight, great black clouds rising behind the volcano +shrouded at intervals the moon and the beautiful constellation of +the Scorpion. We beheld lights carried to and fro on shore, which +were probably those of fishermen preparing for their labours. We +had been occasionally employed, during our passage, in reading the +old voyages of the Spaniards, and these moving lights recalled to +our fancy those which Pedro Gutierrez, page of Queen Isabella, saw +in the isle of Guanahani, on the memorable night of the discovery +of the New World. + +On the 17th, in the morning, the horizon was foggy, and the sky +slightly covered with vapour. The outlines of the mountains of +Lancerota appeared stronger: the humidity, increasing the +transparency of the air, seemed at the same time to have brought +the objects nearer our view. This phenomenon is well known to all +who have made hygrometrical observations in places whence the chain +of the Higher Alps or of the Andes is seen. We passed through the +channel which divides the isle of Alegranza from Montana Clara, +taking soundings the whole way; and we examined the archipelago of +small islands situated northward of Lancerota. In the midst of this +archipelago, which is seldom visited by vessels bound for +Teneriffe, we were singularly struck with the configuration of the +coasts. We thought ourselves transported to the Euganean mountains +in the Vicentin, or the banks of the Rhine near Bonn. The form of +organized beings varies according to the climate, and it is that +extreme variety which renders the study of the geography of plants +and animals so attractive; but rocks, more ancient perhaps than the +causes which have produced the difference of the climate on the +globe, are the same in both hemispheres. The porphyries containing +vitreous feldspar and hornblende, the phonolite, the greenstone, +the amygdaloids, and the basalt, have forms almost as invariable as +simple crystallized substances. In the Canary Islands, and in the +mountains of Auvergne, in the Mittelgebirge in Bohemia, in Mexico, +and on the banks of the Ganges, the formation of trap is indicated +by a symmetrical disposition of the mountains, by truncated cones, +sometimes insulated, sometimes grouped, and by elevated plains, +both extremities of which are crowned by a conical rising. + +The whole western part of Lancerota, of which we had a near view, +bears the appearance of a country recently convulsed by volcanic +eruptions. Everything is black, parched, and stripped of vegetable +mould. We distinguished, with our glasses, stratified basalt in +thin and steeply-sloping strata. Several hills resembled the Monte +Novo, near Naples, or those hillocks of scoria and ashes which the +opening earth threw up in a single night at the foot of the volcano +of Jorullo, in Mexico. In fact, the abbe Viera relates, that in +1730, more than half the island changed its appearance. The great +volcano, which we have just mentioned, and which the inhabitants +call the volcano of Temanfaya, spread desolation over a most +fertile and highly cultivated region: nine villages were entirely +destroyed by the lavas. This catastrophe had been preceded by a +tremendous earthquake, and for several years shocks equally violent +were felt. This last phenomenon is so much the more singular, as it +seldom happens after an eruption, when the elastic vapours have +found vent by the crater, after the ejection of the melted matter. +The summit of the great volcano is a rounded hill, but not entirely +conic. From the angles of altitude which I took at different +distances, its absolute elevation did not appear to exceed three +hundred toises. The neighbouring hills, and those of Alegranza and +Isla Clara, were scarcely above one hundred or one hundred and +twenty toises. We may be surprised at the small elevation of these +summits, which, viewed from the sea, wear so majestic a form; but +nothing is more uncertain than our judgment on the greatness of +angles, which are subtended by objects close to the horizon. From +illusions of this sort it arose, that before the measures of +Messrs. de Churruca and Galleano, at Cape Pilar, navigators +considered the mountains of the straits of Magellan, and those of +Terra del Fuego, to be extremely elevated. + +The island of Lancerota bore formerly the name of Titeroigotra. On +the arrival of the Spaniards, its inhabitants were distinguished +from the other Canarians by marks of greater civilization. Their +houses were built with freestone, while the Guanches of Teneriffe +dwelt in caverns. At Lancerota, a very singular custom prevailed at +that time, of which we find no example except among the people of +Thibet. A woman had several husbands, who alternately enjoyed the +prerogatives due to the head of a family. A husband was considered +as such only during a lunar revolution, and whilst his rights were +exercised by others, he remained classed among the household +domestics. In the fifteenth century the island of Lancerota +contained two small distinct states, divided by a wall; a kind of +monument which outlives national enmities, and which we find in +Scotland, in China, and Peru. + +We were forced by the winds to pass between the islands of +Alegranza and Montana Clara, and as none on board the sloop had +sailed through this passage, we were obliged to be continually +sounding. We found from twenty-five to thirty-two fathoms. The lead +brought up an organic substance of so singular a structure that we +were for a long time doubtful whether it was a zoophyte or a kind +of seaweed. The stem, of a brownish colour and three inches long, +has circular leaves with lobes, and indented at the edges. The +colour of these leaves is a pale green, and they are membranous and +streaked like those of the adiantums and Gingko biloba. Their +surface is covered with stiff whitish hairs; before their opening +they are concave, and enveloped one in the other. We observed no +mark of spontaneous motion, no sign of irritability, not even on +the application of galvanic electricity. The stem is not woody, but +almost of a horny substance, like the stem of the Gorgons. Azote +and phosphorus having been abundantly found in several cryptogamous +plants, an appeal to chemistry would be useless to determine +whether this organized substance belonged to the animal or +vegetable kingdom. Its great analogy to several sea-plants, with +adiantum leaves, especially the genus caulerpa of M. Lamoureux, of +which the Fucus proliter of Forskael is one of the numerous +species, engaged us to rank it provisionally among the sea-wracks, +and give it the name of Fucus vitifolius. The bristles which cover +this plant are found in several other fuci.* (* Fucus +lycopodioides, and F. hirsutus.) The leaf, examined with a +microscope at the instant we drew it up from the water, did not +present, it is true, those conglobate glands, or those opaque +points, which the parts of fructification in the genera of ulva and +fucus contain; but how often do we find seaweeds in such a state +that we cannot yet distinguish any trace of seeds in their +transparent parenchyma. + +The vine-leaved fucus presents a physiological phenomenon of the +greatest interest. Fixed to a piece of madrepore, this seaweed +vegetates at the bottom of the ocean, at the depth of 192 feet, +notwithstanding which we found its leaves as green as those of our +grasses. According to the experiments of Bouguer, light is weakened +after a passage of 180 feet in the ratio of 1 to 1477.8. The +seaweed of Alegranza consequently presents a new example of plants +which vegetate in great obscurity without becoming white. Several +germs, enveloped in the bulbs of the lily tribes, the embryo of the +malvaceae, of the rhamnoides, of the pistacea, the viscum, and the +citrus, the branches of some subterraneous plants; in short, +vegetables transported into mines, where the ambient air contains +hydrogen or a great quantity of azote, become green without light. +From these facts we are inclined to admit that it is not +exclusively by the influence of the solar rays that this carburet +of hydrogen is formed in the organs of plants, the presence of +which makes the parenchyma appear of a lighter or darker green, +according as the carbon predominates in the mixture. + +Mr. Turner, who has so well made known the family of the seaweeds, +as well as many other celebrated botanists, are of opinion that +most of the fuci which we gather on the surface of the ocean, and +which, from the 23rd to the 35th degree of latitude and 32nd of +longitude, appear to the mariner like a vast inundated meadow, grow +primitively at the bottom of the ocean, and float only in their +ripened state, when torn up by the motion of the waves. If this +opinion be well founded, we must agree that the family of seaweeds +offers formidable difficulties to naturalists, who persist in +thinking that absence of light always produces whiteness; for how +can we admit that so many species of ulvaceae and dictyoteae, with +stems and green leaves, which float on the ocean, have vegetated on +rocks near the surface of the water? + +From some notions which the captain of the Pizarro had collected in +an old Portuguese itinerary, he thought himself opposite to a small +fort, situated north of Teguisa, the capital of the island of +Lancerota. Mistaking a rock of basalt for a castle, he saluted it +by hoisting the Spanish flag, and sent a boat with an officer to +inquire of the commandant whether any English vessels were cruising +in the roads. We were not a little surprised to learn that the land +which we had considered as a prolongation of the coast of +Lancerota, was the small island of Graciosa, and that for several +leagues there was not an inhabited place. We took advantage of the +boat to survey the land, which enclosed a large bay. + +The small part of the island of Graciosa which we traversed, +resembles those promontories of lava seen near Naples, between +Portici and Torre del Greco. The rocks are naked, with no marks of +vegetation, and scarcely any of vegetable soil. A few crustaceous +lichen-like variolariae, leprariae, and urceorariae, were scattered +about upon the basalts. The lavas which are not covered with +volcanic ashes remain for ages without any appearance of +vegetation. On the African soil excessive heat and lengthened +drought retard the growth of cryptogamous plants. + +The basalts of Graciosa are not in columns, but are divided into +strata ten or fifteen inches thick. These strata are inclined at an +angle of 80 degrees to the north-west. The compact basalt +alternates with the strata of porous basalt and marl. The rock does +not contain hornblende, but great crystals of foliated olivine, +which have a triple cleavage.* (* Blaettriger olivin.) This +substance is decomposed with great difficulty. M. Hauy considers it +a variety of the pyroxene. The porous basalt, which passes into +mandelstein, has oblong cavities from two to eight lines in +diameter, lined with chalcedony, enclosing fragments of compact +basalt. I did not remark that these cavities had the same +direction, or that the porous rock lay on compact strata, as +happens in the currents of lava of Etna and Vesuvius. The marl,* (* +Mergel.) which alternates more than a hundred times with the +basalts, is yellowish, friable by decomposition, very coherent in +the inside, and often divided into irregular prisms, analogous to +the basaltic prisms. The sun discolours their surface, as it +whitens several schists, by reviving a hydro-carburetted principle, +which appears to be combined with the earth. The marl of Graciosa +contains a great quantity of chalk, and strongly effervesces with +nitric acid, even on points where it is found in contact with the +basalt. This fact is the more remarkable, as this substance does +not fill the fissures of the rock, but its strata are parallel to +those of the basalt; whence we may conclude that both fossils are +of the same formation, and have a common origin. The phenomenon of +a basaltic rock containing masses of indurated marl split into +small columns, is also found in the Mittelgebirge, in Bohemia. +Visiting those countries in 1792, in company with Mr. Freiesleben, +we even recognized in the marl of the Stiefelberg the imprint of a +plant nearly resembling the Cerastium, or the Alsine. Are these +strata, contained in the trappean mountains, owing to muddy +irruptions, or must we consider them as sediments of water, which +alternate with volcanic deposits? This last hypothesis seems so +much the less admissible, since, from the researches of Sir James +Hall on the influence of pressure in fusions, the existence of +carbonic acid in substances contained in basalt presents nothing +surprising. Several lavas of Vesuvius present similar phenomena. In +Lombardy, between Vicenza and Albano, where the calcareous stone of +the Jura contains great masses of basalt, I have seen the latter +enter into effervescence with the acids wherever it touches the +calcareous rock. + +We had not time to reach the summit of a hill very remarkable for +having its base formed of banks of clay under strata of basalt, +like a mountain in Saxony, called the Scheibenbergen Hugel, which +is become celebrated on account of the disputes of volcanean and +neptunean geologists. These basalts were covered with a mammiform +substance, which I vainly sought on the Peak of Teneriffe, and +which is known by the names of volcanic glass, glass of Muller, or +hyalite: it is the transition from the opal to the chalcedony. We +struck off with difficulty some fine specimens, leaving masses that +were eight or ten inches square untouched. I never saw in Europe +such fine hyalites as I found in the island of Graciosa, and on the +rock of porphyry called el Penol de los Banos, on the bank of the +lake of Mexico. + +Two kinds of sand cover the shore; one is black and basaltic, the +other white and quartzose. In a place exposed to the rays of the +sun, the first raised the thermometer to 51.2 degrees (41 degrees +R.) and the second to 40 degrees (32 degrees R.) The temperature of +the air in the shade was 27.7 or 7.5 degrees higher than that of +the air over the sea. The quartzose sand contains fragments of +feldspar. It is thrown back by the water, and forms, in some sort, +on the surface of the rocks, small islets on which seaweed +vegetates. Fragments of granite have been observed at Teneriffe; +the island of Gomora, from the details furnished me by M. +Broussonnet, contains a nucleus of micaceous schist:--the quartz +disseminated in the sand, which we found on the shore of Graciosa, +is a different substance from the lavas and the trappean porphyries +so intimately connected with volcanic productions. From these facts +it seems to be evident that in the Canary Islands, as well as on +the Andes of Quito, in Auvergne, in Greece, and throughout the +greater part of the globe, subterraneous fires have pierced through +the rocks of primitive formation. In treating hereafter of the +great number of warm springs which we have seen issuing from +granite, gneiss, and micaceous schist, we shall have occasion to +return to this subject, which is one of the most important of the +physical history of the globe. + +We re-embarked at sunset, and hoisted sail, but the breeze was too +feeble to permit us to continue our course to Teneriffe. The sea +was calm; a reddish vapour covered the horizon, and seemed to +magnify every object. In this solitude, amidst so many uninhabited +islets, we enjoyed for a long time the view of rugged and wild +scenery. The black mountains of Graciosa appeared like +perpendicular walls five or six hundred feet high. Their shadows, +thrown over the surface of the ocean, gave a gloomy aspect to the +scenery. Rocks of basalt, emerging from the bosom of the waters, +wore the resemblance of the ruins of some vast edifice, and carried +our thoughts back to the remote period when submarine volcanoes +gave birth to new islands, or rent continents asunder. Every thing +which surrounded us seemed to indicate destruction and sterility; +but the back-ground of the picture, the coasts of Lancerota +presented a more smiling aspect. In a narrow pass between two +hills, crowned with scattered tufts of trees, marks of cultivation +were visible. The last rays of the sun gilded the corn ready for +the sickle. Even the desert is animated wherever we can discover a +trace of the industry of man. + +We endeavoured to get out of this bay by the pass which separates +Alegranza from Montana Clara, and through which we had easily +entered to land at the northern point of Graciosa. The wind having +fallen, the currents drove us very near a rock, on which the sea +broke with violence, and which is noted in the old charts under the +name of Hell, or Infierno. As we examined this rock at the distance +of two cables' length, we found that it was a mass of lava three or +four toises high, full of cavities, and covered with scoriae +resembling coke. We may presume that this rock,* (* I must here +observe, that this rock is noted on the celebrated Venetian chart +of Andrea Bianco, but that the name of Infierno is given, as in the +more ancient chart of Picigano, made in 1367, to Teneriffe, without +doubt because the Guanches considered the peak as the entrance into +hell. In the same latitudes an island made its appearance in 1811.) +which modern charts call the West Rock (Roca del Oeste), was raised +by volcanic fire; and it might heretofore have been much higher; +for the new island of the Azores, which rose from the sea at +successive periods, in 1638 and 1719, had reached 354 feet when it +totally disappeared in 1723, to the depth of 480 feet. This opinion +on the origin of the basaltic mass of the Infierno is confirmed by +a phenomenon, which was observed about the middle of the last +century in these same latitudes. At the time of the eruption of the +volcano of Temanfaya, two pyramidal hills of lithoid lava rose from +the bottom of the ocean, and gradually united themselves with the +island of Lancerota. + +As we were prevented by the fall of the wind, and by the currents, +from repassing the channel of Alegranza, we resolved on tacking +during the night between the island of Clara and the West Rock. +This resolution had nearly proved fatal. A calm is very dangerous +near this rock, towards which the current drives with considerable +force. We began to feel the effects of this current at midnight. +The proximity of the stony masses, which rise perpendicularly above +the water, deprived us of the little wind which blew: the sloop no +longer obeyed the helm, and we dreaded striking every instant. It +is difficult to conceive how a mass of basalt, insulated in the +vast expanse of the ocean, can cause so considerable a motion of +the waters. These phenomena, worthy the attention of naturalists, +are well known to mariners; they are extremely to be dreaded in the +Pacific ocean, particularly in the small archipelago of the islands +of Galapagos. The difference of temperature which exists between +the fluid and the mass of rocks does not explain the direction +which these currents take; and how can we admit that the water is +engulfed at the base of these rocks, (which often are not of +volcanic origin) and that this continual engulfing determines the +particles of water to fill up the vacuum that takes place. + +The wind having freshened a little towards the morning on the 18th, +we succeeded in passing the channel. We drew very near the Infierno +the second time, and remarked the large crevices, through which the +gaseous fluids probably issued, when this basaltic mass was raised. +We lost sight of the small islands of Alegranza, Montana Clara, and +Graciosa, which appear never to have been inhabited by the +Guanches. They are now visited only for the purpose of gathering +archil, which production is, however, less sought after, since so +many other lichens of the north of Europe have been found to yield +materials proper for dyeing. Montana Clara is noted for its +beautiful canary-birds. The note of these birds varies with their +flocks, like that of our chaffinches, which often differs in two +neighbouring districts. Montana Clara yields pasture for goats, a +fact which proves that the interior of this islet is less arid than +its coasts. The name of Alegranza is synonymous with the Joyous, +(La Joyeuse,) which denomination it received from the first +conquerors of the Canary Islands, the two Norman barons, Jean de +Bethencourt and Gadifer de Salle. This was the first point on which +they landed. After remaining several days at Graciosa, a small part +of which we examined, they conceived the project of taking +possession of the neighbouring island of Lancerota, where they were +welcomed by Guadarfia, sovereign of the Guanches, with the same +hospitality that Cortez found in the palace of Montezuma. The +shepherd king, who had no other riches than his goats, became the +victim of base treachery, like the sultan of Mexico. + +We sailed along the coasts of Lancerota, of the island of Lobos, +and of Forteventura. The second of these islands seems to have +anciently formed part of the two others. This geological hypothesis +was started in the seventeenth century by the Franciscan, Juan +Galindo. That writer supposed that king Juba had named six Canary +Islands only, because, in his time, three among them were +contiguous. Without admitting the probability of this hypothesis, +some learned geographers have imagined they recognized, in the two +islands Nivaria and Ombrios, the Canaria and Capraria of the +ancients. + +The haziness of the horizon prevented us, during the whole of our +passage from Lancerota to Teneriffe, from discovering the summit of +the peak of Teyde. If the height of this volcano is 1905 toises, as +the last trigonometrical measure of Borda indicates, its summit +ought to be visible at a distance of 43 leagues, supposing the eye +on a level with the ocean, and a refraction equal to 0.079 of +distance. It has been doubted whether the peak has ever been seen +from the channel which separates Lancerota from Forteventura, and +which is distant from the volcano, according to the chart of +Varela, 2 degrees 29 minutes, or nearly 50 leagues. This phenomenon +appears nevertheless to have been verified by several officers of +the Spanish navy. I had in my hand, on board the Pizarro, a +journal, in which it was noted, that the peak of Teneriffe had been +seen at 135 miles distance, near the southern cape of Lancerota, +called Pichiguera. Its summit was discovered under an angle +considerable enough to lead the observer, Don Manual Baruti, to +conclude that the volcano might have been visible at nine miles +farther. It was in September, towards evening, and in very damp +weather. Reckoning fifteen feet for the elevation of the eye, I +find, that to render an account of this phenomenon, we must suppose +a refraction equal to 0.158 of the arch, which is not very +extraordinary for the temperate zone. According to the observations +of General Roy, the refractions vary in England from one-twentieth +to one-third; and if it be true that they reach these extreme +limits on the coast of Africa, (which I much doubt,) the peak, in +certain circumstances, may be seen on the deck of a vessel as far +off as 61 leagues. + +Navigators who have much frequented these latitudes, and who can +reflect on the physical causes of the phenomena, are surprised that +the peaks of Teyde and of the Azores* (* The height of this peak of +the Azores, according to Fleurieu, is 1100 toises; to Ferrer, 1238 +toises; and to Tofino, 1260 toises: but these measures are only +approximative estimates. The captain of the Pizarro, Don Manuel +Cagigal, proved to me, by his journal, that he observed the peak of +the Azores at the distance of 37 leagues, when he was sure of his +latitude within two minutes. The volcano was seen at 4 degrees +south-east, so that the error in longitude must have an almost +imperceptible influence in the estimation of the distance. +Nevertheless, the angle which the peak of the Azores subtended was +so great, that the captain of the Pizarro was of opinion this +volcano must be visible at more than 40 or 42 leagues. The distance +of 37 leagues supposes an elevation of 1431 toises.) are sometimes +visible at a very great distance, though at other times they are +not seen when the distance is much less, and the sky appears serene +and the horizon free from fogs. These circumstances are the more +worthy of attention because vessels returning to Europe, sometimes +wait impatiently for a sight of these mountains, to rectify their +longitude; and think themselves much farther off than they really +are, when in fine weather these peaks are not perceptible at +distances where the angles subtended must be very considerable. The +constitution of the atmosphere has a great influence on the +visibility of distant objects. It may be admitted, that in general +the peak of Teneriffe is seldom seen at a great distance, in the +warm and dry months of July and August; and that, on the contrary, +it is seen at very extraordinary distances in the months of January +and February, when the sky is slightly clouded, and immediately +after a heavy rain, or a few hours before it falls. It appears that +the transparency of the air is prodigiously increased, as we have +already observed, when a certain quantity of water is uniformly +diffused through the atmosphere. Independent of these observations, +it is not astonishing, that the peak of Teyde should be seldomer +visible at a very remote distance, than the summits of the Andes, +to which, during so long a time, my observations were directed. +This peak, inferior in height to those parts of the chain of Mount +Atlas at the foot of which is the city of Morocco, is not, like +those points, covered with perpetual snows. The Piton, or +Sugar-loaf, which terminates the peak, no doubt reflects a great +quantity of light, owing to the whitish colour of the pumice-stone +thrown up by the crater; but the height of that little truncated +cone does not form a twenty-second part of the total elevation. The +flanks of the volcano are covered either with blocks of black and +scorified lava, or with a luxuriant vegetation, the masses of which +reflect the less light, as the leaves of the trees are separated +from each other by shadows of more considerable extent than that of +the part enlightened. + +Hence it results that, setting aside the Piton, the peak of Teyde +belongs to that class of mountains, which, according to the +expression of Bouger, are seen at considerable distances only in a +NEGATIVE MANNER, because they intercept the light which is +transmitted to us from the extreme limits of the atmosphere; and we +perceive their existence only on account of the difference of +intensity subsisting between the aerial light which surrounds them, +and that which is reflected by the particles of air placed between +the mountains and the eye of the observer. As we withdraw from the +isle of Teneriffe, the Piton or Sugar-loaf is seen for a +considerable space of time in a POSITIVE MANNER, because it +reflects a whitish light, and clearly detaches itself from the sky. +But as this cone is only 80 toises high, by 40 in breadth at its +summit, it has recently been a question whether, from the +diminutiveness of its mass, it can be visible at distances which +exceed 40 leagues; and whether it be not probable, that navigators +distinguish the peaks as a small cloud above the horizon, only when +the base of the Piton begins to be visible on it. If we admit, that +the mean breadth of the Sugar-loaf is 100 toises, we find that the +little cone, at 40 leagues distance, still subtends, in the +horizontal direction, an angle of more than three minutes. This +angle is considerable enough to render an object visible; and if +the height of the Piton greatly exceeded its base, the angle in the +horizontal direction might be still smaller, and the object still +continue to make an impression on our visual organs; for +micrometrical observations have proved that the limit of vision is +but a minute only, when the dimensions of the objects are the same +in every direction. We distinguish at a distance, by the eye only, +trunks of trees insulated in a vast plain, though the subtended +angle be under twenty-five seconds. + +As the visibility of an object detaching itself in a brown colour, +depends on the quantities of light which the eye meets on two +lines, one of which ends at the mountain, and the other extends to +the surface of the aerial ocean, it follows that the farther we +remove from the object, the smaller the difference becomes between +the light of the surrounding atmosphere, and that of the strata of +air before the mountain. For this reason, when less elevated +summits begin to appear above the horizon, they present themselves +at first under a darker hue than those we discern at very great +distances. In the same manner, the visibility of mountains seen +only in a negative manner, does not depend solely on the state of +the lower regions of the air, to which our meteorological +observations are limited, but also on the transparency and physical +constitution of the air in the most elevated parts; for the image +detaches itself better in proportion as the aerial light, which +comes from the limits of the atmosphere, has been originally more +intense, or has undergone less loss in its passage. This +consideration explains to a certain point, why, under a perfectly +serene sky, the state of the thermometer and the hygrometer being +precisely the same in the air nearest the earth, the peak is +sometimes visible, and at other times invisible, to navigators at +equal distances. It is even probable, that the chance of perceiving +this volcano would not be greater, if the ashy cone, at the summit +of which is the mouth of the crater, were equal, as in Vesuvius, to +a quarter of the total height. These ashes, being pumice-stone +crumbled into dust, do not reflect as much light as the snow of the +Andes; and they cause the mountain, seen from afar, to detach +itself not in a bright, but in a dark hue. The ashes also +contribute, if we may use the expression, to equalize the portions +of aerial light, the variable difference of which renders the +object more or less distinctly visible. Calcareous mountains, +devoid of vegetable earth, summits covered with granitic sand, the +high savannahs of the Cordilleras,* (* Los Pajonales, from paja, +straw. This is the name given to the region of the gramina, which +encircles the zone of the perpetual snows.) which are of a golden +yellow, are undoubtedly distinguished at small distances better +than objects which are seen in a negative manner; but the theory +indicates a certain limit, beyond which these last detach +themselves more distinctly from the azure vault of the sky. + +The colossal summits of Quito and Peru, towering above the limit of +the perpetual snows, concentre all the peculiarities which must +render them visible at very small angles. The circular summit of +the peak of Teneriffe is only a hundred toises in diameter. +According to the measures I made at Riobamba, in 1803, the dome of +the Chimborazo, 153 toises below its summit, consequently in a +point which is 1300 toises higher than the peak, is still 673 +toises (1312 metres) in breadth. The zone of perpetual snows also +forms a fourth of the height of the mountain; and the base of this +zone, seen on the coast of the Pacific, fills an extent of 3437 +toises (6700 metres). But though Chimborazo is two-thirds higher +than the peak, we do not see it, on account of the curve of the +globe, at more than 38 miles and a third farther distant. The +radiant brilliancy of its snows, when, at the port of Guayaquil, at +the close of the rainy season, Chimborazo is discerned on the +horizon, may lead us to suppose, that it must be seen at a very +great distance in the South Sea. Pilots highly worthy of credit +have assured me, that they have seen it from the rock of Muerto, to +the south west of the isle of Puna, at a distance of 47 leagues. +Whenever it has been seen at a greater distance, the observers, +uncertain of their longitude, have not been in a situation to +furnish precise data. + +Aerial light, projected on mountains, increases the visibility of +those which are seen positively; its power diminishes, on the +contrary, the visibility of objects which, like the peak of +Teneriffe and that of the Azores, detach themselves in a brown +tint. Bouguer, relying on theoretical considerations, was of +opinion that, according to the constitution of our atmosphere, +mountains seen negatively cannot be perceived at distances +exceeding 35 leagues. It is important here to observe, that these +calculations are contrary to experience. The peak of Teneriffe has +been often seen at the distance of 36, 38, and even at 40 leagues. +Moreover, in the vicinity of the Sandwich Islands, the summit of +Mowna-Roa, at a season when it was without snows, has been seen on +the skirt of the horizon, at the distance of 53 leagues. This is +the most striking example we have hitherto known of the visibility +of a mountain; and it is the more remarkable, that an object seen +negatively furnishes this example. + +The volcanoes of Teneriffe, and of the Azores, the Sierra Nevada of +Santa Martha, the peak of Orizaba, the Silla of Caracas, Mowna-Roa, +and Mount St. Elias, insulated in the vast extent of the seas, or +placed on the coasts of continents, serve as sea-marks to direct +the pilot, when he has no means of determining the position of the +vessel by the observation of the stars; everything which has a +relation to the visibility of these natural seamarks, is +interesting to the safety of navigation. + + +CHAPTER 1.2. + +STAY AT TENERIFE. +JOURNEY FROM SANTA CRUZ TO OROTAVA. +EXCURSION TO THE SUMMIT OF THE PEAK OF TEYDE. + +From the time of our departure from Graciosa, the horizon continued +so hazy, that, notwithstanding the considerable height of the +mountains of Canary,* (* Isla de la Gran Canaria.) we did not +discover that island till the evening of the 18th of June. It is +the granary of the archipelago of the Fortunate Islands; and, what +is very remarkable in a region situated beyond the limits of the +tropics, we were assured, that in some districts, there are two +wheat harvests in the year; one in February, and the other in June. +Canary has never been visited by a learned mineralogist; yet this +island is so much the more worthy of observation, as the +physiognomy of its mountains, disposed in parallel chains, appeared +to me to differ entirely from that of the summits of Lancerota and +Teneriffe. Nothing is more interesting to the geologist, than to +observe the relations, on the same point of the globe, between +volcanic countries, and those which are primitive or secondary. +When the Canary Islands shall have been examined, in all the parts +which compose the system of these mountains, we shall find that we +have been too precipitate in considering the whole group as raised +by the action of submarine fires. + +On the morning of the 19th, we discovered the point of Naga, but +the peak of Teneriffe was still invisible: the land, obscured by a +thick mist, presented forms that were vague and confused. As we +approached the road of Santa Cruz we observed that the mist, driven +by the winds, drew nearer to us. The sea was strongly agitated, as +it most commonly is in those latitudes. We anchored after several +soundings, for the mist was so thick, that we could scarcely +distinguish objects at a few cables' distance; but at the moment we +began to salute the place, the fog was instantly dispelled. The +peak of Teyde appeared in a break above the clouds, and the first +rays of the sun, which had not yet risen on us, illumined the +summit of the volcano. + +We hastened to the prow of the vessel to behold the magnificent +spectacle, and at the same instant we saw four English vessels +lying to, and very near our stern. We had passed without being +perceived, and the same mist which had concealed the peak from our +view, had saved us from the risk of being carried back to Europe. +The Pizarro stood in as close as possible to the fort, to be under +its protection. It was on this shore, that, in the landing +attempted by the English two years before our arrival, in July +1797, admiral Nelson had his arm carried off by a cannon-ball. + +The situation of the town of Santa Cruz is very similar to that of +La Guayra, the most frequented port of the province of Caraccas. +The heat is excessive in both places, and from the same causes; but +the aspect of Santa Cruz is more gloomy. On a narrow and sandy +beach, houses of dazzling whiteness, with flat roofs, and windows +without glass, are built close against a wall of black +perpendicular rock, devoid of vegetation. A fine mole, built of +freestone, and the public walk planted with poplars, are the only +objects which break the sameness of the landscape. The view of the +peak, as it presents itself above Santa Cruz, is much less +picturesque than that we enjoy from the port of Orotava. There, a +highly cultured and smiling plain presents a pleasing contrast to +the wild aspect of the volcano. From the groups of palm trees and +bananas which line the coast, to the region of the arbutus, the +laurel, and the pine, the volcanic rock is crowned with luxuriant +vegetation. We easily conceive how the inhabitants, even of the +beautiful climates of Greece and Italy, might fancy they recognised +one of the Fortunate Isles in the western part of Teneriffe. The +eastern side, that of Santa Cruz, on the contrary, is every where +stamped with sterility. The summit of the peak is not more arid +than the promontory of basaltic lava, which stretches towards the +point of Naga, and on which succulent plants, springing up in the +clefts of the rocks, scarcely indicate a preparation of soil. At +the port of Orotava, the top of the Piton subtends an angle in +height of more than eleven degrees and a half; while at the mole of +Santa Cruz* (* The oblique distances from the top of the volcano to +Orotava and to Santa Cruz are nearly 8600 toises and 22,500 toises.) +the angle scarcely exceeds 4 degrees 36 minutes. + +Notwithstanding this difference, and though in the latter place the +volcano rises above the horizon scarcely as much as Vesuvius seen +from the mole of Naples, the aspect of the peak is still very +majestic, when those who anchor in the road discern it for the +first time. The Piton alone was visible to us; its cone projected +itself on a sky of the purest blue, whilst dark thick clouds +enveloped the rest of the mountain to the height of 1800 toises. +The pumice-stone, illumined by the first rays of the sun, reflected +a reddish light, like that which tinges the summits of the higher +Alps. This light by degrees becomes dazzlingly white; and, deceived +like most travellers, we thought that the peak was still covered +with snow, and that we should with difficulty reach the edge of the +crater. + +We have remarked, in the Cordillera of the Andes, that the conical +mountains, such as Cotopaxi and Tungurahua, are oftener seen free +from clouds, than those of which the tops are broken into bristly +points, like Antisana and Pichincha; but the peak of Teneriffe, +notwithstanding its pyramidical form, is a great part of the year +enveloped in vapours, and is sometimes, during several weeks, +invisible from the road of Santa Cruz. Its position to the west of +an immense continent, and its insulated situation in the midst of +the sea, are no doubt the causes of this phenomenon. Navigators are +well aware that even the smallest islets, and those which are +without mountains, collect and harbour the clouds. The decrement of +heat is also different above the plains of Africa, and above the +surface of the Atlantic; and the strata of air, brought by the +trade winds, cool in proportion as they advance towards the west. +If the air has been extremely dry above the burning sands of the +desert, it is very quickly saturated when it enters into contact +with the surface of the sea, or with the air that lies on that +surface. It is easy to conceive, therefore, why vapours become +visible in the atmospherical strata, which, at a distance from the +continent, have no longer the same temperature as when they began +to be saturated with water. The considerable mass of a mountain, +rising in the midst of the Atlantic, is also an obstacle to the +clouds, which are driven out to sea by the winds. + +On entering the streets of Santa Cruz, we felt a suffocating heat, +though the thermometer was not above twenty-five degrees. Those who +have for a long time inhaled the air of the sea suffer every time +they land; not because this air contains more oxygen than the air +on shore, as has been erroneously supposed, but because it is less +charged with those gaseous combinations, which the animal and +vegetable substances, and the mud resulting from their +decomposition, pour into the atmosphere. Miasms that escape +chemical analysis have a powerful effect on our organs, especially +when they have not for a long while been exposed to the same kind +of irritation. + +Santa Cruz, the Anaza of the Guanches, is a neat town, with a +population of 8000 souls. I was not struck with the vast number of +monks and secular ecclesiastics, which travellers have thought +themselves bound to find in every country under the Spanish +government; nor shall I stop to enter into the description of the +churches; the library of the Dominicans, which contains scarcely a +few hundred volumes; the mole, where the inhabitants assemble to +inhale the freshness of the evening breeze; or the famed monument +of Carrara marble, thirty feet high, dedicated to Our Lady of +Candelaria, in memory of the miraculous appearance of the Virgin, +in 1392, at Chimisay, near Guimar. The port of Santa Cruz may be +considered as a great caravanserai, on the road to America and the +Indies. Every traveller who writes the narrative of his adventures, +begins by a description of Madeira and Teneriffe; and if in the +natural history of these islands there yet remains an immense field +untrodden, we must admit that the topography of the little towns of +Funchal, Santa Cruz, Laguna, and Orotava, leaves scarcely anything +untold. + +The recommendation of the court of Madrid procured for us, in the +Canaries, as in all the other Spanish possessions, the most +satisfactory reception. The captain-general gave us immediate +permission to examine the island. Colonel Armiaga, who commanded a +regiment of infantry, received us into his house with kind +hospitality. We could not cease admiring the banana, the papaw +tree, the Poinciana pulcherrima, and other plants, which we had +hitherto seen only in hot-houses, cultivated in his garden in the +open air. The climate of the Canaries however is not warm enough to +ripen the real Platano Arton, with triangular fruit from seven to +eight inches long, and which, requiring a temperature of 24 +centesimal degrees, does not flourish even in the valley of +Caracas. The bananas of Teneriffe are those named by the Spanish +planters Camburis or Guineos, and Dominicos. The Camburi, which +suffers least from cold, is cultivated with success even at Malaga, +where the temperature is only 18 degrees; but the fruit we see +occasionally at Cadiz comes from the Canary Islands by vessels +which make the passage in three or four days. In general, the musa, +known by every people under the torrid zone, though hitherto never +found in a wild state, has as great a variety of fruit as our apple +and pear trees. These varieties, which are confounded by the +greater part of botanists, though they require very different +climates, have become permanent by long cultivation. + +We went to herborize in the evening in the direction of the fort of +Passo Alto, along the basaltic rocks that close the promontory of +Naga. We were very little satisfied with our harvest, for the +drought and dust had almost destroyed vegetation. The Cacalia +Kleinia, the Euphorbia canariensis, and several other succulent +plants, which draw their nourishment from the air rather than the +soil on which they grow, reminded us by their appearance, that this +group of islands belongs to Africa, and even to the most arid part +of that continent. + +Though the captain of the Pizarro had orders to stop long enough at +Teneriffe to give us time to scale the summit of the peak, if the +snows did not prevent our ascent, we received notice, on account of +the blockade of the English ships, not to expect a longer delay +than four or five days. We consequently hastened our departure for +the port of Orotava, which is situated on the western declivity of +the volcano, where we were sure of finding guides. I could find no +one at Santa Cruz who had mounted the peak, and I was not surprised +at this. The most curious objects become less interesting, in +proportion as they are near to us; and I have known inhabitants of +Schaffhausen, in Switzerland, who had never seen the fall of the +Rhine but at a distance. + +On the 20th of June, before sunrise, we began our excursion by +ascending to the Villa de Laguna, estimated to be at the elevation +of 350 toises above the port of Santa Cruz. We could not verify +this estimate of the height, the surf not having permitted us to +return on board during the night, to take our barometers and +dipping-needle. As we foresaw that our expedition to the peak would +be very precipitate, we consoled ourselves with the reflection that +it was well not to expose instruments which were to serve us in +countries less known by Europeans. The road by which we ascended to +Laguna is on the right of a torrent, or baranco, which in the rainy +season forms fine cascades; it is narrow and tortuous. Near the +town we met some white camels, which seemed to be very slightly +laden. The chief employment of these animals is to transport +merchandise from the custom-house to the warehouses of the +merchants. They are generally laden with two chests of Havannah +sugar, which together weigh 900 pounds; but this load may be +augmented to thirteen hundred-weight, or 52 arrobas of Castile. +Camels are not numerous at Teneriffe, whilst they exist by +thousands in the two islands of Lancerota and Forteventura; the +climate and vegetation of these islands, which are situated nearer +Africa, are more analogous to those of that continent. It is very +extraordinary, that this useful animal, which breeds in South +America, should be seldom propagated at Teneriffe. In the fertile +district of Adexe only, where the plantations of the sugar-cane are +most considerable, camels have sometimes been known to breed. These +beasts of burden, as well as horses, were brought into the Canary +Islands in the fifteenth century by the Norman conquerors. The +Guanches were previously unacquainted with them; and this fact +seems to be very well accounted for by the difficulty of +transporting an animal of such bulk in frail canoes, without the +necessity of considering the Guanches as a remnant of the people of +Atlantis, or a different race from that of the western Africans. + +The hill, on which the town of San Christobal de la Laguna is +built, belongs to the system of basaltic mountains, which, +independent of the system of less ancient volcanic rocks, form a +broad girdle around the peak of Teneriffe. The basalt on which we +walked was darkish brown, compact, half-decomposed, and when +breathed on, emitted a clayey smell. We discovered amphibole, +olivine,* (* Peridot granuliforme. Hauy.) and translucid pyroxenes, +* (* Augite.--Werner.) with a perfectly lamellar fracture, of a +pale olive green, and often crystallized in prisms of six planes. +The first of these substances is extremely rare at Teneriffe; and I +never found it in the lavas of Vesuvius; but those of Etna contain +it in abundance. Notwithstanding the great number of blocks, which +we stopped to break, to the great regret of our guides, we could +discover neither nepheline, leucite,* (* Amphigene.--Hauy.) nor +feldspar. This last, which is so common in the basaltic lavas of +the island of Ischia, does not begin to appear at Teneriffe, till +we approach the volcano. The rock of Laguna is not columnar, but is +divided into ledges, of small thickness, and inclined to the east +at an angle of 30 or 40 degrees. It has nowhere the appearance of a +current of lava flowing from the sides of the peak. If the present +volcano has given birth to these basalts, we must suppose, that, +like the substances which compose the Somma, at the back of +Vesuvius, they are the effect of a submarine effusion, in which the +liquid mass has formed strata. A few arborescent Euphorbias, the +Cacalia Kleinia, and Indian figs (Cactus), which have become wild +in the Canary Islands, as well as in the south of Europe and the +whole continent of Africa, are the only plants we see on these arid +rocks. The feet of our mules were slipping every moment on beds of +stone, which were very steep. We nevertheless recognized the +remains of an ancient pavement. In these colonies we discover at +every step some traces of that activity which characterized the +Spanish nation in the 16th century. + +As we approached Laguna, we felt the temperature of the atmosphere +gradually become lower. This sensation was so much the more +agreeable, as we found the air of Santa Cruz very oppressive. As +our organs are more affected by disagreeable impressions, the +change of temperature becomes still more sensible when we return +from Laguna to the port: we seem then to be drawing near the mouth +of a furnace. The same impression is felt, when, on the coast of +Caracas, we descend from the mountain of Avila to the port of La +Guayra. According to the law of the decrement of heat, three +hundred and fifty toises in height produce in this latitude only +three or four degrees difference in temperature. The heat which +overpowers the traveller on his entrance into Santa Cruz, or La +Guayra, must consequently be attributed to the reverberation from +the rocks, against which these towns are built. + +The perpetual coolness which prevails at Laguna causes it to be +considered in the Canaries a delightful abode. Situated in a small +plain, surrounded by gardens, protected by a hill which is crowned +by a wood of laurels, myrtle, and arbutus, the capital of Teneriffe +is very beautifully placed. We should be mistaken if, relying on +the account of some travellers, we believed it seated on the border +of a lake. The rain sometimes forms a sheet of water of +considerable extent; and the geologist, who beholds in everything +the past rather than the present state of nature, can have no doubt +but that the whole plain is a great basin dried up. Laguna has +fallen from its opulence, since the lateral eruptions of the +volcano have destroyed the port of Garachico, and since Santa Cruz +has become the central point of the commerce of the island. It +contains only 9000 inhabitants, of whom nearly 400 are monks, +distributed in six convents. The town is surrounded with a great +number of windmills, which indicate the cultivation of wheat in +these high countries. I shall observe on this occasion, that +different kinds of grain were known to the Guanches. They called +wheat at Teneriffe tano, at Lancerota triffa; barley, in the grand +Canary, bore the name of aramotanoque, and at Lancerota it was +called tamosen. The flour of roasted barley (gofio) and goat's-milk +constituted the principal food of the people, on the origin of +which so many systematic fables have been current. These aliments +sufficiently prove that the race of the Guanches belonged to the +nations of the old continent, perhaps to those of Caucasus, and not +like the rest of the Atlantides,* to the inhabitants of the New +World (* Without entering here into any discussion respecting the +existence of the Atlantis, I may cite the opinion of Diodorus +Siculus, according to whom the Atlantides were ignorant of the use +of corn, because they were separated from the rest of mankind +before these gramina were cultivated.); these, before the arrival +of the Europeans, were unacquainted with corn, milk, and cheese. + +A great number of chapels, which the Spaniards call ermitas, +encircle the town of Laguna. Shaded by trees of perpetual verdure, +and erected on small eminences, these chapels add to the +picturesque effect of the landscape. The interior of the town is +not equal to its external appearance. The houses are solidly built, +but very antique, and the streets seem deserted. A botanist ought +not to complain of the antiquity of the edifices. The roofs and +walls are covered with Canary house-leek and those elegant +trichomanes, mentioned by every traveller. These plants are +nourished by the abundant mists. + +Mr. Anderson, the naturalist in the third voyage of captain Cook, +advises physicians to send their patients to Teneriffe, on account +of the mildness of the temperature and the equal climate of the +Canaries. The ground on these islands rises in an amphitheatre, and +presents simultaneously, as in Peru and Mexico, the temperature of +every climate, from the heat of Africa to the cold of the higher +Alps. Santa Cruz, the port of Orotava, the town of the same name, +and that of Laguna, are four places, the mean temperatures of which +form a descending series. In the south of Europe the change of the +seasons is too sensibly felt to present the same advantages. +Teneriffe, on the contrary, situated as it were on the threshold of +the tropics, though but a few days' sail from Spain, shares in the +charms which nature has lavished on the equinoctial regions. +Vegetation here displays some of her fairest and most majestic +forms in the banana and the palm-tree. He who is alive to the +charms of nature finds in this delicious island remedies still more +potent than the climate. No abode appeared to me more fitted to +dissipate melancholy, and restore peace to the perturbed mind, than +that of Teneriffe or Madeira. These advantages are the effect not +of the beauty of the site and the purity of the air alone: the +moral feeling is no longer harrowed up by the sight of slavery, the +presence of which is so revolting in the West Indies, and in every +other place to which European colonists have conveyed what they +call their civilization and their industry. + +In winter the climate of Laguna is extremely foggy, and the +inhabitants often complain of the cold. A fall of snow, however, +has never been seen; a fact which may seem to indicate that the +mean temperature of this town must be above 18.7 degrees (15 +degrees R.), that is to say, higher than that of Naples. I do not +lay this down as an unexceptional conclusion, for in winter the +refrigeration of the clouds does not depend so much on the mean +temperature of the whole year, as on the instantaneous diminution +of heat to which a district is exposed by its local situation. The +mean temperature of the capital of Mexico, for instance, is only +16.8 degrees (13.5 degrees R.), nevertheless, in the space of a +hundred years snow has fallen only once, while in the south of +Europe and in Africa it snows in places where the mean temperature +is above 19 degrees. + +The vicinity of the sea renders the climate of Laguna more mild in +winter than might be expected, arising from its elevation above the +level of the ocean. I was astonished to learn that M. Broussonnet +had planted in the midst of this town, in the garden of the Marquis +de Nava, the bread-fruit tree (Artocarpus incisa), and +cinnamon-tree (Laurus Cinnamomum). These valuable productions of +the South Sea and the East Indies are naturalized there as well as +at Orotava. Does not this fact prove that the bread-fruit might +flourish in Calabria, Sicily, and Granada? The culture of the +coffee-tree has not equally succeeded at Laguna, though its fruit +ripens at Teguesta, as well as between the port of Orotava and the +village of St. Juan de la Rambla. It is probable that some local +circumstances, perhaps the nature of the soil and the winds that +prevail in the flowering season, are the cause of this phenomenon. +In other regions, in the neighbourhood of Naples, for instance, the +coffee-tree thrives abundantly, though the mean temperature +scarcely rises above 18 centigrade degrees. + +No person has ascertained in the island of Teneriffe, the lowest +height at which snow falls every year. This fact, though easy of +verification by barometrical measurements, has hitherto been +generally neglected under every zone. It is nevertheless highly +interesting both to agriculture in the colonies and meteorology, +and fully as important as the measure of the limit of the perpetual +snows. My observations furnished me with the data, set down in the +following table:-- + +Column 1: North latitude. + +Column 2: Lowest height in toises at which snow falls. + +Column 3: Lowest height in metres at which snow falls. + +Column 4: Inferior limit in toises of the perpetual snows. + +Column 5: Inferior limit in metres of the perpetual snows. + +Column 6: Difference in toises of columns 4 and 5. + +Column 7: Difference in metres of columns 4 and 5. + +Column 8: Mean temperature degrees centigrade. + +Column 9: Mean temperature degrees Reaum. + + 0 : 2040 : 3976 : 2460 : 4794 : 420 : 818 : 27 : 21.6. + + 20 : 1550 : 3020 : 2360 : 4598 : 810 : 1578 : 24.5 : 19.6. + + 40 : 0 : 0 : 1540 : 3001 : 1540 : 3001 : 17 : 13.6. + +This table presents only the ordinary state of nature, that is to +say, the phenomena as they are annually observed. Exceptions +founded on particular local circumstances, exist. Thus it sometimes +snows, though seldom, at Naples, at Lisbon, and even at Malaga, +consequently as low as the 37th degree of latitude: and, as we have +just observed, snow has been seen to fall at Mexico, the elevation +of which is 1173 toises above the level of the ocean. This +phenomenon, which had not been seen for several centuries, took +place on the day that the Jesuits were expelled, and was attributed +by the people to that act of severity. A more striking exception +was found in the climate of Valladolid, the capital of the province +of Mechoacan. According to my measures, the height of this town, +situate in latitude 19 degrees 42 minutes, is only a thousand +toises: and yet, a few years before our arrival in New Spain, the +streets were covered with snow for some hours. + +Snow had been seen to fall also at Teneriffe, in a place lying +above Esperanza de la Laguna, very near the town of that name, in +the gardens of which the artocarpus flourishes. This extraordinary +fact was confirmed to M. Broussonnet by very aged persons. The +Erica arborea, the Myrica Faya, and the Arbutus callicarpa,* (* +This fine arbutus, imported by M. Broussonnet, is very different +from the Arbutus laurifolia, with which it has been confounded, but +which belongs to North America.) did not suffer from the snow; but +it destroyed all the vines in the open air. This observation is +interesting to vegetable physiology. In hot countries, the plants +are so vigorous, that cold is less injurious to them, provided it +be of short duration. I have seen the banana cultivated in the +island of Cuba, in places where the thermometer descends to seven +centesimal degrees, and sometimes very near freezing point. In +Italy and Spain the orange and date-trees do not perish, though the +cold during the night may be two degrees below freezing point. In +general it is remarked by cultivators, that the trees which grow in +a fertile soil are less delicate, and consequently less affected by +great changes in the temperature, than those which grow in land +that affords but little nutriment.* (* The mulberries, cultivated +in the thin and sandy soils of countries bordering on the Baltic +Sea, are examples of this feebleness of organization. The late +frosts do more injury to them, than to the mulberries of Piedmont. +In Italy a cold of 5 degrees below freezing point does not destroy +robust orange trees. According to M. Galesio, these trees, less +tender than the lemon and bergamot orange trees, freeze only at ten +centesimal degrees below freezing point.) + +In order to pass from the town of Laguna to the port of Orotava and +the western coast of Teneriffe, we cross at first a hilly region +covered with black and argillaceous earth, in which are found some +small crystals of pyroxene. The waters most probably detach these +crystals from the neighbouring rocks, as at Frascati, near Rome. +Unfortunately, strata of ferruginous earth conceal the soil from +the researches of the geologist. It is only in some ravines, that +we find columnar basalts, somewhat curved, and above them very +recent breccia, resembling volcanic tufa. The breccia contain +fragments of the same basalts which they cover; and it is asserted +that marine petrifactions are observed in them. The same phenomenon +occurs in the Vicentin, near Montechio Maggiore. + +The valley of Tacoronte is the entrance into that charming country, +of which travellers of every nation have spoken with rapturous +enthusiasm. Under the torrid zone I found sites where nature is +more majestic, and richer in the display of organic forms; but +after having traversed the banks of the Orinoco, the Cordilleras of +Peru, and the most beautiful valleys of Mexico, I own that I have +never beheld a prospect more varied, more attractive, more +harmonious in the distribution of the masses of verdure and of +rocks, than the western coast of Teneriffe. + +The sea-coast is lined with date and cocoa trees. Groups of the +musa, as the country rises, form a pleasing contrast with the +dragon-tree, the trunks of which have been justly compared to the +tortuous form of the serpent. The declivities are covered with +vines, which throw their branches over towering poles. Orange trees +loaded with flowers, myrtles, and cypress trees encircle the +chapels reared to devotion on the isolated hills. The divisions of +landed property are marked by hedges formed of the agave and the +cactus. An innumerable quantity of cryptogamous plants, among which +ferns are the most predominant, cover the walls, and are moistened +by small springs of limpid water. In winter, when the volcano is +buried under ice and snow, this district enjoys perpetual spring. +In summer, as the day declines, the breezes from the sea diffuse a +delicious freshness. The population of this coast is very +considerable; and it appears to be still greater than it is, +because the houses and gardens are distant from each other, which +adds to the picturesque beauty of the scene. Unhappily the real +welfare of the inhabitants does not correspond with the exertions +of their industry, or with the advantages which nature has lavished +on this spot. The farmers are not land-owners; the fruits of their +labour belong to the nobles; and those feudal institutions, which, +for so long a time, spread misery throughout Europe, still press +heavily on the people of the Canary Islands. + +From Tegueste and Tacoronte to the village of St. Juan de la Rambla +(which is celebrated for its excellent malmsey wine), the rising +hills are cultivated like a garden. I might compare them to the +environs of Capua and Valentia, if the western part of Teneriffe +was not infinitely more beautiful on account of the proximity of +the peak, which presents on every side a new point of view. The +aspect of this mountain is interesting not merely from its gigantic +mass; it excites the mind, by carrying it back to the mysterious +source of its volcanic agency. For thousands of years, no flames or +light have been perceived on the summit of the Piton, nevertheless +enormous lateral eruptions, the last of which took place in 1798, +are proofs of the activity of a fire still far from being +extinguished. There is also something that leaves a melancholy +impression on beholding a crater in the centre of a fertile and +well cultivated country. The history of the globe informs us, that +volcanoes destroy what they have been a long series of ages in +creating. Islands, which the action of submarine fires has raised +above the waters, are by degrees clothed in rich and smiling +verdure; but these new lands are often laid waste by the renewed +action of the same power which caused them to emerge from the +bottom of the ocean. Islets, which are now but heaps of scoriae and +volcanic ashes, were once perhaps as fertile as the hills of +Tacoronte and Sauzal. Happy the country, where man has no distrust +of the soil on which he lives! + +Pursuing our course to the port of Orotava, we passed the smiling +hamlets of Matanza and Victoria. These names are mingled together +in all the Spanish colonies, and they form an unpleasing contrast +with the peaceful and tranquil feelings which those countries +inspire. Matanza signifies slaughter, or carnage; and the word +alone recalls the price at which victory has been purchased. In the +New World it generally indicates the defeat of the natives: at +Teneriffe, the village of Matanza was built in a place* (* The +ancient Acantejo.) where the Spaniards were conquered by those same +Guanches who soon after were sold as slaves in the markets of +Europe. + +Before we reached Orotava, we visited a botanic garden at a little +distance from the port. We there found M. Le Gros, the French +vice-consul, who had often scaled the summit of the Peak, and who +served us as an excellent guide. He was accompanying captain Baudin +in a voyage to the West Indies, when a dreadful tempest, of which +M. Le Dru has given an account in the narrative of his voyage to +Porto Rico, forced the vessel to put into Teneriffe. There M. Le +Gros was led by the beauty of the spot to settle. It was he who +augmented scientific knowledge by the first accurate ideas of the +great lateral eruption of the Peak, which has been very improperly +called the explosion of the volcano of Chahorra. This eruption took +place on the 8th of June, 1798. + +The establishment of a botanical garden at Teneriffe is a very +happy idea, on account of the influence it is likely to have on the +progress of botany, and on the introduction of useful plants into +Europe. For the first conception of it we are indebted to the +Marquis de Nava. He undertook, at an enormous expense, to level the +hill of Durasno, which rises as an amphitheatre, and which was +begun to be planted in 1795. The marquis thought that the Canary +Islands, from the mildness of their climate and geographical +position, were the most suitable place for naturalising the +productions of the East and West Indies, and for inuring the plants +gradually to the colder temperature of the south of Europe. The +plants of Asia, Africa, and South America, may easily be brought to +Orotava; and in order to introduce the bark-tree* into Sicily, +Portugal, or Grenada, it should be first planted at Durasno, or at +Laguna, and the shoots of this tree may afterwards be transported +into Europe from the Canaries. (* I speak of the species of +bark-tree (cinchona), which at Peru, and in the kingdom of New +Granada, flourish on the back of the Cordilleras, at the height of +between 1000 and 1500 toises, in places where the thermometer is +between nine and ten degrees during the day, and from three to four +during the night. The orange bark-tree (Cinchona lancifolia) is +much less delicate than the red bark-tree (C. oblongifolia).) In +happier times, when maritime wars shall no longer interrupt +communication, the garden of Teneriffe may become extremely useful +with respect to the great number of plants which are sent from the +Indies to Europe; for ere they reach our coasts, they often perish, +owing to the length of the passage, during which they inhale an air +impregnated with salt water. These plants would meet at Orotava +with the care and climate necessary for their preservation. At +Durasno, the protea, the psidium, the jambos, the chirimoya of +Peru,* (* Annona cherimolia. Lamarck.) the sensitive plant, and the +heliconia, grow in the open air. We gathered the ripened seeds of +several beautiful species of glycine from New Holland, which the +governor of Cumana, Mr. Emparan, had successfully cultivated, and +which grow wild on the coasts of South America. + +We arrived very late at the port of Orotava,* (* Puerto de la Cruz. +The only fine port of the Canary Islands is that of St. Sebastian, +in the isle of Gomara.) if we may give the name of port to a road +in which vessels are obliged to put to sea whenever the winds blow +violently from the north-west. It is impossible to speak of Orotava +without recalling to the remembrance of the friends of science the +name of Don Bernardo Cologan, whose house at all times was open to +travellers of every nation. + +We could have wished to have sojourned for some time in Don +Bernardo's house, and to have visited with him the charming scenery +of St. Juan de la Rambla and of Rialexo de Abaxo.* (* This +last-named village stands at the foot of the lofty mountain of +Tygayga.) But on a voyage such as we had undertaken, the present is +but little enjoyed. Continually haunted by the fear of not +executing the designs of the morrow, we live in perpetual +uneasiness. Persons who are passionately fond of nature and the +arts feel the same sensations, when they travel through Switzerland +and Italy. Enabled to see but a small portion of the objects which +allure them, they are disturbed in their enjoyments by the +restraints they impose on themselves at every step. + +On the morning of the 21st of June, we were on our way to the +summit of the volcano. M. Le Gros, whose attentions were unwearied, +M. Lalande, secretary to the French Consulate at Santa Cruz, and +the English gardener at Durasno, joined us on this excursion. The +day was not very fine, and the summit of the peak, which is +generally visible at Orotava from sunrise till ten o'clock, was +covered with thick clouds. + +We were agreeably surprised by the contrast between the vegetation +of this part of Teneriffe, and that of the environs of Santa Cruz. +Under the influence of a cool and humid climate, the ground was +covered with beautiful verdure; while on the road from Santa Cruz +to Laguna the plants exhibited nothing but capsules emptied of +their seeds. Near the port of Santa Cruz, the strength of the +vegetation is an obstacle to geological research. We passed along +the base of two small hills, which rise in the form of bells. +Observations made at Vesuvius and in Auvergne lead us to think that +these hills owe their origin to lateral eruptions of the great +volcano. The hill called Montanita de la Villa seems indeed to have +emitted lavas; and according to the tradition of the Guanches, an +eruption took place in 1430. Colonel Franqui assured Borda, that +the place is still to be seen whence the melted matter issued; and +that the ashes which covered the ground adjacent, were not yet +fertilized. Whenever the rock appeared, we discovered basaltic +amygdaloid* (* Basaltartiger Mandelstein. Werner.) covered with +hardened clay,* (* Bimstein-Conglomerat. W.) which contains +rapilli, or fragments of pumice-stone. This last formation +resembles the tufas of Pausilippo, and the strata of puzzolana, +which I found in the valley of Quito, at the foot of the volcano of +Pichincha. The amygdaloid has very long pores, like the superior +strata of the lavas of Vesuvius, arising probably from the action +of an elastic fluid forcing its way through the matter in fusion. +Notwithstanding these analogies, I must here repeat, that in all +the low region of the peak of Teneriffe, on the side of Orotava, I +have met with no flow of lava, nor any current, the limits of which +are strongly marked. Torrents and inundations change the surface of +the globe, and when a great number of currents of lava meet and +spread over a plain, as I have seen at Vesuvius, in the Atrio dei +Cavalli, they seem to be confounded together, and wear the +appearance of real strata. + +The villa de Orotava has a pleasant aspect at a distance, from the +great abundance of water which runs through the principal streets. +The spring of Agua Mansa, collected in two large reservoirs, turns +several mills, and is afterward discharged among the vineyards of +the adjacent hills. The climate is still more refreshing at the +villa than at the port of La Cruz, from the influence of the +breeze, which blows strong after ten in the morning. The water, +which has been dissolved in the air at a higher temperature, +frequently precipitates itself; and renders the climate very foggy. +The villa is nearly 160 toises (312 metres) above the level of the +sea, consequently 200 toises lower than the site on which Laguna is +built: it is observed also, that the same kind of plants flower a +month later in this latter place. + +Orotava, the ancient Taoro of the Guanches, is situated on a very +steep declivity. The streets seem deserted; the houses are solidly +built, and of a gloomy appearance. We passed along a lofty +aqueduct, lined with a great number of fine ferns; and visited +several gardens, in which the fruit trees of the north of Europe +are mingled with orange trees, pomegranate, and date trees. We were +assured, that these last were as little productive here as on the +coast of Cumana. Although we had been made acquainted, from the +narratives of many travellers, with the dragon-tree of the garden +of M. Franqui, we were not the less struck with its enormous +magnitude. We were told, that the trunk of this tree, which is +mentioned in several very ancient documents as marking the +boundaries of a field, was as gigantic in the fifteenth century as +it is at the present time. Its height appeared to us to be about 50 +or 60 feet; its circumference near the roots is 45 feet. We could +not measure higher, but Sir George Staunton found that, 10 feet +from the ground, the diameter of the trunk is still 12 English +feet; which corresponds perfectly with the statement of Borda, who +found its mean circumference 33 feet 8 inches, French measure. The +trunk is divided into a great number of branches, which rise in the +form of a candelabrum, and are terminated by tufts of leaves, like +the yucca which adorns the valley of Mexico. This division gives it +a very different appearance from that of the palm-tree. + +Among organic creations, this tree is undoubtedly, together with +the Adansonia or baobab of Senegal, one of the oldest inhabitants +of our globe. The baobabs are of still greater dimensions than the +dragon-tree of Orotava. There are some which near the root measure +34 feet in diameter, though their total height is only from 50 to +60 feet. But we should observe, that the Adansonia, like the +ochroma, and all the plants of the family of bombax, grow much more +rapidly* than the dracaena, the vegetation of which is very slow. +(* It is the same with the plane-tree (Platanus occidentalis) which +M. Michaux measured at Marietta, on the banks of the Ohio, and +which, at twenty feet from the ground, was 15.7 feet in diameter. +--"Voyage a l'Ouest des Monts Alleghany" 1804 page 93. The yew, +chestnut, oak, plane-tree, deciduous cypress, bombax, mimosa, +caesalpina, hymenaea, and dracaena, appear to me to be the plants +which, in different climates, present specimens of the most +extraordinary growth. An oak, discovered together with some Gallic +helmets in 1809, in the turf pits of the department of the Somme, +near the village of Yseux, seven leagues from Abbeville, was about +the same size as the dragon-tree of Orotava. According to a memoir +by M. Traullee, the trunk of this oak was 14 feet in diameter.) +That in M. Franqui's garden still bears every year both flowers and +fruit. Its aspect forcibly exemplifies "that eternal youth of +nature," which is an inexhaustible source of motion and of life. + +The dracaena, which is seen only in cultivated spots in the Canary +Islands, at Madeira, and Porto Santo, presents a curious phenomenon +with respect to the migration of plants. It has never been found in +a wild state on the continent of Africa. The East Indies is its +real country. How has this tree been transplanted to Teneriffe, +where it is by no means common? Does its existence prove, that, at +some very distant period, the Guanches had connexions with other +nations originally from Asia?* (* The form of the dragon-tree is +exhibited in several species of the genus Dracaena, at the Cape of +Good Hope, in China, and in New Zealand. But in New Zealand it is +superseded by the form of the yucca; for the Dracaena borealis of +Aiton is a Convallaria, of which it has all the appearance. The +astringent juice, known in commerce by the name of dragon's blood, +is, according to the inquiries we made on the spot, the produce of +several American plants, which do not belong to the same genus and +of which some are lianas. At Laguna, toothpicks steeped in the +juice of the dragon-tree are made in the nunneries, and are much +extolled as highly useful for keeping the gums in a healthy state.) + +On leaving Orotava, a narrow and stony pathway led us through a +beautiful forest of chestnut trees (el monte de Castanos), to a +site covered with brambles, some species of laurels, and +arborescent heaths. The trunks of the latter grow to an +extraordinary size; and the flowers with which they are loaded form +an agreeable contrast, during a great part of the year, to the +Hypericum canariense, which is very abundant at this height. We +stopped to take in our provision of water under a solitary +fir-tree. This station is known in the country by the name of Pino +del Dornajito. Its height, according to the barometrical +measurement of M. de Borda, is 522 toises; and it commands a +magnificent prospect of the sea, and the whole of the northern part +of the island. Near Pino del Dornajito, a little on the right of +the pathway, is a copious spring of water, into which we plunged +the thermometer, which fell to 15.4 degrees. At a hundred toises +distance from this spring is another equally limpid. If we admit +that these waters indicate nearly the mean heat of the place whence +they issue, we may fix the absolute elevation of the station at 520 +toises, supposing the mean temperature of the coast to be 21 +degrees, and allowing one degree for the decrement of caloric +corresponding under this zone to 93 toises. We should not be +surprised if this spring remained a little below the heat of the +air, since it probably takes its source in some more elevated part +of the peak, and possibly communicates with the small subterranean +glaciers of which we shall speak hereafter. The accordance just +observed between the barometrical and thermometrical measures is so +much more striking, because in mountainous countries, with steep +declivities, the springs generally indicate too great a decrement +of caloric, for they unite small currents of water, which filtrate +at different heights, and their temperature is consequently the +mean between the temperature of these currents. The spring of +Dornajito has considerable reputation in the country; and at the +time I was there, it was the only one known on the road which leads +to the summit of the volcano. The formation of springs demands a +certain regularity in the direction and inclination of the strata. +On a volcanic soil, porous and splintered rocks absorb the rain +waters, and convey them to considerable depths. Hence arises that +aridity observed in the greater part of the Canary Islands, +notwithstanding the considerable height of their mountains, and the +mass of clouds which navigators behold incessantly overhanging this +archipelago. + +From Pino del Dornajito to the crater of the volcano we continued +to ascend without crossing a single valley; for the small ravines +(barancos) do not merit this name. To the eye of the geologist the +whole island of Teneriffe is but one mountain, the almost +elliptical base of which is prolonged to the north-east, and in +which may be distinguished several systems of volcanic rocks formed +at different epochs. The Chahorra, or Montana Colorada, and the +Urca, considered in the country as insulated volcanoes, are only +little hills abutting on the peak, and masking its pyramidal form. +The great volcano, the lateral eruptions of which have given birth +to vast promontories, is not however precisely in the centre of the +island, and this peculiarity of structure appears the less +surprising, if we recollect that, as the learned mineralogist M. +Cordier has observed, it is not perhaps the small crater of the +Piton which has been the principal agent in the changes undergone +by the island of Teneriffe. + +Above the region of arborescent heaths, called Monte Verde, is the +region of ferns. Nowhere, in the temperate zone, have I seen such +an abundance of the pteris, blechnum, and asplenium; yet none of +these plants have the stateliness of the arborescent ferns which, +at the height of five or six hundred toises, form the principal +ornament of equinoctial America. The root of the Pteris aquilina +serves the inhabitants of Palma and Gomera for food; they grind it +to powder, and mix with it a quantity of barley-meal. This +composition, when boiled, is called gofio; the use of so homely an +aliment is a proof of the extreme poverty of the lower order of +people in the Canary Islands. + +Monte Verde is intersected by several small and very arid ravines +(canadas), and the region of ferns is succeeded by a wood of +juniper trees and firs, which has suffered greatly from the +violence of hurricanes. In this place, mentioned by some travellers +under the name of Caravela,* (* "Philosophical Transactions" volume +29 page 317. Carabela is the name of a vessel with lateen sails. +The pines of the peak formerly were used as masts of vessels.) Mr. +Eden states that in the year 1705 he saw little flames, which, +according to the doctrine of the naturalists of his time, he +attributes to sulphurous exhalations igniting spontaneously. We +continued to ascend, till we came to the rock of La Gayta and to +Portillo: traversing this narrow pass between two basaltic hills, +we entered the great plain of Spartium. At the time of the voyage +of Laperouse, M. Manneron had taken the levels of the peak, from +the port of Orotava to this elevated plain, near 1400 toises above +the level of the sea; but the want of water, and the misconduct of +the guides, prevented him from taking the levels to the top of the +volcano. The results of the operation, (which was two-thirds +completed,) unfortunately were not sent to Europe, and the work is +still to be recommenced from the sea-coast. + +We spent two hours and a half in crossing the Llano del Retama, +which appears like an immense sea of sand. Notwithstanding the +elevation of this site, the centigrade thermometer rose in the +shade toward sunset, to 13.8 degrees, or 3.7 degrees higher than +toward noon at Monte Verde. This augmentation of heat could be +attributed only to the reverberation from the ground, and the +extent of the plain. We suffered much from the suffocating dust of +the pumice-stone, in which we were continually enveloped. In the +midst of this plain are tufts of the retama, which is the Spartium +nubigenum of Aiton. M. de Martiniere, one of the botanists who +perished in the expedition of Laperouse, wished to introduce this +beautiful shrub into Languedoc, where firewood is very scarce. It +grows to the height of nine feet, and is loaded with odoriferous +flowers, with which the goat hunters, that we met in our road, had +decorated their hats. The goats of the peak, which are of a deep +brown colour, are reckoned delicious food; they browse on the +spartium, and have run wild in the deserts from time immemorial. +They have been transported to Madeira, where they are preferred to +the goats of Europe. + +As far as the rock of Gayta, or the entrance of the extensive Llano +del Retama, the peak of Teneriffe is covered with beautiful +vegetation. There are no traces of recent devastation. We might +have imagined ourselves scaling the side of some volcano, the fire +of which had been extinguished as remotely as that of Monte Cavo, +near Rome; but scarcely had we reached the plain covered with +pumice-stone, when the landscape changed its aspect, and at every +step we met with large blocks of obsidian thrown out by the +volcano. Everything here speaks perfect solitude. A few goats and +rabbits only bound across the plain. The barren region of the peak +is nine square leagues; and as the lower regions viewed from this +point retrograde in the distance, the island appears an immense +heap of torrefied matter, hemmed round by a scanty border of +vegetation. + +From the region of the Spartium nubigenum we passed through narrow +defiles, and small ravines hollowed at a very remote time by the +torrents, first arriving at a more elevated plain (el Monton de +Trigo), then at the place where we intended to pass the night. This +station, which is more than 1530 toises above the coast, bears the +name of the English Halt (Estancia de los Ingleses* (* This +denomination was in use as early as the beginning of the last +century. Mr. Eden, who corrupts all Spanish words, as do most +travellers in our own times, calls it the Stancha: it is the +Station des Rochers of M. Borda, as is proved by the barometrical +heights there observed. These heights were in 1803, according to M. +Cordier, 19 inches 9.5 lines; and in 1776, according to Messrs. +Borda and Varela, 19 inches 9.8 lines; the barometer at Orotava +keeping within nearly a line at the same height.)), no doubt +because most of the travellers, who formerly visited the peak, were +Englishmen. Two inclined rocks form a kind of cavern, which affords +a shelter from the winds. This point, which is higher than the +summit of the Canigou, can be reached on the backs of mules; and +here has ended the expedition of numbers of travellers, who on +leaving Orotava hoped to have ascended to the brink of the crater. +Though in the midst of summer, and under an African sky, we +suffered from cold during the night. The thermometer descended as +low as to five degrees. Our guides made a large fire with the dry +branches of retama. Having neither tents nor cloaks, we lay down on +some masses of rock, and were singularly incommoded by the flame +and smoke, which the wind drove towards us. We had attempted to +form a kind of screen with cloths tied together, but our enclosure +took fire, which we did not perceive till the greater part had been +consumed by the flames. We had never passed a night on a point so +elevated, and we then little imagined that we should, one day, on +the ridge of the Cordilleras, inhabit towns higher than the summit +of the volcano we were to scale on the morrow. As the temperature +diminished, the peak became covered with thick clouds. The approach +of night interrupts the play of the ascending current, which, +during the day, rises from the plains towards the high regions of +the atmosphere; and the air, in cooling, loses its capacity of +suspending water. A strong northerly wind chased the clouds; the +moon at intervals, shooting through the vapours, exposed its disk +on a firmament of the darkest blue; and the view of the volcano +threw a majestic character over the nocturnal scenery. Sometimes +the peak was entirely hidden from our eyes by the fog, at other +times it broke upon us in terrific proximity; and, like an enormous +pyramid, threw its shadow over the clouds rolling beneath our feet. + +About three in the morning, by the sombrous light of a few fir +torches, we started on our journey to the summit of the Piton. We +scaled the volcano on the north-east side, where the declivities +are extremely steep; and after two hours' toil, we reached a small +plain, which, on account of its elevated position, bears the name +of Alta Vista. This is the station of the neveros, those natives, +whose occupation it is to collect ice and snow, which they sell in +the neighbouring towns. Their mules, better practised in climbing +mountains than those hired by travellers, reach Alta Vista, and the +neveros are obliged to transport the snow to that place on their +backs. Above this point commences the Malpays, a term by which is +designated here, as well as in Mexico, Peru, and every other +country subject to volcanoes, a ground destitute of vegetable +mould, and covered with fragments of lava. + +We turned to the right to examine the cavern of ice, which is at +the elevation of 1728 toises, consequently below the limit of the +perpetual snows in this zone. Probably the cold which prevails in +this cavern, is owing to the same causes which perpetuate the ice +in the crevices of Mount Jura and the Apennines, and on which the +opinions of naturalists are still much divided. This natural +ice-house of the peak has, nevertheless, none of those +perpendicular openings, which give emission to the warm air, while +the cold air remains undisturbed at the bottom. It would seem that +the ice is preserved in it on account of its mass, and because its +melting is retarded by the cold, which is the consequence of quick +evaporation. This small subterraneous glacier is situated in a +region, the mean temperature of which is probably not under three +degrees; and it is not, like the true glaciers of the Alps, fed by +the snow waters that flow from the summits of the mountains. During +winter the cavern is filled with ice and snow; and as the rays of +the sun do not penetrate beyond the mouth, the heats of summer are +not sufficient to empty the reservoir. The existence of a natural +ice-house depends, consequently, rather on the quantity of snow +which enters it in winter, and the small influence of the warm +winds in summer, than on the absolute elevation of the cavity, and +the mean temperature of the layer of air in which it is situated. +The air contained in the interior of a mountain is not easily +displaced, as is exemplified by Monte Testaccio at Rome, the +temperature of which is so different from that of the surrounding +atmosphere. On Chimborazo enormous heaps of ice are found covered +with sand, and, in the same manner as at the peak, far below the +inferior limit of the perpetual snows. + +It was near the Ice-Cavern (Cueva del Hielo), that, in the voyage +of Laperouse, Messrs. Lamanon and Monges made their experiments on +the temperature of boiling water. These naturalists found it 88.7 +degrees, the barometer at nineteen inches one line. In the kingdom +of New Grenada, at the chapel of Guadaloupe, near Santa-Fe de +Bogota, I have seen water boil at 89.9 degrees, under a pressure of +19 inches 1.9 lines, At Tambores, in the province of Popayan, Senor +Caldas found the heat of boiling water 89.5 degrees, the barometer +being at 18 inches 11.6 lines. These results might lead us to +suspect, that, in the experiment of M. Lamanon, the water had not +reached the maximum of its temperature. + +Day was beginning to dawn when we left the ice-cavern. We observed, +during the twilight, a phenomenon which is not unusual on high +mountains, but which the position of the volcano we were scaling +rendered very striking. A layer of white and fleecy clouds +concealed from us the sight of the ocean, and the lower region of +the island. This layer did not appear above 800 toises high; the +clouds were so uniformly spread, and kept so perfect a level, that +they wore the appearance of a vast plain covered with snow. The +colossal pyramid of the peak, the volcanic summits of Lancerota, of +Forteventura, and the isle of Palma, were like rocks amidst this +vast sea of vapours, and their black tints were in fine contrast +with the whiteness of the clouds. + +While we were climbing over the broken lavas of the Malpays, we +perceived a very curious optical phenomenon, which lasted eight +minutes. We thought we saw on the east side small rockets thrown +into the air. Luminous points, about seven or eight degrees above +the horizon, appeared first to move in a vertical direction; but +their motion was gradually changed into a horizontal oscillation. +Our fellow-travellers, our guides even, were astonished at this +phenomenon, without our having made any remark on it to them. We +thought, at first sight, that these luminous points, which floated +in the air, indicated some new eruption of the great volcano of +Lancerota; for we recollected that Bouguer and La Condamine, in +scaling the volcano of Pichincha, were witnesses of the eruption of +Cotopaxi. But the illusion soon ceased, and we found that the +luminous points were the images of several stars magnified by the +vapours. These images remained motionless at intervals, they then +seemed to rise perpendicularly, descended sideways, and returned to +the point whence they had departed. This motion lasted one or two +seconds. Though we had no exact means of measuring the extent of +the lateral shifting, we did not the less distinctly observe the +path of the luminous point. It did not appear double from an effect +of mirage, and left no trace of light behind. Bringing, with the +telescope of a small sextant by Troughton, the stars into contact +with the lofty summit of a mountain in Lancerota, I observed that +the oscillation was constantly directed towards the same point, +that is to say, towards that part of the horizon where the disk of +the sun was to appear; and that, making allowance for the motion of +the star in its declination, the image returned always to the same +place. These appearances of lateral refraction ceased long before +daylight rendered the stars quite invisible. I have faithfully +related what we saw during the twilight, without undertaking to +explain this extraordinary phenomenon, of which I published an +account in Baron Zach's Astronomical Journal, twelve years ago. The +motion of the vesicular vapours, caused by the rising of the sun; +the mingling of several layers of air, the temperature and density +of which were very different, no doubt contributed to produce an +apparent movement of the stars in the horizontal direction. We see +something similar in the strong undulations of the solar disk, when +it cuts the horizon; but these undulations seldom exceed twenty +seconds, while the lateral motion of the stars, observed at the +peak, at more than 1800 toises, was easily distinguished by the +naked eye, and seemed to exceed all that we have thought it +possible to consider hitherto as the effect of the refraction of +the light of the stars. On the top of the Andes, at Antisana, I +observed the sun-rise, and passed the whole night at the height of +2100 toises, without noting any appearance resembling this +phenomenon. + +I was anxious to make an exact observation of the instant of +sun-rising at an elevation so considerable as that we had reached +on the peak of Teneriffe. No traveller, furnished with instruments, +had as yet taken such an observation. I had a telescope and a +chronometer, which I knew to be exceedingly correct. In the part +where the sun was to appear the horizon was free from vapour. We +perceived the upper limb at 4 hours 48 minutes 55 seconds apparent +time, and what is very remarkable, the first luminous point of the +disk appeared immediately in contact with the limit of the horizon, +consequently we saw the true horizon; that is to say, a part of the +sea farther distant than 43 leagues. It is proved by calculation +that, under the same parallel in the plain, the rising would have +begun at 5 hours 1 minute 50.4 seconds, or 11 minutes 51.3 seconds +later than at the height of the peak. The difference observed was +12 minutes 55 seconds, which arose no doubt from the uncertainty of +the refraction for a zenith distance, of which observations are +wanting. + +We were surprised at the extreme slowness with which the lower limb +of the sun seemed to detach itself from the horizon. This limb was +not visible till 4 hours 56 minutes 56 seconds. The disc of the +sun, much flattened, was well defined; during the ascent there was +neither double image nor lengthening of the lower limb. The +duration of the sun's rising being triple that which we might have +expected in this latitude, we must suppose that a fog-bank, very +uniformly extended, concealed the true horizon, and followed the +sun in its ascent. Notwithstanding the libration of the stars,* +which we had observed towards the east, we could not attribute the +slowness of the rising to an extraordinary refraction of the rays +occasioned by the horizon of the sea; for it is precisely at the +rising of the sun, as Le Gentil daily observed at Pondicherry, and +as I have several times remarked at Cumana, that the horizon sinks, +on account of the elevation of temperature in the stratum of the +air which lies immediately over the surface of the ocean. (* A +celebrated astronomer, Baron Zach, has compared this phenomenon of +an apparent libration of the stars to that described in the +Georgics (lib. 50 v. 365). But this passage relates only to the +falling stars, which the ancients, (like the mariners of modern +times) considered as a prognostic of wind.) + +The road, which we were obliged to clear for ourselves across the +Malpays, was extremely fatiguing. The ascent is steep, and the +blocks of lava rolled from beneath our feet. I can compare this +part of the road only to the Moraine of the Alps or that mass of +pebbly stones which we find at the lower extremity of the glaciers. +At the peak the lava, broken into sharp pieces, leaves hollows, in +which we risked falling up to our waists. Unfortunately the +listlessness of our guides contributed to increase the difficulty +of this ascent. Unlike the guides of the valley of Chamouni, or the +nimble-footed Guanches, who could, it is asserted, seize the rabbit +or wild goat in its course, our Canarian guides were models of the +phlegmatic. They had wished to persuade us on the preceding evening +not to go beyond the station of the rocks. Every ten minutes they +sat down to rest themselves, and when unobserved they threw away +the specimens of obsidian and pumice-stone, which we had carefully +collected. We discovered at length that none of them had ever +visited the summit of the volcano. + +After three hours' walking, we reached, at the extremity of the +Malpays, a small plain, called La Rambleta, from the centre of +which the Piton, or Sugar-loaf, takes its rise. On the side toward +Orotava the mountain resembles those pyramids with steps that are +seen at Fayoum and in Mexico; for the elevated plains of Retama and +Rambleta form two tiers, the first of which is four times higher +than the second. If we suppose the total height of the Peak to be +1904 toises, the Rambleta is 1820 toises above the level of the +sea. Here are found those spiracles, which are called by the +natives the Nostrils of the Peak (Narices del Pico). Watery and +heated vapours issue at intervals from several crevices in the +ground, and the thermometer rose to 43.2 degrees. M. Labillardiere +had found the temperature of these vapours, eight years before us, +53.7 degrees; a difference which does not perhaps prove so much a +diminution of activity in the volcano, as a local change in the +heating of its internal surface. The vapours have no smell, and +seem to be pure water. A short time before the great eruption of +Mount Vesuvius, in 1805, M. Gay-Lussac and myself had observed that +water, under the form of vapour, in the interior of the crater, did +not redden paper which had been dipped in syrup of violets. I +cannot, however, admit the bold hypothesis, according to which the +Nostrils of the Peak are to be considered as the vents of an +immense apparatus of distillation, the lower part of which is +situated below the level of the sea. Since the time when volcanoes +have been carefully studied, and the love of the marvellous has +been less apparent in works on geology, well founded doubts have +been raised respecting these direct and constant communications +between the waters of the sea and the focus of the volcanic fire.* +(* This question has been examined with much sagacity by M. +Brieslak, in his "Introduzzione alla Geologia," tome 2 pages 302, +323, 347. Cotopaxi and Popocatepetl, which I saw ejecting smoke and +ashes, in 1804, are farther from both the Pacific and the Gulf of +the Antilles, than Grenoble is from the Mediterranean, and Orleans +from the Atlantic. We must not consider the fact as merely +accidental, that we have not yet discovered an active volcano more +than 40 leagues distant from the ocean; but I consider the +hypothesis, that the waters of the sea are absorbed, distilled, and +decomposed by volcanoes, as very doubtful.) We may find a very +simple explanation of a phenomenon, that has in it nothing very +surprising. The peak is covered with snow during part of the year; +we ourselves found it still so in the plain of Rambleta. Messrs. +O'Donnel and Armstrong discovered in 1806 a very abundant spring in +the Malpays, a hundred toises above the cavern of ice, which is +perhaps fed partly by this snow. Everything consequently leads us +to presume that the peak of Teneriffe, like the volcanoes of the +Andes, and those of the island of Manilla, contains within itself +great cavities, which are filled with atmospherical water, owing +merely to filtration. The aqueous vapours exhaled by the Narices +and crevices of the crater, are only those same waters heated by +the interior surfaces down which they flow. + +We had yet to scale the steepest part of the mountain, the Piton, +which forms the summit. The slope of this small cone, covered with +volcanic ashes, and fragments of pumice-stone, is so steep, that it +would have been almost impossible to reach the top, had we not +ascended by an old current of lava, the debris of which have +resisted the ravages of time. These debris form a wall of scorious +rock, which stretches into the midst of the loose ashes. We +ascended the Piton by grasping these half-decomposed scoriae, which +often broke in our hands. We employed nearly half an hour to scale +a hill, the perpendicular height of which is scarcely ninety +toises. Vesuvius, three times lower than the peak of Teneriffe, is +terminated by a cone of ashes almost three times higher, but with a +more accessible and easy slope. Of all the volcanoes which I have +visited, that of Jorullo, in Mexico, is the only one that is more +difficult to climb than the Peak, because the whole mountain is +covered with loose ashes. + +When the Sugar-loaf (el Piton) is covered with snow, as it is in +the beginning of winter, the steepness of its declivity may be very +dangerous to the traveller. M. Le Gros showed us the place where +captain Baudin was nearly killed when he visited the Peak of +Teneriffe. That officer had the courage to undertake, in company +with the naturalists Advenier, Mauger, and Riedle, an excursion to +the top of the volcano about the end of December, 1797. Having +reached half the height of the cone, he fell, and rolled down as +far as the small plain of Rambleta; happily a heap of lava, covered +with snow, hindered him from rolling farther with accelerated +velocity. I have been told, that in Switzerland a traveller was +suffocated by rolling down the declivity of the Col de Balme, over +the compact turf of the Alps. + +When we gained the summit of the Piton, we were surprised to find +scarcely room enough to seat ourselves conveniently. We were +stopped by a small circular wall of porphyritic lava, with a base +of pitchstone, which concealed from us the view of the crater.* (* +Called La Caldera, or the caldron of the peak, a denomination which +recalls to mind the Oules of the Pyrenees.) The west wind blew with +such violence that we could scarcely stand. It was eight in the +morning, and we suffered severely from the cold, though the +thermometer kept a little above freezing point. For a long time we +had been accustomed to a very high temperature, and the dry wind +increased the feeling of cold, because it carried off every moment +the small atmosphere of warm and humid air, which was formed around +us from the effect of cutaneous perspiration. + +The brink of the crater of the peak bears no resemblance to those +of most of the other volcanoes which I have visited: for instance, +the craters of Vesuvius, Jorullo, and Pichincha. In these the Piton +preserves its conic figure to the very summit: the whole of their +declivity is inclined the same number of degrees, and uniformly +covered with a layer of pumice-stone very minutely divided; when we +reach the top of these volcanoes, nothing obstructs the view of the +bottom of the crater. The peaks of Teneriffe and Cotopaxi, on the +contrary, are of very different construction. At their summit a +circular wall surrounds the crater; which wall, at a distance, has +the appearance of a small cylinder placed on a truncated cone. On +Cotopaxi this peculiar construction is visible to the naked eye at +more than 2000 toises distance; and no person has ever reached the +crater of that volcano. On the peak of Teneriffe, the wall, which +surrounds the crater like a parapet, is so high, that it would be +impossible to reach the Caldera, if, on the eastern side, there was +not a breach, which seems to have been the effect of a flowing of +very old lava. We descended through this breach toward the bottom +of the funnel, the figure of which is elliptic. Its greater axis +has a direction from north-west to south-east, nearly north 35 +degrees west. The greatest breadth of the mouth appeared to us to +be 300 feet, the smallest 200 feet, which numbers agree very nearly +with the measurement of MM. Verguin, Varela, and Borda. + +It is easy to conceive, that the size of a crater does not depend +solely on the height and mass of the mountain, of which it forms +the principal air-vent. This opening is indeed seldom in direct +ratio with the intensity of the volcanic fire, or with the activity +of the volcano. At Vesuvius, which is but a hill compared with the +Peak of Teneriffe, the diameter of the crater is five times +greater. When we reflect, that very lofty volcanoes throw out less +matter from their summits than from lateral openings, we should be +led to think, that the lower the volcanoes, their force and +activity being the same, the more considerable ought to be their +craters. In fact, there are immense volcanoes in the Andes, which +have but very small openings; and we might establish as a +geological principle, that the most colossal mountains have craters +of little extent at the summits, if the Cordilleras did not present +many instances to the contrary.* (* The great volcanoes of Cotopaxi +and Rucupichincha have craters, the diameters of which, according +to my measurements, exceed 400 and 700 toises.) I shall have +occasion, in the progress of this work, to cite a number of facts, +which will throw some light on what may be called the external +structure of volcanoes. This structure is as varied as the volcanic +phenomena themselves; and in order to raise ourselves to geological +conceptions worthy of the greatness of nature, we must set aside +the idea that all volcanoes are formed after the model of Vesuvius, +Stromboli, and Etna. + +The external edges of the Caldera are almost perpendicular. Their +appearance is somewhat like the Somma, seen from the Atrio dei +Cavalli. We descended to the bottom of the crater on a train of +broken lava, from the eastern breach of the enclosure. The heat was +perceptible only in a few crevices, which gave vent to aqueous +vapours with a peculiar buzzing noise. Some of these funnels or +crevices are on the outside of the enclosure, on the external brink +of the parapet that surrounds the crater. We plunged the +thermometer into them, and saw it rise rapidly to 68 and 75 +degrees. It no doubt indicated a higher temperature, but we could +not observe the instrument till we had drawn it up, lest we should +burn our hands. M. Cordier found several crevices, the heat of +which was that of boiling water. It might be thought that these +vapours, which are emitted in gusts, contain muriatic or sulphurous +acid; but when condensed, they have no particular taste; and +experiments, which have been made with re-agents, prove that the +chimneys of the peak exhale only pure water. This phenomenon, +analogous to that which I observed in the crater of Jorullo, +deserves the more attention, as muriatic acid abounds in the +greater part of volcanoes, and as M. Vauquelin has discovered it +even in the porphyritic lavas of Sarcouy in Auvergne. + +I sketched on the spot a view of the interior edge of the crater, +as it presented itself in the descent by the eastern break. Nothing +is more striking than the manner in which these strata of lava are +piled on one another, exhibiting the sinuosities of the calcareous +rock of the higher Alps. These enormous ledges, sometimes +horizontal, sometimes inclined and undulating, are indicative of +the ancient fluidity of the whole mass, and of the combination of +several deranging causes, which have determined the direction of +each flow. The top of the circular wall exhibits those curious +ramifications which we find in coke. The northern edge is most +elevated. Towards the south-west the enclosure is considerably sunk +and an enormous mass of scorious lava seems glued to the extremity +of the brink. On the west the rock is perforated; and a large +opening gives a view of the horizon of the sea. The force of the +elastic vapours perhaps formed this natural aperture, at the time +of some inundation of lava thrown out from the crater. + +The inside of this funnel indicates a volcano, which for thousands +of years has vomited no fire but from its sides. This conclusion is +not founded on the absence of great openings, which might be +expected in the bottom of the Caldera. Those whose experience is +founded on personal observation, know that several volcanoes, in +the intervals of an eruption, appear filled up, and almost +extinguished; but that in these same mountains, the crater of the +volcano exhibits layers of scoriae, rough, sonorous, and shining. +We observe hillocks and intumescences caused by the action of the +elastic vapours, cones of broken scoriae and ashes which cover the +funnels. None of these phenomena characterise the crater of the +peak of Teneriffe; its bottom is not in the state which ensues at +the close of an eruption. From the lapse of time, and the action of +the vapours, the inside walls are detached, and have covered the +basin with great blocks of lithoid lavas. + +The bottom of the Caldera is reached without danger. In a volcano, +the activity of which is principally directed towards the summit, +such as Vesuvius, the depth of the crater varies before and after +each eruption; but at the peak of Teneriffe the depth appears to +have remained unchanged for a long time. Eden, in 1715, estimated +it at 115 feet; Cordier, in 1803, at 110 feet. Judging by mere +inspection, I should have thought the funnel of still less depth. +Its present state is that of a solfatara; and it is rather an +object of curious investigation, than of imposing aspect. The +majesty of the site consists in its elevation above the level of +the sea, in the profound solitude of these lofty regions, and in +the immense space over which the eye ranges from the summit of the +mountain. + +The wall of compact lava, forming the enclosure of the Caldera, is +snow-white at its surface. The same colour prevails in the inside +of the Solfatara of Puzzuoli. When we break these lavas, which +might be taken at some distance for calcareous stone, we find in +them a blackish brown nucleus. Porphyry, with basis of pitch-stone, +is whitened externally by the slow action of the vapours of +sulphurous acid gas. These vapours rise in abundance; and what is +rather remarkable, through crevices which seem to have no +communication with the apertures that emit aqueous vapours. We may +be convinced of the presence of the sulphurous acid, by examining +the fine crystals of sulphur, which are everywhere found in the +crevices of the lava. This acid, combined with the water with which +the soil is impregnated, is transformed into sulphuric acid by +contact with the oxygen of the atmosphere. In general, the humidity +in the crater of the peak is more to be feared than the heat; and +they who seat themselves for a while on the ground find their +clothes corroded. The porphyritic lavas are affected by the action +of the sulphuric acid: the alumine, magnesia, soda, and metallic +oxides gradually disappear; and often nothing remains but the +silex, which unites in mammillary plates, like opal. These +siliceous concretions,* (* Opalartiger kieselsinter. The siliceous +gurh of the volcanoes of the Isle of France contains, according to +Klaproth, 0.72 silex, and 0.21 water; and thus comes near to opal, +which Karsten considers as a hydrated silex.) which M. Cordier +first made known, are similar to those found in the isle of Ischia, +in the extinguished volcanoes of Santa Fiora, and in the Solfatara +of Puzzuoli. It is not easy to form an idea of the origin of these +incrustations. The aqueous vapours, discharged through great +spiracles, do not contain alkali in solution, like the waters of +the Geyser, in Iceland. Perhaps the soda contained in the lavas of +the peak acts an important part in the formation of these deposits +of silex. There may exist in the crater small crevices, the vapours +of which are not of the same nature as those on which travellers, +whose attention has been directed simultaneously to a great number +of objects, have made experiments. + +Seated on the northern brink of the crater, I dug a hole of some +inches in depth; and the thermometer placed in this hole rose +rapidly to 42 degrees. Hence we may conclude what must be the heat +in this solfatara at the depth of thirty or forty fathoms. The +sulphur reduced into vapour is condensed into fine crystals, which +however are not equal in size to those M. Dolomieu brought from +Sicily. They are semi-diaphanous octahedrons, very brilliant on the +surface, and of a conchoidal fracture. These masses, which will one +day perhaps be objects of commerce, are constantly bedewed with +sulphurous acid. I had the imprudence to wrap up a few, in order to +preserve them, but I soon discovered that the acid had consumed not +only the paper which contained them, but a part also of my +mineralogical journal. The heat of the vapours, which issue from +the crevices of the caldera, is not sufficiently great to combine +the sulphur while in a state of minute division, with the oxygen of +the atmospheric air; and after the experiment I have just cited on +the temperature of the soil, we may presume that the sulphurous +acid is formed at a certain depth,* in cavities to which the +external air has free access. (* An observer, in general very +accurate, M. Breislack, asserts that the muriatic acid always +predominates in the vapours of Vesuvius. This assertion is contrary +to what M. Gay-Lussac and myself observed, before the great +eruption of 1805, and while the lava was issuing from the crater. +The smell of the sulphurous acid, so easy to distinguish, was +perceptible at a great distance; and when the volcano threw out +scoriae, the smell was mingled with that of petroleum.) + +The vapours of heated water, which act on the fragments of lava +scattered about on the caldera, reduce certain parts of it to a +state of paste. On examining, after I had reached America, those +earthy and friable masses, I found crystals of sulphate of alumine. +MM. Davy and Gay-Lussac have already made the ingenious remark, +that two bodies highly inflammable, the metals of soda and potash, +have probably an important part in the action of a volcano; now the +potash necessary to the formation of alum is found not only in +feldspar, mica, pumice-stone, and augite, but also in obsidian. +This last substance is very common at Teneriffe, where it forms the +basis of the tephrinic lava. These analogies between the peak of +Teneriffe and the Solfatara of Puzzuoli, might no doubt be shown to +be more numerous, if the former were more accessible, and had been +frequently visited by naturalists. + +An expedition to the summit of the volcano of Teneriffe is +interesting, not solely on account of the great number of phenomena +which are the objects of scientific research; it has still greater +attractions from the picturesque beauties which it lays open to +those who are feelingly alive to the majesty of nature. It is a +difficult task to describe the sensations, which are the more +forcible, inasmuch as they have something undefined, produced by +the immensity of the space as well as by the vastness, the novelty, +and the multitude of the objects, amidst which we find ourselves +transported. When a traveller attempts to describe the loftiest +summits of the globe, the cataracts of the great rivers, the +tortuous valleys of the Andes, he incurs the danger of fatiguing +his readers by the monotonous expression of his admiration. It +appears to me more conformable to the plan I have proposed to +myself in this narrative, to indicate the peculiar character that +distinguishes each zone: we exhibit with more clearness the +physiognomy of the landscape, in proportion as we endeavour to +sketch its individual features, to compare them with each other, +and to discover by this kind of analysis the sources of the +enjoyments, furnished by the great picture of nature. + +Travellers have learned by experience, that views from the summits +of very lofty mountains are neither so beautiful, picturesque, nor +so varied, as those from heights which do not exceed that of +Vesuvius, Righi, and the Puy-de-Dome. Colossal mountains, such as +Chimborazo, Antisana, or Mount Rosa, compose so large a mass, that +the plains covered with rich vegetation are seen only in the +immensity of distance, and a blue and vapoury tint is uniformly +spread over the landscape. The peak of Teneriffe, from its slender +form and local position, unites the advantages of less lofty +summits with those peculiar to very great heights. We not only +discern from its top a vast expanse of sea, but we perceive also +the forests of Teneriffe, and the inhabited parts of the coasts, in +a proximity calculated to produce the most beautiful contrasts of +form and colour. We might say, that the volcano overwhelms with its +mass the little island which serves as its base, and it shoots up +from the bosom of the waters to a height three times loftier than +the region where the clouds float in summer. If its crater, half +extinguished for ages past, shot forth flakes of fire like that of +Stromboli in the Aeolian Islands, the peak of Teneriffe, like a +lighthouse, would serve to guide the mariner in a circuit of more +than 260 leagues. + +When we were seated on the external edge of the crater, we turned +our eyes towards the north-west, where the coasts are studded with +villages and hamlets. At our feet, masses of vapour, constantly +drifted by the winds, afforded us the most variable spectacle. A +uniform stratum of clouds, similar to that already described, and +which separated us from the lower regions of the island, had been +pierced in several places by the effect of the small currents of +air, which the earth, heated by the sun, began to send towards us. +The port of Orotava, its vessels at anchor, the gardens and the +vineyards encircling the town, shewed themselves through an opening +which seemed to enlarge every instant. From the summit of these +solitary regions our eyes wandered over an inhabited world; we +enjoyed the striking contrast between the bare sides of the peak, +its steep declivities covered with scoriae, its elevated plains +destitute of vegetation, and the smiling aspect of the cultured +country beneath. We beheld the plants divided by zones, as the +temperature of the atmosphere diminished with the elevation of the +site. Below the Piton, lichens begin to cover the scorious and +lustrous lava: a violet,* (* Viola cheiranthifolia.) akin to the +Viola decumbens, rises on the slope of the volcano at 1740 toises +of height; it takes the lead not only of the other herbaceous +plants, but even of the gramina, which, in the Alps and on the +ridge of the Cordilleras, form close neighbourhood with the plants +of the family of the cryptogamia. Tufts of retama, loaded with +flowers, adorn the valleys hollowed out by the torrents, and +encumbered with the effects of the lateral eruptions. Below the +retama, lies the region of ferns, bordered by the tract of the +arborescent heaths. Forests of laurel, rhamnus, and arbutus, divide +the ericas from the rising grounds planted with vines and fruit +trees. A rich carpet of verdure extends from the plain of spartium, +and the zone of the alpine plants even to the groups of the date +tree and the musa, at the feet of which the ocean appears to roll. +I here pass slightly over the principal features of this botanical +chart, as I shall enter hereafter into some farther details +respecting the geography of the plants of the island of Teneriffe.* +(* See below.) + +The seeming proximity, in which, from the summit of the peak, we +behold the hamlets, the vineyards, and the gardens on the coast, is +increased by the prodigious transparency of the atmosphere. +Notwithstanding the great distance, we could distinguish not only +the houses, the sails of the vessels, and the trunks of the trees, +but we could discern the vivid colouring of the vegetation of the +plains. These phenomena are owing not only to the height of the +site, but to the peculiar modifications of the air in warm +climates. In every zone, an object placed on a level with the sea, +and viewed in a horizontal direction, appears less luminous, than +when seen from the top of a mountain, where vapours arrive after +passing through strata of air of decreasing density. Differences +equally striking are produced by the influence of climate. The +surface of a lake or large river is less resplendent, when we see +it at an equal distance, from the top of the higher Alps of +Switzerland, than when we view it from the summit of the +Cordilleras of Peru or of Mexico. In proportion as the air is pure +and serene, the solution of the vapours becomes more complete, and +the light loses less in its passage. When from the shores of the +Pacific we ascend the elevated plain of Quito, or that of Antisana, +we are struck for some days by the nearness at which we imagine we +see objects which are actually seven or eight leagues distant. The +peak of Teyde has not the advantage of being situated in the +equinoctial region; but the dryness of the columns of air which +rise perpetually above the neighbouring plains of Africa, and which +the eastern winds convey with rapidity, gives to the atmosphere of +the Canary Islands a transparency which not only surpasses that of +the air of Naples and Sicily, but perhaps exceeds the purity of the +sky of Quito and Peru. This transparency may be regarded as one of +the chief causes of the beauty of landscape scenery in the torrid +zone; it heightens the splendour of the vegetable colouring, and +contributes to the magical effect of its harmonies and contrasts. +If the mass of light, which circulates about objects, fatigues the +external senses during a part of the day, the inhabitant of the +southern climates has his compensation in moral enjoyment. A lucid +clearness in the conceptions, and a serenity of mind, correspond +with the transparency of the surrounding atmosphere. We feel these +impressions without going beyond the boundaries of Europe. I appeal +to travellers who have visited countries rendered famous by the +great creations of the imagination and of art,--the favoured climes +of Italy and Greece. + +We prolonged in vain our stay on the summit of the Peak, awaiting +the moment when we might enjoy the view of the whole of the +archipelago of the Fortunate Islands:* we, however, descried Palma, +Gomera, and the Great Canary, at our feet. (* Of all the small +islands of the Canaries, the Rock of the East is the only one which +cannot be seen, even in fine weather, from the top of the Peak. Its +distance is 3 degrees 5 minutes, while that of the Salvage is only +2 degrees 1 minute. The island of Madeira, distant 4 degrees 29 +minutes, would be visible, if its mountains were more than 3000 +toises high.) The mountains of Lancerota, free from vapours at +sunrise, were soon enveloped in thick clouds. Supposing only an +ordinary refraction, the eye takes in, in calm weather, from the +summit of the volcano, a surface of the globe of 5700 square +leagues, equal to a fourth of the superficies of Spain. The +question has often been agitated, whether it be possible to +perceive the coast of Africa from the top of this colossal pyramid; +but the nearest parts of that coast are still farther from +Teneriffe than 2 degrees 49 minutes, or 56 leagues. The visual ray +of the horizon from the Peak being 1 degree 57 minutes, cape +Bojador can be seen only on the supposition of its height being 200 +toises above the level of the ocean. We are ignorant of the height +of the Black Mountains near cape Bojador, as well as of that peak, +called by navigators the Penon Grande, farther to the south of this +promontory. If the summit of the volcano of Teneriffe were more +accessible, we should observe without doubt, in certain states of +the wind, the effects of an extraordinary refraction. On perusing +what Spanish and Portuguese authors relate respecting the existence +of the fabulous isle of San Borondon, or Antilia, we find that it +is particularly the humid wind from west-south-west, which produces +in these latitudes the phenomena of the mirage. We shall not +however admit with M. Vieyra, "that the play of the terrestrial +refractions may render visible to the inhabitants of the Canaries +the islands of Cape Verd, and even the Apalachian mountains of +America."* (* The American fruits, frequently thrown by the sea on +the coasts of the islands of Ferro and Gomera, were formerly +supposed to emanate from the plants of the island of San Borondon. +This island, said to be governed by an archbishop and six bishops, +and which Father Feijoa believed to be the image of the island of +Ferro, reflected on a fog-bank, was ceded in the 16th century, by +the King of Portugal, to Lewis Perdigon, at the time the latter was +preparing to take possession of it by conquest.) + +The cold we felt on the top of the Peak, was very considerable for +the season. The centigrade thermometer, at a distance from the +ground, and from the apertures that emitted the hot vapours, fell +in the shade to 2.7 degrees. The wind was west, and consequently +opposite to that which brings to Teneriffe, during a great part of +the year, the warm air that floats above the burning desert of +Africa. As the temperature of the atmosphere, observed at the port +of Orotava by M. Savagi, was 22.8 degrees, the decrement of caloric +was one degree every 94 toises. This result perfectly corresponds +with those obtained by Lamanon and Saussure on the summits of the +Peak and Etna, though in very different seasons. The tall slender +form of these mountains facilitates the means of comparing the +temperature of two strata of the atmosphere, which are nearly in +the same perpendicular plane; and in this point of view the +observations made in an excursion to the volcano of Teneriffe +resemble those of an ascent in a balloon. We must nevertheless +remark, that the ocean, on account of its transparency and +evaporation, reflects less caloric than the plains, into the upper +regions of the air; and also that summits which are surrounded by +the sea are colder in summer, than mountains which rise from a +continent; but this circumstance has very little influence on the +decrement of atmospherical heat; the temperature of the low regions +being equally diminished by the proximity of the ocean. + +It is not the same with respect to the influence exercised by the +direction of the wind, and the rapidity of the ascending current; +the latter sometimes increases in an astonishing manner the +temperature of the loftiest mountains. I have seen the thermometer +rise, on the slope of the volcano of Antisana, in the kingdom of +Quito, to 19 degrees, when we were 2837 toises high. M. +Labillardiere has seen it, on the edge of the crater of the peak of +Teneriffe, at 18.7 degrees, though he had used every possible +precaution to avoid the effect of accidental causes. + +On the summit of the Peak, we beheld with admiration the azure +colour of the sky. Its intensity at the zenith appeared to +correspond to 41 degrees of the cyanometer. We know, by Saussure's +experiment, that this intensity increases with the rarity of the +air, and that the same instrument marked at the same period 39 +degrees at the priory of Chamouni, and 40 degrees at the top of +Mont Blanc. This last mountain is 540 toises higher than the +volcano of Teneriffe; and if, notwithstanding this difference, the +sky is observed there to be of a less deep blue, we must attribute +this phenomenon to the dryness of the African air, and the +proximity of the torrid zone. + +We collected on the brink of the crater, some air which we meant to +analyse on our voyage to America. The phial remained so well +corked, that on opening it ten days after, the water rushed in with +impetuosity. Several experiments, made by means of nitrous gas in +the narrow tube of Fontana's eudiometer, seemed to prove that the +air of the crater contained 0.09 degrees less oxygen than the air +of the sea; but I have little confidence in this result obtained by +means which we now consider as very inexact. The crater of the Peak +has so little depth, and the air is renewed with so much facility, +that it is scarcely probable the quantity of azote is greater there +than on the coasts. We know also, from the experiments of MM. +Gay-Lussac and Theodore de Saussure, that in the highest as well as +in the lowest regions of the atmosphere, the air equally contains +0.21 of oxygen.* (* During the stay of M. Gay-Lussac and myself at +the hospice of Mont Cenis, in March 1805, we collected air in the +midst of a cloud loaded with electricity. This air, analysed in +Volta's eudiometer, contained no hydrogen, and its purity did not +differ 0.002 of oxygen from the air of Paris, which we had carried +with us in phials hermetically sealed.) + +We saw on the summit of the Peak no trace of psora, lecidea, or +other cryptogamous plants; no insect fluttered in the air. We found +however a few hymenoptera adhering to masses of sulphur moistened +with sulphurous acid, and lining the mouths of the funnels. These +are bees, which appear to have been attracted by the flowers of the +Spartium nubigenum, and which oblique currents of air had carried +up to these high regions, like the butterflies found by M. Ramond +at the top of Mont Perdu. The butterflies perished from cold, while +the bees on the Peak were scorched on imprudently approaching the +crevices where they came in search of warmth. + +Notwithstanding the heat we felt in our feet on the edge of the +crater, the cone of ashes remains covered with snow during several +months in winter. It is probable, that under the cap of snow +considerable hollows are found, like those existing under the +glaciers of Switzerland, the temperature of which is constantly +less elevated than that of the soil on which they repose. The cold +and violent wind, which blew from the time of sunrise, induced us +to seek shelter at the foot of the Piton. Our hands and faces were +nearly frozen, while our boots were burnt by the soil on which we +walked. We descended in the space of a few minutes the Sugar-loaf +which we had scaled with so much toil; and this rapidity was in +part involuntary, for we often rolled down on the ashes. It was +with regret that we quitted this solitude, this domain where Nature +reigns in all her majesty. We consoled ourselves with the hope of +once again visiting the Canary Islands, but this, like many other +plans we then formed, has never been executed. + +We traversed the Malpays but slowly; for the foot finds no sure +foundation on the loose blocks of lava. Nearer the station of the +rocks, the descent becomes extremely difficult; the compact +short-swarded turf is so slippery, that we were obliged to incline +our bodies continually backward, in order to avoid falling. In the +sandy plain of Retama, the thermometer rose to 22.5 degrees; and +this heat seemed to us suffocating in comparison with the cold, +which we had suffered from the air on the summit of the volcano. We +were absolutely without water; our guides, not satisfied with +drinking clandestinely the little supply of malmsey wine, for which +we were indebted to Don Cologan's kindness, had broken our water +jars. Happily the bottle which contained the air of the crater +escaped unhurt. + +We at length enjoyed the refreshing breeze in the beautiful region +of the arborescent erica and fern; and we were enveloped in a thick +bed of clouds stationary at six hundred toises above the plain. The +clouds having dispersed, we remarked a phenomenon which afterwards +became familiar to us on the declivities of the Cordilleras. Small +currents of air chased trains of cloud with unequal velocity, and +in opposite directions: they bore the appearance of streamlets of +water in rapid motion and flowing in all directions, amidst a great +mass of stagnant water. The causes of this partial motion of the +clouds are probably very various; we may suppose them to arise from +some impulsion at a great distance; from the slight inequalities of +the soil, which reflects in a greater or less degree the radiant +heat; from a difference of temperature kept up by some chemical +action; or perhaps from a strong electric charge of the vesicular +vapours. + +As we approached the town of Orotava, we met great flocks of +canaries.* (* Fringilla Canaria. La Caille relates, in the +narrative of his voyage to the Cape, that on Salvage Island these +canaries are so abundant, that you cannot walk there in a certain +season without breaking their eggs.) These birds, well known in +Europe, were in general uniformly green. Some, however, had a +yellow tinge on their backs; their note was the same as that of the +tame canary. It is nevertheless remarked, that those which have +been taken in the island of the Great Canary, and in the islet of +Monte Clara, near Lancerota, have a louder and at the same time a +more harmonious song. In every zone, among birds of the same +species, each flock has its peculiar note. The yellow canaries are +a variety, which has taken birth in Europe; and those we saw in +cages at Orotava and Santa Cruz had been bought at Cadiz, and in +other ports of Spain. But of all the birds of the Canary Islands, +that which has the most heart-soothing song is unknown in Europe. +It is the capirote, which no effort has succeeded in taming, so +sacred to his soul is liberty. I have stood listening in admiration +of his soft and melodious warbling, in a garden at Orotava; but I +have never seen him sufficiently near to ascertain to what family +he belongs. As to the parrots, which were supposed to have been +seen at the period of captain Cook's abode at Teneriffe, they never +existed but in the narratives of a few travellers, who have copied +from each other. Neither parrots nor monkeys inhabit the Canary +Islands; and though in the New Continent the former migrate as far +as North Carolina, I doubt whether in the Old they have ever been +met with beyond the 28th degree of north latitude. + +Toward the close of day we reached the port of Orotava, where we +received the unexpected intelligence that the Pizarro would not set +sail till the 24th or 25th. If we could have calculated on this +delay, we should either have lengthened our stay on the Peak,* or +have made an excursion to the volcano of Chahorra. (* As a great +number of travellers who land at Santa Cruz, do not undertake the +excursion to the Peak, because they are ignorant of the time it +occupies, it may be useful to lay down the following data: In +making use of mules as far as the Estancia de los Ingleses, it +takes twenty-one hours from Orotava to arrive at the summit of the +Peak, and return to the port; namely, from Orotava to the Pino del +Dornajito three hours; from the Pino to the Station of the Rocks +six hours; and from this station to the Caldera three hours and a +half. I reckon nine hours for the descent. In this calculation I +count only the time employed in walking, without reckoning that +which is necessary for examining the productions of the Peak, or +for taking rest. Half a day is sufficient for going from Santa Cruz +to Orotava.) We passed the following day in visiting the environs +of Orotava, and enjoying the agreeable company we found at Don +Cologan's. We perceived that Teneriffe had attractions not only to +those who devote themselves to the study of nature: we found at +Orotava several persons possessing a taste for literature and +music, and who have transplanted into these distant climes the +amenity of European society. In these respects the Canary Islands +have no great resemblance to the other Spanish colonies, excepting +the Havannah. + +We were present on the eve of St. John at a pastoral fete in the +garden of Mr. Little. This gentleman, who rendered great service to +the Canarians during the last famine, has cultivated a hill covered +with volcanic substances. He has formed in this delicious site an +English garden, whence there is a magnificent view of the Peak, of +the villages along the coast, and the isle of Palma, which is +bounded by the vast expanse of the Atlantic. I cannot compare this +prospect with any, except the views of the bays of Genoa and +Naples; but Orotava is greatly superior to both in the magnitude of +the masses and in the richness of vegetation. In the beginning of +the evening the slope of the volcano exhibited on a sudden a most +extraordinary spectacle. The shepherds, in conformity to a custom, +no doubt introduced by the Spaniards, though it dates from the +highest antiquity, had lighted the fires of St. John. The scattered +masses of fire and the columns of smoke driven by the wind, formed +a fine contrast with the deep verdure of the forests which covered +the sides of the Peak. Shouts of joy resounding from afar were the +only sounds that broke the silence of nature in these solitary +regions. + +Don Cologan's family has a country-house nearer the coast than that +I have just mentioned. This house, called La Paz, is connected with +a circumstance that rendered it peculiarly interesting to us. M. de +Borda, whose death we deplored, was its inmate during his last +visit to the Canary Islands. It was in a neighbouring plain that he +measured the base, by which he determined the height of the Peak. +In this geometrical operation the great dracaena of Orotava served +as a mark. Should any well-informed traveller at some future day +undertake a new measurement of the volcano with more exactness, and +by the help of astronomical repeating circles, he ought to measure +the base, not near Orotava, but near Los Silos, at a place called +Bante. According to M. Broussonnet there is no plain near the Peak +of greater extent. In herborizing near La Paz we found a great +quantity of Lichen roccella on the basaltic rocks bathed by the +waters of the sea. The archil of the Canaries is a very ancient +branch of commerce; this lichen is however found in less abundance +in the island of Teneriffe than in the desert islands of Salvage, +La Graciosa, and Alegranza, or even in Canary and Hierro. We left +the port of Orotava on the 24th of June. + +To avoid disconnecting the narrative of the excursion to the top of +the Peak, I have said nothing of the geological observations I made +on the structure of this colossal mountain, and on the nature of +the volcanic rocks of which it is composed. Before we quit the +archipelago of the Canaries, I shall linger for a moment, and bring +into one point of view some facts relating to the physical aspect +of those countries. + +Mineralogists who think that the end of the geology of volcanoes is +the classification of lavas, the examination of the crystals they +contain, and their description according to their external +characters, are generally very well satisfied when they come back +from the mouth of a burning volcano. They return loaded with those +numerous collections, which are the principal objects of their +research. This is not the feeling of those who, without confounding +descriptive mineralogy (oryctognosy) with geognosy, endeavour to +raise themselves to ideas generally interesting, and seek, in the +study of nature, for answers to the following questions:-- + +Is the conical mountain of a volcano entirely formed of liquified +matter heaped together by successive eruptions, or does it contain +in its centre a nucleus of primitive rocks covered with lava, which +are these same rocks altered by fire? What are the affinities which +unite the productions of modern volcanoes with the basalts, the +phonolites, and those porphyries with bases of feldspar, which are +without quartz, and which cover the Cordilleras of Peru and Mexico, +as well as the small groups of the Monts Dores, of Cantal, and of +Mezen in France? Has the central nucleus of volcanoes been heated +in its primitive position, and raised up, in a softened state, by +the force of the elastic vapours, before these fluids communicated, +by means of a crater, with the external air? What is the substance, +which, for thousands of years, keeps up this combustion, sometimes +so slow, and at other times so active? Does this unknown cause act +at an immense depth; or does this chemical action take place in +secondary rocks lying on granite? + +The farther we are from finding a solution of these problems in the +numerous works hitherto published on Etna and Vesuvius, the greater +is the desire of the traveller to see with his own eyes. He hopes +to be more fortunate than those who have preceded him; he wishes to +form a precise idea of the geological relations which the volcano +and the neighbouring mountains bear to each other: but how often is +he disappointed, when, on the limits of the primitive soil, +enormous banks of tufa and puzzolana render every observation on +the position and stratification impossible! We reach the inside of +the crater with less difficulty than we at first expect; we examine +the cone from its summit to its base; we are struck with the +difference in the produce of each eruption, and with the analogy +which still exists between the lavas of the same volcano; but, +notwithstanding the care with which we interrogate nature, and the +number of partial observations which present themselves at every +step, we return from the summit of a burning volcano less satisfied +than when we were preparing to visit it. It is after we have +studied them on the spot, that the volcanic phenomena appear still +more isolated, more variable, more obscure, than we imagine them +when consulting the narratives of travellers. + +These reflections occurred to me on descending from the summit of +the peak of Teneriffe, the first unextinct volcano I had yet +visited. They returned anew whenever, in South America, or in +Mexico, I had occasion to examine volcanic mountains. When we +reflect how little the labours of mineralogists, and the +discoveries in chemistry, have promoted the knowledge of the +physical geology of mountains, we cannot help being affected with a +painful sentiment; and this is felt still more strongly by those, +who, studying nature in different climates, are more occupied by +the problems they have not been able to solve, than with the few +results they have obtained. + +The peak of Ayadyrma, or of Echeyde,* (* The word Echeyde, which +signifies Hell in the language of the Guanches, has been corrupted +by the Europeans into Teyde.) is a conic and isolated mountain, +which rises in an islet of very small circumference. Those who do +not take into consideration the whole surface of the globe, +believe, that these three circumstances are common to the greater +part of volcanoes. They cite, in support of their opinion, Etna, +the peak of the Azores, the Solfatara of Guadaloupe, the +Trois-Salazes of the isle of Bourbon, and the clusters of volcanoes +in the Indian Sea and in the Atlantic. In Europe and in Asia, as +far as the interior of the latter continent is known, no burning +volcano is situated in the chains of mountains; all being at a +greater or less distance from those chains. In the New World, on +the contrary, (and this fact deserves the greatest attention,) the +volcanoes the most stupendous for their masses form a part of the +Cordilleras themselves. The mountains of mica-slate and gneiss in +Peru and New Grenada immediately touch the volcanic porphyries of +the provinces of Quito and Pasto. To the south and north of these +countries, in Chile and in the kingdom of Guatimala, the active +volcanoes are grouped in rows. They are the continuation, as we may +say, of the chains of primitive rocks, and if the volcanic fire has +broken forth in some plain remote from the Cordilleras, as in mount +Sangay and Jorullo,* (* Two volcanoes of the Provinces of Quixos +and Mechoacan, the one in the southern, and the other in the +northern hemisphere.) we must consider this phenomenon as an +exception to the law, which nature seems to have imposed on these +regions. I may here repeat these geological facts, because this +presumed isolated situation of every volcano has been cited in +opposition to the idea that the peak of Teneriffe, and the other +volcanic summits of the Canary Islands, are the remains of a +submerged chain of mountains. The observations which have been made +on the grouping of volcanoes in America, prove that the ancient +state of things represented in the conjectural map of the Atlantic +by M. Bory de St. Vincent* (* Whether the traditions of the +ancients respecting the Atlantis are founded on historical facts, +is a matter totally distinct from the question whether the +archipelago of the Canaries and the adjacent islands are the +vestiges of a chain of mountains, rent and sunk in the sea during +one of the great convulsions of our globe. I do not pretend to form +any opinion in favour of the existence of the Atlantis; but I +endeavour to prove, that the Canaries have no more been created by +volcanoes, than the whole body of the smaller Antilles has been +formed by madrepores.) is by no means contradictory to the +acknowledged laws of nature; and that nothing opposes the +supposition that the summits of Porto Santo, Madeira, and the +Fortunate Islands, may heretofore have formed, either a distinct +range of primitive mountains, or the western extremity of the chain +of the Atlas. + +The peak of Teyde forms a pyramidal mass like Etna, Tungurahua, and +Popocatepetl. This physiognomic character is very far from being +common to all volcanoes. We have seen some in the southern +hemisphere, which, instead of having the form of a cone or a bell, +are lengthened in one direction, having the ridge sometimes smooth, +and at others bristled with small pointed rocks. This structure is +peculiar to Antisana and Pichincha, two burning mountains of the +province of Quito; and the absence of the conic form ought never to +be considered as a reason excluding the idea of a volcanic origin. +I shall develop, in the progress of this work, some of the +analogies, which I think I have perceived between the physiognomy +of volcanoes and the antiquity of their rocks. It is sufficient to +state, generally speaking, that the summits, which are still +subject to eruptions of the greatest violence, and at the nearest +periods to each other, are SLENDER PEAKS of a conic form; that the +mountains with LENGTHENED SUMMITS, and rugged with small stony +masses, are very old volcanoes, and near being extinguished; and +that rounded tops, in the form of domes, or bells, indicate those +problematic porphyries, which are supposed to have been heated in +their primitive position, penetrated by vapours, and forced up in a +mollified state, without having ever flowed as real lithoidal +lavas. To the first class belong Cotopaxi, the peak of Teneriffe, +and the peak of Orizava in Mexico. In the second may be placed +Cargueirazo and Pichincha, in the province of Quito; the volcano of +Puracey, near Popayan; and perhaps also Hecla, in Iceland. In the +third and last we may rank the majestic figure of Chimborazo, and, +(if it be allowable to place by the side of that colossus a hill of +Europe,) the Great Sarcouy in Auvergne. + +In order to form a more exact idea of the external structure of +volcanoes, it is important to compare their perpendicular height +with their circumference. This, however, cannot be done with any +exactness, unless the mountains are isolated, and rising on a plain +nearly on a level with the sea. In calculating the circumference of +the peak of Teneriffe in a curve passing through the port of +Orotava, Garachico, Adexe, and Guimar, and setting aside the +prolongations of its base towards the forest of Laguna, and the +north-east cape of the island, we find that this extent is more +than 54,000 toises. The height of the Peak is consequently one +twenty-eighth of the circumference of its basis. M. von Buch found +a thirty-third for Vesuvius; and, which perhaps is less certain, a +thirty-fourth for Etna.* (* Gilbert, Annalen der Physik B. 5 page +455. Vesuvius is 133,000 palmas, or eighteen nautical miles in +circumference. The horizontal distance from Resina to the crater is +3700 toises. Italian mineralogists have estimated the circumference +of Etna at 840,000 palmas, or 119 miles. With these data, the ratio +of the height to the circumference would be only a seventy-second; +but I find on tracing a curve through Catania, Palermo, Bronte, and +Piemonte, only 62 miles in circumference, according to the best +maps. This increases the ratio to a fifty-fourth. Does the basis +fall on the outside of the curve that I assume?) If the slope of +these three volcanoes were uniform from the summit to the base, the +peak of Teyde would have an inclination of 12 degrees 29 minutes, +Vesuvius 12 degrees 41 minutes, and Etna 10 degrees 13 minutes, a +result which must astonish those who do not reflect on what +constitutes an average slope. In a very long ascent, slopes of +three or four degrees alternate with others which are inclined from +25 to 30 degrees; and the latter only strike our imagination, because +we think all the slopes of mountains more steep than they really are. +I may cite in support of this consideration the example of the +ascent from the port of Vera Cruz to the elevated plain of Mexico. +On the eastern slope of the Cordillera a road has been traced, +which for ages has not been frequented except on foot, or on the +backs of mules. From Encero to the small Indian village of Las +Vigas, there are 7500 toises of horizontal distance; and Encero +being, according to my barometric measurement, 746 toises lower +than Las Vigas, the result, for the mean slope, is only an angle of +5 degrees 40 minutes. + +In the following note will be seen the results of some experiments +I have made on the difficulties arising from the declivities in +mountainous countries.* + +(* In places where there were at the same time slopes covered with +tufted grass and loose sands, I took the following measures:-- + + 5 degrees, slope of a very marked inclination. In France the high + roads must not exceed 4 degrees 46 minutes by law; + 15 degrees, slope extremely steep, and which we cannot descend in a + carriage; + 37 degrees, slope almost inaccessible on foot, if the ground be + naked rock, or turf too thick to form steps. The body falls + backwards when the tibia makes a smaller angle than 53 degrees with + the sole of the foot; + 42 degrees, the steepest slope that can be climbed on foot in a + ground that is sandy, or covered with volcanic ashes. + +When the slope is 44 degrees, it is almost impossible to scale it, +though the ground permits the forming of steps by thrusting in the +foot. The cones of volcanoes have a medium slope from 33 to 40 +degrees. The steepest parts of these cones, either of Vesuvius, the +Peak of Teneriffe, the volcano of Pichincha, or Jorullo, are from +40 to 42 degrees. A slope of 55 degrees is quite inaccessible. If +seen from above it would be estimated at 75 degrees.) + +Isolated volcanoes, in the most distant regions, are very analogous +in their structure. At great elevations all have considerable +plains, in the middle of which arises a cone perfectly circular. +Thus at Cotopaxi the plains of Suniguaicu extend beyond the farm of +Pansache. The stony summit of Antisana, covered with eternal snow, +forms an islet in the midst of an immense plain, the surface of +which is twelve leagues square, while its height exceeds that of +the peak of Teneriffe by two hundred toises. At Vesuvius, at three +hundred and seventy toises high, the cone detaches itself from the +plain of Atrio dei Cavalli. The peak of Teneriffe presents two of +these elevated plains, the uppermost of which, at the foot of the +Piton, is as high as Etna, and of very little extent; while the +lowermost, covered with tufts of retama, reaches as far as the +Estancia de los Ingleses. This rises above the level of the sea +almost as high as the city of Quito, and the summit of Mount +Lebanon. + +The greater the quantity of matter that has issued from the crater +of a mountain, the more elevated is its cone of ashes in proportion +to the perpendicular height of the volcano itself. Nothing is more +striking, under this point of view, than the difference of +structure between Vesuvius, the peak of Teneriffe, and Pichincha. I +have chosen this last volcano in preference, because its summit* +enters scarcely within the limit of the perpetual snows. (* I have +measured the summit of Pichincha, that is the small mountain +covered with ashes above the Llano del Vulcan, to the north of Alto +de Chuquira. This mountain has not, however, the regular form of a +cone. As to Vesuvius, I have indicated the mean height of the +Sugar-loaf, on account of the great difference between the two +edges of the crater.) The cone of Cotopaxi, the form of which is +the most elegant and most regular known, is 540 toises in height; +but it is impossible to decide whether the whole of this mass is +covered with ashes. + +TABLE 3: VOLCANOES: + +Column 1: Name of the volcano. + +Column 2: Total height in toises. + +Column 3: Height of the cone covered with ashes. + +Column 4: Proportion of the cone to the total height. + + Vesuvius : 606 : 200 : 1/3. + + Peak of Teneriffe : 1904 : 84 : 1/22. + + Pichincha : 2490 : 240 : 1/10. + +This table seems to indicate, what we shall have an opportunity of +proving more amply hereafter, that the peak of Teneriffe belongs to +that group of great volcanoes, which, like Etna and Antisana, have +had more copious eruptions from their sides than from their +summits. Thus the crater at the extremity of the Piton, which is +called the Caldera, is extremely small. Its diminutive size struck +M. de Borda, and other travellers, who took little interest in +geological investigations. + +As to the nature of the rocks which compose the soil of Teneriffe, +we must first distinguish between productions of the present +volcano, and the range of basaltic mountains which surround the +Peak, and which do not rise more than five or six hundred toises +above the level of the ocean. Here, as well as in Italy, Mexico, +and the Cordilleras of Quito, the rocks of trap-formation* are at a +distance from the recent currents of lava (* The trap-formation +includes the basalts, green-stone (grunstein), the trappean +porphyries, the phonolites or porphyrschiefer, etc.); everything +shows that these two classes of substances, though they owe their +origin to similar phenomena, date from very different periods. It +is important to geology not to confound the modern currents of +lava, the heaps of basalt, green-stone, and phonolite, dispersed +over the primitive and secondary formations, with those porphyroid +masses having bases of compact feldspar,* which perhaps have never +been perfectly liquified, but which do not less belong to the +domain of volcanoes. (* These petrosiliceous masses contain +vitreous and often calcined crystals of feldspar, of amphibole, of +pyroxene, a little of olivine, but scarcely any quartz. To this +very ambiguous formation belong the trappean porphyries of +Chimborazo and of Riobamba in America, of the Euganean mountains in +Italy, and of the Siebengebirge in Germany; as well as the domites +of the Great-Sarcouy, of Puy-de-Dome, of the Little Cleirsou, and +of one part of the Puy-Chopine in Auvergne.) + +In the island of Teneriffe, strata of tufa, puzzolana, and clay, +separate the range of basaltic hills from the currents of recent +lithoid lava, and from the eruptions of the present volcano. In the +same manner as the eruptions of Epomeo in the island of Ischia, and +those of Jorullo in Mexico, have taken place in countries covered +with trappean porphyry, ancient basalt, and volcanic ashes, so the +peak of Teyde has raised itself amidst the wrecks of submarine +volcanoes. Notwithstanding the difference of composition in the +recent lavas of the Peak, there is a certain regularity of +position, which must strike the naturalist least skilled in +geognosy. The great elevated plain of Retama separates the black, +basaltic, and earthlike lava, from the vitreous and feldsparry +lava, the basis of which is obsidian, pitch-stone, and phonolite. +This phenomenon is the more remarkable, inasmuch as in Bohemia and +in other parts of Europe, the porphyrschiefer with base of +phonolite* (* Klingstein. Werner.) covers also the convex summits +of basaltic mountains. + +It has already been observed, that from the level of the sea to +Portillo, and as far as the entrance on the elevated plain of the +Retama, that is, two-thirds of the total height of the volcano, the +ground is so covered with plants, that it is difficult to make +geological observations. The currents of lava, which we discover on +the slope of Monte Verde, between the beautiful spring of Dornajito +and Caravela, are black masses, altered by decomposition, sometimes +porous, and with very oblong pores. The basis of these lower lavas +is rather wacke than basalt; when it is spongy, it resembles the +amygdaloids* of Frankfort-on-the-Main. (* Wakkenartiger +mandelstein. Steinkaute.) Its fracture is generally irregular; +wherever it is conchoidal, we may presume that the cooling has been +more rapid, and the mass has been exposed to a less powerful +pressure. These currents of lava are not divided into regular +prisms, but into very thin layers, not very regular in their +inclination; they contain much olivine, small grains of magnetic +iron, and augite, the colour of which often varies from deep +leek-green to olive green, and which might be mistaken for +crystallized olivine, though no transition from one to the other of +these substances exists.* (* Steffens, Handbuch der Oryktognosie +tome 1 s. 364. The crystals which Mr. Friesleben and myself have +made known under the denomination of foliated olivine (blattriger +olivin) belong, according to Mr. Karsten, to the pyroxene augite. +Journal des Mines de Freiberg 1791 page 215.) Amphibole is in +general very rare at Teneriffe, not only in the modern lithoid +lavas, but also in the ancient basalts, as has been observed by M. +Cordier, who resided longer at the Canaries than any other +mineralogist. Nepheline, leucite, idocrase, and meionite have not +yet been seen at the peak of Teneriffe; for a reddish-grey lava, +which we found on the slope of Monte Verde, and which contains +small microscopic crystals, appears to me to be a close mixture of +basalt and analcime.* (* This substance, which M. Dolomieu +discovered in the amygdaloids of Catania in Sicily, and which +accompanies the stilbites of Fassa in Tyrol, forms, with the +chabasie of Hauy, the genus Cubicit of Werner. M. Cordier found at +Teneriffe xeolite in an amygdaloid which covers the basalts of La +Punta di Naga.) In like manner the lava of Scala, with which the +city of Naples is paved, contains a close mixture of basalt, +nepheline, and leucite. With respect to this last substance, which +has hitherto been observed only at Vesuvius and in the environs of +Rome, it exists perhaps at the peak of Teneriffe, in the old +currents of lava now covered by more recent ejections. Vesuvius, +during a long series of years, has also thrown out lavas without +leucites: and if it be true, as M. von Buch has rendered very +probable, that these crystals are formed only in the currents which +flow either from the crater itself, or very near its brink, we must +not be surprised at not finding them in the lavas of the peak. The +latter almost all proceed from lateral eruptions, and consequently +have been exposed to an enormous pressure in the interior of the +volcano. + +In the plain of Retama, the basaltic lavas disappear under heaps of +ashes, and pumice-stone reduced to powder. Thence to the summit, +from 1500 to 1900 toises in height, the volcano exhibits only +vitreous lava with bases of pitch-stone* (* Petrosilex resinite. +Hauy.) and obsidian. These lavas, destitute of amphibole and mica, +are of a blackish brown, often varying to the deepest olive green. +They contain large crystals of feldspar, which are not fissured, +and seldom vitreous. The analogy of those decidedly volcanic masses +with the resinite porphyries* (* Pechstein-porphyr. Werner.) of the +valley of Tribisch in Saxony is very remarkable; but the latter, +which belong to an extended and metalliferous formation of +porphyry, often contain quartz, which is wanting in the modern +lavas. When the basis of the lavas of the Malpays changes from +pitchstone to obsidian, its colour is paler, and is mixed with +grey; in this case, the feldspar passes by imperceptible gradations +from the common to the vitreous. Sometimes both varieties meet in +the same fragment, as we observed also in the trappean porphyries +of the valley of Mexico. The feldsparry lavas of the Peak, of a +much less black tinge than those of Arso in the island of Ischia, +whiten at the edge of the crater from the effect of the acid +vapours; but internally they are not found to be colourless like +that of the feldsparry lavas of the Solfatara at Naples, which +perfectly resemble the trappean porphyries at the foot of +Chimborazo. In the middle of the Malpays, at the height of the +cavern of ice, we found among the vitreous lavas with pitch-stone +and obsidian bases, blocks of real greenish-grey, or mountain-green +phonolite, with a smooth fracture, and divided into thin laminae, +sonorous and keen edged. These masses were the same as the +porphyrschiefer of the mountain of Bilin in Bohemia; we recognised +in them small long crystals of vitreous feldspar. + +This regular disposition of lithoid basaltic lava and feldsparry +vitreous lava is analogous to the phenomena of all trappean +mountains; it reminds us of those phonolites lying in very ancient +basalts, those close mixtures of augite and feldspar which cover +the hills of wacke or porous amygdaloids: but why are the +porphyritic or feldsparry lavas of the Peak found only on the +summit of the volcano? Should we conclude from this position that +they are of more recent formation than the lithoid basaltic lava, +which contains olivine and augite? I cannot admit this last +hypothesis; for lateral eruptions may have covered the feldsparry +nucleus, at a period when the crater had ceased its activity. At +Vesuvius also, we perceive small crystals of vitreous feldspar only +in the very ancient lavas of the Somma. These lavas, setting aside +the leucite, very nearly resemble the phonolitic ejections of the +Peak of Teneriffe. In general, the farther we go back from the +period of modern eruptions, the more the currents increase both in +size and extent, acquiring the character of rocks, by the +regularity of their position, by their division into parallel +strata, or by their independence of the present form of the ground. + +The Peak of Teneriffe is, next to Lipari, the volcano that has +produced most obsidian. This abundance is the more striking, as in +other regions of the earth, in Iceland, in Hungary, in Mexico, and +in the kingdom of Quito, we meet with obsidians only at great +distances from burning volcanoes. Sometimes they are scattered over +the fields in angular pieces; for instance, near Popayan, in South +America; at other times they form isolated rocks, as at Quinche, +near Quito. In other places (and this circumstance is very +remarkable), they are disseminated in pearl-stone, as at +Cinapecuaro, in the province of Mechoacan,* (* To the west of the +city of Mexico.) and at the Cabo de Gates, in Spain. At the peak of +Teneriffe the obsidian is not found towards the base of the +volcano, which is covered with modern lava: it is frequent only +towards the summit, especially from the plain of Retama, where very +fine specimens may be collected. This peculiar position, and the +circumstance that the obsidian of the Peak has been ejected by a +crater which for ages past has thrown out no flames, favour the +opinion, that volcanic vitrifications, wherever they are found, are +to be considered as of very ancient formation. + +Obsidian, jade, and Lydian-stone,* (* Lydischerstein.) are three +minerals, which nations ignorant of the use of copper or iron, have +in all ages employed for making keen-edged weapons. We see that +wandering hordes have dragged with them, in their distant journeys, +stones, the natural position of which the mineralogist has not yet +been able to determine. Hatchets of jade, covered with Aztec +hieroglyphics, which I brought from Mexico, resemble both in their +form and nature those made use of by the Gauls, and those we find +among the South Sea islanders. The Mexicans dug obsidian from +mines, which were of vast extent; and they employed it for making +knives, sword-blades, and razors. In like manner the Guanches, (in +whose language obsidian was called tabona,) fixed splinters of that +mineral to the ends of their lances. They carried on a considerable +trade in it with the neighbouring islands; and from the consumption +thus occasioned, and the quantity of obsidian which must have been +broken in the course of manufacture, we may presume that this +mineral has become scarce from the lapse of ages. We are surprised +to see an Atlantic nation substituting, like the natives of +America, vitrified lava for iron. In both countries this variety of +lava was employed as an object of ornament: and the inhabitants of +Quito made beautiful looking-glasses with an obsidian divided into +parallel laminae. + +There are three varieties of obsidian at the Peak. Some form +enormous blocks, several toises long, and often of a spheroidal +shape. We might suppose that they had been thrown out in a softened +state, and had afterwards been subject to a rotary motion. They +contain a quantity of vitreous feldspar, of a snow-white colour, +and the most brilliant pearly lustre. These obsidians are, +nevertheless, but little transparent on the edges; they are almost +opaque, of a brownish black, and of an imperfect conchoidal +fracture. They pass into pitch-stone; and we may consider them as +porphyries with a basis of obsidian. The second variety is found in +fragments much less considerable. It is in general of a greenish +black, sometimes of murky grey, very seldom of a perfect black, +like the obsidian of Hecla and Mexico. Its fracture is perfectly +conchoidal, and it is extremely transparent on the edges. I have +found in it neither amphibole nor pyroxene, but some small white +points, which seem to be feldspar. None of the obsidians of the +Peak appear in those grey masses of pearl or lavender-blue, +striped, and in separate wedge-formed pieces, like the obsidian of +Quito, Mexico, and Lipari, and which resemble the fibrous plates of +the crystalites of our glass-houses, on which Sir James Hall, Dr. +Thompson, and M. de Bellevue, have published some curious +observations.* (* The name crystalites has been given to the +crystalized thin plates observed in glass cooling slowly. The term +glastenized glass is employed by Dr. Thompson and others to +indicate glass which by slow cooling is wholly unvitrified, and has +assumed the appearance of a fossil substance, or real glass-stone.) + +The third variety of obsidian of the Peak is the most remarkable of +the whole, from its connexion with pumice-stone. It is, like that +above described, of a greenish black, sometimes of a murky grey, +but its very thin plates alternate with layers of pumice-stone. Dr. +Thomson's fine collection at Naples contained similar examples of +lithoid lava of Vesuvius, divided into very distinct plates, only a +line thick. The fibres of the pumice-stone of the Peak are very +seldom parallel to each other, and perpendicular to the strata of +obsidian; they are most commonly irregular, asbestoidal, like +fibrous glass-gall; and instead of being disseminated in the +obsidian, like crystalites, they are found simply adhering to one +of the external surfaces of this substance. During my stay at +Madrid, M. Hergen showed me several specimens in the mineralogical +collection of Don Jose Clavijo; and for a long time the Spanish +mineralogists considered them as furnishing undoubted proofs, that +pumice-stone owes its origin to obsidian, in some degree deprived +of colour, and swelled by volcanic fire. I was formerly of this +opinion, which, however, must be understood to refer to one variety +only of pumice. I even thought, with many other geologists, that +obsidian, so far from being vitrified lava, belonged to rocks that +were not volcanic; and that the fire, forcing its way through the +basalts, the green-stone rocks, the phonolites, and the porphyries +with bases of pitchstone and obsidian, the lavas and pumice-stone +were no other than these same rocks altered by the action of the +volcanoes. The deprivation of colour and extraordinary swelling +which the greater part of the obsidians undergo in a forge-fire, +their transition into pitch-stone, and their position in regions +very distant from burning volcanoes, appear to be phenomena very +difficult to reconcile, when we consider the obsidians as volcanic +glass. A more profound study of nature, new journeys, and +observations made on the productions of burning volcanoes, have led +me to renounce those ideas. + +It appears to me at present extremely probable, that obsidians, and +porphyries with bases of obsidian, are vitrified masses, the +cooling of which has been too rapid to change them into lithoid +lava. I consider even the pearlstone as an unvitrified obsidian: +for among the minerals in the King's cabinet at Berlin there are +volcanic glasses from Lipari, in which we see striated crystalites, +of a pearl-grey colour, and of an earthy appearance, forming +gradual approaches to a granular lithoid lava, like the pearlstone +of Cinapecuaro, in Mexico. The oblong bubbles observed in the +obsidians of every continent are incontestible proofs of their +ancient state of igneous fluidity; and Dr. Thompson possesses +specimens from Lipari, which are very instructive in this point of +view, because fragments of red porphyry, or porphyry lavas, which +do not entirely fill up the cavities of the obsidian, are found +enveloped in them. We might say, that these fragments had not time +to enter into complete solution in the liquified mass. They contain +vitreous feldspar, and augite, and are the same as the celebrated +columnar porphyries of the island of Panaria, which, without having +been part of a current of lava, seem raised up in the form of +hillocks, like many of the porphyries in Auvergne, in the Euganean +mountains, and in the Cordilleras of the Andes. + +The objections against the volcanic origin of obsidians, founded on +their speedy loss of colour, and their swelling by a slow fire, +have been shaken by the ingenious experiments of Sir James Hall. +These experiments prove, that a stone which is fusible only at +thirty-eight degrees of Wedgwood's pyrometer, yields a glass that +softens at fourteen degrees; and that this glass, melted again and +unvitrified (glastenized), is fusible again only at thirty-five +degrees of the same pyrometer. I applied the blowpipe to some black +pumice-stone from the volcano of the isle of Bourbon, which, on the +slightest contact with the flame, whitened and melted into an +enamel. + +But whether obsidians be primitive rocks which have undergone the +action of volcanic fire, or lavas repeatedly melted within the +crater, the origin of the pumice-stones contained in the obsidian +of the Peak of Teneriffe is not less problematic. This subject is +the more worthy of being investigated, since it is generally +interesting to the geology of volcanoes; and since that excellent +mineralogist, M. Fleuriau de Bellevue, after having examined Italy +and the adjacent islands with great attention, affirms, that it is +highly improbable that pumice-stone owes its origin to the swelling +of obsidian. + +The experiments of M. da Camara, and those I made in 1802, tend to +support the opinion, that the pumice-stones adherent to the +obsidians of the Peak of Teneriffe do not unite to them +accidentally, but are produced by the expansion of an elastic +fluid, which is disengaged from the compact vitreous matter. This +idea had for a long time occupied the mind of a person highly +distinguished for his talents and reputation at Quito, who, +unacquainted with the labours of the mineralogists of Europe, had +devoted himself to researches on the volcanoes of his country. Don +Juan de Larea, one of those men lately sacrificed to the fury of +faction, had been struck with the phenomena exhibited by obsidians +exposed to a white heat. He had thought, that, wherever volcanoes +act in the centre of a country covered with porphyry with base of +obsidian, the elastic fluids must cause a swelling of the liquified +mass, and perform an important part in the earthquakes preceding +eruptions. Without adopting an opinion, which seems somewhat bold, +I made, in concert with M. Larea, a series of experiments on the +tumefaction of the volcanic vitreous substances at Teneriffe, and +on those which are found at Quinche, in the kingdom of Quito. To +judge of the augmentation of their bulk, we measured pieces exposed +to a forge-fire of moderate heat, by the water they displaced from +a cylindric glass, enveloping the spongy mass with a thin coating +of wax. According to our experiments, the obsidians swelled very +unequally: those of the Peak and the black varieties of Cotopaxi +and of Quinche increased nearly five times their bulk. + +The colour of the pumice-stones of the Peak leads to another +important observation. The sea of white ashes which encircles the +Piton, and covers the vast plain of Retama, is a certain proof of +the former activity of the crater: for in all volcanoes, even when +there are lateral eruptions, the ashes and the rapilli issue +conjointly with the vapours only from the opening at the summit of +the mountain. Now, at Teneriffe, the black rapilli extend from the +foot of the Peak to the sea-shore; while the white ashes, which are +only pumice ground to powder, and among which I have discovered, +with a lens, fragments of vitreous feldspar and pyroxene, +exclusively occupy the region next to the Peak. This peculiar +distribution seems to confirm the observations made long ago at +Vesuvius, that the white ashes are thrown out last, and indicate +the end of the eruption. In proportion as the elasticity of the +vapours diminishes, the matter is thrown to a less distance; and +the black rapilli, which issue first, when the lava has ceased +running, must necessarily reach farther than the white rapilli. The +latter appear to have been exposed to the action of a more intense +fire. + +I have now examined the exterior structure of the Peak, and the +composition of its volcanic productions, from the region of the +coast to the top of the Piton:--I have endeavoured to render these +researches interesting, by comparing the phenomena of the volcano +of Teneriffe with those that are observed in other regions, the +soil of which is equally undermined by subterranean fires. This +mode of viewing Nature in the universality of her relations is no +doubt adverse to the rapidity desirable in an itinerary; but it +appears to me that, in a narrative, the principal end of which is +the progress of physical knowledge, every other consideration ought +to be subservient to those of instruction and utility. By isolating +facts, travellers, whose labours are in every other respect +valuable, have given currency to many false ideas of the pretended +contrasts which Nature offers in Africa, in New Holland, and on the +ridge of the Cordilleras. The great geological phenomena are +subject to regular laws, as well as the forms of plants and +animals. The ties which unite these phenomena, the relations which +exist between the varied forms of organized beings, are discovered +only when we have acquired the habit of viewing the globe as a +great whole; and when we consider in the same point of view the +composition of rocks, the causes which alter them, and the +productions of the soil, in the most distant regions. + +Having treated of the volcanic substances of the isle of Teneriffe, +there now remains to be solved a question intimately connected with +the preceding investigation. Does the archipelago of the Canary +Islands contain any rocks of primitive or secondary formation; or +is there any production observed, that has not been modified by +fire? This interesting problem has been considered by the +naturalists of Lord Macartney's expedition, and by those who +accompanied captain Baudin in his voyage to the Austral regions. +Their opinions are in direct opposition to each other; and the +contradiction is the more striking, as the question does not refer +to one of those geological reveries which we are accustomed to call +systems, but to a positive fact. + +Doctor Gillan imagined that he observed, between Laguna and the +port of Orotava, in very deep ravines, beds of primitive rocks. +This, however, is a mistake. What Dr. Gillan calls somewhat +vaguely, mountains of hard ferruginous clay, are nothing but an +alluvium which we find at the foot of every volcano. Strata of clay +accompany basalts, as tufas accompany modern lavas. Neither M. +Cordier nor myself observed in any part of Teneriffe a primitive +rock, either in its natural place, or thrown out by the mouth of +the Peak; and the absence of these rocks characterizes almost every +island of small extent that has an unextinguishied volcano. We know +nothing positive of the mountains of the Azores; but it is certain, +that the island of Bourbon as well as Teneriffe, exhibits only a +heap of lavas and basalts. No volcanic rock rears its head, either +on the Gros Morne, or on the volcano of Bourbon, or on the colossal +pyramid of Cimandef, which is perhaps more elevated than the Peak +of the Canary Islands. + +Bory St. Vincent nevertheless asserted, that lavas including +fragments of granite have been found on the elevated plain of +Retama; and M. Broussonnet informed me, that on a hill above +Guimar, fragments of mica-slate, containing beautiful plates of +specular iron, had been found. I can affirm nothing respecting the +accuracy of this latter statement, which it would be so much the +more important to verify, as M. Poli, of Naples, is in possession +of a fragment of rock thrown out by Vesuvius,* which I found to be +a real mica-slate. (* In the valuable collection of Dr. Thomson, +who resided at Naples till 1805, is a fragment of lava enclosing a +real granite, which is composed of reddish feldspar with a pearly +lustre like adularia, quartz, mica, hornblende, and, what is very +remarkable, lazulite. But in general the masses of known primitive +rocks, (I mean those which perfectly resemble our granites, our +gneiss, and our mica-slates) are very rare in lavas; the substances +we commonly denote by the name of granite, thrown out by Vesuvius, +are mixtures of nepheline, mica, and pyroxene. We are ignorant +whether these mixtures constitute rocks sui generis placed under +granite, and consequently of more ancient date; or simply form +either intermediate strata on veins, in the interior of the +primitive mountains, the tops of which appear at the surface of the +globe.) Every thing that tends to enlighten us with respect to the +site of the volcanic fire, and the position of rocks subject to its +action, is highly interesting to geology. + +It is possible, that at the Peak of Teneriffe, the fragments of +primitive rocks thrown out by the mouth of the volcano may be less +rare than they at present appear to be, and may be heaped together +in some ravine, not yet visited by travellers. In fact, at +Vesuvius, these same fragments are met with only in one single +place, at the Fossa Grande, where they are hidden under a thick +layer of ashes. If this ravine had not long ago attracted the +attention of naturalists, when masses of granular limestone, and +other primitive rocks, were laid bare by the rains, we might have +thought them as rare at Vesuvius, as they are, at least in +appearance, at the Peak of Teneriffe. + +With respect to the fragments of granite, gneiss, and mica-slate, +found on the shores of Santa Cruz and Orotava, they were probably +brought in ships as ballast. They no more belong to the soil where +they lie, than the feldsparry lavas of Etna, seen in the pavements +of Hamburg and other towns of the north. The naturalist is exposed +to a thousand errors, if he lose sight of the changes, produced on +the surface of the globe by the intercourse between nations. We +might be led to say, that man, when expatriating himself; is +desirous that everything should change country with him. Not only +plants, insects, and different species of small quadrupeds, follow +him across the ocean; his active industry covers the shores with +rocks, which he has torn from the soil in distant climes. + +Though it be certain, that no scientific observer has hitherto +found at Teneriffe primitive strata, or even those trappean and +ambiguous porphyries, which constitute the bases of Etna, and of +several volcanoes of the Andes, we must not conclude from this +isolated fact, that the whole archipelago of the Canaries is the +production of submarine fires. The island of Gomera contains +mountains of granite and mica-slate; and it is, undoubtedly, in +these very ancient rocks, that we must seek there, as well as on +all other parts of the globe, the centre of the volcanic action. +Amphibole, sometimes pure and forming intermediate strata, at other +times mixed with granite, as in the basanites or basalts of the +ancients, may, of itself, furnish all the iron contained in the +black and stony lavas. This quantity amounts in the basalt of the +modern mineralogists only to 0.20, while in amphibole it exceeds 0. +30. + +From several well-informed persons, to whom I addressed myself, I +learned that there are calcareous formations in the Great Canary, +Forteventura, and Lancerota.* (* At Lancerota calcareous stone is +burned to lime with a fire made of the alhulaga, a new species of +thorny and arborescent Sonchus.) I was not able to determine the +nature of this secondary rock; but it appears certain, that the +island of Teneriffe is altogether destitute of it; and that in its +alluvial lands it exhibits only clayey calcareous tufa, alternating +with volcanic breccia, said to contain, (near the village of La +Rambla, at Calderas, and near Candelaria,) plants, imprints of +fishes, buccinites, and other fossil marine productions. M. Cordier +brought away some of this tufa, which resembles that in the +environs of Naples and Rome, and contains fragments of reeds. At +the Salvages, which islands La Perouse took at a distance for +masses of scoriae, even fibrous gypsum is found. + +I had seen, while herborizing between the port of Orotava and the +garden of La Paz, heaps of greyish calcareous stones, of an +imperfect conchoidal fracture, and analogous to that of Mount Jura +and the Apennines. I was informed that these stones were extracted +from a quarry near Rambla; and that there were similar quarries +near Realejo, and the mountain of Roxas, above Adexa. This +information led me into an error. As the coasts of Portugal consist +of basalts covering calcareous rocks containing shells, I imagined +that a trappean formation, like that of the Vicentin in Lombardy, +and of Harutsh in Africa, might have extended from the banks of the +Tagus and Cape St. Vincent as far as the Canary Islands; and that +the basalts of the Peak might perhaps conceal a secondary +calcareous stone. These conjectures exposed me to severe +animadversions from M. G.A. de Luc, who is of opinion that every +volcanic island is only an accumulation of lavas and scoriae. M. de +Luc declares it is impossible that real lava should contain +fragments of vegetable substances. Our collections, however, +contain pieces of trunks of palm-trees, enclosed and penetrated by +the very liquid lava of the isle of Bourbon. + +Though Teneriffe belongs to a group of islands of considerable +extent, the Peak exhibits nevertheless all the characteristics of a +mountain rising on a solitary islet. The lead finds no bottom at a +little distance from the ports of Santa Cruz, Orotava, and +Garachico: in this respect it is like St. Helena. The ocean, as +well as the continents, has its mountains and its plains; and, if +we except the Andes, volcanic cones are formed everywhere in the +lower regions of the globe. + +As the Peak rises amid a system of basalts and old lava, and as the +whole part which is visible above the surface of the waters +exhibits burnt substances, it has been supposed that this immense +pyramid is the effect of a progressive accumulation of lavas; or +that it contains in its centre a nucleus of primitive rocks. Both +of these suppositions appear to me ill-founded. I think there is as +little probability that mountains of granite, gneiss, or primitive +calcareous stone have existed where we now see the tops of the +Peak, of Vesuvius, and of Etna, as in the plains where almost in +our own time has been formed the volcano of Jorullo, which is more +than a third of the height of Vesuvius. On examining the +circumstances which accompanied the formation of the new island, +called Sabrina, in the archipelago of the Azores;* (* At Sabrina +island, near St. Michael's, the crater opened at the foot of a +solid rock, of almost a cubical form. This rock, surmounted by a +small elevated plain perfectly level, is more than two hundred +toises in breadth. Its formation was anterior to that of the +crater, into which, a few days after its opening, the sea made an +irruption. At Kameni, the smoke was not even visible till +twenty-six days after the appearance of the upheaved rocks. +Philosophical Transactions volume 26 pages 69 and 200, volume 27 +page 353. All these phenomena, on which Mr. Hawkins collected very +valuable observations during his abode at Santorino, are +unfavourable to the idea commonly entertained of the origin of +volcanic mountains. They are usually ascribed to a progressive +accumulation of liquified matter, and the diffusion of lavas +issuing from a central mouth.) on carefully reading the minute and +simple narrative, given by the Jesuit Bourguignon of the slow +appearance of the islet of the little Kameni, near Santorino; we +find that these extraordinary eruptions are generally preceded by a +swelling of the softened crust of the globe. Rocks appear above the +waters before the flames force their way, or lavas issue from the +crater: we must distinguish between the nucleus raised up, and the +mass of lavas and scoriae, which successively increases its +dimensions. + +It is true that from all existing records of revolutions of this +kind, the perpendicular height of the stony nucleus appears never +to have exceeded one hundred and fifty or two hundred toises; even +taking into the account the depth of the sea, the bottom of which +had been lifted up: but when considering the great effects of +nature, and the intensity of its forces, the bulk of the masses +must not deter the geologist in his speculations. Every thing +indicates that the physical changes of which tradition has +preserved the remembrance, exhibit but a feeble image of those +gigantic catastrophes which have given mountains their present +form, changed the positions of the rocky strata, and buried +sea-shells on the summits of the higher Alps. Doubtless, in those +remote times which preceded the existence of the human race, the +raised crust of the globe produced those domes of trappean +porphyry, those hills of isolated basalt on vast elevated plains, +those solid nuclei which are clothed in the modern lavas of the +Peak, of Etna, and of Cotopaxi. The volcanic revolutions have +succeeded each other after long intervals, and at very different +periods: of this we see the vestiges in the transition mountains, +in the secondary strata, and in those of alluvium. Volcanoes of +earlier date than the sandstone and calcareous rocks have been for +ages extinguished; those which are yet in activity are in general +surrounded only with breccias and modern tufas; but nothing hinders +us from admitting, that the archipelago of the Canaries may exhibit +some real rocks of secondary formation, if we recollect that +subterranean fires have been there rekindled in the midst of a +system of basalts and very ancient lavas. + +We seek in vain in the Periplus of Hanno or of Scylax for the first +written notions on the eruptions of the Peak of Teneriffe. Those +navigators sailed timidly along the coast, anchoring every evening +in some bay, and had no knowledge of a volcano distant fifty-six +leagues from the coast of Africa. Hanno nevertheless relates, that +he saw torrents of light, which seemed to fall on the sea; that +every night the coast was covered with fire; and that the great +mountain, called the Car of the Gods, appeared to throw up sheets +of flame, which rose even to the clouds. But this mountain, +situated northward of the island of the Gorilli, formed the western +extremity of the Atlas chain; and it is also very uncertain whether +the flames seen by Hanno were the effect of some volcanic eruption, +or whether they must be attributed to the custom, common to many +nations, of setting fire to the forests and dry grass of the +savannahs. In our own days similar doubts were entertained by the +naturalists, who, in the voyage of d'Entrecasteaux, saw the island +of Amsterdam covered with a thick smoke. On the coast of the +Caracas, trains of reddish fire, fed by the burning grass, appeared +to me, for several nights, under the delusive semblance of a +current of lava, descending from the mountains, and dividing itself +into several branches. + +Though the narratives of Hanno and Scylax, in the state in which +they have reached us, contain no passage which we can reasonably +apply to the Canary Islands, it is very probable that the +Carthaginians, and even the Phoenicians, had some knowledge of the +Peak of Teneriffe. In the time of Plato and Aristotle, vague +notions of it had reached the Greeks, who considered the whole of +the coast of Africa, beyond the Pillars of Hercules, as thrown into +disorder by the fire of volcanoes. The Abode of the Blessed, which +was sought first in the north, beyond the Riphaean mountains, among +the Hyperboreans, and next to the south of Cyrenaica, was supposed +to be situated in regions that were considered to be westward, +being the direction in which the world known to the ancients +terminated. The name of Fortunate Islands was long in as vague +signification, as that of El Dorado among the conquerors of +America. Happiness was thought to reside at the end of the earth, +as we seek for the most exquisite enjoyments of the mind in an +ideal world beyond the limits of reality.* (* The idea of the +happiness, the great civilization, and the riches of the +inhabitants of the north, was common to the Greeks, to the people +of India, and to the Mexicans.) + +We must not be surprised that, previous to the time of Aristotle, +we find no accurate notion respecting the Canary Islands and the +volcanoes they contain, among the Greek geographers. The only +nation whose navigations extended toward the west and the north, +the Carthaginians, were interested in throwing a veil of mystery +over those distant regions. While the senate of Carthage was averse +to any partial emigration, it pointed out those islands as a place +of refuge in times of trouble and public misfortune; they were to +the Carthaginians what the free soil of America has become to +Europeans amidst their religious and civil dissensions. + +The Canaries were not better known to the Romans till eighty-four +years before the reign of Augustus. A private individual was +desirous of executing the project, which wise foresight had +dictated to the senate of Carthage. Sertorius, conquered by Sylla, +and weary of the din of war, looked out for a safe and peaceable +retreat. He chose the Fortunate Islands, of which a delightful +picture had been drawn for him on the shores of Baetica. He +carefully combined the notions he acquired from travellers; but in +the little that has been transmitted to us of those notions, and in +the more minute descriptions of Sebosus and Juba, there is no +mention of volcanoes or volcanic eruptions. Scarcely can we +recognise the isle of Teneriffe, and the snows with which the +summit of the Peak is covered in winter, in the name of Nivaria, +given to one of the Fortunate Islands. Hence we might conclude, +that the volcano at that time threw out no flames, if it were +allowable so to interpret the silence of a few authors, whom we +know only by short fragments or dry nomenclatures. The naturalist +vainly seeks in history for documents of the first eruptions of the +Peak; he nowhere finds any but in the language of the Guanches, in +which the word Echeyde denotes, at the same time, hell and the +volcano of Teneriffe. + +Of all the written testimonies, the oldest I have found in relation +to the activity of this volcano dates from the beginning of the +sixteenth century. It is contained in the narrative of the voyage +of Aloysio Cadamusto, who landed at the Canaries in 1505. This +traveller was witness of no eruptions, but he positively affirms +that, like Etna, this mountain burns without interruption, and that +the fire has been seen by christians held in slavery by the +Guanches of Teneriffe. The Peak, therefore, was not at that time in +the state of repose in which we find it at present; for it is +certain that no navigator or inhabitant of Teneriffe has seen issue +from the mouth of the Peak, I will not say flames, but even any +smoke visible at a distance. It would be well, perhaps, were the +funnel of the Caldera to open anew; the lateral eruptions would +thereby be rendered less violent, and the whole group of islands +would be less endangered by earthquakes. + +The eruptions of the Peak have been very rare for two centuries +past, and these long intervals appear to characterize volcanoes +highly elevated. The smallest one of all, Stromboli, is almost +always burning. At Vesuvius, the eruptions are rarer than formerly, +though still more frequent than those of Etna and the Peak of +Teneriffe. The colossal summits of the Andes, Cotopaxi and +Tungurahua, scarcely have an eruption once in a century. We may +say, that in active volcanoes the frequency of the eruptions is in +the inverse ratio of the height and the mass. The Peak also had +seemed extinguished during ninety-two years, when, in 1798, it made +its last eruption by a lateral opening formed in the mountain of +Chahorra. In this interval Vesuvius had sixteen eruptions. + +The whole of the mountainous part of the kingdom of Quito may be +considered as an immense volcano, occupying more than seven hundred +square leagues of surface, and throwing out flames by different +cones, known under the particular denominations of Cotopaxi, +Tungurahua, and Pichincha. The group of the Canary Islands is +situated on the same sort of submarine volcano. The fire makes its +way sometimes by one and sometimes by another of these islands. +Teneriffe alone contains in its centre an immense pyramid +terminating in a crater, and throwing out, from one century to +another, lava by its flanks. In the other islands, the different +eruptions have taken place in various parts; and we nowhere find +those isolated mountains to which the volcanic effects are +confined. The basaltic crust, formed by ancient volcanoes, seems +everywhere undermined; and the currents of lava, seen at Lancerota +and Palma, remind us, by every geological affinity, of the eruption +which took place in 1301 at the island of Ischia, amid the tufas of +Epomeo. + +The exclusively lateral action of the peak of Teneriffe is a +geological phenomenon, the more remarkable as it contributes to +make the mountains which are backed by the principal volcano appear +isolated. It is true, that in Etna and Vesuvius the great flowings +of lava do not proceed from the crater itself, and that the +abundance of melted matter is generally in the inverse ratio of the +height of the opening whence the lava is ejected. But at Vesuvius +and Etna a lateral eruption constantly terminates by flashes of +flame and by ashes issuing from the crater, that is, from the +summit of the mountain. At the Peak this phenomenon has not been +witnessed for ages: and yet recently, in the eruption of 1798, the +crater remained quite inactive. Its bottom did not sink in; while +at Vesuvius, as M. von Buch has observed, the greater or less depth +of the crater is an infallible indication of the proximity of a new +eruption. + +I might terminate these geological sketches by enquiring into the +nature of the combustible which has fed for so many thousands of +years the fire of the peak of Teneriffe;--I might examine whether +it be sodium or potassium, the metallic basis of some earth, +carburet of hydrogen, or pure sulphur combined with iron, that +burns in the volcano;--but wishing to limit myself to what may be +the object of direct observation, I shall not take upon me to solve +a problem for which we have not yet sufficient data. We know not +whether we may conclude, from the enormous quantity of sulphur +contained in the crater of the Peak, that it is this substance +which keeps up the heat of the volcano; or whether the fire, fed by +some combustible of an unknown nature, effects merely the +sublimation of the sulphur. What we learn from observation is, that +in craters which are still burning, sulphur is very rare; while all +the ancient volcanoes end in becoming sulphur-pits. We might +presume that, in the former, the sulphur is combined with oxygen, +while, in the latter, it is merely sublimated; for nothing hitherto +authorises us to admit that it is formed in the interior of +volcanoes, like ammonia and the neutral salts. When we were yet +unacquainted with sulphur, except as disseminated in the +muriatiferous gypsum and in the Alpine limestone, we were almost +forced to the belief, that in every part of the globe the volcanic +fire acted on rocks of secondary formation; but recent observations +have proved that sulphur exists in great abundance in those +primitive rocks which so many phenomena indicate as the centre of +the volcanic action. Near Alausi, at the back of the Andes of +Quito, I found an immense quantity in a bed of quartz, which formed +a layer of mica-slate. This fact is the more important, as it is in +strict conformity with the conclusions deduced from the observation +of those fragments of ancient rocks which are thrown out intact by +volcanoes. + +We have just considered the island of Teneriffe merely in a +geological point of view; we have seen the Peak towering amid +fractured strata of basalt and mandelstein; let us examine how +these fused masses have been gradually adorned with vegetable +clothing, what is the distribution of plants on the steep declivity +of the volcano, and what is the aspect or physiognomy of vegetation +in the Canary Islands. + +In the northern part of the temperate zone, the cryptogamous plants +are the first that cover the stony crust of the globe. The lichens +and mosses, that develop their foliage beneath the snows, are +succeeded by grumina and other phanerogamous plants. This order of +vegetation differs on the borders of the torrid zone, and in the +countries between the tropics. We there find, it is true, whatever +some travellers may have asserted, not only on the mountains, but +also in humid and shady places, almost on a level with the sea, +Funaria, Dicranum, and Bryum; and these genera, among their +numerous species, exhibit several which are common to Lapland, to +the Peak of Teneriffe, and to the Blue Mountains of Jamaica. (This +extraordinary fact was first observed by M. Swarz. It was confirmed +by M. Willdenouw when he carefully examined our herbals, especially +the collection of cryptogamous plants, which we gathered on the +tops of the Andes, in a region of the world where organic life is +totally different from that of the old world.) Nevertheless, in +general, it is not by mosses and lichens that vegetation in the +countries near the tropics begins. In the Canary Islands, as well +as in Guinea, and on the rocky coasts of Peru, the first vegetation +which prepares the soil are the succulent plants; the leaves of +which, provided with an infinite number of orifices* (* The pores +corticaux of M. Decandolle, discovered by Gleichen, and figured by +Hedwig.) and cutaneous vessels, deprive the ambient air of the +water it holds in solution. Fixed in the crevices of volcanic +rocks, they form, as it were, that first layer of vegetable earth +with which the currents of lithoid lava are clothed. Wherever these +lavas are scorified, and where they have a shining surface, as in +the basaltic mounds to the north of Lancerota, the development of +vegetation is extremely slow, and many ages may pass away before +shrubs can take root. It is only when lavas are covered with tufa +and ashes, that the volcanic islands, losing that appearance of +nudity which marks their origin, bedeck themselves in rich and +brilliant vegetation. + +In its present state, the island of Teneriffe, the Chinerfe* (* Of +Chinerfe the Europeans have formed, by corruption, Tchineriffe and +Teneriffe.) of the Guanches, exhibits five zones of plants, which +we may distinguish by the names--region of vines, region of +laurels, region of pines, region of the retama, and region of +grasses. These zones are ranged in stages, one above another, and +occupy, on the steep declivity of the Peak, a perpendicular height +of 1750 toises; while fifteen degrees farther north, on the +Pyrenees, snow descends to thirteen or fourteen hundred toises of +absolute elevation. If the plants of Teneriffe do not reach the +summit of the volcano, it is not because the perpetual snow and the +cold of the surrounding atmosphere mark limits which they cannot +pass; it is the scorified lava of the Malpays, the powdered and +barren pumice-stone of the Piton, which impede the migration of +plants towards the brink of the crater. + +The first zone, that of the vines, extends from the sea-shore to +two or three hundred toises of height; it is that which is most +inhabited, and the only part carefully cultivated. In the low +regions, at the port of Orotava, and wherever the winds have free +access, the centigrade thermometer stands in winter, in the months +of January and February, at noon, between fifteen and seventeen +degrees; and the greatest heats of summer do not exceed twenty-five +or twenty-six degrees. The mean temperature of the coasts of +Teneriffe appears at least to rise to twenty-one degrees (16.8 +degrees Reaumur); and the climate in those parts keeps at the +medium between the climate of Naples and that of the torrid zone. + +The region of the vines exhibits, among its vegetable productions, +eight kinds of arborescent Euphorbia; Mesembrianthema, which are +multiplied from the Cape of Good Hope to the Peloponnesus; the +Cacalia Kleinia, the Dracaena, and other plants, which in their +naked and tortuous trunks, in their succulent leaves, and their +tint of bluish green, exhibit distinctive marks of the vegetation +of Africa. It is in this zone that the date-tree, the plantain, the +sugar-cane, the Indian fig, the Arum Colocasia, the root of which +furnishes a nutritive fecula, the olive-tree, the fruit trees of +Europe, the vine, and corn are cultivated. Corn is reaped from the +end of March to the beginning of May: and the culture of the +bread-fruit tree of Otaheite, that of the cinnamon tree of the +Moluccas, the coffee-tree of Arabia, and the cacao-tree of America, +have been tried with success. On several points of the coast the +country assumes the character of a tropical landscape; and we +perceive that the region of the palms extends beyond the limits of +the torrid zone. The chamaerops and the date-tree flourish in the +fertile plains of Murviedro, on the coasts of Genoa, and in +Provence, near Antibes, between the thirty-ninth and forty-fourth +degrees of latitude; a few trees of the latter species, planted +within the walls of the city of Rome, resist even the cold of 2.5 +degrees below freezing point. But if the south of Europe as yet +only partially shares the gifts lavished by nature on the zone of +palms, the island of Teneriffe, situated on the parallel of Egypt, +southern Persia, and Florida, is adorned with the greater part of +the vegetable forms which add to the majesty of the landscape in +the regions near the equator. + +On reviewing the different tribes of indigenous plants, we regret +not finding trees with small pinnated leaves, and arborescent +gramina. No species of the numerous family of the sensitive-plants +has migrated as far as the archipelago of the Canary Islands, while +on both continents they have been seen in the thirty-eighth and +fortieth degrees of latitude. On a more careful examination of the +plants of the islands of Lancerota and Forteventura, which are +nearest the coast of Morocco, we may perhaps find a few mimosas +among many other plants of the African flora. + +The second zone, that of the laurels, comprises the woody part of +Teneriffe: this is the region of the springs, which gush forth +amidst turf always verdant, and never parched with drought. Lofty +forests crown the hills leading to the volcano, and in them are +found four species of laurel,* (* Laurus indica, L. foetens, L. +nobilis, and L. Til. With these trees are mingled the Ardisia +excelsa, Rhamnus glandulosus, Erica arborea and E. texo.) an oak +nearly resembling the Quercus Turneri* (* Quercus canariensis, +Broussonnet.) of the mountains of Tibet, the Visnea mocanera, the +Myrica Faya of the Azores, a native olive (Olea excelsa), which is +the largest tree of this zone, two species of Sideroxylon, the +leaves of which are extremely beautiful, the Arbutus callicarpa, +and other evergreen trees of the family of myrtles. Bindweeds, and +an ivy very different from that of Europe (Hedera canariensis) +entwine the trunks of the laurels; at their feet vegetate a +numberless quantity of ferns,* (* Woodwardia radicans, Asplenium +palmatum, A. canariensis, A. latifolium, Nothalaena subcordata, +Trichomanes canariensis, T. speciosum, and Davallia canariensis.) +of which three species* (* Two Acrostichums and the Ophyoglossum +lusitanicum.) alone descend as low as the region of the vines. The +soil, covered with mosses and tender grass, is enriched with the +flowers of the Campanula aurea, the Chrysanthemum pinnatifidum, the +Mentha canariensis, and several bushy species of Hypericum.* (* +Hypericum canariense, H. floribundum, and H. glandulosum.) +Plantations of wild and grafted chestnut-trees form a broad border +round the region of the springs, which is the greenest and most +agreeable of the whole. + +In the third zone (beginning at nine hundred toises of absolute +height), the last groups of Arbutus, of Myrica Faya, and of that +beautiful heath known to the natives by the name of Texo, appear. +This zone, four hundred toises in breadth, is entirely filled by a +vast forest of pines, among which mingles the Juniperus cedro of +Broussonnet. The leaves of these pines are very long and stiff, and +they sprout sometimes by pairs, but oftener by threes in one +sheath. Having had no opportunity of examining the fructification, +we cannot say whether this species, which has the appearance of the +Scotch fir, is really different from the eighteen species of pines +with which we are already acquainted in Europe. M. Decandolle is of +opinion that the pine of Teneriffe is equally distinct from the +Pinus atlantica of the neighbouring mountains of Mogador, and from +the pine of Aleppo,* (* Pinus halepensis. M. Decandolle observes, +that this species, which is not found in Portugal, but grows on the +Mediterranean shores of France, Spain, and Italy, in Asia Minor, +and in Barbary, would be better named Pinus mediterranea. It +composes the principal part of the pine-forests of the south-east +of France, where Gouan and Gerard have confounded it with the Pinus +sylvestris. It comprehends the Pinus halepensis, Mill., Lamb., and +Desfont., and the Pinus maritima, Lamb.) which belongs to the basin +of the Mediterranean, and does not appear to have passed the +Pillars of Hercules. We met with these last pines on the slope of +the Peak, near twelve hundred toises above the level of the sea. In +the Cordilleras of New Spain, under the torrid zone, the Mexican +pines extend to the height of two thousand toises. Notwithstanding +the similarity of structure existing between the different species +of the same genus of plants, each of them requires a certain degree +of temperature and rarity in the ambient air to attain its due +growth. If in temperate climates, and wherever snow falls, the +uniform heat of the soil be somewhat above the mean heat of the +atmosphere, it is probable that at the height of Portillo the roots +of the pines draw their nourishment from a soil, in which, at a +certain depth, the thermometer rises at most to nine or ten +degrees. + +The fourth and fifth zones, the regions of the retama and the +gramina, occupy heights equal to the most inaccessible summits of +the Pyrenees. It is the sterile part of the island where heaps of +pumice-stone, obsidian, and broken lava, form impediments to +vegetation. We have already spoken of those flowery tufts of alpine +broom (Spartium nubigenum), which form oases amidst a vast desert +of ashes. Two herbaceous plants, the Scrophularia glabrata and the +Viola cheiranthifolia, advance even to the Malpays. Above a turf +scorched by the heat of an African sun, an arid soil is overspread +by the Cladonia paschalis. Towards the summit of the Peak the +Urceolarea and other plants of the family of the lichens, help to +work the decomposition of the scorified matter. By this unceasing +action of organic force the empire of Flora is extended over +islands ravaged by volcanoes. + +On surveying the different zones of the vegetation of Teneriffe, we +perceive that the whole island may be considered as a forest of +laurels, arbutus, and pines, containing in its centre a naked and +rocky soil, unfit either for pasturage or cultivation. M. +Broussonnet observes, that the archipelago of the Canaries may be +divided into two groups of islands; the first comprising Lancerota +and Forteventura, the second Teneriffe, Canary, Gomera, Ferro, and +Palma. The appearance of the vegetation essentially differs in +these two groups. The eastern islands, Lancerota and Forteventura, +consist of extensive plains and mountains of little elevation; they +have very few springs, and bear the appearance, still more than the +other islands, of having been separated from the continent. The +winds blow in the same direction, and at the same periods: the +Euphorbia mauritanica, the Atropa frutescens, and the arborescent +Sonchus, vegetate there in the loose sands, and afford, as in +Africa, food for camels. The western group of the Canaries presents +a more elevated soil, is more woody, and is watered by a greater +number of springs. + +Though the whole archipelago contains several plants found also in +Portugal,* (* M. Willdenouw and myself found, among the plants of +the peak of Teneriffe, the beautiful Satyrium diphyllum (Orchis +cordata, Willd.) which Mr. Link discovered in Portugal. The +Canaries have, in common with the Flora of the Azores, not the +Dicksonia culcita, the only arborescent heath found at the +thirty-ninth degree of latitude, but the Asplenium palmatum, and +the Myrica Faya. This last tree is met with in Portugal, in a wild +state. Count Hoffmansegg has seen very old trunks of it; but it was +doubtful whether it was indigenous, or imported into that part of +our continent. In reflecting on the migrations of plants, and on +the geological possibility, that lands sunk in the ocean may have +heretofore united Portugal, the Azores, the Canaries, and the chain +of Atlas, we conceive, that the existence of the Myrica Faya in +western Europe is a phenomenon at least as striking as that of the +pine of Aleppo would be at the Azores.), in Spain, at the Azores, +and in the north-west of Africa, yet a great number of species, and +even some genera, are peculiar to Teneriffe, to Porto Santo, and to +Madeira. Such are the Mocanera, the Plocama, the Bosea, the +Canarina, the Drusa, and the Pittosporum. A form which may be +called northern, that of the cruciform plant (Among the small +number of cruciform species contained in the Flora of Teneriffe, we +shall here mention Cheiranthus longifolius, l'Herit.; Ch. +fructescens, Vent.; Ch. scoparius, Brouss.; Erysimum bicorne, +Aiton; Crambe strigosa, and C. laevigata, Brouss.), is much rarer +in the Canaries than in Spain and in Greece. Still farther to the +south, in the equinoctial regions of both continents, where the +mean temperature of the air rises above twenty-two degrees, the +cruciform plants are scarcely ever to be seen. + +A question highly interesting to the history of the progressive +marks of organization on the globe has been very warmly discussed +in our own times, that of ascertaining whether the polymorphous +plants are more common in the volcanic islands. The vegetation of +Teneriffe is unfavourable to the hypothesis that nature in new +countries is but little subject to permanent forms. M. Broussonnet, +who resided so long at the Canaries, asserts that the variable +plants are not more common there than in the south of Europe. May +it not to be presumed, that the polymorphous species, which are so +abundant in the isle of Bourbon, are assignable to the nature of +the soil and climate rather than to the newness of the vegetation? + +Before we take leave of the old world to pass into the new, I must +advert to a subject which is of general interest, because it +belongs to the history of man, and to those fatal revolutions which +have swept off whole tribes from the face of the earth. We inquire +at the isle of Cuba, at St. Domingo, and in Jamaica, where is the +abode of the primitive inhabitants of those countries? We ask at +Teneriffe what is become of the Guanches, whose mummies alone, +buried in caverns, have escaped destruction? In the fifteenth +century almost all mercantile nations, especially the Spaniards and +the Portuguese, sought for slaves at the Canary Islands, as in +later times they have been sought on the coast of Guinea.* (* The +Spanish historians speak of expeditions made by the Huguenots of +Rochelle to carry off Guanche slaves. I have some doubt respecting +these expeditions, which are said to have taken place subsequently +to the year 1530.) The Christian religion, which in its origin was +so highly favourable to the liberty of mankind, served afterwards +as a pretext to the cupidity of Europeans. Every individual, made +prisoner before he received the rite of baptism, became a slave. At +that period no attempt had yet been made to prove that the blacks +were an intermediate race between man and animals. The swarthy +Guanche and the African negro were simultaneously sold in the +market of Seville, without a question whether slavery should be the +doom only of men with black skins and woolly hair. + +The archipelago of the Canaries was divided into several small +states hostile to each other, and in many instances the same island +was subject to two independent princes. The trading nations, +influenced by the hideous policy still exercised on the coast of +Africa, kept up intestine warfare. One Guanche then became the +property of another, who sold him to the Europeans; several, who +preferred death to slavery, killed themselves and their children. +The population of the Canaries had considerably suffered by the +slave trade, by the depredations of pirates, and especially by a +long period of carnage, when Alonzo de Lugo completed the conquest +of the Guanches. The surviving remnants of the race perished mostly +in 1494, in the terrible pestilence called the modorra, which was +attributed to the quantity of dead bodies left exposed in the open +air by the Spaniards after the battle of La Laguna. The nation of +the Guanches was extinct at the beginning of the seventeenth +century; a few old men only were found at Candelaria and Guimar. + +It is, however, consoling to find that the whites have not always +disdained to intermarry with the natives; but the Canarians of the +present day, whom the Spaniards familiarly call Islenos +(Islanders), have very powerful motives for denying this mixture. +In a long series of generations time effaces the characteristic +marks of a race; and as the descendants of the Andalusians settled +at Teneriffe are themselves of dark complexion, we may conceive +that intermarriages cannot have produced a perceptible change in +the colour of the whites. It is very certain that no native of pure +race exists in the whole island. It is true that a few Canarian +families boast of their relationship to the last shepherd-king of +Guimar, but these pretensions do not rest on very solid +foundations, and are only renewed from time to time when some +Canarian of more dusky hue than his countrymen is prompted to +solicit a commission in the service of the king of Spain. + +A short time after the discovery of America, when Spain was at the +highest pinnacle of her glory, the gentle character of the Guanches +was the fashionable topic, as we in our times laud the Arcadian +innocence of the inhabitants of Otaheite. In both these pictures +the colouring is more vivid than true. When nations, wearied with +mental enjoyments, behold nothing in the refinement of manners but +the germ of depravity, they are pleased with the idea, that in some +distant region, in the first dawn of civilization, infant society +enjoys pure and perpetual felicity. To this sentiment Tacitus owed +a part of his success, when he sketched for the Romans, subjects of +the Caesars, a picture of the manners of the inhabitants of +Germany. The same sentiment gives an ineffable charm to the +narrative of those travellers who, at the close of the last +century, visited the South Sea Islands. + +The inhabitants of those islands, too much vaunted (and previously +anthropophagi), resemble, under more than one point of view, the +Guanches of Teneriffe. Both nations were under the yoke of feudal +government. Among the Guanches, this institution, which facilitates +and renders a state of warfare perpetual, was sanctioned by +religion. The priests declared to the people: "The great Spirit, +Achaman, created first the nobles, the achimenceys, to whom he +distributed all the goats that exist on the face of the earth. +After the nobles, Achaman created the plebeians, achicaxnas. This +younger race had the boldness to petition also for goats; but the +supreme Spirit answered, that this race was destined to serve the +nobles, and that they had need of no property." This tradition was +made, no doubt, to please the rich vassals of the shepherd-kings. +The faycan, or high priest, also exercised the right of conferring +nobility; and the law of the Guanches expressed that every +achimencey who degraded himself by milking a goat with his own +hands, lost his claim to nobility. This law does not remind us of +the simplicity of the Homeric age. We are astonished to see the +useful labours of agriculture, and of pastoral life, exposed to +contempt at the very dawn of civilization. + +The Guanches, famed for their tall stature, were the Patagonians of +the old world. Historians exaggerated the muscular strength of the +Guanches, as, previous to the voyage of Bougainville and Cordoba, +colossal proportions were attributed to the tribe that inhabited +the southern extremity of America. I never saw Guanche mummies but +in the cabinets of Europe. At the time I visited the Canaries they +were very scarce; a considerable number, however, might be found if +miners were employed to open the sepulchral caverns which are cut +in the rock on the eastern slope of the Peak, between Arico and +Guimar. These mummies are in a state of desiccation so singular, +that whole bodies, with their integuments, frequently do not weigh +above six or seven pounds; or a third less than the skeleton of an +individual of the same size, recently stripped of the muscular +flesh. The conformation of the skull has some slight resemblance to +that of the white race of the ancient Egyptians; and the incisive +teeth of the Guanches are blunted, like those of the mummies found +on the banks of the Nile. But this form of teeth is the result of +art; and on examining more carefully the physiognomy of the ancient +Canarians, Blumenbach and other able anatomists have recognized in +the cheek bones and the lower jaw perceptible differences from the +Egyptian mummies. On opening those of the Guanches, remains of +aromatic plants are discovered, among which the Chenopodium +ambrosioides is constantly perceived: the bodies are often +decorated with small laces, to which are hung little discs of baked +earth, which appear to have served as numerical signs, and resemble +the quippoes of the Peruvians, the Mexicans, and the Chinese. + +The population of islands being in general less exposed than that +of continents to the effect of migrations, we may presume that, in +the time of the Carthaginians and the Greeks, the archipelago of +the Canaries was inhabited by the same race of men as were found by +the Norman and Spanish conquerors. The only monument that can throw +any light on the origin of the Guanches is their language; but +unhappily there are not above a hundred and fifty words extant, and +several express the same object, according to the dialect of the +different islanders. Independently of these words, which have been +carefully noted, there are still some valuable fragments existing +in the names of a great number of hamlets, hills, and valleys. The +Guanches, like the Biscayans, the Hindoos, the Peruvians, and all +primitive nations, named places after the quality of the soil, the +shape of the rocks, the caverns that gave them shelter, and the +nature of the tree that overshadowed the springs.* + +(* It has been long imagined, that the language of the Guanches had +no analogy with the living tongues; but since the travels of +Hornemann, and the ingenious researches of Marsden and Venturi, +have drawn the attention of the learned to the Berbers, who, like +the Sarmatic tribes, occupy an immense extent of country in the +north of Africa, we find that several Guanche words have common +roots with words of the Chilha and Gebali dialects. We shall cite, +for instance, the words: + +TABLE OF WORDS. + +Column 1: Word. + +Column 2: In Guanche. + +Column 3: In Berberic. + + Heaven : Tigo : Tigot. + Milk : Aho : Acho. + Barley : Temasen : Tomzeen. + Basket : Carianas : Carian. + Water : Aenum : Anan. + +I doubt whether this analogy is a proof of a common origin; but it +is an indication of the ancient connexion between the Guanches and +Berbers, a tribe of mountaineers, in which the ancient Numidians, +Getuli, and Garamanti are confounded, and who extend themselves +from the eastern extremity of Atlas by Harutsh and Fezzan, as far +as the oasis of Siwah and Augela. The natives of the Canary Islands +called themselves Guanches, from guan, man; as the Tonguese call +themselves bye, and tongui, which have the same signification as +guan. Besides the nations who speak the Berberic language are not +all of the same race; and the description which Scylax gives, in +his Periplus, of the inhabitants of Cerne, a shepherd people of +tall stature and long hair, reminds us of the features which +characterize the Canarian Guanches.) + +The greater attention we direct to the study of languages in a +philosophical point of view, the more we must observe that no one +of them is entirely distinct. The language of the Guanches would +appear still less so, had we any data respecting its mechanism and +grammatical construction; two elements more important than the form +of words, and the identity of sounds. It is the same with certain +idioms, as with those organized beings that seem to shrink from all +classification in the series of natural families. Their isolated +state is merely apparent; for it ceases when, on embracing a +greater number of objects, we come to discover the intermediate +links. Those learned enquirers who trace Egyptians wherever there +are mummies, hieroglyphics, or pyramids, will imagine perhaps that +the race of Typhon was united to the Guanches by the Berbers, real +Atlantes, to whom belong the Tibboes and the Tuarycks of the +desert: but this hypothesis is supported by no analogy between the +Berberic and Coptic languages, which are justly considered as +remnants of the ancient Egyptian. + +The people who have succeeded the Guanches are descended from the +Spaniards, and in a more remote degree from the Normans. Though +these two races have been exposed during three centuries past to +the same climate, the latter is distinguished by the fairer +complexion. The descendants of the Normans inhabit the valley of +Teganana, between Punta de Naga and Punta de Hidalgo. The names of +Grandville and Dampierre are still pretty common in this district. +The Canarians are a moral, sober, and religious people, of a less +industrious character at home than in foreign countries. A roving +and enterprising disposition leads these islanders, like the +Biscayans and Catalonians, to the Philippines, to the Ladrone +Islands, to America, and wherever there are Spanish settlements, +from Chile and La Plata to New Mexico. To them we are in a great +measure indebted for the progress of agriculture in those colonies. +The whole archipelago does not contain 160,030 inhabitants, and the +Islenos are perhaps more numerous in the new continent than in +their own country. + + +CHAPTER 1.3. + +PASSAGE FROM TENERIFE TO SOUTH AMERICA. +THE ISLAND OF TOBAGO. +ARRIVAL AT CUMANA. + +We left the road of Santa Cruz on the 25th of June, and directed +our course towards South America. We soon lost sight of the Canary +Islands, the lofty mountains of which were covered with a reddish +vapour. The Peak alone appeared from time to time, as at intervals +the wind dispersed the clouds that enveloped the Piton. We felt, +for the first time, how strong are the impressions left on the mind +from the aspect of those countries situated on the limits of the +torrid zone, where nature appears at once so rich, so various, and +so majestic. Our stay at Teneriffe had been very short, and yet we +withdrew from the island as if it had long been our home. + +Our passage from Santa Cruz to Cumana, the most eastern part of the +New Continent, was very fine. We cut the tropic of Cancer on the +27th; and though the Pizarro was not a very fast sailer, we made, +in twenty days, the nine hundred leagues, which separate the coast +of Africa from that of the New Continent. We passed fifty leagues +west of Cape Bojador, Cape Blanco, and the Cape Verd islands. A few +land birds, which had been driven to sea by the impetuosity of the +wind followed us for several days. + +The latitude diminished rapidly, from the parallel of Madeira to +the tropic. When we reached the zone where the trade-winds are +constant, we crossed the ocean from east to west, on a calm sea, +which the Spanish sailors call the Ladies' Gulf, el Golfo de las +Damas. In proportion as we advanced towards the west, we found the +trade-winds fix to eastward. + +These winds, the most generally adopted theory of which is +explained in a celebrated treatise of Halley,* are a phenomenon +much more complicated than most persons admit. (* The existence of +an upper current of air, which blows constantly from the equator to +the poles, and of a lower current, which blows from the poles to +the equator, had already been admitted, as M. Arago has shown, by +Hooke. The ideas of the celebrated English naturalist are developed +in a Discourse on Earthquakes published in 1686. "I think (adds he) +that several phenomena, which are presented by the atmosphere and +the ocean, especially the winds, may be explained by the polar +currents."--Hooke's Posthumous Works page 364.) In the Atlantic +Ocean, the longitude, as well as the declination of the sun, +influences the direction and limits of the trade-winds. In the +direction of the New Continent, in both hemispheres, these limits +extend beyond the tropics eight or nine degrees; while in the +vicinity of Africa, the variable winds prevail far beyond the +parallel of 28 or 27 degrees. It is to be regretted, on account of +the progress of meteorology and navigation, that the changes of the +currents of the equinoctial atmosphere in the Pacific are much less +known than the variation of these same currents in a sea that is +narrower, and influenced by the proximity of the coasts of Guinea +and Brazil. The difference with which the strata of air flow back +from the two poles towards the equator cannot be the same in every +degree of longitude, that is to say, on points of the globe where +the continents are of very different breadths, and where they +stretch away more or less towards the poles. + +It is known, that in the passage from Santa Cruz to Cumana, as in +that from Acapulco to the Philippine Islands, seamen are scarcely +ever under the necessity of working their sails. We pass those +latitudes as if we were descending a river, and we might deem it no +hazardous undertaking if we made the voyage in an open boat. +Farther west, on the coast of Santa Martha and in the Gulf of +Mexico, the trade-wind blows impetuously, and renders the sea very +stormy.* (* The Spanish sailors call the rough trade-winds at +Carthagena in the West Indies los brisotes de Santa Martha; and in +the Gulf of Mexico, las brizas pardas. These latter winds are +accompanied with a grey and cloudy sky.) + +The wind fell gradually the farther we receded from the African +coast: it was sometimes smooth water for several hours, and these +short calms were regularly interrupted by electrical phenomena. +Black thick clouds, marked by strong outlines, rose on the east, +and it seemed as if a squall would have forced us to hand our +topsails; but the breeze freshened anew, there fell a few large +drops of rain, and the storm dispersed without our hearing any +thunder. Meanwhile it was curious to observe the effect of several +black, isolated, and very low clouds, which passed the zenith. We +felt the force of the wind augment or diminish progressively, +according as small bodies of vesicular vapour approached or +receded, while the electrometers, furnished with a long metallic +rod and lighted match, showed no change of electric tension in the +lower strata of the air. It is by help of these squalls, which +alternate with dead calms, that the passage from the Canary Islands +to the Antilles, or southern coast of America, is made in the +months of June and July. + +Some Spanish navigators have lately proposed going to the West +Indies and the coasts of Terra Firma by a course different from +that which was taken by Columbus. They advise, instead of steering +directly to the south in search of the trade-winds, to change both +latitude and longitude, in a diagonal line from Cape St. Vincent to +America. This method, which shortens the way, cutting the tropic +nearly twenty degrees west of the point where it is commonly cut by +pilots, was several times successfully adopted by Admiral Gravina. +That able commander, who fell at the battle of Trafalgar, arrived +in 1802 at St. Domingo, by the oblique passage, several days before +the French fleet, though orders of the court of Madrid would have +forced him to enter Ferrol with his squadron, and stop there some +time. + +This new system of navigation shortens the passage from Cadiz to +Cumana one-twentieth; but as the tropic is attained only at the +longitude of forty degrees, the chance of meeting with contrary +winds, which blow sometimes from the south, and at other times from +the south-west, is more unfavourable. In the old system, the +disadvantage of making a longer passage is compensated by the +certainty of catching the trade-winds in a shorter space of time, +and keeping them the greater part of the passage. At the time of my +abode in the Spanish colonies, I witnessed the arrival of several +merchant-ships, which from the fear of privateers had chosen the +oblique course, and had had a very short passage. + +Nothing can equal the beauty and mildness of the climate of the +equinoctial region on the ocean. While the trade wind blew +strongly, the thermometer kept at 23 or 24 degrees in the day, and +at 22 or 22.5 degrees during the night. The charm of the lovely +climates bordering on the equator, can be fully enjoyed only by +those who have undertaken the voyage from Acapulco or the coasts of +Chile to Europe in a very rough season. What a contrast between the +tempestuous seas of the northern latitudes and the regions where +the tranquillity of nature is never disturbed! If the return from +Mexico or South America to the coasts of Spain were as expeditious +and as agreeable as the passage from the old to the new continent, +the number of Europeans settled in the colonies would be much less +considerable than it is at present. To the sea which surrounds the +Azores and the Bermuda Islands, and which is traversed in returning +to Europe by the high latitudes, the Spaniards have given the +singular name of Golfo de las Yeguas (the Mares' Gulf). Colonists +who are not accustomed to the sea, and who have led solitary lives +in the forests of Guiana, the savannahs of the Caracas, or the +Cordilleras of Peru, dread the vicinity of the Bermudas more than +the inhabitants of Lima fear at present the passage round Cape +horn. + +To the north of the Cape Verd Islands we met with great masses of +floating seaweeds. They were the tropic grape, (Fucus natans), +which grows on submarine rocks, only from the equator to the +fortieth degree of north and south latitude. These weeds seem to +indicate the existence of currents in this place, as well as to +south-west of the banks of Newfoundland. We must not confound the +latitudes abounding in scattered weeds with those banks of marine +plants, which Columbus compares to extensive meadows, the sight of +which dismayed the crew of the Santa Maria in the forty-second +degree of longitude. I am convinced, from the comparison of a great +number of journals, that in the basin of the Northern Atlantic +there exist two banks of weeds very different from each other. The +most extensive is a little west of the meridian of Fayal, one of +the Azores, between the twenty-fifth and thirty-sixth degrees of +latitude.* (* It would appear that Phoenician vessels came "in +thirty days' sail, with an easterly wind," to the weedy sea, which +the Portuguese and Spaniards call mar de zargasso. I have shown, in +another place (Views of Nature Bohn's edition page 46), that the +passage of Aristotle, De Mirabil. (ed. Duval page 1157), can +scarcely be applied to the coasts of Africa, like an analogous +passage of the Periplus of Scylax. Supposing that this sea, full of +weeds, which impeded the course of the Phoenician vessels, was the +mar de zargasso, we need not admit that the ancients navigated the +Atlantic beyond thirty degrees of west longitude from the meridian +of Paris.) The temperature of the Atlantic in those latitudes is +from sixteen to twenty degrees, and the north winds, which +sometimes rage there very tempestuously, drive floating isles of +seaweed into the low latitudes as far as the parallels of +twenty-four and even twenty degrees. Vessels returning to Europe, +either from Monte Video or the Cape of Good Hope, cross these banks +of Fucus, which the Spanish pilots consider as at an equal distance +from the Antilles and Canaries; and they serve the less instructed +mariner to rectify his longitude. The second bank of Fucus is but +little known; it occupies a much smaller space, in the +twenty-second and twenty-sixth degrees of latitude, eighty leagues +west of the meridian of the Bahama Islands. It is found on the +passage from the Caiques to the Bermudas. + +Though a species of seaweed* (* The baudreux of the Falkland +Islands; Fucus giganteus, Forster; Laminaria pyrifera, Lamour.) has +been seen with stems eight hundred feet long, the growth of these +marine cryptogamia being extremely rapid, it is nevertheless +certain, that in the latitudes we have just described, the Fuci, +far from being fixed to the bottom, float in separate masses on the +surface of the water. In this state, the vegetation can scarcely +last longer than it would in the branch of a tree torn from its +trunk; and in order to explain how moving masses are found for ages +in the same position, we must admit that they owe their origin to +submarine rocks, which, lying at forty or sixty fathoms' depth, +continually supply what has been carried away by the equinoctial +currents. This current bears the tropic grape into the high +latitudes, toward the coasts of Norway and France; and it is not +the Gulf-stream, as some mariners think, which accumulates the +Fucus to the south of the Azores. + +The causes that unroot these weeds at depths where it is generally +thought the sea is but slightly agitated, are not sufficiently +known. We learn only, from the observations of M. Lamouroux, that +if the fucus adhere to the rocks with the greatest firmness before +its fructification, it separates with great facility after that +period, or during the season which suspends its vegetation like +that of the terrestrial plants. The fish and mollusca which gnaw +the stems of the seaweeds no doubt contribute also to detach them +from their roots. + +From the twenty-second degree of latitude, we found the surface of +the sea covered with flying-fish,* (* Exocoetus volitans.) which +threw themselves up into the air, twelve, fifteen, or eighteen +feet, and fell down on the deck. I do not hesitate to speak on a +subject of which voyagers discourse as frequently as of dolphins, +sharks, sea-sickness, and the phosphorescence of the ocean. None of +these topics can fail to afford interesting observations to +naturalists, provided they make them their particular study. Nature +is an inexhaustible source of investigation, and in proportion as +the domain of science is extended, she presents herself to those +who know how to interrogate her, under forms which they have never +yet examined. + +I have named the flying-fish, in order to direct the attention of +naturalists to the enormous size of their natatory bladder, which, +in an animal of 6.4 inches, is 3.6 inches long, 0.9 of an inch +broad, and contains three cubic inches and a half of air. As this +bladder occupies more than half the size of the fish, it is +probable that it contributes to its lightness. We may assert that +this reservoir of air is more fitted for flying than swimming; for +the experiments made by M. Provenzal and myself have proved, that, +even in the species which are provided with this organ, it is not +indispensably necessary for the ascending movement to the surface +of the water. In a young flying-fish, 5.8 inches long, each of the +pectoral fins, which serve as wings, presented a surface to the air +of 3 7/16 square inches. We observed, that the nine branches of +nerves, which go to the twelve rays of these fins, are almost three +times the size of the nerves that belong to the ventral fins. When +the former of these nerves are excited by galvanic electricity, the +rays which support the membrane of the pectoral fin extend with +five times the force with which the other fins move when galvanised +by the same metals. Thus, the fish is capable of throwing itself +horizontally the distance of twenty feet before retouching the +water with the extremity of its fins. This motion has been aptly +compared to that of a flat stone, which, thrown horizontally, +bounds one or two feet above the water. Notwithstanding the extreme +rapidity of this motion, it is certain, that the animal beats the +air during the leap; that is, it alternately extends and closes its +pectoral fins. The same motion has been observed in the flying +scorpion of the rivers of Japan: they also contain a large +air-bladder, with which the great part of the scorpions that have +not the faculty of flying are unprovided. The flying-fish, like +almost all animals which have gills, enjoy the power of equal +respiration for a long time, both in water and in air, by the same +organs; that is, by extracting the oxygen from the atmosphere as +well as from the water in which it is dissolved. They pass a great +part of their life in the air; but if they escape from the sea to +avoid the voracity of the Dorado, they meet in the air the +Frigate-bird, the Albatross, and others, which seize them in their +flight. Thus, on the banks of the Orinoco, herds of the Cabiai, +which rush from the water to escape the crocodile, become the prey +of the jaguar, which awaits their arrival. + +I doubt, however, whether the flying-fish spring out of the water +merely to escape the pursuit of their enemies. Like swallows, they +move by thousands in a right line, and in a direction constantly +opposite to that of the waves. In our own climates, on the brink of +a river, illumined by the rays of the sun, we often see solitary +fish fearlessly bound above the surface as if they felt pleasure in +breathing the air. Why should not these gambols be more frequent +with the flying-fish, which from the strength of their pectoral +fins, and the smallness of their specific gravity, can so easily +support themselves in the air? I invite naturalists to examine +whether other flying-fish, for instance the Exocoetus exiliens, the +Trigla volitans, amid the T. hirundo, have as capacious an +air-bladder as the flying-fish of the tropics. This last follows +the heated waters of the Gulf-stream when they flow northward. The +cabin-boys amuse themselves with cutting off a part of the pectoral +fins, and assert, that these wings grow again; which seems to me +not unlikely, from facts observed in other families of fishes. + +At the time I left Paris, experiments made at Jamaica by Dr. +Brodbelt, on the air contained in the natatory bladder of the +sword-fish, had led some naturalists to think, that within the +tropics, in sea-fish, that organ must be filled with pure oxygen +gas. Full of this idea, I was surprised at finding in the +air-bladder of the flying-fish only 0.04 of oxygen to 0.94 of azote +and 0.02 of carbonic acid. The proportion of this last gas, +measured by the absorption of lime-water in graduated tubes, +appeared more uniform than that of the oxygen, of which some +individuals yielded almost double the quantity. From the curious +phenomena observed by MM. Biot, Configliachi, and Delaroche, we +might suppose, that the swordfish dissected by Dr. Brodbelt had +inhabited the lower strata of the ocean, where some fish* have as +much as 0.92 of oxygen in the air-bladder. (* Trigla cucullus.) + +On the 3rd and 4th of July, we crossed that part of the Atlantic +where the charts indicate the bank of the Maal-stroom; and towards +night we altered our course to avoid the danger, the existence of +which is, however, as doubtful as that of the isles Fonseco and St. +Anne. It would have been perhaps as prudent to have continued our +course. The old charts are filled with rocks, some of which really +exist, though most of them are merely the offspring of those +optical illusions which are more frequent at sea than in inland +places. As we approached the supposed Maal-stroom, we observed no +other motion in the waters than the effect of a current which bore +to the north-west, and which hindered us from diminishing our +latitude as much as we wished. The force of this current augments +as we approach the new continent; it is modified by the +configuration of the coasts of Brazil and Guiana, and not by the +waters of the Orinoco and the Amazon, as some have supposed. + +From the time we entered the torrid zone, we were never weary of +admiring, at night, the beauty of the southern sky, which, as we +advanced to the south, opened new constellations to our view. We +feel an indescribable sensation when, on approaching the equator, +and particularly on passing from one hemisphere to the other, we +see those stars, which we have contemplated from our infancy, +progressively sink, and finally disappear. Nothing awakens in the +traveller a livelier remembrance of the immense distance by which +he is separated from his country, than the aspect of an unknown +firmament. The grouping of the stars of the first magnitude, some +scattered nebulae, rivalling in splendour the milky way, and tracts +of space remarkable for their extreme blackness, give a peculiar +physiognomy to the southern sky. This sight fills with admiration +even those who, uninstructed in the several branches of physical +science, feel the same emotion of delight in the contemplation of +the heavenly vault, as in the view of a beautiful landscape, or a +majestic site. A traveller needs not to be a botanist, to recognize +the torrid zone by the mere aspect of its vegetation. Without +having acquired any notions of astronomy, without any acquaintance +with the celestial charts of Flamsteed and De La Caille, he feels +he is not in Europe, when he sees the immense constellation of the +Ship, or the phosphorescent Clouds of Magellan, arise on the +horizon. The heavens and the earth,--everything in the equinoctial +regions, presents an exotic character. + +The lower regions of the air were loaded with vapours for some +days. We saw distinctly for the first time the Southern Cross only +on the night of the 4th of July, in the sixteenth degree of +latitude. It was strongly inclined, and appeared from time to time +between the clouds, the centre of which, furrowed by uncondensed +lightnings, reflected a silvery light. If a traveller may be +permitted to speak of his personal emotions, I shall add, that on +that night I experienced the realization of one of the dreams of my +early youth. + +When we begin to fix our eyes on geographical maps, and to read the +narratives of navigators, we feel for certain countries and +climates a sort of predilection, which we know not how to account +for at a more advanced period of life. These impressions, however, +exercise a considerable influence over our determinations; and from +a sort of instinct we endeavour to connect ourselves with objects +on which the mind has long been fixed as by a secret charm. At a +period when I studied the heavens, not with the intention of +devoting myself to astronomy, but only to acquire a knowledge of +the stars, I was disturbed by a feeling unknown to those who are +devoted to sedentary life. It was painful to me to renounce the +hope of beholding the beautiful constellations near the south pole. +Impatient to rove in the equinoctial regions, I could not raise my +eyes to the starry firmament without thinking of the Southern +Cross, and recalling the sublime passage of Dante, which the most +celebrated commentators have applied to that constellation:-- + + Io mi volsi a man' destra e posi mente + All' altro polo, e vidi quattro stelle + Non viste mai fuorch' alla prima gente. + + Goder parea lo ciel di lor fiammelle; + O settentrional vedovo sito + Poiche privato sei di mirar quelle! + +The pleasure we felt on discovering the Southern Cross was warmly +shared by those of the crew who had visited the colonies. In the +solitude of the seas we hail a star as a friend, from whom we have +long been separated. The Portuguese and the Spaniards are +peculiarly susceptible of this feeling; a religious sentiment +attaches them to a constellation, the form of which recalls the +sign of the faith planted by their ancestors in the deserts of the +New World. + +The two great stars which mark the summit and the foot of the Cross +having nearly the same right ascension, it follows that the +constellation is almost perpendicular at the moment when it passes +the meridian. This circumstance is known to the people of every +nation situated beyond the tropics, or in the southern hemisphere. +It has been observed at what hour of the night, in different +seasons, the Cross is erect or inclined. It is a timepiece which +advances very regularly nearly four minutes a-day, and no other +group of stars affords to the naked eye an observation of time so +easily made. How often have we heard our guides exclaim in the +savannahs of Venezuela, or in the desert extending from Lima to +Truxillo, "Midnight is past, the Cross begins to bend!" How often +those words reminded us of that affecting scene, where Paul and +Virginia, seated near the source of the river of Lataniers, +conversed together for the last time, and where the old man, at the +sight of the Southern Cross, warns them that it is time to +separate. + +The last days of our passage were not so felicitous as the mildness +of the climate and the calmness of the ocean had led us to hope. +The dangers of the sea did not disturb us, but the germs of a +malignant fever became manifest on board our vessel as we drew near +the Antilles. Between decks the ship was excessively hot, and very +much crowded. From the time we passed the tropic, the thermometer +was at thirty-four or thirty-six degrees. Two sailors, several +passengers, and, what is remarkable enough, two negroes from the +coast of Guinea, and a mulatto child, were attacked with a disorder +which appeared to be epidemic. The symptoms were not equally +alarming in all the cases; nevertheless, several persons, and +especially the most robust, fell into delirium after the second +day. No fumigation was made. A Gallician surgeon, ignorant and +phlegmatic, ordered bleedings, because he attributed the fever to +what he called heat and corruption of the blood. There was not an +ounce of bark on board; for we had emitted to take any with us, +under the impression that this salutary production of Peru could +not fail to be found on board a Spanish vessel. + +On the 8th of July, a sailor, who was near expiring, recovered his +health from a circumstance worthy of being mentioned. His hammock +was so hung, that there was not ten inches between his face and the +deck. It was impossible to administer the sacrament in this +situation; for, agreeably to the custom on board Spanish vessels, +the viaticum must be carried by the light of tapers, and followed +by the whole crew. The patient was removed into an airy place near +the hatchway, where a small square berth had been formed with +sailcloth. Here he was to remain till he died, which was an event +expected every moment; but passing from an atmosphere heated, +stagnant, and filled with miasma, into fresher and purer air, which +was renewed every instant, he gradually revived from his lethargic +state. His recovery dated from the day when he quitted the middle +deck; and as it often happens in medicine that the same facts are +cited in support of systems diametrically opposite, this recovery +confirmed our doctor in his idea of the inflammation of the blood, +and the necessity of bleeding, evacuating, and all the asthenic +remedies. We soon felt the fatal effects of this treatment. + +For several days the pilot's reckoning differed 1 degree 12 minutes +in longitude from that of my time. This difference was owing less +to the general current, which I have called the current of +rotation, than to that particular movement, which, drawing the +waters toward the north-west, from the coast of Brazil to the +Antilles, shortens the passage from Cayenne to Guadaloupe.* (* In +the Atlantic Ocean there is a space where the water is constantly +milky, though the sea is very deep. This curious phenomenon exists +in the parallel of the island of Dominica, very near the 57th +degree of longitude. May there not be in this place some sunken +volcanic islet, more easterly still than Barbadoes?) On the 12th of +July, I thought I might foretell our seeing land next day before +sunrise. We were then, according to my observations, in latitude 10 +degrees 46 minutes, and west longitude 60 degrees 54 minutes. A few +series of lunar distances confirmed the chronometrical result; but +we were surer of the position of the vessel, than of that of the +land to which we were directing our course, and which was so +differently marked in the French, Spanish, and English charts. The +longitudes deduced from the accurate observations of Messrs. +Churruca, Fidalgo, and Noguera, were not then published. + +The pilots trusted more to the log than the timekeeper; they smiled +at the prediction of so speedily making land, and thought +themselves two or three days' sail from the coast. It was therefore +with great pleasure, that on the 13th, about six in the morning, I +learned that very high land was seen from the mast-head, though not +clearly, as it was surrounded with a thick fog. The wind blew hard, +and the sea was very rough. Large drops of rain fell at intervals, +and every indication menaced tempestuous weather. The captain of +the Pizarro intended to pass through the channel which separates +the islands of Tobago and Trinidad; and knowing that our sloop was +very slow in tacking, he was afraid of falling to leeward towards +the south, and approaching the Boca del Drago. We were in fact +surer of our longitude than of our latitude, having had no +observation at noon since the 11th. Double altitudes which I took +in the morning, after Douwes's method, placed us in 11 degrees 6 +minutes 50 seconds, consequently 15 minutes north of our reckoning. +Though the result clearly proved that the high land on the horizon +was not Trinidad, but Tobago, yet the captain continued to steer +north-north-west, in search of this latter island. + +An observation of the meridian altitude of the sun fully confirmed +the latitude obtained by Douwes's method. No more doubt remained as +to the position of the vessel, with respect to the island, and we +resolved to double Cape North (Tobago) to pass between that island +and Grenada, and steer towards a port in Margareta. + +The island of Tobago presents a very picturesque aspect. It is +merely a heap of rocks carefully cultivated. The dazzling whiteness +of the stone forms an agreeable contrast to the verdure of some +scattered tufts of trees. Cylindric and very lofty cactuses crown +the top of the mountains, and give a peculiar physiognomy to this +tropical landscape. The sight of the trees alone is sufficient to +remind the navigator that he has reached an American coast; for +these cactuses are as exclusively peculiar to the New World, as the +heaths are to the Old. + +We crossed the shoal which joins Tobago to the island of Grenada. +The colour of the sea presented no visible change; but the +centigrade thermometer, plunged into the water to the depth of some +inches, rose only to 23 degrees; while farther at sea eastward on +the same parallel, and equally near the surface, it kept at 25.6 +degrees. Notwithstanding the currents, the cooling of the water +indicated the existence of the shoal, which is noted in only a very +few charts. The wind slackened after sunset, and the clouds +disappeared as the moon reached the zenith. The number of falling +stars was very considerable on this and the following nights; they +appeared less frequent towards the north than the south over Terra +Firma, which we began to coast. This position seems to prove the +influence of local causes on meteors, the nature of which is not +yet sufficiently known to us. + +On the 14th at sunrise, we were in sight of the Boca del Drago. We +distinguished Chacachacarreo, the most westerly of the islands +situated between Cape Paria and the north-west cape of Trinidad. +When we were five leagues distant from the coast, we felt, near +Punta de la Boca, the effect of a particular current which carried +the ship southward. The motion of the waters which flow through the +Boca del Draco, and the action of the tides, occasion an eddy. We +cast the lead, and found from thirty-six to forty-three fathoms on +a bottom of very fine green clay. According to the rules +established by Dampier, we ought not to have expected so little +depth near a coast formed by very high and perpendicular mountains. +We continued to heave the lead till we reached Cabo de tres +Puntas* (* Cape Three Points, the name given to it by Columbus.) and +we every where found shallow water, apparently indicating the +prolongation of the ancient coast. In these latitudes the +temperature of the sea was from twenty-three to twenty-four +degrees, consequently from 1.5 to two degrees lower than in the +open ocean, beyond the edge of the bank. + +The Cabo de tres Puntas is, according to my observations, in 65 +degrees 4 minutes 5 seconds longitude. It seemed to us the more +elevated, as the clouds concealed the view of its indented top. +The aspect of the mountains of Paria, their colour, and especially +their generally rounded forms, made us suspect that the coast was +granitic; but we afterwards recognized how delusive, even to those +who have passed their lives in scaling mountains, are impressions +respecting the nature of rocks seen at a distance. + +A dead calm, which lasted several hours, permitted us to determine +with exactness the intensity of the magnetic forces opposite the +Cabo de tres Puntas. This intensity was greater than in the open +sea, to the east of the island of Tobago, in the ratio of from 237 +to 229. During the calm the current drew us on rapidly to the west. +Its velocity was three miles an hour, and it increased as we +approached the meridian of Testigos, a heap of rocks which rises up +amidst the waters. At the setting of the moon, the sky was covered +with clouds, the wind freshened anew, and the rain descended in one +of those torrents peculiar to the torrid zone. + +The malady which had broken out on board the Pizarro had made rapid +progress, from the time when we approached the coasts of Terra +Firma; but having then almost reached the end of our voyage we +flattered ourselves that all who were sick would be restored to +health, as soon as we could land them at the island of St. +Margareta, or the port of Cumana, places remarkable for their great +salubrity. + +This hope was unfortunately not realised. The youngest of the +passengers attacked with the malignant fever fell a victim to the +disease. He was an Asturian, nineteen years of age, the only son of +a poor widow. Several circumstances rendered the death of this +young man affecting. His countenance bore the expression of +sensibility and great mildness of disposition. He had embarked +against his own inclination; and his mother, whom he had hoped to +assist by the produce of his efforts, had made a sacrifice of her +affection in the hope of securing the fortune of her son, by +sending him to the colonies to a rich relation, who resided at the +island of Cuba. The unfortunate young man expired on the third day +of his illness, having fallen from the beginning into a lethargic +state interrupted only by fits of delirium. The yellow fever, or +black vomit, at Vera Cruz, scarcely carries off the sick with so +alarming a rapidity. Another Asturian, still younger, did not leave +for one moment the bed of his dying friend; and, what is very +remarkable, did not contract the disorder. + +We were assembled on the deck, absorbed in melancholy reflections. +It was no longer doubtful, that the fever which raged on board had +assumed within the last few days a fatal aspect. Our eyes were +fixed on a hilly and desert coast on which the moon, from time to +time, shed her light athwart the clouds. The sea, gently agitated, +emitted a feeble phosphoric light. Nothing was heard but the +monotonous cry of a few large sea-birds, flying towards the shore. +A profound calm reigned over these solitary regions, but this calm +of nature was in discordance with the painful feelings by which we +were oppressed. About eight o'clock the dead man's knell was slowly +tolled. At this lugubrious sound, the sailors suspended their +labours, and threw themselves on their knees to offer a momentary +prayer: an affecting ceremony, which brought to our remembrance +those times when the primitive christians all considered themselves +as members of the same family. All were united in one common sorrow +for a misfortune which was felt to be common to all. The corpse of +the young Asturian was brought upon deck during the night, but the +priest entreated that it might not be committed to the waves till +after sunrise, that the last rites might be performed, according to +the usage of the Romish church. There was not an individual on +board, who did not deplore the death of this young man, whom we had +beheld, but a few days before, full of cheerfulness and health. + +Those among the passengers who had not yet felt symptoms of the +disease, resolved to leave the vessel at the first place where she +might touch, and await the arrival of another packet, to pursue +their course to the island of Cuba and to Mexico. They considered +the between-decks of the ship as infected; and though it was by no +means clear to me that the fever was contagious, I thought it most +prudent to land at Cumana. I wished not to visit New Spain, till I +had made some sojourn on the coasts of Venezuela and Paria; a few +of the productions of which had been examined by the unfortunate +Loefling. We were anxious to behold in their native site, the +beautiful plants which Bose and Bredemeyer had collected during +their journey to the continent, and which adorn the conservatories +of Schoenbrunn and Vienna. It would have been painful to have +touched at Cumana, or at Guayra, without visiting the interior of a +country so little frequented by naturalists. + +The resolution we formed during the night of the 14th of July, had +a happy influence on the direction of our travels; for instead of a +few weeks, we remained a whole year in this part of the continent. +Had not the fever broken out on board the Pizarro, we should never +have reached the Orinoco, the Cassiquiare, or even the limits of +the Portuguese possessions on the Rio Negro. To this direction +given to our travels we were perhaps also indebted for the good +health we enjoyed during so long an abode in the equinoctial +regions. + +It is well known, that Europeans, during the first months after +their arrival under the scorching sky of the tropics, are exposed +to the greatest dangers. They consider themselves to be safe, when +they have passed the rainy season in the West India islands, at +Vera Cruz, or at Carthagena. This opinion is very general, although +there are examples of persons, who, having escaped a first attack +of the yellow fever, have fallen victims to the same disease in one +of the following years. The facility of becoming acclimated, seems +to be in the inverse ratio of the difference that exists between +the mean temperature of the torrid zone, and that of the native +country of the traveller, or colonist, who changes his climate; +because the irritability of the organs, and their vital action, are +powerfully modified by the influence of the atmospheric heat. A +Prussian, a Pole, or a Swede, is more exposed on his arrival at the +islands or on the continent, than a Spaniard, an Italian, or even +an inhabitant of the South of France. With respect to the people of +the north, the difference of the mean temperature is from nineteen +to twenty-one degrees, while to the people of southern countries it +is only from nine to ten. We were fortunate enough to pass safely +through the interval during which a European recently landed runs +the greatest danger, in the extremely hot, but very dry climate of +Cumana, a city celebrated for its salubrity. + +On the morning of the 15th, when nearly on a line with the hill of +St. Joseph, we were surrounded by a great quantity of floating +seaweed. Its stems had those extraordinary appendages in the form +of little cups and feathers, which Don Hippolyto Ruiz remarked on +his return from the expedition to Chile, and which he described in +a separate memoir as the generative organs of the Fucus natans. A +fortunate accident allowed us the means of verifying a fact which +had been but once observed by naturalists. The bundles of fucus +collected by M. Bonpland were completely identical with the +specimens given us by the learned authors of the Flora of Peru. On +examining both with the microscope, we found that the supposed +parts of fructification, the stamina and pistils, belong to a new +genus, of the family of the Ceratophytae. + +The coast of Paria stretches to the west, forming a wall of rocks +of no great height, with rounded tops and a waving outline. We were +long without perceiving the bold coasts of the island of Margareta, +where we were to stop for the purpose of ascertaining whether we +could touch at Guayra. We had learned, by altitudes of the sun, +taken under very favourable circumstances, how incorrect at that +period were the most highly-esteemed marine charts. On the morning +of the 15th, when the time-keeper placed us in 66 degrees 1 minute +15 seconds longitude, we were not yet in the meridian of Margareta +island; though according to the reduced chart of the Atlantic ocean, +we ought to have passed the very lofty western cape of this island, +which is laid down in longitude 66 degrees 0 minutes. The +inaccuracy with which the coasts were delineated previously to the +labours of Fidalgo, Noguera, and Tiscar, and I may venture to add, +before the astronomical observations I made at Cumana, might have +become dangerous to navigators, were not the sea uniformly calm in +those regions. The errors in latitude were still greater than those +in longitude, for the coasts of New Andalusia stretch to the +westward of Cape Three Points (or tres Puntas) fifteen or twenty +miles more to the north, than appears in the charts published +before the year 1800. + +About eleven in the morning we perceived a very low islet, covered +with a few sandy downs, and on which we discovered with our glasses +no trace of habitation or culture. Cylindrical cactuses rose here +and there in the form of candelabra. The soil, almost destitute of +vegetation, seemed to have a waving motion, in consequence of the +extraordinary refraction which the rays of the sun undergo in +traversing the strata of air in contact with plains strongly +heated. Under every zone, deserts and sandy shores appear like an +agitated sea, from the effect of mirage. + +The coasts, seen at a distance, are like clouds, in which each +observer meets the form of the objects that occupy his imagination. +Our bearings and our chronometer being at variance with the charts +which we had to consult, we were lost in vain conjectures. Some +took mounds of sand for Indian huts, and pointed out the place +where they alleged the fort of Pampatar was situated; others saw +herds of goats, which are so common in the dry valley of St. John; +or descried the lofty mountains of Macanao, which seemed to them +partly hidden by the clouds. The captain resolved to send a pilot +on shore, and the men were preparing to get out the long-boat when +we perceived two canoes sailing along the coast. We fired a gun as +a signal for them, and though we had hoisted Spanish colours, they +drew near with distrust. These canoes, like all those in use among +the natives, were constructed of the single trunk of a tree. In +each canoe there were eighteen Guayqueria Indians, naked to the +waist, and of very tall stature. They had the appearance of great +muscular strength, and the colour of their skin was something +between brown and copper-colour. Seen at a distance, standing +motionless, and projected on the horizon, they might have been +taken for statues of bronze. We were the more struck with their +appearance, as it did not correspond with the accounts given by +some travellers respecting the characteristic features and extreme +feebleness of the natives. We afterwards learned, without passing +the limits of the province of Cumana, the great contrast existing +between the physiognomy of the Guayquerias and that of the Chaymas +and the Caribs. + +When we were near enough to hail them in Spanish, the Indians threw +aside their mistrust, and came straight on board. They informed us +that the low islet near which we were at anchor was Coche, which +had never been inhabited; and that Spanish vessels coming from +Europe were accustomed to sail farther north, between this island +and that of Margareta, to take a coasting pilot at the port of +Pampatar. Our inexperience had led us into the channel to the south +of Coche; and as at that period the English cruisers frequented +this passage, the Indians had at first taken us for an enemy's +ship. The southern passage is, in fact, highly advantageous for +vessels going to Cumana and Barcelona. The water is less deep than +in the northern passage, which is much narrower; but there is no +risk of touching the ground, if vessels keep very close to the +island of Lobos and the Moros del Tunal. The channel between Coche +and Margareta is narrowed by the shoals off the north-west cape of +Coche, and by the bank that surrounds La Punta de los Mangles. + +The Guayquerias belong to that tribe of civilized Indians who +inhabit the coasts of Margareta and the suburbs of the city of +Cumana. Next to the Caribs of Spanish Guiana they are the finest +race of men in Terra Firma. They enjoy several privileges, because +from the earliest times of the conquest they remained faithful +friends to the Castilians. The king of Spain styles them in his +public acts, "his dear, noble, and loyal Guayquerias." The Indians +of the two canoes we had met had left the port of Cumana during the +night. They were going in search of timber to the forests of cedar +(Cedrela odorata, Linn.), which extend from Cape San Jose to beyond +the mouth of Rio Carupano. They gave us some fresh cocoa-nuts, and +very beautifully coloured fish of the Chaetodon genus. What riches +to our eyes were contained in the canoes of these poor Indians! +Broad spreading leaves of Vijao* (* Heliconia bihai.) covered +bunches of plantains. The scaly cuirass of an armadillo (Dasypus), +the fruit of the Calabash tree (Crescentia cujete), used as a cup +by the natives, productions common in the cabinets of Europe, had a +peculiar charm for us, because they reminded us that, having +reached the torrid zone, we had attained the end to which our +wishes had been so long directed. + +The master of one of the canoes offered to remain on board the +Pizarro as coasting pilot (practico). He was a Guayqueria of an +excellent disposition, sagacious in his observations, and he had +been led by intelligent curiosity to notice the productions of the +sea as well as the plants of the country. By a fortunate chance, +the first Indian we met on our arrival was the man whose +acquaintance became the most useful to us in the course of our +researches. I feel a pleasure in recording in this itinerary the +name of Carlos del Pino, who, during the space of sixteen months, +attended us in our course along the coasts, and into the inland +country. + +The captain of the corvette weighed anchor towards evening. Before +we left the shoal or placer of Coche, I ascertained the longitude +of the east cape of the island, which I found to be 66 degrees 11 +minutes 53 seconds. As we steered westward, we soon came in sight +of the little island of Cubagua, now entirely deserted, but formerly +celebrated for its fishery of pearls. There the Spaniards, +immediately after the voyages of Columbus and Ojeda, founded, under +the name of New Cadiz, a town, of which there now remains no +vestige. At the beginning of the sixteenth century the pearls of +Cubagua were known at Seville, at Toledo, and at the great fairs of +Augsburg and Bruges. New Cadiz having no water, that of the Rio +Manzanares was conveyed thither from the neighbouring coast, though +for some reason, I know not what, it was thought to be the cause of +diseases of the eyes. The writers of that period all speak of the +riches of the first planters, and the luxury they displayed. At +present, downs of shifting sand cover this uninhabited land, and +the name of Cubagua is scarcely found in our charts. + +Having reached these latitudes, we saw the high mountains of Cape +Macanao, on the western side of the island of Margareta, which rose +majestically on the horizon. If we might judge from the angles of +altitude of the tops, taken at eighteen miles' distance, they +appeared to be about 500 or 600 toises high. According to +Berthoud's time-keeper, the longitude of Cape Macanao is 66 degrees +47 minutes 5 seconds. I speak of the rocks at the extremity of the +cape, and not that strip of very low land which stretches to the +west, and loses itself in a shoal. The position of Macanao and that +which I have assigned to the east point of the island of Coche, +differ only four seconds in time, from the results obtained by +M. Fidalgo. + +There being little wind, the captain preferred standing off and on +till daybreak. We passed a part of the night on deck. The +Guayqueria pilot conversed with us respecting the animals and +plants of his country. We learned with great satisfaction that +there was, a few leagues from the coast, a mountainous region +inhabited by the Spaniards, in which the cold was sensibly felt; +and that in the plains there were two species of crocodiles, very +different from each other, besides, boas, electric eels, and +several kinds of tigers. Though the words bava, cachicamo, and +temblador, were entirely unknown to us, we easily guessed, from the +pilot's simple description of their manners and forms, the species +which the creoles distinguished by these denominations. + + +CHAPTER 1.4. + +FIRST ABODE AT CUMANA. +BANKS OF THE MANZANARES. + +On the 16th of July, 1799, at break of day, we beheld a verdant +coast, of picturesque aspect. The mountains of New Andalusia, +half-veiled by mists, bounded the horizon to the south. The city of +Cumana and its castle appeared between groups of cocoa-trees. We +anchored in the port about nine in the morning, forty-one days +after our departure from Corunna; the sick dragged themselves on +deck to enjoy the sight of a land which was to put an end to their +sufferings. Our eyes were fixed on the groups of cocoa-trees which +border the river: their trunks, more than sixty feet high, towered +over every object in the landscape. The plain was covered with the +tufts of Cassia, Caper, and those arborescent mimosas, which, like +the pine of Italy, spread their branches in the form of an +umbrella. The pinnated leaves of the palms were conspicuous on the +azure sky, the clearness of which was unsullied by any trace of +vapour. The sun was ascending rapidly toward the zenith. A dazzling +light was spread through the air, along the whitish hills strewed +with cylindric cactuses, and over a sea ever calm, the shores of +which were peopled with alcatras,* (* A brown pelican, of the size +of a swan. (Pelicanus fuscus, Linn.)) egrets, and flamingoes. The +splendour of the day, the vivid colouring of the vegetable world, +the forms of the plants, the varied plumage of the birds, +everything was stamped with the grand character of nature in the +equinoctial regions. + +The city of Cumana, the capital of New Andalusia, is a mile distant +from the embarcadero, or the battery of the Boca, where we landed, +after having passed the bar of the Manzanares. We had to cross a +vast plain, called el Salado, which divides the suburb of the +Guayquerias from the sea-coast. The excessive heat of the +atmosphere was augmented by the reverberation of the soil, partly +destitute of vegetation. The centigrade thermometer, plunged into +the white sand, rose to 37.7 degrees. In the small pools of salt +water it kept at 30.5 degrees, while the heat of the ocean, at its +surface, is generally, in the port of Cumana, from 25.2 to 26.3 +degrees. The first plant we gathered on the continent of America +was the Avicennia tomentosa,8 (* Mangle prieto.) which in this +place scarcely reaches two feet in height. This shrub, together +with the sesuvium, the yellow gomphrena, and the cactus, cover soil +impregnated with muriate of soda; they belong to that small number +of plants which live in society like the heath of Europe, and which +in the torrid zone are found only on the seashore, and on the +elevated plains of the Andes.* (* On the extreme rarity of the +social plants in the tropics, see my Essay on the Geog. of Plants +page 19; and a paper by Mr. Brown on the Proteacea, Transactions of +the Lin. Soc. volume 10 page 1, page 23, in which that great +botanist has extended and confirmed by numerous facts my ideas on +the association of plants of the same species.) The Avicennia of +Cumana is distinguished by another peculiarity not less remarkable: +it furnishes an instance of a plant common to the shores of South +America and the coasts of Malabar. + +The Indian pilot led us across his garden, which rather resembled a +copse than a piece of cultivated ground. He showed us, as a proof +of the fertility of this climate, a silk-cotton tree (Bombax +heptaphyllum), the trunk of which, in its fourth year, had reached +nearly two feet and a half in diameter. We have observed, on the +banks of the Orinoco and the river Magdalena, that the bombax, the +carolinea, the ochroma, and other trees of the family of the +malvaceae, are of extremely rapid growth. I nevertheless think that +there was some exaggeration in the report of the Indian respecting +the age of his bombax; for under the temperate zone, in the hot and +damp lands of North America, between the Mississippi and the +Alleghany mountains, the trees do not exceed a foot in diameter, in +ten years. Vegetation in those parts is in general but a fifth more +speedy than in Europe, even taking as an example the Platanus +occidentalis, the tulip tree, and the Cupressus disticha, which +reach from nine to fifteen feet in diameter. On the strand of +Cumana, in the garden of the Guayqueria pilot, we saw for the first +time a guama* loaded with flowers, and remarkable for the extreme +length and silvery splendour of its numerous stamina. (* Inga +spuria, which we must not confound with the common inga, Inga vera, +Willd. (Mimosa Inga, Linn.). The white stamina, which, to the +number of sixty or seventy, are attached to a greenish corolla, +have a silky lustre, and are terminated by a yellow anther. The +flower of the guama is eighteen lines long. The common height of +this fine tree, which prefers a moist soil, is from eight to ten +toises.) We crossed the suburb of the Guayqueria Indians, the +streets of which are very regular, and formed of small houses, +quite new, and of a pleasing appearance. This part of the town had +just been rebuilt, for the earthquake had laid Cumana in ruins +eighteen months before our arrival. By a wooden bridge, we crossed +the river Manzanares, which contains a few bavas, or crocodiles of +the smaller species. + +We were conducted by the captain of the Pizarro to the governor of +the province, Don Vincente Emparan, to present to him the passports +furnished to us by the first Secretary of State at Madrid. He +received us with that frankness and unaffected dignity which have +at all times characterized the natives of Biscay. Before he was +appointed governor of Portobello and Cumana, Don Vincente Emparan +had distinguished himself as captain of a vessel in the navy. His +name recalls to mind one of the most extraordinary and distressing +events recorded in the history of maritime warfare. At the time of +the last rupture between Spain and England, two brothers of Senor +Emperan, both of whom commanded ships in the Spanish navy, engaged +with each other before the port of Cadiz, each supposing that he +was attacking an enemy. A fierce battle was kept up during a whole +night, and both the vessels were sunk almost simultaneously. A very +small part of the crew was saved, and the two brothers had the +misfortune to recognize each other a little before they expired. + +The governor of Cumana expressed his great satisfaction at the +resolution we had taken to remain for some time in New Andalusia, a +province which at that period was but little known even by name in +Europe, and which in its mountains, and on the banks of its +numerous rivers, contains a great number of objects worthy of +fixing the attention of naturalists. Senor Emperan showed us +cottons dyed with native plants, and fine furniture made +exclusively of the wood of the country. He was much interested in +everything that related to natural philosophy; and asked, to our +great astonishment, whether we thought, that, under the beautiful +sky of the tropics, the atmosphere contained less azote (azotico) +than in Spain; or whether the rapidity with which iron oxidates in +those climates, were only the effect of greater humidity as +indicated by the air hygrometer. The name of his native country +pronounced on a distant shore would not have been more agreeable to +the ear of a traveller, than those words azote, oxide of iron, and +hygrometer, were to ours. Senor Emparan was a lover of science, and +the public marks of consideration which he gave us during a long +abode in his government, contributed greatly to procure us a +favourable welcome in every part of South America. + +We hired a spacious house, the situation of which was favourable +for astronomical observations. We enjoyed an agreeable coolness +when the breeze arose; the windows were without glass, and even +without those paper panes which are often substituted for glass at +Cumana. The whole of the passengers of the Pizarro left the vessel, +but the recovery of those who had been attacked by the fever was +very slow. We saw some who, a month after, notwithstanding the care +bestowed on them by their countrymen, were still extremely weak and +reduced. Hospitality, in the Spanish colonies, is such, that a +European who arrives, without recommendation or pecuniary means, is +almost sure of finding assistance, if he land in any port on +account of sickness. The Catalonians, the Galicians, and the +Biscayans, have the most frequent intercourse with America. They +there form as it were three distinct corporations, which exercise a +remarkable influence over the morals, the industry, and commerce of +the colonies. The poorest inhabitant of Siges or Vigo is sure of +being received into the house of a Catalonian or Galician pulpero,* +(* A retail dealer.) whether he land in Chile or the Philippine +Islands. + +Among the sick who landed at Cumana was a negro, who fell into a +state of insanity a few days after our arrival; he died in that +deplorable condition, though his master, almost seventy years old, +who had left Europe to settle at San Blas, at the entrance of the +gulf of California, had attended him with the greatest care. I +relate this fact as affording evidence that men born under the +torrid zone, after having dwelt in temperate climates, sometimes +feel the pernicious effects of the heat of the tropics. The negro +was a young man, eighteen years of age, very robust, and born on +the coast of Guinea; an abode of some years on the high plain of +Castile, had imparted to his organization that kind of irritability +which renders the miasma of the torrid zone so dangerous to the +inhabitants of the countries of the north. + +The site on which Cumana is built is part of a tract of ground, +very remarkable in a geological point of view. The chain of the +calcareous Alps of the Brigantine and the Tataraqual stretches east +and west from the summit of the Imposible to the port of Mochima +and to Campanario. The sea, in times far remote, appears to have +divided this chain from the rocky coasts of Araya and Maniquarez. +The vast gulf of Cariaco has been caused by an irruption of the +sea; and no doubt can be entertained but that the waters once +covered, on the southern bank, the whole tract of land impregnated +with muriate of soda, through which flows the Manzanares. The slow +retreat of the waters has turned into dry ground this extensive +plain, in which rises a group of small hills, composed of gypsum +and calcareous breccias of very recent formation. The city of +Cumana is backed by this group, which was formerly an island of the +gulf of Cariaco. That part of the plain which is north of the city, +is called Plaga Chica, or the Little Plain, and extends eastwards +as far as Punta Delgada, where a narrow valley, covered with yellow +gomphrena, still marks the point of the ancient outlet of the +waters. + +The hill of calcareous breccias, which we have just mentioned as +having once been an island in the ancient gulf, is covered with a +thick forest of cylindric cactus and opuntia. Some of these trees, +thirty or forty feet high, are covered with lichens, and are +divided into several branches in the form of candelabra. Near +Maniquarez, at Punta Araya, we measured a cactus,* the trunk of +which was four feet nine inches in circumference (* Tuna macho. We +distinguish in the wood of the cactus the medullary prolongations, +as M. Desfontaines has already observed.). A European acquainted +only with the opuntia in our hot-houses is surprised to see the +wood of this plant become so hard from age, that it resists for +centuries both air and moisture: the Indians of Cumana therefore +employ it in preference to any other for oars and door-posts. +Cumana, Coro, the island of Margareta, and Curassao, are the parts +of South America that abound most in plants of the nopal family. +There only, a botanist, after a long residence, could compose a +monography of the genus cactus, the species of which vary not only +in their flowers and fruits, but also in the form of their +articulated stems, the number of costae, and the disposition of the +thorns. We shall see hereafter how these plants, which characterize +a warm and singularly dry climate, like that of Egypt and +California, gradually disappear in proportion as we remove from the +coasts, and penetrate into the inland country. + +The groups of columnar cactus and opuntia produce the same effect +in the arid lands of equinoctial America as the junceae and the +hydrocharides in the marshes of our northern climes. Places in +which the larger species of the strong cactus are collected in +groups are considered as almost impenetrable. These places are +called Tunales; and they are impervious not only to the native, who +goes naked to the waist, but are formidable even to those who are +fully clothed. In our solitary rambles we sometimes endeavoured to +penetrate into the Tunal that crowns the summit of the castle hill, +a part of which is crossed by a pathway, where we could have +studied, amidst thousands of specimens, the organization of this +singular plant. Sometimes night suddenly overtook us, for there is +scarcely any twilight in this climate; and we then found ourselves +dangerously situated, as the Cascabel, or rattle-snake, the Coral, +and other vipers armed with poisonous fangs, frequent these +scorched and arid haunts, to deposit their eggs in the sand. + +The castle of San Antonio is built at the western extremity of the +hill, but not on the most elevated point, being commanded on the +east by an unfortified summit. The Tunal is considered both here +and everywhere in the Spanish colonies as a very important means of +military defence; and when earthen works are raised, the engineers +are eager to propagate the thorny opuntia, and promote its growth, +as they are careful to keep crocodiles in the ditches of fortified +places. In regions where organized nature is so powerful and +active, man summons as auxiliaries in his defence the carnivorous +reptile, and the plant with its formidable armour of thorns. + +The castle is only thirty toises above the level of the water in +the gulf of Cariaco. Standing on a naked and calcareous hill, it +commands the town, and has a very picturesque effect when viewed +from a vessel entering the port. It forms a bright object against +the dark curtains of those mountains which raise their summits to +the clouds, and of which the vaporous and bluish tint blends with +the azure sky. On descending from Fort San Antonio to the +south-west, we find on the slope of the same rock the ruins of the +old castle of Santa Maria. This site is delightful to those who +wish to enjoy at the approach of sunset the freshness of the breeze +and the view of the gulf. The lofty summits of the island of +Margareta are seen above the rocky coast of the isthmus of Araya, +and towards the west the small islands of Caracas, Picuita, and +Boracha, recall to mind the catastrophes that have overwhelmed the +coasts of Terra Firma. These islets resemble fortifications, and +from the effect of the mirage (while the inferior strata of the +air, the ocean, and the soil, are unequally heated by the sun), +their points appear raised like the extremity of the great +promontories of the coast. It is pleasing, during the day, to +observe these inconstant phenomena; we see, as night approaches, +these stony masses which had been suspended in the air, settle down +on their bases; and the luminary, whose presence vivifies organic +nature, seems by the variable inflection of its rays to impress +motion on the stable rock, and give an undulating movement to +plains covered with arid sands.* (* The real cause of the mirage, +or the extraordinary refraction which the rays undergo when strata +of air of different densities lie over each other, was guessed at +by Hooke.--See his Posthumous Works page 472.) + +The town of Cumana, properly so called, occupies the ground lying +between the castle of San Antonio and the small rivers of +Manzanares and Santa Catalina. The Delta, formed by the bifurcation +of the first of these rivers, is a fertile plain covered with +Mammees, Sapotas (achras), plantains, and other plants cultivated +in the gardens or charas of the Indians. The town has no remarkable +edifice, and the frequency of earthquakes forbids such +embellishments. It is true, that strong shocks occur less +frequently in a given time at Cumana than at Quito, where we +nevertheless find sumptuous and very lofty churches. But the +earthquakes of Quito are violent only in appearance, and, from the +peculiar nature of the motion and of the ground, no edifice there +is overthrown. At Cumana, as well as at Lima, and in several cities +situated far from the mouths of burning volcanoes, it happens that +the series of slight shocks is interrupted after a long course of +years by great catastrophes, resembling the effects of the +explosion of a mine. We shall have occasion to return to this +phenomenon, for the explanation of which so many vain theories have +been imagined, and which have been classified according to +perpendicular and horizontal movements, shock, and oscillation.* (* +This classification dates from the time of Posidonius. It is the +successio and inclinatio of Seneca; but the ancients had already +judiciously remarked, that the nature of these shocks is too +variable to permit any subjection to these imaginary laws.) + +The suburbs of Cumana are almost as populous as the ancient town. +They are three in number:--Serritos, on the road to the Plaga +Chicha, where we meet with some fine tamarind trees; St. Francis, +towards the south-east; and the great suburb of the Guayquerias, or +Guayguerias. The name of this tribe of Indians was quite unknown +before the conquest. The natives who bear that name formerly +belonged to the nation of the Guaraounos, of which we find remains +only in the swampy lands of the branches of the Orinoco. Old men +have assured me that the language of their ancestors was a dialect +of the Guaraouno; but that for a century past no native of that +tribe at Cumana, or in the island of Margareta, has spoken any +other language than Castilian. + +The denomination Guayqueria, like the words Peru and Peruvian, owes +its origin to a mere mistake. The companions of Christopher +Columbus, coasting along the island of Margareta, the northern +coast of which is still inhabited by the noblest portion of the +Guayqueria nation,* (* The Guayquerias of La Banda del Norte +consider themselves as the most noble race, because they think they +are less mixed with the Chayma Indian, and other copper-coloured +races. They are distinguished from the Guayquerias of the continent +by their manner of pronouncing the Spanish language, which they +speak almost without separating their teeth. They show with pride +to Europeans the Punta de la Galera, or Galley's Point, (so called +on account of the vessel of Columbus having anchored there), and +the port of Manzanillo, where they first swore to the whites in +1498, that friendship which they have never betrayed, and which has +obtained for them, in court phraseology, the title of fieles, +loyal.--See above.) encountered a few natives who were harpooning +fish by throwing a pole tied to a cord, and terminating in an +extremely sharp point. They asked them in the Haiti language their +name; and the Indians, thinking that the question of the strangers +related to their harpoons, which were formed of the hard and heavy +wood of the Macana palm, answered guaike, guaike, which signifies +pointed pole. A striking difference at present exists between the +Guayquerias, a civilized tribe of skilled fishermen, and those +savage Guaraounos of the Orinoco, who suspend their habitations on +the trunks of the Moriche palm. The population of Cumana has been +singularly exaggerated, but according to the most authentic +registers it does not exceed 16,000 souls. + +Probably the Indian suburb will by degrees extend as far as the +Embarcadero; the plain, which is not yet covered with houses or +huts, being more than 340 toises in length. The heat is somewhat +less oppressive on the side near the seashore, than in the old +town, where the reverberation of the calcareous soil, and the +proximity of the mountain of San Antonio, raise the temperature to +an excessive degree. In the suburb of the Guayquerias, the sea +breezes have free access; the soil is clayey, and, for that reason, +it is thought to be less exposed to violent shocks of earthquake, +than the houses at the foot of the rocks and hills on the right +bank of the Manzanares. + +The shore near the mouth of the small river Santa Catalina is +bordered with mangrove trees,* but these mangroves are not +sufficiently spread to diminish the salubrity of the air of Cumana. +(* Rhizophora mangle. M. Bonpland found on the Plaga Chica the +Allionia incarnata, in the same place where the unfortunate +Loefling had discovered this new genus of Nyctagineae.) The soil of +the plain is in part destitute of vegetation, in part covered with +tufts of Sesuvium portulacastrum, Gomphrena flava, G. myrtifolia, +Talinum cuspidatum, T. cumanense, and Portulaca lanuginosa. Among +these herbaceous plants we find at intervals the Avicennia +tomentosa, the Scoparia dulcis, a frutescent mimosa with very +irritable leaves,* and particularly cassias, the number of which is +so great in South America, that we collected, in our travels, more +than thirty new species. (* The Spaniards designate by the name of +dormideras (sleeping plants), the small number of mimosas with +irritable leaves. We have increased this number by three species +previously unknown to botanists, namely, the Mimosa humilis of +Cumana, the M. pellita of the savannahs of Calabozo, and the M. +dormiens of the banks of the Apure.) + +On leaving the Indian suburb, and ascending the river southward, we +found a grove of cactus, a delightful spot, shaded by tamarinds, +brazilettos, bombax, and other plants, remarkable for their leaves +and flowers. The soil here is rich in pasturage, and dairy-houses +built with reeds, are separated from each other by clumps of trees. +The milk remains fresh, when kept, not in the calabashes* of very +thick ligneous fibres (* These calabashes are made from the fruit +of the Crescentia cujete.), but in porous earthen vessels from +Maniquarez. A prejudice prevalent in northern countries had long +led me to believe, that cows, under the torrid zone, did not yield +rich milk; but my abode at Cumana, and especially an excursion +through the vast plains of Calabozo, covered with grasses, and +herbaceous sensitive plants, convinced me that the ruminating +animals of Europe become perfectly habituated to the hottest +climates, provided they find water and good nourishment. Milk is +excellent in the provinces of New Andalusia, Barcelona, and +Venezuela; and butter is better in the plains of the equinoctial +zone, than on the ridge of the Andes, where the Alpine plants, +enjoying in no season a sufficiently high temperature, are less +aromatic than on the Pyrenees, on the mountains of Estremadura, or +of Greece. As the inhabitants of Cumana prefer the coolness of the +sea breeze to the sight of vegetation, their favourite walk is the +open shore. The Spaniards, who in general have no great +predilection for trees, or for the warbling of birds, have +transported their tastes and their habits into the colonies. In +Terra Firma, Mexico, and Peru, it is rare to see a native plant a +tree, merely with the view of procuring shade; and if we except the +environs of the great capitals, walks bordered with trees are +almost unknown in those countries. The arid plain of Cumana +exhibits after violent showers an extraordinary phenomenon. The +earth, when drenched with rain, and heated again by the rays of the +sun, emits that musky odour which in the torrid zone, is common to +animals of very different classes, namely: to the jaguar, the small +species of tiger cat, the cabiai or thick-nosed tapir,* (* Cavia +capybara, Linn.; chiguire.) the galinazo vulture,* (* Vultur aura, +Linn., Zamuro, or Galinazo: the Brazilian vulture of Buffon. I +cannot reconcile myself to the adoption of names, which designate, +as belonging to a single country, animals common to a whole +continent.) the crocodile, the viper, and the rattlesnake. The +gaseous emanations, which are the vehicles of this aroma, seem to +be evolved in proportion only as the mould, containing the spoils +of an innumerable quantity of reptiles, worms, and insects, begins +to be impregnated with water. I have seen Indian children, of the +tribe of the Chaymas, draw out from the earth and eat millipedes or +scolopendras* eighteen inches long, and seven lines broad. (* +Scolopendras are very common behind the castle of San Antonio, on +the summit of the hill.) Whenever the soil is turned up, we are +struck with the mass of organic substances, which by turns are +developed, transformed, and decomposed. Nature in these climates +appears more active, more fruitful, we may even say more prodigal, +of life. + +On this shore, and near the dairies just mentioned, we enjoy, +especially at sunrise, a very beautiful prospect over an elevated +group of calcareous mountains. As this group subtends an angle of +three degrees only at the house where we dwelt, it long served me +to compare the variations of the terrestrial refraction with the +meteorological phenomena. Storms are formed in the centre of this +Cordillera; and we see from afar thick clouds resolve into abundant +rains, while during seven or eight months not a drop of water falls +at Cumana. The Brigantine, which is the highest part of this chain, +raises itself in a very picturesque manner behind Brito and +Tataraqual. It takes its name from the form of a very deep valley +on the northern declivity, which resembles the interior of a ship. +The summit of this mountain is almost bare of vegetation, and is +flat like that of Mowna Roa, in the Sandwich Islands. It is a +perpendicular wall, or, to use a more expressive term of the +Spanish navigators, a table (mesa). This peculiar form, and the +symmetrical arrangement of a few cones which surround the +Brigantine, made me at first think that this group, which is wholly +calcareous, contained rocks of basaltic or trappean formation. + +The governor of Cumana sent, in 1797, a band of determined men to +explore this entirely desert country, and to open a direct road to +New Barcelona, by the summit of the Mesa. It was reasonably +expected that this way would be shorter, and less dangerous to the +health of travellers, than the route taken by the couriers along +the coasts; but every attempt to cross the chain of the mountains +of the Brigantine was fruitless. In this part of America, as in +Australia* to the west of Sydney, it is not so much the height of +the mountain chains, as the form of the rocks, that presents +obstacles difficult to surmount. (* The Blue Mountains of +Australia, and those of Carmarthen and Lansdowne, are not visible, +in clear weather, beyond fifty miles.--Peron, Voyage aux Terres +Australes page 389. Supposing the angle of altitude half a degree, +the absolute height of these mountains would be about 620 toises.) + +The longitudinal valley formed by the lofty mountains of the +interior and the southern declivity of the Cerro de San Antonio, is +intersected by the Rio Manzanares. This plain, the only thoroughly +wooded part in the environs of Cumana, is called the Plain of the +Charas,* on account of the numerous plantations which the +inhabitants have begun, for some years past, along the river. (* +Chacra, by corruption chara, signifies a hut or cottage surrounded +by a garden. The word ipure has the same signification.) A narrow +path leads from the hill of San Francisco across the forest to the +hospital of the Capuchins, a very agreeable country-house, which +the Aragonese monks have built as a retreat for old infirm +missionaries, who can no longer fulfil the duties of their +ministry. As we advance to the west, the trees of the forest become +more vigorous, and we meet with a few monkeys,* (* The common +machi, or weeping monkey.) which, however, are very rare in the +environs of Cumana. At the foot of the capparis, the bauhinia, and +the zygophyllum with flowers of a golden yellow, there extends a +carpet of Bromelia,* (* Chihuchihue, of the family of the ananas.) +akin to the B. karatas, which from the odour and coolness of its +foliage attracts the rattlesnake. + +The waters of the Manzanares are very limpid in quality, and this +river has no resemblance to the Manzanares of Madrid, which appears +the more magnificent in contrast with the fine bridge by which it +is crossed. It takes its source, like all the rivers of New +Andalusia, in the savannahs (llanos) known by the names of the +plateaux of Jonoro, Amana, and Guanipa,* (* These three eminences +bear the names of mesas, tables. An immense plain has an almost +imperceptible rise from both sides to the middle, without any +appearance of mountains or hills.) and it receives, near the Indian +village of San Fernando, the waters of the Rio Juanillo. It has +been several times proposed to the government, but without success, +to construct a dyke at the first ipure, in order to form artificial +irrigations in the plain of Charas; for, notwithstanding its +apparent sterility, the soil is extremely productive, wherever +humidity is combined with the heat of the climate. The cultivators +were gradually to refund the money advanced for the construction of +the sluices. Meanwhile, pumps worked by mules, and other hydraulic +but imperfect machines, have been erected, to serve till this +project is carried into execution. + +The banks of the Manzanares are very pleasant, and are shaded by +mimosas, erythrinas, ceibas, and other trees of gigantic growth. A +river, the temperature of which, in the season of the floods, +descends as low as twenty-two degrees, when the air is at thirty +and thirty-three degrees, is an inestimable benefit in a country +where the heat is excessive during the whole year, and where it is +so agreeable to bathe several times in the day. The children pass a +considerable part of their lives in the water; all the inhabitants, +even the women of the most opulent families, know how to swim; and +in a country where man is so near the state of nature, one of the +first questions asked on meeting in the morning is, whether the +water is cooler than it was on the preceding evening. One of the +modes of bathing is curious. We every evening visited a family, in +the suburb of the Guayquerias. In a fine moonlight night, chairs +were placed in the water; the men and women were lightly clothed, +as in some baths of the north of Europe; and the family and +strangers, assembled in the river, passed some hours in smoking +cigars, and in talking, according to the custom of the country, of +the extreme dryness of the season, of the abundant rains in the +neighbouring districts, and particularly of the extravagancies of +which the ladies of Cumana accuse those of Caracas and the +Havannah. The company were under no apprehensions from the bavas, +or small crocodiles, which are now extremely scarce, and which +approach men without attacking them. These animals are three or +four feet long. We never met with them in the Manzanares, but with +a great number of dolphins (toninas), which sometimes ascend the +river in the night, and frighten the bathers by spouting water. + +The port of Cumana is a roadstead capable of receiving the fleets +of Europe. The whole of the Gulf of Cariaco, which is about 35 +miles long and 48 broad, affords excellent anchorage. The Pacific +is not more calm on the shores of Peru, than the Caribbean Sea from +Porto-cabello, and especially from Cape Codera to the point of +Paria. The hurricanes of the West Indies are never felt in these +regions. The only danger in the port of Cumana is a shoal, called +Morro Roxo. There are from one to three fathoms water on this +shoal, while just beyond its edges there are eighteen, thirty, and +even thirty-eight. The remains of an old battery, situated +north-north-east of the castle of San Antonio, and very near it, +serve as a mark to avoid the bank of Morro Roxo. + +The city lies at the foot of a hill destitute of verdure, and is +commanded by a castle. No steeple or dome attracts from afar the +eye of the traveller, but only a few trunks of tamarind, cocoa, and +date trees, which rise above the houses, the roofs of which are +flat. The surrounding plains, especially those on the coasts, wear +a melancholy, dusty, and arid appearance, while a fresh and +luxuriant vegetation marks from afar the windings of the river, +which separates the city from the suburbs; the population of +European and mixed race from the copper-coloured natives. The hill +of fort San Antonio, solitary, white, and bare, reflects a great +mass of light, and of radiant heat: it is composed of breccia, the +strata of which contain numerous fossils. In the distance, towards +the south, stretches a vast and gloomy curtain of mountains. These +are the high calcareous Alps of New Andalusia, surmounted by +sandstone, and other more recent formations. Majestic forests cover +this Cordillera of the interior, and they are joined by a woody +vale to the open clayey lands and salt marshes of the environs of +Cumana. A few birds of considerable size contribute to give a +peculiar character to these countries. On the seashore, and in the +gulf, we find flocks of fishing herons, and alcatras of a very +unwieldy form, which swim, like the swan, raising their wings. +Nearer the habitation of man, thousands of galinazo vultures, the +jackals of the winged tribe, are ever busy in disinterring the +carcases of animals.* (* Buffon Hist. Nat. des Oiseaux tome 1 page +114.) A gulf, containing hot and submarine springs, divides the +secondary from the primary and schistose rocks of the peninsula of +Araya. Each of these coasts is washed by a tranquil sea, of azure +tint, and always gently agitated by a breeze from one quarter. A +bright clear sky, with a few light clouds at sunset, reposes on the +ocean, on the treeless peninsula, and on the plains of Cumana, +while we see the storms accumulate and descend in fertile showers +among the inland mountains. Thus on these coasts, as well as at the +foot of the Andes, the earth and the sky present the extremes of +clear weather and fogs, of drought and torrents of rain, of +absolute nudity and never-ceasing verdure. + +The analogies which we have just indicated, between the sea-coasts +of New Andalusia and those of Peru, extend also to the recurrence +of earthquakes, and the limits which nature seems to have +prescribed to these phenomena. We have ourselves felt very violent +shocks at Cumana; and we learned on the spot, the most minute +circumstances that accompanied the great catastrophe of the 14th +December, 1797. + +It is a very generally received opinion on the coasts of Cumana, +and in the island of Margareta, that the gulf of Cariaco owes its +existence to a rent of the continent attended by an irruption of +the sea. The remembrance of that great event was preserved among +the Indians to the end of the fifteenth century; and it is related +that, at the time of the third voyage of Christopher Columbus, the +natives mentioned it as of very recent date. In 1530, the +inhabitants were alarmed by new shocks on the coasts of Paria and +Cumana. The land was inundated by the sea, and the small fort, +built by James Castellon at New Toledo,* was entirely destroyed. (* +This was the first name given to the city of Cumana--Girolamo +Benzoni Hist. del Mondo Nuovo pages 3, 31, and 33. James Castellon +arrived at St. Domingo in 1521, after the appearance of the +celebrated Bartholomew de las Casas in these countries. On +attentively reading the narratives of Benzoni and Caulin, we find +that the fort of Castellon was built near the mouth of the +Manzanares (alla ripa del fiume de Cumana); and not, as some modern +travellers have asserted, on the mountain where now stands the +castle of San Antonio.) At the same time an enormous opening was +formed in the mountains of Cariaco, on the shores of the gulf +bearing that name, when a great body of salt-water, mixed with +asphaltum, issued from the micaceous schist. Earthquakes were very +frequent about the end of the sixteenth century; and, according to +the traditions preserved at Cumana, the sea often inundated the +shores, rising from fifteen to twenty fathoms. + +As no record exists at Cumana, and its archives, owing to the +continual devastations of the termites, or white ants, contain no +document that goes back farther than a hundred and fifty years, we +are unacquainted with the precise dates of the ancient earthquakes. +We only know, that, in times nearer our own, the year 1776 was at +once the most fatal to the colonists, and the most remarkable for +the physical history of the country. The city of Cumana was +entirely destroyed, the houses were overturned in the space of a +few minutes, and the shocks were hourly repeated during fourteen +months. In several parts of the province the earth opened, and +threw out sulphureous waters. These irruptions were very frequent +in a plain extending towards Casanay, two leagues east of the town +of Cariaco, and known by the name of the hollow ground (tierra +hueca), because it appears entirely undermined by thermal springs. +During the years 1766 and 1767, the inhabitants of Cumana encamped +in their streets; and they began to rebuild their houses only when +the earthquakes recurred once a month. What was felt at Quito, +immediately after the great catastrophe of February 1797, took +place on these coasts. While the ground was in a state of continual +oscillation, the atmosphere seemed to dissolve itself into water. + +Tradition states that in the earthquake of 1766, as well as in +another remarkable one in 1794, the shocks were mere horizontal +oscillations; it was only on the disastrous 14th of December, 1797, +that for the first time at Cumana the motion was felt by an +upheaving of the ground. More than four-fifths of the city were +then entirely destroyed; and the shock, attended by a very loud +subterraneous noise, resembled, as at Riobamba, the explosion of a +mine at a great depth. Happily the most violent shock was preceded +by a slight undulating motion, so that most of the inhabitants were +enabled to escape into the streets, and a small number only +perished of those who had assembled in the churches. It is a +generally received opinion at Cumana, that the most destructive +earthquakes are announced by very feeble oscillations, and by a +hollow sound, which does not escape the observation of persons +habituated to this kind of phenomenon. In those fatal moments the +cries of 'misericordia! tembla! tembla!'* are everywhere heard (* +"Mercy! the earthquake! the earthquake!"--See Tschudi's Travels in +Peru page 170.); and it rarely happens that a false alarm is given +by a native. Those who are most apprehensive attentively observe +the motions of dogs, goats, and swine. The last-mentioned animals, +endowed with delicate olfactory nerves, and accustomed to turn up +the earth, give warning of approaching danger by their restlessness +and their cries. We shall not attempt to decide, whether, being +nearer the surface of the ground, they are the first to hear the +subterraneous noise; or whether their organs receive the impression +of some gaseous emanation which issues from the earth. We cannot +deny the possibility of this latter cause. During my abode at Peru, +a fact was observed in the inland country, which has an analogy +with this kind of phenomenon, and which is not unfrequent. At the +end of violent earthquakes, the herbs that cover the savannahs of +Tucuman acquired noxious properties; an epidemic disorder broke out +among the cattle, and a great number of them appeared stupified or +suffocated by the deleterious vapours exhaled from the ground. + +At Cumana, half an hour before the catastrophe of the 14th of +December, 1797, a strong smell of sulphur was perceived near the +hill of the convent of San Francisco; and on the same spot the +subterraneous noise, which seemed to proceed from south-east to +north-west, was loudest. At the same time flames appeared on the +banks of the Manzanares, near the hospital of the Capuchins, and in +the gulf of Cariaco, near Mariguitar. This last phenomenon, so +extraordinary in a country not volcanic, is pretty frequent in the +Alpine calcareous mountains near Cumanacoa, in the valley of +Bordones, in the island of Margareta, and amidst the Llanos or +savannahs of New Andalusia. In these savannahs, flakes of fire +rising to a considerable height, are seen for hours together in the +dryest places; and it is asserted, that, on examining the ground no +crevice is perceptible. This fire, which resembles the springs of +hydrogen, or Salse, of Modena, or what is called the +will-o'-the-wisp of our marshes, does not burn the grass; because, +no doubt, the column of gas, which develops itself, is mixed with +azote and carbonic acid, and does not burn at its basis. The +people, although less superstitious here than in Spain, call these +reddish flames by the singular name of 'the soul of the tyrant +Aguirre;' imagining that the spectre of Lopez Aguirre, harassed by +remorse, wanders over these countries sullied by his crimes.* (* +When at Cumana, or in the island of Margareta, the people pronounce +the words el tirano (the tyrant), it is always to denote the hated +Lopez d'Aguirre, who, after having taken part, in 1560, in the +revolt of Fernando de Guzman against Pedro de Ursua, governor of +the Omeguas and Dorado, voluntarily took the title of traidor, or +traitor. He descended the river Amazon with his band, and reached +by a communication of the rivers of Guyana the island of Margareta. +The port of Paraguache still bears, in this island, the name of the +Tyrant's Port.) + +The great earthquake of 1797 produced some changes in the +configuration of the shoal of Morro Roxo, towards the mouth of the +Rio Bordones. Similar swellings were observed at the time of the +total destruction of Cumana, in 1766. At that period, the Punta +Delgado, on the southern coast of the gulf of Cariaco, became +perceptibly enlarged; and in the Rio Guarapiche, near the village +of Maturin, a shoal was formed, no doubt by the action of the +elastic fluids, which displaced and raised up the bed of the river. + +In order to follow a plan conformable to the end we proposed in +this work, we shall endeavour to generalize our ideas, and to +comprehend in one point of view everything that relates to these +phenomena, so terrific, and so difficult to explain. If it be the +duty of the men of science who visit the Alps of Switzerland, or +the coasts of Lapland, to extend our knowledge respecting the +glaciers and the aurora borealis, it may be expected that a +traveller who has journeyed through Spanish America, should have +chiefly fixed his attention on volcanoes and earthquakes. Each part +of the globe is an object of particular study; and when we cannot +hope to penetrate the causes of natural phenomena, we ought at +least to endeavour to discover their laws, and distinguish, by the +comparison of numerous facts, that which is permanent and uniform +from that which is variable and accidental. + +The great earthquakes, which interrupt the long series of slight +shocks, appear to have no regular periods at Cumana. They have +taken place at intervals of eighty, a hundred, and sometimes less +than thirty years; while on the coasts of Peru, for instance at +Lima, a certain regularity has marked the periods of the total +destruction of the city. The belief of the inhabitants in the +existence of this uniformity has a happy influence on public +tranquillity, and the encouragement of industry. It is generally +admitted, that it requires a sufficiently long space of time for +the same causes to act with the same energy; but this reasoning is +just only inasmuch as the shocks are considered as a local +phenomenon; and a particular focus, under each point of the globe +exposed to those great catastrophes, is admitted. Whenever new +edifices are raised on the ruins of the old, we hear from those who +refuse to build, that the destruction of Lisbon on the first day of +November, 1755, was soon followed by a second, and not less fatal +convulsion, on the 31st of March, 1761. + +It is a very ancient opinion,* (* Aristotle de Meteor. lib. 2 (ed. +Duval, tome 1 page 798). Seneca Nat. Quaest. lib. 6 c. 12.) and one +that is commonly received at Cumana, Acapulco, and Lima, that a +perceptible connection exists between earthquakes and the state of +the atmosphere that precedes those phenomena. But from the great +number of earthquakes which I have witnessed to the north and south +of the equator; on the continent, and on the seas; on the coasts, +and at 2500 toises height; it appears to me that the oscillations +are generally very independent of the previous state of the +atmosphere. This opinion is entertained by a number of intelligent +residents of the Spanish colonies, whose experience extends, if not +over a greater space of the globe, at least over a greater number +of years, than mine. On the contrary, in parts of Europe where +earthquakes are rare compared to America, scientific observers are +inclined to admit an intimate connection between the undulations of +the ground, and certain meteors, which appear simultaneously with +them. In Italy for instance, the sirocco and earthquakes are +suspected to have some connection; and in London, the frequency of +falling-stars, and those southern lights which have since been +often observed by Mr. Dalton, were considered as the forerunners of +those shocks which were felt from 1748 to 1756. + +On days when the earth is shaken by violent shocks, the regularity +of the horary variations of the barometer is not disturbed within +the tropics. I had opportunities of verifying this observation at +Cumana, at Lima, and at Riobamba; and it is the more worthy of +attention, as at St. Domingo, (in the town of Cape Francois,) it is +asserted, that a water-barometer sank two inches and a half +immediately before the earthquake of 1770. It is also related, +that, at the time of the destruction of Oran, a druggist fled with +his family, because, observing accidentally, a few minutes before +the earthquake, the height of the mercury in his barometer, he +perceived that the column sank in an extraordinary manner. I know +not whether we can give credit to this story; but as it is nearly +impossible to examine the variations of the weight of the +atmosphere during the shocks, we must be satisfied with observing +the barometer before or after these phenomena have taken place. + +We can scarcely doubt, that the earth, when opened and agitated by +shocks, spreads occasionally gaseous emanations through the +atmosphere, in places remote from the mouths of volcanoes not +extinct. At Cumana, it has already been observed that flames and +vapours mixed with sulphurous acid spring up from the most arid +soil. In other parts of the same province, the earth ejects water +and petroleum. At Riobamba, a muddy and inflammable mass, called +moya, issues from crevices that close again, and accumulates into +elevated hills. At about seven leagues from Lisbon, near Colares, +during the terrible earthquake of the 1st of November, 1755, flames +and a column of thick smoke were seen to issue from the flanks of +the rocks of Alvidras, and, according to some witnesses, from the +bosom of the sea. + +Elastic fluids thrown into the atmosphere may act locally on the +barometer, not by their mass, which is very small, compared to the +mass of the atmosphere, but because, at the moment of great +explosions, an ascending current is probably formed, which +diminishes the pressure of the air. I am inclined to think that in +the majority of earthquakes nothing escapes from the agitated +earth; and that, when gaseous emanations and vapours are observed, +they oftener accompany or follow, than precede the shocks. This +circumstance would seem to explain the mysterious influence of +earthquakes in equinoctial America, on the climate, and on the +order of the dry and rainy seasons. If the earth generally act on +the air only at the moment of the shocks, we can conceive why a +sensible meteorological change so rarely precedes those great +revolutions of nature. + +The hypothesis according to which, in the earthquakes of Cumana, +elastic fluids tend to escape from the surface of the soil, seems +confirmed by the great noise which is heard during the shocks at +the borders of the wells in the plain of Charas. Water and sand are +sometimes thrown out twenty feet high. Similar phenomena were +observed in ancient times by the inhabitants of those parts of +Greece and Asia Minor abounding with caverns, crevices, and +subterraneous rivers. Nature, in her uniform progress, everywhere +suggests the same ideas of the causes of earthquakes, and the means +by which man, forgetting the measure of his strength, pretends to +diminish the effect of the subterraneous explosions. What a great +Roman naturalist has said of the utility of wells and caverns* is +repeated in the New World by the most ignorant Indians of Quito, +when they show travellers the guaicos, or crevices of Pichincha. (* +"In puteis est remedium, quale et crebri specus praebent: conceptum +enim spiritum exhalant: quod in certis notatur oppidis, quae minus +quatiuntur, crebris ad eluviem cuniculis cavata."--Pliny lib. 2 c. +82 (ed. Par. 1723 t. 1 page 112.) Even at present, in the capital +of St. Domingo, wells are considered as diminishing the violence of +the shocks. I may observe on this occasion, that the theory of +earthquakes, given by Seneca, (Nat. Quaest. lib. 6 c. 4-31), +contains the germ of everything that has been said in our times on +the action of the elastic vapours confined in the interior of the +globe.) + +The subterranean noise, so frequent during earthquakes, is +generally not in the ratio of the force of the shocks. At Cumana it +constantly precedes them, while at Quito, and recently at Caracas, +and in the West India Islands, a noise like the discharge of a +battery was heard a long time after the shocks had ceased. A third +kind of phenomenon, the most remarkable of the whole, is the +rolling of those subterranean thunders, which last several months, +without being accompanied by the least oscillatory motion of the +ground.* (* The subterranean thunders (bramidos y truenos +subterraneos) of Guanaxuato. The phenomenon of a noise without +shocks was observed by the ancients.--Aristot. Meteor. lib. 2 (ed. +Duval page 802). Pliny lib. 2 c. 80.) + +In every country subject to earthquakes, the point at which, +probably owing to a particular disposition of the stony strata, the +effects are most sensibly felt, is considered as the cause and the +focus of the shocks. Thus, at Cumana, the hill of the castle of San +Antonio, and particularly the eminence on which stands the convent +of St. Francis, are believed to contain an enormous quantity of +sulphur and other inflammable matter. We forget that the rapidity +with which the undulations are propagated to great distances, even +across the basin of the ocean, proves that the centre of action is +very remote from the surface of the globe. From this same cause no +doubt earthquakes are not confined to certain species of rocks, as +some naturalists suppose, but all are fitted to propagate the +movement. Keeping within the limits of my own experience I may here +cite the granites of Lima and Acapulco; the gneiss of Caracas; the +mica-slate of the peninsula of Araya; the primitive thonschiefer of +Tepecuacuilco, in Mexico; the secondary limestones of the +Apennines, Spain, and New Andalusia; and finally, the trappean +porphyries of the provinces of Quito and Popayan.* (* I might add +to the list of secondary rocks, the gypsum of the newest formation, +for instance, that of Montmartre, situated on a marine calcareous +rock, which is posterior to the chalk.--See the Memoires de +l'Academie tome 1 page 341 on the earthquake felt at Paris and its +environs in 1681.) In these different places the ground is +frequently agitated by the most violent shocks; but sometimes, in +the same rock, the superior strata form invincible obstacles to the +propagation of the motion. Thus, in the mines of Saxony, we have +seen workmen hasten up alarmed by oscillations which were not felt +at the surface of the ground. + +If, in regions the most remote from each other, primitive, +secondary, and volcanic rocks, share equally in the convulsive +movements of the globe; we cannot but admit also that within a +space of little extent, certain classes of rocks oppose themselves +to the propagation of the shocks. At Cumana, for instance, before +the great catastrophe of 1797, the earthquakes were felt only along +the southern and calcareous coast of the gulf of Cariaco, as far as +the town of that name; while in the peninsula of Araya, and at the +village of Maniquarez, the ground did not share the same agitation. +But since December 1797, new communications appear to have been +opened in the interior of the globe. The peninsula of Araya is now +not merely subject to the same agitations as the soil of Cumana, +but the promontory of mica-slate, previously free from earthquakes, +has become in its turn a central point of commotion. The earth is +sometimes strongly shaken at the village of Maniquarez, when on the +coast of Cumana the inhabitants enjoy the most perfect +tranquillity. The gulf of Cariaco, nevertheless, is only sixty or +eighty fathoms deep. + +It has been thought from observations made both on the continent +and in the islands, that the western and southern coasts are most +exposed to shocks. This observation is connected with opinions +which geologists have long formed respecting the position of the +high chains of mountains, and the direction of their steepest +declivities; but the existence of the Cordillera of Caracas, and +the frequency of the oscillations on the eastern and northern coast +of Terra Firma, in the gulf of Paria, at Carupano, at Cariaco, and +at Cumana, render the accuracy of that opinion doubtful. + +In New Andalusia, as well as in Chile and Peru, the shocks follow +the course of the shore, and extend but little inland. This +circumstance, as we shall soon find, indicates an intimate +connection between the causes which produce earthquakes and +volcanic eruptions. If the earth was most agitated on the coasts, +because they are the lowest part of the land, why should not the +oscillations be equally strong and frequent on those vast savannahs +or prairies,* which are scarcely eight or ten toises above the +level of the ocean? (* The Llanos of Cumana, of New Barcelona, of +Calabozo, of Apure, and of Meta.) + +The earthquakes of Cumana are connected with those of the West +India Islands; and it has even been suspected that they have some +connection with the volcanic phenomena of the Cordilleras of the +Andes. On the 4th of February 1797, the soil of the province of +Quito suffered such a destructive commotion, that near 40,000 +natives perished. At the same period the inhabitants of the eastern +Antilles were alarmed by shocks, which continued during eight +months, when the volcano of Guadaloupe threw out pumice-stones, +ashes, and gusts of sulphureous vapours. The eruption of the 27th +of September, during which very long-continued subterranean noises +were heard, was followed on the 14th of December by the great +earthquake of Cumana. Another volcano of the West India Islands, +that of St. Vincent, affords an example of these extraordinary +connections. This volcano had not emitted flames since 1718, when +they burst forth anew in 1812. The total ruin of the city of +Caracas preceded this explosion thirty-five days, and violent +oscillations of the ground were felt both in the islands and on the +coasts of Terra Firma. + +It has long been remarked that the effects of great earthquakes +extend much farther than the phenomena arising from burning +volcanoes. In studying the physical revolutions of Italy, in +carefully examining the series of the eruptions of Vesuvius and +Etna, we can scarcely recognise, notwithstanding the proximity of +these mountains, any traces of a simultaneous action. It is on the +contrary beyond a doubt, that at the period of the last and +preceding destruction of Lisbon,* the sea was violently agitated +even as far as the New World, for instance, at the island of +Barbados, more than twelve hundred leagues distant from the coasts +of Portugal. + +(* Destruction of Lisbon: The 1st of November, 1755, and 31st of +March, 1761. During the first of these earthquakes, the sea +inundated, in Europe, the coasts of Sweden, England, and Spain; in +America, the islands of Antigua, Barbados, and Martinique. At +Barbados, where the ordinary tides rise only from twenty-four to +twenty-eight inches, the water rose twenty feet in Carlisle Bay. It +became at the same time as black as ink; being, without doubt, +mixed with the petroleum, or asphaltum, which abounds at the bottom +of the sea, as well on the coasts of the gulf of Cariaco, as near +the island of Trinidad. In the West Indies, and in several lakes of +Switzerland, this extraordinary motion of the waters was observed +six hours after the first shock that was felt at +Lisbon--Philosophical Transactions volume 49 pages 403, 410, 544, +668; ibid. volume 53 page 424. At Cadiz a mountain of water sixty +feet high was seen eight miles distant at sea. This mass threw +itself impetuously on the coasts, and beat down a great number of +houses; like the wave eighty-four feet high, which on the 9th of +June, 1586, at the time of the great earthquake of Lima, covered +the port of Callao.--Acosta Hist. Natural de las Indias edition de +1591 page 123. In North America, on Lake Ontario, violent +agitations of the water were observed from the month of October +1755. These phenomena are proofs of subterraneous communications at +enormous distances. On comparing the periods of the great +catastrophes of Lima and Guatimala, which generally succeed each +other at long intervals, it has sometimes been thought, that the +effect of an action slowly propagating along the Cordilleras, +sometimes from north to south, at other times from south to north, +may be perceived.--Cosmo Bueno Descripcion del Peru ed. de Lima +page 67. Four of these remarkable catastrophes, with their dates, +may be here enumerated.) + +TABLE OF FOUR CATASTROPHES: + +COLUMN 1 : MEXICO. (Latitude 13 degrees 32 minutes north.) + +COLUMN 2 : PERU. (Latitude 12 degrees 2 minutes south.) + + 30th of November, 1577 : 17th of June, 1578. + + 4th of March, 1679 : 17th of June, 1678. + + 12th of February, 1689 : 10th of October, 1688. + + 27th of September, 1717 : 8th of February, 1716. + +When the shocks are not simultaneous, or do not follow each other +at short intervals, great doubts may be entertained with respect to +the supposed communication of the movement.) + +Several facts tend to prove that the causes which produce +earthquakes have a near connection with those which act in volcanic +eruptions. The connection of these causes was known to the +ancients, and it excited fresh attention at the period of the +discovery of America. The discovery of the New World not only +offered new productions to the curiosity of man, it also extended +the then existing stock of knowledge respecting physical geography, +the varieties of the human species, and the migrations of nations. +It is impossible to read the narratives of early Spanish +travellers, especially that of the Jesuit Acosta, without +perceiving the influence which the aspect of a great continent, the +study of extraordinary appearances of nature, and intercourse with +men of different races, must have exercised on the progress of +knowledge in Europe. The germ of a great number of physical truths +is found in the works of the sixteenth century; and that germ would +have fructified, had it not been crushed by fanaticism and +superstition. We learned, at Pasto, that the column of black and +thick smoke, which, in 1797, issued for several months from the +volcano near that shore, disappeared at the very hour, when, sixty +leagues to the south, the towns of Riobamba, Hambato, and Tacunga +were destroyed by an enormous shock. In the interior of a burning +crater, near those hillocks formed by ejections of scoriae and +ashes, the motion of the ground is felt several seconds before each +partial eruption takes place. We observed this phenomenon at +Vesuvius in 1805, while the mountain threw out incandescent +scoriae; we were witnesses of it in 1802, on the brink of the +immense crater of Pichincha, from which, nevertheless, at that +time, clouds of sulphureous acid vapours only issued. + +Everything in earthquakes seems to indicate the action of elastic +fluids seeking an outlet to diffuse themselves in the atmosphere. +Often, on the coasts of the Pacific, the action is almost +instantaneously communicated from Chile to the gulf of Guayaquil, a +distance of six hundred leagues; and, what is very remarkable, the +shocks appear to be the stronger in proportion as the country is +distant from burning volcanoes. The granitic mountains of Calabria, +covered with very recent breccias, the calcareous chain of the +Apennines, the country of Pignerol, the coasts of Portugal and +Greece, those of Peru and Terra Firma, afford striking proofs of +this fact. The globe, it may be said, is agitated with the greater +force, in proportion as the surface has a smaller number of funnels +communicating with the caverns of the interior. At Naples and at +Messina, at the foot of Cotopaxi and of Tunguragua, earthquakes are +dreaded only when vapours and flames do not issue from the craters. +In the kingdom of Quito, the great catastrophe of Riobamba led +several well-informed persons to think that that country would be +less frequently disturbed, if the subterranean fire should break +the porphyritic dome of Chimborazo; and if that colossal mountain +should become a burning volcano. At all times analogous facts have +led to the same hypotheses. The Greeks, who, like ourselves, +attributed the oscillations of the ground to the tension of elastic +fluids, cited in favour of their opinion, the total cessation of +the shocks at the island of Euboea, by the opening of a crevice in +the Lelantine plain.* (* "The shocks ceased only when a crevice, +which ejected a river of fiery mud, opened in the plain of +Lelantum, near Chalcis."--Strabo.) + +The phenomena of volcanoes, and those of earthquakes, have been +considered of late as the effects of voltaic electricity, developed +by a particular disposition of heterogeneous strata. It cannot be +denied, that often, when violent shocks succeed each other within +the space of a few hours, the electricity of the air sensibly +increases at the instant the ground is most agitated; but to +explain this phenomenon, it is unnecessary to recur to an +hypothesis, which is in direct contradiction to everything hitherto +observed respecting the structure of our planet, and the +disposition of its strata. + + +CHAPTER 1.5. + +PENINSULA OF ARAYA. +SALT-MARSHES. +RUINS OF THE CASTLE OF SANTIAGO. + +THE first weeks of our abode at Cumana were employed in testing our +instruments, in herborizing in the neighbouring plains, and in +examining the traces of the earthquake of the 14th of December, +1797. Overpowered at once by a great number of objects, we were +somewhat embarrassed how to lay down a regular plan of study and +observation. Whilst every surrounding object was fitted to inspire +in us the most lively interest, our physical and astronomical +instruments in their turns excited strongly the curiosity of the +inhabitants. We had numerous visitors; and in our desire to satisfy +persons who appeared so happy to see the spots of the moon through +Dollond's telescope, the absorption of two gases in a eudiometrical +tube, or the effects of galvanism on the motions of a frog, we were +obliged to answer questions often obscure, and to repeat for whole +hours the same experiments. These scenes were renewed for the space +of five years, whenever we took up our abode in a place where it +was understood that we were in possession of microscopes, +telescopes, and electrical apparatus. + +I could not begin a regular course of astronomical observations +before the 28th of July, though it was highly important for me to +know the longitude given by Berthoud's time-keeper; but it +happened, that in a country where the sky is constantly clear and +serene, no stars appeared for several nights. The whole series of +the observations I made in 1799 and 1800 give for their results, +that the latitude of the great square at Cumana is 10 degrees 27 +minutes 52 seconds, and its longitude 66 degrees 30 minutes 2 +seconds. This longitude is founded on the difference of time, on +lunar distances, on the eclipse of the sun (on the 28th of October, +1799), and on ten immersions of Jupiter's satellites, compared with +observations made in Europe. The oldest chart we have of the +continent, that of Don Diego Ribeiro, geographer to the emperor +Charles the Fifth, places Cumana in latitude 9 degrees 30 minutes; +which differs fifty-eight minutes from the real latitude, and half +a degree from that marked by Jefferies in his American Pilot, +published in 1794. During three centuries the whole of the coast +of Terra Firma has been laid down too far to the south: this has +been owing to the current near the island of Trinidad, which sets +toward the north, and mariners are led by their dead-reckoning to +think themselves farther south than they really are. + +On the 17th of August a halo round the moon fixed the attention of +the inhabitants of Cumana, who considered it as the presage of some +violent earthquake; for, according to popular notions, all +extraordinary phenomena are immediately connected with each other. +Coloured circles around the moon are much more rare in northern +countries than in Provence, Italy, and Spain. They are seen +particularly (and this fact is singular enough) when the sky is +clear, and the weather seems to be most fair and settled. Under the +torrid zone beautiful prismatic colours appear almost every night, +and even at the time of the greatest droughts; often in the space +of a few minutes they disappear several times, because, doubtless, +the superior currents change the state of the floating vapours, by +which the light is refracted. I sometimes even observed, between +the fifteenth degree of latitude and the equator, small halos +around the planet Venus; the purple, orange, and violet, were +distinctly perceived: but I never saw any colours around Sirius, +Canopus, or Acherner. + +While the halo was visible at Cumana, the hygrometer denoted great +humidity; nevertheless the vapours appeared so perfectly in +solution, or rather so elastic and uniformly disseminated, that +they did not alter the transparency of the atmosphere. The moon +arose after a storm of rain, behind the castle of San Antonio. As +soon as she appeared on the horizon, we distinguished two circles: +one large and whitish, forty-four degrees in diameter; the other a +small circle of 1 degree 43 minutes, displaying all the colours of +the rainbow. The space between the two circles was of the deepest +azure. At four degrees height, they disappeared, while the +meteorological instruments indicated not the slightest change in +the lower regions of the air. This phenomenon had nothing +extraordinary, except the great brilliancy of the colours, added to +the circumstance, that, according to the measures taken with +Ramsden's sextant, the lunar disk was not exactly in the centre of +the haloes. Without this actual measurement we might have thought +that the excentricity was the effect of the projection of the +circles on the apparent concavity of the sky. + +If the situation of our house at Cumana was highly favourable for +the observation of the stars and meteorological phenomena, it +obliged us to be sometimes the witnesses of painful scenes during +the day. A part of the great square is surrounded with arcades, +above which is one of those long wooden galleries, common in warm +countries. This was the place where slaves, brought from the coast +of Africa, were sold. Of all the European governments Denmark was +the first, and for a long time the only power, which abolished the +traffic; yet notwithstanding that fact, the first negroes we saw +exposed for sale had been landed from a Danish slave-ship. What are +the duties of humanity, national honour, or the laws of their +country, to men stimulated by the speculations of sordid interest? + +The slaves exposed to sale were young men from fifteen to twenty +years of age. Every morning cocoa-nut oil was distributed among +them, with which they rubbed their bodies, to give their skin a +black polish. The persons who came to purchase examined the teeth +of these slaves, to judge of their age and health; forcing open +their mouths as we do those of horses in a market. This odious +custom dates from Africa, as is proved by the faithful pictures +drawn by the inimitable Cervantes,* who after his long captivity +among the Moors, described the sale of Christian slaves at Algiers. +(* El Trato de Argel. Jorn. 2 Viage al Parnasso 1784 page 316.) It +is distressing to think that even at this day there exist European +colonists in the West Indies who mark their slaves with a hot iron, +to know them again if they escape. This is the treatment bestowed +on those "who save other men the labour of sowing, tilling, and +reaping."* (* La Bruyere Caracteres edition 1765 chapter 11 page +300. I will here cite a passage strongly characteristic of La +Bruyere's benevolent feeling for his fellow-creatures. "We find +(under the torrid zone) certain wild animals, male and female, +scattered through the country, black, livid, and all over scorched +by the sun, bent to the earth which they dig and turn up with +invincible perseverance. They have something like articulate +utterance; and when they stand up on their feet, they exhibit a +human face, and in fact these creatures are men.") + +In 1800 the number of slaves did not exceed six thousand in the two +provinces of Cumana and Barcelona, when at the same period the +whole population was estimated at one hundred and ten thousand +inhabitants. The trade in African slaves, which the laws of the +Spaniards have never favoured, is almost as nothing on these coasts +where the trade in American slaves was carried on in the sixteenth +century with desolating activity. Macarapan, anciently called +Amaracapana, Cumana, Araya, and particularly New Cadiz, built on +the islet of Cubagua, might then be considered as commercial +establishments for facilitating the slave trade. Girolamo Benzoni +of Milan, who at the age of twenty-two visited Terra Firma, took +part in some expeditions in 1542 to the coasts of Bordones, +Cariaco, and Paria, to carry off the unfortunate natives, he +relates with simplicity, and often with a sensibility not common in +the historians of that time, the examples of cruelty of which he +was a witness. He saw the slaves dragged to New Cadiz, to be marked +on the forehead and on the arms, and for the payment of the quint +to the officers of the crown. From this port the Indians were sent +to the island of Haiti or St. Domingo, after having often changed +masters, not by way of sale, but because the soldiers played for +them at dice. + +The first excursion we made was to the peninsula of Araya, and +those countries formerly celebrated for the slave-trade and the +pearl-fishery. We embarked on the Rio Manzanares, near the Indian +suburb, on the 19th of August, about two in the morning. The +principal objects of this excursion were, to see the ruins of the +castle of Araya, to examine the salt-works, and to make a few +geological observations on the mountains forming the narrow +peninsula of Maniquarez. The night was delightfully cool; swarms of +phosphorescent insects* glistened in the air (* Elater noctilucus. +), and over a soil covered with sesuvium, and groves of mimosa +which bordered the river. We know how common the glow-worm* (* +Lampyris italica, L. noctiluca.) is in Italy and in all the south +of Europe, but the picturesque effect it produces cannot be +compared to those innumerable, scattered, and moving lights, which +embellish the nights of the torrid zone, and seem to repeat on the +earth, along the vast extent of the savannahs, the brilliancy of +the starry vault of heaven. + +When, on descending the river, we drew near plantations, or charas, +we saw bonfires kindled by the negroes. A light and undulating +smoke rose to the tops of the palm-trees, and imparted a reddish +hue to the disk of the moon. It was on a Sunday night, and the +slaves were dancing to the music of the guitar. The people of +Africa, of negro race, are endowed with an inexhaustible store of +activity and gaiety. After having ended the labours of the week, +the slaves, on festival days, prefer to listless sleep the +recreations of music and dancing. + +The bark in which we passed the gulf of Cariaco was very spacious. +Large skins of the jaguar, or American tiger, were spread for our +repose during the night. Though we had yet scarcely been two months +in the torrid zone, we had already become so sensible to the +smallest variation of temperature that the cold prevented us from +sleeping; while, to our surprise, we saw that the centigrade +thermometer was as high as 21.8 degrees. This fact is familiar to +those who have lived long in the Indies, and is worthy the +attention of physiologists. Bouguer relates, that when he reached +the summit of Montagne Pelee, in the island of Martinique, he and +his companions shivered with cold, though the heat was above 21.5 +degrees. In reading the interesting narrative of captain Bligh, +who, in consequence of a mutiny on board the Bounty, was forced to +make a voyage of twelve hundred leagues in an open boat, we find +that that navigator, in the tenth and twelfth degrees of south +latitude, suffered much more from cold than from hunger. During our +abode at Guayaquil, in the month of January 1803, we observed that +the natives covered themselves, and complained of the cold, when +the thermometer sank to 23.8 degrees, whilst they felt the heat +suffocating at 30.5 degrees. Six or seven degrees were sufficient +to cause the opposite sensations of cold and heat; because, on +these coasts of South America, the ordinary temperature of the +atmosphere is twenty-eight degrees. The humidity, which modifies +the conducting power of the air for heat, contributes greatly to +these impressions. In the port of Guayaquil, as everywhere else in +the low regions of the torrid zone, the weather grows cool only +after storms of rain: and I have observed that when the thermometer +sinks to 23.8 degrees, De Luc's hygrometer keeps up to fifty and +fifty-two degrees; it is, on the contrary, at thirty-seven degrees +in a temperature of 30.5 degrees. At Cumana, during very heavy +showers, people in the streets are heard exclaiming, que hielo! +estoy emparamado;* though the thermometer exposed to the rain sinks +only to 21.5 degrees. (* "What an icy cold! I shiver as if I was on +the top of the mountains." The provincial word emparamarse can be +translated only by a very long periphrasis. Paramo, in Peruvian +puna, is a denomination found on all the maps of Spanish America. +In the colonies it signifies neither a desert nor a heath, but a +mountainous place covered with stunted trees, exposed to the winds, +and in which a damp cold perpetually reigns. In the torrid zone, +the paramos are generally from one thousand six hundred to two +thousand toises high. Snow often falls on them, but it remains only +a few hours; for we must not confound, as geographers often do, the +words paramo and puna with that of nevado, in Peruvian ritticapa, a +mountain which enters into the limits of perpetual snow. These +notions are highly interesting to geology and the geography of +plants; because, in countries where no height has been measured, we +may form an exact idea of the lowest height to which the +Cordilleras rise, on looking into the map for the words paramo and +nevado. As the paramos are almost continually enveloped in a cold +and thick fog, the people say at Santa Fe and at Mexico, cae un +paramito when a thick small rain falls, and the temperature of the +air sinks considerably. From paramo has been made emparamarse, +which signifies to be as cold as if we were on the ridge of the +Andes.) From these observations it follows, that between the +tropics, in plains where the temperature of the air is in the +day-time almost invariably above twenty-seven degrees, warmer +clothing during the night is requisite, whenever in a damp air the +thermometer sinks four or five degrees. + +We landed about eight in the morning at the point of Araya, near +the new salt-works. A solitary house, near a battery of three guns, +the only defence of this coast, since the destruction of the fort +of Santiago, is the abode of the inspector. It is surprising that +these salt-works, which formerly excited the jealousy of the +English, Dutch, and other maritime powers, have not created a +village, or even a farm; a few huts only of poor Indian fishermen +are found at the extremity of the point of Araya. + +This spot commands a view of the islet of Cubagua, the lofty hills +of Margareta, the ruins of the castle of Santiago, the Cerro de la +Vela, and the calcareous chain of the Brigantine, which bounds the +horizon towards the south. I availed myself of this view to take +the angles between these different points, from a basis of four +hundred toises, which I measured between the battery and the hill +called the Pena. As the Cerro de la Vela, the Brigantine, and the +castle of San Antonio at Cumana, are equally visible from the Punta +Arenas, situated to the west of the village of Maniquarez, the same +objects were available for an approximate determination of the +respective positions of several points, which are laid down in the +mineralogical chart of the peninsula of Araya. + +The abundance of salt contained in the peninsula of Araya was known +to Alonzo Nino, when, following the tracks of Columbus, Ojeda, and +Amerigo Vespucci, he visited these countries in 1499. Though of all +the people on the globe the natives of South America consume the +least salt, because they scarcely eat anything but vegetables, it +nevertheless appears, that at an early period the Guayquerias dug +into the clayey and muriatiferous soil of Punta Arenas. Even the +brine-pits, now called new, (la salina nueva,) situated at the +extremity of Cape Araya, were worked in very remote times. The +Spaniards, who settled at first at Cubagua, and soon after on the +coasts of Cumana, worked, from the beginning of the sixteenth +century, the salt marshes which stretch away like a lagoon to the +north of Cerro de la Vela. As at that period the peninsula of Araya +had no settled population, the Dutch availed themselves of the +natural riches of a soil which appeared to be property common to +all nations. In our days, each colony has its own salt-works, and +navigation is so much improved, that the merchants of Cadiz can +send, at a small expense, salt from Spain and Portugal to the +southern hemisphere, a distance of 1900 leagues, to cure meat at +Monte Video and Buenos Ayres. These advantages were unknown at the +time of the conquest; colonial industry had then made so little +progress, that the salt of Araya was carried, at great expense, to +the West India Islands, Carthagena, and Portobello. In 1605, the +court of Madrid sent armed ships to Punta Araya, with orders to +expel the Dutch by force of arms. The Dutch, however, continued to +carry on a contraband trade in salt till, in 1622, there was built +near the salt-works a fort, which afterwards became celebrated +under the name of the Castillo de Santiago, or the Real Fuerza de +Araya. The great salt-marshes are laid down on the oldest Spanish +maps, sometimes as a bay, and at other times as a lagoon. Laet, who +wrote his Orbis Novus in 1633, and who had some excellent notions +respecting these coasts, expressly states, that the lagoon was +separated from the sea by an isthmus above the level of high water. +In 1726, an impetuous hurricane destroyed the salt-works of Araya, +and rendered the fort, the construction of which had cost more than +a million of piastres, useless. This hurricane was a very rare +phenomenon in these regions, where the sea is in general as calm as +the water in our large rivers. The waves overflowed the land to a +great extent; and by the effect of this eruption of the ocean the +salt lake was converted into a gulf several miles in length. Since +that period, artificial reservoirs, or pits, (vasets,) have been +formed, to the north of the range of hills which separates the +castle from the north coast of the peninsula. + +The consumption of salt amounted, in 1799 and 1800, in the two +provinces of Cumana* and Barcelona, to nine or ten thousand +fanegas, each sixteen arrobas, or four hundredweight. This +consumption is very considerable, and gives, if we deduct from the +total population fifty thousand Indians, who eat very little salt, +sixty pounds for each person. Salt beef, called tasajo, is the most +important article of export from Barcelona. Of nine or ten thousand +fanegas furnished by the two provinces conjointly, three thousand +only are produced by the salt-works of Araya; the rest is extracted +from the sea-water at the Morro of Barcelona, at Pozuelos, at +Piritu, and in the Golfo Triste. In Mexico, the salt lake of Penon +Blanco alone furnishes yearly more than two hundred and fifty +thousand fanegas of unpurified salt. (* At the period of my visit +to that country the government of Cumana comprehended the two +provinces of New Andalusia and New Barcelona. The words province +and govierno, or government of Cumana, are consequently not +synonymous. A Catalonian, Juan de Urpin, who had been by turns a +canon, a doctor of laws, a counsellor in St. Domingo, and a private +soldier in the castle of Araya, founded in 1636, the city of New +Barcelona, and attempted to give the name of New Catalonia (Nueva +Cathaluna) to the province of which this newly constructed city +became the capital. This attempt was fruitless; and it is from the +capital that the whole province took its name. Since my departure +from America, it has been raised to the rank of a Govierno. In New +Andalusia, the Indian name of Cumana has superseded the names Nueva +Toledo and Nueva Cordoba, which we find on the maps of the +seventeenth century.) + +The province of Caracas possesses fine salt-works at Los Roques; +those which formerly existed at the small island of Tortuga, where +the soil is strongly impregnated with muriate of soda, were +destroyed by order of the Spanish government. A canal was made by +which the sea has free access to the salt-marshes. Foreign nations +who have colonies in the West Indies frequented this uninhabited +island; and the court of Madrid, from views of suspicious policy, +was apprehensive that the salt-works of Tortuga would give rise to +settlements, by means of which an illicit trade would be carried on +with Terra Firma. + +The royal administration of the salt-works of Araya dates only from +the year 1792. Before that period they were in the hands of Indian +fishermen, who manufactured salt at their pleasure, and sold it, +paying the government the moderate sum of three hundred piastres. +The price of the fanega was then four reals;* (* In this narrative, +as well as in the Political Essay on New Spain, all the prices are +reckoned in piastres, and silver reals (reales de plata). Eight of +these reals are equivalent to a piastre, or one hundred and five +sous, French money (4 shillings 4 1/2 pence English). Nouv. Esp. +volume 2 pages 519, 616 and 866.) but the salt was extremely +impure, grey, mixed with earthy particles, and surcharged with +muriate and sulphate of magnesia. Since the province of Cumana has +become dependent on the intendancia of Caracas, the sale of salt is +under the control of the excise; and the fanega, which the +Guayquerias sold at half a piastre, costs a piastre and a half.* (* +The fanega of salt is sold to those Indians and fishermen who do +not pay the duties (derechos reales), at Punta Araya for six, at +Cumana for eight reals. The prices to the other tribes are, at +Araya ten, at Cumana twelve reals.) This augmentation of price is +slightly compensated by greater purity of the salt, and by the +facility with which the fishermen and farmers can procure it in +abundance during the whole year. The salt-works of Araya yielded to +the treasury, in 1799, a clear income of eight thousand piastres. + +Considered as a branch of industry the salt produced here is not of +any great importance, but the nature of the soil which contains the +salt-marshes is well worthy of attention. In order to obtain a +clear idea of the geological connection existing between this +muriatiferous soil and the rocks of more ancient formation, we +shall take a general view of the neighbouring mountains of Cumana, +and those of the peninsula of Araya, and the island of Margareta. + +Three great parallel chains extend from east to west. The two most +northerly chains are primitive, and contain the mica-slates of +Macanao, and the San Juan Valley, of Maniquarez, and of +Chuparipari. These we shall distinguish by the names of Cordillera +of the island of Margareta, and Cordillera of Araya. The third +chain, the most southerly of the whole, the Cordillera of the +Brigantine and of the Cocollar, contains rocks only of secondary +formation; and, what is remarkable enough, though analogous to the +geological constitution of the Alps westward of St. Gothard, the +primitive chain is much less elevated than that which was composed +of secondary rocks.* (* In New Andalusia, the Cordillera of the +Cocollar nowhere contains primitive rocks. If these rocks form the +nucleus of this chain, and rise above the level of the neighbouring +plains, which is scarcely probable, we must suppose that they are +all covered with limestone and sandstone. In the Swiss Alps, on the +contrary, the chain which is designated under the too vague +denomination of lateral and calcareous, contains primitive rocks, +which, according to the observations of Escher and Leopold von +Buch, are often visible to the height of eight hundred or a +thousand toises.) The sea has separated the two northern +Cordilleras, those of the island of Margareta and the peninsula of +Araya; and the small islands of Coche and of Cubagua are remnants +of the land that was submerged. Farther to the south, the vast gulf +Cariaco stretches away, like a longitudinal valley formed by the +irruption of the sea, between the two small chains of Araya and the +Cocollar, between the mica-slate and the Alpine limestone. We shall +soon see that the direction of the strata, very regular in the +first of these rocks, is not quite parallel with the general +direction of the gulf. In the high Alps of Europe, the great +longitudinal valley of the Rhone also sometimes cuts at an oblique +angle the calcareous banks in which it has been excavated. + +The two parallel chains of Araya and the Cocollar were connected, +to the east of the town of Cariaco, between the lakes of Campoma +and Putaquao, by a kind of transverse dyke, which bears the name of +Cerro de Meapire, and which in distant times, by resisting the +impulse of the waves, has hindered the waters of the gulf of +Cariaco from uniting with those of the gulf of Paria. Thus, in +Switzerland, the central chain, that which passes by the Col de +Ferrex, the Simplon, St. Gothard, and the Splugen, is connected on +the north and the south with two lateral chains, by the mountains +of Furca and Maloya. It is interesting to recall to mind those +striking analogies exhibited in both continents by the external +structure of the globe. + +The primitive chain of Araya ends abruptly in the meridian of the +village of Maniquarez; and the western slope of the peninsula, as +well as the plains in the midst of which stands the castle of San +Antonio, is covered with very recent formations of sandstone and +clay mixed with gypsum. Near Maniquarez, breccia or sandstone with +calcareous cement, which might easily be confounded with real +limestone, lies immediately over the mica-slate; while on the +opposite side, near Punta Delgada, this sandstone covers a compact +bluish grey limestone, almost destitute of petrifactions, and +traversed by small veins of calcareous spar. This last rock is +analogous to the limestone of the high Alps.* (* Alpenkalkstein.) + +The very recent sandstone formation of the peninsula of Araya +contains:--first, near Punta Arenas, a stratified sandstone, +composed of very fine grains, united by a calcareous cement in +small quantity;--secondly, at the Cerro de la Vela, a schistose +sandstone,* (* Sandsteinschiefer.) without mica, and passing into +slate-clay,* (* Thonschiefer.) which accompanies coal;--thirdly, on +the western side, between Punta Gorda and the ruins of the castle +of Santiago, breccia composed of petrified sea-shells united by a +calcareous cement, in which are mingled grains of quartz; +--fourthly, near the point of Barigon, whence the stone employed +for building at Cumana is obtained, banks of yellowish white shelly +limestone, in which are found some scattered grains of quartz; +--fifthly, at Penas Negras, at the top of the Cerro de la Vela, a +bluish grey compact limestone, very tender, almost without +petrifactions, and covering the schistose sandstone. However +extraordinary this mixture of sandstone and compact limestone* (* +Dichter kalkstein.) may appear, we cannot doubt that these strata +belong to one and the same formation. The very recent secondary +rocks everywhere present analogous phenomena; the molasse of the +Pays de Vaud contains a fetid shelly limestone, and the cerite +limestone of the banks of the Seine is sometimes mixed with +sandstone. + +The strata of calcareous breccia are composed of an infinite number +of sea-shells, from four to six inches in diameter, and in part +well preserved. We find they contain not ammonites, but +ampullaires, solens, and terebratulae. The greater part of these +shells are mixed: the oysters and pectinites being sometimes +arranged in families. The whole are easily detached, and their +interior is filled with fossil madrepores and cellepores. We have +now to speak of a fourth formation, which probably rests* on the +calcareous sandstone of Araya, I mean the muriatiferous clay. (* It +were to be wished that mineralogical travellers would examine more +particularly the Cerro de la Vela. The limestone of the Penas +Negras rests on a slate-clay, mixed with quartzose sand; but there +is no proof of the muriatiferous clay of the salt-works being of +more ancient formation than this slate-clay, or of its alternating +with banks of sandstone. No well having been dug in these +countries, we can have no information respecting the superposition +of the strata. The banks of calcareous sandstone, which are found +at the mouth of the salt lake, and near the fishermen's huts on the +coast opposite Cape Macano, appeared to me to lie beneath the +muriatiferous clay.) This clay, hardened, impregnated with +petroleum, and mixed with lamellar and lenticular gypsum, is +analogous to the salzthon, which in Europe accompanies the sal-gem +of Berchtesgaden, and in South America that of Zipaquira. It is +generally of a smoke-grey colour, earthy, and friable; but it +encloses more solid masses of a blackish brown, of a schistose, and +sometimes conchoidal fracture. These fragments, from six to eight +inches long, have an angular form. When they are very small, they +give the clay a porphyroidal appearance. We find disseminated in +it, as we have already observed, either in nests or in small veins, +selenite, and sometimes, though seldom, fibrous gypsum. It is +remarkable enough, that this stratum of clay, as well as the banks +of pure sal-gem and the salzthon in Europe, scarcely ever contains +shells, while the rocks adjacent exhibit them in great abundance. + +Although the muriate of soda is not found visible to the eye in the +clay of Araya, we cannot doubt of its existence. It shows itself in +large crystals, if we sprinkle the mass with rain-water and expose +it to the sun. The lagoon to the east of the castle of Santiago +exhibits all the phenomena which have been observed in the salt +lakes of Siberia, described by Lepechin, Gmelin, and Pallas. This +lagoon receives, however, only the rain-waters, which filter +through the banks of clay, and unite at the lowest point of the +peninsula. While the lagoon served as a salt-work to the Spaniards +and the Dutch, it did not communicate with the sea; at present this +communication has been interrupted anew, by faggots placed at the +place where the waters of the ocean made an irruption in 1726. +After great droughts, crystallized and very pure muriate of soda, +in masses of three or four cubic feet, is still drawn from time to +time from the bottom of the lagoon. The salt waters of the lake, +exposed to the heat of the sun, evaporate at their surface; crusts +of salt, formed in a saturated solution, fall to the bottom; and by +the attraction between crystals of a similar nature and form, the +crystallized masses daily augment. It is generally observed that +the water is brackish wherever lagoons are formed in clayey ground. +It is true, that for the new salt-work near the battery of Araya, +the seawater is received into pits, as in the salt marshes of the +south of France; but in the island of Margareta, near Pampatar, +salt is manufactured by employing only fresh water, with which the +muriatiferous clay has first been lixiviated. + +We must not confound the salt disseminated in these clayey soils +with that contained in the sands of the seashore, on the coasts of +Normandy. These phenomena, considered in a geognostical point of +view, have scarcely any properties in common. I have seen +muriatiferous clay at the level of the ocean at Punta Araya, and at +two thousand toises' height in the Cordilleras of New Grenada. If +in the former of these places it lies on very recent shelly +breccia, it forms, on the contrary, in Austria near Ischel, a +considerable stratum in the Alpine limestone, which, though equally +posterior to the existence of organic life on the globe, is +nevertheless of high antiquity, as is proved by the great number of +rocks with which it is covered. We shall not question, that +sal-gem, either pure or mixed with muriatiferous clay, may have +been deposited by an ancient sea; but everything evinces that it +was formed during an order of things bearing no resemblance to that +in which the sea at present, by a slower operation, deposits a few +particles of muriate of soda on the sands of our shores. In the +same manner as sulphur and coal belong to periods of formation very +remote from each other, the sal-gem is also found sometimes in +transition gypsum,* (* Uebergangsgyps, in the transition slate of +White Alley (l'Allee Blanche), and between the grauwacke and black +transition limestone near Bex, below the Dent de Chamossaire, +according to M. von Buch.) sometimes in the Alpine limestone,* (* +At Halle in the Tyrol.) sometimes in a muriatiferous clay lying on +a very recent sandstone,* (* At Punta Araya.) and lastly, sometimes +in a gypsum* posterior to the chalk. (* Gypsum of the third +formation among the secondary gypsums. The first formation contains +the gypsum in which are found the brine-springs of Thuringia, and +which is placed either in the Alpine limestone or zechstein, to +which it essentially belongs (Freiesleben Geognost. Arbeiten tome 2 +page 131), or between the zechstein and the limestone of the Jura, +or between the zechstein and the new sandstone. It is the ancient +gypsum of secondary formation of Werner's school (alterer +flozgyps), which we almost preferably call muriatiferous gypsum. +The second formation is composed of fibrous gypsum, placed either +in the molasse or new sandstone, or between this and the upper +limestone. It abounds in common clay, which differs essentially +from the salzthon or muriatiferous clay. The third formation of +gypsum is more recent than chalk. To this belongs the bony gypsum +of Paris; and, as appears from the researches of Mr. Steffens +(Geogn. Aufsatsze 1810 page 142), the gypsum of Segeberg, in +Holstein, in which sal-gem is sometimes disseminated in very small +nests (Jenaische Litteratur-Zeitung 1813 page 100). The gypsum of +Paris, lying between a cerite limestone, which covers chalk and a +sandstone without shells, is distinguished by fossil bones of +quadrupeds, while the Segeberg and Lunebourg gypsums, the position +of which is more uncertain, are characterized by the boracits which +they contain. Two other formations, far anterior to the three we +have just mentioned, are the transition gypsum (ubergangsgyps) of +Aigle, and the primitive gypsum (urgyps) of the valley of Canaria, +near Airolo. I flatter myself that I may render some service to +those geologists who prefer the knowledge of positive facts to +speculation on the origin of things, by furnishing them with +materials from which they may generalize their ideas on the +formation of rocks in both hemispheres. The relative antiquity of +the formations is the principal object of a science which is to +render us acquainted with the structure of the globe; that is to +say, the nature of the strata which constitute the crust of our +planet.) + +The new salt-works of Araya have five reservoirs, or pits, the +largest of which have two thousand three hundred square toises +surface. Their mean depth is eight inches. Use is made both of the +rain-water, which by filtration collects at the lowest part of the +plain, and of the water of the sea, which enters by canals, or +martellieres, when the flood-tide is favoured by the winds. The +situation of these new salt-works is less advantageous than that of +the lagoon. The waters which fall into the latter pass over steeper +slopes, washing a greater extent of ground. + +The earth already lixiviated is never carried away here, as it is +from time to time in the island of Margareta; nor have wells been +dug in the muriatiferous clay, with the view of finding strata +richer in muriate of soda. The salineros, or salt-workers generally +complain of want of rain; and in the new salt-works, it appears to +me difficult to determine what quantity of salt is derived solely +from the waters of the sea. The natives estimate it at a sixth of +the total produce. The evaporation is extremely strong, and +favoured by the constant motion of the air; so that the salt is +collected in eighteen or twenty days after the pits are filled. + +Though the muriate of soda is manufactured with less care in the +peninsula of Araya than at the salt-works of Europe, it is +nevertheless purer, and contains less of earthy muriates and +sulphates. We know not whether this purity may be attributed to +that portion of the salt which is furnished by the sea; for though +it is extremely probable, that the quantity of salt dissolved in +the waters of the ocean is nearly the same under every zone, it is +not less uncertain whether the proportion between the muriate of +soda, the muriate and sulphate of magnesia, and the sulphate and +carbonate of lime, be equally invariable. + +Having examined the salt-works, and terminated our geodesical +operations, we departed at the decline of day to sleep at an Indian +hut, some miles distant, near the ruins of the castle of Araya. +Directing our course southward, we traversed first the plain +covered with muriatiferous clay, and stripped of vegetation; then +two chains of hills of sandstone, between which the lagoon is +situated. Night overtook us while we were in a narrow path, +bordered on one side by the sea, and on the other by a range of +perpendicular rocks. The tide was rising rapidly, and narrowed the +road at every step. We at length arrived at the foot of the old +castle of Araya, where we enjoyed a prospect that had in it +something lugubrious and romantic. The ruins stand on a bare and +arid mountain, crowned with agave, columnar cactus, and thorny +mimosas: they bear less resemblance to the works of man, than to +those masses of rock which were ruptured at the early revolutions +of the globe. + +We were desirous of stopping to admire this majestic spectacle, and +to observe the setting of Venus, whose disk appeared at intervals +between the yawning crannies of the castle; but the muleteer, who +served as our guide, was parched with thirst, and pressed us +earnestly to return. He had long perceived that we had lost our +way; and as he hoped to work on our fears he continually warned us +of the danger of tigers and rattlesnakes. Venomous reptiles are, +indeed, very common near the castle of Araya; and two jaguars had +been lately killed at the entrance of the village of Maniquarez. If +we might judge from their skins, which were preserved, their size +was not less than that of the Indian tiger. We vainly represented +to our guide that those animals did not attack men where the goats +furnished them with abundant prey; we were obliged to yield, and +return. After having proceeded three quarters of an hour along a +shore covered by the tide we were joined by the negro, who carried +our provision. Uneasy at not seeing us arrive, he had come to meet +us, and he led us through a wood of nopals to a hut inhabited by an +Indian family. We were received with the cordial hospitality +observed in this country among people of every tribe. The hut in +which we slung our hammocks was very clean; and there we found +fish, plantains, and what in the torrid zone is preferable to the +most sumptuous food, excellent water. + +The next day at sunrise we found that the hut in which we had +passed the night formed part of a group of small dwellings on the +borders of the salt lake, the remains of a considerable village +which had formerly stood near the castle. The ruins of a church +were seen partly buried in the sand, and covered with brushwood. +When, in 1762, to save the expense of the garrison, the castle of +Araya was totally dismantled, the Indians and Mulattoes who were +settled in the neighbourhood emigrated by degrees to Maniquarez, to +Cariaco, and in the suburb of the Guayquerias at Cumana. A small +number, bound from affection to their native soil, remained in this +wild and barren spot. These poor people live by catching fish, +which are extremely abundant on the coast and the neighbouring +shoals. They appear satisfied with their condition, and think it +strange when they are asked why they have no gardens or culinary +vegetables. Our gardens, they reply, are beyond the gulf; when we +carry our fish to Cumana, we bring back plantains, cocoa-nuts, and +cassava. This system of economy, which favours idleness, is +followed at Maniquarez, and throughout the whole peninsula of +Araya. The chief wealth of the inhabitants consists in goats, which +are of a very large and very fine breed, and rove in the fields +like those at the Peak of Teneriffe. They have become entirely +wild, and are marked like the mules, because it would be difficult +to recognize them from their colour or the arrangement of their +spots. These wild goats are of a brownish yellow, and are not +varied in colour like domestic animals. If in hunting, a colonist +kills a goat which he does not consider as his own property, he +carries it immediately to the neighbour to whom it belongs. During +two days we heard it everywhere spoken of as a very extraordinary +circumstance, that an inhabitant of Maniquarez had lost a goat, on +which it was probable that a neighbouring family had regaled +themselves. + +Among the Mulattoes, whose huts surround the salt lake, we found it +shoemaker of Castilian descent. He received us with the air of +gravity and self-sufficiency which in those countries characterize +almost all persons who are conscious of possessing some peculiar +talent. He was employed in stretching the string of his bow, and +sharpening his arrows to shoot birds. His trade of a shoemaker +could not be very lucrative in a country where the greater part of +the inhabitants go barefooted; and he only complained that, on +account of the dearness of European gunpowder, a man of his quality +was reduced to employ the same weapons as the Indians. He was the +sage of the plain; he understood the formation of the salt by the +influence of the sun and full moon, the symptoms of earthquakes, +the marks by which mines of gold and silver are discovered, and the +medicinal plants, which, like all the other colonists from Chile to +California, he classified into hot and cold.* (* Exciting or +debilitating, the sthenic and asthenic, of Brown's system.) Having +collected the traditions of the country, he gave us some curious +accounts of the pearls of Cubagua, objects of luxury, which he +treated with the utmost contempt. To show us how familiar to him +were the sacred writings he took a pride in reminding us that Job +preferred wisdom to all the pearls of the Indies. His philosophy +was circumscribed to the narrow circle of the wants of life. The +possession of a very strong ass, able to carry a heavy load of +plantains to the embarcadero, was the consummation of all his +wishes. + +After a long discourse on the emptiness of human greatness, he drew +from a leathern pouch a few very small opaque pearls, which he +forced us to accept, enjoining us at the same time to note on our +tablets that a poor shoemaker of Araya, but a white man, and of +noble Castilian race, had been enabled to give us something which, +on the other side of the sea,* was sought for as very precious. (* +'Por alla,' or, 'del otro lado del charco,' (properly 'beyond,' or +'on the other side of the great lake'), a figurative expression, by +which the people in the Spanish colonies denote Europe.) I here +acquit myself of the promise I made to this worthy man, who +disinterestedly refused to accept of the slightest retribution. The +Pearl Coast presents the same aspect of misery as the countries of +gold and diamonds, Choco and Brazil; but misery is not there +attended with that immoderate desire of gain which is excited by +mineral wealth. + +The pearl-breeding oyster (Avicula margaritifera, Cuvier) abounds +on the shoals which extend from Cape Paria to Cape la Vela. The +islands of Margareta, Cubagua, Coche, Punta Araya, and the mouth of +the Rio la Hacha, were, in the sixteenth century, as celebrated as +were the Persian Gulf and the island of Taprobana among the +ancients. It is incorrectly alleged by some historians that the +natives of America were unacquainted with the luxury of pearls. The +first Spaniards who landed in Terra Firma found the savages decked +with pearl necklaces and bracelets; and among the civilized people +of Mexico and Peru, pearls of a beautiful form were extremely +sought after. I have published a dissertation on the statue of a +Mexican priestess in basalt, whose head-dress, resembling the +calantica of the heads of Isis, is ornamented with pearls. Las +Casas and Benzoni have described, but not without some +exaggeration, the cruelties which were exercised on the unhappy +Indian slaves and negroes employed in the pearl fishery. At the +beginning of the conquest the island of Coche alone furnished +pearls amounting in value to fifteen hundred marks per month. + +The quint which the king's officers drew from the produce of +pearls, amounted to fifteen thousand ducats; which, according to +the value of the precious metals in those times, and the +extensiveness of contraband trade, may be regarded as a very +considerable sum. It appears that till 1530 the value of the pearls +sent to Europe amounted yearly on an average to more than eight +hundred thousand piastres. In order to judge of the importance of +this branch of commerce to Seville, Toledo, Antwerp, and Genoa, we +should recollect that at the same period the whole of the mines of +America did not furnish two millions of piastres; and that the +fleet of Ovando was thought to contain immense wealth, because it +had on board nearly two thousand six hundred marks of silver. +Pearls were the more sought after, as the luxury of Asia had been +introduced into Europe by two ways diametrically opposite: that of +Constantinople, where the Palaeologi wore garments covered with +strings of pearls; and that of Grenada, the residence of the +Moorish kings, who displayed at their court all the luxury of the +East. The pearls of the East were preferred to those of the West; +but the number of the latter which circulated in commerce was +nevertheless considerable at the period immediately following the +discovery of America. In Italy as well as in Spain, the islet of +Cubagua became the object of numerous mercantile speculations. + +Benzoni* relates the adventure of one Luigi Lampagnano, to whom +Charles the Fifth granted the privilege of proceeding with five +caravels to the coasts of Cumana to fish for pearls. (* La Hist. +del Mondo Nuovo page 34. Luigi Lampagnano, a relation of the +assassin of the Duke of Milan, Galeazzo Maria Sforza, could not pay +the merchants of Seville who had advanced the money for his voyage; +he remained five years at Cubagua, and died in a fit of insanity.) +The colonists sent him back with this bold message: "That the +emperor was too liberal of what was not his own, and that he had no +right to dispose of the oysters which live at the bottom of the +sea." + +The pearl fishery diminished rapidly about the end of the sixteenth +century; and, according to Laet, it had long ceased in 1633.* (* +"Insularum Cubaguae et Coches quondam magna fuit dignitas, quum +Unionum captura floreret: nunc, illa deficiente, obscura admodum +fama." Laet Nova Orbis page 669. This accurate compiler, speaking +of Punta Araya, adds, this country is so forgotten, "ut vix ulla +Americae meridionalis pars hodie obscurior sit.") The industry of +the Venetians, who imitated fine pearls with great exactness, and +the frequent use of cut diamonds,* rendered the fisheries of +Cubagua less lucrative. (* The cutting of diamonds was invented by +Lewis de Berquen, in 1456, but the art became common only in the +following century.) At the same time, the oysters which yielded the +pearls became scarcer, not, because, according to a popular +tradition, they were frightened by the sound of the oars, and +removed elsewhere; but because their propagation had been impeded +by the imprudent destruction of the shells by thousands. The +pearl-bearing oyster is of a more delicate nature than most of the +other acephalous mollusca. At the island of Ceylon, where, in the +bay of Condeatchy, the fishery employs six hundred divers, and +where the annual produce is more than half a million of piastres, +it has vainly been attempted to transplant the oysters to other +parts of the coast. The government permits fishing there only +during a single month; while at Cubagua the bank of shells was +fished at all seasons. To form an idea of the destruction of the +species caused by the divers, we must remember that a boat +sometimes collects, in two or three weeks, more than thirty-five +thousand oysters. The animal lives but nine or ten years; and it is +only in its fourth year that the pearls begin to show themselves. +In ten thousand shells there is often not a single pearl of value. +Tradition records that on the bank of Margareta the fishermen +opened the shells one by one: in the island of Ceylon the animals +are thrown into heaps to rot in the air; and to separate the pearls +which are not attached to the shell, the animal pulp is washed, as +miners wash the sand which contains grains of gold, tin, or +diamonds. + +At present Spanish America furnishes no other pearls for trade than +those of the gulf of Panama, and the mouth of the Rio de la Hacha. +On the shoals which surround Cubagua, Coche, and the island of +Margareta, the fishery is as much neglected as on the coasts of +California.* (* I am astonished at never having heard, in the +course of my travels, of pearls found in the fresh-water shells of +South America, though several species of the Unio genus abound in +the rivers of Peru.) It is believed at Cumana, that the +pearl-oyster has greatly multiplied after two centuries of repose; +and in 1812, some new attempts were made at Margareta for the +fishing of pearls. It has been asked, why the pearls found at +present in shells which become entangled in the fishermen's nets +are so small, and have so little brilliancy,* whilst, on the +Spaniards' arrival, they were extremely beautiful, though the +Indians doubtless had not taken the trouble of diving to collect +them. (* The inhabitants of Araya sometimes sell these small pearls +to the retail dealers of Cumana. The ordinary price is one piastre +per dozen.) The problem is so much the more difficult to solve, as +we know not whether earthquakes may have altered the nature of the +bottom of the sea, or whether the changes of the submarine currents +may have had an influence either on the temperature of the water, +or on the abundance of certain mollusca on which the Aronde feeds. + +On the morning of the 20th our host's son, a young and very robust +Indian, conducted us by the way of Barigon and Caney to the village +of Maniquarez, which was four hours' walk. From the effect of the +reverberation of the sands, the thermometer kept up to 31.3 +degrees. The cylindric cactus, which bordered the road, gave the +landscape an appearance of verdure, without affording either +coolness or shade. Before our guide had walked a league, he began +to sit down every moment, and at length he wished to repose under +the shade of a fine tamarind tree near Casas de la Vela, to await +the approach of night. This characteristic trait, which we observed +every time we travelled with Indians, has given rise to very +erroneous ideas of the physical constitutions of the different +races of men. The copper-coloured native, more accustomed to the +burning heat of the climate, than the European traveller, complains +more, because he is stimulated by no interest. Money is without +attraction for him; and if he permits himself to be tempted by gain +for a moment, he repents of his resolution as soon as he is on the +road. The same Indian, who would complain, when in herborizing we +loaded him with a box filled with plants, would row his canoe +fourteen or fifteen hours together, against the strongest current, +because he wished to return to his family. In order to form a true +judgment of the muscular strength of the people, we should observe +them in circumstances where their actions are determined by a +necessity and a will equally energetic. + +We examined the ruins of Santiago,* the structure of which is +remarkable for its extreme solidity. (* On the map accompanying +Robertson's History of America, we find the name of this castle +confounded with that of Nueva Cordoba. This latter denomination was +formerly synonymous with Cumana.--Herrera, page 14.) The walls of +freestone, five feet thick, have been blown up by mines; but we +still found masses of seven or eight hundred feet square, which +have scarcely a crack in them. Our guide showed us a cistern +(aljibe) thirty feet deep, which, though much damaged, furnishes +water to the inhabitants of the peninsula of Araya. This cistern +was finished in 1681, by the governor Don Juan de Padilla +Guardiola, the same who built at Cumana the small fort of Santa +Maria. As the basin is covered with an arched vault, the water, +which is of excellent quality, keeps very cool: the confervae, +while they decompose the carburetted hydrogen, also shelter worms +which hinder the propagation of small insects. It had been believed +for ages, that the peninsula of Araya was entirely destitute of +springs of fresh water; but in 1797, after many useless researches, +the inhabitants of Maniquarez succeeded in discovering some. + +In crossing the arid hills of Cape Cirial, we perceived a strong +smell of petroleum. The wind blew from the direction in which the +springs of this substance are found, and which were mentioned by +the first historians of these countries.* (* Oviedo terms it "A +resinous, aromatic, and medicinal liquor.") Near the village of +Maniquarez, the mica-slate* (* The Piedra pelada of the Creoles.) +comes out from below the secondary rock, forming a chain of +mountains from one hundred and fifty to one hundred and eighty +toises in height. The direction of the primitive rock near Cape +Sotto is from north-east to south-west; its strata incline fifty +degrees to the north-west. The mica-slate is silvery white, of +lamellar and undulated texture, and contains garnets. Strata of +quartz, the thickness of which varies from three to four toises, +traverse the mica-slate, as we may observe in several ravines +hollowed out by the waters. We detached with difficulty a fragment +of cyanite from a block of splintered and milky quartz, which was +isolated on the shore. This was the only time we found this +substance in South America.* (* In New Spain, the cyanite has been +discovered only in the province of Guatimala, at Estancia Grande, +--Del Rio Tablas Min. 1804 page 27.) + +The potteries of Maniquarez, celebrated from time immemorial, form +a branch of industry which is exclusively in the hands of the +Indian women. The manufacture is still carried on according to the +method used before the conquest. It indicates both the infancy of +the art, and that unchangeability of manners which is +characteristic of all the natives of America. Three centuries have +been insufficient to introduce the potter's-wheel, on a coast which +is not above thirty or forty days' sail from Spain. The natives +have some confused notions with respect to the existence of this +machine, and they would no doubt make use of it if it were +introduced among them. The quarries whence they obtain the clay are +half a league to the east of Maniquarez. This clay is produced by +natural decomposition of a mica-slate reddened by oxide of iron. +The Indian women prefer the part most abounding in mica; and with +great skill fashion vessels two or three feet in diameter, giving +them a very regular curve. As they are not acquainted with the use +of ovens, they place twigs of desmanthus, cassia, and the +arborescent capparis, around the pots, and bake them in the open +air. To the east of the quarry which furnishes the clay is the +ravine of La Mina. It is asserted that, a short time after the +conquest, some Venetians extracted gold from the mica-slate. It +appears that this metal was not collected in veins of quartz, but +was found disseminated in the rock, as it is sometimes in granite +and gneiss. + +At Maniquarez we met with some creoles, who had been hunting at +Cubagua. Deer of a small breed are so common in this uninhabited +islet, that a single individual may kill three or four in a day. I +know not by what accident these animals have got thither, for Laet +and other chroniclers of these countries, speaking of the +foundation of New Cadiz, mention only the great abundance of +rabbits. The venado of Cubagua belongs to one of those numerous +species of small American deer, which zoologists have long +confounded under the vague name of Cervus mexicanus. It does not +appear to be the same as the hind of the savannahs of Cayenne, or +the guazuti of Paraguay, which live also in herds. Its colour is a +brownish red on the back, and white under the belly; and it is +spotted like the axis. In the plains of Cari we were shown, as a +thing very rare in these hot climates, a variety quite white. It +was a female of the size of the roebuck of Europe, and of a very +elegant shape. White varieties are found in the New Continent even +among the tigers. Azara saw a jaguar, the skin of which was wholly +white, with merely the shadow, as it might be termed, of a few +circular spots. + +Of all the productions on the coasts of Araya, that which the +people consider as the most extraordinary, or we may say the most +marvellous, is 'the stone of the eyes,' (piedra de los ojos.) This +calcareous substance is a frequent subject of conversation: being, +according to the natural philosophy of the natives, both a stone +and an animal. It is found in the sand, where it is motionless; but +if placed on a polished surface, for instance on a pewter or +earthen plate, it moves when excited by lemon juice. If placed in +the eye, the supposed animal turns on itself, and expels every +other foreign substance that has been accidentally introduced. At +the new salt-works, and at the village of Maniquarez, these stones +of the eyes* were offered to us by hundreds, and the natives were +anxious to show us the experiment of the lemon juice. (* They are +found in the greatest abundance near the battery at the point of +Cape Araya.) They even wished to put sand into our eyes, in order +that we might ourselves try the efficacy of the remedy. It was easy +to see that the stones are thin and porous opercula, which have +formed part of small univalve shells. Their diameter varies from +one to four lines. One of their two surfaces is plane, and the +other convex. These calcareous opercula effervesce with lemon +juice, and put themselves in motion in proportion as the carbonic +acid is disengaged. By the effect of a similar reaction, loaves +placed in an oven move sometimes on a horizontal plane; a +phenomenon that has given occasion, in Europe, to the popular +prejudice of enchanted ovens. The piedras de los ojos, introduced +into the eye, act like the small pearls, and different round grains +employed by the American savages to increase the flowing of tears. +These explanations were little to the taste of the inhabitants of +Araya. Nature has the appearance of greatness to man in proportion +as she is veiled in mystery; and the ignorant are prone to put +faith in everything that borders on the marvellous. + +Proceeding along the southern coast, to the east of Maniquarez, we +find running out into the sea very near each other, three strips of +land, bearing the names of Punta de Soto, Punta de la Brea, and +Punta Guaratarito. In these parts the bottom of the sea is +evidently formed of mica-slate, and from it near Cape de la Brea, +but at eighty feet distant from the shore, there issues a spring of +naphtha, the smell of which penetrates into the interior of the +peninsula. It is necessary to wade into the sea up to the waist, to +examine this interesting phenomenon. The waters are covered with +zostera; and in the midst of a very extensive bank of weeds, we +distinguish a free and circular spot of three feet in diameter, on +which float a few scattered masses of Ulva lactuca. Here the +springs are found. The bottom of the gulf is covered with sand; and +the petroleum, which, from its transparency and its yellow colour, +resembles naphtha, rises in jets, accompanied by air bubbles. On +treading down the bottom with the foot, we perceive that these +little springs change their place. The naphtha covers the surface +of the sea to more than a thousand feet distant. If we suppose the +dip of the strata to be regular, the mica-slate must be but a few +toises below the sand. + +We have already observed, that the muriatiferous clay of Araya +contains solid and friable petroleum. This geological connection +between the muriate of soda and the bitumens is evident wherever +there are mines of sal-gem or salt springs: but a very remarkable +fact is the existence of a fountain of naphtha in a primitive +formation. All those hitherto known belong to secondary mountains;* +(* As at Pietra Mala; Fanano; Mont Zibio; and Amiano (in these +places are found the springs that furnish the naphtha burned in +lamps in Genoa) and also at Baikal.) a circumstance which has been +supposed to favour the idea that all mineral bitumens are owing to +the destruction of vegetables and animals, or to the burning of +coal. In the peninsula of Araya, the naphtha flows from the +primitive rock itself; and this phenomenon acquires new importance, +when we recollect that the same primitive rocks contain the +subterranean fires, that on the brink of burning craters the smell +of petroleum is perceived from time to time, and that the greater +part of the hot springs of America rise from gneiss and micaceous +schist. + +After having examined the environs of Maniquarez, we embarked at +night in a fishing-boat for Cumana. The small crazy boats employed +by the natives here, bear testimony to the extreme calmness of the +sea in these regions. Our boat, though the best we could procure, +was so leaky, that the pilot's son was constantly employed in +baling out the water with a tutuma, or shell of the Crescentia +cujete (calabash). It often happens in the gulf of Cariaco, and +especially to the north of the peninsula of Araya, that canoes +laden with cocoa-nuts are upset in sailing too near the wind, and +against the tide. + +The inhabitants of Araya, whom we visited a second time on +returning from the Orinoco, have not forgotten that their peninsula +was one of the points first peopled by the Spaniards. They love to +talk of the pearl fishery; of the ruins of the castle of Santiago, +which they hope to see some day rebuilt; and of everything that +recalls to mind the ancient splendour of those countries. In China +and Japan those inventions are considered as recent, which have not +been known above two thousand years; in the European colonies an +event appears extremely old, if it dates back three centuries, or +about the period of the discovery of America. + + +CHAPTER 1.6. + +MOUNTAINS OF NEW ANDALUCIA. +VALLEY OF THE CUMANACOA. +SUMMIT OF THE COCOLLAR. +MISSIONS OF THE CHAYMA INDIANS. + +Our first visit to the peninsula of Araya was soon succeeded by an +excursion to the mountains of the missions of the Chayma Indians, +where a variety of interesting objects claimed our attention. We +entered on a country studded with forests, and visited a convent +surrounded by palm-trees and arborescent ferns. It was situated in +a narrow valley, where we felt the enjoyment of a cool and +delicious climate, in the centre of the torrid zone. The +surrounding mountains contain caverns haunted by thousands of +nocturnal birds; and, what affects the imagination more than all +the wonders of the physical world, we find beyond these mountains a +people lately nomad, and still nearly in a state of nature, wild +without being barbarous. It was in the promontory of Paria that +Columbus first descried the continent; there terminate these +valleys, laid waste alternately by the warlike anthropophagic Carib +and by the commercial and polished nations of Europe. At the +beginning of the sixteenth century the ill-fated Indians of the +coasts of Carupano, of Macarapan, and of Caracas, were treated in +the same manner as the inhabitants of the coast of Guinea in our +days. The soil of the islands was cultivated, the vegetable produce +of the Old World was transplanted thither, but a regular system of +colonization remained long unknown on the New Continent. If the +Spaniards visited its shores, it was only to procure, either by +violence or exchange, slaves, pearls, grains of gold, and +dye-woods; and endeavours were made to ennoble the motives of this +insatiable avarice by the pretence of enthusiastic zeal in the +cause of religion. + +The trade in the copper-coloured Indians was accompanied by the +same acts of inhumanity as that which characterizes the traffic in +African negroes; it was attended also by the same result, that of +rendering both the conquerors and the conquered more ferocious. +Thence wars became more frequent among the natives; prisoners were +dragged from the inland countries to the coast, to be sold to the +whites, who Loaded them with chains in their ships. Yet the +Spaniards were at that period, and long after, one of the most +polished nations of Europe. The light which art and literature then +shed over Italy, was reflected on every nation whose language +emanated from the same source as that of Dante and Petrarch. It +might have been expected that a general improvement of manners +would be the natural consequence of this noble awakening of the +mind, this sublime soaring of the imagination. But in distant +regions, wherever the thirst of wealth has introduced the abuse of +power, the nations of Europe, at every period of their history, +have displayed the same character. The illustrious era of Leo X was +signalized in the New World by acts of cruelty that seemed to +belong to the most barbarous ages. We are less surprised, however, +at the horrible picture presented by the conquest of America when +we think of the acts that are still perpetrated on the western +coast of Africa, notwithstanding the benefits of a more humane +legislation. + +The principles adopted by Charles V had abolished the slave trade +on the New Continent. But the Conquistadores, by the continuation +of their incursions, prolonged the system of petty warfare which +diminished the American population, perpetuated national +animosities, and during a long period crushed the seeds of rising +civilization. At length the missionaries, under the protection of +the secular arm, spoke words of peace. It was the privilege of +religion to console humanity for a part of the evils committed in +its name; to plead the cause of the natives before kings, to resist +the violence of the commendatories, and to assemble wandering +tribes into small communities called Missions. + +But these institutions, useful at first in stopping the effusion of +blood, and in laying the first basis of society, have become in +their result hostile to its progress. The effects of this insulated +system have been such that the Indians have remained in a state +little different from that in which they existed whilst yet their +scattered dwellings were not collected round the habitation of a +missionary. Their number has considerably augmented, but the sphere +of their ideas is not enlarged. They have progressively lost that +vigour of character and that natural vivacity which in every state +of society are the noble fruits of independence. By subjecting to +invariable rules even the slightest actions of their domestic life, +they have been rendered stupid by the effort to render them +obedient. Their subsistence is in general more certain, and their +habits more pacific, but subject to the constraint and the dull +monotony of the government of the Missions, they show by their +gloomy and reserved looks that they have not sacrificed their +liberty to their repose without regret. + +On the 4th of September, at five in the morning, we began our +journey to the Missions of the Chayma Indians and the group of +lofty mountains which traverse New Andalusia. On account of the +extreme difficulties of the road, we had been advised to reduce our +baggage to a very small bulk. Two beasts of burden were sufficient +to carry our provision, our instruments, and the paper necessary to +dry our plants. One chest contained a sextant, a dipping-needle, an +apparatus to determine the magnetic variation, a few thermometers, +and Saussure's hygrometer. The greatest changes in the pressure of +the air in these climates, on the coasts, amount only to 1 to 1.3 +of a line; and if at any given hour or place the height of the +mercury be once marked, the variations which that height +experiences throughout the whole year, at every hour of the day or +night, may with some accuracy be determined. + +The morning was deliciously cool. The road, or rather path, which +leads to Cumanacoa, runs along the right bank of the Manzanares, +passing by the hospital of the Capuchins, situated in a small wood +of lignum-vitae and arborescent capparis.* (* These caper-trees are +called in the country, by the names pachaca, olivo, and ajito: they +are the Capparis tenuisiliqua, Jacq., C. ferruginea, C. emarginata, +C. elliptica, C. reticulata, C. racemosa.) On leaving Cumana we +enjoyed during the short duration of the twilight, from the top of +the hill of San Francisco, an extensive view over the sea, the +plain covered with bera* and its golden flowers (* Palo sano, +Zygophyllum arboreum, Jacq. The flowers have the smell of vanilla. +It is cultivated in the gardens of the Havannah under the strange +name of the dictanno real (royal dittany).), and the mountains of +the Brigantine. We were struck by the great proximity in which the +Cordillera appeared before the disk of the rising sun had reached +the horizon. The tint of the summits is of a deeper blue, their +outline is more strongly marked, and their masses are more +detached, as long as the transparency of the air is undisturbed by +the vapours, which, after accumulating during the night in the +valleys, rise in proportion as the atmosphere acquires warmth. + +At the hospital of the Divina Pastora the path turns to north-east, +and stretches for two leagues over a soil without trees, and +formerly levelled by the waters. We there found not only cactuses, +tufts of cistus-leaved tribulus, and the beautiful purple +euphorbia,* (* Euphorbia tithymaloides.) but also the avicennia, +the allionia, the sesuvium, the thalinum, and most of the +portulaceous plants which grow on the banks of the gulf of Cariaco. +This geographical distribution of plants appears to designate the +limits of the ancient coast, and to prove that the hills along the +southern side of which we were passing, formed heretofore a small +island, separated from the continent by an arm of the sea. + +After walking two hours, we arrived at the foot of the high chain +of the interior mountains, which stretches from east to west; from +the Brigantine to the Cerro de San Lorenzo. There, new rocks +appear, and with them another aspect of vegetation. Every object +assumes a more majestic and picturesque character; the soil, +watered by springs, is furrowed in every direction; trees of +gigantic height, covered with lianas, rise from the ravines; their +bark, black and burnt by the double action of the light and the +oxygen of the atmosphere, contrasts with the fresh verdure of the +pothos and dracontium, the tough and shining leaves of which are +sometimes several feet long. The parasite monocotyledons take +between the tropics the place of the moss and lichens of our +northern zone. As we advanced, the forms and grouping of the rocks +reminded us of Switzerland and the Tyrol. The heliconia, costus, +maranta, and other plants of the family of the balisiers (Canna +indica), which near the coasts vegetate only in damp and low +places, flourish in the American Alps at considerable height. Thus, +by a singular similitude, in the torrid zone, under the influence +of an atmosphere continually loaded with vapours the mountain +vegetation presents the same features as the vegetation of the +marshes in the north of Europe on soil moistened by melting snow.* +(* Wahlenberg, de Vegetatione Helvetiae et summi Septentrionis +pages 47, 59.) + +Before we leave the plains of Cumana, and the breccia, or +calcareous sandstone, which constitutes the soil of the seaside, we +will describe the different strata of which this very recent +formation is composed, as we observed it on the back of the hills +that surround the castle of San Antonio. + +This breccia, or calcareous sandstone, is a local and partial +formation, peculiar to the peninsula of Araya, the coasts of +Cumana, and Caracas. We again found it at Cabo Blanco, to the west +of the port of Guayra, where it contains, besides broken shells and +madrepores, fragments, often angular, of quartz and gneiss. This +circumstance assimilates the breccia to that recent sandstone +called by the German mineralogists nagelfluhe, which covers so +great a part of Switzerland to the height of a thousand toises, +without presenting any trace of marine productions. Near Cumana the +formation of the calcareous breccia contains:--first, a compact +whitish grey limestone, the strata of which, sometimes horizontal, +sometimes irregularly inclined, are from five to six inches thick; +some beds are almost unmixed with petrifactions, but in the +greatest part the cardites, the turbinites, the ostracites, and +shells of small dimension, are found so closely connected, that the +calcareous matter forms only a cement, by which the grains of +quartz and the organized bodies are united: second, a calcareous +sandstone, in which the grains of sand are much more frequent than +the petrified shells; other strata form a sandstone entirely free +from organic fragments, yielding but a small effervescence with +acids, and enclosing not lamellae of mica, but nodules of compact +brown iron-ore: third, beds of indurated clay containing selenite +and lamellar gypsum. + +The breccia, or agglomerate of the sea-coast, just described, has a +white tint, and it lies immediately on the calcareous formation of +Cumanacoa, which is of a bluish grey. These two rocks form a +contrast no less striking than the molasse (bur-stone) of the Pays +de Vaud, with the calcareous limestone of the Jura. It must be +observed, that, by contact of the two formations lying upon each +other, the beds of the limestone of Cumanacoa, which I consider as +an Alpine limestone, are always largely mixed with clay and marl. +Lying, like the mica-slate of Araya, north-east and south-west, +they are inclined, near Punta Delgada, under an angle of 60 +degrees to south-east. + +We traversed the forest by a narrow path, along a rivulet, which +rolls foaming over a bed of rocks. We observed, that the vegetation +was more brilliant, wherever the Alpine limestone was covered by a +quartzose sandstone without petrifactions, and very different from +the breccia of the sea-coast. The cause of this phenomenon depends +probably not so much on the nature of the ground, as on the greater +humidity of the soil. The quartzose sandstone contains thin strata +of a blackish clay-slate,* (* Schieferthon.) which might easily be +confounded with the secondary thonschiefer; and these strata hinder +the water from filtering into the crevices, of which the Alpine +limestone is full. This last offers to view here, as in Saltzburg, +and on the chain of the Apennines, broken and steep beds. The +sandstone, on the contrary, wherever it is seated on the calcareous +rock, renders the aspect of the scene less wild. The hills which it +forms appear more rounded, and the gentler slopes are covered with +a thicker mould. + +In humid places, where the sandstone envelopes the Alpine +limestone, some trace of cultivation is constantly found. We met +with huts inhabited by mestizoes in the ravine of Los Frailes, as +well as between the Cuesta de Caneyes, and the Rio Guriental. Each +of these huts stands in the centre of an enclosure, containing +plantains, papaw-trees, sugar-canes, and maize. We might be +surprised at the small extent of these cultivated spots, if we did +not recollect that an acre planted with plantains* (* Musa +paradisiaca.) produces nearly twenty times as much food as the same +space sown with corn. In Europe, our wheat, barley, and rye cover +vast spaces of ground; and in general the arable lands touch each +other, wherever the inhabitants live upon corn. It is different +under the torrid zone, where man obtains food from plants which +yield more abundant and earlier harvests. In those favoured climes, +the fertility of the soil is proportioned to the heat and humidity +of the atmosphere. An immense population finds abundant nourishment +within a narrow space, covered with plantains, cassava, yams, and +maize. The isolated situation of the huts dispersed through the +forest indicates to the traveller the fecundity of nature, where a +small spot of cultivated land suffices for the wants of several +families. + +These considerations on the agriculture of the torrid zone +involuntarily remind us of the intimate connexion existing between +the extent of land cleared, and the progress of society. The +richness of the soil, and the vigour of organic life, by +multiplying the means of subsistence, retard the progress of +nations in the paths of civilization. Under so mild and uniform a +climate, the only urgent want of man is that of food. This want +only, excites him to labour; and we may easily conceive why, in the +midst of abundance, beneath the shade of the plantain and +bread-fruit tree, the intellectual faculties unfold themselves less +rapidly than under a rigorous sky, in the region of corn, where our +race is engaged in a perpetual struggle with the elements. In +Europe we estimate the number of the inhabitants of a country by +the extent of cultivation: within the tropics, on the contrary, in +the warmest and most humid parts of South America, very populous +provinces appear almost deserted; because man, to find nourishment, +cultivates but a small number of acres. These circumstances modify +the physical appearance of the country and the character of its +inhabitants, giving to both a peculiar physiognomy; the wild and +uncultivated stamp which belongs to nature, ere its primitive type +has been altered by art. Without neighbours, almost unconnected +with the rest of mankind, each family of settlers forms a separate +tribe. This insulated state arrests or retards the progress of +civilization, which advances only in proportion as society becomes +numerous, and its connexions more intimate and multiplied. But, on +the other hand, it is solitude that develops and strengthens in man +the sentiment of liberty and independence; and gives birth to that +noble pride of character which has at all times distinguished the +Castilian race. + +From these causes, the land in the most populous regions of +equinoctial America still retains a wild aspect, which is destroyed +in temperate climates by the cultivation of corn. Within the +tropics the agricultural nations occupy less ground: man has there +less extended his empire; he may be said to appear, not as an +absolute master, who changes at will the surface of the soil, but +as a transient guest, who quietly enjoys the gifts of nature. +There, in the neighbourhood of the most populous cities, the land +remains studded with forests, or covered with a thick mould, +unfurrowed by the plough. Spontaneous vegetation still predominates +over cultivated plants, and determines the aspect of the landscape. +It is probable that this state of things will change very slowly. +If in our temperate regions the cultivation of corn contributes to +throw a dull uniformity upon the land we have cleared, we cannot +doubt, that, even with increasing population, the torrid zone will +preserve that majesty of vegetable forms, those marks of an +unsubdued, virgin nature, which render it so attractive and so +picturesque. Thus it is that, by a remarkable concatenation of +physical and moral causes, the choice and production of alimentary +plants have an influence on three important objects at once; the +association or the isolated state of families, the more or less +rapid progress of civilization, and the individual character of the +landscape. + +In proportion as we penetrated into the forest, the barometer +indicated the progressive elevation of the land. The trunks of the +trees presented here an extraordinary phenomenon; a gramineous +plant, with verticillate branches,* climbs, like a liana, eight or +ten feet high, and forms festoons, which cross the path, and swing +about with the wind. (* Carice, analogous to the chusque of Santa +Fe, of the group of the Nastusas. This gramineous plant is +excellent pasture for mules.) We halted, about three o'clock in the +afternoon, on a small flat, known by the name of Quetepe, and +situated about one hundred and ninety toises above the level of the +sea. A few small houses have been erected near a spring, well known +by the natives for its coolness and great salubrity. We found the +water delicious. Its temperature was only 22.5 degrees of the +centigrade thermometer, while that of the air was 28.7 degrees. The +springs which descend from the neighbouring mountains of a greater +height often indicate a too rapid decrement of heat. If indeed we +suppose the mean temperature of the water on the coast of Cumana +equal to 26 degrees, we must conclude, unless other local causes +modify the temperature of the springs, that the spring of Quetepe +acquires its great coolness at more than 350 toises of absolute +elevation. With respect to the springs which gush out in the plains +of the torrid zone, or at a small elevation, it may be observed, in +general, that it is only in regions where the mean temperature of +summer essentially differs from that of the whole year, that the +inhabitants have extremely cold spring water during the season of +great heat. The Laplanders, near Umea and Soersele, in the 65th +degree of latitude, drink spring-water, the temperature of which, +in the month of August, is scarcely two or three degrees above +freezing point; while during the day the heat of the air rises in +the shade, in the same northern regions, to 26 or 27 degrees. In +the temperate climates of France and Germany, the difference +between the air and the springs never exceeds 16 or 17 degrees; +between the tropics it seldom rises to 5 or 6 degrees. It is easy +to account for these phenomena, when we recollect that the interior +of the globe, and the subterraneous waters, have a temperature +almost identical with the annual mean temperature of the air; and +that the latter differs from the mean heat of summer, in proportion +to the distance from the equator. + +From the top of a hill of sandstone, which overlooks the spring of +Quetepe, we had a magnificent view of the sea, of cape Macanao, and +the peninsula of Maniquarez. At our feet an immense forest extended +to the edge of the ocean. The tops of the trees, intertwined with +lianas, and crowned with long wreaths of flowers, formed a vast +carpet of verdure, the dark tint of which augmented the splendour +of the aerial light. This picture struck us the more forcibly, as +we then first beheld those great masses of tropical vegetation. On +the hill of Quetepe, at the foot of the Malpighia cocollobaefolia, +the leaves of which are extremely coriaceous, we gathered, among +tufts of the Polygala montana, the first melastomas, especially +that beautiful species described under the name of the Melastoma +rufescens. + +As we advanced toward the south-west, the soil became dry and +sandy. We climbed a group of mountains, which separate the coast +from the vast plains, or savannahs, bordered by the Orinoco. That +part of the group, over which passes the road to Cumanacoa, is +destitute of vegetation, and has steep declivities both on the +north and the south. It has received the name of the Imposible, +because it is believed that, in the case of hostile invasion, this +ridge of mountains would be inaccessible to the enemy, and would +offer an asylum to the inhabitants of Cumana. We reached the top a +little before sunset, and I had scarcely time to take a few horary +angles, to determine the longitude of the place by means of the +chronometer. + +The view from the Imposible is finer and more extensive than that +from the table-land of Quetepe. We distinguished clearly by the +naked eye the flattened top of the Brigantine (the position of +which it would be important to fix accurately), the embarcadero or +landing-place, and the roadstead of Cumana. The rocky coast of the +peninsula of Araya was discernible in its whole length. We were +particularly struck with the extraordinary configuration of a port, +known by the name of Laguna Grande, or Laguna del Obispo. A vast +basin, surrounded by high mountains, communicates with the gulf of +Cariaco by a narrow channel which admits only of the passage of one +ship at a time. This port is capable of containing several +squadrons at once. It is an uninhabited place, but annually +frequented by vessels, which carry mules to the West India Islands. +There are some pasture grounds at the farther end of the bay. We +traced the sinuosities of this arm of the sea, which, like a river, +has dug a bed between perpendicular rocks destitute of vegetation. +This singular prospect reminded us of the fanciful landscape which +Leonardo da Vinci has made the back-ground of his famous portrait +of Mona Lisa, the wife of Francisco del Giacondo. + +We could observe by the chronometer the moment when the disk of the +sun touched the horizon of the sea. The first contact was at 6 +hours 8 minutes 13 seconds; the second, at 6 hours 10 minutes 26 +seconds; mean time. This observation, which is not unimportant for +the theory of terrestrial refractions, was made on the summit of +the mountain, at the absolute height of 296 toises. The setting of +the sun was attended by a very rapid cooling of the air. Three +minutes after the last apparent contact of the disk with the +horizon of the sea, the thermometer suddenly fell from 25.2 to 21.3 +degrees. Was this extraordinary refrigeration owing to some +descending current? The air was however calm, and no horizontal +wind was felt. + +We passed the night in a house where there was a military post +consisting of eight men, under the command of a Spanish serjeant. +It was an hospital, built by the side of a powder magazine. When +Cumana, after the capture of Trinidad by the English, in 1797, was +threatened with an attack, many of the inhabitants fled to +Cumanacoa, and deposited whatever articles of value they possessed +in sheds hastily constructed on the top of the Imposible. It was +then resolved, in case of any unforeseen invasion, to abandon the +castle of San Antonio, after a short resistance, and to concentrate +the whole force of the province round the mountains, which may be +considered as the key of the Llanos. + +The top of the Imposible, as nearly as I could perceive, is covered +with a quartzose sandstone, free from petrifactions. Here, as on +the ridge of the neighbouring mountains, the strata pretty +regularly take the direction from north-north-east to +south-south-west. This direction is also most common in the +primitive formations in the peninsula of Araya, and along the +coasts of Venezuela. On the northern declivity of the Imposible, +near the Penas Negras, an abundant spring issues from sandstone, +which alternates with a schistose clay. We remarked on this point +fractured strata, which lie from north-west to south-east, and the +dip of which is almost perpendicular. + +The Llaneros, or inhabitants of the plains, send their produce, +especially maize, leather, and cattle, to the port of Cumana by the +road over the Imposible. We continually saw mules arrive, driven by +Indians or mulattoes. Several parts of the vast forests which +surround the mountain, had taken fire. Reddish flames, half +enveloped in clouds of smoke, presented a very grand spectacle. The +inhabitants set fire to the forests, to improve the pasturage, and +to destroy the shrubs that choke the grass. Enormous +conflagrations, too, are often caused by the carelessness of the +Indians, who neglect, when they travel, to extinguish the fires by +which they have dressed their food. These accidents contribute to +diminish the number of old trees in the road from Cumana to +Cumanacoa; and the inhabitants observe justly, that, in several +parts of their province, the dryness has increased, not only +because every year the frequency of earthquakes causes more +crevices in the soil; but also because it is now less thickly +wooded than it was at the time of the conquest. + +I arose during the night to determine the latitude of the place by +the passage of Fomalhaut over the meridian; but the observation was +lost, owing to the time I employed in taking the level of the +artificial horizon. It was midnight, and I was benumbed with cold, +as were also our guides: yet the thermometer kept at 19.7 degrees. +At Cumana I have never seen it sink below 21 degrees; but then the +house in which we dwelt on the Imposible was 258 toises above the +level of the sea. At the Casa de la Polvora I determined the dip of +the magnetic needle, which was 42.5 degrees.* (* The magnetic dip +is always measured in this work, according to the centesimal +division, if the contrary be not expressly mentioned.) The number +of oscillations correspondent to 10 minutes of time was 233. The +intensity of the magnetic forces had consequently augmented from +the coast to the mountain, perhaps from the influence of some +ferruginous matter, hidden in the strata of sandstone which cover +the Alpine limestone. + +We left the Imposible on the 5th of September before sunrise. The +descent is very dangerous for beasts of burden; the path being in +general but fifteen inches broad, and bordered by precipices. In +descending the mountain, we observed the rock of Alpine limestone +reappearing under the sandstone. The strata being generally +inclined to the south and south-east, a great number of springs +gush out on the southern side of the mountain. In the rainy season +of the year, these springs form torrents, which descend in +cascades, shaded by the hura, the cuspa, and the silver-leaved +cecropia or trumpet-tree. + +The cuspa, a very common tree in the environs of Cumana and of +Bordones, is yet unknown to the botanists of Europe. It was long +used only for the building of houses, and has become celebrated +since 1797, under the name of the cascarilla or bark-tree +(cinchona) of New Andalusia. Its trunk rises scarcely above fifteen +or twenty feet. Its alternate leaves are smooth, entire, and oval.* +(* At the summit of the boughs, the leaves are sometimes opposite +to each other, but invariably without stipules.) Its bark very +thin, and of a pale yellow, is a powerful febrifuge. It is even +more bitter than the bark of the real cinchona, but is less +disagreeable. The cuspa is administered with the greatest success, +in a spirituous tincture, and in aqueous infusion, both in +intermittent and in malignant fevers. + +On the coasts of New Andalusia, the cuspa is considered as a kind +of cinchona; and we were assured, that some Aragonese monks, who +had long resided in the kingdom of New Grenada, recognised this +tree from the resemblance of its leaves to those of the real +Peruvian bark-tree. This, however, is unfounded; since it is +precisely by the disposition of the leaves, and the absence of +stipules, that the cuspa differs totally from the trees of the +rubiaceous family. It may be said to resemble the family of the +honeysuckle, or caprifoliaceous plants, one section of which has +alternate leaves, and among which we find several cornel-trees, +remarkable for their febrifuge properties.* (* Cornus florida, and +C. sericea of the United States.--Walker on the Virtues of the +Cornus and the Cinchona compared. Philadelphia 1803.) + +The taste, at once bitter and astringent, and the yellow colour of +the bark led to the discovery of the febrifugal virtue of the +cuspa. As it blossoms at the end of November, we did not see it in +flower, and we know not to what genus it belongs; and I have in +vain for several years past applied to our friends at Cumana for +specimens of the flower and fruit. I hope that the botanical +determination of the bark-tree of New Andalusia will one day fix +the attention of travellers, who visit this region after us; and +that they will not confound, notwithstanding the analogy of the +names, the cuspa with the cuspare. The latter not only vegetates in +the missions of the Rio Carony, but also to the west of Cumana, in +the gulf of Santa Fe. It furnishes the druggists of Europe with the +famous Cortex Angosturae, and forms the genus Bonplandia, described +by M. Willdenouw in the Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin, from +notes communicated to him by us. + +It is singular that, during our long abode on the coast of Cumana +and the Caracas, on the banks of the Apure, the Orinoco, and the +Rio Negro, in an extent of country comprising forty thousand square +leagues, we never met with one of those numerous species of +cinchona, or exostema, which are peculiar to the low and warm +regions of the tropics, especially to the archipelago of the West +India Islands. Yet we are far from affirming, that, throughout the +whole of the eastern part of South America, from Porto Bello to +Cayenne, or from the equator to the 10th degree of north latitude +between the meridians of 54 and 71 degrees, the cinchona absolutely +does not exist. How can we be expected to know completely the flora +of so vast an extent of country? But, when we recollect, that even +in Mexico no species of the genera cinchona and exostema has been +discovered, either in the central table-land or in the plains, we +are led to believe, that the mountainous islands of the West Indies +and the Cordillera of the Andes have peculiar floras; and that they +possess particular species of vegetation, which have neither passed +from the islands to the continent, nor from South America to the +coasts of New Spain. + +It may be observed farther, that, when we reflect on the numerous +analogies which exist between the properties of plants and their +external forms, we are surprised to find qualities eminently +febrifuge in the bark of trees belonging to different genera, and +even different families.* (* It may be somewhat interesting to +chemistry, physiology, and descriptive botany, to consider under +the same point of view the plants which have been employed in +intermittent fevers with different degrees of success. We find +among rubiaceous plants, besides the cinchonas and exostemas, the +Coutarea speciosa or Cayenne bark, the Portlandia grandiflora of +the West Indies, another portlandia discovered by M. Sesse at +Mexico, the Pinkneia pubescens of the United States, the berry of +the coffee-tree, and perhaps the Macrocnemum corymbosum, and the +Guettarda coccinea; among magnoliaceous plants, the tulip-tree and +the Magnolia glauca; among zanthoxylaceous plants, the Cuspare of +Angostura, known in America under the name of Orinoco bark, and the +Zanthoxylon caribaeum; among leguminous plants, the geoffraeas, the +Swietenia febrifuga, the Aeschynomene grandiflora, the Caesalpina +bonducella; among caprifoliaceous plants, the Cornus florida and +the Cuspa of Cumana; among rosaceous plants, the Cerasus virginiana +and the Geum urbanum; among amentaceous plants, the willows, oaks, +and birch-trees, of which the alcoholic tincture is used in Russia +by the common people; the Populus tremuloides, etc.; among +anonaceous plants, the Uvaria febrifuga, the fruit of which we saw +administered with success in the Missions of Spanish Guiana; among +simarubaceous plants, the Quassia amara, celebrated in the feverish +plains of Surinam; among terebinthaceous plants, the Rhus glabrum; +among euphorbiaceous plants, the Croton cascarilla; among composite +plants, the Eupatorium perfoliatum, the febrifuge qualities of +which are known to the savages of North America. Of the tulip-tree +and the quassia, it is the bark of the roots that is used. Eminent +febrifuge virtues have also been found in the cortical part of the +roots of the Cinchona condaminea at Loxa; but it is fortunate, for +the preservation of the species, that the roots of the real +cinchona are not employed in pharmacy. Chemical researches are yet +wanting upon the very powerful bitters contained in the roots of +the Zanthoriza apiifolia, and the Actaea racemosa: the latter have +sometimes been employed with success as a remedy against the +epidemic yellow fever in New York.) Some of these barks so much +resemble each other, that it is not easy to distinguish them at +first sight. But before we examine the question, whether we shall +one day discover, in the real cinchona, in the cuspa of Cumana, the +Cortex Angosturae, the Indian swietenia, the willows of Europe, the +berries of the coffee-tree and uvaria, a matter uniformly diffused, +and exhibiting (like starch, caoutchouc, and camphor) the same +chemical properties in different plants, we may ask whether, in the +present state of physiology and medicine, a febrifuge principle +ought to be admitted. Is it not probable, that the particular +derangement in the organization, known under the vague name of the +febrile state, and in which both the vascular and the nervous +systems are at the same time attacked, yields to remedies which do +not operate by the same principle, by the same mode of action on +the same organs, by the same play of chemical and electrical +attractions? We shall here confine ourselves to this observation, +that, in the species of the genus cinchona, the antifebrile virtues +do not appear to belong to the tannin (which is only accidentally +mingled in them), or to the cinchonate of lime; but in a resiniform +matter, soluble both by alcohol and by water, and which, it is +believed, is composed of two principles, the cinchonic bitter and +the cinchonic red.* (* In French, l'amer et le rouge cinchoniques.) +May it then be admitted, that this resiniform matter, which +possesses different degrees of energy according to the combinations +by which it is modified, is found in all febrifuge substances? +Those by which the sulphate of iron is precipitated of a green +colour, like the real cinchona, the bark of the white willow, and +the horned perisperm of the coffee-tree, do not on this account +denote identity of chemical composition;* and that identity might +even exist, without our concluding that the medical virtues were +analogous. (* The cuspare bark (Cort. Angosturae) yields with iron +a yellow precipitate; yet it is employed on the banks of the +Orinoco, and particularly at the town of St. Thomas of Angostura, +as an excellent cinchona; and on the other hand, the bark of the +common cherry tree, which has scarcely any febrifuge quality, +yields a green precipitate like the real cinchonas. Notwithstanding +the extreme imperfection of vegetable chemistry, the experiments +already made on cinchonas sufficiently show, that to judge of the +febrifuge virtues of a bark, we must not attach too much importance +either to the principle which turns to green the oxides of iron, or +to the tannin, or to the matter which precipitates infusions of +tan.) We see that specimens of sugar and tannin extracted from +plants, not of the same family, present numerous differences: while +the comparative analysis of sugar, gum, and starch; the discovery +of the radical of the prussic acid (the effects of which are so +powerful on the organization), and many other phenomena of +vegetable chemistry, clearly prove that substances composed of +identical elements, few in number and proportional in quantity, +exhibit the most heterogeneous properties, on account of that +particular mode of combination which corpuscular chemistry calls +the arrangement of the particles. + +Leaving the ravine which descends from the Imposible, we entered a +thick forest traversed by many small rivers, which are easily +forded. We observed that the cecropia, which in the disposition of +its branches and its slender trunk, resembles the palm-tree, is +covered with leaves more or less silvery, in proportion as the soil +is dry or moist. We saw some small plants of the cecropia, the +leaves of which were on both sides entirely green.* (* Is not the +Cecropia concolor of Willdenouw a variety of the Cecropia peltata?) +The roots of these trees are hid under tufts of dorstenia, which +flourishes only in humid and shady places. In the midst of the +forest, on the banks of the Rio Cedeno, as well as on the southern +declivity of the Cocollar, we find, in their wild state, papaw and +orange-trees, bearing large and sweet fruit. These are probably the +remains of some conucos, or Indian plantations; for in those +countries the orange-tree cannot be counted among the indigenous +plants, any more than the banana-tree, the papaw-tree, maize, +cassava, and many other useful plants, with the true country of +which we are unacquainted, though they have accompanied man in his +migrations from the remotest times. + +When a traveller newly arrived from Europe penetrates for the first +time into the forests of South America, he beholds nature under an +unexpected aspect. He feels at every step, that he is not on the +confines but in the centre of the torrid zone; not in one of the +West India Islands, but on a vast continent where everything is +gigantic,--mountains, rivers, and the mass of vegetation. If he +feel strongly the beauty of picturesque scenery he can scarcely +define the various emotions which crowd upon his mind; he can +scarcely distinguish what most excites his admiration, the deep +silence of those solitudes, the individual beauty and contrast of +forms, or that vigour and freshness of vegetable life which +characterize the climate of the tropics. It might be said that the +earth, overloaded with plants, does not allow them space enough to +unfold themselves. The trunks of the trees are everywhere concealed +under a thick carpet of verdure; and if we carefully transplanted +the orchideae, the pipers, and the pothoses, nourished by a single +courbaril, or American fig-tree,* (* Ficus nymphaeifolia.) we +should cover a vast extent of ground. By this singular assemblage, +the forests, as well as the flanks of the rocks and mountains, +enlarge the domains of organic nature. The same lianas which creep +on the ground, reach the tops of the trees, and pass from one to +another at the height of more than a hundred feet. Thus, by the +continual interlacing of parasite plants, the botanist is often led +to confound one with another, the flowers, the fruits, and leaves, +which belong to different species. + +We walked for some hours under the shade of these arcades, which +scarcely admit a glimpse of the sky; the latter appeared to me of +an indigo blue, the deeper in shade because the green of the +equinoctial plants is generally of a stronger hue, with somewhat of +a brownish tint. A great fern tree,* (* Possibly our Aspidium +caducum.) very different from the Polypodium arboreum of the West +Indies, rose above masses of scattered rocks. In this place we were +struck for the first time with the sight of those nests in the +shape of bottles, or small bags, which are suspended from the +branches of the lowest trees, and which attest the wonderful +industry of the orioles, which mingle their warbling with the +hoarse cries of the parrots and the macaws. These last, so well +known for their vivid colours, fly only in pairs, while the real +parrots wander about in flocks of several hundreds. A man must have +lived in those regions, particularly in the hot valleys of the +Andes, to conceive how these birds sometimes drown with their +voices the noise of the torrents, which dash down from rock to +rock. + +We left the forests, at the distance of somewhat more than a league +from the village of San Fernando. A narrow path led, after many +windings, into an open but extremely humid country. In such a site +in the temperate zone, the cyperaceous and gramineous plants would +have formed vast meadows; here the soil abounded in aquatic plants, +with sagittate leaves, and especially in basil plants, among which +we noticed the fine flowers of the costus, the thalia, and the +heliconia. These succulent plants are from eight to ten feet high, +and in Europe one of their groups would be considered as a little +wood. + +Near San Fernando the evaporation caused by the action of the sun +was so great that, being very lightly clothed, we felt ourselves as +wet as in a vapour bath. The road was bordered with a kind of +bamboo,* (* Bambusa guadua.) which the Indians call iagua, or +guadua, and which is more than forty feet in height. Nothing can +exceed the elegance of this arborescent gramen. The form and +disposition of its leaves give it a character of lightness which +contrasts agreeably with its height. The smooth and glossy trunk of +the iagua generally bends towards the banks of rivulets, and it +waves with the slightest breath of air. The highest reeds* in the +south of Europe (* Arundo donax.), can give no idea of the aspect +of the arborescent gramina. The bamboo and fern-tree are, of all +the vegetable forms between the tropics, those which make the most +powerful impression on the imagination of the traveller. Bamboos +are less common in South America than is usually believed. They are +almost wanting in the marshes and in the vast inundated plains of +the Lower Orinoco, the Apure, and the Atabapo, while they form +thick woods, several leagues in length, in the north-west, in New +Grenada, and in the kingdom of Quito. It might be said that the +western declivity of the Andes is their true country; and, what is +remarkable enough, we found them not only in the low regions at the +level of the ocean, but also in the lofty valleys of the +Cordilleras, at the height of 860 toises. + +The road skirted with the bamboos above mentioned led us to the +small village of San Fernando, situated in a narrow plain, +surrounded by very steep calcareous rocks. This was the first +Mission* we saw in America. (* A certain number of habitations +collected round a church, with a missionary monk performing the +ministerial duties, is called in the Spanish colonies Mision, or +Pueblo de mision. Indian villages, governed by a priest, are called +Pueblos de doctrina. A distinction is made between the Cura +doctrinero, who is the priest of an Indian parish, and the Cura +rector, priest of a village inhabited by whites and men of mixed +race.) The houses, or rather the huts of the Chayma Indians, though +separate from each other, are not surrounded by gardens. The +streets, which are wide and very straight, cross each other at +right angles. The walls of the huts are made of clay, strengthened +by lianas. The uniformity of these huts, the grave and taciturn air +of their inhabitants, and the extreme neatness of the dwellings, +reminded us of the establishments of the Moravian Brethren. Besides +their own gardens, every Indian family helps to cultivate the +garden of the community, or, as it is called, the conuco de la +comunidad, which is situated at some distance from the village. In +this conuco the adults of each sex work one hour in the morning and +one in the evening. In the missions nearest the coast the garden of +the community is generally a sugar or indigo plantation, under the +direction of the missionary; and its produce, if the law were +strictly observed, could be employed only for the support of the +church and the purchase of sacerdotal ornaments. The great square +of San Fernando, in the centre of the village, contains the church, +the dwelling of the missionary, and a very humble-looking edifice +pompously called the king's house (Casa del Rey). This is a +caravanserai, destined for lodging travellers; and, as we often +experienced, infinitely valuable in a country where the name of an +inn is still unknown. The Casas del Rey are to be found in all the +Spanish colonies, and may be deemed an imitation of the tambos of +Peru, which were established in conformity with the laws of Manco +Capac. + +We had been recommended to the friars who govern the Missions of +the Chayma Indians, by their syndic, who resides at Cumana. This +recommendation was the more useful to us, as the missionaries, +either from zeal for the purity of the morals of their +parishioners, or to conceal the monastic system from the indiscreet +curiosity of strangers, often adhere with rigour to an old +regulation, by which a white man of the secular state is not +permitted to sojourn more than one night in an Indian village. The +Missions form (I will not say according to their primitive and +canonical institutions, but in reality) a distinct and nearly +independent hierarchy, the views of which seldom accord with those +of the secular clergy. + +The missionary of San Fernando was a Capuchin, a native of Aragon, +far advanced in years, but strong and healthy. His extreme +corpulency, his hilarity, the interest he took in battles and +sieges, ill accorded with the ideas we form in northern countries +of the melancholy reveries and the contemplative life of +missionaries. Though extremely busy about a cow which was to be +killed next day, the old monk received us with kindness, and +permitted us to hang up our hammocks in a gallery of his house. +Seated, without doing anything, the greater part of the day, in an +armchair of red wood, he bitterly complained of what he called the +indolence and ignorance of his countrymen. Our missionary, however, +seemed well satisfied with his situation. + +He treated the Indians with mildness; he beheld his Mission +prosper, and he praised with enthusiasm the waters, the bananas, +and the dairy-produce of the district. The sight of our +instruments, our books, and our dried plants, drew from him a +sarcastic smile; and he acknowledged, with the naivete peculiar to +the inhabitants of those countries, that of all the enjoyments of +life, without excepting sleep, none was comparable to the pleasure +of eating good beef (carne de vaca): thus does sensuality obtain an +ascendancy, where there is no occupation for the mind. + +The mission of San Fernando was founded about the end of the 17th +century, near the junction of the small rivers of the Manzanares +and Lucasperez. A fire, which consumed the church and the huts of +the Indians, induced the Capuchins to build the village in its +present fine situation. The number of families is increased to one +hundred, and the missionary observed to us, that the custom of +marrying at thirteen or fourteen years of age contributes greatly +to this rapid increase of population. He denied that old age was so +premature among the Chaymas, as is commonly believed in Europe. The +government of these Indian parishes is very complicated; they have +their governor, their major-alguazils, and their +militia-commanders, all copper-coloured natives. The company of +archers have their colours, and perform their exercise with the bow +and arrow, in shooting at a mark; this is the national guard +(militia) of the country. This military establishment, under a +purely monastic system, seemed to us very singular. + +On the night of the 5th of September, and the following morning, +there was a thick fog; yet we were not more than a hundred toises +above the level of the sea. I determined geometrically, at the +moment of our departure, the height of the great calcareous +mountain which rises at 800 toises distance to the south of San +Fernando, and forms a perpendicular cliff on the north side. It is +only 215 toises higher than the great square; but naked masses of +rock, which here exhibit themselves in the midst of a thick +vegetation, give it a very majestic aspect. + +The road from San Fernando to Cumana passes amidst small +plantations, through an open and humid valley. We forded a number +of rivulets. In the shade the thermometer did not rise above 30 +degrees: but we were exposed to the direct rays of the sun, because +the bamboos, which skirted the road, afforded but small shelter, +and we suffered greatly from the heat. We passed through the +village of Arenas, inhabited by Indians, of the same race as those +at San Fernando. But Arenas is no longer a mission; and the +natives, governed by a regular priest,* (* The four villages of +Arenas, Macarapana, Mariguitar, and Aricagua, founded by Aragonese +Capuchins, are called Doctrinas de Encomienda.) are better clothed, +and more civilized. Their church is also distinguished in the +country by some rude paintings which adorn its walls. A narrow +border encloses figures of armadilloes, caymans, jaguars, and other +animals peculiar to the new world. + +In this village lives a labourer, Francisco Lozano, who presented a +highly curious physiological phenomenon. This man has suckled a +child with his own milk. The mother having fallen sick, the father, +to quiet the infant, took it into his bed, and pressed it to his +bosom. Lozano, then thirty-two years of age, had never before +remarked that he had milk: but the irritation of the nipple, sucked +by the child, caused the accumulation of that liquid. The milk was +thick and very sweet. The father, astonished at the increased size +of his breast, suckled his child two or three times a day during +five months. He drew on himself the attention of his neighbours, +but he never thought, as he probably would have done in Europe, of +deriving any advantage from the curiosity he excited. We saw the +certificate, which had been drawn up on the spot, to attest this +remarkable fact, eye-witnesses of which are still living. They +assured us that, during this suckling, the child had no other +nourishment than the milk of his father. Lozano, who was not at +Arenas during our journey in the missions, came to us at Cumana. He +was accompanied by his son, then thirteen or fourteen years of age. +M. Bonpland examined with attention the father's breasts, and found +them wrinkled like those of a woman who has given suck. He observed +that the left breast in particular was much enlarged; which Lozano +explained to us from the circumstance, that the two breasts did not +furnish milk in the same abundance. Don Vicente Emparan, governor +of the province, sent a circumstantial account of this phenomenon +to Cadiz. + +It is not a very uncommon circumstance, to find, among animals, +males whose breasts contain milk; and climate does not appear to +exercise any marked influence on the greater or less abundance of +this secretion. The ancients cite the milk of the he-goats of +Lemnos and Corsica. In our own time, we have seen in Hanover, a +he-goat, which for a great number of years was milked every other +day, and yielded more milk than a female goat. Among the signs of +the alleged weakness of the Americans, travellers have mentioned +the milk contained in the breasts of men. It is, however, +improbable, that it has ever been observed in a whole tribe, in +some part of America unknown to modern travellers; and I can affirm +that at present it is not more common in the new continent, than in +the old. The labourer of Arenas, whose case has just been +mentioned, was not of the copper-coloured race of Chayma Indians, +but was a white man, descended from Europeans. Moreover, the +anatomists of St. Petersburgh have observed that, among the lower +orders of the people in Russia, milk in the breasts of men is much +more frequent than among the more southern nations: yet the +Russians have never been deemed weak and effeminate. There is among +the varieties of the human species a race of men whose breasts at +the age of puberty acquire a considerable bulk. Lozano did not +belong to that race; and he often repeated to us his conviction, +that it was only the irritation of the nipple, in consequence of +the suction, which caused the flow of milk. + +When we reflect on the whole of the vital phenomena, we find that +no one of them is entirely isolated. In every age examples are +cited of very young girls and women in extreme old age, who have +suckled children. Among men these examples are more rare; and after +numerous researches, I have not found above two or three. One is +cited by the anatomist of Verona, Alexander Benedictus, who lived +about the end of the fifteenth century. He relates the history of +an inhabitant of Syria, who, to calm the fretfulness of his child, +after the death of the mother, pressed it to his bosom. The milk +soon became so abundant, that the father could take on himself the +nourishment of his child without assistance. Other examples are +related by Santorellus, Faria, and Robert, bishop of Cork. The +greater part of these phenomena having been noticed in times very +remote, it is not uninteresting to physiology, that we can confirm +them in our own days. + +On approaching the town of Cumanacoa we found a more level soil, +and a valley enlarging itself progressively. This small town is +situated in a naked plain, almost circular, and surrounded by lofty +mountains. It was founded in 1717 by Domingo Arias, on the return +of an expedition to the mouth of the Guarapiche, undertaken with +the view of destroying an establishment which some French +freebooters had attempted to found. The new town was first called +San Baltazar de las Arias; but the Indian name Cumanacoa prevailed; +in like manner the name of Santiago de Leon, still to be found in +our maps, is forgotten in that of Caracas. + +On opening the barometer we were struck at seeing the column of +mercury scarcely 7.3 lines shorter than on the coasts. The plain, +or rather the table-land, on which the town of Cumanacoa is +situated, is not more than 104 toises above the level of the sea, +which is three or four times less than is supposed by the +inhabitants of Cumana, on account of their exaggerated ideas of the +cold of Cumanacoa. But the difference of climate observable between +places so near each other is perhaps less owing to comparative +height than to local circumstances. Among these causes we may cite +the proximity of the forests; the frequency of descending currents, +so common in these valleys, closed on every side; the abundance of +rain; and those thick fogs which diminish during a great part of +the year the direct action of the solar rays. The decrement of the +heat being nearly the same within the tropics, and during the +summer under the temperate zone, the small difference of level of +one hundred toises should produce only a change in the mean +temperature of 1 or 1.5 degrees. But we shall soon find that at +Cumanacoa the difference rises to more than four degrees. This +coolness of the climate is sometimes the more surprising, as very +great heat is felt at Carthago (in the province of Popayan); at +Tomependa, on the bank of the river Amazon, and in the valleys of +Aragua, to the west of Caracas; though the absolute height of these +different places is between 200 and 480 toises. In plains as well +as on mountains the isothermal lines (lines of similar heat) are +not constantly parallel to the equator, or the surface of the +globe. It is the grand problem of meteorology to determine the +inflections of these lines, and to discover, amid modifications +produced by local causes, the constant laws of the distribution of +heat. + +The port of Cumana is only seven nautical leagues from Cumanacoa. +It scarcely ever rains in the first-mentioned place, while in the +latter there are seven months of wintry weather. At Cumanacoa, the +dry season begins at the winter solstice, and lasts till the vernal +equinox. Light showers are frequent in the months of April, May, +and June. The dry weather then returns again, and lasts from the +summer solstice to the end of August. Then come the real winter +rains, which cease only in the month of November, and during which +torrents of water pour down from the skies. + +It was during the winter season that we took up our first abode in +the Missions. Every night a thick fog covered the sky, and it was +only at intervals that I succeeded in taking some observations of +the stars. The thermometer kept from 18.5 to 20 degrees, which +under this zone, and to the sensations of a traveller coming from +the coasts, appears a great degree of coolness. I never perceived +the temperature in the night at Cumana below 21 degrees. The +greatest heat is felt from noon to 3 o'clock, the thermometer +keeping between 26 and 27 degrees. The maximum of the heat, about +two hours after the passage of the sun over the meridian, was very +regularly marked by a storm which murmured near. Large black and +low clouds dissolved in rain, which came down in torrents: these +rains lasted two or three hours, and lowered the thermometer five +or six degrees. About five o'clock the rain entirely ceased, the +sun reappeared a little before it set, and the hygrometer moved +towards the point of dryness; but at eight or nine we were again +enveloped in a thick stratum of vapour. These different changes +follow successively, we were assured, during whole months, and yet +not a breath of wind is felt. Comparative experiments led us to +believe that in general the nights at Cumanacoa are from two to +three, and the days from four to five centesimal degrees cooler +than at the port of Cumana. These differences are great; and if, +instead of meteorological instruments, we consulted only our own +feelings, we should suppose they were still more considerable. + +The vegetation of the plain which surrounds the town is monotonous, +but, owing to the extreme humidity of the air, remarkable for its +freshness. It is chiefly characterized by an arborescent solanum, +forty feet in height, the Urtica baccifera, and a new species of +the genus Guettarda.* (* These trees are surrounded by Galega +pilosa, Stellaria rotundifolia, Aegiphila elata of Swartz, +Sauvagesia erecta, Martinia perennis, and a great number of +Rivinas. We find among the gramineous plants, in the savannah of +Cumanacoa, the Paspalus lenticularis, Panicum ascendens, Pennisetum +uniflorum, Gynerium saccharoides, Eleusine indica, etc.) The ground +is very fertile, and might be easily watered if trenches were cut +from a great number of rivulets, the springs of which never dry up +during the whole year. The most valuable production of the district +is tobacco. Since the introduction of the farm* (* Estanco real de +tabaco, royal monopoly of tobacco.) in 1779, the cultivation of +tobacco in the province of Cumana is nearly confined to the valley +of Cumanacoa; as in Mexico it is permitted only in the two +districts of Orizaba and Cordova. The farm system is a monopoly +odious to the people. All the tobacco that is gathered must be sold +to government; and to prevent, or rather to diminish fraud, it has +been found most easy to concentrate the cultivation in one point. +Guards scour the country, to destroy any plantations without the +boundaries of the privileged districts; and to inform against those +inhabitants who smoke cigars prepared by their own hands. + +Next to the tobacco of the island of Cuba and of the Rio Negro, +that of Cumana is the most aromatic. It excels all the tobacco of +New Spain and of the province of Varinas. We shall give some +particulars of its culture, which essentially differs from the +method practised in Virginia. The prodigious expansion which is +remarked in the solaneous plants of the valley of Cumanacoa, +especially in the abundant species of the Solanum arborescens, of +aquartia, and of cestrum, seems to indicate the favourable nature +of this spot for plantations of tobacco. The seed is sown in the +open ground, at the beginning of September; though sometimes not +till the month of December, which period is however less favourable +for the harvest. The cotyledons appear on the eighth day, and the +young plants are covered with large leaves of heliconia and +plantain, and shelter them from the direct action of the sun. Great +care also is taken to destroy weeds, which, between the tropics, +spring up with astonishing rapidity. The tobacco is transplanted +into a rich and well-prepared soil, a month or two after it has +risen from the seed. The plants are disposed in regular rows, three +or four feet distant from each other. Care is taken to weed them +often, and the principal stalk is several times topped, till +greenish blue spots indicate to the cultivator the maturity of the +leaves. They begin to gather them in the fourth month, and this +first gathering generally terminates in the space of a few days. It +would be better if the leaves were plucked only as they dry. In +good years the cultivators cut the plant when it is only four feet +high; and the shoot which springs from the root, throws out new +leaves with such rapidity that they may be gathered on the +thirteenth or fourteenth day. These last have the cellular tissue +very much extended, and they contain more water, more albumen and +less of that acrid, volatile principle, which is but little soluble +in water, and in which the stimulant property of tobacco seems to +reside. + +At Cumanacoa the tobacco, after being gathered, undergoes a +preparation which the Spaniards call cura seca. The leaves are +suspended by threads of cocuiza;* (* Agave Americana.) their ribs +are taken out, and they are twisted into cords. The prepared +tobacco should be carried to the king's warehouses in the month of +June; but the indolence of the inhabitants, and the preference they +give to the cultivation of maize and cassava, usually prevent them +from finishing the preparation before the month of August. It is +easy to conceive that the leaves, so long exposed to very moist +air, must lose some of their flavour. The administrator of the farm +keeps the tobacco deposited in the king's warehouses sixty days +without touching it. When this time is expired, the manoques are +opened to examine the quality. If the administrator find the +tobacco well prepared, he pays the cultivator three piastres for +the aroba of twenty-five pounds weight. The same quantity is resold +for the king's profit at twelve piastres and a half. The tobacco +that is rotten (podrido), that is, again gone into a state of +fermentation, is publicly burnt; and the cultivator, who has +received money in advance from the royal farm, loses irrevocably +the fruits of his long labour. We saw heaps, amounting to five +hundred arobas, burnt in the great square, which in Europe might +have served for making snuff. + +The soil of Cumanacoa is so favourable to this branch of culture, +that tobacco grows wild, wherever the seed finds any moisture. It +grows thus spontaneously at Cerro del Cuchivano, and around the +cavern of Caripe. The only kind of tobacco cultivated at Cumanacoa, +as well as in the neighbouring districts of Aricagua and San +Lorenzo, is that with large sessile leaves,* (* Nicotiana tabacum.) +called Virginia tobacco. The tobacco with petiolate leaves,* (* +Nicotiana rustica.) which is the yetl of the ancient Mexicans, is +unknown. + +In studying the history of our cultivated plants, we are surprised +to find that, before the conquest, the use of tobacco was spread +through the greater part of America, while the potato was unknown +both in Mexico and the West India Islands, where it grows well in +the mountainous regions. Tobacco has also been cultivated in +Portugal since the year 1559, though the potato did not become an +object of European agriculture till the end of the seventeenth and +beginning of the eighteenth century. This latter plant, which has +had so powerful an influence on the well-being of society, has +spread in both continents more slowly than tobacco, which can be +considered only as an article of luxury. + +Next to tobacco, the most important culture of the valley of +Cumanacoa is that of indigo. The manufacturers of Cumanacoa, of San +Fernando, and of Arenas, produce indigo of greater commercial value +than that of Caracas; and often nearly equalling in splendour and +richness of colour the indigo of Guatimala. It was from that +province that the coasts of Cumana received the first seeds of the +Indigofera anil,* which is cultivated jointly with the Indigofera +tinctoria. (* The indigo known in commerce is produced by four +species of plants; the Indigofera tinctoria, I. anil, I. argentea, +and I. disperma. At the Rio Negro, near the frontiers of Brazil, we +found the I. argentea growing wild, but only in places anciently +inhabited by Indians.) The rains being very frequent in the valley +of Cumanacoa, a plant of four feet high yields no more colouring +matter than one of a third part that size in the arid valleys of +Aragua, to the west of the town of Caracas. + +The manufactories we examined are all built on uniform principles. +Two steeping vessels, or vats, which receive the plants intended to +be brought into a state of fermentation, are joined together. Each +vat is fifteen feet square, and two and a half deep. From these +upper vats the liquor runs into beaters, between which is placed +the water-mill. The axletree of the great wheel crosses the two +beaters. It is furnished with ladles, fixed to long handles, +adapted for the beating. From a spacious settling-vat, the +colouring fecula is carried to the drying place, and spread on +planks of brasiletto, which, having small wheels, can be sheltered +under a roof in case of sudden rains. Sloping and very low roofs +give the drying place the appearance of hot-houses at some +distance. In the valley of Cumanacoa, the fermentation of the plant +is produced with astonishing rapidity. It lasts in general but four +or five hours. This short duration can be attributed only to the +humidity of the climate, and the absence of the sun during the +development of the plant. I think I have observed, in the course of +my travels, that the drier the climate, the slower the vat works, +and the greater the quantity of indigo, at the minimum of +oxidation, contained in the stalks. In the province of Caracas, +where 562 cubic feet of the plant slightly piled up yield +thirty-five or forty pounds of dry indigo, the liquid does not pass +into the beater till after twenty, thirty, or thirty-five hours. It +is probable that the inhabitants of Cumanacoa would extract more +colouring matter if they left the plants longer steeping in the +first vat.* (* The planters are pretty generally of opinion, that +the fermentation should never continue less than ten hours. +Beauvais-Raseau, Art de l'Indigotier page 81.) During my abode at +Cumana I made solutions of the indigo of Cumanacoa, which is +somewhat heavy and coppery, and that of Caracas, in sulphuric acid, +in order to compare them, and the solution of the former appeared +to me to be of a much more intense blue. + +The plain of Cumanacoa, spotted with farms and small plantations of +indigo and tobacco, is surrounded with mountains, which towards the +south rise to considerable height. Everything indicates that the +valley is the bottom of an ancient lake. The mountains, which in +ancient times formed its shores, all rise perpendicularly in the +direction of the plain. The only outlet for the waters of the lake +was on the side of Arenas. In digging foundations, beds of round +pebbles, mixed with small bivalve shells, are found; and according +to the report of persons worthy of credit, there were discovered, +thirty years ago, at the bottom of the ravine of San Juanillo, two +enormous femoral bones, four feet long, and weighing more than +thirty pounds. The Indians imagined that these were giants' bones; +whilst the half-learned sages of the country, who assume the right +of explaining everything, gravely asserted that they were mere +sports of nature, and little worthy of attention; an opinion +founded on the circumstance that human bones decay rapidly in the +soil of Cumanacoa. In order to decorate their churches on the +festival of the dead, they take skulls from the cemeteries on the +coast, where the earth is impregnated with saline substances. These +pretended thigh-bones of giants were carried to the port of Cumana, +where I sought for them in vain; but from the analogy of some +fossil bones which I brought from other parts of South America, and +which have been carefully examined by M. Cuvier, it is probable +that the gigantic femoral bones of Cumanacoa belonged to elephants +of a species now extinct. It may appear surprising that they were +found in a place so little elevated above the present level of the +waters; since it is a remarkable fact, that the fragments of the +mastodons and fossil elephants which I brought from the equinoctial +regions of Mexico, New Grenada, Quito, and Peru, were not found in +low regions (as were the megatherium of Rio Luxan* (* One league +south-east from the town of Buenos Ayres.) and Virginia,* (* The +megatherium of Virginia is the megalonyx of Mr. Jefferson. All the +enormous remains found in the plains of the new continent, either +north or south of the equator, belong, not to the torrid, but to +the temperate zone. On the other hand, Pallas observes that in +Siberia, consequently also northward of the tropics, fossil bones +are never found in mountainous parts. These facts, intimately +connected together, seem calculated to lead to the discovery of a +great geological law.) the great mastodons of the Ohio, and the +fossil elephants of the Susquehanna, in the temperate zone), but on +table-lands having from six to fourteen hundred toises of +elevation. + +As we approached the southern bank of the basin of Cumanacoa, we +enjoyed the view of the Turimiquiri.* (* Some of the inhabitants +pronounce this name Tumuriquiri, others Turumiquiri, or +Tumiriquiri. During the whole time of our stay at Cumanacoa, the +summit of this mountain was covered with clouds. It appeared +uncovered on the evening of the 11th of September, but only for a +few minutes. The angle of elevation, taken from the great square of +Cumanacoa, was 8 degrees 2 minutes. This determination, and the +barometrical measurement which I made on the 13th, may enable us to +fix, within a certain approximation, the distance of the mountain +at six miles and a third, or 6050 toises; admitting that the part +uncovered by clouds was 850 toises above the plain of Cumanacoa.) +An enormous wall of rocks, the remains of an ancient cliff, rises +in the midst of the forests. Farther to the west, at Cerro del +Cuchivano, the chain of mountains seems as if broken by the effects +of an earthquake. The crevice is more than a hundred and fifty +toises wide, is surrounded by perpendicular rocks, and is filled +with trees, the interwoven branches of which find no room to +spread. This cleft appears like a mine opened by the falling in of +the earth. It is intersected by a torrent, the Rio Juagua, and its +appearance is highly picturesque. It is called Risco del Cuchivano. +The river rises at the distance of seven leagues south-west, at the +foot of the mountain of the Brigantine, and it forms some beautiful +cascades before it spreads through the plain of Cumanacoa. + +We visited several times a small farm, the Conuco of Bermudez, +opposite the Risco del Cuchivano, where tobacco, plantains, and +several species of cotton-trees,* are cultivated in the moist soil +(* Gossypium uniglandulosum, improperly called herbaceum, and G. +barbadense.); especially that tree, the cotton of which is of a +nankeen colour, and which is so common in the island of Margareta.* +(* G. religiosum.) The proprietor of the farm told us that the +Risco or crevice was inhabited by jaguar tigers. These animals pass +the day in caverns, and roam around human habitations at night. +Being well fed, they grow to the length of six feet. One of them +had devoured, in the preceding year, a horse belonging to the farm. +He dragged his prey on a fine moonlight night, across the savannah, +to the foot of a ceiba* of an enormous size. (* Bombax ceiba: +five-leaved silk-cotton tree.) The groans of the dying horse awoke +the slaves of the farm, who went out armed with lances and +machetes.* (* Great knives, with very long blades, like a couteau +de chasse. No one enters the woods in the torrid zone without being +armed with a machete, not only to cut his way through the woods, +but as a defence against wild beasts.) The tiger, crouching over +his prey, awaited their approach with tranquillity, and fell only +after a long and obstinate resistance. This fact, and many others +verified on the spot, prove that the great jaguar* of Terra Firma +(* Felis onca, Linn., which Buffon called panthere oillee, and +which he believed came from Africa.), like the jaguarete of +Paraguay, and the real tiger of Asia, does not flee from man when +it is dared to close combat, and when not intimidated by the number +of its assailants. Naturalists at present admit that Buffon was +entirely mistaken with respect to the greatest of the feline race +of America. What Buffon says of the cowardice of tigers of the new +continent, relates to the small ocelots.* (* Felis pardalis, Linn., +or the chibiguazu of Azara, different from the Tlateo-Ocelotl, or +tiger-cat of the Aztecs.) At the Orinoco, the real jaguar of +America sometimes leaps into the water, to attack the Indians in +their canoes. + +Opposite the farm of Bermudez, two spacious caverns open into the +crevice of Cuchivano, whence at times there issue flames, which may +be seen at a great distance in the night; and, judging by the +elevation of the rocks, above which these fiery exhalations ascend, +we should be led to think that they rise several hundred feet. This +phenomenon was accompanied by a subterranean, dull, and long +continued noise, at the time of the last great earthquake of +Cumana. It is observed chiefly during the rainy season; and the +owners of the farms opposite the mountain of Cuchivano allege that +the flames have become more frequent since December 1797. + +In a herborizing excursion we made at Rinconada we attempted to +penetrate into the crevice, wishing to examine the rocks which +seemed to contain in their bosom the cause of these extraordinary +conflagrations; but the strength of the vegetation, the +interweaving of the lianas, and thorny plants, hindered our +progress. Happily the inhabitants of the valley themselves felt a +warm interest in our researches, less from the fear of a volcanic +explosion, than because their minds were impressed with the idea +that the Risco del Cuchivano contained a gold mine; and although we +expressed our doubts of the existence of gold in a secondary +limestone, they insisted on knowing "what the German miner thought +of the richness of the vein." Ever since the time of Charles V and +the government of the Welsers, the Alfingers, and the Sailers, at +Coro and Caracas, the people of Terra Firma have entertained a +great confidence in the Germans with respect to all that relates to +the working of mines. Wherever I went in South America, when the +place of my birth was known, I was shown samples of ore. In these +colonies every Frenchman is supposed to be a physician, and every +German a miner. + +The farmers, with the aid of their slaves, opened a path across the +woods to the first fall of the Rio Juagua; and on the 10th of +September we made our excursion to the Cuchivano. On entering the +crevice we recognised the proximity of tigers by a porcupine +recently emboweled. For greater security the Indians returned to +the farm, and brought back some dogs of a very small breed. We were +assured that in the event of our meeting a jaguar in a narrow path +he would spring on the dog rather than on a man. We did not proceed +along the brink of the torrent, but on the slope of the rocks which +overhung the water. We walked on the side of a precipice from two +to three hundred feet deep, on a kind of very narrow cornice, like +the road which leads from the Grindelwald along the Mettenberg to +the great glacier. When the cornice was so narrow that we could +find no place for our feet, we descended into the torrent, crossed +it by fording, and then climbed the opposite wall. These descents +are very fatiguing, and it is not safe to trust to the lianas, +which hang like great cords from the tops of the trees. The +creeping and parasite plants cling but feebly to the branches which +they embrace; the united weight of their stalks is considerable, +and you run the risk of pulling down a whole mass of verdure, if, +in walking on a sloping ground, you support your weight by the +lianas. The farther we advanced the thicker the vegetation became. +In several places the roots of the trees had burst the calcareous +rock, by inserting themselves into the clefts that separate the +beds. We had some trouble to carry the plants which we gathered at +every step. The cannas, the heliconias with fine purple flowers, +the costuses, and other plants of the amomum family, here attain +eight or ten feet in height, and their fresh tender verdure, their +silky gloss, and the extraordinary development of the parenchyma, +form a striking contrast with the brown colour of the arborescent +ferns, the foliage of which is delicately shaped. The Indians made +incisions with their large knives in the trunks of the trees, and +fixed our attention on those beautiful red and gold-coloured woods, +which will one day be sought for by our turners and cabinet-makers. +They showed us a plant of the compositae order, twenty feet high +(the Eupatorium laevigatum of Lamarck), the rose of Belveria,* (* +Brownea racemosa.) celebrated for the brilliancy of its purple +flowers, and the dragon's-blood of this country, which is a kind of +croton not yet described.* (* Plants of families entirely different +are called in the Spanish colonies of both continents, sangre de +draco; they are dracaenas, pterocarpi, and crotons. Father Caulin +Descrip. Corografica page 25, in speaking of resins found in the +forests of Cumana, makes a just distinction between the Draco de la +Sierra de Unare, which has pinnate leaves (Pterocarpus Draco), and +the Draco de la Sierra de Paria, with entire and hairy leaves. The +latter is the Croton sanguifluum of Cumanacoa, Caripe, and Cariaco. +) The red and astringent juice of this plant is employed to +strengthen the gums. The Indians recognize the species by the +smell, and more particularly by chewing the woody fibres. Two +natives, to whom the same wood was given to chew, pronounced +without hesitation the same name. We could avail ourselves but +little of the sagacity of our guides, for how could we procure +leaves, flowers, and fruits growing on trunks, the branches of +which commence at fifty or sixty feet high? We were struck at +finding in this hollow the bark of trees, and even the soil, +covered with moss* and lichens. (* Real musci frondosi. We also +found, besides a small Boletus stipitatus, of a snow-white colour, +the Boletus igniarius, and the Lycoperdon stellatum of Europe. I +had found this last only in very dry places in Germany and Poland.) +The cryptogamous plants are here as common as in northern +countries. Their growth is favoured by the moisture of the air, and +the absence of the direct rays of the sun. Nevertheless the +temperature is generally at 25 degrees in the day, and 19 degrees +at night. + +The rocks which bound the crevice of Cuchivano are perpendicular +like walls, and are of the same calcareous formation which we +observed the whole way from Punta Delgada. It is here a blackish +grey, of compact fracture, tending sometimes towards the sandy +fracture, and crossed by small veins of white carbonated lime. In +these characteristic marks we thought we discovered the alpine +limestone of Switzerland and the Tyrol, of which the colour is +always deep, though in a less degree than that of the transition +limestone.* (* Escher, in the Alpina volume 4 page 340.) The first +of these formations constitutes the Cuchivano, the nucleus of the +Imposible, and in general the whole group of the mountains of New +Andalusia. I saw no petrifactions in it; but the inhabitants assert +that considerable masses of shells are found at great heights. The +same phenomenon occurs in the country about Salzburg.* (* In +Switzerland, the solitary beds of shells, at the height of from +1300 to 2000 toises (in the Jungfrauhorn, the Dent de Morcle, and +the Dent du Midi), belong to transition limestone.) At the +Cuchivano the alpine limestone contains beds of marly clay,* +(*Mergelschiefer.) three or four toises thick; and this geological +fact proves on the one hand the identity of the alpenkalkstein with +the zechstein of Thuringia, and on the other the affinity of +formation existing between the alpine limestone and that of the +Jura.* (* The Jura and the Alpine limestone are kindred formations, +and they are sometimes difficult to be distinguished, where they +lie immediately one upon another, as in the Apennines. The alpine +limestone and the zechstein, famous among the geologists of +Freyberg, are identical formations. This identity, which I noticed +in the year 1793 (Uber die Grubenwetter), is a geological fact the +more interesting, as it seems to unite the northern European +formations to those of the central chain. It is known that the +zechstein is situated between the muriatiferous gypsum and the +conglomerate (ancient sandstone); or where there is no +muriatiferous gypsum, between the slaty sandstone with roestones +(buntesandstein, Wern.), and the conglomerate or ancient sandstone. +It contains strata of schistous and coppery marl (bituminoce mergel +and kupferschiefer) which form an important object in the working +of mines at Mansfeld in Saxony, near Riegelsdorf in Hesse, and at +Hasel and Prausnitz, in Silesia. In the southern part of Bavaria +(Oberbaiern), I saw the alpine limestone, containing these same +strata of schistous clay and marl, which, though thinner, whiter, +and especially more frequent, characterize the limestone of Jura. +Respecting the slates of Blattenberg, in the canton of Glaris which +some mineralogists, because of their numerous impressions of fish, +have long mistaken for the cupreous slates of Mansfeld, they +belong, according to M. von Buch, to a real transition formation. +All these geological data tend to prove that strata of marl, more +or less mixed with carbon, are to be found in the limestone of +Jura, in the alpine limestone, and in the transition schists. The +mixture of carbon, sulphuretted iron, and copper, appears to me to +augment with the relative antiquity of the formations.) The strata +of marl effervesce with acids, though silex and alumina predominate +in them: they are strongly impregnated with carbon, and sometimes +blacken the hands, like a real vitriolic schistus. The supposed +gold mine of Cuchivano, which was the object of our examination, is +nothing but an excavation cut into one of those black strata of +marl, which contain pyrites in abundance. The excavation is on the +right bank of the river Juagua, and must be approached with +caution, because the torrent there is more than eight feet deep. +The sulphurous pyrites are found, some massive, and others +crystallized and disseminated in the rock; their colour, of a very +clear golden yellow, does not indicate that they contain copper. +They are mixed with fibrous sulphuret of iron,* (* Haarkies.) and +nodules of swinestone, or fetid carbonate of lime. The marly +stratum crosses the torrent; and, as the water washes out metallic +grains, the people imagine, on account of the brilliancy of the +pyrites, that the torrent bears down gold. It is reported that, +after the great earthquake which took place in 1766, the waters of +the Juagua were so charged with gold that "men who came from a +great distance, and whose country was unknown," established +washing-places on the spot. They disappeared during the night, +after having collected a great quantity of gold. It would be +needless to show that this is a fable. Pyrites dispersed in +quartzose veins, crossing the mica-slate, are often auriferous, no +doubt; but no analogous fact leads to the supposition that the +sulphuretted iron which is found in the schistose marls of the +alpine limestone, contains gold. Some direct experiments, made with +acids, during my abode at Caracas, showed that the pyrites of +Cuchivano are not auriferous. Our guides were amazed at my +incredulity. In vain I repeated that alum and sulphate of iron only +could be obtained from this supposed gold mine; they continued +picking up secretly every bit of pyrites they saw sparkling in the +water. In countries possessing few mines, the inhabitants entertain +exaggerated ideas respecting the facility with which riches are +drawn from the bowels of the earth. How much time did we not lose +during five years' travels, in visiting, on the pressing +invitations of our hosts, ravines, of which the pyritous strata +have borne for ages the imposing names of 'Minas de oro!' How often +have we been grieved to see men of all classes, magistrates, +pastors of villages, grave missionaries, grinding, with +inexhaustible patience, amphibole, or yellow mica, in the hope of +extracting gold from it by means of mercury! This rage for the +search of mines strikes us the more in a climate where the ground +needs only to be slightly raked to produce abundant harvests. + +After visiting the pyritous marls of the Rio Juagua, we continued +following the course of the crevice, which stretches along like a +narrow canal overshadowed by very lofty trees. We observed strata +on the left bank, opposite Cerro del Cuchivano, singularly crooked +and twisted. This phenomenon I had often admired at the Ochsenberg, +* in passing the lake of Lucerne. (* This mountain of Switzerland +is composed of transition limestone. We find these same inflexions +in the strata near Bonneville, at Nante d'Arpenas in Savoy, and in +the valley of Estaubee in the Pyrenees. Another transition rock, +the grauwakke of the Germans (very near the English killas), +exhibits the same phenomenon in Scotland.) The calcareous beds of +the Cuchivano and the neighbouring mountains keep pretty regularly +the direction of north-north-east and south-south-west. Their +inclination is sometimes north and sometimes south; most commonly +they seem to take a direction towards the valley of Cumanacoa; and +it cannot be doubted that the valley has an influence* on the +inclination of the strata. (* The same observation may apply to the +lake of Gemunden in Styria, which I visited with M. von Buch, and +which is one of the most picturesque situations in Europe.) + +We had suffered great fatigue, and were quite drenched by +frequently crossing the torrent, when we reached the caverns of the +Cuchivano. A wall of rock there rises perpendicularly to the height +of eight hundred toises. It is seldom that in a zone where the +force of vegetation everywhere conceals the soil and the rocks, we +behold a great mountain presenting naked strata in a perpendicular +section. In the middle of this section, and in a position +unfortunately inaccessible to man, two caverns open in the form of +crevices. We were assured that they are inhabited by nocturnal +birds, the same as those we were soon to become acquainted with in +the Cueva del Guacharo of Caripe. Near these caverns we saw strata +of schistose marl, and found, with great astonishment, +rock-crystals encased in beds of alpine limestone. They were +hexahedral prisms, terminated with pyramids, fourteen lines long +and eight thick. The crystals, perfectly transparent, were +solitary, and often three or four toises distant from each other. +They were enclosed in the calcareous mass, as the quartz crystals +of Burgtonna,* (* In the duchy of Gotha.) and the boracite of +Lunebourg, are contained in gypsum. There was no crevice near, or +any vestige of calcareous spar.* (* This phenomenon reminds us of +another equally rare, the quartz crystals found by M. Freiesleben +in Saxony, near Burgorner, in the county of Mansfeld, in the middle +of a rock of porous limestone (rauchwakke), lying immediately on +the alpine limestone. The rock crystals, which are pretty common in +the primitive limestone of Carrara, line the insides of cavities in +the rocks, without being enveloped by the rock itself.) + +We reposed at the foot of the cavern whence those flames were seen +to issue, which of late years have become more frequent. Our guides +and the farmer, an intelligent man, equally acquainted with the +localities of the province, discussed, in the manner of the +Creoles, the dangers to which the town of Cumanacoa would be +exposed if the Cuchivano became an active volcano, or, as they +expressed it, "se veniesse a reventar." It appeared to them +evident, that since the great earthquakes of Quito and Cumana in +1797, New Andalusia was every day more and more undermined by +subterranean fires. They cited the flames which had been seen to +issue from the earth at Cumana; and the shocks felt in places where +heretofore the ground had never been shaken. They recollected that +at Macarapan, sulphurous emanations had been frequently perceived +for some months past. We were struck with these facts, upon which +were founded predictions that have since been almost all realized. +Enormous convulsions of the earth took place at Caracas in 1812, +and proved how tumultuously nature is agitated in the north-east +part of Terra Firma. + +But what is the cause of the luminous phenomena which are observed +in the Cuchivano? The column of air which rises from the mouth of a +burning volcano* is sometimes observed to shine with a splendid +light. (* We must not confound this very rare phenomenon with the +glimmering commonly observed a few toises above the brink of a +crater, and which (as I remarked at Mount Vesuvius in 1805) is only +the reflection of great masses of inflamed scoria, thrown up +without sufficient force to pass the mouth of the volcano.) This +light, which is believed to be owing to the hydrogen gas, was +observed from Chillo, on the summit of the Cotopaxi, at a time when +the mountain seemed in the greatest repose. According to the +statements of the ancients, the Mons Albanus, near Rome, known at +present under the name of Monte Cavo, appeared at times on fire +during the night; but the Mons Albanus is a volcano recently +extinguished, which, in the time of Cato, threw out rapilli;* (* +"Albano monte biduum continenter lapidibus pluit."--Livy lib. 25 +cap. 7. (Heyne, Opuscula Acad. tome 3 page 261.)) while the +Cuchivano is a calcareous mountain, remote from any trap formation. +Can these flames be attributed to the decomposition of water, +entering into contact with the pyrites dispersed through the +schistose marl? or is it inflamed hydrogen that issues from the +cavern of Cuchivano? The marls, as the smell indicates, are +pyritous and bituminous at the same time; and the petroleum springs +at the Buen Pastor, and in the island of Trinidad, proceed probably +from these same beds of alpine limestone. It would be easy to +suppose some connexion between the waters filtering through this +calcareous stone, and decomposed by pyrites and the earthquakes of +Cumana, the springs of sulphuretted hydrogen in New Barcelona, the +beds of native sulphur at Carupano, and the emanations of +sulphurous acid which are perceived at times in the savannahs. It +cannot be doubted also, that the decomposition of water by the +pyrites at an elevated temperature, favoured by the affinity of +oxidated iron for earthy substances, may have caused that +disengagement of hydrogen gas, to the action of which several +modern geologists have attributed so much importance. But in +general, sulphurous acid is perceived more commonly than hydrogen +in the eruption of volcanoes, and the odour of that acid +principally prevails while the earth is agitated by violent shocks. +When we take a general view of the phenomena of volcanoes and +earthquakes, when we recollect the enormous distance at which the +commotion is propagated below the basin of the sea, we readily +discard explanations founded on small strata of pyrites and +bituminous marls. I am of opinion that the shocks so frequently +felt in the province of Cumana are as little to be attributed to +the rocks above the surface of the earth, as those which agitate +the Apennines are assignable to asphaltic veins or springs of +burning petroleum. The whole of these phenomena depend on more +general, I would almost say on deeper, causes; and it is not in the +secondary strata which form the exterior crust of our globe, but in +the primitive rocks, at an enormous distance from the soil, that we +should seek the focus of volcanic action. The greater progress we +make in geology, the more we feel the insufficiency of theories +founded on observations merely local. + +On the 12th of September we continued our journey to the convent of +Caripe, the principal settlement of the Chayma missions. We chose, +instead of the direct road, that by the mountains of the +Cocollar* (* Is this name of Indian origin? At Cumana I heard +it derived in a manner somewhat far-fetched from the Spanish word +cogollo, signifying the heart of oleraceous plants. The Cocollar +forms the centre of the whole group of the mountains of New +Andalusia.) and the Turimiquiri, the height of which little exceeds +that of Jura. The road first runs eastward, crossing over the length +of three leagues the table-land of Cumanacoa, in a soil formerly +levelled by the waters: it then turns to the south. We passed the +little Indian village of Aricagua surrounded by woody hills. Thence +we began to ascend, and the ascent lasted more than four hours. We +crossed two-and-twenty times the river of Pututucuar, a rapid +torrent, full of blocks of calcareous rock. When, on the Cuesta del +Cocollar, we reached an elevation two thousand feet above the level +of the sea, we were surprised to find scarcely any forests or great +trees. We passed over an immense plain covered with gramineous +plants. Mimosas with hemispheric tops, and stems only four or five +feet high, alone vary the dull uniformity of the savannahs. Their +branches are bent towards the ground or spread out like umbrellas. +Wherever there are deep declivities, or masses of rocks half +covered with mould, the clusia or cupey, with great nymphaea +flowers, displays its beautiful verdure. The roots of this tree are +eight inches in diameter, and they sometimes shoot out from the +trunk at the height of fifteen feet above the soil. + +After having climbed the mountain for a considerable time, we +reached a small plain at the Hato del Cocollar. This is a solitary +farm, situated on a table-land 408 toises high. We rested three +days in this retreat, where we were treated with great kindness by +the proprietor, Don Mathias Yturburi, a native of Biscay, who had +accompanied us from the port of Cumana. We there found milk, +excellent meat from the richness of the pasture, and above all, a +delightful climate. During the day the centigrade thermometer did +not rise above 22 or 23 degrees; a little before sunset it fell to +19, and at night it scarcely kept up to 14 degrees.* (* 11.2 +degrees Reaum.) The nightly temperature was consequently seven +degrees colder than that of the coasts, which is a fresh proof of +an extremely rapid decrement of heat, the table-land of Cocollar +being less elevated than the site of the town of Caracas. + +As far as the eye could reach, we perceived, from this elevated +point, only naked savannahs. Small tufts of scattered trees rise in +the ravines; and notwithstanding the apparent uniformity of +vegetation, great numbers of curious plants* are found here. (* +Cassia acuta, Andromeda rigida, Casearia hypericifolia, Myrtus +longifolia, Buettneria salicifolia, Glycine picta, G. pratensis, G. +gibba, Oxalis umbrosa, Malpighia caripensis, Cephaelis salicifolia, +Stylosanthes angustifolia, Salvia pseudococcinea, Eryngium +foetidum. We found a second time this last plant, but at a +considerable height, in the great forests of bark trees surrounding +the town of Loxa, in the centre of the Cordilleras.) We shall only +speak of a superb lobelia* with purple flowers (* Lobelia +spectabilis.); the Brownea coccinea, which is upwards of a hundred +feet high; and above all; the pejoa, celebrated in the country on +account of the delightful and aromatic perfume emitted by its +leaves when rubbed between the fingers.* (* It is the Gualtheria +odorata. The pejoa is found round the lake of Cocollar, which gives +birth to the great river Guarapiche. We met with the same shrub at +the Cuchilla de Guanaguana. It is a subalpine plant, which forms at +the Silla de Caracas a zone much higher than in the province of +Cumana. The leaves of the pejoa have even a more agreeable smell +than those of the Myrtus pimenta, but they yield no perfume when +rubbed a few hours after their separation from the tree.) But the +great charms of this solitary place were the beauty and serenity of +the nights. The proprietor of the farm, who spent his evenings with +us, seemed to enjoy the astonishment produced on Europeans newly +transplanted to the tropics, by that vernal freshness of the air +which is felt on the mountains after sunset. In those distant +regions, where men yet feel the full value of the gifts of nature, +a land-holder boasts of the water of his spring, the absence of +noxious insects, the salutary breeze that blows round his hill, as +we in Europe descant on the conveniences of our dwellings, and the +picturesque effect of our plantations. + +Our host had visited the new world with an expedition which was to +form establishments for felling wood for the Spanish navy on the +shores of the gulf of Paria. In the vast forests of mahogany, +cedar, and brazil-wood, which border the Caribbean Sea, it was +proposed to select the trunks of the largest trees, giving them in +a rough way the shape adapted to the building of ships, and sending +them every year to the dockyard near Cadiz. White men, unaccustomed +to the climate, could not support the fatigue of labour, the heat, +and the effect of the noxious air exhaled by the forests. The same +winds which are loaded with the perfume of flowers, leaves, and +woods, infuse also, as we may say, the germs of dissolution into +the vital organs. Destructive fevers carried off not only the +ship-carpenters, but the persons who had the management of the +establishment; and this bay, which the early Spaniards named Golfo +Triste (Melancholy Bay), on account of the gloomy and wild aspect +of its coasts, became the grave of European seamen. Our host had +the rare good fortune to escape these dangers. After having +witnessed the death of a great number of his friends, he withdrew +from the coast to the mountains of Cocollar. + +Nothing can be compared to the majestic tranquillity which the +aspect of the firmament presents in this solitary region. When +tracing with the eye, at night-fall, the meadows which bounded the +horizon,--the plain covered with verdure and gently undulated, we +thought we beheld from afar, as in the deserts of the Orinoco, the +surface of the ocean supporting the starry vault of Heaven. The +tree under which we were seated, the luminous insects flying in the +air, the constellations which shone in the south; every object +seemed to tell us how far we were from our native land. If amidst +this exotic nature we heard from the depth of the valley the +tinkling of a bell, or the lowing of herds, the remembrance of our +country was awakened suddenly. The sounds were like distant voices +resounding from beyond the ocean, and with magical power +transporting us from one hemisphere to the other. Strange mobility +of the imagination of man, eternal source of our enjoyments and our +pains! + +We began in the cool of the morning to climb the Turimiquiri. This +is the name given to the summit of the Cocollar, which, with the +Brigantine, forms one single mass of mountain, formerly called by +the natives the Sierra de los Tageres. We travelled along a part of +the road on horses, which roam about these savannahs; but some of +them are used to the saddle. Though their appearance is very heavy, +they pass lightly over the most slippery turf. We first stopped at +a spring issuing, not from the calcareous rock, but from a layer of +quartzose sandstone. The temperature was 21 degrees, consequently +1.5 degrees less than the spring of Quetepe; and the difference of +the level is nearly 220 toises. Wherever the sandstone appears +above ground the soil is level, and constitutes as it were small +platforms, succeeding each other like steps. To the height of 700 +toises, and even beyond, this mountain, like those in its vicinity, +is covered only with gramineous plants.* (* The most abundant +species are the paspalus; the Andropogon fastigiatum, which forms +the genus Diectomis of M. Palissot de Beauvais; and the Panicum +olyroides.) The absence of trees is attributed at Cumana to the +great elevation of the ground; but a slight reflection on the +distribution of plants in the Cordilleras of the torrid zone will +lead us to conceive that the summits of New Andalusia are very far +from reaching the superior limit of the trees, which in this +latitude is at least 1800 toises of absolute height. The smooth +turf of the Cocollar begins to appear at 350 toises above the level +of the sea, and the traveller may contrive to walk upon this turf +till he reaches a thousand toises in height. Farther on, beyond +this band covered with gramineous plants, we found, amidst peaks +almost inaccessible to man, a small forest of cedrela, javillo,* (* +Huras crepitans, of the family of the euphorbias. The growth of its +trunk is so enormous, that M. Bonpland measured vats of javillo +wood, 14 feet long and 8 wide. These vats, made from one log of +wood, are employed to keep the guarapo, or juice of the sugar-cane, +and the molasses. The seeds of javillo are a very active poison, +and the milk that issues from the petioles, when broken, frequently +produced inflammation in our eyes, if by chance the least quantity +penetrated under the eyelids.) and mahogany. These local +circumstances induce me to think that the mountainous savannahs of +the Cocollar and Turimiquiri owe their existence only to the +destructive custom practised by the natives of setting fire to the +woods when they want to convert the soil into pasturage. Where, +during the lapse of three centuries, grasses and alpine plants have +covered the soil with a thick carpet, the seeds of trees can no +longer germinate and fix themselves in the earth, though birds and +winds convey them continually from the distant forests into the +savannahs. + +The climate of these mountains is so mild that at the farm of the +Cocollar the cotton and coffee tree, and even the sugar cane, are +cultivated with success. Whatever the inhabitants of the coasts may +allege, hoar-frost has never been found in the latitude of 10 +degrees, on heights scarcely exceeding those of the Mont d'Or, or +the Puy-de-Dome. The pastures of Turimiquiri become less rich in +proportion to the elevation. Wherever scattered rocks afford shade, +lichens and some European mosses are found. The Melastoma guacito,* +(* Melastoma xanthostachys, called guacito at Caracas.) and a +shrub, the large and tough leaves of which rustle like parchment* +when shaken by the winds, (* Palicourea rigida, chaparro bovo. In +the savannahs, or llanos, the same Castilian name is given to a +tree of the family of the proteaceae.) rise here and there in the +savannah. But the principal ornament of the turf of these mountains +is a liliaceous plant with golden flowers, the Marica +martinicensis. It is generally observed in the province of Cumana +and Caracas only at 400 or 500 toises of elevation.* (* For +example, in the Montana de Avila, on the road from Caracas to La +Guayra, and in the Silla de Caracas. The seeds of the marica are +ripe at the end of December.) The whole rocky mass of the +Turimiquiri is composed of an alpine limestone, like that of +Cumanacoa, and a pretty thin strata of marl and quartzose +sandstone. The limestone contains masses of brown oxidated iron and +carbonate of iron. I have observed in several places, and very +distinctly, that the sandstone not only reposes on the limestone, +but that this last rock frequently includes and alternates with the +sandstone. + +We distinguished clearly the round summit of the Turimiquiri and +the lofty peaks or, as they are called, the Cucuruchos, covered +with thick vegetation, and infested by tigers which are hunted for +the beauty of their skin. This round summit, which is covered with +turf, is 707 toises above the level of the ocean. A ridge of steep +rocks stretches out westward, and is broken at the distance of a +mile by an enormous crevice that descends toward the gulf of +Cariaco. At the point which might be supposed to be the +continuation of the ridge, two calcareous paps or peaks arise, the +most northern of which is the loftiest. It is this last which is +more particularly called the Cucurucho de Turimiquiri, and which is +considered to be higher than the mountain of the Brigantine, so +well known by the sailors who frequent the coasts of Cumana. We +measured, by angles of elevation, and a basis, rather short, traced +on the round summit, the peak of Cucurucho, which was about 350 +toises higher than our station, so that its absolute height +exceeded 1050 toises. + +The view we enjoyed on the Turimiquiri is of vast extent, and +highly picturesque. From the summer to the ocean we perceived +chains of mountains extended in parallel lines from east to west, +and bounding longitudinal valleys. These valleys are intersected at +right angles by an infinite number of small ravines, scooped out by +the torrents: the consequence is, that the lateral ranges are +transformed into so many rows of paps, some round and others +pyramidal. The ground in general is a gentle slope as far as the +Imposible; Farther on the precipices become bold, and continue so +to the shore of the gulf of Cariaco. The form of this mass of +mountains reminded us of the chain of the Jura; and the only plain +that presents itself is the valley of Cumanacoa. We seemed to look +down into the bottom of a funnel, in which we could distinguish, +amidst tufts of scattered trees, the Indian village of Aricagua. +Towards the north, a narrow slip of land, the peninsula of Araya, +formed a dark stripe on the sea, which, being illumined by the rays +of the sun, reflected a strong light. Beyond the peninsula the +horizon was bounded by Cape Macanao, the black rocks of which rise +amid the waters like an immense bastion. + +The farm of the Cocollar, situated at the foot of the Turimiquiri, +is in latitude 19 degrees 9 minutes 32 seconds. I found the dip of +the needle 42.1 degrees. The needle oscillates 229 times in ten +minutes. Possibly masses of brown iron-ore, included in the +calcareous rock, caused a slight augmentation in the intensity of +the magnetic forces. + +On the 14th of September we descended the Cocollar, toward the +Mission of San Antonio. After crossing several savannahs strewed +with large blocks of calcareous stone, we entered a thick forest. +Having passed two ridges of extremely steep mountains,* (* These +ridges, which are rather difficult to climb towards the end of the +rainy season, are distinguished by the names of Los Yepes and +Fantasma.) we discovered a fine valley five or six leagues in +length, pretty uniformly following the direction of east and west. +In this valley are situated the Missions of San Antonio and +Guanaguana; the first is famous on account of a small church with +two towers, built of brick, in pretty good style, and ornamented +with columns of the Doric order. It is the wonder of the country. +The prefect of the Capuchins completed the building of this church +in less than two summers, though he employed only the Indians of +his village. The mouldings of the capitals, the cornices, and a +frieze decorated with suns and arabesques, are executed in clay +mixed with pounded brick. If we are surprised to find churches in +the purest Grecian style on the confines of Lapland,* (* At +Skelefter, near Torneo.--Buch, Voyage en Norwege.) we are still +more struck with these first essays of art, in a region where +everything indicates the wild state of man, and where the basis of +civilization has not been laid by Europeans more than forty years. + +I stopped at the Mission of San Antonio only to open the barometer, +and to take a few altitudes of the sun. The elevation of the great +square above Cumana is 216 toises. After having crossed the +village, we forded the rivers Colorado and Guarapiche, both of +which rise in the mountains of the Cocollar, and blend their waters +lower down towards the east. The Colorado has a very rapid current, +and becomes at its mouth broader than the Rhine. The Guarapiche, at +its junction with the Rio Areo, is more than twenty-five fathoms +deep. Its banks are ornamented by a superb gramen, of which I made +a drawing two years afterward on ascending the river Magdalena. The +distich-leaved stalk of this gramen often reaches the height of +fifteen or twenty feet.* (* Lata, or cana brava. It is a new genus, +between aira and arundo. This colossal gramen looks like the donax +of Italy. This, the arundinaria of the Mississippi, (ludolfia, +Willd., miegia of Persoon,) and the bamboos, are the highest +gramens of the New Continent. Its seed has been carried to St. +Domingo, where its stalk is employed to thatch the negroes' huts.) + +Towards evening we reached the Mission of Guanaguana, the site of +which is almost on a level with the village of San Antonio. The +missionary received us cordially; he was an old man, and he seemed +to govern his Indians with great intelligence. The village has +existed only thirty years on the spot it now occupies. Before that +time it was more to the south, and was backed by a hill. It is +astonishing with what facility the Indians are induced to remove +their dwellings. There are villages in South America which in less +than half a century have thrice changed their situation. The native +finds himself attached by ties so feeble to the soil he inhabits, +that he receives with indifference the order to take down his house +and to rebuild it elsewhere. A village changes its situation like a +camp. Wherever clay, reeds, and the leaves of the palm or heliconia +are found, a house is built in a few days. These compulsory changes +have often no other motive than the caprice of a missionary, who, +having recently arrived from Spain, fancies that the situation of +the Mission is feverish, or that it is not sufficiently exposed to +the winds. Whole villages have been transported several leagues, +merely because the monk did not find the prospect from his house +sufficiently beautiful or extensive. + +Guanaguana has as yet no church. The old monk, who during thirty +years had lived in the forests of America, observed to us that the +money of the community, or the produce of the labour of the +Indians, was employed first in the construction of the missionary's +house, next in that of the church, and lastly in the clothing of +the Indians. He gravely assured us that this order of things could +not be changed on any pretence, and that the Indians, who prefer a +state of nudity to the slightest clothing, are in no hurry for +their turn in the destination of the funds. The spacious abode of +the padre had just been finished, and we had remarked with +surprise, that the house, the roof of which formed a terrace, was +furnished with a great number of chimneys that looked like turrets. +This, our host told us, was done to remind him of a country dear to +his recollection, and to picture to his mind the winters of Aragon +amid the heat of the torrid zone. The Indians of Guanaguana +cultivate cotton for their own benefit as well as for that of the +church and the missionary. The natives have machines of a very +simple construction to separate the cotton from the seeds. These +are wooden cylinders of extremely small diameter, within which the +cotton passes, and which are made to turn by a treadle. These +machines, however imperfect, are very useful, and they begin to be +imitated in other Missions. The soil of Guanaguana is not less +fertile than that of Aricagua, a small neighbouring village, which +has also preserved its ancient Indian name. An almuda of land, 1850 +square toises, produces in abundant years from 25 to 30 fanegas of +maize, each fanega weighing 100 pounds. But here, as in other +places, where the bounty of nature retards industry, a very small +number of acres are cleared, and the culture of alimentary plants +is neglected. Scarcity of subsistence is felt, whenever the harvest +is lost by a protracted drought. The Indians of Guanaguana related +to us as a fact not uncommon, that in the preceding year they, +their wives, and their children, had been for three months al +monte; by which they meant, wandering in the neighbouring forests, +to live on succulent plants, palm-cabbages, fern roots, and fruits +of wild trees. They did not speak of this nomad life as of a state +of privation. + +The beautiful valley of Guanaguana stretches towards the east, +opening into the plains of Punzera and Terecen. We wished to visit +those plains, and examine the springs of petroleum, lying between +the river Guarapiche and the Rio Areo; but the rainy season had +already arrived, and we were in daily perplexity how to dry and +preserve the plants we had collected. The road from Guanaguana to +the village of Punzera runs either by San Felix or by Caycara and +Guayuta, which is a farm for cattle (hato) of the missionaries. In +this last place, according to the report of the Indians, great +masses of sulphur are found, not in a gypseous or calcareous rock, +but at a small depth below the soil, in a bed of clay. This +singular phenomenon appears to me peculiar to America; we found it +also in the kingdom of Quito, and in New Spain. On approaching +Punzera, we saw in the savannahs small bags, formed of a silky +tissue suspended from the branches of the lowest trees. It is the +seda silvestre, or wild silk of the country, which has a beautiful +lustre, but is very rough to the touch. The phalaena which produces +it is probably analogous with that of the provinces of Gua[?]uato +and Antioquia, which also furnish wild silk. We found in the +beautiful forest of Punzera two trees known by the names of curucay +and canela; the former, of which we shall speak hereafter, yields a +resin very much sought after by the Piaches, or Indian sorcerers; +the leaves of the latter have the smell of the real cinnamon of +Ceylon.* (* Is this the Laurus cinnamomoides of Mutis? What is that +other cinnamon tree which the Indians call tuorco, common in the +mountains of Tocayo, and at the sources of the Rio Uchere, the bark +of which is mixed with chocolate? Father Caulin gives the name of +curucay to the Copaifera officinalis, which yields the Balsam of +Capivi.--Hist. Corograf., pages 24 and 34.) From Punzera the road +leads by Terecin and Nueva Palencia, (a new colony of Canarians,) +to the port of San Juan, situated on the right bank of the river +Areo; and it is only by crossing this river in a canoe, that the +traveller can arrive at the famous petroleum springs (or mineral +tar) of the Buen Pastor. They were described to us as small wells +or funnels, hollowed out by nature in a marshy soil. This +phenomenon reminded us of the lake of asphaltum, or of chopapote, +in the island of Trinidad,* (* Laguna de la Brea, south-east of the +port of Naparima. There is another spring of asphaltum on the +eastern coast of the island, in the bay of Mayaro.) which is +distant from the Buen Pastor, in a straight line, only thirty-five +sea leagues. + +Having long struggled to overcome the desire we felt to descend the +Guarapiche to the Golfo Triste, we took the direct road to the +mountains. The valleys of Guanaguana and Caripe are separated by a +kind of dyke, or calcareous ridge, well known by the name of the +Cuchilla* de Guanaguana. (* Literally "blade of a knife". +Throughout all Spanish America the name of "cuchilla" is given to +the ridge of a mountain terminated on each side by very steep +declivities.) We found this passage difficult, because at that time +we had not climbed the Cordilleras; but it is by no means so +dangerous as the people at Cumana love to represent it. The path is +indeed in several parts only fourteen or fifteen inches broad; and +the ridge of the mountain, along which the road runs, is covered +with a short slippery turf. The slopes on each side are steep, and +the traveller, should he stumble, might slide down to the depth of +seven or eight hundred feet. Nevertheless, the flanks of the +mountain are steep declivities rather than precipices; and the +mules of this country are so sure-footed that they inspire the +greatest confidence. Their habits are identical with those of the +beasts of burden in Switzerland and the Pyrenees. In proportion as +a country is wild, the instinct of domestic animals improves in +address and sagacity. When the mules feel themselves in danger, +they stop, turning their heads to the right and to the left; and +the motion of their ears seems to indicate that they reflect on the +decision they ought to take. Their resolution is slow, but always +just, if it be spontaneous; that is to say, if it be not thwarted +or hastened by the imprudence of the traveller. On the frightful +roads of the Andes, during journeys of six or seven months across +mountains furrowed by torrents, the intelligence of horses and +beasts of burden is manifested in an astonishing manner. Thus the +mountaineers are heard to say, "I will not give you the mule whose +step is the easiest, but the one which is most intelligent (la mas +racional)." This popular expression, dictated by long experience, +bears stronger evidence against the theory of animated machines, +than all the arguments of speculative philosophy. + +When we had reached the highest point of the ridge or cuchilla of +Guanaguana, an interesting spectacle unfolded itself before us. We +saw comprehended in one view the vast savannahs or meadows of +Maturin and of the Rio Tigre;* (* These natural meadows are part of +the llanos or immense steppes bordered by the Orinoco.) the peak of +the Turimiquiri;* (* El Cucurucho.) and an infinite number of +parallel ridges, which, seen at a distance, looked like the waves +of the sea. On the north-east opens the valley in which is situated +the convent of Caripe. The aspect of this valley is peculiarly +attractive, for being shaded by forests, it forms a strong contrast +with the nudity of the neighbouring mountains, which are bare of +trees, and covered with gramineous plants. We found the absolute +height of the Cuchilla to be 548 toises. + +Descending from the ridge by a winding path, we entered into a +completely woody country. The soil is covered with moss, and a new +species of drosera,* (* Drosera tenella.) which by its form +reminded us of the drosera of the Alps. The thickness of the +forests, and the force of vegetation, augmented as we approached +the convent of Caripe. Everything here changes its aspect, even to +the rock that accompanied us from Punta Delgada. The calcareous +strata becomes thinner, forming graduated steps, which stretch out +like walls, cornices, and turrets, as in the mountains of Jura, +those of Pappenheim in Germany, and near Oizow in Galicia. The +colour of the stone is no longer of a smoky or bluish grey; it +becomes white; its fracture is smooth, and sometimes even +imperfectly conchoidal. It is no longer the calcareous formation of +the Higher Alps, but a formation to which this serves as a basis, +and which is analogous to the Jura limestone. In the chain of the +Apennines, between Rome and Nocera, I observed this same immediate +superposition.* (* In like manner, near Geneva, the rock of the +Mole, belonging to the Alpine limestone, lies under the Jura +limestone which forms Mount Saleve.) It indicates, not the +transition from one rock to another, but the geological affinity +existing between two formations. According to the general type of +the secondary strata, recognised in a great part of Europe, the +Alpine limestone is separated from the Jura limestone by the +muriatiferous gypsum; but often this latter is entirely wanting, or +is contained as a subordinate layer in the Alpine limestone. In +this case the two great calcareous formations succeed each other +immediately, or are confounded in one mass. + +The descent from the Cuchilla is far shorter than the ascent. We +found the level of the valley of Caripe 200 toises higher than that +of the valley of Guanaguana.* (* Absolute height of the convent +above the level of the sea, 412 toises.) A group of mountains of +little breadth separates two valleys, one of which is of delicious +coolness, while the other is famed for the heat of its climate. +These contrasts, so common in Mexico, New Grenada, and Peru, are +very rare in the north-east part of South America. Thus Caripe is +the only one of the high valleys of New Andalusia which is much +inhabited. + + + +CHAPTER 1.7. + +CONVENT OF CARIPE. +CAVERN OF THE GUACHARO. +NOCTURNAL BIRDS. + +An alley of perseas led us to the Hospital of the Aragonese +Capuchins. We stopped near a cross of Brazil-wood, erected in the +midst of a square, and surrounded with benches, on which the infirm +monks seat themselves to tell their rosaries. The convent is backed +by an enormous wall of perpendicular rock, covered with thick +vegetation. The stone, which is of resplendent whiteness, appears +only here and there between the foliage. It is difficult to imagine +a more picturesque spot. It recalled forcibly to my remembrance the +valleys of Derbyshire, and the cavernous mountains of Muggendorf, +in Franconia. Instead of the beeches and maple trees of Europe we +here find the statelier forms of the ceiba and the palm-tree, the +praga and irasse. Numberless springs gush from the sides of the +rocks which encircle the basin of Caripe, and of which the abrupt +slopes present, towards the south, profiles of a thousand feet in +height. These springs issue, for the most part, from a few narrow +crevices. The humidity which they spread around favours the growth +of the great trees; and the natives, who love solitary places, form +their conucos along the sides of these crevices. Plantains and +papaw trees are grouped together with groves of arborescent fern; +and this mixture of wild and cultivated plants gives the place a +peculiar charm. Springs are distinguished from afar, on the naked +flanks of the mountains, by tufted masses of vegetation* which at +first sight seem suspended from the rocks, and descending into the +valley, they follow the sinuosities of the torrents.* (* Among the +interesting plants of the valley of Caripe, we found for the first +time a calidium, the trunk of which was twenty feet high (C. +arboreum); the Mikania micrantha, which may probably possess some +of the alexipharmic properties of the famous guaco of the Choco; +the Bauhinia obtusifolia, a very large tree, called guarapa by the +Indians; the Weinnannia glabra; a tree psychotria, the capsules of +which, when rubbed between the fingers, emit a very agreeable +orange smell; the Dorstenia Houstoni (raiz de resfriado); the +Martynia Craniolaria, the white flowers of which are six or seven +inches long; a scrophularia, having the aspect of the Verbascum +miconi, and the leaves of which, all radical and hairy, are marked +with silvery glands.) + +We were received with great hospitality by the monks of Caripe. The +building has an inner court, surrounded by an arcade, like the +convents in Spain. This enclosed place was highly convenient for +setting up our instruments and making observations. We found a +numerous society in the convent. Young monks, recently arrived from +Spain, were just about to settle in the Missions, while old infirm +missionaries sought for health in the fresh and salubrious air of +the mountains of Caripe. I was lodged in the cell of the superior, +which contained a pretty good collection of books. I found there, +to my surprise, the Teatro Critico of Feijoo, the Lettres +Edifiantes, and the Traite d'Electricite by abbe Nollet. It seemed +as if the progress of knowledge advanced even in the forests of +America. The youngest of the capuchin monks of the last Mission had +brought with him a Spanish translation of Chaptal's Treatise on +Chemistry, and he intended to study this work in the solitude where +he was destined to pass the remainder of his days. During our long +abode in the Missions of South America we never perceived any sign +of intolerance. The monks of Caripe were not ignorant that I was +born in the protestant part of Germany. Furnished as I was with +orders from the court of Spain, I had no motives to conceal from +them this fact; nevertheless, no mark of distrust, no indiscreet +question, no attempt at controversy, ever diminished the value of +the hospitality they exercised with so much liberality and +frankness. + +The convent is founded on a spot which was anciently called +Areocuar. Its height above the level of the sea is nearly the same +as that of the town of Caracas, or of the inhabited part of the +Blue Mountains of Jamaica. Thus the mean temperatures of these +three points, all situated within the tropics, are nearly the same. +The necessity of being well clothed at night, and especially at +sunrise, is felt at Caripe. We saw the centigrade thermometer at +midnight, between 16 and 17.5 degrees; in the morning, between 19 +and 20 degrees. About one o'clock it had risen only to 21, or 22.5 +degrees. This temperature is sufficient for the development of the +productions of the torrid zone; though, compared with the excessive +heat of the plains of Cumana, we might call it the temperature of +spring. Water exposed to currents of air in vessels of porous clay, +cools at Caripe, during the night, as low as 13 degrees. + +Experience has proved that the temperate climate and rarefied air +of this spot are singularly favourable to the cultivation of the +coffee-tree, which is well known to flourish on heights. The +prefect of the capuchins, an active and enlightened man, has +introduced into the province this new branch of agricultural +industry. Indigo was formerly planted at Caripe, but the small +quantity of fecula yielded by this plant, which requires great +heat, caused the culture to be abandoned. We found in the conuco of +the community many culinary plants, maize, sugar cane, and five +thousand coffee-trees, which promised a fine harvest. The friars +were in hopes of tripling the number in a few years. We cannot help +remarking the uniform efforts for the cultivation of the soil which +are manifested in the policy of the monastic hierarchy. Wherever +convents have not yet acquired wealth in the New Continent, as +formerly in Gaul, in Syria, and in the north of Europe, they +exercise a happy influence on the clearing of the ground and the +introduction of exotic vegetation. At Caripe, the conuco of the +community presents the appearance of an extensive and beautiful +garden. The natives are obliged to work in it every morning from +six to ten, and the alcaldes and alguazils of Indian race overlook +their labours. These men are looked upon as great state +functionaries, and they alone have the right of carrying a cane. +The selection of them depends on the superior of the convent. The +pedantic and silent gravity of the Indian alcaldes, their cold and +mysterious air, their love of appearing in form at church and in +the assemblies of the people, force a smile from Europeans. We were +not yet accustomed to these shades of the Indian character, which +we found the same at the Orinoco, in Mexico, and in Peru, among +people totally different in their manners and their language. The +alcaldes came daily to the convent, less to treat with the monks on +the affairs of the Mission, than under the pretence of inquiring +after the health of the newly-arrived travellers. As we gave them +brandy, their visits became more frequent than the monks desired. + +That which confers most celebrity on the valley of Caripe, besides +the extraordinary coolness of its climate, is the great Cueva, or +Cavern of the Guacharo.* (* The province of Guacharucu, which +Delgado visited in 1534, in the expedition of Hieronimo de Ortal, +appears to have been situated south or south-east of Macarapana. +Has its name any connexion with those of the cavern and the bird? +or is this last of Spanish origin? (Laet Nova Orbis page 676). +Guacharo means in Castilian "one who cries and laments;" now the +bird of the cavern of Caripe, and the guacharaca (Phasianus +parraka) are very noisy birds.) In a country where the people love +the marvellous, a cavern which gives birth to a river, and is +inhabited by thousands of nocturnal birds, the fat of which is +employed in the Missions to dress food, is an everlasting object of +conversation and discussion. The cavern, which the natives call "a +mine of fat" is not in the valley of Caripe itself, but three short +leagues distant from the convent, in the direction of +west-south-west. It opens into a lateral valley, which terminates +at the Sierra del Guacharo. + +We set out for the Sierra on the 18th of September, accompanied by +the alcaldes, or Indian magistrates, and the greater part of the +monks of the convent. A narrow path led us at first towards the +south, across a fine plain, covered with beautiful turf. We then +turned westward, along the margin of a small river which issues +from the mouth of the cavern. We ascended during three quarters of +an hour, sometimes in the water, which was shallow, sometimes +between the torrent and a wall of rocks, on a soil extremely +slippery and miry. The falling down of the earth, the scattered +trunks of trees, over which the mules could scarcely pass, and the +creeping plants that covered the ground, rendered this part of the +road fatiguing. We were surprised to find here, at scarcely 500 +toises above the level of the sea, a cruciferous plant, Raphanus +pinnatus. Plants of this family are very rare in the tropics; they +have in some sort a northern character, and therefore we never +expected to see one on the plain of Caripe at so inconsiderable an +elevation. The northern character also appears in the Galium +caripense, the Valeriana scandens, and a sanicle not unlike the S. +marilandica. + +At the foot of the lofty mountain of the Guacharo, we were only +four hundred paces from the cavern, without yet perceiving the +entrance. The torrent runs in a crevice hollowed out by the waters, +and we went on under a cornice, the projection of which prevented +us from seeing the sky. The path winds in the direction of the +river; and at the last turning we came suddenly before the immense +opening of the grotto. The aspect of this spot is majestic, even to +the eye of a traveller accustomed to the picturesque scenery of the +higher Alps. I had before this seen the caverns of the peak of +Derbyshire, where, lying down flat in a boat, we proceeded along a +subterranean river, under an arch two feet high. I had visited the +beautiful grotto of Treshemienshiz, in the Carpathian mountains, +the caverns of the Hartz, and those of Franconia, which are vast +cemeteries,* containing bones of tigers, hyenas, and bears, as +large as our horses. (* The mould, which has covered for thousands +of years the soil of the caverns of Gaylenreuth and Muggendorf in +Franconia, emits even now choke-damps, or gaseous mixtures of +hydrogen and nitrogen, which rise to the roof of the caves. This +fact is known to the persons who show these caverns to travellers; +and when I was director of the mines of the Fichtelberg, I observed +it frequently in the summer-time. M. Laugier found in the mould of +Muggendorf, besides phosphate of lime, 0.10 of animal matter. I was +struck, during my stay at Steeben, with the ammoniacal and fetid +smell produced by it, when thrown on a red-hot iron.) Nature in +every zone follows immutable laws in the distribution of rocks, in +the form of mountains, and even in those changes which the exterior +crust of our planet has undergone. So great a uniformity led me to +believe that the aspect of the cavern of Caripe would differ little +from what I had observed in my preceding travels. The reality far +exceeded my expectations. If the configuration of the grottoes, the +splendour of the stalactites, and all the phenomena of inorganic +nature, present striking analogies, the majesty of equinoctial +vegetation gives at the same time an individual character to the +aperture of the cavern. + +The Cueva del Guacharo is pierced in the vertical profile of a +rock. The entrance is towards the south, and forms an arch eighty +feet broad and seventy-two high. The rock which surmounts the +grotto is covered with trees of gigantic height. The mammee-tree +and the genipa,* (* Caruto, Genipa americana. The flower at Caripe, +has sometimes five, sometimes six stamens.) with large and shining +leaves, raise their branches vertically towards the sky; whilst +those of the courbaril and the erythrina form, as they extend, a +thick canopy of verdure. Plants of the family of pothos, with +succulent stems, oxalises, and orchideae of a singular structure,* +(* A dendrobium, with a gold-coloured flower, spotted with black, +three inches long.) rise in the driest clefts of the rocks; while +creeping plants waving in the winds are interwoven in festoons +before the opening of the cavern. We distinguished in these +festoons a bignonia of a violet blue, the purple dolichos, and for +the first time, that magnificent solandra,* (* Solandra scandens. +It is the gousaticha of the Chayma Indians.) which has an +orange-coloured flower and a fleshy tube more than four inches +long. + +But this luxury of vegetation embellishes not only the external +arch, it appears even in the vestibule of the grotto. We saw with +astonishment plantain-leaved heliconias eighteen feet high, the +praga palm-tree, and arborescent arums, following the course of the +river, even to those subterranean places. The vegetation continues +in the cave of Caripe as in those deep crevices of the Andes, +half-excluded from the light of day, and does not disappear till, +penetrating into the interior, we advance thirty or forty paces +from the entrance. We measured the way by means of a cord; and we +went on about four hundred and thirty feet without being obliged to +light our torches. Daylight penetrates far into this region, +because the grotto forms but one single channel, keeping the same +direction, from south-east to north-west. Where the light began to +fail, we heard from afar the hoarse sounds of the nocturnal birds; +sounds which the natives think belong exclusively to those +subterraneous places. + +The guacharo is of the size of our fowls. It has the mouth of the +goat-suckers and procnias, and the port of those vultures whose +crooked beaks are surrounded with stiff silky hairs. Suppressing, +with M. Cuvier, the order of picae, we must refer this +extraordinary bird to the passeres, the genera of which are +connected with each other by almost imperceptible transitions. It +forms a new genus, very different from the goatsucker, in the +loudness of its voice, in the vast strength of its beak (containing +a double tooth), and in its feet without the membranes which unite +the anterior phalanges of the claws. It is the first example of a +nocturnal bird among the Passeres dentirostrati. Its habits present +analogies both with those of the goatsuckers and of the alpine +crow.* (* Corvus Pyrrhocorax.) The plumage of the guacharo is of a +dark bluish grey, mixed with small streaks and specks of black. +Large white spots of the form of a heart, and bordered with black, +mark the head, wings, and tail. The eyes of the bird, which are +dazzled by the light of day, are blue, and smaller than those of +the goatsucker. The spread of the wings, which are composed of +seventeen or eighteen quill feathers, is three feet and a half. The +guacharo quits the cavern at nightfall, especially when the moon +shines. It is almost the only frugiferous nocturnal bird yet known; +the conformation of its feet sufficiently shows that it does not +hunt like our owls. It feeds on very hard fruits, like the +nutcracker* (* Corvus caryocatactes, C. glandarius. Our Alpine crow +builds its nest near the top of Mount Libanus, in subterranean +caverns, nearly like the guacharo. It also has the horribly shrill +cry of the latter.) and the pyrrhocorax. The latter nestles also in +clefts of rocks, and is known by the name of the night-crow. The +Indians assured us that the guacharo does not pursue either the +lamellicornous insects or those phalaenae which serve as food to +the goatsuckers. A comparison of the beaks of the guacharo and the +goatsucker serves to denote how much their habits must differ. It +would be difficult to form an idea of the horrible noise occasioned +by thousands of these birds in the dark part of the cavern. Their +shrill and piercing cries strike upon the vaults of the rocks, and +are repeated by the subterranean echoes. The Indians showed us the +nests of the guacharos by fixing a torch to the end of a long pole. +These nests were fifty or sixty feet high above our heads, in holes +in the shape of funnels, with which the roof of the grotto is +pierced like a sieve. The noise increased as we advanced, and the +birds were scared by the light of the torches of copal. When this +noise ceased a few minutes around us, we heard at a distance the +plaintive cries of the birds roosting in other ramifications of the +cavern. It seemed as if different groups answered each other +alternately. + +The Indians enter the Cueva del Guacharo once a year, near +midsummer. They go armed with poles, with which they destroy the +greater part of the nests. At that season several thousand birds +are killed; and the old ones, as if to defend their brood, hover +over the heads of the Indians, uttering terrible cries. The young,* +(* Called Los pollos del Guacharo.) which fall to the ground, are +opened on the spot. Their peritoneum is found extremely loaded with +fat, and a layer of fat reaches from the abdomen to the anus, +forming a kind of cushion between the legs of the bird. This +quantity of fat in frugivorous animals, not exposed to the light, +and exerting very little muscular motion, reminds us of what has +been observed in the fattening of geese and oxen. It is well known +how greatly darkness and repose favour this process. The nocturnal +birds of Europe are lean, because, instead of feeding on fruits, +like the guacharo, they live on the scanty produce of their prey. +At the period commonly called, at Caripe, the oil harvest,* (* La +cosecha de la manteca.) the Indians build huts with palm-leaves, +near the entrance, and even in the porch of the cavern. There, with +a fire of brushwood, they melt in pots of clay the fat of the young +birds just killed. This fat is known by the name of butter or oil +(manteca, or aceite) of the guacharo. It is half liquid, +transparent, without smell, and so pure that it may be kept above a +year without becoming rancid. At the convent of Caripe no other oil +is used in the kitchen of the monks but that of the cavern; and we +never observed that it gave the aliments a disagreeable taste or +smell. + +The race of the guacharos would have been long ago extinct, had not +several circumstances contributed to its preservation. The natives, +restrained by their superstitious ideas, seldom have courage to +penetrate far into the grotto. It appears also, that birds of the +same species dwell in neighbouring caverns, which are too narrow to +be accessible to man. Perhaps the great cavern is repeopled by +colonies which forsake the small grottoes; for the missionaries +assured us that hitherto no sensible diminution of the birds has +been observed. Young guacharos have been sent to the port of +Cumana, and have lived there several days without taking any +nourishment, the seeds offered to them not suiting their taste. +When the crops and gizzards of the young birds are opened in the +cavern, they are found to contain all sorts of hard and dry fruits, +which furnish, under the singular name of guacharo seed (semilla +del guacharo), a very celebrated remedy against intermittent +fevers. The old birds carry these seeds to their young. They are +carefully collected, and sent to the sick at Cariaco, and other +places of the low regions, where fevers are generally prevalent. + +As we continued to advance into the cavern, we followed the banks +of the small river which issues from it, and is from twenty-eight +to thirty feet wide. We walked on the banks, as far as the hills +formed of calcareous incrustations permitted us. Where the torrent +winds among very high masses of stalactites, we were often obliged +to descend into its bed, which is only two feet deep. We learned +with surprise, that this subterranean rivulet is the origin of the +river Caripe, which, at the distance of a few leagues, where it +joins the small river of Santa Maria, is navigable for canoes. It +flows into the river Areo under the name of Cano do Terezen. We +found on the banks of the subterranean rivulet a great quantity of +palm-tree wood, the remains of trunks, on which the Indians climb +to reach the nests hanging from the roofs of the cavern. The rings, +formed by the vestiges of the old footstalks of the leaves, furnish +as it were the steps of a ladder perpendicularly placed. + +The Grotto of Caripe preserves the same direction, the same +breadth, and its primitive height of sixty or seventy feet, to the +distance of 472 metres, or 1458 feet, accurately measured. We had +great difficulty in persuading the Indians to pass beyond the +anterior portion of the grotto, the only part which they annually +visit to collect the fat. The whole authority of 'los padres' was +necessary to induce them to advance as far as the spot where the +soil rises abruptly at an inclination of sixty degrees, and where +the torrent forms a small subterranean cascade.* (* We find the +phenomenon of a subterranean cascade, but on a much larger scale, +in England, at Yordas Cave, near Kingsdale in Yorkshire.) The +natives connect mystic ideas with this cave, inhabited by nocturnal +birds; they believe that the souls of their ancestors sojourn in +the deep recesses of the cavern. "Man," say they, "should avoid +places which are enlightened neither by the sun (zis), nor by the +moon (nuna)." 'To go and join the guacharos,' is with them a phrase +signifying to rejoin their fathers, to die. The magicians (piaches) +and the poisoners (imorons) perform their nocturnal tricks at the +entrance of the cavern, to conjure the chief of the evil spirits +(ivorokiamo). Thus in every region of the earth a resemblance may +be traced in the early fictions of nations, those especially which +relate to two principles governing the world, the abode of souls +after death, the happiness of the virtuous and the punishment of +the guilty. The most different and most barbarous languages present +a certain number of images, which are the same, because they have +their source in the nature of our intelligence and our sensations. +Darkness is everywhere connected with the idea of death. The Grotto +of Caripe is the Tartarus of the Greeks; and the guacharos, which +hover over the rivulet, uttering plaintive cries, remind us of the +Stygian birds. + +At the point where the river forms the subterranean cascade, a hill +covered with vegetation, which is opposite to the opening of the +grotto, presents a very picturesque aspect. It is seen at the +extremity of a straight passage, 240 toises in length. The +stalactites descending from the roof, and resembling columns +suspended in the air, are relieved on a back-ground of verdure. The +opening of the cavern appeared singularly contracted, when we saw +it about the middle of the day, illumined by the vivid light +reflected at once from the sky, the plants, and the rocks. The +distant light of day formed a strange contrast with the darkness +which surrounded us in the vast cavern. We discharged our guns at a +venture, wherever the cries of the nocturnal birds and the flapping +of their wings, led us to suspect that a great number of nests were +crowded together. After several fruitless attempts M. Bonpland +succeeded in killing a couple of guacharos, which, dazzled by the +light of the torches, seemed to pursue us. This circumstance +afforded me the means of making a drawing of this bird, which had +previously been unknown to naturalists. We climbed, not without +difficulty, the small hill whence the subterranean rivulet +descends. We saw that the grotto was perceptibly contracted, +retaining only forty feet in height, and that it continued +stretching to north-east, without deviating from its primitive +direction, which is parallel to that of the great valley of Caripe. + +In this part of the cavern, the rivulet deposits a blackish mould, +very like the matter which, in the grotto of Muggendorf, in +Franconia, is called "the earth of sacrifice."* (* Opfer-erde of +the cavern of Hohle Berg (or Hole Mountain,--a mountain pierced +entirely through.)) We could not discover whether this fine and +spongy mould falls through the cracks which communicate with the +surface of the ground above, or is washed down by the rain-water +penetrating into the cavern. It was a mixture of silex, alumina, +and vegetable detritus. We walked in thick mud to a spot where we +beheld with astonishment the progress of subterranean vegetation. +The seeds which the birds carry into the grotto to feed their +young, spring up wherever they fix in the mould which covers the +calcareous incrustations. Blanched stalks, with some half-formed +leaves, had risen to the height of two feet. It was impossible to +ascertain the species of these plants, their form, colour, and +aspect having been changed by the absence of light. These traces of +organization amidst darkness forcibly excited the curiosity of the +natives, who examined them with silent meditation inspired by a +place they seemed to dread. They evidently regarded these +subterranean plants, pale and deformed, as phantoms banished from +the face of the earth. To me the scene recalled one of the happiest +periods of my early youth, a long abode in the mines of Freyberg, +where I made experiments on the effects of blanching (etiolement), +which are very different, according as the air is pure or +overcharged with hydrogen or azote. + +The missionaries, with all their authority, could not prevail on +the Indians to penetrate farther into the cavern. As the roof +became lower the cries of the guacharos were more and more shrill. +We were obliged to yield to the pusillanimity of our guides, and +trace back our steps. The appearance of the cavern was however very +uniform. We found that a bishop of St. Thomas of Guiana had gone +farther than ourselves. He had measured nearly 2500 feet from the +mouth to the spot where he stopped, but the cavern extended still +farther. The remembrance of this fact was preserved in the convent +of Caripe, without the exact period being noted. The bishop had +provided himself with great torches of white Castile wax. We had +torches composed only of the bark of trees and native resin. The +thick smoke which issued from these torches, in a narrow +subterranean passage, hurts the eyes and obstructs the respiration. + +On turning back to go out of the cavern, we followed the course of +the torrent. Before our eyes became dazzled with the light of day +we saw on the outside of the grotto the water of the river +sparkling amid the foliage of the trees which shaded it. It was +like a picture placed in the distance, the mouth of the cavern +serving as a frame. Having at length reached the entrance, we +seated ourselves on the bank of the rivulet, to rest after our +fatigues. We were glad to be beyond the hoarse cries of the birds, +and to leave a place where darkness does not offer even the charm +of silence and tranquillity. We could scarcely persuade ourselves +that the name of the Grotto of Caripe had hitherto been unknown in +Europe;* for the guacharos alone might have sufficed to render it +celebrated. (* It is surprising that Father Gili, author of the +Saggio di Storia Americana, does not mention it, though he had in +his possession a manuscript written in 1780 at the convent of +Caripe. I gave the first information respecting the Cueva del +Guacharo in 1800, in my letters to Messrs. Delambre and +Delametherie, published in the Journal de Physique.) These +nocturnal birds have been no where yet discovered, except in the +mountains of Caripe and Cumanacoa. The missionaries had prepared a +repast at the entry of the cavern. Leaves of the banana and the +vijao,* (* Heliconia bihai, Linn. The Creoles have changed the b of +the Haitian word bihao into v, and the h into j, agreeably to the +Castilian pronunciation.) which have a silky lustre, served us as a +table-cloth, according to the custom of the country. Nothing was +wanting to our enjoyment, not even remembrances, which are so rare +in those countries, where generations disappear without leaving a +trace of their existence. + +Before we quit the subterranean rivulet and the nocturnal birds, +let us cast a last glance at the cavern of the Guacharo, and the +whole of the physical phenomena it presents. When we have step by +step pursued a long series of observations modified by the +localities of a place, we love to stop and raise our views to +general considerations. Do the great cavities, which are +exclusively called caverns, owe their origin to the same causes as +those which have produced the lodes of veins and of metalliferous +strata, or the extraordinary phenomenon of the porosity of rocks? +Do grottoes belong to every formation, or to that period only when +organized beings began to people the surface of the globe? These +geological questions can be solved only so far as they are directed +by the actual state of things, that is, of facts susceptible of +being verified by observation. + +Considering rocks according to the succession of eras, we find that +primitive formations exhibit very few caverns. The great cavities +which are observed in the oldest granite, and which are called +fours (ovens) in Switzerland and in the south of France, when they +are lined with rock crystals, arise most frequently from the union +of several contemporaneous veins of quartz,* (* Gleichzeitige +Trummer. To these stone veins which appear to be of the same age as +the rock, belong the veins of talc and asbestos in serpentine, and +those of quartz traversing schist (Thonschiefer). Jameson on +Contemporaneous Veins, in the Mem. of the Wernerian Soc.) of +feldspar, or of fine-grained granite. The gneiss presents, though +more seldom, the same phenomenon; and near Wunsiedel,* (* In +Franconia, south-east of Luchsburg.) at the Fichtelgebirge, I had +an opportunity of examining crystal fours of two or three feet +diameter, in a part of the rock not traversed by veins. We are +ignorant of the extent of the cavities which subterranean fires and +volcanic agitations may have produced in the bowels of the earth in +those primitive rocks, which, containing considerable quantities of +amphibole, mica, garnet, magnetic iron-stone, and red schorl +(titanite), appear to be anterior to granite. We find some +fragments of these rocks among the matters ejected by volcanoes. +The cavities can be considered only as partial and local phenomena; +and their existence is scarcely any contradiction to the notions we +have acquired from the experiments of Maskelyne and Cavendish on +the mean density of the earth. + +In the primitive mountains open to our researches, real grottoes, +those which have some extent, belong only to calcareous formations, +such as the carbonate or sulphate of lime. The solubility of these +substances appears to have favoured the action of the subterranean +waters for ages. The primitive limestone presents spacious caverns +as well as transition limestone,* and that which is exclusively +called secondary. (* In the primitive limestone are found the +Kuetzel-loch, near Kaufungen in Silesia, and probably several +caverns in the islands of the Archipelago. In the transition +limestone we remark the caverns of Elbingerode, of Rubeland, and of +Scharzfeld, in the Hartz; those of the Salzfluhe in the Grisons; +and, according to Mr. Greenough, that of Torbay in Devonshire.) If +these caverns be less frequent in the first, it is because this +stone forms in general only layers subordinate to the mica-slate,* +(* Sometimes to gneiss, as at the Simplon, between Dovredo and +Crevola.) and not a particular system of mountains, into which the +waters may filter, and circulate to great distances. The erosions +occasioned by this element depend not only on its quantity, but +also on the length of time during which it remains, the velocity it +acquires by its fall, and the degree of solubility of the rock. I +have observed in general, that the waters act more easily on the +carbonates and the sulphates of lime of secondary mountains than on +the transition limestones, which have a considerable mixture of +silex and carbon. On examining the internal structure of the +stalactites which line the walls of caverns, we find in them all +the characters of a chemical precipitate. + +As we approach those periods in which organic life develops itself +in a greater number of forms, the phenomenon of grottoes becomes +more frequent. There exist several under the name of baumen,* (* In +the dialect of the German Swiss, Balmen. The Baumen of the Sentis, +of the Mole, and of the Beatenberg, on the borders of the lake of +Thun, belong to the Alpine limestone.) not in the ancient sandstone +to which the great coal formation belongs, but in the Alpine +limestone, and in the Jura limestone, which is often only the +superior part of the Alpine formation. The Jura limestone* (* I may +mention only the grottoes of Boudry, Motiers-Travers, and Valorbe, +in the Jura; the grotto of Balme near Geneva; the caverns between +Muggendorf and Gaylenreuth in Franconia; Sowia Jama, Ogrodzimiec, +and Wlodowice, in Poland.) so abounds with caverns in both +continents, that several geologists of the school of Freyberg have +given it the name of cavern-limestone (hohlenkalkstein). It is this +rock which so often interrupts the course of rivers, by engulfing +them into its bosom. In this also is formed the famous Cueva del +Guacharo, and the other grottoes of the valley of Caripe. The +muriatiferous gypsum,* (* Gypsum of Bottendorf, schlottengyps.) +whether it be found in layers in the Jura or Alpine limestone, or +whether it separate these two formations, or lie between the Alpine +limestone and argillaceous sandstone, also presents, on account of +its great solubility, enormous cavities, sometimes communicating +with each other at several leagues distance. After the limestone +and gypseous formations, there would remain to be examined, among +the secondary rocks, a third formation, that of the argillaceous +sandstone, newer than the brine-spring formations; but this rock, +composed of small grains of quartz cemented by clay, seldom +contains caverns; and when it does, they are not extensive. +Progressively narrowing towards their extremity, their walls are +covered with a brown ochre. + +We have just seen, that the form of grottoes depends partly on the +nature of the rocks in which they are found; but this form, +modified by exterior agents, often varies even in the same +formation. The configuration of caverns, like the outline of +mountains, the sinuosity of valleys, and so many other phenomena, +present at first sight only irregularity and confusion. The +appearance of order is resumed, when we can extend our observations +over a vast space of ground, which has undergone violent, but +periodical and uniform revolutions. From what I have seen in the +mountains of Europe, and in the Cordilleras of America, caverns may +be divided, according to their interior structure, into three +classes. Some have the form of large clefts or crevices, like veins +not filled with ore; such as the cavern of Rosenmuller, in +Franconia, Elden-hole, in the peak of Derbyshire, and the Sumideros +of Chamacasapa in Mexico. Other caverns are open to the light at +both ends. These are rocks really pierced; natural galleries, which +run through a solitary mountain: such are the Hohleberg of +Muggendorf, and the famous cavern called Dantoe by the Ottomite +Indians, and the Bridge of the Mother of God, by the Mexican +Spaniards. It is difficult to decide respecting the origin of these +channels, which sometimes serve as beds for subterranean rivers. +Are these pierced rocks hollowed out by the impulse of a current? +or should we rather admit that one of the openings of the cavern is +owing to a falling down of the earth subsequent to its original +formation; to a change in the external form of the mountain, for +instance, to a new valley opened on its flank? A third form of +caverns, and the most common of the whole, exhibits a succession of +cavities, placed nearly on the same level, running in the same +direction, and communicating with each other by passages of greater +or less breadth. + +To these differences of general form are added other circumstances +not less remarkable. It often happens, that grottoes of little +space have extremely wide openings; whilst we have to creep under +very low vaults, in order to penetrate into the deepest and most +spacious caverns. The passages which unite partial grottoes, are +generally horizontal. I have seen some, however, which resemble +funnels or wells, and which may be attributed to the escape of some +elastic fluid through a mass before being hardened. When rivers +issue from grottoes, they form only a single, horizontal, +continuous channel, the dilatations of which are almost +imperceptible; as in the Cueva del Guacharo we have just described, +and the cavern of San Felipe, near Tehuilotepec in the western +Cordilleras of Mexico. The sudden disappearance* of the river (* In +the night of the 16th April, 1802.), which took its rise from this +last cavern, has impoverished a district in which farmers and +miners equally require water for refreshing the soil and for +working hydraulic machinery. + +Considering the variety of structure exhibited by grottoes in both +hemispheres, we cannot but refer their formation to causes totally +different. When we speak of the origin of caverns we must choose +between two systems of natural philosophy: one of these systems +attributes every thing to instantaneous and violent commotions (for +example, to the elastic force of vapours, and to the heavings +occasioned by volcanoes); while the other rests on the operation of +small powers, which produce effects almost insensibly by +progressive action. Those who love to indulge in geological +hypotheses must not, however, forget the horizontality so often +remarked amidst gypseous and calcareous mountains, in the position +of grottoes communicating with each other by passages. This almost +perfect horizontality, this gentle and uniform slope, appears to be +the result of a long abode of the waters, which enlarge by erosion +clefts already existing, and carry off the softer parts the more +easily, as clay or muriate of soda is found mixed with the gypsum +and fetid limestone. These effects are the same, whether the +caverns form one long and continued range, or several of these +ranges lie one over another, as happens almost exclusively in +gypseous mountains. + +That which in shelly or Neptunean rocks is caused by the action of +the waters, appears sometimes to be in the volcanic rocks the +effect of gaseous emanations* acting in the direction where they +find the least resistance. (* At Vesuvius, the Duke de la Torre +showed me, in 1805, in currents of recent lava, cavities extending +in the direction of the current, six or seven feet long and three +feet high. These little volcanic caverns were lined with specular +iron, which cannot be called oligiste iron, since M. Gay-Lussac's +last experiments on the oxides of iron.) When melted matter moves +on a very gentle slope, the great axis of the cavity formed by the +elastic fluids is nearly horizontal, or parallel to the plane on +which the movement of transition takes place. A similar +disengagement of vapours, joined to the elastic force of the gases, +which penetrate strata softened and raised up, appears sometimes to +have given great extent to the caverns found in trachytes or +trappean porphyries. These porphyritic caverns, in the Cordilleras +of Quito and Peru, bear the Indian name of Machays.* (* Machay is a +word of the Quichua language, commonly called by the Spaniards the +Incas' language. Callancamachay means a cavern as large as a house, +a cavern that serves as a tambo or caravansarai.) They are in +general of little depth. They are lined with sulphur, and differ by +the enormous size of their openings from those observed in volcanic +tufas* in Italy, at Teneriffe, and in the Andes. (*Sometimes fire +acts like water in carrying off masses, and thus the cavities may +be caused by an igneous, though more frequently by an aqueous +erosion or solution.) It is by connecting in the mind the +primitive, secondary, and volcanic rocks, and distinguishing +between the oxidated crust of the globe, and the interior nucleus, +composed perhaps of metallic and inflammable substances, that we +may account for the existence of grottoes everywhere. They act in +the economy of nature as vast reservoirs of water and of elastic +fluids. + +The gypseous caverns glitter with crystallized selenites. Vitreous +crystallized plates of brown and yellow stand out on a striated +ground composed of layers of alabaster and fetid limestone. The +calcareous grottoes have a more uniform tint. They are more +beautiful, and richer in stalactites, in proportion as they are +narrower, and the circulation of air is less free. By being +spacious, and accessible to air, the cavern of Caripe is almost +destitute of those incrustations, the imitative forms of which are +in other countries objects of popular curiosity. I also sought in +vain for subterranean plants, those cryptogamia of the family of +the Usneaceae, which we sometimes find fixed on the stalactites, +like ivy on walls, when we penetrate for the first time into a +lateral grotto.* (* Lichen tophicola was discovered when the +beautiful cavern of Rosenmuller in Franconia was first opened. The +cavity containing the lichen was found closed on all sides by +enormous masses of stalactite.) + +The caverns in mountains of gypsum often contain mephitic +emanations and deleterious gases. It is not the sulphate of lime +that acts on the atmospheric air, but the clay slightly mixed with +carbon, and the fetid limestone, so often mingled with the gypsum. +We cannot yet decide, whether the swinestone acts as a +hydrosulphuret, or by means of a bituminous principle.* (* That +description of fetid limestone called by the German mineralogists +stinkstein is always of a blackish brown colour. It is only by +decomposition that it becomes white, after having acted on the +surrounding air. The stinkstein which is of secondary formation, +must not be confounded with a very white primitive granular +limestone of the island of Thasos, which emits, when scraped, a +smell of sulphuretted hydrogen. This marble is coarser grained than +Carrara (Marmor lunense). It was frequently employed by the Grecian +sculptors, and I often picked up fragments of it at the Villa +Adriani, near Rome.) Its property of absorbing oxygen gas is known +to all the miners of Thuringia. It is the same as the action of the +carburetted clay of the gypseous grottoes, and of the great +chambers (sinkwerke) dug in mines of fossil salt which are worked +by the introduction of fresh water. The caverns of calcareous +mountains are not exposed to those decompositions of the +atmospheric air, unless they contain bones of quadrupeds, or the +mould mixed with animal gluten and phosphate of lime, from which +arise inflammable and fetid gases. + +Though we made many enquiries among the inhabitants of Caripe, +Cumanacoa, and Cariaco, we did not learn that they had ever +discovered in the cavern of Guacharo either the remains of +carnivorous animals, or those bony breccias of herbivorous animals, +which are found in the caverns of Germany and Hungary, and in the +clefts of the calcareous rocks of Gibraltar. The fossil bones of +the megatherium, of the elephant, and of the mastodon, which +travellers have brought from South America, have all been found in +the light soil of the valleys and table-lands. Excepting the +megalonyx,* a kind of sloth of the size of an ox, described by Mr. +Jefferson, I know not a single instance of the skeleton of an +animal buried in a cavern of the New World. (* The megalonyx was +found in the caverns of Green Briar, in Virginia, at the distance +of 1500 leagues from the megatherium, which resembles it very much, +and is of the size of the rhinoceros.) The extreme scarcity of this +geological phenomenon will appear the less surprising to us, if we +recollect, that in France, England, and Italy, there are also a +great number of grottoes in which we have never met with any +vestige of fossil bones. + +Although, in primitive nature, whatever relates to ideas of extent +and mass is of no great importance, yet I may observe, that the +cavern of Caripe is one of the most spacious known to exist in +limestone formations. It is at least 900 metres or 2800 feet in +length.* (* The famous Baumannshohle in the Hartz, according to +Messrs. Gilbert and Ilsen, is only 578 feet in length; the cavern +of Scharzfeld 350; that of Gaylenreuth 304; that of Antiparos 300. +But according to Saussure, the Grotto of Balme is 1300 feet.) Owing +to the different degrees of solubility in rocks, it is generally +not in calcareous mountains, but in gypseous formations, that we +find the most extensive succession of grottoes. In Saxony there are +some in gypsum several leagues in length; for instance, that of +Wimelburg, which communicates with the cavern of Cresfield. + +The determination of the temperature of grottoes presents a field +for interesting observation. The cavern of Caripe, situated nearly +in the latitude of 10 degrees 10 minutes, consequently in the +centre of the torrid zone, is elevated 506 toises above the level +of the sea in the gulf of Cariaco. We found that, in every part of +it, in the month of September, the temperature of the internal air +was between 18.4 and 18.9 degrees of the centesimal thermometer; +the external atmosphere being at 16.2 degrees. At the entrance of +the cavern, the thermometer in the open air was at 17.6 degrees; +but when immersed in the water of the little subterranean river, it +marked, even to the end of the cavern, 16.8 degrees. These +experiments are very interesting, if we reflect on the tendency to +equilibrium of heat, in the waters, the air, and the earth. When I +left Europe, men of science were regretting that they had not +sufficient data on what is called the temperature of the interior +of the globe; and it is but very recently that efforts have been +made, and with some success, to solve the grand problem of +subterranean meteorology. The stony strata that form the crust of +our planet, are alone accessible to our examination; and we now +know that the mean temperature of these strata varies not only with +latitudes and heights, but that, according to the position of the +several places, it performs also, in the space of a year, regular +oscillations round the mean heat of the neighbouring atmosphere. +The time is gone by when men were surprised to find, in other +zones, the heat of grottoes and wells differing from that observed +in the caves of the observatory at Paris. The same instrument which +in those caves marks 12 degrees, rises in the subterraneous caverns +of the island of Madeira, near Funchal, to 16.2 degrees; in +Joseph's Well, at Cairo* to 21.2 degrees (* At Funchal (latitude 32 +degrees 37 minutes) the mean temperature of the air is 20.4 +degrees, and at Cairo (latitude 30 degrees 2 minutes), according to +Nouet, it is 22.4 degrees.); in the grottoes of the island of Cuba +to 22 or 23 degrees.* (* The mean temperature of the air at the +Havannah, according to Mr. Ferrer, is 25.6 degrees.) This increase +is nearly in proportion to that of the mean temperature of the +atmosphere, from latitude 48 degrees to the tropics. + +We have just seen that, in the Cueva del Guacharo, the water of the +river is nearly 2 degrees colder than the ambient air of the +cavern. The water, whether in filtering through the rocks, or in +running over stony beds, doubtless imbibes the temperature of these +beds. The air contained in the grotto, on the contrary, is not in +repose; it communicates with the external atmosphere. Though under +the torrid zone, the changes of the external temperature are +exceedingly trifling, currents are formed, which modify +periodically the internal air. It is consequently the temperature +of the waters, that of 16.8 degrees, which we might look upon as +the temperature of the earth in those mountains, if we were sure +that the waters do not descend rapidly from more elevated +neighbouring mountains. + +It follows from these observations, that when we cannot obtain +results perfectly exact, we find at least under each zone certain +numbers which indicate the maximum and minimum. At Caripe, in the +equinoctial zone, at an elevation of 500 toises, the mean +temperature of the globe is not below 16.8 degrees, which was the +degree indicated by the water of the subterranean river. We can +even prove that this temperature of the globe is not above 19 +degrees, since the air of the cavern, in the month of September, +was found to be at 18.7 degrees. As the mean temperature of the +atmosphere, in the hottest month, does not exceed 19.5 degrees,* it +is probable that a thermometer in the grotto would not rise higher +than 19 degrees at any season of the year. (* The mean temperature +of the month of September at Caripe is 18.5 degrees; and on the +coast of Cumana, where we had opportunities of making numerous +observations, the mean heat of the warmest months differs only 1.8 +degrees from that of the coldest.) + + +CHAPTER 1.8. + +DEPARTURE FROM CARIPE. +MOUNTAIN AND FOREST OF SANTA MARIA. +MISSION OF CATUARO. +PORT OF CARIACO. + +The days we passed at the Capuchin convent in the mountains of +Caripe, glided swiftly away, though our manner of living was simple +and uniform. From sunrise to nightfall we traversed the forests and +neighbouring mountains, to collect plants. When the winter rains +prevented us from undertaking distant excursions, we visited the +huts of the Indians, the conuco of the community, or those +assemblies in which the alcaldes every evening arrange the labours +of the succeeding day. We returned to the monastery only when the +sound of the bell called us to the refectory to share the repasts +of the missionaries. Sometimes, very early in the morning, we +followed them to the church, to attend the doctrina, that is to +say, the religious instruction of the Indians. It was rather a +difficult task to explain dogmas to the neophytes, especially those +who had but a very imperfect knowledge of the Spanish language. On +the other hand, the monks are as yet almost totally ignorant of the +language of the Chaymas; and the resemblance of sounds confuses the +poor Indians and suggests to them the most whimsical ideas. Of this +I may cite an example. I saw a missionary labouring earnestly to +prove that infierno, hell, and invierno, winter, were not one and +the same thing; but as different as heat and cold. The Chaymas are +acquainted with no other winter than the season of rains; and +consequently they imagined the Hell of the whites to be a place +where the wicked are exposed to frequent showers. The missionary +harangued to no purpose: it was impossible to efface the first +impression produced by the analogy between the two consonants. He +could not separate in the minds of the neophytes the ideas of rain +and hell; invierno and infierno. + +After passing almost the whole day in the open air, we employed our +evenings, at the convent, in making notes, drying our plants, and +sketching those that appeared to form new genera. Unfortunately the +misty atmosphere of a valley, where the surrounding forests fill +the air with an enormous quantity of vapour, was unfavourable to +astronomical observations. I spent a part of the nights waiting to +take advantage of the moment when some star should be visible +between the clouds, near its passage over the meridian. I often +shivered with cold, though the thermometer only sunk to 16 degrees, +which is the temperature of the day in our climates towards the end +of September. The instruments remained set up in the court of the +convent for several hours, yet I was almost always disappointed in +my expectations. Some good observations of Fomalhaut and of Deneb +have given 10 degrees 10 minutes 14 seconds as the latitude of +Caripe; which proves that the position indicated in the maps of +Caulin is 18 minutes wrong, and in that of Arrowsmith 14 minutes. + +Observations of corresponding altitudes of the sun having given me +the true time, within about 2 seconds, I was enabled to determine +the magnetic variation with precision, at noon. It was, on the 20th +of September, 1799, 3 degrees 15 minutes 30 seconds north-east; +consequently 0 degrees 58 minutes 15 seconds less than at Cumana. +If we attend to the influence of the horary variations, which in +these countries do not in general exceed 8 minutes, we shall find, +that at considerable distances the variation changes less rapidly +than is usually supposed. The dip of the needle was 42.75 degrees, +centesimal division, and the number of oscillations, expressing the +intensity of the magnetic forces, rose to 229 in ten minutes. + +The vexation of seeing the stars disappear in a misty sky was the +only disappointment we felt in the valley of Caripe. The aspect of +this spot presents a character at once wild and tranquil, gloomy +and attractive. In the solitude of these mountains we are perhaps +less struck by the new impressions we receive at every step, than +with the marks of resemblance we trace in climates the most remote +from each other. The hills by which the convent is backed, are +crowned with palm-trees and arborescent ferns. In the evenings, +when the sky denotes rain, the air resounds with the monotonous +howling of the alouate apes, which resembles the distant sound of +wind when it shakes the forest. Yet amid these strange sounds, +these wild forms of plants, and these prodigies of a new world, +nature everywhere speaks to man in a voice familiar to him. The +turf that overspreads the soil: the old moss and fern that cover +the roots of the trees; the torrents that gush down the sloping +banks of the calcareous rocks; in fine, the harmonious accordance +of tints reflected by the waters, the verdure, and the sky; +everything recalls to the traveller, sensations which he has +already felt. + +The beauties of this mountain scenery so much engaged us, that we +were very tardy in observing the embarrassment felt by our kind +entertainers the monks. They had but a slender provision of wine +and wheaten bread; and although in those high regions both are +considered as belonging merely to the luxuries of the table, yet we +saw with regret, that our hosts abstained from them on our account. +Our portion of bread had already been diminished three-fourths, yet +violent rains still obliged us to delay our departure for two days. +How long did this delay appear! It made us dread the sound of the +bell that summoned us to the refectory. + +We departed at length on the 22nd of September, followed by four +mules, laden with our instruments and plants. We had to descend the +north-east slope of the calcareous Alps of New Andalusia, which we +have called the great chain of the Brigantine and the Cocollar. The +mean elevation of this chain scarcely exceeds six or seven hundred +toises: in respect to height and geological constitution, we may +compare it to the chain of the Jura. Notwithstanding the +inconsiderable elevation of the mountains of Cumana, the descent is +extremely difficult and dangerous in the direction of Cariaco. The +Cerro of Santa Maria, which the missionaries ascend in their +journey from Cumana to their convent at Caripe, is famous for the +difficulties it presents to travellers. On comparing these +mountains with the Andes of Peru, the Pyrenees, and the Alps, which +we successively visited, it has more than once occurred to us, that +the less lofty summits are sometimes the most inaccessible. + +On leaving the valley of Caripe, we first crossed a ridge of hills +north-east of the convent. The road led us along a continual ascent +through a vast savannah, as far as the table-land of Guardia de San +Augustin. We there halted to wait for the Indian who carried the +barometer. We found ourselves to be at 533 toises of absolute +elevation, or a little higher than the bottom of the cavern of +Guacharo. The savannahs or natural meadows, which yield excellent +pasture for the cows of the convent, are totally devoid of trees or +shrubs. It is the domain of the monocotyledonous plants; for amidst +the gramina only a few Maguey* plants rise here and there (* Agave +Americana.); their flowery stalks being more than twenty-six feet +high. Having reached the table-land of Guardia, we appeared to be +transported to the bed of an old lake, levelled by the +long-continued abode of the waters. We seemed to trace the +sinuosities of the ancient shore in the tongues of land which jut +out from the craggy rock, and even in the distribution of the +vegetation. The bottom of the basin is a savannah, while its banks +are covered with trees of full growth. This is probably the most +elevated valley in the provinces of Venezuela and Cumana. One +cannot but regret, that a spot favoured by so temperate a climate, +and which without doubt would be fit for the culture of corn, is +totally uninhabited. + +From the table-land of Guardia we continued to descend, till we +reached the Indian village of Santa Cruz. We passed at first along +a slope extremely slippery and steep, to which the missionaries had +given the name of Baxada del Purgatorio, or Descent of Purgatory. +It is a rock of schistose sandstone, decomposed, covered with clay, +the talus of which appears frightfully steep, from the effect of a +very common optical illusion. When we look down from the top to the +bottom of the hill the road seems inclined more than 60 degrees. +The mules in going down draw their hind legs near to their fore +legs, and lowering their cruppers, let themselves slide at a +venture. The rider runs no risk, provided he slacken the bridle, +thereby leaving the animal quite free in his movements. From this +point we perceived towards the left the great pyramid of Guacharo. +The appearance of this calcareous peak is very picturesque, but we +soon lost sight of it, on entering the thick forest, known by the +name of the Montana de Santa Maria. We descended without +intermission for seven hours. It is difficult to conceive a more +tremendous descent; it is absolutely a road of steps, a kind of +ravine, in which, during the rainy season, impetuous torrents dash +from rock to rock. The steps are from two to three feet high, and +the beasts of burden, after measuring with their eyes the space +necessary to let their load pass between the trunks of the trees, +leap from one rock to another. Afraid of missing their mark, we saw +them stop a few minutes to scan the ground, and bring together +their four feet like wild goats. If the animal does not reach the +nearest block of stone, he sinks half his depth into the soft +ochreous clay, that fills up the interstices of the rock. When the +blocks are wanting, enormous roots serve as supports for the feet +of men and beasts. Some of these roots are twenty inches thick, and +they often branch out from the trunks of the trees much above the +level of the soil. The Creoles have sufficient confidence in the +address and instinct of the mules, to remain in their saddles +during this long and dangerous descent. Fearing fatigue less than +they did, and being accustomed to travel slowly for the purpose of +gathering plants and examining the nature of the rocks, we +preferred going down on foot; and, indeed, the care which our +chronometers demanded, left us no liberty of choice. + +The forest that covers the steep flank of the mountain of Santa +Maria, is one of the thickest I ever saw. The trees are of +stupendous height and size. Under their bushy, deep green foliage, +there reigns continually a kind of dim daylight, a peculiar sort of +obscurity, of which our forests of pines, oaks, and beech-trees, +convey no idea. Notwithstanding its elevated temperature, it is +difficult to believe that the air can dissolve the quantity of +water exhaled from the surface of the soil, the foliage of the +trees, and their trunks: the latter are covered with a drapery of +orchideae, peperomia, and other succulent plants. With the aromatic +odour of the flowers, the fruit, and even the wood, is mingled that +which we perceive in autumn in misty weather. Here, as in the +forests of the Orinoco, fixing our eyes on the top of the trees, we +discerned streams of vapour, whenever a solar ray penetrated, and +traversed the dense atmosphere. Our guides pointed out to us among +those majestic trees, the height of which exceeded 120 or 130 feet, +the curucay of Terecen. It yields a whitish liquid, and very +odoriferous resin, which was formerly employed by the Cumanagoto +and Tagiri Indians, to perfume their idols. The young branches have +an agreeable taste, though somewhat astringent. Next to the curucay +and enormous trunks of hymenaea, (the diameter of which was more +than nine or ten feet), the trees which most excited our attention +were the dragon's blood (Croton sanguifluum), the purple-brown +juice of which flows down a whitish bark; the calahuala fern, +different from that of Peru, but almost equally medicinal;* (* The +calahuala of Caripe is the Polypodium crassifolium; that of Peru, +the use of which has been so much extended by Messrs. Ruiz and +Pavon, comes from the Aspidium coriaceum, Willd. (Tectaria +calahuala, Cav.) In commerce the diaphoretic roots of the +Polypodium crassifolium, and of the Acrostichum huascaro, are mixed +with those of the calahuala or Aspidium coriaceum.) and the +palm-trees, irasse, macanilla, corozo, and praga.* (* Aiphanes +praga.) The last yields a very savoury palm-cabbage, which we had +sometimes eaten at the convent of Caripe. These palms with pinnated +and thorny leaves formed a pleasing contrast to the fern-trees. One +of the latter, the Cyathea speciosa,* grows to the height of more +than thirty-five feet, a prodigious size for plants of this family. +(* Possibly a hemitelia of Robert Brown. The trunk alone is from 22 +to 24 feet long. This and the Cyathea excelsa of the Mauritius, are +the most majestic of all the fern-trees described by botanists. The +total number of these gigantic cryptogamous plants amounts at +present to 25 species, that of the palm-trees to 80. With the +cyathea grow, on the mountain of Santa Maria, Rhexia juniperina, +Chiococca racemosa, and Commelina spicata.) We discovered here, and +in the valley of Caripe, five new kinds of arborescent ferns.* (* +Meniscium arborescens, Aspidium caducum, A. rostratum, Cyathea +villosa, and C. speciosa.) In the time of Linnaeus, botanists knew +no more than four on both continents. + +We observed that the fern-trees are in general much more rare than +the palm-trees. Nature has confined them to temperate, moist, and +shady places. They shun the direct rays of the sun, and while the +pumos, the corypha of the steppes and other palms of America, +flourish on the barren and burning plains, these ferns with +arborescent trunks, which at a distance look like palm-trees, +preserve the character and habits of cryptogamous plants. They love +solitary places, little light, moist, temperate and stagnant air. +If they sometimes descend towards the sea-coast, it is only under +cover of a thick shade. The old trunks of the cyathea and the +meniscium are covered with a carbonaceous powder, which, probably +being deprived of hydrogen, has a metallic lustre like plumbago. No +other plant presents this phenomenon; for the trunks of the +dicotyledons, in spite of the heat of the climate, and the +intensity of the light, are less burnt within the tropics than in +the temperate zone. It may be said that the trunks of the ferns, +which, like the monocotyledons, are enlarged by the remains of the +petioles, decay from the circumference to the centre; and that, +deprived of the cortical organs through which the elaborated juices +descend to the roots, they are burnt more easily by the action of +the oxygen of the atmosphere. I brought to Europe some powders with +metallic lustre, taken from very old trunks of Meniscium and +Aspidium. + +In proportion as we descended the mountain of Santa Maria, we saw +the arborescent ferns diminish, and the number of palm-trees +increase. The beautiful large-winged butterflies (nymphales), which +fly at a prodigious height, became more common. Everything denoted +our approach to the coast, and to a zone in which the mean +temperature of the day is from 28 to 30 degrees. + +The weather was cloudy, and led us to fear one of those heavy +rains, during which from 1 to 1.3 inches of water sometimes falls +in a day. The sun at times illumined the tops of the trees; and, +though sheltered from its rays, we felt an oppressive heat. Thunder +rolled at a distance; the clouds seemed suspended on the top of the +lofty mountains of the Guacharo; and the plaintive howling of the +araguatoes, which we had so often heard at Caripe, denoted the +proximity of the storm. We now for the first time had a near view +of these howling apes. They are of the family of the alouates,* (* +Stentor, Geoffroy.) the different species of which have long been +confounded one with another. The small sapajous of America, which +imitate in whistling the tones of the passeres, have the bone of +the tongue thin and simple, but the apes of large size, as the +alouates and marimondes,* (* Ateles, Geoffroy.) have the tongue +placed on a large bony drum. Their superior larynx has six pouches, +in which the voice loses itself; and two of which, shaped like +pigeons' nests, resemble the inferior larynx of birds. The air +driven with force into the bony drum produces that mournful sound +which characterises the araguatoes. I sketched on the spot these +organs, which are imperfectly known to anatomists, and published +the description of them on my return to Europe. + +The araguato, which the Tamanac Indians call aravata,* (* In the +writings of the early Spanish missionaries, this monkey is +described by the names of aranata and araguato. In both names we +easily discover the same root. The v has been transformed into g +and n. The name of arabata, which Gumilla gives to the howling apes +of the Lower Orinoco, and which Geoffroy thinks belongs to the S. +straminea of Great Paria, is the same Tamanac word aravata. This +identity of names need not surprise us. The language of the Chayma +Indians of Cumana is one of the numerous branches of the Tamanac +language, and the latter is connected with the Caribbee language of +the Lower Orinoco.) and the Maypures marave, resembles a young +bear.* (* Alouate ourse (Simia ursina).) It is three feet long, +reckoning from the top of the head (which is small and very +pyramidal) to the beginning of the prehensile tail. Its fur is +bushy, and of a reddish brown; the breast and belly are covered +with fine hair, and not bare as in the mono colorado, or alouate +roux of Buffon, which we carefully examined in going from +Carthagena to Santa Fe de Bogota. The face of the araguato is of a +blackish blue, and is covered with a fine and wrinkled skin: its +beard is pretty long; and, notwithstanding the direction of the +facial line, the angle of which is only thirty degrees, the +araguato has, in the expression of the countenance, as much +resemblance to man as the marimonde (S. belzebuth, Bresson) and the +capuchin of the Orinoco (S. chiropotes). Among thousands of +araguatoes which we observed in the provinces of Cumana, Caracas, +and Guiana, we never saw any change in the reddish brown fur of the +back and shoulders, whether we examined individuals or whole +troops. It appeared to me in general, that variety of colour is +less frequent among monkeys than naturalists suppose. + +The araguato of Caripe is a new species of the genus Stentor, which +I have above described. It differs equally from the ouarine (S. +guariba) and the alouate roux (S. seniculus, old man of the woods). +Its eye, voice, and gait, denote melancholy. I have seen young +araguatoes brought up in Indian huts. They never play like the +little sagoins, and their gravity was described with much +simplicity by Lopez de Gomara, in the beginning of the sixteenth +century. "The Aranata de los Cumaneses," says this author, "has the +face of a man, the beard of a goat, and a grave demeanour (honrado +gesto.)" Monkeys are more melancholy in proportion as they have +more resemblance to man. Their sprightliness diminishes, as their +intellectual faculties appear to increase. + +We stopped to observe some howling monkeys, which, to the number of +thirty or forty, crossed the road, passing in a file from one tree +to another over the horizontal and intersecting branches. While we +were observing their movements, we saw a troop of Indians going +towards the mountains of Caripe. They were without clothing, as the +natives of this country generally are. The women, laden with rather +heavy burdens, closed the march. The men were all armed; and even +the youngest boys had bows and arrows. They moved on in silence, +with their eyes fixed on the ground. We endeavoured to learn from +them whether we were yet far from the Mission of Santa Cruz, where +we intended passing the night. We were overcome with fatigue, and +suffered from thirst. The heat increased as the storm drew near, +and we had not met with a single spring on the way. The words si, +patre; no, patre; which the Indians continually repeated, led us to +think they understood a little Spanish. In the eyes of a native +every white man is a monk, a padre; for in the Missions the colour +of the skin characterizes the monk, more than the colour of the +garment. In vain we questioned them respecting the length of the +way: they answered, as if by chance, si and no, without our being +able to attach any precise sense to their replies. This made us the +more impatient, as their smiles and gestures indicated their wish +to direct us; and the forest seemed at every step to become thicker +and thicker. At length we separated from the Indians; our guides +were able to follow us only at a distance, because the beasts of +burden fell at every step in the ravines. + +After journeying for several hours, continually descending on +blocks of scattered rock, we found ourselves unexpectedly at the +outlet of the forest of Santa Maria. A savannah, the verdure of +which had been renewed by the winter rains, stretched before us +farther than the eye could reach. On the left we discovered a +narrow valley, extending as far as the mountains of the Guacharo, +and covered with a thick forest. Looking downward, the eye rested +on the tops of the trees, which, at eight hundred feet below the +road, formed a carpet of verdure of a dark and uniform tint. The +openings in the forest appeared like vast funnels, in which we +could distinguish by their elegant forms and pinnated leaves, the +Praga and Irasse palms. But what renders this spot eminently +picturesque, is the aspect of the Sierra del Guacharo. Its northern +slope, in the direction of the gulf of Cariaco, is abrupt. It +presents a wall of rock, an almost vertical profile, exceeding 3000 +feet in height. The vegetation which covers this wall is so scanty, +that the eye can follow the lines of the calcareous strata. The +summit of the Sierra is flat, and it is only at its eastern +extremity, that the majestic peak of the Guacharo rises like an +inclined pyramid, its form resembles that of the needles and horns* +of the Alps. (* The Shreckhorner, the Finsteraarhorn, etc.) + +The savannah we crossed to the Indian village of Santa Cruz is +composed of several smooth plateaux, lying above each other like +terraces. This geological phenomenon, which is repeated in every +climate, seems to indicate a long abode of the waters in basins +that have poured them from one to the other. The calcareous rock is +no longer visible, but is covered with a thick layer of mould. The +last time we saw it in the forest of Santa Maria it was slightly +porous, and looked more like the limestone of Cumanacoa than that +of Caripe. We there found brown iron-ore disseminated in patches, +and if we were not deceived in our observation, a Cornu-ammonis, +which we could not succeed in our attempt to detach. It was seven +inches in diameter. This fact is the more important, as in this +part of America we have never seen ammonites. The Mission of Santa +Cruz is situated in the midst of the plain. We reached it towards +the evening, suffering much from thirst, having travelled nearly +eight hours without finding water. The thermometer kept at 26 +degrees; accordingly we were not more than 190 toises above the +level of the sea. + +We passed the night in one of those ajupas called King's houses, +which, as I have already said, serve as tambos or caravanserais to +travellers. The rains prevented any observations of the stars; and +the next day, the 23rd of September, we continued our descent +towards the gulf of Cariaco. Beyond Santa Cruz a thick forest again +appears; and in it we found, under tufts of melastomas, a beautiful +fern, with osmundia leaves, which forms a new genus of the order of +polypodiaceous plants.* (* Polybotya.) + +Having reached the mission of Catuaro, we were desirous of +continuing our journey eastward by Santa Rosalia, Casanay, San +Josef, Carupano, Rio Carives, and the Montana of Paria; but we +learnt with great regret, that torrents of rain had rendered the +roads impassable, and that we should run the risk of losing the +plants we had already gathered. A rich planter of cacao-trees was +to accompany us from Santa Rosalia to the port of Carupano; but +when the time of departure approached, we were informed that his +affairs had called him to Cumana. We resolved in consequence to +embark at Cariaco, and to return directly by the gulf, instead of +passing between the island of Margareta and the isthmus of Araya. +The Mission of Catuaro is situated on a very wild spot. Trees of +full growth still surround the church, and the tigers come by night +to devour the poultry and swine belonging to the Indians. We lodged +at the dwelling of the priest, a monk of the congregation of the +Observance, to whom the Capuchins had confided the Mission, because +priests of their own community were wanting. + +At this Mission we met Don Alexandro Mexia, the corregidor of the +district, an amiable and well-educated man. He gave us three +Indians, who, armed with their machetes, were to precede us, and +cut our way through the forest. In this country, so little +frequented, the power of vegetation is such at the period of the +great rains, that a man on horseback can with difficulty make his +way through narrow paths, covered with lianas and intertwining +branches. To our great annoyance, the missionary of Catuaro +insisted on conducting us to Cariaco; and we could not decline the +proposal. The movement for independence, which had nearly broken +out at Caracas in 1798, had been preceded and followed by great +agitation among the slaves at Coro, Maracaybo, and Cariaco. At the +last of these places an unfortunate negro had been condemned to +die, and our host, the vicar of Catuaro, was going thither to offer +him spiritual comfort. During our journey we could not escape +conversations, in which the missionary pertinaciously insisted on +the necessity of the slave-trade, on the innate wickedness of the +blacks, and the benefit they derived from their state of slavery +among the Christians! The mildness of Spanish legislation, compared +with the Black Code of most other nations that have possessions in +either of the Indies, cannot be denied. But such is the state of +the negroes, that justice, far from efficaciously protecting them +during their lives, cannot even punish acts of barbarity which +cause their death. + +The road we took across the forest of Catuaro resembled the descent +of the mountain Santa Maria; here also, the most difficult and +dangerous places have fanciful names. We walked as in a narrow +furrow, scooped out by torrents, and filled with fine tenacious +clay. The mules lowered their cruppers and slid down the steepest +slopes. This descent is called Saca Manteca.* (* Or the +Butter-Slope. Manteca in Spanish signifies butter.) There is no +danger in the descent, owing to the great address of the mules of +this country. The clay, which renders the soil so slippery, is +produced by the numerous layers of sandstone and schistose clay +crossing the bluish grey alpine limestone. This last disappears as +we draw nearer to Cariaco. When we reached the mountain of Meapira, +we found it formed in great part of a white limestone, filled with +fossil remains, and from the grains of quartz agglutinated in the +mass, it appeared to belong to the great formation of the sea-coast +breccias. We descended this mountain on the strata of the rock, the +section of which forms steps of unequal height. Farther on, going +out of the forest, we reached the hill of Buenavista,* (* Mountain +of the Fine Prospect.) well deserving the name it bears; since it +commands a view of the town of Cariaco, situated in the midst of a +vast plain filled with plantations, huts, and scattered groups of +cocoa-palms. To the west of Cariaco extends the wide gulf; which a +wall of rock separates from the ocean: and towards the east are +seen, like bluish clouds, the high mountains of Paria and Areo. +This is one of the most extensive and magnificent prospects that +can be enjoyed on the coast of New Andalusia. In the town of +Cariaco we found a great part of the inhabitants suffering from +intermittent fever; a disease which in autumn assumes a formidable +character. When we consider the extreme fertility of the +surrounding plains, their moisture, and the mass of vegetation with +which they are covered, we may easily conceive why, amidst so much +decomposition of organic matter, the inhabitants do not enjoy that +salubrity of air which characterizes the climate of Cumana. + +The chain of calcareous mountains of the Brigantine and the +Cocollar sends off a considerable branch to the north, which joins +the primitive mountains of the coast. This branch bears the name of +Sierra de Meapire; but towards the town of Cariaco it is called +Cerro Grande de Curiaco. Its mean height did not appear to be more +than 150 or 200 toises. It was composed, where I could examine it, +of the calcareous breccias of the sea-coast. Marly and calcareous +beds alternate with other beds containing grains of quartz. It is a +very striking phenomenon for those who study the physical aspect of +a country, to see a transverse ridge connect at right angles two +parallel ridges, of which one, the more southern, is composed of +secondary rocks, and the other, the more northern, of primitive +rocks. The latter presents, nearly as far as the meridian of +Carupano, only mica-slate; but to the east of this point, where it +communicates by a transverse ridge (the Sierra de Meapire) with the +limestone range, it contains lamellar gypsum, compact limestone, +and other rocks of secondary formation. It might be supposed that +the southern ridge has transferred these rocks to the northern +chain. + +When standing on the summit of the Cerro del Meapire, we see the +mountain currents flow on one side to the gulf of Paria, and on the +other to the gulf of Cariaco. East and west of the ridge there are +low and marshy grounds, spreading out without interruption; and if +it be admitted that both gulfs owe their origin to the sinking of +the earth, and to rents caused by earthquakes, we must suppose that +the Cerro de Meapire has resisted the convulsive movements of the +globe, and hindered the waters of the gulf of Paria from uniting +with those of the gulf of Cariaco. But for this rocky dyke, the +isthmus itself in all probability would have had no existence; and +from the castle of Araya as far as Cape Paria, the whole mass of +the mountains of the coast would have formed a narrow island, +parallel to the island of Santa Margareta, and four times as long. +Not only do the inspection of the ground, and considerations +deduced from its relievo, confirm these opinions; but a mere glance +of the configuration of the coasts, and a geological map of the +country, would suggest the same ideas. It would appear that the +island of Margareta has been heretofore attached to the coast-chain +of Araya by the peninsula of Chacopata and the Caribbee islands, +Lobo and Coche, in the same manner as this chain is still connected +with that of the Cocollar and Caripe by the ridge of Meapire. + +At present we perceive that the humid plains which stretch east and +west of the ridge, and which are improperly called the valleys San +Bonifacio and Cariaco, are enlarging by gaining on the sea. The +waters are receding, and these changes of the shore are very +remarkable, more particularly on the coast of Cumana. If the level +of the soil seem to indicate that the two gulfs of Cariaco and +Paria formerly occupied a much more considerable space, we cannot +doubt that at present the land is progressively extending. Near +Cumana, a battery, called La Boca, was built in 1791 on the very +margin of the sea; in 1799 we saw it very far inland. At the mouth +of the Rio Neveri, near the Morro of Nueva Barcelona, the retreat +of the waters is still more rapid. This local phenomenon is +probably assignable to accumulations of sand, the progress of which +has not yet been sufficiently examined. Descending the Sierra de +Meapire, which forms the isthmus between the plains of San +Bonifacio and Cariaco, we find towards the east the great lake of +Putacuao, which communicates with the river Areo, and is four or +five leagues in diameter. The mountainous lands that surround this +basin are known only to the natives. There are found those great +boa serpents known to the Chayma Indians by the name of guainas, +and to which they fabulously attribute a sting under the tail. +Descending the Sierra de Meapire to the west, we find at first a +hollow ground (tierra hueca) which, during the great earthquakes of +1766, threw out asphaltum enveloped in viscous petroleum. Farther +on, a numberless quantity of sulphureous thermal springs* are seen +issuing from the soil (* El Llano de Aguas calientes, +east-north-east of Cariaco, at the distance of two leagues.); and +at length we reach the borders of the lake of Campoma, the +exhalations from which contribute to the insalubrity of the climate +of Cariaco. The natives believe that the hollow is formed by the +engulfing of the hot springs; and, judging from the sound heard +under the hoofs of the horses, we must conclude that the +subterranean cavities are continued from west to east nearly as far +as Casanay, a length of three or four thousand toises. A little +river, the Rio Azul, runs through these plains which are rent into +crevices by earthquakes. These earthquakes have a particular centre +of action, and seldom extend as far as Cumana. The waters of the +Rio Azul are cold and limpid; they rise on the western declivity of +the mountain of Meapire, and it is believed that they are augmented +by infiltrations from the lake Putacuao, situated on the other side +of the chain. The little river, together with the sulphureous hot +springs, fall into the Laguna de Campoma. This is a name given to a +great lagoon, which is divided in dry weather into three basins +situated north-west of the town of Cariaco, near the extremity of +the gulf. Fetid exhalations arise continually from the stagnant +water of this lagoon. The smell of sulphuretted hydrogen is mingled +with that of putrid fishes and rotting plants. + +Miasms are formed in the valley of Cariaco, as in the Campagna of +Rome; but the hot climate of the tropics increases their +deleterious energy. These miasms are probably ternary or quaternary +combinations of azote, phosphorus, hydrogen, carbon, and sulphur. + +The situation of the lagoon of Campoma renders the north-west wind, +which blows frequently after sunset, very pernicious to the +inhabitants of the little town of Cariaco. Its influence can be the +less doubted, as intermitting fevers are observed to degenerate +into typhoid fevers, in proportion as we approach the lagoon, which +is the principal focus of putrid miasms. Whole families of free +negroes, who have small plantations on the northern coast of the +gulf of Cariaco, languish in their hammocks from the beginning of +the rainy season. These intermittent fevers assume a dangerous +character, when persons, debilitated by long labour and copious +perspiration, expose themselves to the fine rains, which frequently +fall as evening advances. Nevertheless, the men of colour, and +particularly the Creole negroes, resist much better than any other +race, the influence of the climate. Lemonade and infusions of +Scoparia dulcis are given to the sick; but the cuspare, which is +the cinchona of Angostura, is seldom used. + +It is generally observed, that in these epidemics of the town of +Cariaco the mortality is less considerable than might be supposed. +Intermitting fevers, when they attack the same individual during +several successive years, enfeeble the constitution; but this state +of debility, so common on the unhealthy coasts, does not cause +death. What is remarkable enough, is the belief which prevails here +as in the Campagna of Rome, that the air has become progressively +more vitiated in proportion as a greater number of acres have been +cultivated. The miasms exhaled from these plains have, however, +nothing in common with those which arise from a forest when the +trees are cut down, and the sun heats a thick layer of dead leaves. +Near Cariaco the country is but thinly wooded. Can it be supposed +that the mould, fresh stirred and moistened by rains, alters and +vitiates the atmosphere more than the thick wood of plants which +covers an uncultivated soil? To local causes are joined other +causes less problematic. The neighbouring shores of the sea are +covered with mangroves, avicennias, and other shrubs with +astringent bark. All the inhabitants of the tropics are aware of +the noxious exhalations of these plants; and they dread them the +more, as their roots and stocks are not always under water, but +alternately wetted and exposed to the heat of the sun.* The +mangroves produce miasms, because they contain vegeto-animal matter +combined with tannin. (* The following is a list of the social +plants that cover those sandy plains on the sea-side, and +characterize the vegetation of Cumana and the gulf of Cariaco. +Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia nitida, Gomphrena flava, G. brachiata, +Sesuvium portulacastrum (vidrio), Talinum cuspidatum (vicho), T. +cumanense, Portulacca pilosa (zargasso), P. lanuginosa, Illecebrum +maritimum, Atriplex cristata, Heliotropium viride, H. latifolium, +Verbena cuneata, Mollugo verticillata, Euphorbia maritima, +Convolvulus cumanensis.) + +The town of Cariaco has been repeatedly sacked in former times by +the Caribs. Its population has augmented rapidly since the +provincial authorities, in spite of prohibitory orders from the +court of Madrid have often favoured the trade with foreign +colonies. The population amounted, in 1800, to more than 6000 +souls. The inhabitants are active in the cultivation of cotton, +which is of a very fine quality. The capsules of the cotton-tree, +when separated from the woolly substance, are carefully burnt; as +those husks if thrown into the river, and exposed to putrefaction, +yield noxious exhalations. The culture of the cacao-tree has of +late considerably diminished. This valuable tree bears only after +eight or ten years. Its fruit keeps very badly in the warehouses, +and becomes mouldy at the expiration of a year, notwithstanding all +the precautions employed for drying it. + +It is only in the interior of the province, to the east of the +Sierra de Meapire, that new plantations of the cacao-tree are seen. +They become there the more productive, as the lands, newly cleared +and surrounded by forests, are in contact with an atmosphere damp, +stagnant, and loaded with mephitic exhalations. We there see +fathers of families, attached to the old habits of the colonists, +slowly amass a little fortune for themselves and their children. +Thirty thousand cacao-trees will secure competence to a family for +a generation and a half. If the culture of cotton and coffee have +led to the diminution of cacao in the province of Caracas and in +the small valley of Cariaco, it must be admitted that this last +branch of colonial industry has in general increased in the +interior of the provinces of New Barcelona and Cumana. The causes +of the progressive movement of the cacao-tree from west to east may +be easily conceived. The province of Caracas has been from a remote +period cultivated: and, in the torrid zone, in proportion as a +country has been cleared, it becomes drier and more exposed to the +winds. These physical changes have been adverse to the propagation +of cacao-trees, the plantations of which, diminishing in the +province of Caracas, have accumulated eastward on a newly-cleared +and virgin soil. The cacao of Cumana is infinitely superior to that +of Guayaquil. The best is produced in the valley of San Bonifacio; +as the best cacao of New Barcelona, Caracas, and Guatimala, is that +of Capiriqual, Uritucu, and Soconusco. Since the island of Trinidad +has become an English colony, the whole of the eastern extremity of +the province of Cumana, especially the coast of Paria, and the gulf +of the same name, have changed their appearance. Foreigners have +settled there, and have introduced the cultivation of the +coffee-tree, the cotton-tree, and the sugar-cane of Otaheite. The +population has greatly increased at Carupano, in the beautiful +valley of Rio Caribe, at Guira, and at the new town of Punta di +Piedra, built opposite Spanish Harbour, in the island of Trinidad. +The soil is so fertile in the Golfo Triste, that maize yields two +harvests in the year, and produces three hundred and eighty fold +the quantity sown. + +Early in the morning we embarked in a sort of narrow canoe, called +a lancha, in hopes of crossing the gulf of Cariaco during the day. +The motion of the waters resembles that of our great lakes, when +they are agitated by the winds. From the embarcadero to Cumana the +distance is only twelve nautical leagues. On quitting the little +town of Cariaco, we proceeded westward along the river of +Carenicuar, which, in a straight line like an artificial canal, +runs through gardens and plantations of cotton-trees. On the banks +of the river of Cariaco we saw the Indian women washing their linen +with the fruit of the parapara (Sapindus saponaria, or soap-berry), +an operation said to be very injurious to the linen. The bark of +the fruit produces a strong lather; and the fruit is so elastic +that if thrown on a stone it rebounds three or four times to the +height of seven or eight feet. Being a spherical form, it is +employed in making rosaries. + +After we embarked we had to contend against contrary winds. The +rain fell in torrents, and the thunder rolled very near. Swarms of +flamingoes, egrets, and cormorants filled the air, seeking the +shore, whilst the alcatras, a large species of pelican, alone +continued peaceably to fish in the middle of the gulf. The gulf of +Cariaco is almost everywhere forty-five or fifty fathoms deep; but +at its eastern extremity, near Curaguaca, along an extent of five +leagues, the lead does not indicate more than three or four +fathoms. Here is found the Baxo de la Cotua, a sand-bank, which at +low-water appears like a small island. The canoes which carry +provisions to Cumana sometimes ground on this bank; but always +without danger, because the sea is never rough or heavy. We crossed +that part of the gulf where hot springs gush from the bottom of the +sea. It was flood-tide, so that the change of temperature was not +very perceptible: besides, our canoe drove too much towards the +southern shore. It may be supposed that strata of water must be +found of different temperatures, according to the greater or less +depth, and according as the mingling of the hot waters with those +of the gulf is accelerated by the winds and currents. The existence +of these hot springs, which we were assured raise the temperature +of the sea through an extent of ten or twelve thousand square +toises, is a very remarkable phenomenon. (* In the island of +Guadaloupe, there is a fountain of boiling water, which rushes out +on the beach. Hot-water springs rise from the bottom of the sea in +the gulf of Naples, and near the island of Palma, in the +archipelago of the Canary Islands.) Proceeding from the promontory +of Paria westward, by Irapa, Aguas Calientes, the gulf of Cariaco, +the Brigantine, and the valley of Aragua, as far as the snowy +mountains of Merida, a continued band of thermal waters is found in +an extent of 150 leagues. + +Adverse winds and rainy weather forced us to go on shore at +Pericantral, a small farm on the south side of the gulf. The whole +of this coast, though covered with beautiful vegetation, is almost +wholly uncultivated. There are scarcely seven hundred inhabitants: +and, excepting in the village of Mariguitar, we saw only +plantations of cocoa-trees, which are the olives of the country. +This palm occupies on both continents a zone, of which the mean +temperature of the year is not below 20 degrees.* (* The cocoa-tree +grows in the northern hemisphere from the equator to latitude 28 +degrees. Near the equator we find it from the plains to the height +of 700 toises above the level of the sea.) It is, like the +chamaerops of the basin of the Mediterranean, a true palm-tree of +the coast. It prefers salt to fresh water; and flourishes less +inland, where the air is not loaded with saline particles, than on +the shore. When cocoa-trees are planted in Terra Firma, or in the +Missions of the Orinoco, at a distance from the sea, a considerable +quantity of salt, sometimes as much as half a bushel, is thrown +into the hole which receives the nut. Among the plants cultivated +by man, the sugar-cane, the plantain, the mammee-apple, and +alligator-pear (Laurus persea), alone have the property of the +cocoa-tree; that of being watered equally well with fresh and salt +water. This circumstance is favourable to their migrations; and if +the sugarcane of the sea-shore yield a syrup that is a little +brackish, it is believed at the same time to be better fitted for +the distillation of spirit than the juice produced from the canes +in inland situations. + +The cocoa-tree, in the other parts of America, is in general +cultivated around farm-houses, and the fruit is eaten; in the gulf +of Cariaco, it forms extensive plantations. In a fertile and moist +ground, the tree begins to bear fruit abundantly in the fourth +year; but in dry soils it bears only at the expiration of ten +years. The duration of the tree does not in general exceed eighty +or a hundred years; and its mean height at that age is from seventy +to eighty feet. This rapid growth is so much the more remarkable, +as other palm-trees, for instance, the moriche,* (* Mauritia +flexuosa.) and the palm of Sombrero,* (* Corypha tectorum.) the +longevity of which is very great, frequently do not attain a +greater height than fourteen or eighteen feet in the space of sixty +years. In the first thirty or forty years, a cocoa-tree of the gulf +of Cariaco bears every lunation a cluster of ten or fourteen nuts, +all of which, however, do not ripen. It may be reckoned that, on an +average, a tree produces annually a hundred nuts, which yield eight +flascos* of oil. (One flasco contains 70 or 80 cubic inches, Paris +measure.) In Provence, an olive-tree thirty years old yields twenty +pounds, or seven flascos of oil, so that it produces something less +than a cocoa-tree. There are in the gulf of Cariaco plantations +(haciendas) of eight or nine thousand cocoa-trees. They resemble, +in their picturesque appearance, those fine plantations of +date-trees near Elche, in Murcia, where, over the superficies of +one square league, there may be found upwards of 70,000 palms. The +cocoa-tree bears fruit in abundance till it is thirty or forty +years old; after that age the produce diminishes, and a trunk a +hundred years old, without being altogether barren, yields very +little. In the town of Cumana there is prepared a great quantity of +cocoa-nut oil, which is limpid, without smell, and very fit for +burning. The trade in this oil is not less active than that on the +coast of Africa for palm-oil, which is obtained from the Elais +guineensis, and is used as food. I have often seen canoes arrive at +Cumana laden with 3000 cocoa-nuts. + +We did not quit the farm of Pericantral till after sunset. The +south coast of the gulf presents a most fertile aspect, while the +northern coast is naked, dry, and rocky. In spite of this aridity, +and the scarcity of rain, of which sometimes none falls for the +space of fifteen months,* the peninsula of Araya, like the desert +of Canound in India, produces patillas, or water-melons, weighing +from fifty to seventy pounds. (* The rains appear to have been more +frequent at the beginning of the 16th century. At any rate, the +canon of Granada (Peter Martyr d'Anghiera), speaking in the year +1574, of the salt-works of Araya, or of Haraia, described in the +fifth chapter of this work, mentions showers (cadentes imbres) as a +very common phenomenon. The same author, who died in 1526, affirms +that the Indians wrought the salt-works before the arrival of the +Spaniards. They dried the salt in the form of bricks; and our +writer even then discussed the geological question, whether the +clayey soil of Haraia contained salt-springs, or whether it had +been impregnated with salt by the periodical inundations of the +ocean for ages.) In the torrid zone, the vapours contained by the +air form about nine-tenths of the quantity necessary to its +saturation: and vegetation is maintained by the property which the +leaves possess of attracting the water dissolved in the atmosphere. + +At sunrise, we saw the Zamuro vultures,* (* Vultur aura.) in flocks +of forty or fifty, perched on the cocoa-trees. These birds range +themselves in files to roost together like fowls. They go to roost +long before sunset, and do not awake till after the sun is above +the horizon. This sluggishness seems as if it were shared in those +climates by the trees with pinnate leaves. The mimosas and the +tamarinds close their leaves, in a clear and serene sky, +twenty-five or thirty-five minutes before sunset, and unfold them +in the morning when the solar disk has been visible for an equal +space of time. As I noticed pretty regularly the rising and setting +of the sun, for the purpose of observing the effect of the mirage, +or of the terrestrial refractions, I was enabled to give continued +attention to the phenomena of the sleep of plants. I found them the +same in the steppes, where no irregularity of the ground +interrupted the view of the horizon. It appears, that, accustomed +during the day to an extreme brilliancy of light, the sensitive and +other leguminous plants with thin and delicate leaves are affected +in the evening by the smallest decline in the intensity of the +sun's rays; so that for vegetation, night begins there, as with us, +before the total disappearance of the solar disk. But why, in a +zone where there is scarcely any twilight, do not the first rays of +the sun stimulate the leaves with the more strength, as the absence +of light must have rendered them more susceptible? Does the +humidity deposited on the parenchyma by the cooling of the leaves, +which is the effect of the nocturnal radiation, prevent the action +of the first rays of the sun? In our climates, the leguminous +plants with irritable leaves awake during the twilight of the +morning, before the sun appears. + + +CHAPTER 1.9. + +PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION AND MANNERS OF THE CHAYMAS. +THEIR LANGUAGE. +FILIATION OF THE NATIONS WHICH INHABIT NEW ANDALUCIA. +PARIAGOTOS SEEN BY COLUMBUS. + +I did not wish to mingle with the narrative of our journey to the +Missions of Caripe any general considerations on the different +tribes of the indigenous inhabitants of New Andalusia; their +manners, their languages, and their common origin. Having returned +to the spot whence we set out, I shall now bring into one point of +view these considerations which are so nearly connected with the +history of the human race. As we advance into the interior of the +country, these subjects will become even more interesting than the +phenomena of the physical world. The north-east part of equinoctial +America, Terra Firma, and the banks of the Orinoco, resemble in +respect to the numerous races of people who inhabit them, the +defiles of the Caucasus, the mountains of Hindookho, at the +northern extremity of Asia, beyond the Tungouses, and the Tartare +settled at the mouth of the Lena. The barbarism which prevails +throughout these different regions is perhaps less owing to a +primitive absence of all kind of civilization, than to the effects +of long degradation; for most of the hordes which we designate +under the name of savages, are probably the descendants of nations +highly advanced in cultivation. How can we distinguish the +prolonged infancy of the human race (if, indeed, it anywhere +exists), from that state of moral degradation in which solitude, +want, compulsory misery, forced migration, or rigour of climate, +obliterate even the traces of civilization? If everything connected +with the primitive state of man, and the first population of a +continent, could from its nature belong to the domain of history, +we might appeal to the traditions of India. According to the +opinion frequently expressed in the laws of Menou and in the +Ramajan, savages were regarded as tribes banished from civilized +society, and driven into the forests. The word barbarian, which we +have borrowed from the Greeks and Romans, was possibly merely the +proper name of one of those rude hordes. + +In the New World, at the beginning of the conquest, the natives +were collected into large societies only on the ridge of the +Cordilleras and the coasts opposite to Asia. The plains, covered +with forests, and intersected by rivers; the immense savannahs, +extending eastward, and bounding the horizon; were inhabited by +wandering hordes, separated by differences of language and manners, +and scattered like the remnants of a vast wreck. In the absence of +all other monuments, we may endeavour, from the analogy of +languages, and the study of the physical constitution of man, to +group the different tribes, to follow the traces of their distant +emigrations, and to discover some of those family features by which +the ancient unity of our species is manifested. + +In the mountainous regions which we have just traversed,--in the +two provinces of Cumana and New Barcelona, the natives, or +primitive inhabitants, still constitute about one-half of the +scanty population. Their number may be reckoned at sixty thousand; +of which twenty-four thousand inhabit New Andalusia. This number is +very considerable, when compared with that of the hunting nations +of North America; but it appears small, when we consider those +parts of New Spain in which agriculture has existed more than eight +centuries: for instance, the Intendencia of Oaxaca, which includes +the Mixteca and the Tzapoteca of the old Mexican empire. This +Intendencia is one-third smaller than the two provinces of Cumana +and Barcelona; yet it contains more than four hundred thousand +natives of pure copper-coloured race. The Indians of Cumana do not +all live within the Missions. Some are dispersed in the +neighbourhood of the towns, along the coasts, to which they are +attracted by the fisheries, and some dwell in little farms on the +plains or savannahs. The Missions of the Aragonese Capuchins which +we visited, alone contain fifteen thousand Indians, almost all of +the Chayma race. The villages, however, are less populous there +than in the province of Barcelona. Their average population is only +between five or six hundred Indians; while more to the west, in the +Missions of the Franciscans of Piritu, we find Indian villages +containing two or three thousand inhabitants. In computing at sixty +thousand the number of natives in the provinces of Cumana and +Barcelona, I include only those who inhabit the mainland, and not +the Guayquerias of the island of Margareta, and the great mass of +the Guaraunos, who have preserved their independence in the islands +formed by the Delta of the Orinoco. The number of these is +generally reckoned at six or eight thousand; but this estimate +appears to me to be exaggerated. Except a few families of Guaraunos +who roam occasionally in the marshy grounds, called Los Morichales, +and between the Cano de Manamo and the Rio Guarapiche, +consequently, on the continent itself, there have not been for +these thirty years, any Indian savages in New Andalusia. + +I use with regret the word savage, because it implies a difference +of cultivation between the reduced Indian, living in the Missions, +and the free or independent Indian; a difference which is often +belied by fact. In the forests of South America there are tribes of +natives, peacefully united in villages, and who render obedience to +chiefs.* (* These chiefs bear the designations of Pecannati, Apoto, +or Sibierne.) They cultivate the plantain-tree, cassava, and +cotton, on a tolerably extensive tract of ground, and they employ +the cotton for weaving hammocks. These people are scarcely more +barbarous than the naked Indians of the Missions, who have been +taught to make the sign of the cross. It is a common error in +Europe, to look on all natives not reduced to a state of +subjection, as wanderers and hunters. Agriculture was practised on +the American continent long before the arrival of Europeans. It is +still practised between the Orinoco and the river Amazon, in lands +cleared amidst the forests, places to which the missionaries have +never penetrated. It would be to imbibe false ideas respecting the +actual condition of the nations of South America, to consider as +synonymous the denominations of 'Christian,' 'reduced,' and +'civilized;' and those of 'pagan,' 'savage,' and 'independent.' The +reduced Indian is often as little of a Christian as the independent +Indian is of an idolater. Both, alike occupied by the wants of the +moment, betray a marked indifference for religious sentiments, and +a secret tendency to the worship of nature and her powers. This +worship belongs to the earliest infancy of nations; it excludes +idols, and recognises no other sacred places than grottoes, +valleys, and woods. + +If the independent Indians have nearly disappeared for a century +past northward of the Orinoco and the Apure, that is, from the +Snowy Mountains of Merida to the promontory of Paria, it must not +thence be concluded, that there are fewer natives at present in +those regions, than in the time of the bishop of Chiapa, Bartolomeo +de las Casas. In my work on Mexico, I have shown that it is +erroneous to regard as a general fact the destruction and +diminution of the Indians in the Spanish colonies. There still +exist more than six millions of the copper-coloured race, in both +Americas; and, though numberless tribes and languages are either +extinct, or confounded together, it is beyond a doubt that, within +the tropics, in that part of the New World where civilization has +penetrated only since the time of Columbus, the number of natives +has considerably increased. Two of the Carib villages in the +Missions of Piritu or of Carony, contain more families than four or +five of the settlements on the Orinoco. The state of society among +the Caribbees who have preserved their independence, at the sources +of the Essequibo and to the south of the mountains of Pacaraimo, +sufficiently proves how much, even among that fine race of men, the +population of the Missions exceeds in number that of the free and +confederate Caribbees. Besides, the state of the savages of the +torrid zone is not like that of the savages of the Missouri. The +latter require a vast extent of country, because they live only by +hunting; whilst the Indians of Spanish Guiana employ themselves in +cultivating cassava and plantains. A very little ground suffices to +supply them with food. They do not dread the approach of the +whites, like the savages of the United States; who, being +progressively driven back behind the Alleghany mountains, the Ohio, +and the Mississippi, lose their means of subsistence, in proportion +as they find themselves reduced within narrow limits. Under the +temperate zone, whether in the provincias internas of Mexico, or in +Kentucky, the contact of European colonists has been fatal to the +natives, because that contact is immediate. + +These causes have no existence in the greater part of South +America. Agriculture, within the tropics, does not require great +extent of ground. The whites advance slowly. The religious orders +have founded their establishments between the domain of the +colonists and the territory of the free Indians. The Missions may +be considered as intermediary states. They have doubtless +encroached on the liberty of the natives; but they have almost +everywhere tended to the increase of population, which is +incompatible with the restless life of the independent Indians. As +the missionaries advance towards the forests, and gain on the +natives, the white colonists in their turn seek to invade in the +opposite direction the territory of the Missions. In this +protracted struggle, the secular arm continually tends to withdraw +the reduced Indian from the monastic hierarchy, and the +missionaries are gradually superseded by vicars. The whites, and +the castes of mixed blood, favoured by the corregidors, establish +themselves among the Indians. The Missions become Spanish villages, +and the natives lose even the remembrance of their natural +language. Such is the progress of civilization from the coasts +toward the interior; a slow progress, retarded by the passions of +man, but nevertheless sure and steady. + +The provinces of New Andalusia and Barcelona, comprehended under +the name of Govierno de Cumana, at present include in their +population more than fourteen tribes. Those in New Andalusia are +the Chaymas, Guayqueries, Pariagotos, Quaquas, Aruacas, Caribbees, +and Guaraunos; in the province of Barcelona, Cumanagotos, Palenkas, +Caribbees, Piritus, Tomuzas, Topocuares, Chacopatas, and Guarivas. +Nine or ten of these fifteen tribes consider themselves to be of +races entirely distinct. The exact number of the Guaraunos, who +make their huts on the trees at the mouth of the Orinoco, is +unknown; the Guayqueries, in the suburbs of Cumana and in the +peninsula of Araya, amount to two thousand. Among the other Indian +tribes, the Chaymas of the mountains of Caripe, the Caribs of the +southern savannahs of New Barcelona, and the Cumanagotos in the +Missions of Piritu, are most numerous. Some families of Guaraunos +have been reduced and dwell in Missions on the left bank of the +Orinoco, where the Delta begins. The languages of the Guaraunos and +that of the Caribs, of the Cumanagotos and of the Chaymas, are the +most general. They seem to belong to the same stock; and they +exhibit in their grammatical forms those affinities, which, to use +a comparison taken from languages more known, connect the Greek, +the German, the Persian, and the Sanscrit. + +Notwithstanding these affinities, we must consider the Chaymas, the +Guaraunos, the Caribbees, the Quaquas, the Aruacas or Arrawaks, and +the Cumanagotos, as different nations. I would not venture to +affirm the same of the Guayqueries, the Pariagotos, the Piritus, +the Tomuzas, and the Chacopatas. The Guayquerias themselves admit +the analogy between their language and that of the Guaraunos. Both +are a littoral race, like the Malays of the ancient continent. With +respect to the tribes who at present speak the Cumanagota, +Caribbean, and Chayma tongues, it is difficult to decide on their +first origin, and their relations with other nations formerly more +powerful. The historians of the conquest, as well as the +ecclesiastics who have described the progress of the Missions, +continually confound, like the ancients, geographical denominations +with the names of races. They speak of Indians of Cumana and of the +coast of Paria, as if the proximity of abode proved the identity of +origin. They most commonly even give to tribes the names of their +chiefs, or of the mountains or valleys they inhabit. This +circumstance, by infinitely multiplying the number of tribes, gives +an air of uncertainty to all that the monks relate respecting the +heterogeneous elements of which the population of their Missions +are composed. How can we now decide, whether the Tomuza and Piritu +be of different races, when both speak the Cumanagoto language, +which is the prevailing tongue in the western part of the Govierno +of Cumana; as the Caribbean and the Chayma are in the southern and +eastern parts. A great analogy of physical constitution increases +the difficulty of these inquiries. In the new continent a +surprising variety of languages is observed among nations of the +same origin, and which European travellers scarcely distinguish by +their features; while in the old continent very different races of +men, the Laplanders, the Finlanders, and the Estonians, the +Germanic nations and the Hindoos, the Persians and the Kurds, the +Tartar and Mongol tribes, speak languages, the mechanism and roots +of which present the greatest analogy. + +The Indians of the American Missions are all agriculturists. +Excepting those who inhabit the high mountains, they all cultivate +the same plants; their huts are arranged in the same manner; their +days of labour, their work in the conuco of the community; their +connexions with the missionaries and the magistrates chosen from +among themselves, are all subject to uniform regulations. +Nevertheless (and this fact is very remarkable in the history of +nations), these analogous circumstances have not effaced the +individual features, or the shades of character which distinguish +the American tribes. We observe in the men of copper hue, a moral +inflexibility, a steadfast perseverance in habits and manners, +which, though modified in each tribe, characterise essentially the +whole race. These peculiarities are found in every region; from the +equator to Hudson's Bay on the one hand, and to the Straits of +Magellan on the other. They are connected with the physical +organization of the natives, but they are powerfully favoured by +the monastic system. + +There exist in the missions few villages in which the different +families do not belong to different tribes and speak different +languages. Societies composed of elements thus heterogeneous are +difficult to govern. In general, the monks have united whole +nations, or great portions of the same nations, in villages +situated near to each other. The natives see only those of their +own tribe; for the want of communication, and the isolated state of +the people, are essential points in the policy of the missionaries. +The reduced Chaymas, Caribs, and Tamanacs, retain their natural +physiognomy, whilst they have preserved their languages. If the +individuality of man be in some sort reflected in his idioms, these +in their turn re-act on his ideas and sentiments. It is this +intimate connection between language, character, and physical +constitution, which maintains and perpetuates the diversity of +nations; that unfailing source of life and motion in the +intellectual world. + +The missionaries may have prohibited the Indians from following +certain practices and observing certain ceremonies; they may have +prevented them from painting their skin, from making incisions on +their chins, noses and cheeks; they may have destroyed among the +great mass of the people superstitious ideas, mysteriously +transmitted from father to son in certain families; but it has been +easier for them to proscribe customs and efface remembrances, than +to substitute new ideas in the place of the old ones. + +The Indian of the Mission is secure of subsistence; and being +released from continual struggles against hostile powers, from +conflicts with the elements and man, he leads a more monotonous +life, less active, and less fitted to inspire energy of mind, than +the habits of the wild or independent Indian. He possesses that +mildness of character which belongs to the love of repose; not that +which arises from sensibility and the emotions of the soul. The +sphere of his ideas is not enlarged, where, having no intercourse +with the whites, he remains a stranger to those objects with which +European civilization has enriched the New World. All his actions +seem prompted by the wants of the moment. Taciturn, serious, and +absorbed in himself; he assumes a sedate and mysterious air. When a +person has resided but a short time in the Missions, and is but +little familiarized with the aspect of the natives, he is led to +mistake their indolence, and the torpid state of their faculties, +for the expression of melancholy, and a meditative turn of mind. + +I have dwelt on these features of the Indian character, and on the +different modifications which that character exhibits under the +government of the missionaries, with the view of rendering more +intelligible the observations which form the subject of the present +chapter. I shall begin by the nation of the Chaymas, of whom more +than fifteen thousand inhabit the Missions above noticed. The +Chayma nation, which Father Francisco of Pampeluna* began to reduce +to subjection in the middle of the seventeenth century (* The name +of this monk, celebrated for his intrepidity, is still revered in +the province. He sowed the first seeds of civilization among these +mountains. He had long been captain of a ship; and before he became +a monk, was known by the name of Tiburtio Redin.), has the +Cumanagotos on the west, the Guaraunos on the east, and the +Caribbees on the south. Their territory occupies a space along the +elevated mountains of the Cocollar and the Guacharo, the banks of +the Guarapiche, of the Rio Colorado, of the Areo, and of the Cano +de Caripe. According to a statistical survey made with great care +by the father prefect, there were, in the Missions of the Aragonese +Capuchins of Cumana, nineteen Mission villages, of which the oldest +was established in 1728, containing one thousand four hundred and +sixty-five families, and six thousand four hundred and thirty-three +persons: sixteen doctrina villages, of which the oldest dates from +1660, containing one thousand seven hundred and sixty-six families, +and eight thousand one hundred and seventy persons. These Missions +suffered greatly in 1681, 1697, and 1720, from the invasions of the +Caribbees (then independent), who burnt whole villages. From 1730 +to 1736, the population was diminished by the ravages of the +small-pox, a disease always more fatal to the copper-coloured +Indians than to the whites. Many of the Guaraunos, who had been +assembled together, fled back again to their native marshes. +Fourteen old Missions were deserted, and have not been rebuilt. + +The Chaymas are in general short of stature and thick-set. Their +shoulders are extremely broad, and their chests flat. Their limbs +are well rounded, and fleshy. Their colour is the same as that of +the whole American race, from the cold table-lands of Quito and New +Grenada to the burning plains of the Amazon. It is not changed by +the varied influence of climate; it is connected with organic +peculiarities which for ages past have been unalterably transmitted +from generation to generation. If the uniform tint of the skin be +redder and more coppery towards the north, it is, on the contrary, +among the Chaymas, of a dull brown inclining to tawny. The +denomination of copper-coloured men could never have originated in +equinoctial America to designate the natives. + +The expression of the countenance of the Chaymas, without being +hard or stern, has something sedate and gloomy. The forehead is +small, and but little prominent, and in several languages of these +countries, to express the beauty of a woman, they say that 'she is +fat, and has a narrow forehead.' The eyes of the Chaymas are black, +deep-set, and very elongated: but they are neither so obliquely +placed, nor so small, as in the people of the Mongol race. The +corner of the eye is, however, raised up towards the temple; the +eyebrows are black, or dark brown, thin, and but little arched; the +eyelids are edged with very long eyelashes, and the habit of +casting them down, as if from lassitude, gives a soft expression to +the women, and makes the eye thus veiled appear less than it really +is. Though the Chaymas, and in general all the natives of South +America and New Spain, resemble the Mongol race in the form of the +eye, in their high cheek-bones, their straight and smooth hair, and +the almost total absence of beard; yet they essentially differ from +them in the form of the nose. In the South Americans this feature +is rather long, prominent through its whole length, and broad at +the nostrils, the openings of which are directed downward, as with +all the nations of the Caucasian race. Their wide mouths, with lips +but little protuberant though broad, have generally an expression +of good nature. The passage from the nose to the mouth is marked in +both sexes by two furrows, which run diverging from the nostrils +towards the corners of the mouth. The chin is extremely short and +round; and the jaws are remarkable for strength and width. + +Though the Chaymas have fine white teeth, like all people who lead +a very simple life, they are, however, not so strong as those of +the Negroes. The habit of blackening the teeth, from the age of +fifteen, by the juices of certain herbs* and caustic lime, +attracted the attention of the earliest travellers; but the +practice has now fallen quite into disuse. (* The early historians +of the conquest state that the blackening of the teeth was effected +by the leaves of a tree which the natives called hay, and which +resembled the myrtle. Among nations very distant from each other, +the pimento bears a similar name; among the Haitians aji or ahi, +among the Maypures of the Orinoco, ai. Some stimulant and aromatic +plants, which mostly belonging to the genus capsicum, were +designated by the same name.) Such have been the migrations of the +different tribes in these countries, particularly since the +incursions of the Spaniards, who carried on the slave-trade, that +it may be inferred the inhabitants of Paria visited by Christopher +Columbus and by Ojeda, were not of the same race as the Chaymas. I +doubt much whether the custom of blackening the teeth was +originally suggested, as Gomara supposed, by absurd notions of +beauty, or was practised with the view of preventing the toothache. +* This disorder is, however, almost unknown to the Indians; and the +whites suffer seldom from it in the Spanish colonies, at least in +the warm regions, where the temperature is so uniform. They are +more exposed to it on the back of the Cordilleras, at Santa Fe, and +at Popayan. (* The tribes seen by the Spaniards on the coast of +Paria, probably observed the practice of stimulating the organs of +taste by caustic lime, as other races employed tobacco, the chimo, +the leaves of the coca, or the betel. This practice exists even in +our days, but more towards the west, among the Guajiros, at the +mouth of the Rio de la Hacha. These Indians, still savage, carry +small shells, calcined and powdered, in the husk of a fruit, which +serves them as a vessel for various purposes, suspended to their +girdle. The powder of the Guajiros is an article of commerce, as +was anciently, according to Gomara, that of the Indians of Paria. +The immoderate habit of smoking also makes the teeth yellow and +blackens them; but would it be just to conclude from this fact, +that Europeans smoke because we think yellow teeth handsomer than +white?) + +The Chaymas, like almost all the native nations I have seen, have +small, slender hands. Their feet are large, and their toes retain +an extraordinary mobility. All the Chaymas have a sort of family +look; and this resemblance, so often observed by travellers, is the +more striking, as between the ages of twenty and fifty, difference +of years is no way denoted by wrinkles of the skin, colour of the +hair, or decrepitude of the body. On entering a hut, it is often +difficult among adult persons to distinguish the father from the +son, and not to confound one generation with another. I attribute +this air of family resemblance to two different causes, the local +situation of the Indian tribes, and their inferior degree of +intellectual culture. Savage nations are subdivided into an +infinity of tribes, which, bearing violent hatred one to another, +form no intermarriages, even when their languages spring from the +same root, and when only a small arm of a river, or a group of +hills, separates their habitations. The less numerous the tribes, +the more the intermarriages repeated for ages between the same +families tend to fix a certain similarity of conformation, an +organic type, which may be called national. This type is preserved +under the system of the Missions, each Mission being formed by a +single horde, and marriages being contracted only between the +inhabitants of the same hamlet. Those ties of blood which unite +almost a whole nation, are indicated in a simple manner in the +language of the Indians born in the Missions, or by those who, +after having been taken from the woods, have learned Spanish. To +designate the individuals who belong to the same tribe, they employ +the expression mis parientes, my relations. + +With these causes, common to all isolated classes, and the effects +of which are observable among the Jews of Europe, among the +different castes of India, and among mountain nations in general, +are combined some other causes hitherto unnoticed. I have observed +elsewhere, that it is intellectual culture which most contributes +to diversify the features. Barbarous nations have a physiognomy of +tribe or of horde, rather than individuality of look or features. +The savage and civilized man are like those animals of an +individual species, some of which roam in the forest, while others, +associated with mankind, share the benefits and evils which +accompany civilization. Varieties of form and colour are frequent +only in domestic animals. How great is the difference, with respect +to mobility of features and variety of physiognomy, between dogs +which have again returned to the savage state in the New World, and +those whose slightest caprices are indulged in the houses of the +opulent! Both in men and animals the emotions of the soul are +reflected in the features; and the countenance acquires the habit +of mobility, in proportion as the emotions of the mind are +frequent, varied, and durable. But the Indian of the Missions, +being remote from all cultivation, influenced only by his physical +wants, satisfying almost without difficulty his desires, in a +favoured climate, drags on a dull, monotonous life. The greatest +equality prevails among the members of the same community; and this +uniformity, this sameness of situation, is pictured on the features +of the Indians. + +Under the system of the monks, violent passions, such as resentment +and anger, agitate the native more rarely than when he lives in the +forest. When man in a savage state yields to sudden and impetuous +emotions, his physiognomy, till then calm and unruffled, changes +instantly to convulsive contortions. His passion is transient in +proportion to its violence. With the Indians of the Missions, as I +have often observed on the Orinoco, anger is less violent, less +earnest, but of longer duration. Besides, in every condition of +man, it is not the energetic or the transient outbreaks of the +passions, which give expression to the features. It is rather that +sensibility of the soul, which brings us continually into contact +with the external world, multiplies our sufferings and our +pleasures, and re-acts at once on the physiognomy, the manners, and +the language. If the variety and mobility of the features embellish +the domain of animated nature, we must admit also, that both +increase by civilization, without being solely produced by it. In +the great family of nations, no other race unites these advantages +in so high a degree as the Caucasian or European. It is only in +white men that the instantaneous penetration of the dermoidal +system by the blood can produce that slight change of the colour of +the skin which adds so powerful an expression to the emotions of +the soul. "How can those be trusted who know not how to blush?" +says the European, in his dislike of the Negro and the Indian. We +must also admit, that immobility of features is not peculiar to +every race of men of dark complexion: it is much less marked in the +African than in the natives of America. + +The Chaymas, like all savage people who dwell in excessively hot +regions, have an insuperable aversion to clothing. The writers of +the middle ages inform us, that in the north of Europe, articles of +clothing distributed by missionaries, greatly contributed to the +conversion of the pagan. In the torrid zone, on the contrary, the +natives are ashamed (as they say) to be clothed; and flee to the +woods, when they are compelled to cover themselves. Among the +Chaymas, in spite of the remonstrances of the monks, men and women +remain unclothed within their houses. When they go into the +villages they put on a kind of tunic of cotton, which scarcely +reaches to the knees. The men's tunics have sleeves; but women, and +young boys to the age of ten or twelve, have the arms, shoulders, +and upper part of the breast uncovered. The tunic is so shaped, +that the fore-part is joined to the back by two narrow bands, which +cross the shoulders. When we met the natives, out of the boundaries +of the Mission, we saw them, especially in rainy weather, stripped +of their clothes, and holding their shirts rolled up under their +arms. They preferred letting the rain fall on their bodies to +wetting their clothes. The elder women hid themselves behind trees, +and burst into loud fits of laughter when they saw us pass. The +missionaries complain that in general the young girls are not more +alive to feelings of decency than the men. Ferdinand Columbus* +relates that, in 1498, his father found the women in the island of +Trinidad without any clothing (* Life of the Adelantado: +Churchill's Collection 1723. This Life, written after the year +1537, from original notes in the handwriting of Christopher +Columbus himself, is the most valuable record of the history of his +discoveries. It exists only in the Italian and Spanish translations +of Alphonso de Ulloa and Gonzales Barcia: for the original, carried +to Venice in 1571 by the learned Fornari, has not been published, +and is supposed to be lost. Napione della Patria di Colombo 1804. +Cancellieri sopra Christ. Colombo 1809. ); while the men wore the +guayuco, which is rather a narrow bandage than an apron. At the +same period, on the coast of Paria, young girls were distinguished +from married women, either, as Cardinal Bembo states, by being +quite unclothed, or, according to Gomara, by the colour of the +guayuco. This bandage, which is still in use among the Chaymas, and +all the naked nations of the Orinoco, is only two or three inches +broad, and is tied on both sides to a string which encircles the +waist. Girls are often married at the age of twelve; and until they +are nine years old, the missionaries allow them to go to church +unclothed, that is to say, without a tunic. Among the Chaymas, as +well as in all the Spanish Missions and the Indian villages, a pair +of drawers, a pair of shoes, or a hat, are objects of luxury +unknown to the natives. An Indian servant, who had been with us +during our journey to Caripe and the Orinoco, and whom I brought to +France, was so much struck, on landing, when he saw the ground +tilled by a peasant with his hat on, that he thought himself in a +miserable country, where even the nobles (los mismos caballeros) +followed the plough. The Chayma women are not handsome, according +to the ideas we annex to beauty; yet the young girls have a look of +softness and melancholy, contrasting agreeably with the expression +of the mouth, which is somewhat harsh and wild. They wear their +hair plaited in two long tresses; they do not paint their skin; and +wear no other ornaments than necklaces and bracelets made of +shells, birds' bones, and seeds. Both men and women are very +muscular, but at the same time fleshy and plump. I saw no person +who had any natural deformity; and I may say the same of thousands +of Caribs, Muyscas, and Mexican and Peruvian Indians, whom we +observed during the course of five years. Bodily deformities, and +deviations from nature, are exceedingly rare among certain races of +men, especially those who have the epidermis highly coloured; but I +cannot believe that they depend solely on the progress of +civilization, a luxurious life, or the corruption of morals. In +Europe a deformed or very ugly girl marries, if she happen to have +a fortune, and the children often inherit the deformity of the +mother. In the savage state, which is a state of equality, no +consideration can induce a man to unite himself to a deformed +woman, or one who is very unhealthy. Such a woman, if she resist +the accidents of a restless and troubled life, dies without +children. We might be tempted to think, that savages all appear +well-made and vigorous, because feeble children die young for want +of care, and only the strongest survive; but these causes cannot +operate among the Indians of the Missions, whose manners are like +those of our peasants, or among the Mexicans of Cholula and +Tlascala, who enjoy wealth, transmitted to them by ancestors more +civilized than themselves. If, in every state of cultivation, the +copper-coloured race manifests the same inflexibility, the same +resistance to deviation from a primitive type, are we not forced to +admit that this peculiarity belongs in great measure to hereditary +organization, to that which constitutes the race? With +copper-coloured men, as with whites, luxury and effeminacy weaken +the physical constitution, and heretofore deformities were more +common at Cuzco and Tenochtitlan. Among the Mexicans of the present +day, who are all labourers, leading the most simple lives, +Montezuma would not have found those dwarfs and humpbacks whom +Bernal Diaz saw waiting at his table when he dined.* (* Bernal Diaz +Hist. Verd. de la Nueva Espana 1630.) The custom of marrying very +young, according to the testimony of the monks, is no way +detrimental to population. This precocious nubility depends on the +race, and not on the influence of a climate excessively warm. It is +found on the north-west coast of America, among the Esquimaux, and +in Asia, among the Kamtschatdales, and the Koriaks, where girls of +ten years old are often mothers. It may appear astonishing, that +the time of gestation--the duration of pregnancy, never alters in a +state of health, in any race, or in any climate. + +The Chaymas are almost without beard on the chin, like the +Tungouses, and other nations of the Mongol race. They pluck out the +few hairs which appear; but independently of that practice, most of +the natives would be nearly beardless.* (* Physiologists would +never have entertained any difference of opinion respecting the +existence of the beard among the Americans, if they had considered +what the first historians of the Conquest have said on this +subject; for example, Pigafetta, in 1519, in his journal, preserved +in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, and published (in 1800) by +Amoretti; Benzoni Hist. del Mundo Nuovo 1572; Bembo Hist. Venet. +1557.) I say most of them, because there are tribes which, as they +appear distinct from the others, are more worthy of fixing our +attention. Such are, in North America, the Chippewas visited by +Mackenzie, and the Yabipaees, near the Toltec ruins at Moqui, with +bushy beards; in South America, the Patagonians and the Guaraunos. +Among these last are some who have hairs on the breast. When the +Chaymas, instead of extracting the little hair they have on the +chin, attempt to shave themselves frequently, their beards grow. I +have seen this experiment tried with success by young Indians, who +officiated at mass, and who anxiously wished to resemble the +Capuchin fathers, their missionaries and masters. The great mass of +the people, however, dislike the beard, no less than the Eastern +nations hold it in reverence. This antipathy is derived from the +same source as the predilection for flat foreheads, which is +evinced in so singular a manner in the statues of the Aztec heroes +and divinities. Nations attach the idea of beauty to everything +which particularly characterizes their own physical conformation, +their national physiognomy.* (* Thus, in their finest statues, the +Greeks exaggerated the form of the forehead, by elevating beyond +proportion the facial line.) Hence it ensues that among a people to +whom Nature has given very little beard, a narrow forehead, and a +brownish red skin, every individual thinks himself handsome in +proportion as his body is destitute of hair, his head flattened, +and his skin besmeared with annatto, chica, or some other +copper-red colour. + +The Chaymas lead a life of singular uniformity. They go to rest +very regularly at seven in the evening, and rise long before +daylight, at half-past four in the morning. Every Indian has a fire +near his hammock. The women are so chilly, that I have seen them +shiver at church when the centigrade thermometer was not below 18 +degrees. The huts of the Indians are extremely clean. Their +hammocks, their reed mats, their pots for holding cassava and +fermented maize, their bows and arrows, everything is arranged in +the greatest order. Men and women bathe every day; and being almost +constantly unclothed, they are exempted from that uncleanliness, of +which the garments are the principal cause among the lower class of +people in cold countries. Besides a house in the village, they have +generally, in their conucos, near some spring, or at the entrance +of some solitary valley, a small hut, covered with the leaves of +the palm or plantain-tree. Though they live less commodiously in +the conuco, they love to retire thither as often as they can. The +irresistible desire the Indians have to flee from society, and +enter again on a nomad life, causes even young children sometimes +to leave their parents, and wander four or five days in the +forests, living on fruits, palm-cabbage, and roots. When travelling +in the Missions, it is not uncommon to find whole villages almost +deserted, because the inhabitants are in their gardens, or in the +forests (al monte). Among civilized nations, the passion for +hunting arises perhaps in part from the same causes: the charm of +solitude, the innate desire of independence, the deep impression +made by Nature, whenever man finds himself in contact with her in +solitude. + +The condition of the women among the Chaymas, like that in all +semi-barbarous nations, is a state of privation and suffering. The +hardest labour devolves on them. When we saw the Chaymas return in +the evening from their gardens, the man carried nothing but the +knife or hatchet (machete), with which he clears his way among the +underwood; whilst the woman, bending under a great load of +plantains, carried one child in her arms, and sometimes two other +children placed upon the load. Notwithstanding this inequality of +condition, the wives of the Indians of South America appear to be +in general happier than those of the savages of the North. Between +the Alleghany mountains and the Mississippi, wherever the natives +do not live chiefly on the produce of the chase, the women +cultivate maize, beans, and gourds; and the men take no share in +the labours of the field. In the torrid zone, hunting tribes are +not numerous, and in the Missions, the men work in the fields as +well as the women. + +Nothing can exceed the difficulty experienced by the Indians in +learning Spanish, to which language they have an absolute aversion. +Whilst living separate from the whites, they have no ambition to be +called educated Indians, or, to borrow the phrase employed in the +Missions, 'latinized Indians' (Indios muy latinos). Not only among +the Chaymas, but in all the very remote Missions which I afterwards +visited, I observed that the Indians experience vast difficulty in +arranging and expressing the most simple ideas in Spanish, even +when they perfectly understand the meaning of the words and the +turn of the phrases. When a European questions them concerning +objects which have surrounded them from their cradles, they seem to +manifest an imbecility exceeding that of infancy. The missionaries +assert that this embarrassment is neither the effect of timidity +nor of natural stupidity, but that it arises from the impediments +they meet with in the structure of a language so different from +their native tongue. In proportion as man is remote from +cultivation, the greater is his mental inaptitude. It is not, +therefore, surprising that the isolated Indians in the Missions +should experience in the acquisition of the Spanish language, less +facility than Indians who live among mestizoes, mulattoes, and +whites, in the neighbourhood of towns. Nevertheless, I have often +wondered at the volubility with which, at Caripe, the native +alcalde, the governador, and the sergento mayor, will harangue for +whole hours the Indians assembled before the church; regulating the +labours of the week, reprimanding the idle, or threatening the +disobedient. Those chiefs who are also of the Chayma race, and who +transmit the orders of the missionary, speak all together in a loud +voice, with marked emphasis, but almost without action. Their +features remain motionless; but their look is imperious and severe. + +These same men, who manifest quickness of intellect, and who were +tolerably well acquainted with the Spanish, were unable to connect +their ideas, when, in our excursions in the country around the +convent, we put questions to them through the intervention of the +monks. They were made to affirm or deny whatever the monks pleased: +and that wily civility, to which the least cultivated Indian is no +stranger, induced them sometimes to give to their answers the turn +that seemed to be suggested by our questions. Travellers cannot be +enough on their guard against this officious assent, when they seek +to confirm their own opinions by the testimony of the natives. To +put an Indian alcalde to the proof, I asked him one day, whether he +did not think the little river of Caripe, which issues from the +cavern of the Guacharo, returned into it on the opposite side by +some unknown entrance, after having ascended the slope of the +mountain. The Indian seemed gravely to reflect on the subject, and +then answered, by way of supporting my hypothesis: "How else, if it +were not so, would there always be water in the bed of the river at +the mouth of the cavern?" + +The Chaymas are very dull in comprehending anything relating to +numerical facts. I never knew one of these people who might not +have been made to say that he was either eighteen or sixty years of +age. Mr. Marsden observed the same peculiarity in the Malays of +Sumatra, though they have been civilized more than five centuries. +The Chayma language contains words which express pretty large +numbers, yet few Indians know how to apply them; and having felt, +from their intercourse with the missionaries, the necessity of so +doing, the more intelligent among them count in Spanish, but +apparently with great effort of mind, as far as thirty, or perhaps +fifty. The same persons, however, cannot count in the Chayma +language beyond five or six. It is natural that they should employ +in preference the words of a language in which they have been +taught the series of units and tens. Since learned Europeans have +not disdained to study the structure of the idioms of America with +the same care as they study those of the Semitic languages, and of +the Greek and Latin, they no longer attribute to the imperfection +of a language, what belongs to the rudeness of the nation. It is +acknowledged, that almost everywhere the Indian idioms display +greater richness, and more delicate gradations, than might be +supposed from the uncultivated state of the people by whom they are +spoken. I am far from placing the languages of the New World in the +same rank with the finest languages of Asia and Europe; but no one +of these latter has a more neat, regular, and simple system of +numeration, than the Quichua and the Aztec, which were spoken in +the great empires of Cuzco and Anahuac. It is a mistake to suppose +that those languages do not admit of counting beyond four, because +in villages where they are spoken by the poor labourers of Peruvian +and Mexican race, individuals are found, who cannot count beyond +that number. The singular opinion, that so many American nations +reckon only as far as five, ten, or twenty, has been propagated by +travellers, who have not reflected, that, according to the genius +of different idioms, men of all nations stop at groups of five, +ten, or twenty units (that is, the number of the fingers of one +hand, or of both hands, or of the fingers and toes together); and +that six, thirteen, or twenty are differently expressed, by +five-one, ten-three, and feet-ten.* (* Savages, to express great +numbers with more facility, are in the habit of forming groups of +five, ten, or twenty grains of maize, according as they reckon in +their language by fives, tens, or twenties.) Can it be said that +the numbers of the Europeans do not extend beyond ten, because we +stop after having formed a group of ten units? + +The construction of the languages of America is so opposite to that +of the languages derived from the Latin, that the Jesuits, who had +thoroughly examined everything that could contribute to extend +their establishments, introduced among their neophytes, instead of +the Spanish, some Indian tongues, remarkable for their regularity +and copiousness, such as the Quichua and the Guarani. They +endeavoured to substitute these languages for others which were +poorer and more irregular in their syntax. This substitution was +found easy: the Indians of the different tribes adopted it with +docility, and thenceforward those American languages generalized +became a ready medium of communication between the missionaries and +the neophytes. It would be a mistake to suppose, that the +preference given to the language of the Incas over the Spanish +tongue had no other aim than that of isolating the Missions, and +withdrawing them from the influence of two rival powers, the +bishops and civil governors. The Jesuits had other motives, +independently of their policy, for wishing to generalize certain +Indian tongues. They found in those languages a common tie, easy to +be established between the numerous hordes which had remained +hostile to each other, and had been kept asunder by diversity of +idioms; for, in uncultivated countries, after the lapse of several +ages, dialects often assume the form, or at least the appearance, +of mother tongues. + +When it is said that a Dane learns the German, and a Spaniard the +Italian or the Latin, more easily than they learn any other +language, it is at first thought that this facility results from +the identity of a great number of roots, common to all the Germanic +tongues, or to those of Latin Europe; it is not considered, that, +with this resemblance of sounds, there is another resemblance, +which acts more powerfully on nations of a common origin. Language +is not the result of an arbitrary convention. The mechanism of +inflections, the grammatical constructions, the possibility of +inversions, all are the offspring of our own minds, of our +individual organization. There is in man an instinctive and +regulating principle, differently modified among nations not of the +same race. A climate more or less severe, a residence in the +defiles of mountains, or on the sea-coasts, or different habits of +life, may alter the pronunciation, render the identity of the roots +obscure, and multiply the number; but all these causes do not +affect that which constitutes the structure and mechanism of +languages. The influence of climate, and of external circumstances, +vanishes before the influence which depends on the race, on the +hereditary and individual dispositions of men. + +In America (and this result of recent researches* (* See Vater's +Mithridates.) is extremely important with respect to the history of +our species) from the country of the Esquimaux to the banks of the +Orinoco, and again from these torrid regions to the frozen climate +of the Straits of Magellan, mother-tongues, entirely different in +their roots, have, if we may use the expression, the same +physiognomy. Striking analogies of grammatical construction are +acknowledged, not only in the more perfect languages, as in that of +the Incas, the Aymara, the Guarauno, the Mexican, and the Cora, but +also in languages extremely rude. Idioms, the roots of which do not +resemble each other more than the roots of the Sclavonic and the +Biscayan, have those resemblances of internal mechanism which are +found in the Sanscrit, the Persian, the Greek, and the German +languages. Almost everywhere in the New World we recognize a +multiplicity of forms and tenses in the verb,* (* In the Greenland +language, for example, the multiplicity of the pronouns governed by +the verb produces twenty-seven forms for every tense of the +Indicative mood. It is surprising to find, among nations now +ranking in the lowest degree of civilization, this desire of +graduating the relations of time, this superabundance of +modifications introduced into the verb, to characterise the object. +Matarpa, he takes it away: mattarpet, thou takest it away: +mattarpatit, he takes it away from thee: mattarpagit, I take away +from thee. And in the preterite of the same verb, mattara, he has +taken it away: mattaratit, he has taken it away from thee. This +example from the Greenland language shows how the governed and the +personal pronouns form one compound, in the American languages, +with the root of the verb. These slight differences in the form of +the verb, according to the nature of the pronouns governed by it, +is found in the Old World only in the Biscayan and Congo languages +(Vater, Mithridates. William von Humboldt, On the Basque Language). +Strange conformity in the structure of languages on spots so +distant, and among three races of men so different,--the white +Catalonians, the black Congos, and the copper-coloured Americans!) +an ingenious method of indicating beforehand, either by inflexion +of the personal pronouns, which form the terminations of the verb, +or by an intercalated suffix, the nature and the relation of its +object and its subject, and of distinguishing whether the object be +animate or inanimate, of the masculine or the feminine gender, +simple or in complex number. It is on account of this general +analogy of structure,--it is because American languages which have +no words in common (for instance, the Mexican and the Quichua), +resemble each other by their organization, and form complete +contrasts to the languages of Latin Europe, that the Indians of the +Missions familiarize themselves more easily with an American idiom +than with the Spanish. In the forests of the Orinoco I have seen +the rudest Indians speak two or three tongues. Savages of different +nations often communicate their ideas to each other by an idiom not +their own. + +If the system of the Jesuits had been followed, languages, which +already occupy a vast extent of country, would have become almost +general. In Terra Firma and on the Orinoco, the Caribbean and the +Tamanac alone would now be spoken; and in the south and south-west, +the Quichua, the Guarano, the Omagua, and the Araucan. By +appropriating to themselves these languages, the grammatical forms +of which are very regular, and almost as fixed as those of the +Greek and Sanscrit, the missionaries would place themselves in more +intimate connection with the natives whom they govern. The +numberless difficulties which occur in the system of a Mission +consisting of Indians of ten or a dozen different nations would +disappear with the confusion of idioms. Those which are little +diffused would become dead languages; but the Indian, in preserving +an American idiom, would retain his individuality--his national +character. Thus by peaceful means might be effected what the Incas +began to establish by force of arms. + +How indeed can we be surprised at the little progress made by the +Chaymas, the Caribbees, the Salives, or the Otomacs, in the +knowledge of the Spanish language, when we recollect that one white +man, one single missionary, finds himself alone amidst five or six +hundred Indians? and that it is difficult for him to establish +among them a governador, an alcalde, or a fiscal, who may serve him +as an interpreter? If, instead of the missionary system, some other +means of civilization were substituted, if, instead of keeping the +whites at a distance, they could be mingled with the natives +recently united in villages, the American idioms would soon be +superseded by the languages of Europe, and the natives would +receive in those languages the great mass of new ideas which are +the fruit of civilization. Then the introduction of general +tongues, such as that of the Incas, or the Guaranos, without doubt +would become useless. But after having lived so long in the +Missions of South America, after having so closely observed the +advantages and the abuses of the system of the missionaries, I may +be permitted to doubt whether that system could be easily +abandoned, though it is doubtless very capable of being improved, +and rendered more conformable with our ideas of civil liberty. To +this it may be answered, that the Romans* succeeded in rapidly +introducing their language with their sovereignty into the country +of the Gauls, into Boetica, and into the province of Africa. (* For +the reason of this rapid introduction of Latin among the Gauls, I +believe we must look into the character of the natives and the +state of their civilization, and not into the structure of their +language. The brown-haired Celtic nations were certainly different +from the race of the light-haired Germanic nations; and though the +Druid caste recalls to our minds one of the institutions of the +Ganges, this does not demonstrate that the idiom of the Celts +belongs, like that of the nations of Odin, to a branch of the +Indo-Pelasgic languages. From analogy of structure and of roots, +the Latin ought to have penetrated more easily on the other side of +the Danube, than into Gaul; but an uncultivated state, joined to +great moral inflexibility, probably opposed its introduction among +the Germanic nations.) But the natives of these countries were not +savages;--they inhabited towns; they were acquainted with the use +of money; and they possessed institutions denoting a tolerably +advanced state of cultivation. The allurement of commerce, and a +long abode of the Roman legions, had promoted intercourse between +them and their conquerors. We see, on the contrary, that the +introduction of the languages of the mother-countries was met by +obstacles almost innumerable, wherever Carthaginian, Greek, or +Roman colonies were established on coasts entirely barbarous. In +every age, and in every climate, the first impulse of the savage is +to shun the civilized man. + +The language of the Chayma Indians was less agreeable to my ear +than the Caribbee, the Salive, and other languages of the Orinoco. +It has fewer sonorous terminations in accented vowels. We are +struck with the frequent repetition of the syllables guaz, ez, +puec, and pur. These terminations are derived in part from the +inflexion of the verb to be, and from certain prepositions, which +are added at the ends of words, and which, according to the genius +of the American idioms, are incorporated with them. It would be +wrong to attribute this harshness of sound to the abode of the +Chaymas in the mountains. They are strangers to that temperate +climate. They have been led thither by the missionaries; and it is +well known that, like all the inhabitants of warm regions, they at +first dreaded what they called the cold of Caripe. I employed +myself, with M. Bonpland, during our abode at the hospital of the +Capuchins, in forming a small catalogue of Chayma words. I am aware +that languages are much more strongly characterised by their +structure and grammatical forms than by the analogy of their sounds +and of their roots; and that the analogy of sounds is sometimes so +disguised in different dialects of the same tongue, as not to be +recognizable; for the tribes into which a nation is divided, often +designate the same objects by words altogether heterogeneous. Hence +it follows that we readily fall into mistakes, if, neglecting the +study of the inflexions, and consulting only the roots (for +instance, in the words which designate the moon, sky, water, and +earth), we decide on the absolute difference of two idioms from the +mere want of resemblance in sounds. But, while aware of this source +of error, travellers would do well to continue to collect such +materials as may be within their reach. If they do not make known +the internal structure, and general arrangement of the edifice, +they may point out some important parts. + +The three languages now most used in the provinces of Cumana and +Barcelona, are the Chayma, the Cumanagota, and the Caribbee. They +have always been regarded in these countries as different idioms, +and a dictionary of each has been written for the use of the +Missions, by Fathers Tauste, Ruiz-blanco, and Breton. The +Vocabulario y Arte de la Lengua de los Indios Chaymas has become +extremely scarce. The few American grammars, printed for the most +part in the seventeenth century, passed into the Missions, and have +been lost in the forests. The dampness of the air and the voracity +of insects* render the preservation of books almost impossible in +those regions (* The termites, so well known in Spanish America +under the name of comegen, or 'devourer,' is one of these +destructive insects.): they are destroyed in a short space of time, +notwithstanding every precaution that may be employed. I had much +difficulty to collect in the Missions, and in the convents, those +grammars of American languages, which, on my return to Europe, I +placed in the hands of Severin Vater, professor and librarian at +the university of Konigsberg. They furnished him with useful +materials for his great work on the idioms of the New World. I +omitted, at the time, to transcribe from my journal, and +communicate to that learned gentleman, what I had collected in the +Chayma tongue. Since neither Father Gili, nor the Abbe Hervas, has +mentioned this language, I shall here explain succinctly the result +of my researches. + +On the right bank of the Orinoco, south-east of the Mission of +Encaramada, and at the distance of more than a hundred leagues from +the Chaymas, live the Tamanacs (Tamanacu), whose language is +divided into several dialects. This nation, formerly very powerful, +is separated from the mountains of Caripe by the Orinoco, by the +vast steppes of Caracas and of Cumana; and by a barrier far more +difficult to surmount, the nations of Caribbean origin. But +notwithstanding distance, and the numerous obstacles in the way of +intercourse, the language of the Chayma Indians is a branch of the +Tamanac tongue. The oldest missionaries of Caripe are ignorant of +this curious fact, because the Capuchins of Aragon seldom visit the +southern banks of the Orinoco, and scarcely know of the existence +of the Tamanacs. I recognized the analogy between the idiom of this +nation, and that of the Chayma Indians long after my return to +Europe, in comparing the materials which I had collected with the +sketch of a grammar published in Italy by an old missionary of the +Orinoco. Without knowing the Chaymas, the Abbe Gili conjectured +that the language of the inhabitants of Paria must have some +relation to the Tamanac.* (* Vater has also advanced some +well-founded conjectures on the connexion between the Tamanac and +Caribbean tongues and those spoken on the north-east coast of South +America. I may acquaint the reader, that I have written the words +of the American languages according to the Spanish orthography, so +that the u should be pronounced oo, the ch like ch in English, etc. +Having during a great number of years spoken no other language than +the Castilian, I marked down the sounds according to the +orthography of that language, and now I am afraid of changing the +value of these signs, by substituting others no less imperfect. It +is a barbarous practice, to express, like the greater part of the +nations of Europe, the most simple and distinct sounds by many +vowels, or many united consonants, while they might be indicated by +letters equally simple. What a chaos is exhibited by the +vocabularies written according to English, German, French, or +Spanish notations! A new essay, which the illustrious author of the +travels in Egypt, M. Volney, is about to publish on the analysis of +sounds found in different nations, and on the notation of those +sounds according to a uniform system, will lead to great progress +In the study of languages.) + +I will prove this connection by two means which serve to show the +analogy of idioms; namely, the grammatical construction, and the +identity of words and roots. The following are the personal +pronouns of the Chaymas, which are at the same time possessive +pronouns; u-re, I, me; eu-re, thou, thee; teu-re, he, him. In the +Tamanac, u-re, I; amare or anja, thou; iteu-ja, he. The radical of +the first and of third person is in the Chayma u and teu.* (* We +must not wonder at those roots which reduce themselves to a single +vowel. In a language of the Old Continent, the structure of which +is so artificially complicated, (the Biscayan,) the family name +Ugarte (between the waters) contains the u of ura (water) and arte +between. The g is added for the sake of euphony.) The same roots +are found in the Tamanac. + +TABLE OF CHAYMA AND TAMANAC WORDS COMPARED: + +COLUMN 1 : English. + +COLUMN 2 : CHAYMA. + +COLUMN 3 : TAMANAC. + + I : Ure : Ure. + water : Tuna : Tuna. + rain : Conopo* : Canopo.* (* The same word, conopo, + signifies rain and year. The years + are counted by the number of winters, + or rainy seasons. They say in Chayma, + as in Sanscrit, 'so many rains,' + meaning so many years. In the Basque + language, the word urtea, year, is + derived from urten, to bring forth + leaves in spring.) + to know : Poturu : Puturo. + fire : Apoto : Uapto (in Caribbean uato). +the moon, a month : Nuna : Nuna.* (* In the Tamanac and Caribbean + languages, Nono signifies the earth, + Nuna the moon; as in the Chayma. + This affinity appears to me very + curious; and the Indians of the + Rio Caura say, that the moon is + 'another earth.' Among savage nations, + amidst so many confused ideas, we find + certain reminiscences well worthy of + attention. Among the Greenlanders Nuna + signifies the earth, and Anoningat + the moon.) + a tree : Je : Jeje. + a house : Ata : Aute. + to you : Euya : Auya. + to you : Toya : Iteuya. + honey : Guane : Uane. + he has said it : Nacaramayre : Nacaramai. + a physician, + a sorcerer : Piache : Psiache. + one : Tibin : Obin (in Jaoi, Tewin). + two : Aco : Oco (in Caribbean, Occo). + two : Oroa : Orua (in Caribbean, Oroa). + flesh : Pun : Punu. + no (negation) : Pra : Pra. + +The verb to be, is expressed in Chayma by az. On adding to the verb +the personal pronoun I (u from u-re), a g is placed, for the sake +of euphony, before the u, as in guaz, I am, properly g-u-az. As the +first person is known by an u, the second is designated by an m, +the third by an i; maz, thou art; muerepuec araquapemaz? why art +thou sad? properly what for sad thou art; punpuec topuchemaz, thou +art fat in body, properly flesh (pun) for (puec) fat (topuche) thou +art (maz). The possessive pronouns precede the substantive; upatay, +in my house, properly my house in. All the prepositions and the +negation pra are incorporated at the end, as in the Tamanac. They +say in Chayma, ipuec, with him, properly him with; euya, to thee, +or thee to; epuec charpe guaz, I am gay with thee, properly thee +with gay I am; ucarepra, not as I, properly I as not; quenpotupra +quoguaz, I do not know him, properly him knowing not I am; quenepra +quoguaz, I have not seen him, properly him seeing not I am. In the +Tamanac tongue, acurivane means beautiful, and acurivanepra, +ugly--not beautiful; outapra, there is no fish, properly fish none; +uteripipra, I will not go, properly I to go will not, composed of +uteri,* to go, ipiri, to choose, and pra, not. (* In Chayma: +utechire, I will go also, properly I (u) to go (the radical ute, +or, because of the preceding vowel, te) also (chere, or ere, or +ire). In utechire we find the Tamanac verb to go, uteri, of which +ute is also the radical, and ri the termination of the Infinitive. +In order to show that in Chayma chere or ere indicates the adverb +also, I shall cite from the fragment of a vocabulary in my +possession, u-chere, I also; nacaramayre, he said so also; +guarzazere, I carried also; charechere, to carry also. In the +Tamanac, as in the Chayma, chareri signifies to carry.) Among the +Caribbees, whose language also bears some relation to the Tamanac, +though infinitely less than the Chayma, the negation is expressed +by an m placed before the verb: amoyenlengati, it is very cold; and +mamoyenlengati, it is not very cold. In an analogous manner, the +particle mna added to the Tamanac verb, not at the end, but by +intercalation, gives it a negative sense, as taro, to say, +taromnar, not to say. + +The verb to be, very irregular in all languages, is az or ats in +Chayma; and uochiri (in composition uac, uatscha) in Tamanac. It +serves not only to form the Passive, but it is added also, as by +agglutination, to the radical of attributive verbs, in a number of +tenses.* (* The present in the Tamanac, jarer-bae-ure, appears to +me nothing else then the verb bac, or uac (from uacschiri, to be ), +added to the radical to carry, jare (in the infinitive jareri), the +result of which is carrying to be I.) These agglutinations remind +us of the employment in the Sanscrit of the auxiliary verbs as and +bhu (asti and bhavati* (* In the branch of the Germanic languages +we find bhu under the forms bim, bist; as, in the forms vas, vast, +vesum (Bopp page 138).)); the Latin, of es and fu, or fus;* (* +Hence fu-ero; amav-issem; amav-eram; pos-sum (pot-sum).) the +Biscayan, of izan, ucan, and eguin. There are certain points in +which idioms the most dissimilar concur one with another. That +which is common in the intellectual organization of man is +reflected in the general structure of language; and every idiom, +however barbarous it may appear, discloses a regulating principle +which has presided at its formation. + +The plural, in Tamanac, is indicated in seven different ways, +according to the termination of the substantive, or according as it +designates an animate or inanimate object.* (* Tamanacu, a Tamanac +(plur. Tamanakemi): Pongheme, a Spaniard (properly a man clothed); +Pongamo, Spaniards, or men clothed. The plural in cne characterizes +inanimate objects: for example, cene, a thing; cenecne, things: +jeje, a tree; jejecne, trees.) In Chayma the plural is formed as in +Caribbee, in on; teure, himself; teurecon, themselves; tanorocon, +those here; montaonocon, those below, supposing that the +interlocutor is speaking of a place where he was himself present; +miyonocon, those below, supposing he speaks of a place where he was +not present. The Chaymas have also the Castilian adverbs aqui and +alla, shades of difference which can be expressed only by +periphrasis, in the idioms of Germanic and Latin origin. + +Some Indians, who were acquainted with Spanish, assured us, that +zis signified not only the sun, but also the Deity. This appeared +to me the more extraordinary, as among all other American nations +we find distinct words for God and the sun. The Carib does not +confound Tamoussicabo, the Ancient of Heaven, with veyou, the sun. +Even the Peruvian, though a worshipper of the sun, raises his mind +to the idea of a Being who regulates the movements of the stars. +The sun, in the language of the Incas, bears the name of inti,* (* +In the Quichua, or language of the Incas, the sun is inti; love, +munay; great, veypul; in Sanscrit, the sun, indre: love, manya; +great, vipulo. (Vater Mithridates tome 3 page 333.) These are the +only examples of analogy of sound, that have yet been noticed. The +grammatical character of the two languages is totally different.) +nearly the same as in Sanscrit; while God is called Vinay Huayna, +the eternally young.'* (* Vinay, always, or eternal; huayna, in the +flower of age.) + +The arrangement of words in the Chayma is similar to that found in +all the languages of both continents, which have preserved a +certain primitive character. The object is placed before the verb, +the verb before the personal pronoun. The object, on which the +attention should be principally fixed, precedes all the +modifications of that object. The American would say, liberty +complete love we, instead of we love complete liberty; Thee with +happy am I, instead of I am happy with thee. There is something +direct, firm, demonstrative, in these turns, the simplicity of +which is augmented by the absence of the article. May it be +presumed that, with advancing civilization, these nations, left to +themselves, would have gradually changed the arrangement of their +phrases? We are led to adopt this idea, when we reflect on the +changes which the syntax of the Romans has undergone in the +precise, clear, but somewhat timid languages of Latin Europe. + +The Chayma, like the Tamanac and most of the American languages, is +entirely destitute of certain letters, as f, b, and d. No word +begins with an l. The same observation has been made on the Mexican +tongue, though it is overcharged with the syllables tli, tla, and +itl, at the end or in the middle of words. The Chaymas substitute r +for l; a substitution that arises from a defect of pronunciation +common in every zone.* (* For example, the substitution of r for l, +characterizes the Bashmurie dialect of the Coptic language.) Thus, +the Caribbees of the Orinoco have been transformed into Galibi in +French Guiana by confounding r with l, and softening the c. The +Tamanac has made choraro and solalo of the Spanish word soldado +(soldier). The disappearance of the f and b in so many American +idioms arises out of that intimate connection between certain +sounds, which is manifested in all languages of the same origin. +The letters f, v, b, and p, are substituted one for the other; for +instance, in the Persian, peder, father (pater); burader,* (* +Whence the German bruder, with the same consonants.) brother +(frater); behar, spring (ver); in Greek, phorton (forton), a +burthen; pous (pous) a foot, (fuss, Germ.). In the same manner, +with the Americans, f and b become p; and d becomes t. The Chayma +pronounces patre, Tios, Atani, aracapucha, for padre, Dios, Adan, +and arcabuz (harquebuss). + +In spite of the relations just pointed out, I do not think that the +Chayma language can be regarded as a dialect of the Tamanac, as the +Maitano, Cuchivero, and Crataima undoubtedly are. There are many +essential differences; and between the two languages there appears +to me to exist merely the same connection as is found in the +German, the Swedish, and the English. They belong to the same +subdivision of the great family of the Tamanac, Caribbean, and +Arowak tongues. As there exists no absolute measure of resemblance +between idioms, the degrees of parentage can be indicated only by +examples taken from known tongues. We consider those as being of +the same family, which bear affinity one to the other, as the +Greek, the German, the Persian, and the Sanscrit. + +Some philologists have imagined, on comparing languages, that they +may all be divided into two classes, of which some, comparatively +perfect in their organization, easy and rapid in their movements, +indicate an interior development by inflexion; while others, more +rude and less susceptible of improvement, present only a crude +assemblage of small forms or agglutinated particles, each +preserving the physiognomy peculiar to itself; when it is +separately employed. This very ingenious view would be deficient in +accuracy were it supposed that there exist polysyllabic idioms +without any inflexion, or that those which are organically +developed as by interior germs, admit no external increase by means +of suffixes and affixes;* (* Even in the Sanscrit several tenses +are formed by aggregation; for example, in the first future, the +substantive verb to be is added to the radical. In a similar manner +we find in the Greek mach-eso, if the s be not the effect of +inflexion, and in Latin pot-ero (Bopp pages 26 and 66). These are +examples of incorporation and agglutination in the grammatical +system of languages which are justly cited as models of an interior +development by inflexion. In the grammatical system of the American +tongues, for example in the Tamanac, tarecschi, I will carry, is +equally composed of the radical ar (infin. jareri, to carry) and of +the verb ecschi (Infin. nocschiri, to be). There hardly exists in +the American languages a triple mode of aggregation, of which we +cannot find a similar and analogous example in some other language +that is supposed to develop itself only by inflexion.) an increase +which we have already mentioned several times under the name of +agglutination or incorporation. Many things, which appear to us at +present inflexions of a radical, have perhaps been in their origin +affixes, of which there have barely remained one or two consonants. +In languages, as in everything in nature that is organized, nothing +is entirely isolated or unlike. The farther we penetrate into their +internal structure, the more do contrasts and decided characters +vanish. It may be said that they are like clouds, the outlines of +which do not appear well defined, except when viewed at a distance. + +But though we may not admit one simple and absolute principle in +the classification of languages, yet it cannot be decided, that in +their present state some manifest a greater tendency to inflexion, +others to external aggregation. It is well known, that the +languages of the Indian, Pelasgic, and German branch, belong to the +first division; the American idioms, the Coptic or ancient +Egyptian, and to a certain degree, the Semitic languages and the +Biscayan, to the second. The little we have made known of the idiom +of the Chaymas of Caripe, sufficiently proves that constant +tendency towards the incorporation or aggregation of certain forms, +which it is easy to separate; though from a somewhat refined +sentiment of euphony some letters have been dropped and others have +been added. Those affixes, by lengthening words, indicate the most +varied relations of number, time, and motion. + +When we reflect on the peculiar structure of the American +languages, we imagine we discover the source of the opinion +generally entertained from the most remote time in the Missions, +that these languages have an analogy with the Hebrew and the +Biscayan. At the convent of Caripe as well as at the Orinoco, in +Peru as well as in Mexico, I heard this opinion expressed, +particularly by monks who had some vague notions of the Semitic +languages. Did motives supposed to be favourable to religion, give +rise to this extraordinary theory? In the north of America, among +the Choctaws and the Chickasaws, travellers somewhat credulous have +heard the strains of the Hallelujah* of the Hebrews (* L'Escarbot, +Charlevoix, and even Adair (Hist. of the American Indians 1775).); +as, according to the Pundits, the three sacred words of the +mysteries of the Eleusis* (konx om pax) resound still in the +Indies. (* Asiat. Res. volume 5, Ouvaroff on the Eleusinian +Mysteries 1816.) I do not mean to suggest, that the nations of +Latin Europe may have called whatever has a foreign physiognomy +Hebrew or Biscayan, as for a long time all those monuments were +called Egyptian, which were not in the Grecian or Roman style. I am +rather disposed to think that the grammatical system of the +American idioms has confirmed the missionaries of the sixteenth +century in their ideas respecting the Asiatic origin of the nations +of the New World. The tedious compilation of Father Garcia, Tratado +del Origen de los Indios,* (* Treatise on the Origin of the +Indians.) is a proof of this. The position of the possessive and +personal pronouns at the end of the noun and the verb, as well as +the numerous tenses of the latter, characterize the Hebrew and the +other Semitic languages. Some of the missionaries were struck at +finding the same peculiarities in the American tongues: they did +not reflect, that the analogy of a few scattered features does not +prove languages to belong to the same stock. + +It appears less astonishing, that men, who are well acquainted with +only two languages extremely heterogeneous, the Castilian and the +Biscayan, should have found in the latter a family resemblance to +the American languages. The composition of words, the facility with +which the partial elements are detected, the forms of the verbs, +and their different modifications, may have caused and kept up this +illusion. But we repeat, an equal tendency towards aggregation or +incorporation does not constitute an identity of origin. The +following are examples of the relations between the American and +Biscayan languages; idioms totally different in their roots. + +In Chayma, quenpotupra quoguaz, I do not know, properly, knowing +not I am. In Tamanac, jarer-uac-ure, bearing am I,--I bear; +anarepra aichi, he will not bear, properly, bearing not will he; +patcurbe, good; patcutari, to make himself good; Tamanacu, a +Tamanac; Tamanacutari, to make himself a Tainanac; Pongheme, a +Spaniard; ponghemtari, to Spaniardize himself; tenecchi, I will +see; teneicre, I will see again; teecha, I go; tecshare, I return; +maypur butke, a little Maypure Indian; aicabutke, a little woman; +maypuritaje, an ugly Maypure Indian; aicataje, an ugly woman.* (* +The diminutive of woman (aica) or of Maypure Indian is formed by +adding butke, which is the termination of cujuputke, little: taje +answers to the accio of the Italians.) + +In Biscayan: maitetutendot, I love him, properly, I loving have +him; beguia, the eye, and beguitsa, to see; aitagana, towards the +father: by adding tu, we form the verb aitaganatu, to go towards +the father; ume-tasuna, soft and infantile ingenuity; umequeria, +disagreeable childishness. + +I may add to these examples some descriptive compounds, which call +to mind the infancy of nations, and strike us equally in the +American and Biscayan languages, by a certain ingenuousness of +expression. In Tamanac, the wasp (uane-imu), father (im-de) of +honey (uane);* (* It may not be unnecessary here to acquaint the +reader that honey is produced by an insect of South America, +belonging to, or nearly allied, to the wasp genus. This honey, +however, possesses noxious qualities which are by some naturalists +attributed to the plant Paulinia Australis, the juices of which are +collected by the insect.) the toes, ptarimucuru, properly, the sons +of the foot; the fingers, amgnamucuru, the sons of the hand; +mushrooms, jeje-panari, properly, the ears (panari) of a tree +(jeje); the veins of the hand, amgna-mitti, properly, the ramified +roots; leaves, prutpe-jareri, properly, the hair at the top of the +tree; puirene-veju, properly, the sun (veju), straight or +perpendicular; lightning, kinemeru-uaptori, properly, the fire +(uapto) of the thunder, or of the storm. (I recognise in kinemeru, +thunder or storm, the root kineme black.) In Biscayan, becoquia, +the forehead, what belongs (co and quia) to the eye (beguia); +odotsa, the noise (otsa) of the cloud (odeia), or thunder; +arribicia, an echo, properly, the animated stone, from arria, +stone, and bicia, life. + +The Chayma and Tamanac verbs have an enormous complication of +tenses: two Presents, four Preterites, three Futures. This +multiplicity characterises the rudest American languages. Astarloa +reckons, in like manner, in the grammatical system of the Biscayan, +two hundred and six forms of the verb. Those languages, the +principal tendency of which is inflexion, are to the common +observer less interesting than those which seem formed by +aggregation. In the first, the elements of which words are +composed, and which are generally reduced to a few letters, are no +longer recognisable: these elements, when isolated, exhibit no +meaning; the whole is assimilated and mingled together. The +American languages, on the contrary, are like complicated machines, +the wheels of which are exposed to view. The mechanism of their +construction is visible. We seem to be present at their formation, +and we should pronounce them to be of very recent origin, did we +not recollect that the human mind steadily follows an impulse once +given; that nations enlarge, improve, and repair the grammatical +edifice of their languages, according to a plan already determined; +finally, that there are countries, whose languages, institutions, +and arts, have remained unchanged, we might almost say stereotyped, +during the lapse of ages. + +The highest degree of intellectual development has been hitherto +found among the nations of the Indian and Pelasgic branch. The +languages formed principally by aggregation seem themselves to +oppose obstacles to the improvement of the mind. They are devoid of +that rapid movement, that interior life, to which the inflexion of +the root is favourable, and which impart such charms to works of +imagination. Let us not, however, forget, that a people celebrated +in remote antiquity, a people from whom the Greeks themselves +borrowed knowledge, had perhaps a language, the construction of +which recalls involuntarily that of the languages of America. What +a structure of little monosyllabic and disyllabic forms is added to +the verb and to the substantive, in the Coptic language! The +semi-barbarous Chayma and Tamanac have tolerably short abstract +words to express grandeur, envy, and lightness, cheictivate, uoite, +and uonde; but in Coptic, the word malice,* metrepherpetou, is +composed of five elements, easy to be distinguished. (* See, on the +incontestable identity of the ancient Egyptian and Coptic, and on +the particular system of synthesis of the latter language, the +ingenious reflexions of M. Silvestre de Sacy, in the Notice des +Recherches de M. Etienne Quatremere sur La Litterature de l'Epypte. +) This compound signifies the quality (met) of a subject (reph), +which makes (er) the thing which is (pet), evil (ou). Nevertheless +the Coptic language has had its literature, like the Chinese, the +roots of which, far from being aggregated, scarcely approach each +other without immediate contact. We must admit that nations once +roused from their lethargy, and tending towards civilization, find +in the most uncouth languages the secret of expressing with +clearness the conceptions of the mind, and of painting the emotions +of the soul. Don Juan de la Rea, a highly estimable man, who +perished in the sanguinary revolutions of Quito, imitated with +graceful simplicity some Idylls of Theocritus in the language of +the Incas; and I have been assured, that, excepting treatises on +science and philosophy, there is scarcely any work of modern +literature that might not be translated into the Peruvian. + +The intimate connection established between the natives of the New +World and the Spaniards since the conquest, have introduced a +certain number of American words into the Castilian language. Some +of these words express things not unknown before the discovery of +the New World, and scarcely recall to our minds at present their +barbarous origin.* (* For example savannah, and cannibal.) Almost +all belong to the language of the great Antilles, formerly termed +the language of Haiti, of Quizqueja, or of Itis.* (* The word Itis, +for Haiti or St. Domingo (Hispaniola), is found in the Itinerarium +of Bishop Geraldini (Rome 1631.)--"Quum Colonus Itim insulam +cerneret.") I shall confine myself to citing the words maiz, +tabaco, canoa, batata, cacique, balsa, conuco, etc. When the +Spaniards, after the year 1498, began to visit the mainland, they +already had words* to designate the vegetable productions most +useful to man, and common both to the islands and to the coasts of +Cumana and Paria. (* The following are Haitian words, in their real +form, which have passed into the Castilian language since the end +of the 15th century. Many of them are not uninteresting to +descriptive botany. Ahi (Capsicum baccatum), batata (Convolvus +batatas), bihao (Heliconia bihai), caimito (Chrysophyllum caimito), +cahoba (Swietenia mahagoni), jucca and casabi (Jatropba manihot); +the word casabi or cassava is employed only for the bread made with +the roots of the Jatropha (the name of the plant jucca was also +heard by Americo Vespucci on the coast of Paria); age or ajes +(Dioscorea alata), copei (Clusia alba), guayacan (Guaiacum +officinale), guajaba (Psidium pyriferum), guanavano (Anona +muricata), mani (Arachis hypogaea), guama (Inga), henequen (was +supposed from the erroneous accounts of the first travellers to be +an herb with which the Haitians used to cut metals; it means now +every kind of strong thread), hicaco (Chrysobalanus icaco), maghei +(Agave Americana), mahiz or maiz (Zea, maize), mamei (Mammea +Americana), mangle (Rhizophora), pitahaja (Cactus pitahaja), ceiba +(Bombax), tuna (Cactus tuna), hicotea (a tortoise), iguana (Lacerta +iguana), manatee (Trichecus manati), nigua (Pulex penetrans), +hamaca (a hammock), balsa (a raft; however balsa is an old +Castilian word signifying a pool of water), barbacoa (a small bed +of light wood, or reeds), canei or buhio (a hut), canoa (a canoe), +cocujo (Elater noctilucus, the fire-fly), chicha (fermented +liquor), macana (a large stick or club, made with the petioles of a +palm-tree), tabaco (not the herb, but the pipe through which it is +smoked), cacique (a chief). Other American words, now as much in +use among the Creoles, as the Arabic words naturalized in the +Spanish, do not belong to the Haitian tongue; for example, caiman, +piragua, papaja (Carica), aguacate (Persea), tarabita, paramo. Abbe +Gili thinks with some probability, that they are derived from the +tongue of some people who inhabited the temperate climate between +Coro, the mountains of Merida, and the tableland of Bogota. (Saggio +volume 3 page 228.) How many Celtic and German words would not +Julius Caesar and Tacitus have handed down to us, had the +productions of the northern countries visited by the Romans +differed as much from the Italian and Roman, as those of +equinoctial America!) Not satisfied with retaining these words +borrowed from the Haitians, they helped also to spread them all +over America (at a period when the language of Haiti was already a +dead language), and to diffuse them among nations who were ignorant +even of the existence of the West India Islands. Some words, which +are in daily use in the Spanish colonies, are attributed +erroneously to the Haitians. Banana is from the Chaconese, the +Mbaja language; arepa (bread of manioc, or of the Jatropha manihot) +and guayuco (an apron, perizoma) are Caribbee: curiara (a very long +boat) is Tamanac: chinchorro (a hammock), and tutuma (the fruit of +the Crescentia cujete, or a vessel to contain a liquid), are Chayma +words. + +I have dwelt thus long on considerations respecting the American +tongues, because I am desirous of directing attention to the deep +interest attached to this kind of research. This interest is +analogous to that inspired by the monuments of semi-barbarous +nations, which are examined not because they deserve to be ranked +among works of art, but because the study of them throws light on +the history of our species, and the progressive development of our +faculties. + +It now remains for me to speak of the other Indian nations +inhabiting the provinces of Cumana and Barcelona. These I shall +only succinctly enumerate. + +1. The Pariagotos or Parias. + +It is thought that the terminations in goto, as Pariagoto, +Purugoto, Avarigoto, Acherigoto, Cumanagoto, Arinagoto, +Kirikirisgoto,* (* The Kirikirisgotos (or Kirikiripas) are of Dutch +Guiana. It is very remarkable, that among the small Brazilian +tribes who do not speak the language of the Tupis, the Kiriris, +notwithstanding the enormous distance of 650 leagues, have several +Tamanac words.) imply a Caribbean origin.* (* In the Tamanac +tongue, which is of the same branch as the Caribbean, we find also +the termination goto, as in anekiamgoto an animal. Often an analogy +in the termination of names, far from showing an identity of race, +only indicates that the names of the nations are borrowed from one +language.) All these tribes, excepting the Purugotos of the Rio +Caura, formerly occupied the country which has been so long under +the dominion of the Caribbees; namely, the coasts of Berbice and of +Essequibo, the peninsula of Paria, the plains of Piritu and Parima. +By this last name the little-known country, between the sources of +the Cujuni, the Caroni, and the Mao, is designated in the Missions. +The Paria Indians are mingled in part with the Chaymas of Cumana; +others have been settled by the Capuchins of Aragon in the Missions +of Caroni; for instance, at Cupapuy and Alta-Gracia, where they +still speak their own language, apparently a dialect between the +Tamanac and the Caribbee. But it may be asked, is the name Parias +or Pariagotos, a name merely geographical? Did the Spaniards, who +frequented these coasts from their first establishment in the +island of Cubagua and in Macarapana, give the name of the +promontory of Paria* to the tribe by which it was inhabited? (* +Paria, Uraparia, even Huriaparia and Payra, are the ancient names +of the country, written as the first navigators thought they heard +them pronounced. It appears to me by no means probable, that the +promontory of Paria should derive its name from that of a cacique +Uriapari, celebrated for the manner in which he resisted Diego +Ordaz in 1530, thirty-two years after Columbus had heard the name +of Paria from the mouths of the natives themselves. The Orinoco at +its mouth had also the name of Uriapari, Yuyapari, or Iyupari. In +all these denominations of a great river, of a shore, and of a +rainy country, I think I recognise the radical par, signifying +water, not only in the languages of these countries, but also in +those of nations very distant from one another on the eastern and +western coasts of America. The sea, or great water, is in the +Caribbean, Maypure, and Brazilian languages, parana: in the +Tamanac, parava. In Upper Guiana also the Orinoco is called Parava. +In the Peruvian, or Quichua, I find rain, para; to rain, parani. +Besides, there is a lake in Peru that has been very anciently +called Paria. (Garcia, Origen de los Indios, page 292.) I have +entered into these minute details concerning the word Paria, +because it has recently been supposed that some connection might be +traced between this word and the country of the Hindoo caste called +the Parias.) This we will not positively affirm; for the Caribbees +themselves give the name of Caribana to a country which they +occupied, and which extended from the Rio Sinu to the gulf of +Darien. This is a striking example of identity of name between an +American nation and the territory it possessed. We may conceive, +that in a state of society, where residence is not long fixed, such +instances must be very rare. + +2. The Guaraons or Gu-ara-una, almost all free and independent, are +dispersed in the Delta of the Orinoco, with the variously ramified +channels of which they alone are well acquainted. The Caribbees +call the Guaraons U-ara-u. They owe their independence to the +nature of their country; for the missionaries, in spite of their +zeal, have not been tempted to follow them to the tree-tops. The +Guaraons, in order to raise their abodes above the surface of the +waters at the period of the great inundations, support them on the +hewn trunks of the mangrove-tree and of the Mauritia palm-tree.* (* +Their manners have been the same from time immemorial. Cardinal +Bembo described them at the beginning of the 16th century, +"quibusdam in locis propter paludes incolae domus in arboribus +aedificant." (Hist. Venet. 1551.) Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1595, +speaks of the Guaraons under the names of Araottes, Trivitivas, and +Warawites. These were perhaps the names of some tribes, into which +the great Guaraonese nation was divided. (Barrere Essai sur l'Hist. +Naturelle de la France Equinoctiale.)) They make bread of the +medullary flour of this palm-tree, which is the sago of America. +The flour bears the name of yuruma: I have eaten it at the town of +St. Thomas, in Guiana, and it was very agreeable to the taste, +resembling rather the cassava-bread than the sago of India.* (* M. +Kunth has combined together three genera of the palms, Calamus, +Sigus, and Mauritia, in a new section, the Calameae.) The Indians +assured me that the trunks of the Mauritia, the tree of life so +much vaunted by father Gumilla, do not yield meal in any abundance, +unless the palm-tree is cut down just before the flowers appear. +Thus too the maguey,* (* Agave Americana, the aloe of our gardens.) +cultivated in New Spain, furnishes a saccharine liquor, the wine +(pulque) of the Mexicans, only at the period when the plant shoots +forth its long stem. By interrupting the blossoming, nature is +obliged to carry elsewhere the saccharine or amylaceous matter, +which would accumulate in the flowers of the maguey and in the +fruit of the Mauritia. Some families of Guaraons, associated with +the Chaymas, live far from their native land, in the Missions of +the plains or llanos of Cumana; for instance, at Santa Rosa de +Ocopi. Five or six hundred of them voluntarily quitted their +marshes, a few years ago, and formed, on the northern and southern +banks of the Orinoco, twenty-five leagues distant from Cape Barima, +two considerable villages, under the names of Zacupana and Imataca. +When I made my journey in Caripe, these Indians were still without +missionaries, and lived in complete independence. Their excellent +qualities as boatmen, their perfect knowledge of the mouths of the +Orinoco, and of the labyrinth of branches communicating with each +other, give the Guaraons a certain political importance. They +favour that clandestine commerce of which the island of Trinidad is +the centre. The Guaraons run with extreme address on muddy lands, +where the European, the Negro, or other Indians except themselves, +would not dare to walk; and it is, therefore, commonly believed, +that they are of lighter weight than the rest of the natives. This +is also the opinion that is held in Asia of the Burat Tartars. The +few Guaraons whom I saw were of middle size, squat, and very +muscular. The lightness with which they walk in places newly dried, +without sinking in, when even they have no planks tied to their +feet, seemed to me the effect of long habit. Though I sailed a +considerable time on the Orinoco, I never went so low as its mouth. +Future travellers, who may visit those marshy regions, will rectify +what I have advanced. + +3. The Guaiqueries or Guaikeri, are the most able and most intrepid +fishermen of these countries. These people alone are well +acquainted with the bank abounding with fish, which surrounds the +islands of Coche, Margareta, Sola, and Testigos; a bank of more +than four hundred square leagues, extending east and west from +Maniquarez to the Boca del Draco. The Guaiqueries inhabit the +island of Margareta, the peninsula of Araya, and that suburb of +Cumana which bears their name. Their language is believed to be a +dialect of that of the Guaraons. This would connect them with the +great family of the Caribbee nations; and the missionary Gili is of +opinion that the language of the Guaiqueries is one of the numerous +branches of the Caribbean tongue.* (* If the name of the port +Pam-patar, in the island of Margareta, be Guaiquerean, as we have +no reason to doubt, it exhibits a feature of analogy with the +Cumanagoto tongue, which approaches the Caribbean and Tamanac. In +Terra Firma, in the Piritu Missions, we find the village of +Cayguapatar, which signifies house of Caygua.) These affinities are +interesting, because they lead us to perceive an ancient connection +between nations dispersed over a vast extent of country, from the +mouth of the Rio Caura and the sources of the Erevato, in Parima, +to French Guiana, and the coasts of Paria.* (* Are the Guaiqueries, +or O-aikeries, now settled on the borders of the Erevato, and +formerly between the Rio Caura and the Cuchivero near the little +town of Alta Gracia, of a different origin from the Guaikeries of +Cumana? I know also, in the interior of the country, in the +Missions of the Piritus, near the village of San Juan Evangelista +del Guarive, a ravine very anciently called Guayquiricuar. These +resemblances seem to prove migrations from the south-west towards +the coast. The termination cuar, found so often in Cumanagoto and +Caribbean names, means a ravine, as in Guaymacuar (ravine of +lizards), Pirichucuar (a ravine overshaded by pirichu or piritu +palm-trees), Chiguatacuar (a ravine of land-shells). Raleigh +describes the Guaiqueries under the name of Ouikeries. He calls the +Chaymas, Saimas, changing (according to the Caribbean +pronunciation) the ch into s.) + +4. The Quaquas, whom the Tamanacs call Mapoje, are a tribe formerly +very warlike and allied to the Caribbees. It is a curious +phenomenon to find the Quaquas mingled with the Chaymas in the +Missions of Cumana, for their language, as well as the Atura, of +the cataracts of the Orinoco, is a dialect of the Salive tongue; +and their original abode was on the banks of the Assiveru, which +the Spaniards call Cuchivero. They have extended their migrations +one hundred leagues to the north-east. I have often heard them +mentioned on the Orinoco, above the mouth of the Meta; and, what is +very remarkable, it is asserted* that missionary Jesuits have found +Quaquas as far distant as the Cordilleras of Popayan. (* Vater tome +3 part 2 page 364. The name of Quaqua is found on the coast of +Guinea. The Europeans apply it to a horde of Negroes to the east of +Cape Lahou.) Raleigh enumerates, among the natives of the island of +Trinidad, the Salives, a people remarkable for their mild manners; +they came from the Orinoco, and settled south of the Quaquas. +Perhaps these two nations, which speak almost the same language, +travelled together towards the coasts. + +5. The Cumanagotos, or, according to the pronunciation of the +Indians, Cumanacoto, are now settled westward of Cumana, in the +Missions of Piritu, where they live by cultivating the ground. They +number more than twenty-six thousand. Their language, like that of +the Palencas, or Palenques, and Guarivas, is between the Tamanac +and the Caribbee, but nearer to the former. These are indeed idioms +of the same family; but if we are to consider them as simple +dialects, the Latin must be also called a dialect of the Greek, and +the Swedish a dialect of the German. In considering the affinity of +languages one with another, it must not be forgotten that these +affinities may be very differently graduated; and that it would be +a source of confusion not to distinguish between simple dialects +and languages of the same family. The Cumanagotos, the Tamanacs, +the Chaymas, the Guaraons, and the Caribbees, do not understand +each other, in spite of the frequent analogy of words and of +grammatical structure exhibited in their respective idioms. The +Cumanagotos inhabited, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, +the mountains of the Brigantine and of Parabolata. I am unable to +determine whether the Piritus, Cocheymas, Chacopatas, Tomuzas, and +Topocuares, now confounded in the same villages with the +Cumanagotos, and speaking their language, were originally tribes of +the same nation. The Piritus take their name from the ravine +Pirichucuar, where the small thorny palm-tree,* called piritu, +grows in abundance (* Caudice gracili aculeato, foliis pinnatis. +Possibly of the genus Aiphanes of Willdenouw.); the wood of this +tree, which is excessively hard, and little combustible, serves to +make pipes. On this spot the village of La Concepcion de Piritu was +founded in 1556; it is the chief settlement of the Cumanagoto +Missions, known by the name of the Misiones de Piritu. + +6. The Caribbees (Carives). This name, which was given them by the +first navigators, is retained throughout all Spanish America. The +French and the Germans have transformed it, I know not why, into +Caraibes. The people call themselves Carina, Calina, and Callinago. +I visited some Caribbean Missions in the Llanos,* (* I shall in +future use the word Llanos (loca plana, suppressing the p), without +adding the equivalent words pampas, savannahs, meadows, steppes, or +plains. The country between the mountains of the coast and the left +bank of the Orinoco, constitutes the llanos of Cumana, Barcelona, +and Caracas.) on returning from my journey to the Orinoco; and I +shall merely mention that the Galibes (Caribi of Cayenne), the +Tuapocas, and the Cunaguaras, who originally inhabited the plains +between the mountains of Caripe (Caribe) and the village of +Maturin, the Jaoi of the island of Trinidad and of the province of +Cumana, and perhaps also the Guarivas, allies of the Palencas, are +all tribes of the great Caribbee nation. + +With respect to the other nations whose affinities of language with +the Tamanac and Caribbee have been mentioned, they are not +necessarily to be considered as of the same race. In Asia, the +nations of Mongol origin differ totally in their physical +organisation from those of Tartar origin. Such has been, however, +the intermixture of these nations, that, according to the able +researches of Klaproth, the Tartar languages (branches of the +ancient Oigour) are spoken at present by hordes incontestably of +Mongol race. Neither the analogy nor the diversity of language +suffice to solve the great problem of the filiation of nations; +they merely serve to point out probabilities. The Caribbees, +properly speaking, those who inhabit the Missions of the Cari, in +the llanos of Cumana, the banks of the Caura, and the plains to the +north-east of the sources of the Orinoco, are distinguished by +their almost gigantic size from all the other nations I have seen +in the new continent. Must it on this account be admitted, that the +Caribbees are an entirely distinct race? and that the Guaraons and +the Tamanacs, whose languages have an affinity with the Caribbee, +have no bond of relationship with them? I think not. Among the +nations of the same family, one branch may acquire an extraordinary +development of organization. The mountaineers of the Tyrol and +Salzburgh are taller than the other Germanic races; the Samoiedes +of the Altai are not so little and squat as those of the sea-coast. +In like manner it would be difficult to deny that the Galibis are +really Caribbees; and yet, notwithstanding the identity of +languages, how striking is the difference in their stature and +physical constitution! + +Before Cortez entered the capital of Montezuma in 1521, the +attention of Europe was fixed on the regions we have just +traversed. In depicting the manners of the inhabitants of Paria and +Cumana, it was thought that the manners of all the inhabitants of +the new continent were described. This remark cannot escape those +who read the historians of the Conquest, especially the letters of +Peter Martyr of Anghiera, written at the court of Ferdinand the +Catholic. These letters are full of ingenious observations upon +Christopher Columbus, Leo X, and Luther, and are stamped by noble +enthusiasm for the great discoveries of an age so rich in +extraordinary events. Without entering into any detail on the +manners of the nations which have been so long confounded one with +another, under the vague denomination of Cumanians (Cumaneses), it +appears to me important to clear up a fact which I have often heard +discussed in Spanish America. + +The Pariagotos of the present time are of a brown red colour, as +are the Caribbees, the Chaymas, and almost all the nations of the +New World. Why do the historians of the sixteenth century affirm +that the first navigators saw white men with fair hair at the +promontory of Paria? Were they of the same race as those Indians of +a less tawny hue, whom M. Bonpland and myself saw at Esmeralda, +near the sources of the Orinoco? But these Indians had hair as +black as the Otomacs and other tribes, whose complexion is the +darkest. Were they albinos, such as have been found heretofore in +the isthmus of Panama? But examples of that degeneration are very +rare in the copper-coloured race; and Anghiera, as well as Gomara, +speaks of the inhabitants of Paria in general, and not of a few +individuals. Both describe them as if they were people of Germanic +origin,* (* "Aethiopes nigri, crispi lanati; Pariae incolae albi, +capillis oblongis protensis flavis."--Pet. Martyr Ocean., dec. 50 +lib. 6 (edition 1574). "Utriusque sexus indigenae albi veluti +nostrates, praeter eos qui sub sole versantur." (The natives of +both sexes are as white as our people [Spaniards], except those who +are exposed to the sun.)--Ibid. Gomara, speaking of the natives +seen by Columbus at the mouth of the river of Cumana, says: "Las +donzellas eran amorosas, desnudas y blancas (las de la casa); los +Indios que van al campo estan negros del sol." (The young women are +engaging in their manners: they wear no clothing, and those who +live in the houses ARE WHITE. The Indians who are much in the open +country are black, from the effect of the sun.)--Hist. de los +Indios, cap. 74. "Los Indios de Paria son BLANCOS y rubios."--(The +Indians of Paria are WHITE and red.) Garcia, Origen de los Indios +1729, lib. 4 cap. 9.) they call them 'Whites with light hair;' they +even add, that they wore garments like those of the Turks.* (* +"They wear round their head a striped cotton handkerchief"--Ferd. +Columb. cap. 71. (Churchill volume 2.) Was this kind of head-dress +taken for a turban? (Garcia, Origen de los Ind., page 303). I am +surprised that people of these regions should have worn a +head-dress; but, what is more curious still, Pinzon, in a voyage +which he made alone to the coast of Paria, the particulars of which +have been transmitted to us by Peter Martyr of Anghiera, professes +to have seen natives who were clothed: "Incolas omnes genu tenus +mares, foeminas surarum tenus, gossampinis vestibus amictos +simplicibus repererunt; sed viros more Turcorum insuto minutim +gossypio ad belli usum duplicibus." (The natives were clothed in +thin cotton garments; the men's reaching to the knee, and the +women's to the calf of the leg. Their war-dress was thicker, and +closely stitched with cotton after the Turkish manner.)--Pet. +Martyr, dec. 2 lib. 7. Who were these people described as being +comparatively civilized, and clothed with tunics (like those who +lived an the summit of the Andes), and seen on a coast, where +before and since the time of Pinzon, only naked men have ever been +seen?) Gomara and Anghiera wrote from such oral information as they +had been able to collect. + +These marvels disappear, if we examine the recital which Ferdinand +Columbus drew up from his father's papers. There we find simply, +that "the admiral was surprised to see the inhabitants of Paria, +and those of the island of Trinidad, better made, more civilized +(de buena conversacion), and whiter than the natives whom he had +previously seen."* (* Churchill's Collection volume 2, Herrera +pages 80, 83, 84. Munoz, Hist. del Nuevo Mundo volume 1, "El color +era baxo como es regular en los Indios, pero mas clara que en las +islas reconocidas." (Their colour was dark, as is usual among the +Indians; but lighter than that of the people of the islands +previously known.) The missionaries are accustomed to call those +Indians who are less black, less tawny, WHITISH, and even ALMOST +WHITE.--Gumilla, Hist. de l'Orenoque volume 1 chapter 5 paragraph +2. Such incorrect expressions may mislead those who are not +accustomed to the exaggerations in which travellers often indulge.) +This certainly did not mean that the Pariagotos are white. The +lighter colour of the skin of the natives and the great coolness of +the mornings on the coast of Paria, seemed to confirm the fantastic +hypothesis which that great man had framed, respecting the +irregularity of the curvature of the earth, and the height of the +plains in this region, which he regarded as the effect of an +extraordinary swelling of the globe in the direction of the +parallels of latitude. Amerigo Vespucci (in his pretended FIRST +voyage, apparently written from the narratives of other navigators) +compares the natives to the Tartar nations,* (* Vultu non multum +speciosi sunt, quoniam latas facies Tartariis adsimilatas habent. +(Their countenances are not handsome, their cheek-bones being broad +like those of the Tartars.)--Americi Vesputii Navigatio Prima, in +Gryn's Orbis Novus 1555.) not in regard to their colour, but on +account of the breadth of their faces, and the general expression +of their physiognomy. + +But if it be certain, that at the end of the fifteenth century +there were on the coast of Cumana a few men with white skins, as +there are in our days, it must not thence be concluded, that the +natives of the New World exhibit everywhere a similar organization +of the dermoidal system. It is not less inaccurate to say, that +they are all copper-coloured, than to affirm that they would not +have a tawny hue, if they were not exposed to the heat of the sun, +or tanned by the action of the air. The natives may be divided into +two very unequal portions with respect to numbers; to the first +belong the Esquimaux of Greenland, of Labrador, and the northern +coast of Hudson's Bay, the inhabitants of Behring's Straits, of the +peninsula of Alaska, and of Prince William's Sound. The eastern and +western branches* of this polar race (* Vater, in Mithridates +volume 3. Egede, Krantz, Hearne, Mackenzie, Portlock, Chwostoff, +Davidoff, Resanoff, Merk, and Billing, have described the great +family of these Tschougaz-Esquimaux.), the Esquimaux and the +Tschougases, though at the vast distance of eight hundred leagues +apart, are united by the most intimate analogy of languages. This +analogy extends even to the inhabitants of the north-east of Asia; +for the idiom of the Tschouktsches* at the mouth of the Anadir (* I +mean here only the Tschouktsches who have fixed dwelling-places, +for the wandering Tschouktsches approach very near the Koriaks.), +has the same roots as the language of the Esquimaux who inhabit the +coast of America opposite to Europe. The Tschouktsches are the +Esquimaux of Asia. Like the Malays, that hyperborean race reside +only on the sea-coasts. They are almost all smaller in stature than +the other Americans, and are quick, lively, and talkative. Their +hair is almost straight, and black; but their skin (and this is +very characteristic of the race, which I shall designate under the +name of Tschougaz-Esquimaux) is originally whitish. It is certain +that the children of the Greenlanders are born white; some retain +that whiteness; and often in the brownest (the most tanned) the +redness of the blood is seen to appear on their cheeks.* (* Krantz, +Hist. of Greenland 1667 tome 1. Greenland does not seem to have +been inhabited in the eleventh century; at least the Esquimaux +appeared only in the fourteenth, coming from the west.) + +The second portion of the natives of America includes all those +nations which are not Tschougaz-Esquimaux, beginning from Cook's +River to the Straits of Magellan, from the Ugaljachmouzes and the +Kinaese of Mount St. Elias, to the Puelches and Tehuelhets of the +southern hemisphere. The men who belong to this second branch, are +taller, stronger, more warlike, and more taciturn than the others. +They present also very remarkable differences in the colour of +their skin. In Mexico, Peru, New Grenada, Quito, on the banks of +the Orinoco and of the river Amazon, in every part of South America +which I have explored, in the plains as well as on the coldest +table-lands, the Indian children of two or three months old have +the same bronze tint as is observed in adults. The idea that the +natives may be whites tanned by the air and the sun, could never +have occurred to a Spanish inhabitant of Quito, or of the banks of +the Orinoco. In the north-east of America, on the contrary, we meet +with tribes among whom the children are white, and at the age of +virility they acquire the bronze colour of the natives of Mexico +and Peru. Michikinakoua, chief of the Miamis, had his arms, and +those parts of his body not exposed to the sun, almost white. This +difference of hue between the parts covered and not covered is +never observed among the natives of Peru and Mexico, even in +families who live much at their ease, and remain almost constantly +within doors. To the west of the Miamis, on the coast opposite to +Asia, among the Kolouches and Tchinkitans* of Norfolk Sound (* +Between 54 and 58 degrees of latitude. These white nations have +been visited successively by Portlock, Marchand, Baranoff, and +Davidoff. The Tchinkitans, or Schinkit, are the inhabitants of the +island of Sitka. Vater Mithridates volume 3 page 2. Marchand +Voyages volume 2.), grown-up girls, when they have gashed their +skin, display the white hue of Europeans. This whiteness is found +also, according to some accounts, among the mountaineers of Chile.* +(* Molina, Saggio sull' Istoria Nat. del Chile edition 2 page 293. +May we believe the existence of those blue eyes of the Boroas of +Chile and Guayanas of Uruguay; represented to us as nations of the +race of Odin? Azara Voyage tome 2.) + +These facts are very remarkable, and contrary to the opinion so +generally spread, of the extreme conformity of organization among +the natives of America. If we divide them into Esquimaux and +non-Esquimaux, we readily admit that this classification is not +more philosophical than that of the ancients, who saw in the whole +of the habitable world only Celts and Scythians, Greeks, and +Barbarians. When, however, our purpose is to group numerous +nations, we gain something by proceeding in the mode of exclusion. +All we have sought to establish here is, that, in separating the +whole race of Tschougaz-Esquimaux, there remain still, among the +coppery-brown Americans, other races, the children of which are +born white, without our being able to prove, by going back as far +as the history of the Conquest, that they have been mingled with +European blood. This fact deserves to be cleared up by travellers +who may possess a knowledge of physiology, and may have +opportunities of examining the brown children of the Mexicans at +the age of two years, as well as the white children of the Miamis, +and those hordes* on the Orinoco (* These whitish tribes are the +Guaycas, the Ojos, and the Maquiritares.), who, living in the most +sultry regions, retain during their whole life, and in the fulness +of their strength, the whitish skin of the Mestizoes. + +In man, the deviations from the common type of the whole race are +apparent in the stature, the physiognomy, or the form of the body, +rather than on the colour of the skin.* (* The circumpolar nations +of the two continents are small and squat, though of races entirely +different.) It is not so with animals, where varieties are found +more in colour than in form. The hair of the mammiferous class of +animals, the feathers of birds, and even the scales of fishes, +change their hue, according to the lengthened influence of light +and darkness, and the intensity of heat and cold. In man, the +colouring matter seems to be deposited in the epidermis by the +roots or the bulbs of the hair:* (* Adverting to the interesting +researches of M. Gaultier, on the organisation of the human skin, +John Hunter observes, that in several animals the colorating of the +hair is independent of that of the skin.) and all sound +observations prove, that the skin varies in colour from the action +of external stimuli on individuals, and not hereditarily in the +whole race. The Esquimaux of Greenland and the Laplanders are +tanned by the influence of the air; but their children are born +white. We will not decide on the changes which nature may have +produced in a space of time exceeding all historical tradition. +Reason stops short in these matters, when no longer under the +guidance of experience and analogy. + +All white-skinned nations begin their cosmogony by white men; they +allege that the negroes and all tawny people have been blackened or +embrowned by the excessive heat of the sun. This theory, adopted by +the Greeks,* (* Strabo, liv. 15.) though it did not pass without +contradiction,* (* Onesicritus, apud Strabonem, lib. 15. +Alexander's expedition appears to have contributed greatly to fix +the attention of the Greeks on the great question of the influence +of climates. They had learned from the accounts of travellers, that +in Hindostan the nations of the south were of darker colour than +those of the north, near the mountains: and they supposed that they +were both of the same race.) has been propagated even to our own +times. Buffon has repeated in prose what Theodectes had expressed +in verse two thousand years before: "that nations wear the livery +of the climate in which they live." If history had been written by +black nations, they would have maintained what even Europeans have +recently advanced,* that man was originally black, or of a very +tawny colour (* See the work of Mr. Prichard, abounding with +curious research. "Researches into the Physical History of Man, +1813," page 239.); and that mankind have become white in some +races, from the effect of civilization and progressive +debilitation, as animals, in a state of domestication, pass from +dark to lighter colours. In plants and in animals, accidental +varieties, formed under our own eyes, have become fixed, and have +been propagated;* (* For example, the sheep with very short legs, +called ancon sheep in Connecticut, and examined by Sir Everard +Home. This variety dates only from the year 1791.) but nothing +proves, that in the present state of human organization, the +different races of black, yellow, copper-coloured, and white men, +when they remain unmixed, deviate considerably from their primitive +type, by the influence of climate, of food, and other external +agents. + +These opinions are founded on the authority of Ulloa.* (* "The +Indians [Americans] are of a copper-colour, which by the action of +the sun and the air grows darker. I must remark, that neither heat +nor cold produces any sensible change in the colour, so that the +Indians of the Cordilleras of Peru are easily confounded with those +of the hottest plains; and those who live under the Line cannot be +distinguished, by their colour, from those who inhabit the fortieth +degree of north and south latitude."--Noticias Americanas. No +ancient author has so clearly stated the two forms of reasoning, by +which we still explain in our days the differences of colour and +features among neighbouring nations, as Tacitus. He makes a just +distinction between the influence of climate, and hereditary +dispositions; and, like a philosopher persuaded of our profound +ignorance of the origin of things, he leaves the question +undecided. "Habitus corporum varii; atque ex eo argumenta, seu +durante originis vi, seu procurrentibus in diversa terris, positio +coeli corporibus habitum dedit."--Agricola, cap 2.) That learned +writer saw the Indians of Chile, of the Andes of Peru, of the +burning coasts of Panama, and those of Louisiana, situated in the +northern temperate zone. He had the good fortune to live at a +period when theories were less numerous; and, like me, he was +struck by seeing the natives equally bronzed under the Line, in the +cold climate of the Cordilleras, and in the plains. Where +differences of colour are observed, they depend on the race. We +shall soon find on the burning banks of the Orinoco Indians with a +whitish skin. Durans originis vis est. + + +CHAPTER 1.10. + +SECOND ABODE AT CUMANA. +EARTHQUAKES. +EXTRAORDINARY METEORS. + +We remained a month longer at Cumana, employing ourselves in the +necessary preparations for our proposed visit to the Orinoco and +the Rio Negro. We had to choose such instruments as could be most +easily transported in narrow boats; and to engage guides for an +inland journey of ten months, across a country without +communication with the coasts. The astronomical determination of +places being the most important object of this undertaking, I felt +desirous not to miss the observation of an eclipse of the sun, +which was to be visible at the end of October: and in consequence I +preferred remaining till that period at Cumana, where the sky is +generally clear and serene. It was now too late to reach the banks +of the Orinoco before October; and the high valleys of Caracas +promised less favourable opportunities, on account of the vapours +which accumulate round the neighbouring mountains. + +I was, however, near being compelled by a deplorable occurrence, to +renounce, or at least to delay for a long time, my journey to the +Orinoco. On the 27th of October, the day before the eclipse, we +went as usual, to take the air on the shore of the gulf, and to +observe the instant of high water, which in those parts is only +twelve or thirteen inches. It was eight in the evening, and the +breeze was not yet stirring. The sky was cloudy; and during a dead +calm it was excessively hot. We crossed the beach which separates +the suburb of the Guayqueria Indians from the embarcadero. I heard +some one walking behind us, and on turning, I saw a tall man of the +colour of the Zambos, naked to the waist. He held almost over my +head a macana, which is a great stick of palm-tree wood, enlarged +to the end like a club. I avoided the stroke by leaping towards the +left; but M. Bonpland, who walked on my right, was less fortunate. +He did not see the Zambo so soon as I did, and received a stroke +above the temple, which levelled him with the ground. We were +alone, without arms, half a league from any habitation, on a vast +plain bounded by the sea. The Zambo, instead of attacking me, moved +off slowly to pick up M. Bonpland's hat, which, having somewhat +deadened the violence of the blow, had fallen off and lay at some +distance. Alarmed at seeing my companion on the ground, and for +some moments senseless, I thought of him only. I helped him to +raise himself, and pain and anger doubled his strength. We ran +toward the Zambo, who, either from cowardice, common enough in +people of this caste, or because he perceived at a distance some +men on the beach, did not wait for us, but ran off in the direction +of the Tunal, a little thicket of cactus and arborescent avicennia. +He chanced to fall in running; and M. Bonpland, who reached him +first, seized him round the body. The Zambo drew a long knife; and +in this unequal struggle we should infallibly have been wounded, if +some Biscayan merchants, who were taking the air on the beach, had +not come to our assistance. The Zambo seeing himself surrounded, +thought no longer of defence. He again ran away, and we pursued him +through the thorny cactuses. At length, tired out, he took shelter +in a cow-house, whence he suffered himself to be quietly led to +prison. + +M. Bonpland was seized with fever during the night; but being +endowed with great energy and fortitude, and possessing that +cheerful disposition which is one of the most precious gifts of +nature, he continued his labours the next day. The stroke of the +macana had extended to the top of his head, and he felt its effect +for the space of two or three months during the stay we made at +Caracas. When stooping to collect plants, he was sometimes seized +with giddiness, which led us to fear that an internal abscess was +forming. Happily these apprehensions were unfounded, and the +symptoms, at first alarming, gradually disappeared. The inhabitants +of Cumana showed us the kindest interest. It was ascertained that +the Zambo was a native of one of the Indian villages which surround +the great lake of Maracaybo. He had served on board a privateer +belonging to the island of St. Domingo, and in consequence of a +quarrel with the captain he had been left on the coast of Cumana, +when the ship quitted the port. Having seen the signal which we had +fixed up for the purpose of observing the height of the tides, he +had watched the moment when he could attack us on the beach. But +why, after having knocked one of us down, was he satisfied with +simply stealing a hat? In an examination he underwent, his answers +were so confused and stupid, that it was impossible to clear up our +doubts. Sometimes he maintained that his intention was not to rob +us; but that, irritated by the bad treatment he had suffered on +board the privateer of St. Domingo, he could not resist the desire +of attacking us, when he heard us speak French. Justice is so tardy +in this country, that prisoners, of whom the jail is full, may +remain seven or eight years without being brought to trial; we +learnt, therefore, with some satisfaction, that a few days after +our departure from Cumana, the Zambo had succeeded in breaking out +of the castle of San Antonio. + +On the day after this occurrence, the 28th of October, I was, at +five in the morning, on the terrace of our house, making +preparations for the observation of the eclipse. The weather was +fine and serene. The crescent of Venus, and the constellation of +the Ship, so splendid from the disposition of its immense nebulae, +were lost in the rays of the rising sun. I had a complete +observation of the progress and the close of the eclipse. I +determined the distance of the horns, or the differences of +altitude and azimuth, by the passage over the threads of the +quadrant. The eclipse terminated at 2 hours 14 minutes 23.4 seconds +mean time, at Cumana. + +During a few days which preceded and followed the eclipse of the +sun, very remarkable atmospherical phenomena were observable. It +was what is called in those countries the season of winter; that +is, of clouds and small electrical showers. From the 10th of +October to the 3rd of November, at nightfall, a reddish vapour +arose in the horizon, and covered, in a few minutes, with a veil +more or less thick, the azure vault of the sky. Saussure's +hygrometer, far from indicating greater humidity, often went back +from 90 to 83 degrees. The heat of the day was from 28 to 32 +degrees, which for this part of the torrid zone is very +considerable. Sometimes, in the midst of the night, the vapours +disappeared in an instant; and at the moment when I had arranged my +instruments, clouds of brilliant whiteness collected at the zenith, +and extended towards the horizon. On the 18th of October these +clouds were so remarkably transparent, that they did not hide stars +even of the fourth magnitude. I could distinguish so perfectly the +spots of the moon, that it might have been supposed its disk was +before the clouds. The latter were at a prodigious height, disposed +in bands, and at equal distances, as from the effect of electric +repulsions:--these small masses of vapour, similar to those I saw +above my head on the ridge of the highest Andes, are, in several +languages, designated by the name of sheep. When the reddish vapour +spreads lightly over the sky, the great stars, which in general, at +Cumana, scarcely scintillate below 20 or 25 degrees, did not retain +even at the zenith, their steady and planetary light. They +scintillated at all altitudes, as after a heavy storm of rain.* (* +I have not observed any direct relation between the scintillation +of the stars and the dryness of that part of the atmosphere open to +our researches. I have often seen at Cumana a great scintillation +of the stars of Orion and Sagittarius, when Saussure's hygrometer +was at 85 degrees. At other times, these same stars, considerably +elevated above the horizon, emitted a steady and planetary light, +the hygrometer being at 90 or 93 degrees. Probably it is not the +quantity of vapour, but the manner in which it is diffused, and +more or less dissolved in the air, which determines the +scintillation. The latter is invariably attended with a coloration +of light. It is remarkable enough, that, in northern countries, at +a time when the atmosphere appears perfectly dry, the scintillation +is most decided in very cold weather.) It was curious that the +vapour did not affect the hygrometer at the surface of the earth. I +remained a part of the night seated in a balcony, from which I had +a view of a great part of the horizon. In every climate I feel a +peculiar interest in fixing my eyes, when the sky is serene, on +some great constellation, and seeing groups of vesicular vapours +appear and augment, as around a central nucleus, then, +disappearing, form themselves anew. + +After the 28th of October, the reddish mist became thicker than it +had previously been. The heat of the nights seemed stifling, though +the thermometer rose only to 26 degrees. The breeze, which +generally refreshed the air from eight or nine o'clock in the +evening, was no longer felt. The atmosphere was burning hot, and +the parched and dusty ground was cracked on every side. On the 4th +of November, about two in the afternoon, large clouds of peculiar +blackness enveloped the high mountains of the Brigantine and the +Tataraqual. They extended by degrees as far as the zenith. About +four in the afternoon thunder was heard over our heads, at an +immense height, not regularly rolling, but with a hollow and often +interrupted sound. At the moment of the strongest electric +explosion, at 4 hours 12 minutes, there were two shocks of +earthquake, which followed each other at the interval of fifteen +seconds. The people ran into the streets, uttering loud cries. M. +Bonpland, who was leaning over a table examining plants, was almost +thrown on the floor. I felt the shock very strongly, though I was +lying in a hammock. Its direction was from north to south, which is +rare at Cumana. Slaves, who were drawing water from a well more +than eighteen or twenty feet deep, near the river Manzanares, heard +a noise like the explosion of a strong charge of gunpowder. The +noise seemed to come from the bottom of the well; a very curious +phenomenon, though very common in most of the countries of America +which are exposed to earthquakes. + +A few minutes before the first shock there was a very violent blast +of wind, followed by electrical rain falling in great drops. I +immediately tried the atmospherical electricity by the electrometer +of Volta. The small balls separated four lines; the electricity +often changed from positive to negative, as is the case during +storms, and, in the north of Europe, even sometimes in a fall of +snow. The sky remained cloudy, and the blast of wind was followed +by a dead calm, which lasted all night. The sunset presented a +picture of extraordinary magnificence. The thick veil of clouds was +rent asunder, as in shreds, quite near the horizon; the sun +appeared at 12 degrees of altitude on a sky of indigo-blue. Its +disk was enormously enlarged, distorted, and undulated toward the +edges. The clouds were gilded; and fascicles of divergent rays, +reflecting the most brilliant rainbow hues, extended over the +heavens. A great crowd of people assembled in the public square. +This celestial phenomenon,--the earthquake,--the thunder which +accompanied it,--the red vapour seen during so many days, all were +regarded as the effect of the eclipse. + +About nine in the evening there was another shock, much slighter +than the former, but attended with a subterraneous noise. The +barometer was a little lower than usual; but the progress of the +horary variations or small atmospheric tides, was no way +interrupted. The mercury was precisely at the minimum of height at +the moment of the earthquake; it continued rising till eleven in +the evening, and sank again till half after four in the morning, +conformably to the law which regulates barometrical variations. In +the night between the 3rd and 4th of November the reddish vapour +was so thick that I could not distinguish the situation of the +moon, except by a beautiful halo of 20 degrees diameter. + +Scarcely twenty-two months had elapsed since the town of Cumana had +been almost totally destroyed by an earthquake. The people regard +vapours which obscure the horizon, and the subsidence of wind +during the night, as infallible pregnostics of disaster. We had +frequent visits from persons who wished to know whether our +instruments indicated new shocks for the next day; and alarm was +great and general when, on the 5th of November, exactly at the same +hour as on the preceding day, there was a violent gust of wind, +attended by thunder, and a few drops of rain. No shock was felt. +The wind and storm returned during five or six days at the same +hour, almost at the same minute. The inhabitants of Cumana, and of +many other places between the tropics, have long since observed +that atmospherical changes, which are, to appearance, the most +accidental, succeed each other for whole weeks with astonishing +regularity. The same phenomenon occurs in summer, in the temperate +zone; nor has it escaped the perception of astronomers, who often +observe, in a serene sky, during three or four days successively, +clouds which have collected at the same part of the firmament, take +the same direction, and dissolve at the same height; sometimes +before, sometimes after the passage of a star over the meridian, +consequently within a few minutes of the same point of true time.* +(* M. Arago and I paid a great deal of attention to this phenomenon +during a long series of observations made in the year 1809 and +1810, at the Observatory of Paris, with the view of verifying the +declination of the stars.) + +The earthquake of the 4th of November, the first I had felt, made +the greater impression on me, as it was accompanied with remarkable +meteorological variations. It was, moreover, a positive movement +upward and downward, and not a shock by undulation. I did not then +imagine, that after a long abode on the table-lands of Quito and +the coasts of Peru, I should become almost as familiar with the +abrupt movements of the ground as we are in Europe with the sound +of thunder. In the city of Quito, we never thought of rising from +our beds when, during the night, subterraneous rumblings +(bramidos), which seem always to come from the volcano of +Pichincha, announced a shock, the force of which, however, is +seldom in proportion to the intensity of the noise. The +indifference of the inhabitants, who bear in mind that for three +centuries past their city has not been destroyed, readily +communicates itself to the least intrepid traveller. It is not so +much the fear of the danger, as the novelty of the sensation, which +makes so forcible an impression when the effect of the slightest +earthquake is felt for the first time. + +From our infancy, the idea of certain contrasts becomes fixed in +our minds: water appears to us an element that moves; earth, a +motionless and inert mass. These impressions are the result of +daily experience; they are connected with everything that is +transmitted to us by the senses. When the shock of an earthquake is +felt, when the earth which we had deemed so stable is shaken on its +old foundations, one instant suffices to destroy long-fixed +illusions. It is like awakening from a dream; but a painful +awakening. We feel that we have been deceived by the apparent +stability of nature; we become observant of the least noise; we +mistrust for the first time the soil we have so long trod with +confidence. But if the shocks be repeated, if they become frequent +during several successive days, the uncertainty quickly disappears. +In 1784, the inhabitants of Mexico were accustomed to hear the +thunder roll beneath their feet,* (* Los bramidos de Guanazuato.) +as it is heard by us in the region of the clouds. Confidence easily +springs up in the human breast: on the coasts of Peru we become +accustomed to the undulations of the ground, as the sailor becomes +accustomed to the tossing of the ship, caused by the motion of the +waves. + +The reddish vapour which at Cumana had spread a mist over the +horizon a little before sunset, disappeared after the 7th of +November. The atmosphere resumed its former purity, and the +firmament appeared, at the zenith, of that deep blue tint peculiar +to climates where heat, light, and a great equality of electric +charge seem all to promote the most perfect dissolution of water in +the air. I observed, on the night of the 7th, the immersion of the +second satellite of Jupiter. The belts of the planet were more +distinct than I had ever seen them before. + +I passed a part of the night in comparing the intensity of the +light emitted by the beautiful stars which shine in the southern +sky. I pursued this task carefully in both hemispheres, at sea, and +during my abode at Lima, at Guayaquil, and at Mexico. Nearly half a +century has now elapsed since La Caille examined that region of the +sky which is invisible in Europe. The stars near the south pole are +usually observed with so little perseverance and attention, that +the greatest changes may take place in the intensity of their light +and their own motion, without astronomers having the slightest +knowledge of them. I think I have remarked changes of this kind in +the constellation of the Crane and in that of the Ship. I compared, +at first with the naked eye, the stars which are not very distant +from each other, for the purpose of classing them according to the +method pointed out by Herschel, in a paper read to the Royal +Society of London in 1796. I afterwards employed diaphragms +diminishing the aperture of the telescope, and coloured and +colourless glasses placed before the eye-glass. I moreover made use +of an instrument of reflexion calculated to bring simultaneously +two stars into the field of the telescope, after having equalized +their light by receiving it with more or fewer rays at pleasure, +reflected by the silvered part of the mirror. I admit that these +photometric processes are not very precise; but I believe the last, +which perhaps had never before been employed, might he rendered +nearly exact, by adding a scale of equal parts to the moveable +frame of the telescope of the sextant. It was by taking the mean of +a great number of valuations, that I saw the relative intensity of +the light of the great stars decrease in the following manner: +Sirius, Canopus, a Centauri, Acherner, b Centauri, Fomalhaut, +Rigel, Procyon, Betelgueuse, e of the Great Dog, d of the Great +Dog, a of the Crane, a of the Peacock. These experiments will +become more interesting when travellers shall have determined anew, +at intervals of forty or fifty years, some of those changes which +the celestial bodies seem to undergo, either at their surface or +with respect to their distances from our planetary system. + +After having made astronomical observations with the same +instruments, in our northern climates and in the torrid zone, we +are surprised at the effect produced in the latter (by the +transparency of the air, and the less extinction of light), on the +clearness with which the double stars, the satellites of Jupiter, +or certain nebulae, present themselves. Beneath a sky equally +serene in appearance, it would seem as if more perfect instruments +were employed; so much more distinct and well defined do the +objects appear between the tropics. It cannot be doubted, that at +the period when equinoctial America shall become the centre of +extensive civilization, physical astronomy will make immense +improvements, in proportion as the skies will be explored with +excellent glasses, in the dry and hot climates of Cumana, Coro, and +the island of Margareta. I do not here mention the ridge of the +Cordilleras, because, with the exception of some high and nearly +barren plains in Mexico and Peru, the very elevated table-lands, in +which the barometric pressure is from ten to twelve inches less +than at the level of the sea, have a misty and extremely variable +climate. The extreme purity of the atmosphere which constantly +prevails in the low regions during the dry season, counterbalances +the elevation of site and the rarity of the air on the table-lands. +The elevated strata of the atmosphere, when they envelope the +ridges of mountains, undergo rapid changes in their transparency. + +The night of the 11th of November was cool and extremely fine. From +half after two in the morning, the most extraordinary luminous +meteors were seen in the direction of the east. M. Bonpland, who +had risen to enjoy the freshness of the air, perceived them first. +Thousands of bolides and falling stars succeeded each other during +the space of four hours. Their direction was very regular from +north to south. They filled a space in the sky extending from due +east 30 degrees to north and south. In an amplitude of 60 degrees +the meteors were seen to rise above the horizon at east-north-east +and at east, to describe arcs more or less extended, and to fall +towards the south, after having followed the direction of the +meridian. Some of them attained a height of 40 degrees, and all +exceeded 25 or 30 degrees. There was very little wind in the low +regions of the atmosphere, and that little blew from the east. No +trace of clouds was to be seen. M. Bonpland states that, from the +first appearance of the phenomenon, there was not in the firmament +a space equal in extent to three diameters of the moon, which was +not filled every instant with bolides and falling stars. The first +were fewer in number, but as they were of different sizes, it was +impossible to fix the limit between these two classes of phenomena. +All these meteors left luminous traces from five to ten degrees in +length, as often happens in the equinoctial regions. The +phosphorescence of these traces, or luminous bands, lasted seven or +eight seconds. Many of the falling stars had a very distinct +nucleus, as large as the disk of Jupiter, from which darted sparks +of vivid light. The bolides seem to burst as by explosion; but the +largest, those from 1 to 1 degree 15 minutes in diameter, +disappeared without scintillation, leaving behind them +phosphorescent bands (trabes) exceeding in breadth fifteen or +twenty minutes. The light of these meteors was white, and not +reddish, which must doubtless be attributed to the absence of +vapour and the extreme transparency of the air. For the same +reason, within the tropics, the stars of the first magnitude have, +at their rising, a light decidedly whiter than in Europe. + +Almost all the inhabitants of Cumana witnessed this phenomenon, +because they had left their houses before four o'clock, to attend +the early morning mass. They did not behold these bolides with +indifference; the oldest among them remembered that the great +earthquakes of 1766 were preceded by similar phenomena. The +Guaiqueries in the Indian suburb alleged "that the bolides began to +appear at one o'clock; and that as they returned from fishing in +the gulf, they had perceived very small falling stars towards the +east." They assured us that igneous meteors were extremely rare on +those coasts after two o'clock in the morning. + +The phenomenon ceased by degrees after four o'clock, and the +bolides and falling stars became less frequent; but we still +distinguished some to north-east by their whitish light, and the +rapidity of their movement, a quarter of an hour after sunrise. +This circumstance will appear less extraordinary, when I mention +that in broad daylight, in 1788, the interior of the houses in the +town of Popayan was brightly illumined by an aerolite of immense +magnitude. It passed over the town, when the sun was shining +clearly, about one o'clock. M. Bonpland and myself, during our +second residence at Cumana, after having observed, on the 26th of +September, 1800, the immersion of the first satellite of Jupiter, +succeeded in seeing the planet distinctly with the naked eye, +eighteen minutes after the disk of the sun had appeared in the +horizon. There was a very slight vapour in the east, but Jupiter +appeared on an azure sky. These facts bear evidence of the extreme +purity and transparency of the atmosphere in the torrid zone. The +mass of diffused light is the less, in proportion as the vapours +are more perfectly dissolved. The same cause which checks the +diffusion of the solar light, diminishes the extinction of that +which emanates either from bolides from Jupiter, or from the moon, +seen on the second day after its conjunction. The 12th of November +was an extremely hot day, and the hygrometer indicated a very +considerable degree of dryness for those climates. The reddish +vapour clouded the horizon anew, and rose to the height of 14 +degrees. This was the last time it appeared that year; and I must +here observe, that it is no less rare under the fine sky of Cumana, +than it is common at Acapulco, on the western coast of Mexico. + +We did not neglect, during the course of our journey from Caracas +to the Rio Negro, to enquire everywhere, whether the meteors of the +12th of November had been perceived. In a wild country, where the +greater number of the inhabitants sleep in the open air, so +extraordinary a phenomenon could not fail to be remarked, unless it +had been concealed from observation by clouds. The Capuchin +missionary at San Fernando de Apure,* (* North latitude 7 degrees +53 minutes 12 seconds; west longitude 70 degrees 20 minutes.), a +village situated amid the savannahs of the province of Varinas; the +Franciscan monks stationed near the cataracts of the Orinoco and at +Maroa,* (* North latitude 2 degrees 42 minutes 0 seconds; west +longitude 70 degrees 21 minutes.) on the banks of the Rio Negro; +had seen numberless falling-stars and bolides illumine the heavens. +Maroa is south-west of Cumana, at one hundred and seventy-four +leagues distance. All these observers compared the phenomenon to +brilliant fireworks; and it lasted from three till six in the +morning. Some of the monks had marked the day in their rituals; +others had noted it by the proximate festivals of the Church. +Unfortunately, none of them could recollect the direction of the +meteors, or their apparent height. From the position of the +mountains and thick forests which surround the Missions of the +Cataracts and the little village of Maroa, I presume that the +bolides were still visible at 20 degrees above the horizon. On my +arrival at the southern extremity of Spanish Guiana, at the little +fort of San Carlos, I found some Portuguese, who had gone up the +Rio Negro from the Mission of St. Joseph of the Maravitans. They +assured me that in that part of Brazil the phenomenon had been +perceived at least as far as San Gabriel das Cachoeiras, +consequently as far as the equator itself.* (* A little to the +north-west of San Antonio de Castanheiro. I did not meet with any +persons who had observed this meteor, at Santa Fe de Bogota, at +Popayan, or in the southern hemisphere, at Quito and Peru. Perhaps +the state of the atmosphere, so changeable in these western regions, +prevented observation.) + +I was forcibly struck by the immense height which these bolides +must have attained, to have rendered them visible simultaneously at +Cumana, and on the frontiers of Brazil, in a line of two hundred +and thirty leagues in length. But what was my astonishment, when, +on my return to Europe, I learned that the same phenomenon had been +perceived on an extent of the globe of 64 degrees of latitude, and +91 degrees of longitude; at the equator, in South America, at +Labrador, and in Germany! I saw accidentally, during my passage +from Philadelphia to Bordeaux,* (* In the Memoirs of the +Pennsylvanian Society.) the corresponding observation of Mr. +Ellicot (latitude 30 degrees 42); and upon my return from Naples to +Berlin, I read the account of the Moravian missionaries among the +Esquimaux, in the Bibliothek of Gottingen. + +The following is a succinct enumeration of the facts: + +First. The fiery meteors were seen in the east, and the +east-north-east, at 40 degrees of elevation, from 2 to 6 a.m. at +Cumana (latitude 10 degrees 27 minutes 52 seconds, longitude 66 +degrees 30 minutes); at Porto Cabello (latitude 10 degrees 6 +minutes 52 seconds, longitude 67 degrees 5 minutes); and on the +frontiers of Brazil, near the equator, in longitude 70 degrees +west of the meridian of Paris. + +Second. In French Guiana (latitude 4 degrees 56 minutes, longitude +54 degrees 35 minutes) "the northern part of the sky was suffused +with fire. Numberless falling-stars traversed the heavens during +the space of an hour and a half, and shed so vivid a light, that +those meteors might be compared to the blazing sheaves which shoot +out from fireworks." The knowledge of this fact rests upon the +highly trustworthy testimony of the Count de Marbois, then living +in exile at Cayenne, a victim to his love of justice and of +rational, constitutional liberty. + +Third. Mr. Ellicot, astronomer to the United States, having +completed his trigonometric operations for the rectification of the +limits on the Ohio, being on the 12th of November in the gulf of +Florida, in latitude 25 degrees, and longitude 81 degrees 50 +minutes, saw in all parts of the sky, "as many meteors as stars, +moving in all directions. Some appeared to fall perpendicularly; +and it was expected every minute that they would drop into the +vessel." The same phenomenon was perceived upon the American +continent as far as latitude 30 degrees 42 minutes. + +Fourth. In Labrador, at Nain (latitude 56 degrees 55 minutes), and +Hoffenthal (latitude 58 degrees 4 minutes); in Greenland, at +Lichtenau (latitude 61 degrees 5 minutes), and at New Herrnhut +(latitude 64 degrees 14 minutes, longitude 52 degrees 20 minutes); +the Esquimaux were terrified at the enormous quantity of bolides +which fell during twilight at all points of the firmament, and some +of which were said to be a foot broad. + +Fifth. In Germany, Mr. Zeissing, vicar of Ittetsadt, near Weimar +(latitude 50 degrees 59 minutes, longitude 9 degrees 1 minute +east), perceived, on the 12th of November, between the hours of six +and seven in the morning (half-past two at Cumana), some +falling-stars which shed a very white light. Soon after, in the +direction of south and south-west, luminous rays appeared from four +to six feet long; they were reddish, and resembled the luminous +track of a sky-rocket. During the morning twilight, between the +hours of seven and eight, the sky, in the direction of south-west, +was observed from time to time to be brightly illumined by white +lightning, running in serpentine lines along the horizon. At night +the cold increased and the barometer rose. It is very probable, +that the meteors might have been observed more to the east, in +Poland and in Russia.* (* In Paris and in London the sky was +cloudy. At Carlsruhe, before dawn, lightning was seen in the +north-west and south-east. On the 13th of November a remarkable +glare of light was seen at the same place in the south-east.) + +The distance from Weimar to the Rio Negro is 1800 nautical leagues; +and from the Rio Negro to Herrnhut in Greenland, 1300 leagues. +Admitting that the same fiery meteors were seen at points so +distant from each other, we must suppose that their height was at +least 411 leagues. Near Weimar, the appearance like sky-rockets was +observed in the south and south-east; at Cumana, in the east and +east-north-east. We may therefore conclude, that numberless +aerolites must have fallen into the sea, between Africa and South +America, westward of the Cape Verd Islands. But since the direction +of the bolides was not the same at Labrador and at Cumana, why were +they not perceived in the latter place towards the north, as at +Cayenne? We can scarcely be too cautious on a subject, on which +good observations made in very distant places are still wanting. I +am rather inclined to think, that the Chayma Indians of Cumana did +not see the same bolides as the Portuguese in Brazil and the +missionaries in Labrador; but at the same time it cannot be doubted +(and this fact appears to me very remarkable) that in the New +World, between the meridians of 46 and 82 degrees, between the +equator and 64 degrees north, at the same hour, an immense number +of bolides and falling-stars were perceived; and that those meteors +had everywhere the same brilliancy, throughout a space of 921,000 +square leagues. + +Astronomers who have lately been directing minute attention to +falling-stars and their parallaxes, consider them as meteors +belonging to the farthest limits of our atmosphere, between the +region of the Aurora Borealis and that of the lightest clouds.* (* +According to the observations which I made on the ridge of the +Andes, at an elevation of 2700 toises, on the moutons, or little +white fleecy clouds, it appeared to me, that their elevation is +sometimes not less than 6000 toises above the level of the coast.) +Some have been seen, which had not more than 14,000 toises, or +about five leagues of elevation. The highest do not appear to +exceed thirty leagues. They are often more than a hundred feet in +diameter: and their swiftness is such, that they dart in a few +seconds through a space of two leagues. Of some which have been +measured, the direction was almost perpendicularly upward, or +forming an angle of 50 degrees with the vertical line. This +extremely remarkable circumstance has led to the conclusion, that +falling-stars are not aerolites which, after having hovered a long +time in space, unite on accidentally entering into our atmosphere, +and fall towards the earth.* (* M. Chladni, who at first considered +falling-stars to be aerolites, subsequently abandoned that idea.) + +Whatever may be the origin of these luminous meteors, it is +difficult to conceive an instantaneous inflammation taking place in +a region where there is less air than in the vacuum of our +air-pumps; and where (at the height of 25,000 toises) the mercury +in the barometer would not rise to 0.012 of a line. We have +ascertained the uniform mixture of atmospheric air to be about 0. +003, only to an elevation of 3000 toises; consequently not beyond +the last stratum of fleecy clouds. It may be admitted that, in the +first revolutions of the globe, gaseous substances, which yet +remain unknown to us, have risen towards that region through which +the falling-stars pass; but accurate experiments, made upon +mixtures of gases which have not the same specific gravity, show +that there is no reason for supposing a superior stratum of the +atmosphere entirely different from the inferior strata. Gaseous +substances mingle and penetrate each other on the least movement; +and a uniformity of their mixture may have taken place in the lapse +of ages, unless we believe them to possess a repulsive action of +which there is no example in those substances we can subject to our +observations. Farther, if we admit the existence of particular +aerial fluids in the inaccessible regions of luminous meteors, of +falling-stars, bolides, and the Aurora Borealis; how can we +conceive why the whole stratum of those fluids does not at once +ignite, but that the gaseous emanations, like the clouds, occupy +only limited spaces? How can we suppose an electrical explosion +without some vapours collected together, capable of containing +unequal charges of electricity, in air, the mean temperature of +which is perhaps 25 degrees below the freezing point of the +centigrade thermometer, and the rarefaction of which is so +considerable, that the compression of the electrical shock could +scarcely disengage any heat? These difficulties would in great part +be removed, if the direction of the movement of falling-stars +allowed us to consider them as bodies with a solid nucleus, as +cosmic phenomena (belonging to space beyond the limits of our +atmosphere), and not as telluric phenomena (belonging to our planet +only). + +Supposing the meteors of Cumana to have been only at the usual +height at which falling-stars in general move, the same meteors +were seen above the horizon in places more than 310 leagues distant +from each other.* (* It was this circumstance that induced Lambert +to propose the observation of falling-stars for the determination +of terrestrial longitudes. He considered them to be celestial +signals seen at great distances.) How great a disposition to +incandescence must have prevailed on the 12th November, in the +higher regions of the atmosphere, to have rendered during four +hours myriads of bolides and falling stars visible at the equator, +in Greenland, and in Germany! + +M. Benzenberg observes, that the same cause which renders the +phenomenon more frequent, has also an influence on the large size +of the meteors, and the intensity of their light. In Europe, the +greatest number of falling stars are seen on those nights on which +very bright ones are mingled with very small ones. The periodical +nature of the phenomenon augments the interest it excites. There +are months in which M. Brandes has reckoned in our temperate zone +only sixty or eighty falling-stars in one night; and in other +months their number has risen to two thousand. Whenever one is +observed, which has the diameter of Sirius or of Jupiter, we are +sure of seeing the brilliant meteor succeeded by a great number of +smaller ones. If the falling stars be very numerous during one +night, it is probable that they will continue equally so during +several weeks. It would seem, that in the higher regions of the +atmosphere, near that extreme limit where the centrifugal force is +balanced by gravity, there exists at regular periods a particular +disposition for the production of bolides, falling-stars, and the +Aurora Borealis.* (* Ritter, like several others, makes a +distinction between bolides mingled with falling-stars and those +luminous meteors which, enveloped in vapour and smoke, explode with +great noise, and let fall (chiefly in the day-time) aerolites. The +latter certainly do not belong to our atmosphere.) Does the +periodical recurrence of this great phenomenon depend upon the +state of the atmosphere? or upon something which the atmosphere +receives from without, while the earth advances in the ecliptic? Of +all this we are still as ignorant as mankind were in the days of +Anaxagoras. + +With respect to the falling-stars themselves, it appears to me, +from my own experience, that they are more frequent in the +equinoctial regions than in the temperate zone; and more frequent +above continents, and near certain coasts, than in the middle of +the ocean. Do the radiation of the surface of the globe, and the +electric charge of the lower regions of the atmosphere (which +varies according to the nature of the soil and the positions of the +continents and seas), exert their influence as far as those heights +where eternal winter reigns? The total absence of even the smallest +clouds, at certain seasons, or above some barren plains destitute +of vegetation, seems to prove that this influence can be felt as +far as five or six thousand toises high. + +A phenomenon analogous to that which appeared on the 12th of +November at Cumana, was observed thirty years previously on the +table-land of the Andes, in a country studded with volcanoes. In +the city of Quito there was seen in one part of the sky, above the +volcano of Cayamba, such great numbers of falling-stars, that the +mountain was thought to be in flames. This singular sight lasted +more than an hour. The people assembled in the plain of Exido, +which commands a magnificent view of the highest summits of the +Cordilleras. A procession was on the point of setting out from the +convent of San Francisco, when it was perceived that the blaze on +the horizon was caused by fiery meteors, which ran along the skies +in all directions, at the altitude of twelve or thirteen degrees. + + +CHAPTER 1.11. + +PASSAGE FROM CUMANA TO LA GUAYRA. +MORRO OF NUEVA BARCELONA. +CAPE CODERA. +ROAD FROM LA GUAYRA TO CARACAS. + +On the 16th of November, at eight in the evening, we were under +sail to proceed along the coast from Cumana to the port of La +Guayra, whence the inhabitants of the province of Venezuela export +the greater part of their produce. The passage is only a distance +of sixty leagues, and it usually occupies from thirty-six to forty +hours. The little coasting vessels are favoured at once by the wind +and by the currents, which run with more or less force from east to +west, along the coasts of Terra Firma, particularly from cape Paria +to the cape of Chichibacoa. The road by land from Cumana to New +Barcelona, and thence to Caracas, is nearly in the same state as +that in which it was before the discovery of America. The traveller +has to contend with the obstacles presented by a miry soil, large +scattered rocks, and strong vegetation. He must sleep in the open +air, pass through the valleys of the Unare, the Tuy, and the +Capaya, and cross torrents which swell rapidly on account of the +proximity of the mountains. To these obstacles must be added the +dangers arising from the extreme insalubrity of the country. The +very low lands, between the sea-shore and the chain of hills +nearest the coast, from the bay of Mochima as far as Coro, are +extremely unhealthy. But the last-mentioned town, which is +surrounded by an immense wood of thorny cactuses, owes its great +salubrity, like Cumana, to its barren soil and the absence of rain. + +In returning from Caracas to Cumana, the road by land is sometimes +preferred to the passage by sea, to avoid the adverse current. The +postman from Caracas is nine days in performing this journey. We +often saw persons, who had followed him, arrive at Cumana ill of +nervous and miasmatic fevers. The tree of which the bark* furnishes +a salutary remedy for those fevers (* Cortex Angosturae of our +pharmacopaeias, the bark of the Bonplandia trifoliata.), grows in +the same valleys, and upon the edge of the same forests which send +forth the pernicious exhalations. M. Bonpland recognised the +cuspare in the vegetation of the gulf of Santa Fe, situated between +the ports of Cumana and Barcelona. The sickly traveller may +perchance repose in a cottage, the inhabitants of which are +ignorant of the febrifuge qualities of the trees that shade the +surrounding valleys. + +Having proceeded by sea from Cumana to La Guayra, we intended to +take up our abode in the town of Caracas, till the end of the rainy +season. From Caracas we proposed to direct our course across the +great plains or llanos, to the Missions of the Orinoco; to go up +that vast river, to the south of the cataracts, as far as the Rio +Negro and the frontiers of Brazil; and thence to return to Cumana +by the capital of Spanish Guiana, commonly called, on account of +its situation, Angostura, or the Strait. We could not determine the +time we might require to accomplish a tour of seven hundred +leagues, more than two-thirds of that distance having to be +traversed in boats. The only parts of the Orinoco known on the +coasts are those near its mouth. No commercial intercourse is kept +up with the Missions. The whole of the country beyond the llanos is +unknown to the inhabitants of Cumana and Caracas. Some think that +the plains of Calabozo, covered with turf, stretch eight hundred +leagues southward, communicating with the Steppes or Pampas of +Buenos Ayres; others, recalling to mind the great mortality which +prevailed among the troops of Iturriaga and Solano, during their +expedition to the Orinoco, consider the whole country, south of the +cataracts of Atures, as extremely pernicious to health. In a region +where travelling is so uncommon, people seem to feel a pleasure in +exaggerating to strangers the difficulties arising from the +climate, the wild animals, and the Indians. Nevertheless we +persisted in the project we had formed. We could rely upon the +interest and solicitude of the governor of Cumana, Don Vicente +Emparan, as well as on the recommendations of the Franciscan monks, +who are in reality masters of the shores of the Orinoco. + +Fortunately for us, one of those monks, Juan Gonzales, was at that +time in Cumana. This young monk, who was only a lay-brother, was +highly intelligent, and full of spirit and courage. He had the +misfortune shortly after his arrival on the coast to displease his +superiors, upon the election of a new director of the Missions of +Piritu, which is a period of great agitation in the convent of New +Barcelona. The triumphant party exercised a general retaliation, +from which the lay-brother could not escape. He was sent to +Esmeralda, the last Mission of the Upper Orinoco, famous for the +vast quantity of noxious insects with which the air is continually +filled. Fray Juan Gonzales was thoroughly acquainted with the +forests which extend from the cataracts towards the sources of the +Orinoco. Another revolution in the republican government of the +monks had some years before brought him to the coast, where he +enjoyed (and most justly) the esteem of his superiors. He confirmed +us in our desire of examining the much-disputed bifurcation of the +Orinoco. He gave us useful advice for the preservation of our +health, in climates where he had himself suffered long from +intermitting fevers. We had the satisfaction of finding Fray Juan +Gonzales at New Barcelona, on our return from the Rio Negro. +Intending to go from the Havannah to Cadiz, he obligingly offered +to take charge of part of our herbals, and our insects of the +Orinoco; but these collections were unfortunately lost with himself +at sea. This excellent young man, who was much attached to us, and +whose zeal and courage might have rendered him very serviceable to +the missions of his order, perished in a storm on the coast of +Africa, in 1801. + +The boat which conveyed us from Cumana to La Guayra, was one of +those employed in trading between the coasts and the West India +Islands. They are thirty feet long, and not more than three feet +high at the gunwale; they have no decks, and their burthen is +generally from two hundred to two hundred and fifty quintals. +Although the sea is extremely rough from Cape Codera to La Guayra, +and although the boats have an enormous triangular sail, somewhat +dangerous in those gusts which issue from the mountain-passes, no +instance has occurred during thirty years, of one of these boats +being lost in the passage from Cumana to the coast of Caracas. The +skill of the Guaiqueria pilots is so great, that accidents are very +rare, even in the frequent trips they make from Cumana to +Guadaloupe, or the Danish islands, which are surrounded with +breakers. These voyages of 120 or 150 leagues, in an open sea, out +of sight of land, are performed in boats without decks, like those +of the ancients, without observations of the meridian altitude of +the sun, without charts, and generally without a compass. The +Indian pilot directs his course at night by the pole-star, and in +the daytime by the sun and the wind. I have seen Guaiqueries and +pilots of the Zambo caste, who could find the pole-star by the +direction of the pointers alpha and beta of the Great Bear, and +they seemed to me to steer less from the view of the pole-star +itself, than from the line drawn through these stars. It is +surprising, that at the first sight of land, they can find the +island of Guadaloupe, Santa Cruz, or Porto Rico; but the +compensation of the errors of their course is not always equally +fortunate. The boats, if they fall to leeward in making land, beat +up with great difficulty to the eastward, against the wind and the +current. + +We descended rapidly the little river Manzanares, the windings of +which are marked by cocoa-trees, as the rivers of Europe are +sometimes bordered by poplars and old willows. On the adjacent arid +land, the thorny bushes, on which by day nothing is visible but +dust, glitter during the night with thousands of luminous sparks. +The number of phosphorescent insects augments in the stormy season. +The traveller in the equinoctial regions is never weary of admiring +the effect of those reddish and moveable fires, which, being +reflected by limpid water, blend their radiance with that of the +starry vault of heaven. + +We quitted the shore of Cumana as if it had long been our home. +This was the first land we had trodden in a zone, towards which my +thoughts had been directed from earliest youth. There is a powerful +charm in the impression produced by the scenery and climate of +these regions; and after an abode of a few months we seemed to have +lived there during a long succession of years. In Europe, the +inhabitant of the north feels an almost similar emotion, when he +quits even after a short abode the shores of the Bay of Naples, the +delicious country between Tivoli and the lake of Nemi, or the wild +and majestic scenery of the Upper Alps and the Pyrenees. Yet +everywhere in the temperate zone, the effects of vegetable +physiognomy afford little contrast. The firs and the oaks which +crown the mountains of Sweden have a certain family air in common +with those which adorn Greece and Italy. Between the tropics, on +the contrary, in the lower regions of both Indies, everything in +nature appears new and marvellous. In the open plains and amid the +gloom of forests, almost all the remembrances of Europe are +effaced; for it is vegetation that determines the character of a +landscape, and acts upon the imagination by its mass, the contrast +of its forms, and the glow of its colours. In proportion as +impressions are powerful and new, they weaken antecedent +impressions, and their force imparts to them the character of +duration. I appeal to those who, more sensible to the beauties of +nature than to the charms of society, have long resided in the +torrid zone. How dear, how memorable during life, is the land on +which they first disembarked! A vague desire to revisit that spot +remains rooted in their minds to the most advanced age. Cumana and +its dusty soil are still more frequently present to my imagination, +than all the wonders of the Cordilleras. Beneath the bright sky of +the south, the light, and the magic of the aerial hues, embellish a +land almost destitute of vegetation. The sun does not merely +enlighten, it colours the objects, and wraps them in a thin vapour, +which, without changing the transparency of the air, renders its +tints more harmonious, softens the effects of the light, and +diffuses over nature a placid calm, which is reflected in our +souls. To explain this vivid impression which the aspect of the +scenery in the two Indies produces, even on coasts but thinly +wooded, it is sufficient to recollect that the beauty of the sky +augments from Naples to the equator, almost as much as from +Provence to the south of Italy. + +We passed at high water the bar formed at the mouth of the little +river Manzanares. The evening breeze gently swelled the waves in +the gulf of Cariaco. The moon had not risen, but that part of the +milky way which extends from the feet of the Centaur towards the +constellation of Sagittarius, seemed to pour a silvery light over +the surface of the ocean. The white rock, crowned by the castle of +San Antonio, appeared from time to time between the high tops of +the cocoa-trees which border the shore; and we soon recognized the +coasts only by the scattered lights of the Guaiqueria fishermen. + +We sailed at first to north-north-west, approaching the peninsula +of Araya; we then ran thirty miles to west and west-south-west. As +we advanced towards the shoal that surrounds Cape Arenas and +stretches as far as the petroleum springs of Maniquarez, we enjoyed +one of those varied sights which the great phosphorescence of the +sea so often displays in those climates. Bands of porpoises +followed our bark. Fifteen or sixteen of these animals swam at +equal distances from each other. When turning on their backs, they +struck the surface of the water with their broad tails; they +diffused a brilliant light, which seemed like flames issuing from +the depth of the ocean.* (* See Views of Nature Bohn's edition page +246.) Each band of porpoises, ploughing the surface of the waters, +left behind it a track of light, the more striking as the rest of +the sea was not phosphorescent. As the motion of an oar, and the +track of the bark, produced on that night but feeble sparks, it is +natural to suppose that the vivid phosphorescence caused by the +porpoises was owing not only to the stroke of their tails, but also +to the gelatinous matter that envelopes their bodies, and is +detached by the shock of the waves. + +We found ourselves at midnight between some barren and rocky +islands, which uprise like bastions in the middle of the sea, and +form the group of the Caracas and Chimanas.* (* There are three of +the Caracas islands and eight of the Chimanas.) The moon was above +the horizon, and lighted up these cleft rocks which are bare of +vegetation and of fantastic aspect. The sea here forms a sort of +bay, a slight inward curve of the land between Cumana and Cape +Codera. The islets of Picua, Picuita, Caracas, and Boracha, appear +like fragments of the ancient coast, which stretches from Bordones +in the same direction east and west. The gulfs of Mochima and Santa +Fe, which will no doubt one day become frequented ports, lie behind +those little islands. The rents in the land, the fracture and dip +of the strata, all here denote the effects of a great revolution: +possibly that which clove asunder the chain of the primitive +mountains, and separated the mica-schist of Araya and the island of +Margareta from the gneiss of Cape Codera. Several of the islands +are visible at Cumana, from the terraces of the houses, and they +produce, according to the superposition of layers of air more or +less heated, the most singular effects of suspension and mirage. +The height of the rocks does not probably exceed one hundred and +fifty toises; but at night, when lighted by the moon, they seem to +be of a very considerable elevation. + +It may appear extraordinary, to find the Caracas Islands so distant +from the city of that name, opposite the coast of the Cumanagotos; +but the denomination of Caracas denoted at the beginning of the +Conquest, not a particular spot, but a tribe of Indians, neighbours +of the Tecs, the Taramaynas, and the Chagaragates. As we came very +near this group of mountainous islands, we were becalmed; and at +sunrise, small currents drifted us toward Boracha, the largest of +them. As the rocks rise nearly perpendicular, the shore is abrupt; +and in a subsequent voyage I saw frigates at anchor almost touching +the land. The temperature of the atmosphere became sensibly higher +whilst we were sailing among the islands of this little +archipelago. The rocks, heated during the day, throw out at night, +by radiation, a part of the heat absorbed. As the sun arose on the +horizon, the rugged mountains projected their vast shadows on the +surface of the ocean. The flamingoes began to fish in places where +they found in a creek calcareous rocks bordered by a narrow beach. +All these islands are now entirely uninhabited; but upon one of the +Caracas are found wild goats of large size, brown, and extremely +swift. Our Indian pilot assured us that their flesh has an +excellent flavour. Thirty years ago a family of whites settled on +this island, where they cultivated maize and cassava. The father +alone survived his children. As his wealth increased, he purchased +two black slaves; and by these slaves he was murdered. The goats +became wild, but the cultivated plants perished. Maize in America, +like wheat in Europe, connected with man since his first +migrations, appears to be preserved only by his care. We sometimes +see these nutritive gramina disseminate themselves; but when left +to nature the birds prevent their reproduction by destroying the +seeds. + +We anchored for some hours in the road of New Barcelona, at the +mouth of the river Neveri, of which the Indian (Cumanagoto) name is +Enipiricuar. This river is full of crocodiles, which sometimes +extend their excursions into the open sea, especially in calm +weather. They are of the species common in the Orinoco, and bear so +much resemblance to the crocodile of Egypt, that they have long +been confounded together. It may easily be conceived that an +animal, the body of which is surrounded with a kind of armour, must +be nearly indifferent to the saltness of the water. Pigafetta +relates in his journal recently published at Milan that he saw, on +the shores of the island of Borneo, crocodiles which inhabit alike +land and sea. These facts must be interesting to geologists, since +attention has been fixed on the fresh-water formations, and the +curious mixture of marine and fluviatile petrifactions sometimes +observed in certain very recent rocks. + +The port of Barcelona has maintained a very active commerce since +1795. From Barcelona is exported most of the produce of those vast +steppes which extend from the south side of the chain of the coast +as far as the Orinoco, and in which cattle of every kind are almost +as abundant as in the Pampas of Buenos Ayres. The commercial +industry of these countries depends on the demand in the West India +Islands for salted provision, oxen, mules, and horses. The coasts +of Terra Firma being opposite to the island of Cuba, at a distance +of fifteen or eighteen days' sail, the merchants of the Havannah +prefer, especially in time of peace, obtaining their provision from +the port of Barcelona, to the risk of a long voyage in another +hemisphere to the mouth of the Rio de la Plata. The situation of +Barcelona is singularly advantageous for the trade in cattle. The +animals have only three days' journey from the llanos to the port, +while it requires eight or nine days to reach Cumana, on account of +the chain of mountains of the Brigantine and the Imposible. + +Having landed on the right bank of the Neveri, we ascended to a +little fort called El Morro de Barcelona, situated at the elevation +of sixty or seventy toises above the level of the sea. The Morro is +a calcareous rock which has been lately fortified. + +The view from the summit of the Morro is not without beauty. The +rocky island of Boracha lies on the east, the lofty promontory of +Unare is on the west, and below are seen the mouth of the river +Neveri, and the arid shores on which the crocodiles come to sleep +in the sun. Notwithstanding the extreme heat of the air, for the +thermometer, exposed to the reflection of the white calcareous +rock, rose to 38 degrees, we traversed the whole of the eminence. A +fortunate chance led us to observe some very curious geological +phenomena, which we again met with in the Cordilleras of Mexico. +The limestone of Barcelona has a dull, even, or conchoidal +fracture, with very flat cavities. It is divided into very thin +strata, and exhibits less analogy with the limestone of Cumanacoa, +than with that of Caripe, forming the cavern of the Guacharo. It is +traversed by banks of schistose jasper,* (Kieselschiefer of Werner. +)* black, with a conchoidal fracture, and breaking into fragments +of a parallelopipedal figure. This fossil does not exhibit those +little streaks of quartz so common in the Lydian stone. It is found +decomposed at its surface into a yellowish grey crust, and it does +not act upon the magnet. Its edges, a little translucid, give it +some resemblance to the hornstone, so common in secondary +limestones.* (* In Switzerland, the hornstone passing into common +jasper is found in kidney-stones, and in layers both in the Alpine +and Jura limestone, especially in the former.) It is remarkable +that we find the schistose jasper which in Europe characterizes the +transition rocks,* (The transition-limestone and schist.) in a +limestone having great analogy with that of Jura. In the study of +formations, which is the great end of geognosy, the knowledge +acquired in the old and new worlds should be made to furnish +reciprocal aid to each other. It appears that these black strata +are found also in the calcareous mountains of the island of +Boracha.* (* We saw some of it as ballast, in a fishing boat at +Punta Araya. Its fragments might have been mistaken for basalt.) +Another jasper, that known by the name of the Egyptian pebble, was +found by M. Bonpland near the Indian village of Curacatiche or +Curacaguitiche, fifteen leagues south of the Morro of Barcelona, +when, on our return from the Orinoco, we crossed the llanos, and +approached the mountains on the coast. This stone presented +yellowish concentric lines and bands, on a reddish brown ground. It +appeared to me that the round pieces of Egyptian jasper belonged +also to the Barcelona limestone. Yet, according to M. Cordier, the +fine pebbles of Suez owe their origin to a breccia formation, or +siliceous agglomerate. + +At the moment of our setting sail, on the 19th of November, at +noon, I took some altitudes of the moon, to determine the longitude +of the Morro. The difference of meridian between Cumana and the +town of Barcelona, where I made a great number of astronomical +observations in 1800, is 34 minutes 48 seconds. I found the dip of +the needle 42.20 degrees: the intensity of the forces was equal to +224 oscillations. + +From the Morro of Barcelona to Cape Codera, the land becomes low, +as it recedes southward; and the soundings extend to the distance +of three miles. Beyond this we find the bottom at forty-five or +fifty fathoms. The temperature of the sea at its surface was 25.9 +degrees; but when we were passing through the narrow channel which +separates the two Piritu Islands, in three fathoms water, the +thermometer was only 24.5 degrees. The difference would perhaps be +greater, if the current, which runs rapidly westward, stirred up +deeper water; and if, in a pass of such small width, the land did +not contribute to raise the temperature of the sea. The Piritu +Islands resemble those shoals which become visible when the tide +falls. They do not rise more than eight or nine inches above the +mean height of the sea. Their surface is smooth, and covered with +grass. We might have thought we were gazing on some of our own +northern meadows. The disk of the setting sun appeared like a globe +of fire suspended over the savannah; and its last rays, as they +swept the earth, illumined the grass, which was at the same time +agitated by the evening breeze. In the low and humid parts of the +equinoctial zone, even when the gramineous plants and reeds present +the aspect of a meadow, a rich accessory of the picture is usually +wanting; I allude to that variety of wild flowers, which, scarcely +rising above the grass, seem as it were, to lie upon a smooth bed +of verdure. Within the tropics, the strength and luxury of +vegetation give such a development to plants, that the smallest of +the dicotyledonous family become shrubs. It would seem as if the +liliaceous plants, mingling with the gramina, assumed the place of +the flowers of our meadows. Their form is indeed striking; they +dazzle by the variety and splendour of their colours; but being too +high above the soil, they disturb that harmonious proportion which +characterizes the plants of our European meadows. Nature has in +every zone stamped on the landscape the peculiar type of beauty +proper to the locality. + +We must not be surprised that fertile islands, so near Terra Firma, +are not now inhabited. It was only at the early period of the +discovery, and whilst the Caribbees, Chaymas, and Cumanagotos were +still masters of the coast, that the Spaniards formed settlements +at Cubagua and Margareta. When the natives were subdued, or driven +southward in the direction of the savannahs, the preference was +given to settlements on the continent, where there was a choice of +land, and where there were Indians, who might be treated like +beasts of burden. Had the little islands of Tortuga, Blanquilla, +and Orchilla been situated in the group of the Antilles, they would +not have remained without traces of cultivation. + +Vessels of heavy burthen pass between the main land and the most +southern of the Piritu Islands. Being very low, their northern +point is dreaded by pilots who near the coast in those latitudes. +When we found ourselves to westward of the Morro of Barcelona, and +the mouth of the river Unare, the sea, till then calm, became +agitated and rough in proportion as we approached Cape Codera. The +influence of that vast promontory is felt from afar, in that part +of the Caribbean Sea. The length of the passage from Cumana to La +Guayra depends on the degree of ease or difficulty with which Cape +Codera can be doubled. Beyond this cape the sea constantly runs so +high, that we can scarcely believe we are near a coast where (from +the point of Paria as far as Cape San Roman) a gale of wind is +never known. On the 20th of November at sunrise we were so far +advanced, that we might expect to double the cape in a few hours. +We hoped to reach La Guayra the same day; but our Indian pilot +being afraid of the privateers who were near that port, thought it +would be prudent to make for land, and anchor in the little harbour +of Higuerote, which we had already passed, and await the shelter of +night to proceed on our voyage. + +On the 20th of November at nine in the morning we were at anchor in +the bay just mentioned, situated westward of the mouth of the Rio +Capaya. We found there neither village nor farm, but merely two or +three huts, inhabited by Mestizo fishermen. Their livid hue, and +the meagre condition of their children, sufficed to remind us that +this spot is one of the most unhealthy of the whole coast. The sea +has so little depth along these shores, that even with the smallest +barks it is impossible to reach the shore without wading through +the water. The forests come down nearly to the beach, which is +covered with thickets of mangroves, avicennias, manchineel-trees, +and that species of suriana which the natives call romero de la +mar.* (* Suriana maritima.) To these thickets, and particularly to +the exhalations of the mangroves, the extreme insalubrity of the +air is attributed here, as in other places in both Indies. On +quitting the boats, and whilst we were yet fifteen or twenty toises +distant from land, we perceived a faint and sickly smell, which +reminded me of that diffused through the galleries of deserted +mines, where the lights begin to be extinguished, and the timber is +covered with flocculent byssus. The temperature of the air rose to +34 degrees, heated by the reverberation from the white sands which +form a line between the mangroves and the great trees of the +forest. As the shore descends with a gentle slope, small tides are +sufficient alternately to cover and uncover the roots and part of +the trunks of the mangroves. It is doubtless whilst the sun heats +the humid wood, and causes the fermentation, as it were, of the +ground, of the remains of dead leaves and of the molluscs enveloped +in the drift of floating seaweed, that those deleterious gases are +formed, which escape our researches. We observed that the +sea-water, along the whole coast, acquired a yellowish brown tint, +wherever it came into contact with the mangrove trees. + +Struck with this phenomenon, I gathered at Higuerote a considerable +quantity of branches and roots, for the purpose of making some +experiments on the infusion of the mangrove, on my arrival at +Caracas. The infusion in warm water had a brown colour and an +astringent taste. It contained a mixture of extractive matter and +tannin. The rhizophora, the mistletoe, the cornel-tree, in short, +all the plants which belong to the natural families of the +lorantheous and the caprifoliaceous plants, have the same +properties. The infusion of mangrove-wood, kept in contact with +atmospheric air under a glass jar for twelve days, was not sensibly +deteriorated in purity. A little blackish flocculent sediment was +formed, but it was attended by no sensible absorption of oxygen. +The wood and roots of the mangrove placed under water were exposed +to the rays of the sun. I tried to imitate the daily operations of +nature on the coasts at the rise of the tide. Bubbles of air were +disengaged, and at the expiration of ten days they formed a volume +of thirty-three cubic inches. They were a mixture of azotic gas and +carbonic acid. Nitrous gas scarcely indicated the presence of +oxygen.* (* In a hundred parts there were eighty-four of nitrogen, +fifteen of carbonic acid gas that the water had not absorbed, and +one of oxygen.) Lastly, I set the wood and the roots of the +mangrove thoroughly wetted, to act on a given volume of atmospheric +air in a phial with a ground-glass stopple. The whole of the oxygen +disappeared; and, far from being superseded by carbonic acid, +lime-water indicated only 0.02. There was even a diminution of the +volume of air, more than correspondent with the oxygen absorbed. +These slight experiments led me to conclude that it is the +moistened bark and wood which act upon the atmosphere in the +forests of mangrove-trees, and not the water strongly tinged with +yellow, forming a distinct band along the coasts. In pursuing the +different stages of the decomposition of the ligneous matter, I +observed no appearance of a disengagement of sulphuretted hydrogen, +to which many travellers attribute the smell perceived amidst +mangroves. The decomposition of the earthy and alkaline sulphates, +and their transition to the state of sulphurets, may no doubt +favour this disengagement in many littoral and marine plants; for +instance, in the fuci: but I am rather inclined to think that the +rhizophora, the avicennia, and the conocarpus, augment the +insalubrity of the air by the animal matter which they contain +conjointly with tannin. These shrubs belong to the three natural +families of the Lorantheae, the Combretaceae, and the Pyrenaceae, +in which the astringent principle abounds; this principle +accompanies gelatin, even in the bark of beech, alder, and +nut-trees. + +Moreover, a thick wood spreading over marshy grounds would diffuse +noxious exhalations in the atmosphere, even though that wood were +composed of trees possessing in themselves no deleterious +properties. Wherever mangroves grow on the sea-shore, the beach is +covered with infinite numbers of molluscs and insects. These +animals love shade and faint light, and they find themselves +sheltered from the shock of the waves amid the scaffolding of thick +and intertwining roots, which rises like lattice-work above the +surface of the waters. Shell-fish cling to this lattice; crabs +nestle in the hollow trunks; and the seaweeds, drifted to the coast +by the winds and tides, remain suspended on the branches which +incline towards the earth. Thus, maritime forests, by the +accumulation of a slimy mud between the roots of the trees, +increase the extent of land. But whilst these forests gain on the +sea, they do not enlarge their own dimensions; on the contrary, +their progress is the cause of their destruction. Mangroves, and +other plants with which they live constantly in society, perish in +proportion as the ground dries and they are no longer bathed with +salt water. Their old trunks, covered with shells, and half-buried +in the sand, denote, after the lapse of ages, the path they have +followed in their migrations, and the limits of the land which they +have wrested from the ocean. + +The bay of Higuerote is favourably situated for examining Cape +Codera, which is there seen in its full extent seven miles distant. +This promontory is more remarkable for its size than for its +elevation, being only about two hundred toises high. It is +perpendicular on the north-west and east. In these grand profiles +the dip of the strata appears to be distinguishable. Judging from +the fragments of rock found along the coast, and from the hills +near Higuerote, Cape Codera is not composed of granite with a +granular texture, but of a real gneiss with a foliated texture. Its +laminae are very broad and sometimes sinuous.* (* Dickflasriger +gneiss.) They contain large nodules of reddish feldspar and but +little quartz. The mica is found in superposed lamellae, not +isolated. The strata nearest the bay were in the direction of 60 +degrees north-east, and dipped 80 degrees to north-west. These +relations of direction and of dip are the same at the great +mountain of the Silla, near Caracas, and to the east of Maniquarez, +in the isthmus of Araya. They seem to prove that the primitive +chain of that isthmus, after having been ruptured or swallowed up +by the sea along a space of thirty-five leagues,* (* Between the +meridians of Maniquarez and Higuerote.) appears anew in Cape +Codera, and continues westward as a chain of the coast. + +I was assured that, in the interior of the earth, south of +Higuerote, limestone formations are found. The gneiss did not act +upon the magnetic needle; yet along the coast, which forms a cove +near Cape Codera, and which is covered with a fine forest, I saw +magnetic sand mixed with spangles of mica, deposited by the sea. +This phenomenon occurs again near the port of La Guayra. Possibly +it may denote the existence of some strata of hornblende-schist +covered by the waters, in which schist the sand is disseminated. +Cape Codera forms on the north an immense spherical segment. A +shallow which stretches along its foot is known to navigators by +the name of the points of Tutumo and of San Francisco. + +The road by land from Higuerote to Caracas, runs through a wild and +humid tract of country, by the Montana of Capaya, north of +Caucagua, and the valley of Rio Guatira and Guarenas. Some of our +fellow-travellers determined on taking this road, and M. Bonpland +also preferred it, notwithstanding the continual rains and the +overflowing of the rivers. It afforded him the opportunity of +making a rich collection of new plants.* (* Bauhinia ferruginea, +Brownea racemosa, B ed. Inga hymenaeifolia, I. curiepensis (which +Willdenouw has called by mistake I. caripensis), etc.) For my part, +I continued alone with the Guaiqueria pilot the voyage by sea; for +I thought it hazardous to lose sight of the instruments which we +were to make use of on the banks of the Orinoco. + +We set sail at night-fall. The wind was unfavourable, and we +doubled Cape Codera with difficulty. The surges were short, and +often broke one upon another. The sea ran the higher, owing to the +wind being contrary to the current, till after midnight. The +general motion of the waters within the tropics towards the west is +felt strongly on the coast during two-thirds of the year. In the +months of September, October, and November, the current often flows +eastward for fifteen or twenty days in succession; and vessels on +their way from Guayra to Porto Cabello have sometimes been unable +to stem the current which runs from west to east, although they +have had the wind astern. The cause of these anomalies is not yet +discovered. The pilots think they are the effect of gales of wind +from the north-west in the gulf of Mexico. + +On the 21st of November, at sunrise, we were to the west of Cape +Codera, opposite Curuao. The coast is rocky and very elevated, the +scenery at once wild and picturesque. We were sufficiently near +land to distinguish scattered huts surrounded by cocoa-trees, and +masses of vegetation, which stood out from the dark ground of the +rocks. The mountains are everywhere perpendicular, and three or +four thousand feet high; their sides cast broad and deep shadows +upon the humid land, which stretches out to the sea, glowing with +the freshest verdure. This shore produces most of those fruits of +the hot regions, which are seen in such great abundance in the +markets of the Caracas. The fields cultivated with sugar-cane and +maize, between Camburi and Niguatar, stretch through narrow +valleys, looking like crevices or clefts in the rocks: and +penetrated by the rays of the sun, then above the horizon, they +presented the most singular contrasts of light and shade. + +The mountain of Niguatar and the Silla of Caracas are the loftiest +summits of this littoral chain. The first almost reaches the height +of Canigou; it seems as if the Pyrenees or the Alps, stripped of +their snows, had risen from the bosom of the ocean; so much more +stupendous do mountains appear when viewed for the first time from +the sea. Near Caravalleda, the cultivated lands enlarge; we find +hills with gentle declivities, and the vegetation rises to a great +height. The sugar-cane is here cultivated, and the monks of La +Merced have a plantation with two hundred slaves. This spot was +formerly extremely subject to fever; and it is said that the air +has acquired salubrity since trees have been planted round a small +lake, the emanations of which were dreaded, and which is now less +exposed to the ardour of the sun. To the west of Caravalleda, a +wall of bare rock again projects forward in the direction of the +sea, but it has little extent. After having passed it, we +immediately discovered the pleasantly situated village of Macuto; +the black rocks of La Guayra, studded with batteries rising in +tiers one over another, and in the misty distance, Cabo Blanco, a +long promontory with conical summits, and of dazzling whiteness. +Cocoa-trees border the shore, and give it, under that burning sky, +an appearance of fertility. + +I landed in the port of La Guayra, and the same evening made +preparations for transporting my instruments to Caracas. Having +been recommended not to sleep in the town, where the yellow fever +had been raging only a few weeks previously, I fixed my lodging in +a house on a little hill, above the village of Maiquetia, a place +more exposed to fresh winds than La Guayra. I reached Caracas on +the 21st of November, four days sooner than M. Bonpland, who, with +the other travellers on the land journey, had suffered greatly from +the rain and the inundations of the torrents, between Capaya and +Curiepe. + +Before proceeding further, I will here subjoin a description of La +Guayra, and the extraordinary road which leads from thence to the +town of Caracas, adding thereto all the observations made by M. +Bonpland and myself, in an excursion to Cabo Blanco about the end +of January 1800. + +La Guayra is rather a roadstead than a port. The sea is constantly +agitated, and ships suffer at once by the violence of the wind, the +tideways, and the bad anchorage. The lading is taken in with +difficulty, and the swell prevents the embarkation of mules here, +as at New Barcelona and Porto Cabello. The free mulattoes and +negroes, who carry the cacao on board the ships, are a class of men +remarkable for muscular strength. They wade up to their waists +through the water; and it is remarkable that they are never +attacked by the sharks, so common in this harbour. This fact seems +connected with what I have often observed within the tropics, with +respect to other classes of animals which live in society, for +instance monkeys and crocodiles. In the Missions of the Orinoco, +and on the banks of the river Amazon, the Indians, who catch +monkeys to sell them, know very well that they can easily succeed +in taming those which inhabit certain islands; while monkeys of the +same species, caught on the neighbouring continent, die of terror +or rage when they find themselves in the power of man. The +crocodiles of one lake in the llanos are cowardly, and flee even +when in the water; whilst those of another lake will attack with +extreme intrepidity. It would be difficult to explain this +difference of disposition and habits, by the mere aspect of the +respective localities. The sharks of the port of La Guayra seem to +furnish an analogous example. They are dangerous and blood-thirsty +at the island opposite the coast of Caracas, at the Roques, at +Bonayre, and at Curassao; while they forbear to attack persons +swimming in the ports of La Guayra and Santa Martha. The natives, +who like the ignorant mass of people in every country, in seeking +the explanation of natural phenomena, always have recourse to the +marvellous, affirm that in the ports just mentioned, a bishop gave +his benediction to the sharks. + +The situation of La Guayra is very singular, and can only be +compared to that of Santa Cruz in Teneriffe. The chain of mountains +which separates the port from the high valley of Caracas, descends +almost directly into the sea; and the houses of the town are backed +by a wall of steep rocks. There scarcely remains one hundred or one +hundred and forty toises breadth of flat ground between the wall +and the ocean. The town has six or eight thousand inhabitants, and +contains only two streets, running parallel with each other east +and west. It is commanded by the battery of Cerro Colorado; and its +fortifications along the sea-shore are well disposed, and kept in +repair. The aspect of this place has in it something solitary and +gloomy; we seemed not to be on a continent, covered with vast +forests, but on a rocky island, destitute of vegetation. With the +exception of Cabo Blanco and the cocoa-trees of Maiquetia, no view +meets the eye but that of the horizon, the sea, and the azure vault +of heaven. The heat is excessive during the day, and most +frequently during the night. The climate of La Guayra is justly +considered to be hotter than that of Cumana, Porto Cabello, and +Coro, because the sea-breeze is less felt, and the air is heated by +the radiant caloric which the perpendicular rocks emit from the +time the sun sets. The examination of the thermometric observations +made during nine months at La Guayra by an eminent physician, +enabled me to compare the climate of this port, with those of +Cumana, of the Havannah, and of Vera Cruz. This comparison is the +more interesting, as it furnishes an inexhaustible subject of +conversation in the Spanish colonies, and among the mariners who +frequent those latitudes. As nothing is more deceiving in such +matters than the testimony of the senses, we can judge of the +difference of climates only by numerical calculations. + +The four places of which we have been speaking are considered as +the hottest on the shores of the New World. A comparison of them +may serve to confirm what we have several times observed, that it +is generally the duration of a high temperature, and not the excess +of heat, or its absolute quantity, which occasions the sufferings +of the inhabitants of the torrid zone. + +A series of thermometric observations shows, that La Guayra is one +of the hottest places on the earth; that the quantity of heat which +it receives in the course of a year is a little greater than that +felt at Cumana; but that in the months of November, December, and +January (at equal distance from the two passages of the sun through +the zenith of the town), the atmosphere cools more at La Guayra. +May not this cooling, much slighter than that which is felt almost +at the same time at Vera Cruz and at the Havannah, be the effect of +the more westerly position of La Guayra? The aerial ocean, which +appears to form only one mass, is agitated by currents, the limits +of which are fixed by immutable laws; and its temperature is +variously modified by the configuration of the lands and seas by +which it is sustained. It may be subdivided into several basins, +which overflow into each other, and of which the most agitated (for +instance, that over the gulf of Mexico, or between the sierra of +Santa Martha and the gulf of Darien) have a powerful influence on +the refrigeration and the motion of the neighbouring columns of +air. The north winds sometimes cause influxes and counter-currents +in the south-west part of the Caribbean Sea, which seem, during +particular months, to diminish the heat as far as Terra Firma. + +At the time of my abode at La Guayra, the yellow fever, or +calentura amarilla, had been known only two years; and the +mortality it occasioned had not been very great, because the +confluence of strangers on the coast of Caracas was less +considerable than at the Havannah or Vera Cruz. A few individuals, +even creoles and mulattoes, were sometimes carried off suddenly by +certain irregular remittent fevers; which, from being complicated +with bilious appearances, hemorrhages, and other symptoms equally +alarming, appeared to have some analogy with the yellow fever. The +victims of these maladies were generally men employed in the hard +labour of cutting wood in the forests, for instance, in the +neighbourhood of the little port of Carupano, or the gulf of Santa +Fe, west of Cumana. Their death often alarmed the unacclimated +Europeans, in towns usually regarded as peculiarly healthy; but the +seeds of the sporadic malady were propagated no farther. On the +coast of Terra Firma, the real typhus of America, which is known by +the names vomito prieto (black vomit) and yellow fever, and which +must be considered as a morbid affection sui generis, was known +only at Porto Cabello, at Carthagena, and at Santa Martha, where +Gastelbondo observed and described it in 1729. The Spaniards +recently disembarked, and the inhabitants of the valley of Caracas, +were not then afraid to reside at La Guayra. They complained only +of the oppressive heat which prevailed during a great part of the +year. If they exposed themselves to the immediate action of the +sun, they dreaded at most only those attacks of inflammation of the +skin or eyes, which are felt everywhere in the torrid zone, and are +often accompanied by a febrile affection and congestion in the +head. Many individuals preferred the ardent but uniform climate of +La Guayra to the cool but extremely variable climate of Caracas; +and scarcely any mention was made of the insalubrity of the former +port. + +Since the year 1797 everything has changed. Commerce being thrown +open to other vessels besides those of the mother country, seamen +born in colder parts of Europe than Spain, and consequently more +susceptible to the climate of the torrid zone, began to frequent La +Guayra. The yellow fever broke out. North Americans, seized with +the typhus, were received in the Spanish hospitals; and it was +affirmed that they had imported the contagion, and that the disease +had appeared on board a brig from Philadelphia, even before the +vessel had entered the roads of La Guayra. The captain of the brig +denied the fact; and asserted that, far from having introduced the +malady, his crew had caught it in the port. We know from what +happened at Cadiz in 1800, how difficult it is to elucidate facts, +when their uncertainty serves to favour theories diametrically +opposite one to another. The more enlightened inhabitants of +Caracas and La Guayra, divided in opinion, like the physicians of +Europe and the United States, on the question of the contagion of +yellow fever, cited the instance of the American vessel; some for +the purpose of proving that the typhus had come from abroad, and +others, to show that it had taken birth in the country itself. +Those who advocated the latter opinion, admitted that an +extraordinary alteration had been caused in the constitution of the +atmosphere by the overflowings of the Rio de La Guayra. This +torrent, which in general is not ten inches deep, was swelled after +sixty hours' rain in the mountains, in so extraordinary a manner, +that it bore down trunks of trees and masses of rock of +considerable size. During this flood the waters were from thirty to +forty feet in breadth, and from eight to ten feet deep. It was +supposed that, issuing from some subterranean basin, formed by +successive infiltrations, they had flowed into the recently cleared +arable lands. Many houses were carried away by the torrent; and the +inundation became the more dangerous for the stores, in consequence +of the gate of the town, which could alone afford an outlet to the +waters, being accidentally closed. It was necessary to make a +breach in the wall on the sea-side. More than thirty persons +perished, and the damage was computed at half a million of +piastres. The stagnant water, which infected the stores, the +cellars, and the dungeons of the public prison, no doubt diffused +miasms in the air, which, as a predisposing cause, may have +accelerated the development of the yellow fever; but I believe that +the inundation of the Rio de la Guayra was no more the primary +cause, than the overflowings of the Guadalquivir, the Xenil, and +the Gual-Medina, were at Seville, at Ecija, and at Malaga, the +primary causes of the fatal epidemics of 1800 and 1804. I examined +with attention the bed of the torrent of La Guayra; and found it to +consist merely of a barren soil, blocks of mica-slate, and gneiss, +containing pyrites detached from the Sierra de Avila, but nothing +that could have had any effect in deteriorating the purity of the +air. + +Since the years 1797 and 1798, at which periods there prevailed +dreadful mortality at Philadelphia, St. Lucia, and St. Domingo, the +yellow fever has continued its ravages at La Guayra. It has proved +fatal not only to the troops newly arrived from Spain, but also to +those levied in parts remote from the coasts, in the llanos between +Calabozo and Uritucu, regions almost as hot as La Guayra, but +favourable to health. This latter fact would seem more surprising, +did we not know, that even the natives of Vera Cruz, who are not +attacked with typhus in their own town, sometimes sink under it +during the epidemics of the Havannah and the United States. As the +black vomit finds an insurmountable barrier at the Encero (four +hundred and seventy-six toises high), on the declivity of the +mountains of Mexico, in the direction of Xalapa, where oaks begin +to appear, and the climate begins to be cool and pleasant, so the +yellow fever scarcely ever passes beyond the ridge of mountains +which separates La Guayra from the valley of Caracas. This valley +has been exempt from the malady for a considerable time; for we +must not confound the vomito and the yellow fever with the +irregular and bilious fevers. The Cumbre and the Cerro do Avila +form a very useful rampart to the town of Caracas, the elevation of +which a little exceeds that of the Encero, but of which the mean +temperature is above that of Xalapa. + +I have published in another work* (* Nouvelle Espagne tome 2.) the +observations made by M. Bonpland and myself on the locality of the +towns periodically subject to the visitation of yellow fever; and I +shall not hazard here any new conjectures on the changes observed +in the pathogenic constitution of particular localities. The more I +reflect on this subject, the more mysterious appears to me all that +relates to those gaseous emanations which we call so vaguely the +seeds of contagion, and which are supposed to be developed by a +corrupted air, destroyed by cold, conveyed from place to place in +garments, and attached to the walls of houses. How can we explain +why, for the space of eighteen years prior to 1794, there was not a +single instance of the vomito at Vera Cruz, though the concourse of +unacclimated Europeans and of Mexicans from the interior, was very +considerable; though sailors indulged in the same excesses with +which they are still reproached; and though the town was not so +clean as it has been since the year 1800? + +The following is the series of pathological facts, considered in +their simplest point of view. When a great number of persons, born +in a cold climate, arrive at the same period in a port of the +torrid zone, not particularly dreaded by navigators, the typhus of +America begins to appear. Those persons have not had typhus during +their passage; it appears among them only after they have landed. +Is the atmospheric constitution changed? or is it that a new form +of disease develops itself among individuals whose susceptibility +is highly increased? + +The typhus soon begins to extend its ravages among other Europeans, +born in more southern countries. If propagated by contagion, it +seems surprising that in the towns of the equinoctial continent it +does not attach itself to certain streets; and that immediate +contact* does not augment the danger, any more than seclusion +diminishes it. (* In the oriental plague (another form of typhus +characterised by great disorder of the lymphatic system) immediate +contact is less to be feared than is generally thought. Larrey +maintains that the tumified glands may be touched or cauterized +without danger; but he thinks we ought not to risk putting on the +clothes of persons attacked with the plague.--Memoire sur les +Maladies de l'Armee Francoise en Egypte page 35.) The sick, when +removed to the inland country, and especially to cooler and more +elevated spots, to Xalapa, for instance, do not communicate typhus +to the inhabitants of those places, either because the disease is +not contagious in its nature, or because the predisposing causes +are not the same as in the regions of the shore. When there is a +considerable lowering of the temperature, the epidemic usually +ceases, even on the spot where it first appeared. It again breaks +out at the approach of the hot season, and sometimes long before; +though during several months there may have been no sick person in +the harbour, and no ship may have entered it. + +The typhus of America appears to be confined to the shore, either +because persons who bring the disease disembark there, and goods +supposed to be impregnated with deleterious miasms are there +accumulated; or because on the sea-side gaseous emanations of a +particular nature are formed. The aspect of the places subject to +the ravages of typhus seems often to exclude all idea of a local or +endemical origin. It has been known to prevail in the Canaries, the +Bermudas, and among the small West India Islands, in dry places +formerly distinguished for the great salubrity of their climate. +Examples of the propagation of the yellow fever in the inland parts +of the torrid zone appear very doubtful: that malady may have been +confounded with remitting bilious fevers. With respect to the +temperate zone, in which the contagious character of the American +typhus is more decided, the disease has unquestionably spread far +from the shore, even into very elevated places, exposed to cool and +dry winds, as in Spain at Medina-Sidonia, at Carlotta, and in the +city of Murcia. That variety of phenomena which the same epidemic +exhibits, according to the difference of climate, the union of +predisposing causes, its shorter or longer duration, and the degree +of its exacerbation, should render us extremely circumspect in +tracing the secret causes of the American typhus. M. Bailly, who, +at the time of the violent epidemics in 1802 and 1803, was chief +physician to the colony of St. Domingo, and who studied that +disease in the island of Cuba, the United States, and Spain, is of +opinion that the typhus is very often, but not always, contagious. + +Since the yellow fever has made such ravages in La Guayra, +exaggerated accounts have been given of the uncleanliness in that +little town as well as of Vera Cruz, and of the quays or wharfs of +Philadelphia. In a place where the soil is extremely dry, destitute +of vegetation, and where scarcely a few drops of water fall in the +course of seven or eight months, the causes that produce what are +called miasms, cannot be of very frequent occurrence. La Guayra +appeared to me in general to be tolerably clean, with the exception +of the quarter of the slaughter-houses. The sea-side has no beach +on which the remains of fuci or molluscs are heaped up; but the +neighbouring coast, which stretches eastward towards Cape Codera, +and consequently to the windward of La Guayra, is extremely +unhealthy. Intermitting, putrid, and bilious fevers often prevail +at Macuto and at Caravalleda; and when from time to time the breeze +is interrupted by a westerly wind, the little bay of Cotia sends +air loaded with putrid emanations towards the coast of La Guayra, +notwithstanding the rampart opposed by Cabo Blanco. + +The irritability of the organs being so different in the people of +the north and those of the south, it cannot be doubted, that with +greater freedom of commerce, and more frequent and intimate +communication between countries situated in different climates, the +yellow fever will extend its ravages in the New World. It is even +probable that the concurrence of so many exciting causes, and their +action on individuals so differently organized, may give birth to +new forms of disease and new deviations of the vital powers. This +is one of the evils that inevitably attend rising civilization. + +The yellow fever and the black vomit cease periodically at the +Havannah and Vera Cruz, when the north winds bring the cold air of +Canada towards the gulf of Mexico. But from the extreme equality of +temperature which characterizes the climates of Porto Cabello, La +Guayra, New Barcelona, and Cumana, it may be feared that the typhus +will there become permanent, whenever, from a great influx of +strangers, it has acquired a high degree of exacerbation. + +Tracing the granitic coast of La Guayra westward, we find between +that port (which is in fact but an ill-sheltered roadstead) and +that of Porto Cabello, several indentations of the land, furnishing +excellent anchorage for ships. Such are the small bay of Catia, Los +Arecifes, Puerto-la-Cruz, Choroni, Sienega de Ocumare, Turiamo, +Burburata, and Patanebo. All these ports, with the exception of +that of Burburata, from which mules are exported to Jamaica, are +now frequented only by small coasting vessels, which are there +laden with provisions and cacao from the surrounding plantations. +The inhabitants of Caracas are desirous to avail themselves of the +anchorage of Catia, to the west of Cabo Blanco. M. Bonpland and +myself examined that point of the coast during our second abode at +La Guayra. A ravine, called the Quebrada de Tipe, descends from the +table-land of Caracas towards Catia. A plan has long been in +contemplation for making a cart-road through this ravine and +abandoning the old road to La Guayra, which resembles the passage +over St. Gothard. According to this plan, the port of Catia, +equally large and secure, would supersede that of La Guayra. +Unfortunately, however, all that shore, to leeward of Cabo Blanco, +abounds with mangroves, and is extremely unhealthy. I ascended to +the summit of the promontory, which forms Cabo Blanco, in order to +observe the passage of the sun over the meridian. I wished to +compare in the morning the altitudes taken with an artificial +horizon and those taken with the horizon of the sea; to verify the +apparent depression of the latter, by the barometrical measurement +of the hill. By this method, hitherto very little employed, on +reducing the heights of the sun to the same time, a reflecting +instrument may be used like an instrument furnished with a level. I +found the latitude of the cape to be 10 degrees 36 minutes 45 +seconds; I could only make use of the angles which gave the image +of the sun reflected on a plane glass; the horizon of the sea was +very misty, and the windings of the coast prevented me from taking +the height of the sun on that horizon. + +The environs of Cabo Blanco are not uninteresting for the study of +rocks. The gneiss here passes into the state of mica-slate +(Glimmerschiefer.), and contains, along the sea-coast, layers of +schistose chlorite. (Chloritschiefer.) In this latter I found +garnets and magnetical sand. On the road to Catia we see the +chloritic schist passing into hornblende schist. +(Hornblendschiefer.) All these formations are found together in the +primitive mountains of the old world, especially in the north of +Europe. The sea at the foot of Cabo Blanco throws up on the beach +rolled fragments of a rock, which is a granular mixture of +hornblende and lamellar feldspar. It is what is rather vaguely +called PRIMITIVE GRUNSTEIN. In it we can recognize traces of quartz +and pyrites. Submarine rocks probably exist near the coast, which +furnish these very hard masses. I have compared them in my journal +to the PATERLESTEIN of Fichtelberg, in Franconia, which is also a +diabase, but so fusible, that glass buttons are made of it, which +are employed in the slave-trade on the coast of Guinea. I believed +at first, according to the analogy of the phenomena furnished by +the mountains of Franconia, that the presence of these hornblende +masses with crystals of common (uncompact) feldspar indicated the +proximity of transition rocks; but in the high valley of Caracas, +near Antimano, balls of the same diabase fill a vein crossing the +mica-slate. On the western declivity of the hill of Cabo Blanco, +the gneiss is covered with a formation of sandstone, or +conglomerate, extremely recent. This sandstone combines angular +fragments of gneiss, quartz, and chlorite, magnetical sand, +madrepores, and petrified bivalve shells. Is this formation of the +same date as that of Punta Araya and Cumana? + +Scarcely any part of the coast has so burning a climate as the +environs of Cabo Blanco. We suffered much from the heat, augmented +by the reverberation of a barren and dusty soil; but without +feeling any bad consequences from the effects of insolation. The +powerful action of the sun on the cerebral functions is extremely +dreaded at La Guayra, especially at the period when the yellow +fever begins to be felt. Being one day on the terrace of the house, +observing at noon the difference of the thermometer in the sun and +in the shade, a man approached me holding in his hand a potion, +which he conjured me to swallow. He was a physician, who from his +window, had observed me bareheaded, and exposed to the rays of the +sun. He assured me, that, being a native of a very northern +climate, I should infallibly, after the imprudence I had committed, +be attacked with the yellow fever that very evening, if I refused +to take the remedy against it. I was not alarmed by this +prediction, however serious, believing myself to have been long +acclimated; but I could not resist yielding to entreaties, prompted +by such benevolent feelings. I swallowed the dose; and the +physician doubtless counted me among the number of those he had +saved. + +The road leading from the port to Caracas (the capital of a +government of near 900,000 inhabitants) resembles, as I have +already observed, the passage over the Alps, the road of St. +Gothard, and of the Great St. Bernard. Taking the level of the road +had never been attempted before my arrival in the province of +Venezuela. No precise idea had even been formed of the elevation of +the valley of Caracas. It had indeed been long observed, that the +descent was much less from La Cumbre and Las Vueltas (the latter is +the culminating point of the road towards the Pastora at the +entrance of the valley of Caracas), than towards the port of La +Guayra; but the mountain of Avila having a very considerable bulk, +the eye cannot discern simultaneously the points to be compared. It +is even impossible to form a precise idea of the elevation of +Caracas, from the climate of the valley, where the atmosphere is +cooled by the descending currents of air, and by the mists, which +envelope the lofty summit of the Silla during a great part of the +year. + +When in the season of the great heats we breathe the burning +atmosphere of La Guayra, and turn our eyes towards the mountains, +it seems scarcely possible that, at the distance of five or six +thousand toises, a population of forty thousand individuals +assembled in a narrow valley, enjoys the coolness of spring, a +temperature which at night descends to 12 degrees of the centesimal +thermometer. This near approach of different climates is common in +the Cordillera of the Andes; but everywhere, at Mexico, at Quito, +in Peru, and in New Granada, it is only after a long journey into +the interior, either across plains or along rivers, that we reach +the great cities, which are the central points of civilization. The +height of Caracas is but a third of that of Mexico, Quito, and +Santa Fe de Bogota; yet of all the capitals of Spanish America +which enjoy a cool and delicious climate in the midst of the torrid +zone, Caracas is nearest to the coast. What a privilege for a city +to possess a seaport at three leagues distance, and to be situated +among mountains, on a table-land, which would produce wheat, if the +cultivation of the coffee-tree were not preferred! + +The road from La Guayra to the valley of Caracas is infinitely +finer than the road from Honda to Santa Fe, or that from Guayaquil +to Quito. It is kept in better order than the old road, which led +from the port of Vera Cruz to Perote, on the eastern declivity of +the mountains of New Spain. With good mules it takes but three +hours to go from the port of La Guayra to Caracas; and only two +hours to return. With loaded mules, or on foot, the journey is from +four to five hours. The road runs along a ridge of rocks extremely +steep, and after passing the stations bearing respectively the +names of Torre Quemada, Curucuti, and Salto, we arrive at a large +inn (La Venta) built at six hundred toises above the level of the +sea. The name Torre Quemada, or Burnt Tower, indicates the +sensation that is felt in descending towards La Guayra. A +suffocating heat is reflected from the walls of rock, and +especially from the barren plains on which the traveller looks +down. On this road, as on that from Vera Cruz to Mexico, and +wherever on a rapid declivity the climate changes, the increase of +muscular strength and the sensation of well-being, which we +experience as we advance into strata of cooler air, have always +appeared to me less striking than the feeling of languor and +debility which pervades the frame, when we descend towards the +burning plains of the coast. But such is the organization of man; +and even in the moral world, we are less soothed by that which +ameliorates our condition than annoyed by a new sensation of +discomfort. + +From Curucuti to Salto the ascent is somewhat less laborious. The +sinuosities of the way render the declivity easier, as in the old +road over Mont Cenis. The Salto (or Leap) is a crevice, which is +crossed by a draw-bridge. Fortifications crown the summit of the +mountain. At La Venta the thermometer at noon stood at 19.3 +degrees, when at La Guayra it kept up at the same hour at 26.2 +degrees. La Venta enjoys some celebrity in Europe and in the United +States, for the beauty of its surrounding scenery. When the clouds +permit, this spot affords a magnificent view of the sea, and the +neighbouring coasts. An horizon of more than twenty-two leagues +radius is visible; the white and barren shore reflects a dazzling +mass of light; and the spectator beholds at his feet Cabo Blanco, +the village of Maiquetia with its cocoa-trees, La Guayra, and the +vessels in the port. But I found this view far more extraordinary, +when the sky was not serene, and when trains of clouds, strongly +illumined on their upper surface, seemed projected like floating +islands on the ocean. Strata of vapour, hovering at different +heights, formed intermediary spaces between the eye and the lower +regions. By an illusion easily explained, they enlarged the scene, +and rendered it more majestic. Trees and dwellings appeared at +intervals through the openings, which were left by the clouds when +driven on by the winds, and rolling over one another. Objects then +appear at a greater depth than when seen through a pure and +uniformly serene air. On the declivity of the mountains of Mexico, +at the same height (between Las Trancas and Xalapa), the sea is +twelve leagues distant, and the view of the coast is confused; +while on the road from La Guayra to Caracas we command the plains +(the tierra caliente), as from the top of a tower. How +extraordinary must be the impression created by this prospect on +natives of the inland parts of the country, who behold the sea and +ships for the first time from this point. + +I determined by direct observations the latitude of La Venta, that +I might be enabled to give a more precise idea of the distance of +the coasts. The latitude is 10 degrees 33 minutes 9 seconds. Its +longitude appeared to me by the chronometer, nearly 2 minutes 47 +seconds west of the town of Caracas. I found the dip of the needle +at this height to be 41.75 degrees, and the intensity of the +magnetic forces equal to two hundred and thirty-four oscillations. +From the Venta, called also La Venta Grande, to distinguish it from +three or four small inns formerly established along the road, but +now destroyed, there is still an ascent of one hundred and fifty +toises to Guayavo. This is nearly the most lofty point of the road. + +Whether we gaze on the distant horizon of the sea, or turn our eyes +south-eastward, in the direction of the serrated ridge of rocks, +which seems to unite the Cumbre and the Silla, though separated +from them by the ravine (quebrada) of Tocume, everywhere we admire +the grand character of the landscape. From Guayavo we proceed for +half an hour over a smooth table-land, covered with alpine plants. +This part of the way, on account of its windings, is called Las +Vueltas. We find a little higher up the barracks or magazines of +flour, which were constructed in a spot of cool temperature by the +Guipuzcoa Company, when they had the exclusive monopoly of the +trade of Caracas, and supplied that place with provision. On the +road to Las Vueltas we see for the first time the capital, situated +three hundred toises below, in a valley luxuriantly planted with +coffee and European fruit-trees. Travellers are accustomed to halt +near a fine spring, known by the name of Fuente de Sanchorquiz, +which flows down from the Sierra on sloping strata of gneiss. I +found its temperature 16.4 degrees; which, for an elevation of +seven hundred and twenty-six toises, is considerably cool, and it +would appear much cooler to those who drink its limpid water, if, +instead of gushing out between La Cumbre and the temperate valley +of Caracas, it were found on the descent towards La Guayra. But at +this descent on the northern side of the mountain, the rock, by an +uncommon exception in this country, does not dip to north-west, but +to south-east, which prevents the subterranean waters from forming +springs there. + +We continued to descend from the small ravine of Sanchorquiz to la +Cruz de la Guayra, a cross erected on an open spot, six hundred and +thirty-two toises high, and thence (entering by the custom-house +and the quarter of the Pastora) to the city of Caracas. On the +south side of the mountain of Avila, the gneiss presents several +geognostical phenomena worthy of the attention of travellers. It is +traversed by veins of quartz, containing cannulated and often +articulated prisms of rutile titanite two or three lines in +diameter. In the fissures of the quartz we find, on breaking it, +very thin crystals, which crossing each other form a kind of +network. Sometimes the red schorl occurs only in dendritic crystals +of a bright red.* (* Especially below the Cross of La Guayra, at +594 toises of absolute elevation.) The gneiss of the valley of +Caracas is characterized by the red and green garnets it contains; +they however disappear when the rock passes into mica-slate. This +same phenomenon has been remarked by Von Buch in Sweden; but in the +temperate parts of Europe garnets are in general contained in +serpentine and mica-slates, not in gneiss. In the walls which +enclose the gardens of Caracas, constructed partly of fragments of +gneiss, we find garnets of a very fine red, a little transparent, +and very difficult to detach. The gneiss near the Cross of La +Guayra, half a league from Caracas, presented also vestiges of +azure copper-ore* (* Blue carbonate of copper.) disseminated in +veins of quartz, and small strata of plumbago (black lead), or +earthy carburetted iron. This last is found in pretty large masses, +and sometimes mingled with sparry iron-ore, in the ravine of +Tocume, to the west of the Silla. + +Between the spring of Sanchorquiz and the Cross of La Guayra, as +well as still higher up, the gneiss contains considerable beds of +saccharoidal bluish-grey primitive limestone, coarse-grained, +containing mica, and traversed by veins of white calcareous spar. +The mica, with large folia, lies in the direction of the dip of the +strata. I found in the primitive limestone a great many +crystallized pyrites, and rhomboidal fragments of sparry iron-ore +of Isabella yellow. I endeavoured, but without success, to find +tremolite (Grammatite of Hauy. The primitive limestone above the +spring of Sanchorquiz, is directed, as the gneiss in that place, +hor. 5.2, and dips 45 degrees north; but the general direction of +the gneiss is, in the Cerro de Avila, hor. 3.4 with 60 degrees of +dip north-west. Exceptions merely local are observed in a small +space of ground near the Cross of La Guayra (hor. 6.2, dip 8 +degrees north); and higher up, opposite the Quebrada of Tipe (hor. +12, dip 50 degrees west).), which in the Fichtelberg, in Franconia, +is common in the primitive limestone without dolomite. In Europe +beds of primitive limestone are generally observed in the +mica-slates; but we find also saccharoidal limestone in gneiss of +the most ancient formation, in Sweden near Upsala, in Saxony near +Burkersdorf, and in the Alps in the road over the Simplon. These +situations are analogous to that of Caracas. The phenomena of +geognosy, particularly those which are connected with the +stratification of rocks, and their grouping, are never solitary; +but are found the same in both hemispheres. I was the more struck +with these relations, and this identity of formations, as, at the +time of my journey in these countries, mineralogists were +unacquainted with the name of a single rock of Venezuela, New +Grenada, and the Cordilleras of Quito. + + +CHAPTER 1.12. + +GENERAL VIEW OF THE PROVINCES OF VENEZUELA. +DIVERSITY OF THEIR INTERESTS. +CITY AND VALLEY OF CARACAS. +CLIMATE. + +In all those parts of Spanish America in which civilization did not +exist to a certain degree before the Conquest (as it did in Mexico, +Guatimala, Quito, and Peru), it has advanced from the coasts to the +interior of the country, following sometimes the valley of a great +river, sometimes a chain of mountains, affording a temperate +climate. Concentrated at once in different points, it has spread as +if by diverging rays. The union into provinces and kingdoms was +effected on the first immediate contact between civilized parts, or +at least those subject to permanent and regular government. Lands +deserted, or inhabited by savage tribes, now surround the countries +which European civilization has subdued. They divide its conquests +like arms of the sea difficult to be passed, and neighbouring +states are often connected with each other only by slips of +cultivated land. It is less difficult to acquire a knowledge of the +configuration of coasts washed by the ocean, than of the +sinuosities of that interior shore, on which barbarism and +civilization, impenetrable forests and cultivated land, touch and +bound each other. From not having reflected on the early state of +society in the New World, geographers have often made their maps +incorrect, by marking the different parts of the Spanish and +Portuguese colonies, as though they were contiguous at every point +in the interior. The local knowledge which I obtained respecting +these boundaries, enables me to fix the extent of the great +territorial divisions with some certainty, to compare the wild and +inhabited parts, and to appreciate the degree of political +influence exercised by certain towns of America, as centres of +power and of commerce. + +Caracas is the capital of a country nearly twice as large as Peru, +and now little inferior in extent to the kingdom of New Grenada.* +(* The Capitania-General of Caracas contains near 48,000 square +leagues (twenty-five to a degree). Peru, since La Paz, Potosi, +Charcas and Santa Cruz de la Sierra, have been separated from it, +contains only 30,000. New Grenada, including the province of Quito, +contains 65,000. Reinos, Capitanias-Generales, Presidencies, +Goviernos, and Provincias, are the names by which Spain formerly +distinguished her transmarine possessions, or, as they were called, +Dominios de Ultramar (Dominions beyond Sea.)) This country which +the Spanish government designates by the name of Capitania-General +de Caracas,* (* The captain-general of Caracas has the title of +"Capitan-General de las Provincias de Venezuela y Ciudad do +Caracas.") or of the united provinces of Venezuela, has nearly a +million of inhabitants, among whom are sixty thousand slaves. It +comprises, along the coasts, New Andalusia, or the province of +Cumana (with the island of Margareta),* (* This island, near the +coast of Cumana, forms a separate govierno, depending immediately +on the captain-general of Caracas.) Barcelona, Venezuela or +Caracas, Coro, and Maracaybo; in the interior, the provinces of +Varinas and Guiana; the former situated on the rivers of Santo +Domingo and the Apure, the latter stretching along the Orinoco, the +Casiquiare, the Atabapo, and the Rio Negro. In a general view of +the seven united provinces of Terra Firma, we perceive that they +form three distinct zones, extending from east to west. + +We find, first, cultivated land along the sea-shore, and near the +chain of the mountains on the coast; next, savannahs or pasturages; +and finally, beyond the Orinoco, a third zone, that of the forests, +into which we can penetrate only by the rivers which traverse them. +If the native inhabitants of the forests lived entirely on the +produce of the chase, like those of the Missouri, we might say that +the three zones into which we have divided the territory of +Venezuela, picture the three states of human society; the life of +the wild hunter, in the woods of the Orinoco; pastoral life, in the +savannahs or llanos; and the agricultural state, in the high +valleys, and at the foot of the mountains on the coast. Missionary +monks and some few soldiers occupy here, as throughout all Spanish +America, advanced posts along the frontiers of Brazil. In this +first zone are felt the preponderance of force, and the abuse of +power, which is its necessary consequence. The natives carry on +civil war, and sometimes devour one another. The monks endeavour to +augment the number of little villages of their Missions, by taking +advantage of the dissensions of the natives. The military live in a +state of hostility to the monks, whom they were intended to +protect. Everything presents a melancholy picture of misery and +privation. We shall soon have occasion to examine more closely that +state of man, which is vaunted as a state of nature, by those who +inhabit towns. In the second region, in the plains and +pasture-grounds, food is extremely abundant, but has little +variety. Although more advanced in civilization, the people beyond +the circle of some scattered towns are not less isolated from one +another. At sight of their dwellings, partly covered with skins and +leather, it might be supposed that, far from being fixed, they are +scarcely encamped in those vast plains which extend to the horizon. +Agriculture, which alone consolidates the bases, and strengthens +the bonds of society, occupies the third zone, the shore, and +especially the hot and temperate valleys among the mountains near +the sea. + +It may be objected, that in other parts of Spanish and Portuguese +America, wherever we can trace the progressive development of +civilization, we find the three ages of society combined. But it +must be remembered that the position of the three zones, that of +the forests, the pastures, and the cultivated land, is not +everywhere the same, and that it is nowhere so regular as in +Venezuela. It is not always from the coast to the interior, that +population, commercial industry, and intellectual improvement, +diminish. In Mexico, Peru, and Quito, the table-lands and central +mountains possess the greatest number of cultivators, the most +numerous towns situated near to each other, and the most ancient +institutions. We even find, that, in the kingdom of Buenos Ayres, +the region of pasturage, known by the name of the Pampas, lies +between the isolated part of Buenos Ayres and the great mass of +Indian cultivators, who inhabit the Cordilleras of Charcas, La Paz, +and Potosi. This circumstance gives birth to a diversity of +interests, in the same country, between the people of the interior +and those who inhabit the coasts. + +To form an accurate idea of those vast provinces which have been +governed for ages, almost like separate states, by viceroys and +captains-general, we must fix our attention at once on several +points. We must distinguish the parts of Spanish America opposite +to Asia from those on the shores of the Atlantic; we must ascertain +where the greater portion of the population is placed; whether near +the coast, or concentrated in the interior, on the cold and +temperate table-lands of the Cordilleras. We must verify the +numerical proportions between the natives and other castes; search +into the origin of the European families, and examine to what race, +in each part of the colonies, belongs the greater number of whites. +The Andalusian-Canarians of Venezuela, the Mountaineers* (* +Montaneses. The inhabitants of the mountains of Santander are +called by this name in Spain.) and the Biscayans of Mexico, the +Catalonians of Buenos Ayres, differ essentially in their aptitude +for agriculture, for the mechanical arts, for commerce, and for all +objects connected with intellectual development. Each of those +races has preserved, in the New as in the Old World, the shades +that constitute its national physiognomy; its asperity or mildness +of character; its freedom from sordid feelings, or its excessive +love of gain; its social hospitality, or its taste for solitude. In +the countries where the population is for the most part composed of +Indians and mixed races, the difference between the Europeans and +their descendants cannot indeed be so strongly marked, as that +which existed anciently in the colonies of Ionian and Doric origin. +The Spaniards transplanted to the torrid zone, estranged from the +habits of their mother-country, must have felt more sensible +changes than the Greeks settled on the coasts of Asia Minor, and of +Italy, where the climates differ so little from those of Athens and +Corinth. It cannot be denied that the character of the Spanish +Americans has been variously modified by the physical nature of the +country; the isolated sites of the capitals on the table-lands or +in the vicinity of the coasts; the agricultural life; the labour of +the mines, and the habit of commercial speculation: but in the +inhabitants of Caracas, Santa Fe, Quito, and Buenos Ayres, we +recognize everywhere something which belongs to the race and the +filiation of the people. + +If we examine the state of the Capitania-General of Caracas, +according to the principles here laid down, we perceive that +agricultural industry, the great mass of population, the numerous +towns, and everything connected with advanced civilization, are +found near the coast. This coast extends along a space of two +hundred leagues. It is washed by the Caribbean Sea, a sort of +Mediterranean, on the shores of which almost all the nations of +Europe have founded colonies; which communicates at several points +with the Atlantic; and which has had a considerable influence on +the progress of knowledge in the eastern part of equinoctial +America, from the time of the Conquest. The kingdoms of New Grenada +and Mexico have no connection with foreign colonies, and through +them with the nations of Europe, except by the ports of Carthagena, +of Santa Martha, of Vera Cruz, and of Campeachy. These vast +countries, from the nature of their coasts, and the isolation of +their inhabitants on the back of the Cordilleras, have few points +of contact with foreign lands. The gulf of Mexico also is but +little frequented during a part of the year, on account of the +danger of gales of wind from the north. The coasts of Venezuela, on +the contrary, from their extent, their eastward direction, the +number of their ports, and the safety of their anchorage at +different seasons, possess all the advantages of the Caribbean Sea. +The communications with the larger islands, and even with those +situated to windward, can nowhere be more frequent than from the +ports of Cumana, Barcelona, La Guayra, Porto Cabello, Coro, and +Maracaybo. Can we wonder that this facility of commercial +intercourse with the inhabitants of free America, and the agitated +nations of Europe, should in the provinces united under the +Capitania-General of Venezuela, have augmented opulence, knowledge, +and that restless desire of a local government, which is blended +with the love of liberty and republican forms? + +The copper-coloured natives, or Indians, constitute an important +mass of the agricultural population only in those places where the +Spaniards, at the time of the Conquest, found regular governments, +social communities, and ancient and very complicated institutions; +as, for example, in New Spain, south of Durango; and in Peru, from +Cuzco to Potosi. In the Capitania-General of Caracas, the Indian +population is inconsiderable, at least beyond the Missions and in +the cultivated zone. Even in times of great political excitement, +the natives do not inspire any apprehension in the whites or the +mixed castes. Computing, in 1800, the total population of the seven +united provinces at nine hundred thousand souls, it appeared to me +that the Indians made only one-ninth; while at Mexico they form +nearly one half of the inhabitants. + +Considering the Caribbean Sea, of which the gulf of Mexico makes a +part, as an interior sea with several mouths, it is important to +fix our attention on the political relations arising out of this +singular configuration of the New Continent, between countries +placed around the same basin. Notwithstanding the isolated state in +which most of the mother-countries endeavour to hold their +colonies, the agitations that take place are not the less +communicated from one to the other. The elements of discord are +everywhere the same; and, as if by instinct, an understanding is +established between men of the same colour, although separated by +difference of language, and inhabiting opposite coasts. That +American Mediterranean formed by the shores of Venezuela, New +Grenada, Mexico, the United States, and the West India Islands, +counts upon its borders near a million and a half of free and +enslaved blacks; but so unequally distributed, that there are very +few to the south, and scarcely any in the regions of the west. +Their great accumulation is on the northern and eastern coasts, +which may be said to be the African part of the interior basin. The +commotions which since 1792 have broken out in St. Domingo, have +naturally been propagated to the coasts of Venezuela. So long as +Spain possessed those fine colonies in tranquillity, the little +insurrections of the slaves were easily repressed; but when a +struggle of another kind, that for independence, began, the blacks +by their menacing position excited alternately the apprehensions of +the opposite parties; and the gradual or instantaneous abolition of +slavery has been proclaimed in different regions of Spanish +America, less from motives of justice and humanity, than to secure +the aid of an intrepid race of men, habituated to privation, and +fighting for their own cause. I found in the narrative of the +voyage of Girolamo Benzoni, a curious passage, which proves that +the apprehensions caused by the increase of the black population +are of very old date. These apprehensions will cease only where +governments shall second by laws the progressive reforms which +refinement of manners, opinion, and religious sentiment, introduce +into domestic slavery. "The negroes," says Benzoni, "multiply so +much at St. Domingo, that in 1545, when I was in Terra Firma [on +the coast of Caracas], I saw many Spaniards who had no doubt that +the island would shortly be the property of the blacks."* (* "Vi +sono molti Spagnuoli che tengono per cosa certa, che quest' isola +(San Dominico) in breve tempo sara posseduta da questi Mori di +Guinea." (Benzoni Istoria del Mondo Nuovo ediz. 2da 1672 page 65.) +The author, who is not very scrupulous in the adoption of +statistical facts, believes that in his time there were at St. +Domingo seven thousand fugitive negroes (Mori cimaroni), with whom +Don Luis Columbus made a treaty of peace and friendship.) It was +reserved for our age to see this prediction accomplished; and a +European colony of America transform itself into an African state. + +The sixty thousand slaves which the seven united provinces of +Venezuela are computed to contain, are so unequally divided, that +in the province of Caracas alone there are nearly forty thousand, +one-fifth of whom are mulattoes; in Maracaybo, there are ten or +twelve thousand; but in Cumana and Barcelona, scarcely six +thousand. To judge of the influence which the slaves and men of +colour exercise on the public tranquility, it is not enough to know +their number, we must consider their accumulation at certain +points, and their manner of life, as cultivators or inhabitants of +towns. In the province of Venezuela, the slaves are assembled +together on a space of no great extent, between the coast, and a +line which passes (at twelve leagues from the coast) through +Panaquire, Yare, Sabana de Ocumare, Villa de Cura, and Nirgua. The +llanos or vast plains of Calaboso, San Carlos, Guanare, and +Barquecimeto, contain only four or five thousand slaves, who are +scattered among the farms, and employed in the care of cattle. The +number of free men is very considerable; the Spanish laws and +customs being favourable to affranchisement. A master cannot refuse +liberty to a slave who offers him the sum of three hundred +piastres, even though the slave may have cost double that price, on +account of his industry, or a particular aptitude for the trade he +practises. Instances of persons who voluntarily bestow liberty on a +certain number of their slaves, are more common in the province of +Venezuela than in any other place. A short time before we visited +the fertile valleys of Aragua and the lake of Valencia, a lady who +inhabited the great village of Victoria, ordered her children, on +her death-bed, to give liberty to all her slaves, thirty in number. +I feel pleasure in recording facts that do honour to the character +of a people from whom M. Bonpland and myself received so many marks +of kindness. + +If we compare the seven united provinces of Venezuela with the +kingdom of Mexico and the island of Cuba, we shall succeed in +finding the approximate number of white Creoles, and even of +Europeans. The white Creoles, whom I may call Hispano-Americans,* +(* In imitation of the word Anglo-American, adapted in all the +languages of Europe. In the Spanish colonies, the whites born in +America are called Spaniards; and the real Spaniards, those born in +the mother country, are called Europeans, Gachupins, or Chapetons.) +form in Mexico nearly a fifth, and in the island of Cuba, according +to the very accurate enumeration of 1801, a third of the whole +population. When we reflect that the kingdom of Mexico contains two +millions and a half of natives of the copper-coloured race; when we +consider the state of the coasts bordering on the Pacific, and the +small number of whites in the intendencias of Puebla and Oaxaca, +compared with the natives, we cannot doubt that the province of +Venezuela at least, if not the capitania-general, has a greater +proportion than that of one to five. The island of Cuba,* (* I do +not mention the kingdom of Buenos Ayres, where, among a million of +inhabitants, the whites are extremely numerous in parts near the +coast; while the table-lands, or provinces of the sierra are almost +entirely peopled with natives.) in which the whites are even more +numerous than in Chile, may furnish us with a limiting number, that +is to say, the maximum which may be supposed in the +capitania-general of Caracas. I believe we must stop at two +hundred, or two hundred and ten thousand Hispano-Americans, in a +total population of nine hundred thousand souls. The number of +Europeans included in the white race (not comprehending the troops +sent from the mother-country) does not exceed twelve or fifteen +thousand. It certainly is not greater at Mexico than sixty +thousand; and I find by several statements, that, if we estimate +the whole of the Spanish colonies at fourteen or fifteen millions +of inhabitants, there are in that number at most three millions of +Creole whites, and two hundred thousand Europeans. + +When Tupac-Amaru, who believed himself to be the legitimate heir to +the empire of the Incas, made the conquest of several provinces of +Upper Peru, in 1781, at the head of forty thousand Indian +mountaineers, all the whites were filled with alarm. The +Hispano-Americans felt, like the Spaniards born in Europe, that the +contest was between the copper-coloured race and the whites; +between barbarism and civilization. Tupac-Amaru, who himself was +not destitute of intellectual cultivation, began with flattering +the creoles and the European clergy; but soon, impelled by events, +and by the spirit of vengeance that inspired his nephew, Andres +Condorcanqui, he changed his plan. A rising for independence became +a cruel war between the different castes; the whites were +victorious, and excited by a feeling of common interest, from that +period they kept watchful attention on the proportions existing in +the different provinces between their numbers and those of the +Indians. It was reserved for our times to see the whites direct +this attention towards themselves; and examine, from motives of +distrust, the elements of which their own caste is composed. Every +enterprise in favour of independence and liberty puts the national +or American party in opposition to the men of the mother-country. +When I arrived at Caracas, the latter had just escaped from the +danger with which they thought they were menaced by the +insurrection projected by Espana. The consequences of that bold +attempt were the more deplorable, because, instead of investigating +the real causes of the popular discontent, it was thought that the +mother-country would be saved by employing vigorous measures. At +present, the commotions which have arisen throughout the country, +from the banks of the Rio de la Plata to New Mexico, an extent of +fourteen hundred leagues, have divided men of a common origin. + +The Indian population in the united provinces of Venezuela is not +considerable, and is but recently civilized. All the towns were +founded by the Spanish conquerors, who could not carry out, as in +Mexico and Peru, the old civilization of the natives. Caracas, +Maracaybo, Cumana, and Coro, have nothing Indian but their names. +Compared with the three capitals of equinoctial America,* (* +Mexico, Santa Fe de Bogota, and Quito. The elevation of the site of +the capital of Guatimala is still unknown. Judging from the +vegetation, we may infer that it is less than 500 toises.) situated +on the mountains, and enjoying a temperate climate, Caracas is the +least elevated. It is not a central point of commerce, like Mexico, +Santa Fe de Bogota, and Quito. Each of the seven provinces united +in one capitania-general has a port, by which its produce is +exported. It is sufficient to consider the position of the +provinces, their respective degree of intercourse with the Windward +Islands, the direction of the mountains, and the course of the +great rivers, to perceive that Caracas can never exercise any +powerful political influence over the territories of which it is +the capital. The Apure, the Meta, and the Orinoco, running from +west to east, receive all the streams of the llanos, or the region +of pasturage. St. Thomas de la Guiana will necessarily, at some +future day, be a trading-place of high importance, especially when +the flour of New Grenada, embarked above the confluence of the Rio +Negro and the Umadea, and descending by the Meta and Orinoco, shall +be preferred at Caracas and Guiana to the flour of New England. It +is a great advantage to the provinces of Venezuela, that their +territorial wealth is not directed to one point, like that of +Mexico and New Grenada, which flows to Vera Cruz and Carthagena; +but that they possess a great number of towns equally well peopled, +and forming various centres of commerce and civilization. + +The city of Caracas is seated at the entrance of the plain of +Chacao, which extends three leagues eastward, in the direction of +Caurimare and the Cuesta de Auyamas, and is two leagues and a half +in breadth. This plain, through which runs the Rio Guayra, is at +the elevation of four hundred and fourteen toises above the level +of the sea. The ground on which the city of Caracas is built is +uneven, and has a steep slope from north-north-west to +south-south-east. To form an accurate idea of the situation of +Caracas, we must bear in mind the general direction of the +mountains of the coast, and the great longitudinal valleys by which +they are traversed. The Rio Guayra rises in the group of primitive +mountains of Higuerote, which separates the valley of Caracas from +that of Aragua. It is formed near Las Ajuntas, by the junction of +the little rivers of San Pedro and Macarao, and runs first eastward +as far as the Cuesta of Auyamas, and then southward, uniting its +waters with those of the Rio Tuy, below Yare. The Rio Tuy is the +only considerable river in the northern and mountainous part of the +province. + +The river flows in a direct course from west to east, the distance +of thirty leagues, and it is navigable along more than three +quarters of that distance. By barometrical measurements I found the +slope of the Tuy along this length, from the plantation of +Manterola* (* At the foot of the high mountain of Cocuyza, 3 east +from Victoria.) to its mouth, east of Cape Codera, to be two +hundred and ninety-five toises. This river forms in the chain of +the coast a kind of longitudinal valley, while the waters of the +llanos, or of five-sixths of the province of Caracas, follow the +slope of the land southward, and join the Orinoco. This +hydrographic sketch may throw some light on the natural tendency of +the inhabitants of each particular province, to export their +productions by different roads. + +The valleys of Caracas and of the Tuy run parallel for a +considerable length. They are separated by a mountainous tract, +which is crossed in going from Caracas to the high savannahs of +Ocumare, passing by La Valle and Salamanca. These savannahs +themselves are beyond the Tuy; and the valley of the Tuy being a +great deal lower than that of Caracas, the descent is almost +constantly from north to south. As Cape Codera, the Silla, the +Cerro de Avila between Caracas and La Guayra, and the mountains of +Mariara, constitute the most northern and elevated range of the +coast chain; so the mountains of Panaquire, Ocumare, Guiripa, and +of the Villa de Cura, form the most southern range. The general +direction of the strata composing this vast chain of the coast is +from south-east to north-west; and the dip is generally towards +north-west: hence it follows, that the direction of the primitive +strata is independent of that of the whole chain. It is extremely +remarkable, tracing this chain* from Porto Cabello as far as +Maniquarez and Macanao, in the island of Margareta (* I have +spoken, in the preceding chapter, of the interruption in the chain +of the coast to the east of Cape Codera.), to find, from west to +east, first granite, then gneiss, mica-slate, and primitive schist; +and finally, compact limestone, gypsum, and conglomerates +containing sea-shells. + +It is to be regretted that the town of Caracas was not built +farther to the east, below the entrance of the Anauco into the +Guayra; on that spot near Chacao, where the valley widens into an +extensive plain, which seems to have been levelled by the waters. +Diego de Losada, when he founded* the town, followed no doubt the +traces of the first establishment made by Faxardo. At that time, +the Spaniards, attracted by the high repute of the two gold mines +of Los Teques and Baruta, were not yet masters of the whole valley, +and preferred remaining near the road leading to the coast. (* The +foundation of Santiago de Leon de Caracas dates from 1567, and is +posterior to that of Cumana, Coro, Nueva Barcelona, and +Caravalleda, or El Collado.) The town of Quito is also built in the +narrowest and most uneven part of a valley, between two fine +plains, Turupamba and Rumipamba. + +The descent is uninterrupted from the custom-house of the Pastora, +by the square of Trinidad and the Plaza Mayor, to Santa Rosalia, +and the Rio Guayra. This declivity of the ground does not prevent +carriages from going about the town; but the inhabitants make +little use of them. Three small rivers, descending from the +mountains, the Anauco, the Catuche, and the Caraguata, intersect +the town, running from north to south. Their banks are very high; +and, with the dried-up ravines which join them, furrowing the +ground, they remind the traveller of the famous Guaicos of Quito, +only on a smaller scale. The water used for drinking at Caracas is +that of the Rio Catuche; but the richer class of the inhabitants +have their water brought from La Valle, a village a league distant +on the south. This water and that of Gamboa are considered very +salubrious, because they flow over the roots of sarsaparilla.* (* +Throughout America water is supposed to share the properties of +those plants under the shade of which it flows. Thus, at the +Straits of Magellan, that water is much praised which comes in +contact with the roots of the Canella winterana.) I could not +discover in them any aromatic or extractive matter. The water of +the valley does not contain lime, but a little more carbonic acid +than the water of the Anauco. The new bridge over this river is a +handsome structure. Caracas contains eight churches, five convents, +and a theatre capable of holding fifteen or eighteen hundred +persons. When I was there, the pit, in which the seats of the men +are apart from those of the women, was uncovered. By this means the +spectators could either look at the actors or gaze at the stars. As +the misty weather made me lose a great many observations of +Jupiter's satellites, I was able to ascertain, as I sat in a box in +the theatre, whether the planet would be visible that night. The +streets of Caracas are wide and straight, and they cross each other +at right angles, as in all the towns built by the Spaniards in +America. The houses are spacious, and higher than they ought to be +in a country subject to earthquakes. In 1800, the two squares of +Alta Gracia and San Francisco presented a very agreeable aspect; I +say in the year 1800, because the terrible shocks of the 26th of +March, 1812, almost destroyed the whole city, which is only now +slowly rising from its ruins. The quarter of Trinidad, in which I +resided, was destroyed as completely as if a mine had been sprung +beneath it. + +The small extent of the valley, and the proximity of the high +mountains of Avila and the Silla, give a gloomy and stern character +to the scenery of Caracas; particularly in that part of the year +when the coolest temperature prevails, namely, in the months of +November and December. The mornings are then very fine; and on a +clear and serene sky we could perceive the two domes or rounded +pyramids of the Silla, and the craggy ridge of the Cerro de Avila. +But towards evening the atmosphere thickens; the mountains are +overhung with clouds; streams of vapour cling to their evergreen +slopes, and seem to divide them into zones one above another. These +zones are gradually blended together; the cold air which descends +from the Silla, accumulates in the valley, and condenses the light +vapours into large fleecy clouds. These often descend below the +Cross of La Guayra, and advance, gliding on the soil, in the +direction of the Pastora of Caracas, and the adjacent quarter of +Trinidad. Beneath this misty sky, I could scarcely imagine myself +to be in one of the temperate valleys of the torrid zone; but +rather in the north of Germany, among the pines and the larches +that cover the mountains of the Hartz. + +But this gloomy aspect, this contrast between the clearness of +morning and the cloudy sky of evening, is not observable in the +midst of summer. The nights of June and July are clear and +delicious. The atmosphere then preserves, almost without +interruption, the purity and transparency peculiar to the +table-lands and elevated valleys of these regions in calm weather, +as long as the winds do not mingle together strata of air of +unequal temperature. That is the season for enjoying the beauty of +the landscape, which, however, I saw clearly illumined only during +a few days at the end of January. The two rounded summits of the +Silla are seen at Caracas, almost under the same angles of +elevation* as the peak of Teneriffe at the port of Orotava.* (* I +found, at the square of Trinidad, the apparent height of the Silla +to be 11 degrees 12 minutes 49 seconds. It was about four thousand +five hundred toises distant.) The first half of the mountain is +covered with short grass; then succeeds the zone of evergreen trees, +reflecting a purple light at the season when the befaria, the +alpine rose-tree* (* Rhododendron ferrugineum of the Alps.) of +equinoctial America, is in blossom. The rocky masses rise above +this wooded zone in the form of domes. Being destitute of +vegetation, they increase by the nakedness of their surface the +apparent height of a mountain which, in the temperate parts of +Europe, would scarcely rise to the limit of perpetual snow. The +cultivated region of the valley, and the gay plains of Chacao, +Petare, and La Vega, form an agreeable contrast to the imposing +aspect of the Silla, and the great irregularities of the ground on +the north of the town. + +The climate of Caracas has often been called a perpetual spring. +The same sort of climate exists everywhere, halfway up the +Cordilleras of equinoctial America, between four hundred and nine +hundred toises of elevation, except in places where the great +breadth of the valleys, combined with an arid soil, causes an +extraordinary intensity* of radiant caloric. (* As at Carthago and +Ibague in New Grenada.) What can we conceive to be more delightful +than a temperature which in the day keeps between 20 and 26 degrees +(Between 16 and 20.8 degrees Reaum.); and at night between 16 and +18 degrees (Between 12.8 and 14.4 degrees Reaum.), which is equally +favourable to the plantain, the orange-tree, the coffee-tree, the +apple, the apricot, and corn? Jose de Oviedo y Banos, the +historiographer of Venezuela, calls the situation of Caracas that +of a terrestrial paradise, and compares the Anauco and the +neighbouring torrents to the four rivers of the Garden of Eden. + +It is to be regretted that this delightful climate is generally +inconstant and variable. The inhabitants of Caracas complain of +having several seasons in one and the same day; and of the rapid +change from one season to another. In the month of January, for +instance, a night, of which the mean temperature is 16 degrees, is +sometimes followed by a day when the thermometer during eight +successive hours keeps above 22 degrees in the shade. In the same +day, we may find the temperature of 24 and 18 degrees. These +variations are extremely common in our temperate climates of +Europe, but in the torrid zone, Europeans themselves are so +accustomed to the uniform action of exterior stimulus, that they +suffer from a change of temperature of 6 degrees. At Cumana, and +everywhere in the plains, the temperature from eleven in the +morning to eleven at night changes only 2 or 3 degrees. Moreover, +these variations act on the human frame at Caracas more violently +than might be supposed from the mere indications of the +thermometer. In this narrow valley the atmosphere is in some sort +balanced between two winds, one blowing from the west, or the +seaside, the other from the east, or the inland country. The first +is known by the name of the wind of Catia, because it blows from +Catia westward of Cabo Blanco through the ravine of Tipe. It is, +however, only a westerly wind in appearance, and it is oftener the +breeze of the east and north-east, which, rushing with extreme +impetuosity, engulfs itself in the Quebrada de Tipe. Rebounding +from the high mountains of Aguas Negras, this wind finds its way +back to Caracas, in the direction of the hospital of the Capuchins +and the Rio Caraguata. It is loaded with vapours, which it deposits +as its temperature decreases, and consequently the summit of the +Silla is enveloped in clouds, when the catia blows in the valley. +This wind is dreaded by the inhabitants of Caracas; it causes +headache in persons whose nervous system is irritable. In order to +shun its effects, people sometimes shut themselves up in their +houses, as they do in Italy when the sirocco is blowing. I thought +I perceived, during my stay at Caracas, that the wind of Catia was +purer (a little richer in oxygen) than the wind of Petare. I even +imagined that its purity might explain its exciting property. The +wind of Petare coming from the east and south-east, by the eastern +extremity of the valley of the Guayra, brings from the mountains +and the interior of the country, a drier air, which dissipates the +clouds, and the summit of the Silla rises in all its beauty. + +We know that the modifications produced by winds in the composition +of the air in various places, entirely escape our eudiometrical +experiments, the most precise of which can estimate only as far +as .0003 degrees of oxygen. Chemistry does not yet possess any +means of distinguishing two jars of air, the one filled during the +prevalence of the sirocco or the catia, and the other before these +winds have commenced. It appears to me probable, that the singular +effects of the catia, and of all those currents of air, to the +influence of which popular opinion attaches so much importance, +must be looked for rather in the changes of humidity and of +temperature, than in chemical modifications. We need not trace +miasms to Caracas from the unhealthy shore on the coast: it may be +easily conceived that men accustomed to the drier air of the +mountains and the interior, must be disagreeably affected when the +very humid air of the sea, pressed through the gap of Tipe, reaches +in an ascending current the high valley of Caracas, and, getting +cooler by dilatation, and by contact with the adjacent strata, +deposits a great portion of the water it contains. This inconstancy +of climate, these somewhat rapid transitions from dry and +transparent to humid and misty air, are inconveniences which +Caracas shares in common with the whole temperate region of the +tropics--with all places situated between four and eight hundred +toises of elevation, either on table-lands of small extent, or on +the slope of the Cordilleras, as at Xalapa in Mexico, and Guaduas +in New Granada. A serenity, uninterrupted during a great part of +the year, prevails only in the low regions at the level of the sea, +and at considerable heights on those vast table-lands, where the +uniform radiation of the soil seems to contribute to the perfect +dissolution of vesicular vapours. The intermediate zone is at the +same height as the first strata of clouds which surround the +surface of the earth; and the climate of this zone, the temperature +of which is so mild, is essentially misty and variable. + +Notwithstanding the elevation of the spot, the sky is generally +less blue at Caracas than at Cumana. The aqueous vapour is less +perfectly dissolved; and here, as in our climates, a greater +diffusion of light diminishes the intensity of the aerial colour, +by introducing white into the blue of the air. This intensity, +measured with the cyanometer of Saussure, was found from November +to January generally 18, never above 20 degrees. On the coasts it +was from 22 to 25 degrees. I remarked, in the village of Caracas, +that the wind of Petare sometimes contributes singularly to give a +pale tint to the celestial vault. On the 22nd of January, the blue +of the sky was at noon in the zenith feebler than I ever saw it in +the torrid zone.* (* At noon, thermometer in the shade 23.7 (in the +sun, out of the wind, 30.4 degrees); De Luc's hygrometer, 36.2; +cyanometer, at the zenith, 12, at the horizon 9 degrees. The wind +ceased at three in the afternoon. Thermometer 21; hygrometer 39.3; +cyanometer 16 degrees. At six o'clock, thermometer 20.2; hygrometer +39 degrees.) It corresponded only to 12 degrees of the cyanometer. +The atmosphere was then remarkably transparent, without clouds, and +of extraordinary dryness. The moment the wind of Petare ceased, the +blue colour rose at the zenith as high as 16 degrees. I have often +observed at sea, but in a smaller degree, a similar effect of the +wind on the colour of the serenest sky. + +We know less exactly the mean temperature of Caracas, than that of +Santa Fe de Bogota and of Mexico. I believe, however, I can +demonstrate, that it cannot be very distant from twenty to +twenty-two degrees. I found by my own observations, during the +three very cool months of November, December, and January, taking +each day the maximum and minimum of the temperature, the heights +were 20.2; 20.1; 20.2 degrees. + +Rains are extremely frequent at Caracas in the months of April, +May, and June. The storms always come from the east and south-east, +from the direction of Petare and La Valle. No hail falls in the low +regions of the tropics; yet it occurs at Caracas almost every four +or five years. Hail has even been seen in valleys still lower; and +this phenomenon, when it does happen, makes a powerful impression +on the people. Falls of aerolites are less rare with us than hail +in the torrid zone, notwithstanding the frequency of thunder-storms +at the elevation of three hundred toises above the level of the +sea. + +The cool and delightful climate we have just been describing is +also suited for the culture of equinoctial productions. The +sugar-cane is reared with success, even at heights exceeding that +of Caracas; but in the valley, owing to the dryness of the climate, +and the stony soil, the cultivation of the coffee-tree is +preferred: it yields indeed but little fruit, but that little is of +the finest quality. When the shrub is in blossom, the plain +extending beyond Chacao presents a delightful aspect. The +banana-tree, which is seen in the plantations near the town, is not +the great Platano harton; but the varieties camburi and dominico, +which require less heat. The great plantains are brought to the +market of Caracas from the haciendas of Turiamo, situated on the +coast between Burburata and Porto Cabello. The finest flavoured +pine-apples are those of Baruto, of Empedrado, and of the heights +of Buenavista, on the road to Victoria. When a traveller for the +first time visits the valley of Caracas, he is agreeably surprised +to find the culinary plants of our climates, as well as the +strawberry, the vine, and almost all the fruit-trees of the +temperate zone, growing beside the coffee and banana-tree. The +apples and peaches esteemed the best come from Macarao, or from the +western extremity of the valley. There, the quince-tree, the trunk +of which attains only four or five feet in height, is so common, +that it has almost become wild. Preserved apples and quinces, +particularly the latter,* (* "Dulce de manzana y de membrillo," are +the Spanish names of these preserves.) are much used in a country +where it is thought that, before drinking water, thirst should be +excited by sweetmeats. In proportion as the environs of the town +have been planted with coffee, and the establishment of plantations +(which dates only from the year 1795) has increased the number of +agricultural negroes,* the apple and quince-trees scattered in the +savannahs have given place, in the valley of Caracas, to maize and +pulse. (* The consumption of provisions, especially meat, is so +considerable in the towns of Spanish America, that at Caracas, in +1800, there were 40,000 oxen killed every year: while in Paris, in +1793, with a population fourteen times as great, the number +amounted only to 70,000.) Rice, watered by means of small trenches, +was formerly more common than it now is in the plain of Chacao. I +observed in this province, as in Mexico and in all the elevated +lands of the torrid zone, that, where the apple-tree is most +abundant, the culture of the pear-tree is attended with great +difficulty. I have been assured, that near Caracas the excellent +apples sold in the markets come from trees not grafted. There are +no cherry-trees. The olive-trees which I saw in the court of the +convent of San Felipe de Neri, were large and fine; but the +luxuriance of their vegetation prevented them from bearing fruit. + +If the atmospheric constitution of the valley be favourable to the +different kinds of culture on which colonial industry is based, it +is not equally favourable to the health of the inhabitants, or to +that of foreigners settled in the capital of Venezuela. The extreme +inconstancy of the weather, and the frequent suppression of +cutaneous perspiration, give birth to catarrhal affections, which +assume the most various forms. A European, once accustomed to the +violent heat, enjoys better health at Cumana, in the valley of +Aragua, and in every place where the low region of the tropics is +not very humid, than at Caracas, and in those mountain-climates +which are vaunted as the abode of perpetual spring. + +Speaking of the yellow fever of La Guayra, I mentioned the opinion +generally adopted, that this disease is propagated as little from +the coast of Venezuela to the capital, as from the coast of Mexico +to Xalapa. This opinion is founded on the experience of the last +twenty years. The contagious disorders which were severely felt in +the port of La Guayra, were scarcely felt at Caracas. I am not +convinced that the American typhus, rendered endemic on the coast +as the port becomes more frequented, if favoured by particular +dispositions of the climate, may not become common in the valley: +for the mean temperature of Caracas is considerable enough to allow +the thermometer, in the hottest months, to keep between twenty-two +and twenty-six degrees. The situation of Xalapa, on the declivity +of the Mexican mountains, promises more security, because that town +is less populous, and is five times farther distant from the sea +than Caracas, and two hundred and thirty toises higher: its mean +temperature being three degrees cooler. In 1696, a bishop of +Venezuela, Diego de Banos, dedicated a church (ermita) to Santa +Rosalia of Palermo, for having delivered the capital from the +scourge of the black vomit (vomito negro), which is said to have +raged for the space of sixteen months. A mass celebrated every year +in the cathedral, in the beginning of September, perpetuates the +remembrance of this epidemic, in the same manner as processions +fix, in the Spanish colonies, the date of the great earthquakes. +The year 1696 was indeed very remarkable for the yellow fever, +which raged with violence in all the West India Islands, where it +had only begun to gain an ascendancy in 1688. But how can we give +credit to an epidemical black vomit, having lasted sixteen months +without interruption, and which may be said to have passed through +that very cool season when the thermometer at Caracas falls to +twelve or thirteen degrees? Can the typhus be of older date in the +elevated valley of Caracas, than in the most frequented ports of +Terra Firma. According to Ulloa, it was unknown in Terra Firma +before 1729. I doubt, therefore, the epidemic of 1696 having been +the yellow fever, or real typhus of America. Some of the symptoms +which accompany yellow fever are common to bilious remittent +fevers; and are no more characteristic than haematemeses of that +severe disease now known at the Havannah and Vera Cruz by the name +of vomito. But though no accurate description satisfactorily +demonstrates that the typhus of America existed at Caracas as early +as the end of the seventeenth century, it is unhappily too certain, +that this disease carried off in that capital a great number of +European soldiers in 1802. We are filled with dismay when we +reflect that, in the centre of the torrid zone, a table-land four +hundred and fifty toises high, but very near the sea, does not +secure the inhabitants against a scourge which was believed to +belong only to the low regions of the coast. + + +CHAPTER 1.13. + +ABODE AT CARACAS. +MOUNTAINS IN THE VICINITY OF THE TOWN. +EXCURSION TO THE SUMMIT OF THE SILLA. +INDICATIONS OF MINES. + +I remained two months at Caracas, where M. Bonpland and I lived in +a large house in the most elevated part of the town. From a gallery +we could survey at once the summit of the Silla, the serrated ridge +of the Galipano, and the charming valley of the Guayra, the rich +culture of which was pleasingly contrasted with the gloomy curtain +of the surrounding mountains. It was in the dry season, and to +improve the pasturage, the savannahs and the turf covering the +steepest rocks were set on fire. These vast conflagrations, viewed +from a distance, produce the most singular effects of light. +Wherever the savannahs, following the undulating slope of the +rocks, have filled up the furrows hollowed out by the waters, the +flame appears in a dark night like currents of lava suspended over +the valley. The vivid but steady light assumes a reddish tint, when +the wind, descending from the Silla, accumulates streams of vapour +in the low regions. At other times (and this effect is still more +curious) these luminous bands, enveloped in thick clouds, appear +only at intervals where it is clear; and as the clouds ascend, +their edges reflect a splendid light. These various phenomena, so +common in the tropics, acquire additional interest from the form of +the mountains, the direction of the slopes, and the height of the +savannahs covered with alpine grasses. During the day, the wind of +Petare, blowing from the east, drives the smoke towards the town, +and diminishes the transparency of the air. + +If we had reason to be satisfied with the situation of our house, +we had still greater cause for satisfaction in the reception we met +with from all classes of the inhabitants. Though I have had the +advantage, which few Spaniards have shared with me, of having +successively visited Caracas, the Havannah, Santa Fe de Bogota, +Quito, Lima, and Mexico, and of having been connected in these six +capitals of Spanish America with men of all ranks, I will not +venture to decide on the various degrees of civilization, which +society has attained in the several colonies. It is easier to +indicate the different shades of national improvement, and the +point towards which intellectual development tends, than to compare +and class things which cannot all be considered under one point of +view. It appeared to me, that a strong tendency to the study of +science prevailed at Mexico and Santa Fe de Bogota; more taste for +literature, and whatever can charm an ardent and lively +imagination, at Quito and Lima; more accurate notions of the +political relations of countries, and more enlarged views on the +state of colonies and their mother-countries, at the Havannah and +Caracas. The numerous communications with commercial Europe, with +the Caribbean Sea (which we have described as a Mediterranean with +many outlets), have exercised a powerful influence on the progress +of society in the five provinces of Venezuela and in the island of +Cuba. In no other part of Spanish America has civilization assumed +a more European character. The great number of Indian cultivators +who inhabit Mexico and the interior of New Grenada, impart a +peculiar, I may almost say, an exotic aspect, on those vast +countries. Notwithstanding the increase of the black population, we +seem to be nearer to Cadiz and the United States, at Caracas and +the Havannah, than in any other part of the New World. + +When, in the reign of Charles V, social distinctions and their +consequent rivalries were introduced from the mother-country to the +colonies, there arose in Cumana and in other commercial towns of +Terra Firma, exaggerated pretensions to nobility on the part of +some of the most illustrious families of Caracas, distinguished by +the designation of los Mantuanos. The progress of knowledge, and +the consequent change in manners, have, however, gradually and +pretty generally neutralized whatever is offensive in those +distinctions among the whites. In all the Spanish colonies there +exist two kinds of nobility. One is composed of creoles, whose +ancestors only from a very recent period filled great stations in +America. Their prerogatives are partly founded on the distinction +they enjoy in the mother-country; and they imagine they can retain +those distinctions beyond the sea, whatever may be the date of +their settlement in the colonies. The other class of nobility has +more of an American character. It is composed of the descendants of +the Conquistadores, that is to say, of the Spaniards who served in +the army at the time of the first conquest. Among the warriors who +fought with Cortez, Losada, and Pizarro, several belonged to the +most distinguished families of the Peninsula; others, sprung from +the inferior classes of the people, have shed lustre on their +names, by that chivalrous spirit which prevailed at the beginning +of the sixteenth century. In the records of those times of +religious and military enthusiasm, we find, among the followers of +the great captains, many simple, virtuous, and generous characters, +who reprobated the cruelties which then stained the glory of the +Spanish name, but who, being confounded in the mass, have not +escaped the general proscription. The name of Conquistadares +remains the more odious, as the greater number of them, after +having outraged peaceful nations, and lived in opulence, did not +end their career by suffering those misfortunes which appease the +indignation of mankind, and sometimes soothe the severity of the +historian. + +But it is not only the progress of ideas, and the conflict between +two classes of different origin, which have induced the privileged +castes to abandon their pretensions, or at least cautiously to +conceal them. Aristocracy in the Spanish colonies has a +counterpoise of another kind, the action of which becomes every day +more powerful. A sentiment of equality, among the whites, has +penetrated every bosom. Wherever men of colour are either +considered as slaves or as having been enfranchised, that which +constitutes nobility is hereditary liberty--the proud boast of +having never reckoned among ancestors any but freemen. In the +colonies, the colour of the skin is the real badge of nobility. In +Mexico, as well as Peru, at Caracas as in the island of Cuba, a +bare-footed fellow with a white skin, is often heard to exclaim: +"Does that rich man think himself whiter than I am?" The population +which Europe pours into America being very considerable, it may +easily be supposed, that the axiom, 'every white man is noble' +(todo blanco es caballero), must singularly wound the pretensions +of many ancient and illustrious European families. But it may be +further observed, that the truth of this axiom has long since been +acknowledged in Spain, among a people justly celebrated for +probity, industry, and national spirit. Every Biscayan calls +himself noble; and there being a greater number of Biscayans in +America and the Philippine Islands, than in the Peninsula, the +whites of that race have contributed, in no small degree, to +propagate in the colonies the system of equality among all men +whose blood has not been mixed with that of the African race. + +Moreover, the countries of which the inhabitants, even without a +representative government, or any institution of peerage, annex so +much importance to genealogy and the advantages of birth, are not +always those in which family aristocracy is most offensive. We do +not find among the natives of Spanish origin, that cold and +assuming air which the character of modern civilization seems to +have rendered less common in Spain than in the rest of Europe. +Conviviality, candour, and great simplicity of manner, unite the +different classes of society in the colonies, as well as in the +mother-country. It may even be said, that the expression of vanity +and self-love becomes less offensive, when it retains something of +simplicity and frankness. + +I found in several families at Caracas a love of information, an +acquaintance with the masterpieces of French and Italian +literature, and a marked predilection for music, which is greatly +cultivated, and which (as always results from a taste for the fine +arts) brings the different classes of society nearer to each other. +The mathematical sciences, drawing, and painting, cannot here boast +of any of those establishments with which royal munificence and the +patriotic zeal of the inhabitants have enriched Mexico. In the +midst of the marvels of nature, so rich in interesting productions, +it is strange that we found no person on this coast devoted to the +study of plants and minerals. In a Franciscan convent I met, it is +true, with an old monk who drew up the almanac for all the +provinces of Venezuela, and who possessed some accurate knowledge +of astronomy. Our instruments interested him deeply, and one day +our house was filled with all the monks of San Francisco, begging +to see a dipping-needle. The curiosity excited by physical +phenomena is naturally great in countries undermined by volcanic +fires, and in a climate where nature is at once so majestic and so +mysteriously convulsed. + +When we remember, that in the United States of North America, +newspapers are published in small towns not containing more than +three thousand inhabitants, it seems surprising that Caracas, with +a population of forty or fifty thousand souls, should have +possessed no printing office before 1806; for we cannot give the +name of a printing establishment to a few presses which served only +from year to year to promulgate an almanac of a few pages, or the +pastoral letter of a bishop. Though the number of those who feel +reading to be a necessity is not very considerable, even in the +Spanish colonies most advanced in civilization, yet it would be +unjust to reproach the colonists for a state of intellectual +lassitude which has been the result of a jealous policy. A +Frenchman, named Delpeche, has the merit of having established the +first printing office in Caracas. It appears somewhat extraordinary +that an establishment of this kind should have followed, and not +preceded, a political revolution. + +In a country abounding in such magnificent scenery, and at a period +when, notwithstanding some symptoms of popular commotion, most of +the inhabitants seem only to direct attention to physical objects, +such as the fertility of the year, the long drought, or the +conflicting winds of Petare and Catia, I expected to find many +individuals well acquainted with the lofty surrounding mountains. +But I was disappointed; and we could not find in Caracas a single +person who had visited the summit of the Silla. Hunters do not +ascend so high on the ridges of mountains; and in these countries +journeys are not undertaken for such purposes as gathering alpine +plants, carrying a barometer to an elevated point, or examining the +nature of rocks. Accustomed to a uniform and domestic life, the +people dread fatigue and sudden changes of climate. They seem to +live not to enjoy life, but only to prolong it. + +Our walks led us often in the direction of two coffee plantations, +the proprietors of which, Don Andres de Ibarra and M. Blandin, were +men of agreeable manners. These plantations were situated opposite +the Silla de Caracas. Surveying, by a telescope, the steep +declivity of the mountains, and the form of the two peaks by which +it is terminated, we could form an idea of the difficulties we +should have to encounter in reaching its summit. Angles of +elevation, taken with the sextant at our house, had led me to +believe that the summit was not so high above sea-level as the +great square of Quito. This estimate was far from corresponding +with the notions entertained by the inhabitants of the city. +Mountains which command great towns, have acquired, from that very +circumstance, an extraordinary celebrity in both continents. Long +before they have been accurately measured, a conventional height is +assigned to them; and to entertain the least doubt respecting that +height is to wound a national prejudice. + +The captain-general, Senor de Guevara, directed the teniente of +Chacao to furnish us with guides to conduct us on our ascent of the +Silla. These guides were negroes, and they knew something of the +path leading over the ridge of the mountain, near the western peak +of the Silla. This path is frequented by smugglers, but neither the +guides, nor the most experienced of the militia, accustomed to +pursue the smugglers in these wild spots, had been on the eastern +peak, forming the most elevated summit of the Silla. During the +whole month of December, the mountain (of which the angles of +elevation made me acquainted with the effects of the terrestrial +refractions) had appeared only five times free of clouds. In this +season two serene days seldom succeed each other, and we were +therefore advised not to choose a clear day for our excursion, but +rather a time when, the clouds not being elevated, we might hope, +after having crossed the first layer of vapours uniformly spread, +to enter into a dry and transparent air. We passed the night of the +2nd of January in the Estancia de Gallegos, a plantation of +coffee-trees, near which the little river of Chacaito, flowing in a +luxuriantly shaded ravine, forms some fine cascades in descending +the mountains. The night was pretty clear; and though on the day +preceding a fatiguing journey it might have been well to have +enjoyed some repose, M. Bonpland and I passed the whole night in +watching three occultations of the satellites of Jupiter. I had +previously determined the instant of the observation, but we missed +them all, owing to some error of calculation in the Connaissance +des Temps. The apparent time had been mistaken for mean time. + +I was much disappointed by this accident; and after having observed +at the foot of the mountain the intensity of the magnetic forces, +before sunrise, we set out at five in the morning, accompanied by +slaves carrying our instruments. Our party consisted of eighteen +persons, and we all walked one behind another, in a narrow path, +traced on a steep acclivity, covered with turf. We endeavoured +first to reach a hill, which towards the south-east seems to form a +promontory of the Silla. It is connected with the body of the +mountain by a narrow dyke, called by the shepherds the Gate, or +Puerta de la Silla. We reached this dyke about seven. The morning +was fine and cool, and the sky till then seemed to favour our +excursion. I saw that the thermometer kept a little below 14 +degrees (11.2 degrees Reaum.). The barometer showed that we were +already six hundred and eighty-five toises above the level of the +sea, that is, nearly eighty toises higher than at the Venta, where +we enjoyed so magnificent a view of the coast. Our guides thought +that it would require six hours more to reach the summit of the +Silla. + +We crossed a narrow dyke of rocks covered with turf; which led us +from the promontory of the Puerta to the ridge of the great +mountain. Here the eye looks down on two valleys, or rather narrow +defiles, filled with thick vegetation. On the right is perceived +the ravine which descends between the two peaks to the farm of +Munoz; on the left we see the defile of Chacaito, with its waters +flowing out near the farm of Gallegos. The roaring of the cascades +is heard, while the water is unseen, being concealed by thick +groves of erythrina, clusia, and the Indian fig-tree.* (* Ficus +nymphaeifolia, Erythrina mitis. Two fine species of mimosa are +found in the same valley; Inga fastuosa, and I. cinerea.) Nothing +can be more picturesque, in a climate where so many plants have +broad, large, shining, and coriaceous leaves, than the aspect of +trees when the spectator looks down from a great height above them, +and when they are illumined by the almost perpendicular rays of the +sun. + +From the Puerta de la Silla the steepness of the ascent increases, +and we were obliged to incline our bodies considerably forwards as +we advanced. The slope is often from 30 to 32 degrees.* (* Since my +experiments on slopes, mentioned above in Chapter 1.2, I have +discovered in the Figure de la Terre of Bouguer, a passage, which +shows that this astronomer, whose opinions are of such weight, +considered also 36 degrees as the inclination of a slope quite +inaccessible, if the nature of the ground did not admit of forming +steps with the foot.) We felt the want of cramp-irons, or sticks +shod with iron. Short grass covered the rocks of gneiss, and it was +equally impossible to hold by the grass, or to form steps as we +might have done in softer ground. This ascent, which was attended +with more fatigue than danger, discouraged those who accompanied us +from the town, and who were unaccustomed to climb mountains. We +lost a great deal of time in waiting for them, and we did not +resolve to proceed alone till we saw them descending the mountain +instead of climbing up it. The weather was becoming cloudy; the +mist already issued in the form of smoke, and in slender and +perpendicular streaks, from a small humid wood which bordered the +region of alpine savannahs above us. It seemed as if a fire had +burst forth at once on several points of the forest. These streaks +of vapour gradually accumulated together, and rising above the +ground, were carried along by the morning breeze, and glided like a +light cloud over the rounded summit of the mountain. + +M. Bonpland and I foresaw from these infallible signs, that we +should soon be covered by a thick fog; and lest our guides should +take advantage of this circumstance and leave us, we obliged those +who carried the most necessary instruments to precede us. We +continued climbing the slopes which lead towards the ravine of +Chacaito. The familiar loquacity of the Creole blacks formed a +striking contrast with the taciturn gravity of the Indians, who had +constantly accompanied us in the missions of Caripe. The negroes +amused themselves by laughing at the persons who had been in such +haste to abandon an expedition so long in preparation; above all, +they did not spare a young Capuchin monk, a professor of +mathematics, who never ceased to boast of the superior physical +strength and courage possessed by all classes of European Spaniards +over those born in Spanish America. He had provided himself with +long slips of white paper, which were to be cut, and flung on the +savannah, to indicate to those who might stray behind, the +direction they ought to follow. The professor had even promised the +friars of his order to fire off some rockets, to announce to the +whole town of Caracas that we had succeeded in an enterprise which +to him appeared of the utmost importance. He had forgotten that his +long and heavy garments would embarrass him in the ascent. Having +lost courage long before the creoles, he passed the rest of the day +in a neighbouring plantation, gazing at us through a glass directed +to the Silla, as we climbed the mountain. Unfortunately for us, he +had taken charge of the water and the provision so necessary in an +excursion to the mountains. The slaves, who were to rejoin us, were +so long detained by him, that they arrived very late, and we were +ten hours without either bread or water. + +The eastern peak is the most elevated of the two which form the +summit of the mountain, and to this we directed our course with our +instruments. The hollow between these two peaks has suggested the +Spanish name of Silla (saddle), which is given to the whole +mountain. The narrow defile which we have already mentioned, +descends from this hollow toward the valley of Caracas, commencing +near the western dome. The eastern summit is accessible only by +going first to the west of the ravine over the promontory of the +Puerta, proceeding straight forward to the lower summit; and not +turning to the east till the ridge, or the hollow of the Silla +between the two peaks, is nearly reached. The general aspect of the +mountain points out this path; the rocks being so steep on the east +of the ravine that it would be extremely difficult to reach the +summit of the Silla by ascending straight to the eastern dome, +instead of going by the way of the Puerta. + +From the foot of the cascade of Chacaito to one thousand toises of +elevation, we found only savannahs. Two small liliaceous plants, +with yellow flowers,* alone lift up their heads, among the grasses +which cover the rocks. (* Cypura martinicensis, and Sisyrinchium +iridifolium. This last is found also near the Venta of La Guayra, +at 600 toises of elevation.) A few brambles* (* Rubus jamaicensis.) +remind us of the form of our European vegetation. We in vain hoped +to find on the mountains of Caracas, and subsequently on the back +of the Andes, an eglantine near these brambles. We did not find one +indigenous rose-tree in all South America, notwithstanding the +analogy existing between the climates of the high mountains of the +torrid zone and the climate of our temperate zone. It appears that +this charming shrub is wanting in all the southern hemisphere, +within and beyond the tropics. It was only on the Mexican mountains +that we were fortunate enough to discover, in the nineteenth degree +of latitude, American eglantines.* (* M. Redoute, in his superb +work on rose-trees, has given our Mexican eglantine, under the name +of Rosier de Montezuma, Montezuma rose.) + +We were sometimes so enveloped in mist, that we could not, without +difficulty, find our way. At this height there is no path, and we +were obliged to climb with our hands, when our feet failed us, on +the steep and slippery acclivity. A vein filled with porcelain-clay +attracted our attention.* (* The breadth of the vein is three feet. +This porcelain-clay, when moistened, readily absorbs oxygen from +the atmosphere. I found, at Caracas, the residual nitrogen very +slightly mingled with carbonic acid, though the experiment was made +in phials with ground-glass stoppers, not filled with water.) It is +of snowy whiteness, and is no doubt the remains of a decomposed +feldspar. I forwarded a considerable portion of it to the intendant +of the province. In a country where fuel is not scarce, a mixture +of refractory earths may be useful, to improve the earthenware, and +even the bricks. Every time that the clouds surrounded us, the +thermometer sunk as low as 12 degrees (to 9.6 degrees R.); with a +serene sky it rose to 21 degrees. These observations were made in +the shade. But it is difficult, on such rapid declivities, covered +with a dry, shining, yellow turf, to avoid the effects of radiant +heat. We were at nine hundred and forty toises of elevation; and +yet at the same height, towards the east, we perceived in a ravine, +not merely a few solitary palm-trees, but a whole grove. It was the +palma real; probably a species of the genus Oreodoxa. This group of +palms, at so considerable an elevation, formed a striking contrast +with the willows* scattered on the depth of the more temperate +valley of Caracas. (* Salix Humboldtiana of Willdenouw. On the +alpine palm-trees, see my Prolegomena de Dist. Plant. page 235.) We +here discovered plants of European forms, situated below those of +the torrid zone. + +After proceeding for the space of four hours across the savannahs, +we entered into a little wood composed of shrubs and small trees, +called el Pejual; doubtless from the great abundance here of the +pejoa (Gaultheria odorata), a plant with very odoriferous leaves.* +(* It is a great advantage of the Spanish language, and a +peculiarity which it shares in common with the Latin, that, from +the name of a tree, may be derived a word designating an +association or group of trees of the same species. Thus are formed +the words olivar, robledar, and pinal, from olivo, roble, and pino. +The Hispano-Americans have added tunal, pejual, guayaval, etc., +places where a great many Cactuses, Gualtheria odoratas, and +Psidiums, grow together.) The steepness of the mountain became less +considerable, and we felt an indescribable pleasure in examining +the plants of this region. Nowhere, perhaps, can be found collected +together, in so small a space, productions so beautiful, and so +remarkable in regard to the geography of plants. At the height of a +thousand toises, the lofty savannahs of the hills terminate in a +zone of shrubs which, by their appearance, their tortuous branches, +their stiff leaves, and the magnitude and beauty of their purple +flowers, remind us of what is called, in the Cordilleras of the +Andes, the vegetation of the paramos and the punas.* (* For the +explanation of these words, see above Chapter 1.5.) We there find +the family of the alpine rhododendrons, the thibaudias, the +andromedas, the vacciniums, and those befarias with resinous +leaves, which we have several times compared to the rhododendron of +our European Alps. + +Even when nature does not produce the same species in analogous +climates, either in the plains of isothermal parallels,* (We may +compare together either latitudes which in the same hemisphere +present the same mean temperature (as, for instance, Pennsylvania +and the central part of France, Chile and the southern part of New +Holland); or we may consider the relations that may exist between +the vegetation of the two hemispheres under isothermal parallels.) +or on table-lands, the temperature of which resembles that of +places nearer the poles,* we still remark a striking resemblance of +appearance and physiognomy in the vegetation of the most distant +countries. (* The geography of plants comprises not merely an +examination of the analogies observed in the same hemisphere; as +between the vegetation of the Pyrenees and that of the Scandinavian +plains; or between that of the Cordilleras of Peru and of the +coasts of Chile. It also investigates the relations between the +alpine plants of both hemispheres. It compares the vegetation of +the Alleghanies and the Cordilleras of Mexico, with that of the +mountains of Chile and Brazil. Bearing in mind that every +isothermal line has an alpine branch (as, for instance, that which +connects Upsala with a point in the Swiss Alps), the great problem +of the analogy of vegetable forms may be defined as follows: 1st, +examining in each hemisphere, and at the level of the coasts, the +vegetation on the same isothermal line, especially near convex or +concave summits; 2nd, comparing, with respect to the form of +plants, on the same isothermal line north and south of the equator, +the alpine branch with that traced in the plains; 3rd, comparing +the vegetation on homonymous isothermal lines in the two +hemispheres, either in the low regions, or in the alpine regions.) +This phenomenon is one of the most curious in the history of +organic forms. I say the history; for in vain would reason forbid +man to form hypotheses on the origin of things; he still goes on +puzzling himself with insoluble problems relating to the +distribution of beings. + +A gramen of Switzerland grows on the granitic rocks of the straits +of Magellan.* (* Phleum alpinum, examined by Mr. Brown. The +investigations of this great botanist prove that a certain number +of plants are at once common to both hemispheres. Potentilla +anserina, Prunella vulgaris, Scirpus mucronatus, and Panicum +crus-galli, grow in Germany, in Australia, and in Pennsylvania.) +New Holland contains above forty European phanerogamous plants: and +the greater number of those plants, which are found equally in the +temperate zones of both hemispheres, are entirely wanting in the +intermediary or equinoctial region, as well in the plains as on the +mountains. A downy-leaved violet, which terminates in some sort the +zone of the phanerogamous plants at Teneriffe, and which was long +thought peculiar to that island,* is seen three hundred leagues +farther north, near the snowy summit of the Pyrenees. (* The Viola +cheiranthifolia has been found by MM. Kunth and Von Buch among the +alpine plants which Jussieu brought from the Pyrenees.) Gramina and +cyperaceous plants of Germany, Arabia, and Senegal, have been +recognized among those that were gathered by M. Bonpland and myself +on the cold table-lands of Mexico, along the burning shores of the +Orinoco, and in the southern hemisphere on the Andes and Quito.* (* +Cyperus mucronatus, Poa eragrostis, Festuca myurus, Andropogos +avenaceus, Lapago racemosa. (See the Nova Genera et Species +Plantarum volume 1 page 25.)) How can we conceive the migration of +plants through regions now covered by the ocean? How have the germs +of organic life, which resemble each other in their appearance, and +even in their internal structure, unfolded themselves at unequal +distances from the poles and from the surface of the seas, wherever +places so distant present any analogy of temperature? +Notwithstanding the influence exercised on the vital functions of +plants by the pressure of the air, and the greater or less +extinction of light, heat, unequally distributed in different +seasons of the year, must doubtless be considered as the most +powerful stimulus of vegetation. + +The number of identical species in the two continents and in the +two hemispheres is far less than the statements of early travellers +would lead us to believe. The lofty mountains of equinoctial +America have certainly plantains, valerians, arenarias, +ranunculuses, medlars, oaks, and pines, which from their +physiognomy we might confound with those of Europe; but they are +all specifically different. When nature does not present the same +species, she loves to repeat the same genera. Neighbouring species +are often placed at enormous distances from each other, in the low +regions of the temperate zone, and on the alpine heights of the +equator. At other times (and the Silla of Caracas affords a +striking example of this phenomenon), they are not the European +genera, which have sent species to people like colonists the +mountains of the torrid zone, but genera of the same tribe, +difficult to be distinguished by their appearance, which take the +place of each other in different latitudes. + +The mountains of New Grenada surrounding the table-lands of Bogota +are more than two hundred leagues distant from those of Caracas, +and yet the Silla, the only elevated peak in the chain of low +mountains, presents those singular groupings of befarias with +purple flowers, of andromedas, of gualtherias, of myrtilli, of uvas +camaronas,* (* The names vine-tree, and uvas camaronas, are given +in the Andes to plants of the genus Thibaudia, on account of their +large succulent fruits. Thus the ancient botanists gave the name of +bear's vine, uva ursi, and vine of Mount Ida (Vitis idaea), to an +arbutus and a myrtillus, which belong, like the thibaudia, to the +family of the Ericineae.) of nerteras, and of aralias with hoary +leaves,* (* Nertera depressa, Aralia reticulata, Hedyotis +blaerioides.) which characterize the vegetation of the paramos on +the high Cordilleras of Santa Fe. We found the same Thibaudia +glandulosa at the entrance of the table-land of Bogota, and in the +Pejual of the Silla. The coast-chain of Caracas is unquestionably +connected (by the Torito, the Palomera, Tocuyo, and the paramos of +Rosas, of Bocono, and of Niquitao) with the high Cordilleras of +Merida, Pamplona, and Santa Fe; but from the Silla to Tocuyo, along +a distance of seventy leagues, the mountains of Caracas are so low, +that the shrubs of the family of the ericineous plants, just cited, +do not find the cold climate which is necessary for their +development. Supposing, as is probable, that the thibaudias and the +rhododendron of the Andes, or befaria, exist in the paramo of +Niquitao and in the Sierra de Merida, covered with eternal snow, +these plants would nevertheless want a ridge sufficiently lofty and +long for their migration towards the Silla of Caracas. + +The more we study the distribution of organized beings on the +globe, the more we are inclined, if not to abandon the ideas of +migration, at least to consider them as hypotheses not entirely +satisfactory. The chain of the Andes divides the whole of South +America into two unequal longitudinal parts. At the foot of this +chain, on the east and west, we found a great number of plants +specifically the same. The various passages of the Cordilleras +nowhere permit the vegetable productions of the warm regions to +proceed from the coasts of the Pacific to the banks of the Amazon. +When a peak attains a great elevation, either in the middle of very +low mountains and plains, or in the centre of an archipelago heaved +up by volcanic fires, its summit is covered with alpine plants, +many of which are again found, at immense distances, on other +mountains having an analogous climate. Such are the general +phenomena of the distribution of plants. + +It is now said that a mountain is high enough to enter into the +limits of the rhododendrons and the befarias, as it has long been +said that such a mountain reached the limit of perpetual snow. In +using this expression, it is tacitly admitted, that under the +influence of certain temperatures, certain vegetable forms must +necessarily be developed. Such a supposition, however, taken in all +its generality, is not strictly accurate. The pines of Mexico are +wanting on the Cordilleras of Peru. The Silla of Caracas is not +covered with the oaks which flourish in New Grenada at the same +height. Identity of forms indicates an analogy of climate; but in +similar climates the species may be singularly diversified. + +The charming rhododendron of the Andes (the befaria) was first +described by M. Mutis, who observed it near Pamplona and Santa Fe +de Bogota, in the fourth and seventh degree of north latitude. It +was so little known before our expedition to the Silla, that it was +scarcely to be found in any herbal in Europe. The learned editors +of the Flora of Peru had even described it under another name, that +of acunna. In the same manner as the rhododendrons of Lapland, +Caucasus, and the Alps* (* Rhododendron lapponicum, R. caucasicum, +R. ferrugineum, and R. hirsutum.) differ from each other, the two +species of befaria we brought from the Silla* (* Befaria glauca, B. +ledifolia.) are also specifically different from that of Santa Fe +and Bogota.* (* Befaria aestuans, and B. resinosa.) Near the +equator the rhododendrons of the Andes (Particularly B. aestuans of +Mutis, and two new species of the southern hemisphere, which we +have described under the name of B. coarctata, and B. grandiflora.) +cover the mountains as far as the highest paramos, at sixteen and +seventeen hundred toises of elevation. Advancing northward, on the +Silla de Caracas, we find them much lower, a little below one +thousand toises. The befaria recently discovered in Florida, in +latitude 30 degrees, grows even on hills of small elevation. Thus +in a space of six hundred leagues in latitude, these shrubs descend +towards the plains in proportion as their distance from the equator +augments. The rhododendron of Lapland grows also at eight or nine +hundred toises lower than the rhododendron of the Alps and the +Pyrenees. We were surprised at not meeting with any species of +befaria in the mountains of Mexico, between the rhododendrons of +Santa Fe and Caracas, and those of Florida. + +In the small grove which crowns the Silla, the Befaria ledifolia is +only three or four feet high. The trunk is divided from its root +into a great many slender and even verticillate branches. The +leaves are oval, lanceolate, glaucous on their inferior part, and +curled at the edges. The whole plant is covered with long and +viscous hairs, and emits a very agreeable resinous smell. The bees +visit its fine purple flowers, which are very abundant, as in all +the alpine plants, and, when in full blossom, they are often nearly +an inch wide. + +The rhododendron of Switzerland, in those places where it grows, at +the elevation of between eight hundred and a thousand toises, +belongs to a climate, the mean temperature of which is +2 and-1 +degrees, like that of the plains of Lapland. In this zone the +coldest months are-4, and-10 degrees: the hottest, 12 and 7 +degrees. Thermometrical observations, made at the same heights and +in the same latitudes, render it probable that, at the Pejual of +the Silla, one thousand toises above the Caribbean Sea, the mean +temperature of the air is still 17 or 18 degrees; and that the +thermometer keeps, in the coolest season, between 15 and 20 degrees +in the day, and in the night between 10 and 12 degrees. At the +hospital of St. Gothard, situated nearly on the highest limit of +the rhododendron of the Alps, the maximum of heat, in the month of +August at noon, in the shade, is usually 12 or 13 degrees; in the +night, at the same season, the air is cooled by the radiation of +the soil down to +1 or-1.5 degrees. Under the same barometric +pressure, consequently at the same height, but thirty degrees of +latitude nearer the equator, the befaria of the Silla is often, at +noon, in the sun, exposed to a heat of 23 or 24 degrees. The +greatest nocturnal refrigeration probably never exceeds 7 degrees. +We have carefully compared the climate, under the influence of +which, at different latitudes, two groups of plants of the same +family vegetate at equal heights above the level of the sea. The +results would have been far different, had we compared zones +equally distant, either from the perpetual snow, or from the +isothermal line of 0 degrees.* (* The stratum of air, the mean +temperature of which is 0 degrees, and which scarcely coincides +with the superior limit of perpetual snow, is found in the parallel +of the rhododendrons of Switzerland at nine hundred toises; in the +parallel of the befarias of Caracas, at two thousand seven hundred +toises of elevation.) + +In the little thicket of the Pejual, near the purple-flowered +befaria, grows a heath-leaved hedyotis, eight feet high; the +caparosa,* which is a large arborescent hypericum (* Vismia +caparosa (a loranthus clings to this plant, and appropriates to +itself the yellow juice of the vismia); Davallia meifolia, Heracium +avilae, Aralia arborea, Jacq., and Lepidium virginicum. Two new +species of lycopodium, the thyoides, and the aristatum, are seen +lower down, near the Puerto de la Silla.); a lepidium, which +appears identical with that of Virginia; and lastly, lycopodiaceous +plants and mosses, which cover the rocks and roots of the trees. +That which gives most celebrity in the country to the little +thicket, is a shrub ten or fifteen feet high, of the corymbiferous +family. The Creoles call it incense (incienso).* (* Trixis +nereifolia of M. Bonpland.) Its tough and crenate leaves, as well +as the extremities of the branches, are covered with a white wool. +It is a new species of Trixis, extremely resinous, the flowers of +which have the agreeable odour of storax. This smell is very +different from that emitted by the leaves of the Trixis +terebinthinacea of the mountains of Jamaica, opposite to those of +Caracas. The people sometimes mix the incienso of the Silla with +the flowers of the pevetera, another composite plant, the smell of +which resembles that of the heliotropium of Peru. The pevetera does +not, however, grow on the mountains so high as the zone of the +befarias; it vegetates in the valley of Chacao, and the ladies of +Caracas prepare from it an extremely pleasant odoriferous water. + +We spent a long time in examining the fine resinous and fragrant +plants of the Pejual. The sky became more and more cloudy, and the +thermometer sank below 11 degrees, a temperature at which, in this +zone, people begin to suffer from the cold. Quitting the little +thicket of alpine plants, we found ourselves again in a savannah. +We climbed over a part of the western dome, in order to descend +into the hollow of the Silla, a valley which separates the two +summits of the mountain. We there had great difficulties to +overcome, occasioned by the force of the vegetation. A botanist +would not readily guess that the thick wood covering this valley is +formed by the assemblage of a plant of the musaceous family.* +(*Scitamineous plants, or family of the plantains.) It is probably +a maranta, or a heliconia; its leaves are large and shining; it +reaches the height of fourteen or fifteen feet, and its succulent +stalks grow near one another like the stems of the reeds found in +the humid regions of the south of Europe.* (* Arundo donax.) We +were obliged to cut our way through this forest. The negroes walked +before with their cutlasses or machetes. The people confound this +alpine scitamineous plant with the arborescent gramina, under the +name of carice. We saw neither its fruit nor flowers. We are +surprised to meet with a monocotyledonous family, believed to be +exclusively found in the hot and low regions of the tropics, at +eleven hundred toises of elevation; much higher than the +andromedas, the thibaudias, and the rhododendron of the +Cordilleras.* (* Befaria.) In a chain of mountains no less +elevated, and more northern (the Blue Mountains of Jamaica), the +Heliconia of the parrots and the bihai, rather grow in the alpine +shaded situations.* (* Heliconia psittacorum, and H. bihai. These +two heliconias are very common in the plains of Terra Firma.) + +Wandering in this thick wood of musaceae or arborescent plants, we +constantly directed our course towards the eastern peak, which we +perceived from time to time through an opening. On a sudden we +found ourselves enveloped in a thick mist; the compass alone could +guide us; but in advancing northward we were in danger at every +step of finding ourselves on the brink of that enormous wall of +rocks, which descends almost perpendicularly to the depth of six +thousand feet towards the sea. We were obliged to halt. Surrounded +by clouds sweeping the ground, we began to doubt whether we should +reach the eastern peak before night. Happily, the negroes who +carried our water and provisions, rejoined us, and we resolved to +take some refreshment. Our repast did not last long. Possibly the +Capuchin father had not thought of the great number of persons who +accompanied us, or perhaps the slaves had made free with our +provisions on the way; be that as it may, we found nothing but +olives, and scarcely any bread. Horace, in his retreat at Tibur, +never boasted of a repast more light and frugal; but olives, which +might have afforded a satisfactory meal to a poet, devoted to +study, and leading a sedentary life, appeared an aliment by no +means sufficiently substantial for travellers climbing mountains. +We had watched the greater part of the night, and we walked for +nine hours without finding a single spring. Our guides were +discouraged; they wished to go back, and we had great difficulty in +preventing them. + +In the midst of the mist I made trial of the electrometer of Volta, +armed with a smoking match. Though very near a thick wood of +heliconias, I obtained very sensible signs of atmospheric +electricity. It often varied from positive to negative, its +intensity changing every instant. These variations, and the +conflict of several small currents of air, which divided the mist, +and transformed it into clouds, the borders of which were visible, +appeared to me infallible prognostics of a change in the weather. +It was only two o'clock in the afternoon; we entertained some hope +of reaching the eastern summit of the Silla before sunset, and of +re-descending into the valley separating the two peaks, intending +there to pass the night, to light a great fire, and to make our +negroes construct a hut with the leaves of the heliconia. We sent +off half of our servants with orders to hasten the next morning to +meet us, not with olives, but with a supply of salt beef. + +We had scarcely made these arrangements when the east wind began to +blow violently from the sea. The thermometer rose to 12.5 degrees. +It was no doubt an ascending wind, which, by heightening the +temperature, dissolved the vapours. In less than two minutes the +clouds dispersed, and the two domes of the Silla appeared to us +singularly near. We opened the barometer in the lowest part of the +hollow that separates the two summits, near a little pool of very +muddy water. Here, as in the West India Islands, marshy plains are +found at great elevations; not because the woody mountains attract +the clouds, but because they condense the vapours by the effect of +nocturnal refrigeration, occasioned by the radiation of heat from +the ground, and from the parenchyma of the leaves. The mercury was +at 21 inches 5.7 lines. We shaped our course direct to the eastern +summit. The obstruction caused by the vegetation gradually +diminished; it was, however, necessary to cut down some heliconias; +but these arborescent plants were not now very thick or high. The +peaks of the Silla themselves, as we have several times mentioned, +are covered only with gramina and small shrubs of befaria. Their +barrenness, however, is not owing to their height: the limit of +trees in this region is four hundred toises higher; since, judging +according to the analogy of other mountains, this limit would be +found here only at a height of eighteen hundred toises. The absence +of large trees on the two rocky summits of the Silla may be +attributed to the aridity of the soil, the violence of the winds +blowing from the sea, and the conflagrations so frequent in all the +mountains of the equinoctial region. + +To reach the eastern peak, which is the highest, it is necessary to +approach as near as possible the great precipice which descends +towards Caravalleda and the coast. The gneiss as far as this spot +preserves its lamellar texture and its primitive direction; but +where we climbed the summit of the Silla, we found it had passed +into granite. Its texture becomes granular; the mica, less +frequent, is more unequally spread through the rock. Instead of +garnets we met with a few solitary crystals of hornblende. It is, +however, not a syenite, but rather a granite of new formation. We +were three quarters of an hour in reaching the summit of the +pyramid. This part of the way is not dangerous, provided the +traveller carefully examines the stability of each fragment of rock +on which he places his foot. The granite superposed on the gneiss +does not present a regular separation into beds: it is divided by +clefts, which often cross one another at right angles. Prismatic +blocks, one foot wide and twelve long, stand out from the ground +obliquely, and appear on the edges of the precipice like enormous +beams suspended over the abyss. + +Having arrived at the summit, we enjoyed, for a few minutes only, +the serenity of the sky. The eye ranged over a vast extent of +country: looking down to the north was the sea, and to the south, +the fertile valley of Caracas. The barometer was at 20 inches 7.6 +lines; the thermometer at 13.7 degrees. We were at thirteen hundred +and fifty toises of elevation. We gazed on an extent of sea, the +radius of which was thirty-six leagues. Persons who are affected by +looking downward from a considerable height should remain at the +centre of the small flat which crowns the eastern summit of the +Silla. The mountain is not very remarkable for height: it is nearly +eighty toises lower than the Canigou; but it is distinguished among +all the mountains I have visited by an enormous precipice on the +side next the sea. The coast forms only a narrow border; and +looking from the summit of the pyramid on the houses of +Caravalleda, this wall of rocks seems, by an optical illusion, to +be nearly perpendicular. The real slope of the declivity appeared +to me, according to an exact calculation, 53 degrees 28 minutes.* +(* Observations of the latitude give for the horizontal distance +between the foot of the mountain near Caravalleda, and the vertical +line passing through its summit, scarcely 1000 toises.) The mean +slope of the peak of Teneriffe is scarcely 12 degrees 30 minutes. A +precipice of six or seven thousand feet, like that of the Silla of +Caracas, is a phenomenon far more rare than is generally believed +by those who cross mountains without measuring their height, their +bulk, and their slope. Since the experiments on the fall of bodies, +and on their deviation to the south-east, have been resumed in +several parts of Europe, a rock of two hundred and fifty toises of +perpendicular elevation has been in vain sought for among all the +Alps of Switzerland. The declivity of Mont Blanc towards the Allee +Blanche does not even reach an angle of 45 degrees; though in the +greater number of geological works, Mont Blanc is described as +perpendicular on the south side. + +At the Silla of Caracas, the enormous northern cliff is partly +covered with vegetation, notwithstanding the extreme steepness of +its slope. Tufts of befaria and andromedas appear as if suspended +from the rock. The little valley which separates the domes towards +the south, stretches in the direction of the sea. Alpine plants +fill this hollow; and, not confined to the ridge of the mountain, +they follow the sinuosities of the ravine. It would seem as if +torrents were concealed under that fresh foliage; and the +disposition of the plants, the grouping of so many inanimate +objects, give the landscape all the charm of motion and of life. + +Seven months had now elapsed since we had been on the summit of the +peak of Teneriffe, whence we surveyed a space of the globe equal to +a fourth part of France. The apparent horizon of the sea is there +six leagues farther distant than at the top of the Silla, and yet +we saw that horizon, at least for some time, very distinctly. It +was strongly marked, and not confounded with the adjacent strata of +air. At the Silla, which is five hundred and fifty toises lower +than the peak of Teneriffe, the horizon, though nearer, continued +invisible towards the north and north-north-east. Following with +the eye the surface of the sea, which was smooth as glass, we were +struck with the progressive diminution of the reflected light. +Where the visual ray touched the last limit of that surface, the +water was lost among the superposed strata of air. This appearance +has something in it very extraordinary. We expect to see the +horizon level with the eye; but, instead of distinguishing at this +height a marked limit between the two elements, the more distant +strata of water seem to be transformed into vapour, and mingled +with the aerial ocean. I observed the same appearance, not in one +spot of the horizon alone, but on an extent of more than a hundred +and sixty degrees, along the Pacific, when I found myself for the +first time on the pointed rock that commands the crater of +Pichincha; a volcano, the elevation of which exceeds that of Mont +Blanc.* (* See Views of Nature, Bohn's edition, page 358.) The +visibility of a very distant horizon depends, when there is no +mirage, upon two distinct things: the quantity of light received on +that part of the sea where the visual ray terminates; and the +extinction of the reflected light during its passage through the +intermediate strata of air. It may happen, notwithstanding the +serenity of the sky and the transparency of the atmosphere, that +the ocean is feebly illuminated at thirty or forty leagues' +distance; or that the strata of air nearest the earth may +extinguish a great deal of the light, by absorbing the rays that +traverse them. + +The rounded peak, or western dome of the Silla, concealed from us +the view of the town of Caracas; but we distinguished the nearest +houses, the villages of Chacao and Petare, the coffee plantations, +and the course of the Rio Guayra, a slender streak of water +reflecting a silvery light. The narrow band of cultivated ground +was pleasingly contrasted with the wild and gloomy aspect of the +neighbouring mountains. Whilst contemplating these grand scenes, we +feel little regret that the solitudes of the New World are not +embellished with the monuments of antiquity. + +But we could not long avail ourselves of the advantage arising from +the position of the Silla, in commanding all the neighbouring +summits. While we were examining with our glasses that part of the +sea, the horizon of which was clearly defined, and the chain of the +mountains of Ocumare, behind which begins the unknown world of the +Orinoco and the Amazon, a thick fog from the plains rose to the +elevated regions, first filling the bottom of the valley of +Caracas. The vapours, illumined from above, presented a uniform +tint of a milky white. The valley seemed overspread with water, and +looked like an arm of the sea, of which the adjacent mountains +formed the steep shore. In vain we waited for the slave who carried +Ramsden's great sextant. Eager to avail myself of the favourable +state of the sky, I resolved to take a few solar altitudes with a +sextant by Troughton of two inches radius. The disk of the sun was +half-concealed by the mist. The difference of longitude between the +quarter of the Trinidad and the eastern peak of the Silla appears +scarcely to exceed 0 degrees 3 minutes 22 seconds.* (* The difference +of longitude between the Silla and La Guayra, according to Fidalgo, +is 0 degrees 6 minutes 40 seconds.) + +Whilst, seated on the rock, I was determining the dip of the +needle, I found my hands covered with a species of hairy bee, a +little smaller than the honey-bee of the north of Europe. These +insects make their nests in the ground. They seldom fly; and, from +the slowness of their movements, I should have supposed they were +benumbed by the cold of the mountains. The people, in these +regions, call them angelitos (little angels), because they very +seldom sting. They are no doubt of the genus Apis, of the division +melipones. It has been erroneously affirmed that these bees, which +are peculiar to the New World, are destitute of all offensive +weapons. Their sting is indeed comparatively feeble, and they use +it seldom; but a person, not fully convinced of the harmlessness of +these angelitos, can scarcely divest himself of a sensation of +fear. I must confess, that, whilst engaged in my astronomical +observations, I was often on the point of letting my instruments +fall, when I felt my hands and face covered with these hairy bees. +Our guides assured us that they attempt to defend themselves only +when irritated by being seized by their legs. I was not tempted to +try the experiment on myself. + +The dip of the needle at the Silla was one centesimal degree less +than in the town of Caracas. In collecting the observations which I +made during calm weather and in very favourable circumstances, on +the mountains as well as along the coast, it would at first seem, +that we discover, in that part of the globe, a certain influence of +the heights on the dip of the needle, and the intensity of the +magnetical forces; but we must remark, that the dip at Caracas is +much greater than could be supposed, from the situation of the +town, and that the magnetical phenomena are modified by the +proximity of certain rocks, which constitute so many particular +centres or little systems of attraction.* (* I have seen fragments +of quartz traversed by parallel bands of magnetic iron, carried +into the valley of Caracas by the waters descending from the +Galipano and the Cerro de Avila. This banded magnetic iron-ore is +found also in the Sierra Nevada of Merida. Between the two peaks of +the Silla, angular fragments of cellular quartz are found, covered +with red oxide of iron. They do not act on the needle. This oxide +is of a cinnabar-red colour.) + +The temperature of the atmosphere varied on the summit of the Silla +from eleven to fourteen degrees, according as the weather was calm +or windy. Every one knows how difficult it is to verify, on the +summit of a mountain, the temperature, which is to serve for the +barometric calculation. The wind was east, which would seem to +prove that the trade-winds extend in this latitude much higher than +fifteen hundred toises. Von Buch had observed that, at the peak of +Teneriffe, near the northern limit of the trade-winds, there exists +generally at the elevation of one thousand nine hundred toises, a +contrary current from the west. The Academy of Sciences recommended +the men of science who accompanied the unfortunate La Perouse, to +employ small air-balloons for the purpose of ascertaining at sea +the extent of the trade-winds within the tropics. Such experiments +are very difficult. Small balloons do not in general reach the +height of the Silla; and the light clouds which are sometimes +perceived at an elevation of three or four thousand toises, for +instance, the fleecy clouds, called by the French moutons, remain +almost fixed, or have such a slow motion, that it is impossible to +judge of the direction of the wind. + +During the short space of time that the sky was serene at the +zenith, I found the blue of the atmosphere sensibly deeper than on +the coasts. It is probable that, in the months of July and August, +the difference between the colour of the sky on the coasts and on +the summit of the Silla is still more considerable, but the +meteorological phenomenon with which M. Bonpland and myself were +most struck during the hour we passed on the mountain, was the +apparent dryness of the air, which seemed to increase as the fog +augmented. + +This fog soon became so dense that it would have been imprudent to +remain longer on the edge of a precipice of seven or eight thousand +feet deep.* (* In the direction of north-west the slopes appear +more accessible; and I have been told of a path frequented by +smugglers, which leads to Caravalleda, between the two peaks of the +Silla. From the eastern peak I took the bearings of the western +peak, 64 degrees 40 minutes south-west; and of the houses, which I +was told belonged to Caravalleda, 55 degrees 20 minutes north-west. +) We descended the eastern dome of the Silla, and gathered in our +descent a gramen, which not only forms a new and very remarkable +genus, but which, to our great astonishment, we found again some +time after on the summit of the volcano of Pichincha, at the +distance of four hundred leagues from the Silla, in the southern +hemisphere.* (* Aegopogon cenchroides.) The Lichen floridus, so +common in the north of Europe, covered the branches of the befaria +and the Gualtheria odorata, descending even to the roots of these +shrubs. Examining the mosses which cover the rocks of gneiss in the +valley between the two peaks, I was surprised at finding real +pebbles,--rounded fragments of quartz.* (* Fragments of brown +copper-ore were found mixed with these pebbles, at an elevation of +1170 toises.) It may be conceived that the valley of Caracas was +once an inland lake, before the Rio Guayra found an issue to the +east near Caurimare, at the foot of the hill of Auyamas, and before +the ravine of Tipe opened on the west, in the direction of Gatia +and Cabo Blanco. But how can we imagine that these waters could +ascend as high as the Silla, when the mountains opposite this peak, +those of Ocumare, were too low to prevent their overflow into the +llanos? The pebbles could not have been brought by torrents from +more elevated points, since there is no height that commands the +Silla. Must we admit that they have been heaved up, like all the +mountains which border the coast. + +It was half after four in the afternoon when we finished our +observations. Satisfied with the success of our journey, we forgot +that there might be danger in descending in the dark, steep +declivities covered by a smooth and slippery turf. The mist +concealed the valley from us; but we distinguished the double hill +of La Puerta, which, like all objects lying almost perpendicularly +beneath the eye, appeared extremely near. We relinquished our +design of passing the night between the two summits of the Silla, +and having again found the path we had cut through the thick wood +of heliconia, we soon arrived at the Pejual, the region of +odoriferous and resinous plants. The beauty of the befarias, and +their branches covered with large purple flowers, again rivetted +our attention. When, in these climates, a botanist gathers plants +to form his herbal, he becomes difficult in his choice in +proportion to the luxuriance of vegetation. He casts away those +which have been first cut, because they appear less beautiful than +those which were out of reach. Though loaded with plants before +quitting the Pejual, we still regretted not having made a more +ample harvest. We tarried so long in this spot, that night +surprised us as we entered the savannah, at the elevation of +upwards of nine hundred toises. + +As there is scarcely any twilight in the tropics, we pass suddenly +from bright daylight to darkness. The moon was on the horizon; but +her disk was veiled from time to time by thick clouds, drifted by a +cold and rough wind. Rapid slopes, covered with yellow and dry +grass, now seen in shade, and now suddenly illumined, seemed like +precipices, the depth of which the eye sought in vain to measure. +We proceeded onwards, in single file, and endeavoured to support +ourselves by our hands, lest we should roll down. The guides, who +carried our instruments, abandoned us successively, to sleep on the +mountain. Among those who remained with us was a Congo black, who +evinced great address, bearing on his head a large dipping-needle: +he held it constantly steady, notwithstanding the extreme declivity +of the rocks. The fog had dispersed by degrees in the bottom of the +valley; and the scattered lights we perceived below us caused a +double illusion. The steeps appeared still more dangerous than they +really were; and, during six hours of continual descent, we seemed +to be always equally near the farms at the foot of the Silla. We +heard very distinctly the voices of men and the notes of guitars. +Sound is generally so well propagated upwards, that in a balloon at +the elevation of three thousand toises, the barking of dogs is +sometimes heard.* (* Gay-Lussac's account of his ascent on the 15th +of September, 1805.) + +We did not arrive till ten at night at the bottom of the valley. We +were overcome with fatigue and thirst, having walked for fifteen +hours, nearly without stopping. The soles of our feet were cut and +torn by the asperities of a rocky soil and the hard and dry stalks +of the gramina, for we had been obliged to pull off our boots, the +soles having become too slippery. On declivities devoid of shrubs +or ligneous herbs, which may be grasped by the hand, the danger of +the descent is diminished by walking barefoot. In order to shorten +the way, our guides conducted us from the Puerta de la Silla to the +farm of Gallegos by a path leading to a reservoir of water, called +el Tanque. They missed their way, however; and this last descent, +the steepest of all, brought us near the ravine of Chacaito. The +noise of the cascades gave this nocturnal scene a grand and wild +character. + +We passed the night at the foot of the Silla. Our friends at +Caracas had been able to distinguish us with glasses on the summit +of the eastern peak. They felt interested in hearing the account of +our expedition, but they were not satisfied with the result of our +measurement, which did not assign to the Silla even the elevation +of the highest summit of the Pyrenees.* (* It was formerly believed +that the height of the Silla of Caracas scarcely differed from that +of the peak of Teneriffe.) One cannot blame the national feeling +which suggests exaggerated ideas of the monuments of nature, in a +country in which the monuments of art are nothing; nor can we +wonder that the inhabitants of Quito and Riobamba, who have prided +themselves for ages on the height of Chimborazo, mistrust those +measurements which elevate the mountains of Himalaya above all the +colossal Cordilleras? + +During our journey to the Silla, and in all our excursions in the +valley of Caracas, we were very attentive to the lodes and +indications of ore which we found in the strata of gneiss. No +regular diggings having been made, we could only examine the +fissures, the ravines, and the land-slips occasioned by torrents in +the rainy season. The rock of gneiss, passing sometimes into a +granite of new formation, sometimes into mica-slate,* (* Especially +at great elevations.) belongs in Germany to the most metalliferous +rocks; but in the New Continent, the gneiss has not hitherto been +remarked as very rich in ores worth working. The most celebrated +mines of Mexico and Peru are found in the primitive and transition +schists, in the trap-porphyries, the grauwakke, and the alpine +limestones. In several spots of the valley of Caracas, the gneiss +contains a small quantity of gold, disseminated in small veins of +quartz, sulphuretted silver, azure copper-ore, and galena; but it +is doubtful whether these different metalliferous substances are +not too poor to encourage any attempt at working them. Such +attempts were, however, made at the conquest of the province, about +the middle of the sixteenth century. + +From the promontory of Paria to beyond cape Vela, the early +navigators had seen gold ornaments and gold dust, in the possession +of the inhabitants of the coast. They penetrated into the interior +of the country, to discover whence the precious metal came; and +though the information obtained in the province of Coro, and the +markets of Curiana and Cauchieto,* (* The Spaniards found, in 1500, +in the country of Curiana (now Coro), little birds, frogs, and +other ornaments made of gold. Those who had cast these figures +lived at Cauchieto, a place nearer the Rio de la Hacha. I have seen +ornaments resembling those described by Peter Martyr of Anghiera +(which indicate tolerable skill in goldsmiths' work), among the +remains of the ancient inhabitants of Cundinamarca. The same art +appears to have been practised in places along the coasts, and also +farther to the south, among the mountains of New Grenada.) clearly +proved that real mineral wealth was to be found only to the west +and south-west of Coro (that is to say, in the mountains near those +of New Grenada), the whole province of Caracas was nevertheless +eagerly explored. A governor, newly arrived on that coast, could +recommend himself to the Spanish court only by boasting of the +mines of his province; and in order to take from cupidity what was +most ignoble and repulsive, the thirst of gold was justified by the +purpose to which it was pretended the riches acquired by fraud and +violence might be employed. "Gold," says Christopher Columbus, in +his last letter* (Lettera rarissima data nelle Indie nella isola di +Jamaica a 7 Julio dei 1503.--"Le oro e metallo sopra gli altri +excellentissimo; e dell' oro si fanno li tesori e chi lo tiene fa e +opera quanto vuole nel mondo[?], e finel[?]mente aggionge a mandare +le anime al Paradiso.") to King Ferdinand, "gold is a thing so much +the more necessary to your majesty, because, in order to fulfil the +ancient prophecy, Jerusalem is to be rebuilt by a prince of the +Spanish monarchy. Gold is the most excellent of metals. What +becomes of those precious stones, which are sought for at the +extremities of the globe? They are sold, and are finally converted +into gold. With gold we not only do whatever we please in this +world, but we can even employ it to snatch souls from Purgatory, +and to people Paradise." These words bear the stamp of the age in +which Columbus lived; but we are surprised to see this pompous +eulogium of riches written by a man whose whole life was marked by +the most noble disinterestedness. + +The conquest of the province of Venezuela having been begun at its +western extremity, the neighbouring mountains of Coro, Tocuyo, and +Barquisimeto, first attracted the attention of the Conquistadores. +These mountains join the Cordilleras of New Grenada (those of Santa +Fe, Pamplona, la Grita, and Merida) to the littoral chain of +Caracas. It is a land the more interesting in a geognostical point +of view, as no map has yet made known the mountainous ramifications +which the paramos of Niquitao and Las Rosas send out towards the +north-east. Between Tocuyo, Araure, and Barquisimeto, rises the +group of the Altar Mountains, connected on the south-east with the +paramo of Las Rosas. A branch of the Altar stretches north-east by +San Felipe el Fuerte, joining the granitic mountains of the coast +near Porto Cabello. The other branch takes an eastward direction +towards Nirgua and Tinaco, and joins the chain of the interior, +that of Yusma, Villa de Cura, and Sabana de Ocumare. + +The region we have been here describing separates the waters which +flow to the Orinoco from those which run into the immense lake of +Maracaybo and the Caribbean Sea. It includes climates which may be +termed temperate rather than hot; and it is looked upon in the +country, notwithstanding the distance of more than a hundred +leagues, as a prolongation of the metalliferous soil of Pamplona. +It was in the group of the western mountains of Venezuela, that the +Spaniards, in the year 1551, worked the gold mine of Buria,* (* +Real de Minas de San Felipe de Buria.) which was the origin of the +foundation of the town of Barquisimeto.* (* Nueva Segovia.) But +these works, like many other mines successively opened, were soon +abandoned. Here, as in all the mountains of Venezuela, the produce +of the ore has been found to be very variable. The lodes are very +often divided, or they altogether cease; and the metals appear only +in kidney-ores, and present the most delusive appearances. It is, +however, only in this group of mountains of San Felipe and +Barquisimeto, that the working of mines has been continued till the +present time. Those of Aroa, near San Felipe el Fuerte, situated in +the centre of a very insalubrious country, are the only mines which +are wrought in the whole capitania-general of Caracas. They yield a +small quantity of copper. + +Next to the works at Buria, near Barquisimeto, those of the valley +of Caracas, and of the mountains near the capital, are the most +ancient. Francisco Faxardo and his wife Isabella, of the nation of +the Guaiquerias,* often visited the table-land where the capital of +Venezuela is now situated. (* Faxardo and his wife were the +founders of the town of the Collado, now called Caravalleda.) They +had given this table-land the name of Valle de San Francisco; and +having seen some bits of gold in the hands of the natives, Faxardo +succeeded, in the year 1560, in discovering the mines of Los +Teques,* to the south-west of Caracas, near the group of the +mountains of Cocuiza, which separate the valleys of Caracas and +Aragua. (* Thirteen years later, in 1573, Gabriel de Avila, one of +the alcaldes of the new town of Caracas, renewed the working of +these mines, which were from that time called the "Real de Minas de +Nuestra Senora." Probably this same Avila, on account of a few +farms which he possessed in the mountains adjacent to La Guayra and +Caracas, has occasioned the Cumbre to receive the name of Montana +de Avila. This name has subsequently been applied erroneously to +the Silla, and to all the chain which extends towards cape Codera.) +It is thought that in the first of these valleys, near Baruta, +south of the village of Valle, the natives had made some +excavations in veins of auriferous quartz; and that, when the +Spaniards first settled there, and founded the town of Caracas, +they filled the shafts, which had been dry, with water. It is now +impossible to ascertain this fact; but it is certain that, long +before the Conquest, grains of gold were a medium of exchange, I do +not say generally, but among certain nations of the New Continent. +They gave gold for the purchase of pearls; and it does not appear +extraordinary, that, after having for a long time picked up grains +of gold in the rivulets, people who had fixed habitations, and were +devoted to agriculture, should have tried to trace the auriferous +veins in the superior surface of the soil. The mines of Los Teques +could not be peaceably wrought, till the defeat of the Cacique +Guaycaypuro, a celebrated chief of the Teques, who long contested +with the Spaniards the possession of the province of Venezuela. + +We have yet to mention a third point to which the attention of the +Conquistadores was called by indications of mines, so early as the +end of the sixteenth century. In following the valley of Caracas +eastward beyond Caurimare, on the road to Caucagua, we reach a +mountainous and woody country, where a great quantity of charcoal +is now made, and which anciently bore the name of the Province of +Los Mariches. In these eastern mountains of Venezuela, the gneiss +passes into the state of talc. It contains, as at Salzburg, lodes +of auriferous quartz. The works anciently begun in those mines have +often been abandoned and resumed. + +The mines of Caracas were forgotten during more than a hundred +years. But at a period comparatively recent, about the end of the +last century, an Intendant of Venezuela, Don Jose Avalo, again fell +into the illusions which had flattered the cupidity of the +Conquistadores. He fancied that all the mountains near the capital +contained great metallic riches. Some Mexican miners were engaged, +and their operations were directed to the ravine of Tipe, and the +ancient mines of Baruta to the south of Caracas, where the Indians +gather even now some little gold-washings. But the zeal which had +prompted the enterprise soon diminished, and after much useless +expense, the working of the mines of Caracas was totally abandoned. +A small quantity of auriferous pyrites, sulphuretted silver, and a +little native gold, were found; but these were only feeble +indications; and in a country where labour is extremely dear, there +was no inducement to pursue works so little productive. + +We visited the ravine of Tipe, situated in that part of the valley +which opens in the direction of Cabo Blanco. Proceeding from +Caracas, we traverse, in the direction of the great barracks of San +Carlos, a barren and rocky soil. Only a very few plants of Argemone +mexicana are to be found. The gneiss appears everywhere above +ground. We might have fancied ourselves on the table-land of +Freiberg. We crossed first the little rivulet of Agua Salud, a +limpid stream, which has no mineral taste, and then the Rio +Garaguata. The road is commanded on the right by the Cerro de Avila +and the Cumbre; and on the left, by the mountains of Aguas Negras. +This defile is very interesting in a geological point of view. At +this spot the valley of Caracas communicates, by the valleys of +Tacagua and of Tipe, with the coast near Catia. A ridge of rock, +the summit of which is forty toises above the bottom of the valley +of Caracas, and more than three hundred toises above the valley of +Tacagua, divides the waters which flow into the Rio Guayra and +towards Cabo Blanco. On this point of division, at the entrance of +the branch, the view is highly pleasing. The climate changes as we +descend westward. In the valley of Tacagua we found some new +habitations, and also conucos of maize and plantains. A very +extensive plantation of tuna, or cactus, stamps this barren country +with a peculiar character. The cactuses reach the height of fifteen +feet, and grow in the form of candelabra, like the euphorbia of +Africa. They are cultivated for the purpose of selling their +refreshing fruits in the market of Caracas. The variety which has +no thorns is called, strangely enough, in the colonies, tuna de +Espana (Spanish cactus). We measured, at the same place, magueys or +agaves, the long stems of which, laden with flowers, were +forty-four feet high. However common this plant is become in the +south of Europe, the native of a northern climate is never weary of +admiring the rapid development of a liliaceous plant, which +contains at once a sweet juice and astringent and caustic liquids, +employed to cauterize wounds. + +We found several veins of quartz in the valley of Tipe visible +above the soil. They contained pyrites, carbonated iron-ore, traces +of sulphuretted silver (glasserz), and grey copper-ore (fahlerz). +The works which had been undertaken, either for extracting the ore, +or exploring the nature of its bed, appeared to be very +superficial. The earth falling in had filled up those excavations, +and we could not judge of the richness of the lode. Notwithstanding +the expense incurred under the intendancy of Don Jose Avalo, the +great question whether the province of Venezuela contains mines +rich enough to be worked, is yet problematical. Though in countries +where hands are wanting, the culture of the soil demands +unquestionably the first care of the government, yet the example of +New Spain sufficiently proves that mining is not always +unfavourable to the progress of agriculture. The best-cultivated +Mexican lands, those which remind the traveller of the most +beautiful districts of France and the south of Germany, extend from +Silao towards the Villa of Leon: they are in the neighbourhood of +the mines of Guanaxuato, which alone furnish a sixth part of all +the silver of the New World. + + +CHAPTER 1.14. + +EARTHQUAKES AT CARACAS. +CONNECTION OF THOSE PHENOMENA WITH THE VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS + OF THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. + +On the evening of the 7th of February we took our departure from +Caracas. Since the period of our visit to that place, tremendous +earthquakes have changed the surface of the soil. The city, which I +have described, has disappeared; and on the same spot, on the +ground fissured in various directions, another city is now slowly +rising. The heaps of ruins, which were the grave of a numerous +population, are becoming anew the habitation of men. In retracing +changes of so general an interest, I shall be led to notice events +which took place long after my return to Europe. I shall pass over +in silence the popular commotions which have taken place, and the +modifications which society has undergone. Modern nations, careful +of their own remembrances, snatch from oblivion the history of +human revolutions, which is, in fact, the history of ardent +passions and inveterate hatred. It is not the same with respect to +the revolutions of the physical world. These are described with +least accuracy when they happen to be contemporary with civil +dissensions. Earthquakes and eruptions of volcanoes strike the +imagination by the evils which are their necessary consequence. +Tradition seizes on whatever is vague and marvellous; and amid +great public calamities, as in private misfortunes, man seems to +shun that light which leads us to discover the real causes of +events, and to understand the circumstances by which they are +attended. + +I have recorded in this work all I have been able to collect, and +on the accuracy of which I can rely, respecting the earthquake of +the 26th of March, 1812. By that catastrophe the town of Caracas +was destroyed, and more than twenty thousand persons perished +throughout the extent of the province of Venezuela. The intercourse +which I have kept up with persons of all classes has enabled me to +compare the description given by many eye-witnesses, and to +interrogate them on objects that may throw light on physical +science in general. The traveller, as the historian of nature, +should verify the dates of great catastrophes, examine their +connection and their mutual relations, and should mark in the rapid +course of ages, in the continual progress of successive changes, +those fixed points with which other catastrophes may one day be +compared. All epochs are proximate to each other in the immensity +of time comprehended in the history of nature. Years which have +passed away seem but a few instants; and the physical descriptions +of a country, even when they offer subjects of no very powerful and +general interest, have at least the advantage of never becoming +old. Similar considerations, no doubt, led M. de la Condamine to +describe in his Voyage a l'Equateur, the memorable eruptions of the +volcano of Cotopaxi,* which took place long after his departure +from Quito. (* Those of the 30th of November, 1744, and of the 3rd +of September, 1750.) I feel the less hesitation in following the +example of that celebrated traveller, as the events I am about to +relate will help to elucidate the theory of volcanic reaction, or +the influence of a system of volcanoes on a vast space of +circumjacent territory. + +At the time when M. Bonpland and myself visited the provinces of +New Andalusia, New Barcelona, and Caracas, it was generally +believed that the most eastern parts of those coasts were +especially exposed to the destructive effects of earthquakes. The +inhabitants of Cumana dreaded the valley of Caracas, on account of +its damp and variable climate, and its gloomy and misty sky; whilst +the inhabitants of the temperate valley regarded Cumana as a town +whose inhabitants incessantly inhaled a burning atmosphere, and +whose soil was periodically agitated by violent commotions. +Unmindful of the overthrow of Riobamba and other very elevated +towns, and not aware that the peninsula of Araya, composed of +mica-slate, shares the commotions of the calcareous coast of +Cumana, well-informed persons imagined they discerned security in +the structure of the primitive rocks of Caracas, as well as in the +elevated situation of this valley. Religious ceremonies celebrated +at La Guayra, and even in the capital, in the middle of the night,* +doubtless called to mind the fact that the province of Venezuela +had been subject at intervals to earthquakes; but dangers of rare +occurrence are slightly feared. (* For instance, the nocturnal +procession of the 21st of October, instituted in commemoration of +the great earthquake which took place on that day of the month, at +one o'clock in the morning, in 1778. Other very violent shocks were +those of 1641, 1703, and 1802.) However, in the year 1811, fatal +experience destroyed the illusion of theory and of popular opinion. +Caracas, situated in the mountains, three degrees west of Cumana, +and five degrees west of the volcanoes of the Caribbee islands, has +suffered greater shocks than were ever experienced on the coast of +Paria or New Andalusia. + +At my arrival in Terra Firma, I was struck with the connection +between the destruction of Cumana on the 14th of December, 1797, +and the eruption of the volcanoes in the smaller West India +Islands. This connection was again manifest in the destruction of +Caracas on the 26th of March, 1812. The volcano of Guadaloupe +seemed in 1797 to have exercised a reaction on the coasts of +Cumana. Fifteen years later, it was a volcano situated nearer the +continent (that of St. Vincent), which appeared to have extended +its influence as far as Caracas and the banks of Apure. Possibly, +at both those periods, the centre of the explosion was, at an +immense depth, equally distant from the regions towards which the +motion was propagated at the surface of the globe. + +From the beginning of 1811 to 1813, a vast superficies of the +earth,* (* Between latitudes 5 and 36 degrees north, and 31 and 91 +degrees west longitude from Paris.) bound by the meridian of the +Azores, the valley of the Ohio, the Cordilleras of New Grenada, the +coasts of Venezuela, and the volcanoes of the smaller West India +Islands, was shaken throughout its whole extent, by commotions +which may be attributed to subterranean fires. The following series +of phenomena seems to indicate communications at enormous +distances. On the 30th of January, 1811, a submarine volcano broke +out near the island of St. Michael, one of the Azores. At a place +where the sea was sixty fathoms deep, a rock made its appearance +above the surface of the waters. The heaving-up of the softened +crust of the globe appears to have preceded the eruption of flame +at the crater, as had already been observed at the volcanoes of +Jorullo in Mexico, and on the appearance of the little island of +Kameni, near Santorino. The new islet of the Azores was at first a +mere shoal; but on the 15th of June, an eruption, which lasted six +days, enlarged its extent, and carried it progressively to the +height of fifty toises above the surface of the sea. This new land, +of which captain Tillard took possession in the name of the British +government, giving it the name of Sabrina Island, was nine hundred +toises in diameter. It has again, it seems, been swallowed up by +the ocean. This is the third time that submarine volcanoes have +presented this extraordinary spectacle near the island of St. +Michael; and, as if the eruptions of these volcanoes were subject +to periodical recurrence, owing to a certain accumulation of +elastic fluids, the island raised up has appeared at intervals of +ninety-one or ninety-two years.* (* Malte-Brun, Geographie +Universelle. There is, however, some doubt respecting the eruption +of 1628, to which some accounts assign the date of 1638. The rising +always happened near the island of St. Michael, though not +identically on the same spot. It is remarkable that the small +island of 1720 reached the same elevation as the island of Sabrina +in 1811.) + +At the time of the appearance of the new island of Sabrina, the +smaller West India Islands, situated eight hundred leagues +south-west of the Azores, experienced frequent earthquakes. More +than two hundred shocks were felt from the month of May 1811, to +April 1812, at St. Vincent; one of the three islands in which there +are still active volcanoes. The commotion was not circumscribed to +the insular portion of eastern America; and from the 16th of +December, 1811, till the year 1813, the earth was almost +incessantly agitated in the valleys of the Mississippi, the +Arkansas river, and the Ohio. The oscillations were more feeble on +the east of the Alleghanies, than to the west of these mountains, +in Tennessee and Kentucky. They were accompanied by a great +subterranean noise, proceeding from the south-west. In some places +between New Madrid and Little Prairie, as at the Saline, north of +Cincinnati, in latitude 37 degrees 45 minutes, shocks were felt +every day, nay almost every hour, during several months. The whole +of these phenomena continued from the 16th of December 1811, till +the year 1813. The commotion, confined at first to the south, in +the valley of the lower Mississippi, appeared to advance slowly +northward. + +Precisely at the period when this long series of earthquakes +commenced in the Transalleghanian States (in the month of December +1811), the town of Caracas felt the first shock in calm and serene +weather. This coincidence of phenomena was probably not accidental; +for it must be borne in mind that, notwithstanding the distance +which separates these countries, the low grounds of Louisiana and +the coasts of Venezuela and Cumana belong to the same basin, that +of the Gulf of Mexico. When we consider geologically the basin of +the Caribbean Sea, and of the Gulf of Mexico, we find it bounded on +the south by the coast-chain of Venezuela and the Cordilleras of +Merida and Pamplona; on the east by the mountains of the West India +Islands, and the Alleghanies; on the west by the Andes of Mexico, +and the Rocky Mountains; and on the north by the very +inconsiderable elevations which separate the Canadian lakes from +the rivers which flow into the Mississippi. More than two-thirds of +this basin are covered with water. It is bordered by two ranges of +active volcanoes; on the east, in the Carribee Islands, between +latitudes 13 and 16 degrees; and on the west in the Cordilleras of +Nicaragua, Guatimala, and Mexico, between latitudes 11 and 20 +degrees. When we reflect that the great earthquake at Lisbon, of +the 1st of November, 1755, was felt almost simultaneously on the +coasts of Sweden, at lake Ontario, and at the island of Martinique, +it may not seem unreasonable to suppose, that all this basin of the +West Indies, from Cumana and Caracas as far as the plains of +Louisiana, should be simultaneously agitated by commotions +proceeding from the same centre of action. + +It is an opinion very generally prevalent on the coasts of Terra +Firma, that earthquakes become more frequent when electric +explosions have been during some years rare. It is supposed to have +been observed, at Cumana and at Caracas, that the rains were less +frequently attended with thunder from the year 1792; and the total +destruction of Cumana in 1797, as well as the commotions felt in +1800, 1801, and 1802, at Maracaibo, Porto Cabello, and Caracas, +have not failed to be attributed to an accumulation of electricity +in the interior of the earth. Persons who have lived long in New +Andalusia, or in the low regions of Peru, will admit that the +period most to be dreaded for the frequency of earthquakes is the +beginning of the rainy season, which, however, is also the season +of thunder-storms. The atmosphere and the state of the surface of +the globe seem to exercise an influence unknown to us on the +changes which take place at great depths; and I am inclined to +think that the connection which it is supposed has been traced +between the absence of thunder-storms and the frequency of +earthquakes, is rather a physical hypothesis framed by the +half-learned of the country than the result of long experience. The +coincidence of certain phenomena may be favoured by chance. The +extraordinary commotions felt almost continually during the space +of two years on the banks of the Mississippi and the Ohio, and +which corresponded in 1812 with those of the valley of Caracas, +were preceded at Louisiana by a year almost exempt from +thunder-storms. The public mind was again struck with this +phenomenon. We cannot be surprised that there should be in the +native land of Franklin a great readiness to receive explanations +founded on the theory of electricity. + +The shock felt at Caracas in the month of December 1811, was the +only one which preceded the terrible catastrophe of the 26th of +March, 1812. The inhabitants of Terra Firma were alike ignorant of +the agitations of the volcano in the island of St. Vincent, and of +those felt in the basin of the Mississippi, where, on the 7th and +8th of February, 1812, the earth was day and night in perpetual +oscillation. A great drought prevailed at this period in the +province of Venezuela. Not a single drop of rain had fallen at +Caracas or in the country to the distance of ninety leagues round, +during five months preceding the destruction of the capital. The +26th of March was a remarkably hot day. The air was calm, and the +sky unclouded. It was Ascension-day, and a great portion of the +population was assembled in the churches. Nothing seemed to presage +the calamities of the day. At seven minutes after four in the +afternoon the first shock was felt. It was sufficiently forcible to +make the bells of the churches toll; and it lasted five or six +seconds. During that interval the ground was in a continual +undulating movement, and seemed to heave up like a boiling liquid. +The danger was thought to be past, when a tremendous subterranean +noise was heard, resembling the rolling of thunder, but louder and +of longer continuance than that heard within the tropics in the +time of storms. This noise preceded a perpendicular motion of three +or four seconds, followed by an undulatory movement somewhat +longer. The shocks were in opposite directions, proceeding from +north to south, and from east to west. Nothing could resist the +perpendicular movement and the transverse undulations. The town of +Caracas was entirely overthrown, and between nine and ten thousand +of the inhabitants were buried under the ruins of the houses and +churches. The procession of Ascension-day had not yet begun to pass +through the streets, but the crowd was so great within the churches +that nearly three or four thousand persons were crushed by the fall +of the roofs. The explosion was most violent towards the north, in +that part of the town situated nearest the mountain of Avila and +the Silla. The churches of la Trinidad and Alta Gracia, which were +more than one hundred and fifty feet high, and the naves of which +were supported by pillars of twelve or fifteen feet diameter, were +reduced to a mass of ruins scarcely exceeding five or six feet in +elevation. The sinking of the ruins has been so considerable that +there now scarcely remain any vestiges of pillars or columns. The +barracks, called el Quartel de San Carlos, situated north of the +church of la Trinidad, on the road from the custom-house of La +Pastora, almost entirely disappeared. A regiment of troops of the +line, under arms, and in readiness to join the procession, was, +with the exception of a few men, buried beneath the ruins of the +barracks. Nine-tenths of the fine city of Caracas were entirely +destroyed. The walls of some houses not thrown down, as those in +the street San Juan, near the Capuchin Hospital, were cracked in +such a manner as to render them uninhabitable. The effects of the +earthquake were somewhat less violent in the western and southern +parts of the city, between the principal square and the ravine of +Caraguata. There, the cathedral, supported by enormous buttresses, +remains standing. + +It is computed that nine or ten thousand persons were killed in the +city of Caracas, exclusive of those who, being dangerously wounded, +perished several months after, for want of food and proper care. +The night of the Festival of the Ascension witnessed an awful scene +of desolation and distress. The thick cloud of dust which, rising +above the ruins, darkened the sky like a fog, had settled on the +ground. No commotion was felt, and never was a night more calm or +more serene. The moon, then nearly at the full, illumined the +rounded domes of the Silla, and the aspect of the sky formed a +perfect contrast to that of the earth, which was covered with the +bodies of the dead, and heaped with ruins. Mothers were seen +bearing in their arms their children, whom they hoped to recall to +life. Desolate families were wandering through the city, seeking a +brother, a husband, or a friend, of whose fate they were ignorant, +and whom they believed to be lost in the crowd. The people pressed +along the streets, which could be traced only by long lines of +ruins. + +All the calamities experienced in the great catastrophes of Lisbon, +Messina, Lima, and Riobamba were renewed at Caracas on the fatal +26th of March, 1812. Wounded persons, buried beneath the ruins, +were heard imploring by their cries the help of the passers-by, and +nearly two thousand were dug out. Never was pity more tenderly +evinced; never was it more ingeniously active than in the efforts +employed to save the miserable victims whose groans reached the +ear. Implements for digging and clearing away the ruins were +entirely wanting; and the people were obliged to use their bare +hands, to disinter the living. The wounded, as well as the invalids +who had escaped from the hospitals, were laid on the banks of the +small river Guayra, where there was no shelter but the foliage of +trees. Beds, linen to dress the wounds, instruments of surgery, +medicines, every object of the most urgent necessity, was buried in +the ruins. Everything, even food, was wanting; and for the space of +several days water became scarce in the interior of the city. The +commotion had rent the pipes of the fountains; and the falling in +of the earth had choked up the springs that supplied them. To +procure water it was necessary to go down to the river Guayra, +which was considerably swelled; and even when the water was +obtained vessels for conveying it were wanting. + +There was a duty to be fulfilled to the dead, enjoined at once by +piety and the dread of infection. It being impossible to inter so +many thousand bodies, half-buried under the ruins, commissioners +were appointed to burn them: and for this purpose funeral piles +were erected between the heaps of ruins. This ceremony lasted +several days. Amidst so many public calamities, the people devoted +themselves to those religious duties which they thought best fitted +to appease the wrath of heaven. Some, assembling in processions, +sang funeral hymns; others, in a state of distraction, made their +confessions aloud in the streets. In Caracas was then repeated what +had been remarked in the province of Quito, after the tremendous +earthquake of 1797; a number of marriages were contracted between +persons who had neglected for many years to sanction their union by +the sacerdotal benediction. Children found parents, by whom they +had never till then been acknowledged; restitutions were promised +by persons who had never been accused of fraud; and families who +had long been at enmity were drawn together by the tie of common +calamity. But if this feeling seemed to calm the passions of some, +and open the heart to pity, it had a contrary effect on others, +rendering them more rigorous and inhuman. In great calamities +vulgar minds evince less of goodness than of energy. Misfortune +acts in the same manner as the pursuits of literature and the study +of nature; the happy influence of which is felt only by a few, +giving more ardour to sentiment, more elevation to the thoughts, +and increased benevolence to the disposition. + +Shocks as violent as those which in about the space of a minute* +overthrew the city of Caracas, could not be confined to a small +portion of the continent. (* The duration of the earthquake, that +is to say the whole of the movements of undulation and rising +(undulacion y trepidacion), which occasioned the horrible +catastrophe of the 26th of March, 1812, was estimated by some at 50 +seconds, by others at 1 minute 12 seconds.) Their fatal effects +extended as far as the provinces of Venezuela, Varinas, and +Maracaibo, along the coast; and especially to the inland mountains. +La Guayra, Mayquetia, Antimano, Baruta, La Vega, San Felipe, and +Merida, were almost entirely destroyed. The number of the dead +exceeded four or five thousand at La Guayra, and at the town of San +Felipe, near the copper-mines of Aroa. It would appear that on a +line running east-north-east and west-south-west from La Guayra and +Caracas to the lofty mountains of Niquitao and Merida, the violence +of the earthquake was principally directed. It was felt in the +kingdom of New Grenada from the branches of the high Sierra de +Santa Martha* (* As far as Villa de Los Remedios, and even to +Carthagena.) as far as Santa Fe de Bogota and Honda, on the banks +of the Magdalena, one hundred and eighty leagues from Caracas. It +was everywhere more violent in the Cordilleras of gneiss and +mica-slate, or immediately at their base, than in the plains; and +this difference was particularly striking in the savannahs of +Varinas and Casanara.* (* This is easily explained according to the +system of those geologists who are of opinion that all chains of +mountains, volcanic and not volcanic, have been formed by being +raised up, as if through crevices.) In the valleys of Aragua, +between Caracas and the town of San Felipe, the commotions were +very slight; and La Victoria, Maracay, and Valencia, scarcely +suffered at all, notwithstanding their proximity to the capital. At +Valecillo, a few leagues from Valencia, the yawning earth threw out +such an immense quantity of water, that it formed a new torrent. +The same phenomenon took place near Porto-Cabello.* (* It is +asserted that, in the mountains of Aroa, the ground, immediately +after the great shocks, was found covered with a very fine and +white earth, which appeared to have been projected through +crevices.) On the other hand, the lake of Maracaybo diminished +sensibly. At Coro no commotion was felt, though the town is +situated on the coast, between other towns which suffered from the +earthquake. Fishermen, who had passed the day of the 26th of March +in the island of Orchila, thirty leagues north-east of La Guayra, +felt no shock. These differences in the direction and propagation +of the shock, are probably owing to the peculiar position of the +stony strata. + +Having thus traced the effects of the earthquake to the west of +Caracas, as far as the snowy mountains of Santa Martha, and the +table-land of Santa Fe de Bogota, we will proceed to consider their +action on the country eastward of the capital. The commotions were +very violent beyond Caurimare, in the valley of Capaya, where they +extended as far as the meridian of Cape Codera: but it is extremely +remarkable that they were very feeble on the coasts of Nueva +Barcelona, Cumana, and Paria; though these coasts are the +continuation of the shore of La Guayra, and were formerly known to +have been often agitated by subterranean commotions. Admitting that +the destruction of the four towns of Caracas, La Guayra, San +Felipe, and Merida, may be attributed to a volcanic focus situated +under or near the island of St. Vincent, we may conceive that the +motion might have been propagated from north-east to south-west in +a line passing through the islands of Los Hermanos, near +Blanquilla, without touching the coasts of Araya, Cumana, and Nueva +Barcelona. This propagation of the shock might even have taken +place without any commotion having been felt at the intermediate +points on the surface of the globe (the Hermanos Islands for +instance). This phenomenon is frequently remarked at Peru and +Mexico, in earthquakes which have followed during ages a fixed +direction. The inhabitants of the Andes say, speaking of an +intermediary tract of ground, not affected by the general +commotion, "that it forms a bridge" (que hace puente): as if they +mean to indicate by this expression that the undulations are +propagated at an immense depth under an inert rock. + +At Caracas, fifteen or eighteen hours after the great catastrophe, +the earth was tranquil. The night, as has already been observed, +was fine and calm; and the commotions did not recommence till after +the 27th. They were then attended by a very loud and long continued +subterranean noise (bramido). The inhabitants of the destroyed city +wandered into the country; but the villages and farms having +suffered as much as the town, they could find no shelter till they +were beyond the mountains of los Teques, in the valleys of Aragua, +and in the llanos or savannahs. No less than fifteen oscillations +were felt in one day. On the 5th of April there was almost as +violent an earthquake as that which overthrew the capital. During +several hours the ground was in a state of perpetual undulation. +Large heaps of earth fell in the mountains; and enormous masses of +rock were detached from the Silla of Caracas. It was even asserted, +and this opinion prevails still in the country, that the two domes +of the Silla sunk fifty or sixty toises; but this statement is not +founded on any measurement. I am informed that, in like manner, in +the province of Quito, the people, at every period of great +commotions, imagine that the volcano of Tunguragua diminishes in +height. It has been affirmed, in many published accounts of the +destruction of Caracas, that the mountain of the Silla is an +extinguished volcano; that a great quantity of volcanic substances +are found on the road from La Guayra to Caracas; that the rocks do +not present any regular stratification; and that everything bears +the stamp of the action of fire. It has even been stated that +twelve years prior to the great catastrophe, M. Bonpland and myself +had, from our own observations, considered the Silla as a very +dangerous neighbour to the city of Caracas, because the mountain +contained a great quantity of sulphur, and the commotions must come +from the north-east. It is seldom that observers of nature have to +justify themselves for an accomplished prediction; but I think it +my duty to oppose ideas which are too easily adopted on the LOCAL +CAUSES of earthquakes. + +In all places where the soil has been incessantly agitated for +whole months, as at Jamaica in 1693, Lisbon in 1755, Cumana in +1766, and Piedmont in 1808, a volcano is expected to open. People +forget that we must seek the focus or centre of action, far from +the surface of the earth; that, according to undeniable evidence, +the undulations are propagated almost at the same instant across +seas of immense depth, at the distance of a thousand leagues; and +that the greatest commotions take place not at the foot of active +volcanoes, but in chains of mountains composed of the most +heterogeneous rocks. In our geognostical observation of the country +round Caracas we found gneiss, and mica-slate containing beds of +primitive limestone. The strata are scarcely more fractured or +irregularly inclined than near Freyburg in Saxony, or wherever +mountains of primitive formation rise abruptly to great heights. I +found at Caracas neither basalt nor dorolite, nor even trachytes or +trap-porphyries; nor in general any trace of an extinguished +volcano, unless we choose to regard the diabases of primitive +grunstein, contained in gneiss, as masses of lava, which have +filled up fissures. These diabases are the same as those of +Bohemia, Saxony, and Franconia;* (* These grunsteins are found in +Bohemia, near Pilsen, in granite; in Saxony, in the mica-slates of +Scheenberg; in Franconia, between Steeben and Lauenstein, in +transition-slates.) and whatever opinion may be entertained +respecting the ancient causes of the oxidation of the globe at its +surface, all those primitive mountains, which contain a mixture of +hornblende and feldspar, either in veins or in balls with +concentric layers, will not, I presume, be called volcanic +formations. Mont Blanc and Mont d'Or will not be ranged in one and +the same class. Even the partisans of the Huttonian or volcanic +theory make a distinction between the lavas melted under the mere +pressure of the atmosphere at the surface of the globe, and those +layers formed by fire beneath the immense weight of the ocean and +superincumbent rocks. They would not confound Auvergne and the +granitic valley of Caracas in the same denomination; that of a +country of extinct volcanoes. + +I never could have pronounced the opinion, that the Silla and the +Cerro de Avila, mountains of gneiss and mica-slate, were in +dangerous proximity to the city of Caracas because they contained a +great quantity of pyrites in subordinate beds of primitive +limestone. But I remember having said, during my stay at Caracas, +that the eastern extremity of Terra Firma appeared, since the great +earthquake of Quito, in a state of agitation, which warranted +apprehension that the province of Venezuela would gradually be +exposed to violent commotions. I added, that when a country had +been long subject to frequent shocks, new subterranean +communications seemed to open with neighbouring countries; and that +the volcanoes of the West India Islands, lying in the direction of +the Silla, north-east of the city, were perhaps the vents, at the +time of an eruption, for those elastic fluids which cause +earthquakes on the coasts of the continent. These considerations, +founded on local knowledge of the place, and on simple analogies, +are very far from a prediction justified by the course of physical +events. + +On the 30th of April, 1812, whilst violent commotions were felt +simultaneously in the valley of the Mississippi, in the island of +St. Vincent, and in the province of Venezuela, a subterranean noise +resembling frequent discharges of large cannon was heard at +Caracas, at Calabozo (situated in the midst of the steppes), and on +the borders of the Rio Apure, over a superficies of four thousand +square leagues. This noise began at two in the morning. It was +accompanied by no shock; and it is very remarkable, that it was as +loud on the coast as at the distance of eighty leagues inland. It +was everywhere believed to be transmitted through the air; and was +so far from being thought a subterranean noise, that in several +places, preparations were made for defence against an enemy, who +seemed to be advancing with heavy artillery. Senor Palacio, +crossing the Rio Apure below the Orivante, near the junction of the +Rio Nula, was told by the inhabitants, that the firing of cannon +had been heard distinctly at the western extremity of the province +of Varinas, as well as at the port of La Guayra to the north of the +chain of the coast. + +The day on which the inhabitants of Terra Firma were alarmed by a +subterranean noise was that of the great eruption of the volcano in +the island of St. Vincent. That mountain, near five hundred toises +high, had not thrown out lava since the year 1718. Scarcely was any +smoke perceived to issue from it, when, in the month of May 1811, +frequent shocks announced that the volcanic fire was either +rekindled, or directed anew to that part of the West Indies. The +first eruption did not take place till the 27th of April, 1812, at +noon. It was merely an ejection of ashes, but attended with a +tremendous noise. On the 30th, the lava overflowed the brink of the +crater, and, after a course of four hours, reached the sea. The +sound of the explosion is described as resembling that of alternate +discharges of very large cannon and musketry; and it is worthy of +remark, that it seemed much louder to persons out at sea, and at a +great distance from land, than to those within sight of land, and +near the burning volcano. + +The distance in a straight line from the volcano of St. Vincent to +the Rio Apure, near the mouth of the Nula, is two hundred and ten +leagues.* (* Where the contrary is not expressly stated, nautical +leagues of twenty to a degree, or two thousand eight hundred and +fifty-five toises, are always to be understood.) The explosions +were consequently heard at a distance equal to that between +Vesuvius and Paris. This phenomenon, in conjunction with a great +number of facts observed in the Cordilleras of the Andes, shows +that the sphere of the subterranean activity of a volcano is much +more extensive than we should be disposed to admit, if we judged +merely from the small changes effected at the surface of the globe. +The detonations heard during whole days together in the New World, +eighty, one hundred, or even two hundred leagues distant from a +crater, do not reach us by the propagation of the sound through the +air; they are transmitted by the earth, perhaps in the very place +where we happen to be. If the eruptions of the volcano of St. +Vincent, Cotopaxi, or Tunguragua, resounded from afar, like a +cannon of immense magnitude, the noise ought to increase in the +inverse ratio of the distance: but observations prove, that this +augmentation does not take place. I must further observe, that M. +Bonpland and I, going from Guayaquil to the coast of Mexico, +crossed latitudes in the Pacific, where the crew of our ship were +dismayed by a hollow sound coming from the depth of the ocean, and +transmitted by the waters. At that time a new eruption of Cotopaxi +took place, but we were as far distant from the volcano, as Etna +from the city of Naples. The little town of Honda, on the banks of +the Magdalena, is not less than one hundred and forty-five leagues* +(* This is the distance from Vesuvius to Mont Blanc.) from +Cotopaxi; and yet, in the great explosions of this volcano, in +1744, a subterranean noise was heard at Honda, and supposed to be +discharges of heavy artillery. The monks of San Francisco spread a +report that the town of Carthagena was besieged and bombarded by +the English; and the intelligence was believed throughout the +country. Now the volcano of Cotopaxi is a cone, more than one +thousand eight hundred toises above the basin of Honda, and it +rises from a table-land, the elevation of which is more than one +thousand five hundred toises above the valley of the Magdalena. In +all the colossal mountains of Quito, of the province of los Pastos, +and of Popayan, crevices and valleys without number intervene. It +cannot be admitted, under these circumstances, that the noise was +transmitted through the air, or over the surface of the globe, and +that it came from the point at which the cone and crater of +Cotapaxi are situated. It appears probable, that the more elevated +part of the kingdom of Quito and the neighbouring Cordilleras, far +from being a group of distinct volcanoes, constitute a single +swollen mass, an enormous volcanic wall, stretching from south to +north, and the crest of which presents a superficies of more than +six hundred square leagues. Cotopaxi, Tunguragua, Antisana, and +Pichincha, are on this same raised ground. They have different +names, but they are merely separate summits of the same volcanic +mass. The fire issues sometimes from one, sometimes from another of +these summits. The obstructed craters appear to be extinguished +volcanoes; but we may presume, that, while Cotopaxi or Tunguragua +have only one or two eruptions in the course of a century, the fire +is not less continually active under the town of Quito, under +Pichincha and Imbabura. + +Advancing northward we find, between the volcano of Cotopaxi and +the town of Honda, two other systems of volcanic mountains, those +of los Pastos and of Popayan. The connection between these systems +was manifested in the Andes by a phenomenon which I have already +had occasion to notice, in speaking of the last destruction of +Cumana. In the month of November 1796 a thick column of smoke began +to issue from the volcano of Pasto, west of the town of that name, +and near the valley of Rio Guaytara. The mouths of the volcano are +lateral, and situated on its western declivity, yet during three +successive months the column of smoke rose so much higher than the +ridge of the mountain that it was constantly visible to the +inhabitants of the town of Pasto. They described to us their +astonishment when, on the 4th of February, 1797, they observed the +smoke disappear in an instant, whilst no shock whatever was felt. +At that very moment, sixty-five leagues southward, between +Chimborazo, Tunguragua, and the Altar (Capac-Urcu), the town of +Riobamba was overthrown by the most terrible earthquake on record. +Is it possible to doubt, from this coincidence of phenomena, that +the vapours issuing from the small apertures or ventanillas of the +volcano of Pasto had an influence on the pressure of those elastic +fluids which convulsed the earth in the kingdom of Quito, and +destroyed in a few minutes thirty or forty thousand inhabitants? + +To explain these great effects of volcanic reactions, and to prove +that the group or system of the volcanoes of the West India Islands +may sometimes shake the continent, I have cited the Cordillera of +the Andes. Geological reasoning can be supported only by the +analogy of facts which are recent, and consequently well +authenticated: and in what other region of the globe could we find +greater and more varied volcanic phenomena than in that double +chain of mountains heaved up by fire? in that land where nature has +covered every mountain and every valley with her marvels? If we +consider a burning crater only as an isolated phenomenon, if we be +satisfied with merely examining the mass of stony substances which +it has thrown up, the volcanic action at the surface of the globe +will appear neither very powerful nor very extensive. But the image +of this action becomes enlarged in the mind when we study the +relations which link together volcanoes of the same group; for +instance, those of Naples and Sicily, of the Canary Islands,* of +the Azores, of the Caribbee islands of Mexico, of Guatimala, and of +the table-land of Quito; when we examine either the reactions of +these different systems of volcanoes on one another, or the +distance at which, by subterranean communication, they +simultaneously convulse the earth. (I have already observed +(Chapter 1.2) that the whole group of the Canary Islands rises, as +we may say, above one and the same submarine volcano. Since the +sixteenth century, the fire of this volcano has burst forth +alternately in Palma, Teneriffe, and Lancerote. Auvergne presents a +whole system of volcanoes, the action of which has now ceased; but +in the middle of a system of active volcanoes, for instance, in +that of Quito, we must not consider as an extinguished volcano a +mountain, the crater of which is obstructed, and through which the +subterraneous fire has not issued for ages. Etna, the Aeolian +Isles, Vesuvius, and Epomeo; the peak of Teyde, Palma, and +Lancerote; St. Michael, La Caldiera of Fayal, and Pico; St. +Vincent, St. Lucia, and Guadaloupe; Orizava, Popocatepetl, Jorullo, +and La Colima; Bombacho, the volcano of Grenada, Telica, Momotombo, +Isalco, and the volcano of Guatimala; Cotopaxi, Tunguragua, +Pichincha, Antisana, and Sangai, belong to the same system of +burning volcanoes; they are generally ranged in rows, as if they +had issued from a crevice, or vein not filled up; and, it is very +remarkable, that their position is in some parts in the general +direction of the Cordilleras, and in others in a contrary +direction.) + +The study of volcanoes may be divided into two distinct branches; +one, simply mineralogical, is directed to the examination of the +stony strata, altered or produced by the action of fire; from the +formation of the trachytes or trap-porphyries, of basalts, +phonolites, and dolerites, to the most recent lavas: the other +branch, less accessible and more neglected, comprehends the +physical relations which link volcanoes together, the influence of +one volcanic system on another, the connection existing between the +action of burning mountains and the commotions which agitate the +earth at great distances, and during long intervals, in the same +direction. This study cannot progress till the various epochs of +simultaneous action, the direction, the extent, and the force of +the convulsions are carefully noted; till we have attentively +observed their progressive advance to regions which they had not +previously reached; and the coincidence between distant volcanic +eruptions and those noises which the inhabitants of the Andes very +expressively term subterraneous thunders, or roarings.* (* Bramidos +y truenos subterraneos.) All these objects are comprehended in the +domain of the history of nature. + +Though the narrow circle within which all certain traditions are +confined, does not present any of those general revolutions which +have heaved up the Cordilleras and buried myriads of pelagian +animals; yet Nature, acting under our eyes, nevertheless exhibits +violent though partial changes, the study of which may throw light +on the most remote epochs. In the interior of the earth those +mysterious powers exist, the effects of which are manifested at the +surface by the production of vapours, of incandescent scoriae, of +new volcanic rocks and thermal springs, by the appearance of new +islands and mountains, by commotions propagated with the rapidity +of an electric shock, finally by those subterranean thunders,* +heard during whole months, without shaking the earth, in regions +far distant from active volcanoes. (* In the town of Guanaxuato, in +Mexico, these thunders lasted from the 9th of January till the 12th +of February, 1784. Guanaxuato is situated forty leagues north of +the volcano of Jorullo, and sixty leagues north west of the volcano +of Popocatepetl. In places nearer these two volcanoes, three +leagues distant from Guanaxuato, the subterranean thunders were not +heard. The noise was circumscribed within a very narrow space, in +the region of a primitive schist, which approaches a +transition-schist, containing the richest silver mines of the known +world, and on which rest trap-porphyries, slates, and diabasis +(grunstein.)) + +In proportion as equinoctial America shall increase in culture and +population, and the system of volcanoes of the central table-land +of Mexico, of the Caribbee Islands, of Popayan, of los Pastos, and +Quito, shall be more attentively observed, the connection of +eruptions and of earthquakes, which precede and sometimes accompany +those eruptions, will be more generally recognized. The volcanoes +just mentioned, particularly those of the Andes, which rise above +the enormous height of two thousand five hundred toises, present +great advantages for observation. The periods of their eruptions +are singularly regular. They remain thirty or forty years without +emitting scoriae, ashes, or even vapours. I could not perceive the +smallest trace of smoke on the summit of Tunguragua or Cotopaxi. A +gust of vapour issuing from the crater of Mount Vesuvius scarcely +attracts the attention of the inhabitants of Naples, accustomed to +the movements of that little volcano, which throws out scoriae +sometimes during two or three years successively. Thence it becomes +difficult to judge whether the emission of scoriae may have been +more frequent at the time when an earthquake has been felt in the +Apennines. On the ridge of the Cordilleras everything assumes a +more decided character. An eruption of ashes, which lasts only a +few minutes, is often followed by a calm of ten years. In such +circumstances it is easy to mark the periods, and to observe the +coincidence of phenomena. + +If, as there appears to be little reason to doubt, that the +destruction of Cumana in 1797, and of Caracas in 1812, indicate the +influence of the volcanoes of the West India Islands* on the +commotions felt on the coasts of Terra Firma, it may be desirable, +before we close this chapter, to take a cursory view of this +Mediterranean archipelago. + +(* The following is the series of the phenomena:-- + +27th of September, 1796. Eruption in the West India Islands. +(Volcano of Guadaloupe). + +November, 1796. The volcano of Pasto began to emit smoke. + +14th of December, 1796. Destruction of Cumana. + +4th of February, 1797. Destruction of Riobamba. + +30th of January, 1811. Appearance of Sabrina Island, in the Azores. +The island enlarged very considerably on the 15th of June, 1811. + +May, 1811. Commencement of the earthquakes in the island of St. +Vincent, which lasted till May 1812. + +16th of December, 1811. Commencement of the commotions in the +valley of the Mississippi and the Ohio, which lasted till 1813. + +December, 1811. Earthquake at Caracas. + +26th of March, 1811. Destruction of Caracas. Earthquakes, which +continued till 1813. + +30th of April, 1811. Eruption of the volcano in St. Vincent; and +the same day subterranean noises at Caracas, and on the banks of +the Apure.) + +The volcanic islands form one-fifth of that great arc extending +from the coast of Paria to the peninsula of Florida. Running from +south to north, they close the Caribbean Sea on the eastern side, +while the greater West India Islands appear like the remains of a +group of primitive mountains, the summit of which seems to have +been between Cape Abacou, Point Morant, and the Copper Mountains, +in that part where the islands of St. Domingo, Cuba, and Jamaica, +are nearest to each other. Considering the basin of the Atlantic as +an immense valley* which separates the two continents, and where, +from 20 degrees south to 30 degrees north, the salient angles +(Brazil and Senegambia) correspond to the receding angles (the gulf +of Guinea and the Caribbean Sea), we are led to think that the +latter sea owes its formation to the action of currents, which, +like the current of rotation now existing, have flowed from east to +west; and have given the southern coast of Porto Rico, St. Domingo, +and the island of Cuba their uniform configuration. (* The valley +is narrowest (300 leagues) between Cape St. Roque and Sierra Leone. +Proceeding toward the north along the Coasts of the New Continent, +from its pyramidal extremity, or the Straits of Magellan, we +imagine we recognise the effects of a repulsion directed first +toward the north-east, then toward the north-west, and finally +again to the north-east.) This supposition of an oceanic irruption +has been the source of two other hypotheses on the origin of the +smaller West India Islands. Some geologists admit that the +uninterrupted chain of islands from Trinidad to Florida exhibits +the remains of an ancient chain of mountains. They connect this +chain sometimes with the granite of French Guiana, sometimes with +the calcareous mountains of Pari. Others, struck with the +difference of geological constitution between the primitive +mountains of the Greater and the volcanic cones of the Lesser +Antilles, consider the latter as having risen from the bottom of +the sea. + +If we recollect that volcanic upheavings, when they take place +through elongated crevices, usually take a straight direction, we +shall find it difficult to judge from the disposition of the +craters alone, whether the volcanoes have belonged to the same +chain, or have always been isolated. Supposing an irruption of the +ocean to take place either into the eastern part of the island of +Java* (* Raffles, History of Java, 1817, pages 23-28. The principal +line of the volcanoes of Java, on a distance of 160 leagues, runs +from west to east, through the mountains of Gagak, Gede, +Tankuban-Prahu, Ungarang Merapi, Lawu, Wilis, Arjuna, Dasar, and +Tashem.) or into the Cordilleras of Guatimala and Nicaragua, where +so many burning mountains form but one chain, that chain would be +divided into several islands, and would perfectly resemble the +Caribbean Archipelago. The union of primitive formations and +volcanic rocks in the same range of mountain is not extraordinary; +it is very distinctly seen in my geological sections of the +Cordillera of the Andes. The trachytes and basalts of Popayan are +separated from the system of the volcanoes of Quito by the +mica-slates of Almaguer; the volcanoes of Quito from the trachytes +of Assuay by the gneiss of Condorasta and Guasunto. There does not +exist a real chain of mountains running south-east and north-west +from Oyapoc to the mouths of the Orinoco, and of which the smaller +West India Islands might be a northern prolongation. The granites +of Guiana, as well as the hornblende-slates, which I saw near +Angostura, on the banks of the Lower Orinoco, belong to the +mountains of Pacaraimo and of Parime, stretching from west to east, +* (From the cataracts of Atures towards the Essequibo River. This +chain of Pacaraimo divides the waters of the Carony from those of +the Rio Parime, or Rio de Aguas Blancas.) in the interior of the +continent, and not in a direction parallel with the coast, between +the mouths of the river Amazon and the Orinoco. But though we find +no chain of mountains at the north-east extremity of Terra Firma, +having the same direction as the archipelago of the smaller West +India Islands, it does not therefore follow that the volcanic +mountains of the archipelago may not have belonged originally to +the continent, and formed a part of the littoral chain of Caracas +and Cumana.* (* Among many such examples which the structure of the +globe displays, we shall mention only the inflexion at a right +angle formed by the Higher Alps towards the maritime Alps, in +Europe; and the Belour-Tagh, which joins transversely the Mouz-Tagh +and the Himalaya, in Asia. Amid the prejudices which impede the +progress of mineralogical geography, we may reckon, 1st, the +supposition of a perfect uniformity of direction in the chains of +mountains; 2nd, the hypothesis of the continuity of all chains; +3rd, the supposition that the highest summits determine the +direction of a central chain; 4th, the idea that, in all places +where great rivers take rise, we may suppose the existence of great +tablelands, or very high mountains.) + +In opposing the objections of some celebrated naturalists, I am far +from maintaining the ancient contiguity of all the smaller West +India Islands. I am rather inclined to consider them as islands +heaved up by fire, and ranged in that regular line, of which we +find striking examples in so many volcanic hills in Auvergne, in +Mexico, and in Peru. The geological constitution of the Archipelago +appears, from the little we know respecting it, to be very similar +to that of the Azores and the Canary Islands. Primitive formations +are nowhere seen above ground; we find only what belongs +unquestionably to volcanoes: feldspar-lava, dolerite, basalt, +conglomerated scoriae, tufa, and pumice-stone. Among the limestone +formations we must distinguish those which are essentially +subordinate to volcanic tufas* from those which appear to be the +work of madrepores and other zoophytes. (* We have noticed some of +the above, following Von Buch, at Lancerote, and at Fortaventura, +in the system of the Canary Islands. Among the smaller islands of +the West Indies, the following islets are entirely calcareous, +according to M. Cortes: Mariegalante, La Desirade, the Grande Terre +of Guadaloupe, and the Grenadillas. According to the observations +of that naturalist, Curacoa and Buenos Ayres present only +calcareous formations. M. Cortes divides the West India Islands +into, 1st, those containing at once primitive, secondary, and +volcanic formations, like the greater islands; 2nd, those entirely +calcareous, (or at least so considered) as Mariegalante and +Curacoa; 3rd, those at once volcanic and calcareous, as Antigua, +St. Bartholomew, St. Martin, and St. Thomas; 4th, those which have +volcanic rocks only, as St. Vincent, St. Lucia, and St. Eustache.) +The latter, according to M. Moreau de Jonnes, seem to lie on shoals +of a volcanic nature. Those mountains, which present traces of the +action of fire more or less recent, and some of which reach nearly +nine hundred toises of elevation, are all situated on the western +skirt of the smaller West India Islands.* (* Journal des Mines, +tome 3 page 59. In order to exhibit in one point of view the whole +system of the volcanoes of the smaller West India Islands, I will +here trace the direction of the islands from south to north. +--Grenada, an ancient crater, filled with water; boiling springs; +basalts between St. George and Goave.--St. Vincent, a burning +volcano.--St. Lucia, a very active solfatara, named Oualibou, two +or three hundred toises high; jets of hot water, by which small +basins are periodically filled.--Martinique, three great +extinguished volcanoes; Vauclin, the Paps of Carbet, which are +perhaps the most elevated summits of the smaller islands, and +Montagne Pelee. (The height of this last mountain is probably 800 +toises; according to Leblond it is 670 toises; according to +Dupuget, 736 toises. Between Vauclin and the feldspar-lavas of the +Paps of Carbet is found, as M. Moreau de Jonnes asserts, in a neck +of land, a region of early basalt called La Roche Carree). Thermal +waters of Precheur and Lameutin.--Dominica, completely volcanic. +--Guadaloupe, an active volcano, the height of which, according to +Leboucher, is 799 toises; according to Amie, 850 toises. +--Montserrat, a solfatara; fine porphyritic lavas with large +crystals of feldspar and hornblende near Galloway, according to Mr. +Nugent.--Nevis, a solfatara.--St. Christopher's, a solfatara at +Mount Misery.--St. Eustache, a crater of an extinguished volcano, +surrounded by pumice-stone. (Trinidad, which is traversed by a +chain of primitive slate, appears to have anciently formed a part +of the littoral chain of Cumana, and not of the system of the +mountains of the Caribbee Islands.)) Each island is not the effect +of one single heaving-up: most of them appear to consist of +isolated masses which have been progressively united together. The +matter has not been emitted from one crater, but from several; so +that a single island of small extent contains a whole system of +volcanoes, regions purely basaltic, and others covered with recent +lavas. The volcanoes still burning are those of St. Vincent, St. +Lucia, and Guadaloupe. The first threw out lava in 1718 and 1812; +in the second there is a continual formation of sulphur by the +condensation of vapours, which issue from the crevices of an +ancient crater. The last eruption of the volcano of Guadaloupe took +place in 1797. The Solfatara of St. Christopher's was still burning +in 1692. At Martinique, Vauclin, Montagne Pelee, and the crater +surrounded by the five Paps of Carbet, must be considered as three +extinguished volcanoes. The effects of thunder have been often +confounded in that place with subterranean fire. No good +observation has confirmed the supposed eruption of the 22nd of +January, 1792. The group of volcanoes in the Caribbee Islands +resembles that of the volcanoes of Quito and Los Pastos; craters +with which the subterranean fire does not appear to communicate are +ranged on the same line with burning craters, and alternate with +them. + +Notwithstanding the intimate connection manifested in the action of +the volcanoes of the smaller West India Islands and the earthquakes +of Terra Firma, it often happens that shocks felt in the volcanic +archipelago are not propagated to the island of Trinidad, or to the +coasts of Caracas and Cumana. This phenomenon is in no way +surprising: even in the Caribbees the commotions are often confined +to one place. The great eruption of the volcano in St. Vincent's +did not occasion an earthquake at Martinique or Guadaloupe. Loud +explosions were heard there as well as at Venezuela, but the ground +was not convulsed. + +These explosions must not be confounded with the rolling noise +which everywhere precedes the slightest commotions; they are often +heard on the banks of the Orinoco, and (as we were assured by +persons living on the spot) between the Rio Arauca and Cuchivero. +Father Morello relates that at the Mission of Cabruta the +subterranean noise so much resembles discharges of small cannon +(pedreros) that it has seemed as if a battle were being fought at a +distance. On the 21st of October, 1766, the day of the terrible +earthquake which desolated the province of New Andalusia, the +ground was simultaneously shaken at Cumana, at Caracas, at +Maracaybo, and on the banks of the Casanare, the Meta, the Orinoco, +and the Ventuario. Father Gili has described these commotions at +the Mission of Encaramada, a country entirely granitic, where they +were accompanied by loud explosions. Great fallings-in of the earth +took place in the mountain Paurari, and near the rock Aravacoto a +small island disappeared in the Orinoco. The undulatory motion +continued during a whole hour. This seemed the first signal of +those violent commotions which shook the coasts of Cumana and +Cariaco for more than ten months. It might be supposed that men +living in woods, with no other shelter than huts of reeds and +palm-leaves, could have little to dread from earthquakes. But at +Erevato and Caura, where these phenomena are of rare occurrence, +they terrify the Indians, frighten the beasts of the forests, and +impel the crocodiles to quit the waters for the shore. Nearer the +sea, where shocks are frequent, far from being dreaded by the +inhabitants, they are regarded with satisfaction as the prognostics +of a wet and fertile year. + +In this dissertation on the earthquakes of Terra Firma and on the +volcanoes of the neighbouring archipelago of the West India +Islands, I have pursued the plan of first relating a number of +particular facts, and then considering them in one general point of +view. Everything announces in the interior of the globe the +operation of active powers, which, by mutual reaction, balance and +modify one another. The greater our ignorance of the causes of +these undulatory movements, these evolutions of heat, these +formations of elastic fluids, the more it becomes the duty of +persons who apply themselves to the study of physical science to +examine the relations which these phenomena so uniformly present at +great distances apart. It is only by considering these various +relations under a general point of view, and tracing them over a +great extent of the surface of the globe, through formations of +rocks the most different, that we are led to abandon the +supposition of trifling local causes, strata of pyrites, or of +ignited coal.* (* See "Views of Nature"--On the structure and +action of volcanoes in different parts of the world, page 353 +(Bohn's edition); also "Cosmos" pages 199-225 (Bohn's edition).) + +The following is the series of phenomena remarked on the northern +coasts of Cumana, Nueva Barcelona, and Caracas; and presumed to be +connected with the causes which produce earthquakes and eruptions +of lava. We shall begin with the most eastern extremity, the island +of Trinidad; which seems rather to belong to the shore of the +continent than to the system of the mountains of the West India +Islands. + +1. The pit which throws up asphaltum in the bay of Mayaro, on the +eastern coast of the island of Trinidad, southward of Point +Guataro. This is the mine of chapapote or mineral tar of the +country. I was assured that in the months of March and June the +eruptions are often attended with violent explosions, smoke, and +flames. Almost on the same parallel, and also in the sea, but +westward of the island (near Punta de la Brea, and to the south of +the port of Naparaimo), we find a similar vent. On the neighbouring +coast, in a clayey ground, appears the celebrated lake of asphaltum +(Laguna de la Brea), a marsh, the waters of which have the same +temperature as the atmosphere. The small cones situated at the +south-western extremity of the island, between Point Icacos and the +Rio Erin, appear to have some analogy with the volcanoes of air and +mud which I met with at Turbaco in the kingdom of New Grenada. I +mention these situations of asphaltum on account of the remarkable +circumstances peculiar to them in these regions; for I am not +unaware that naphtha, petroleum, and asphaltum are found equally in +volcanic and secondary regions,* and even more frequently in the +latter. (* The inflammable emanations of Pietra Mala, (consisting +of hydrogen gas containing naphtha in a state of suspension) issue +from the Alpine limestone, which may be traced from Covigliano to +Raticofa, and which lies on ancient sandstone near Scarica l'Asino. +Under this sandstone (old red sandstone) we find black transition +limestone and the grauwack (quartzose psammite) of Florence.) +Petroleum is found floating on the sea thirty leagues north of +Trinidad, around the island of Grenada, which contains an +extinguished crater and basalts. + +2. Hot Springs of Irapa, at the north-eastern extremity of New +Andalusia, between Rio Caribe, Soro, and Yaguarapayo. + +3. Air-volcano, or Salce, of Cumacatar, to the south of San Jose +and Carupano, near the northern coast of the continent, between La +Montana de Paria and the town of Cariaco. Almost constant +explosions are felt in a clayey soil, which is affirmed to be +impregnated with sulphur. Hot sulphureous waters gush out with such +violence that the ground is agitated by very sensible shocks. It is +said that flames have been frequently seen issuing out since the +great earthquake of 1797. These facts are well worthy of being +examined. + +4. Petroleum-spring of the Buen Pastor, near Rio Areo. Large masses +of sulphur have been found in clayey soils at Guayuta, as in the +valley of San Bonifacio, and near the junction of the Rio Pao with +the Orinoco. + +5. The Hot Waters (Aguas Calientes) south of the Rio Azul, and the +Hollow Ground of Cariaco, which, at the time of the great +earthquake of Cumana, threw up sulphuretted water and viscous +petroleum. + +6. Hot waters of the gulf of Cariaco. + +7. Petroleum-spring in the same gulf, near Maniquarez. It issues +from mica-slate. + +8. Flames issuing from the earth, near Cumana, on the banks of the +Manzanares, and at Mariguitar, on the southern coast of the gulf of +Cariaco, at the time of the great earthquake of 1797. + +9. Igneous phenomena of the mountain of Cuchivano, near Cumanacoa. + +10. Petroleum-spring gushing from a shoal to the north of the +Caracas Islands. The smell of this spring warns ships of the danger +of this shoal, on which there is only one fathom of water. + +11. Thermal springs of the mountain of the Brigantine, near Nueva +Barcelona. Temperature 43.2 degrees (centigrade). + +12. Thermal springs of Provisor, near San Diego, in the province of +New Barcelona. + +13. Thermal springs of Onoto, between Turmero and Maracay, in the +valleys of Aragua, west of Caracas. + +14. Thermal springs of Mariara, in the same valleys. Temperature +58.9 degrees. + +15. Thermal springs of Las Trincheras, between Porto Cabello and +Valencia, issuing from granite like those of Mariara, and forming a +river of warm water (Rio de Aguas Calientes). Temperature 90.4 +degrees. + +16. Boiling springs of the Sierra Nevada of Merida. + +17. Aperture of Mena, on the borders of Lake Maracaybo. It throws +up asphaltum, and is said to emit gaseous emanations, which ignite +spontaneously, and are seen at a great distance. + +These are the springs of petroleum and of thermal waters, the +igneous meteors, and the ejections of muddy substances attended +with explosions, of which I acquired a knowledge in the vast +provinces of Venezuela, whilst travelling over a space of two +hundred leagues from east to west. These various phenomena have +occasioned great excitement among the inhabitants since the +catastrophes of 1797 and 1812: yet they present nothing which +constitutes a volcano, in the sense hitherto attributed to that +word. If the apertures, which throw up vapours and water with +violent noise, be sometimes called volcancitos, it is only by such +of the inhabitants as persuade themselves that volcanoes must +necessarily exist in countries so frequently exposed to +earthquakes. Advancing from the burning crater of St. Vincent in +the directions of south, west and south-west, first by the chain of +the Caribbee Islands, then by the littoral chain of Cumana and +Venezuela, and finally by the Cordilleras of New Grenada, along a +distance of three hundred and eighty leagues, we find no active +volcano before we arrive at Purace, near Popayan. The total absence +of apertures, through which melted substances can issue, in that +part of the continent, which stretches eastward of the Cordillera +of the Andes, and eastward of the Rocky Mountains, is a most +remarkable geological fact. + +In this chapter we have examined the great commotions which from +time to time convulse the stony crust of the globe, and scatter +desolation in regions favoured by the most precious gifts of +nature. An uninterrupted calm prevails in the upper atmosphere; +but, to use an expression of Franklin, more ingenious than +accurate, thunder often rolls in the subterranean atmosphere, +amidst that mixture of elastic fluids, the impetuous movements of +which are frequently felt at the surface of the earth. The +destruction of so many populous cities presents a picture of the +greatest calamities which afflict mankind. A people struggling for +independence are suddenly exposed to the want of subsistence, and +of all the necessaries of life. Famished and without shelter, the +inhabitants are dispersed through the country, and numbers who have +escaped from the ruin of their dwellings are swept away by disease. +Far from strengthening mutual confidence among the citizens, the +feeling of misfortune destroys it; physical calamities augment +civil discord; nor does the aspect of a country bathed in tears and +blood appease the fury of the victorious party. + +After the recital of so many calamities, the mind is soothed by +turning to consolatory remembrances. When the great catastrophe of +Caracas was known in the United States, the Congress, assembled at +Washington, unanimously decreed that five ships laden with flour +should be sent to the coast of Venezuela; their cargoes to be +distributed among the most needy of the inhabitants. The generous +contribution was received with the warmest gratitude; and this +solemn act of a free people, this mark of national interest, of +which the advanced civilization of the Old World affords but few +examples, seemed to be a valuable pledge of the mutual sympathy +which ought for ever to unite the nations of North and South +America. + + +CHAPTER 1.15. + +DEPARTURE FROM CARACAS. +MOUNTAINS OF SAN PEDRO AND OF LOS TEQUES. +LA VICTORIA. +VALLEYS OF ARAGUA. + +To take the shortest road from Caracas to the banks of the Orinoco, +we should have crossed the southern chain of mountains between +Baruta, Salamanca, and the savannahs of Ocumare, passed over the +steppes or llanos of Orituco, and embarked at Cabruta, near the +mouth of the Rio Guarico. But this direct route would have deprived +us of the opportunity of surveying the valleys of Aragua, which are +the finest and most cultivated portion of the province; of taking +the level of an important part of the chain of the coast by means +of the barometer; and of descending the Rio Apure as far as its +junction with the Orinoco. A traveller who has the intention of +studying the configuration and natural productions of a country is +not guided by distances, but by the peculiar interest attached to +the regions he may traverse. This powerful motive led us to the +mountains of Los Teques, to the hot springs of Mariara, to the +fertile banks of the lake of Valencia, and through the immense +savannahs of Calabozo to San Fernando de Apure, in the eastern part +of the province of Varinas. Having determined on this route, our +first direction was westward, then southward, and finally to +east-south-east, so that we might enter the Orinoco by the Apure in +latitude 7 degrees 36 minutes 23 seconds. + +On the day on which we quitted the capital of Venezuela, we reached +the foot of the woody mountains which close the valley on the +south-west. There we halted for the night, and on the following day +we proceeded along the right bank of the Rio Guayra as far as the +village of Antimano, by a very fine road, partly scooped out of the +rock. We passed by La Vega and Carapa. The church of La Vega rises +very picturesquely above a range of hills covered with thick +vegetation. Scattered houses surrounded with date-trees seem to +denote the comfort of their inhabitants. A chain of low mountains +separates the little river Guayra from the valley of La Pascua* (so +celebrated in the history of the country) (* Valley of Cortes, or +Easter Valley, so called because Diego de Losada, after having +defeated the Teques Indians, and their cacique Guaycaypuro, in the +mountains of San Pedro, spent the Easter there in 1567, before +entering the valley of San Francisco. In the latter place he +founded the city of Caracas.), and from the ancient gold-mines of +Baruta and Oripoto. Ascending in the direction of Carapa, we enjoy +once more the sight of the Silla, which appears like an immense +dome with a cliff on the side next the sea. This rounded summit, +and the ridge of Galipano crenated like a wall, are the only +objects which in this basin of gneiss and mica-slate impress a +peculiar character on the landscape. The other mountains have a +uniform and monotonous aspect. + +A little before reaching the village of Antimano we observed on the +right a very curious geological phenomenon. In hollowing the new +road out of the rock, two large veins of gneiss were discovered in +the mica-slate. They are nearly perpendicular, intersecting all the +mica-slate strata, and are from six to eight toises thick. These +veins contain not fragments, but balls or spheres of granular +diabasis,* formed of concentric layers. (* Ur-grunstein. I remember +having seen similar balls filling a vein in transition-slate, near +the castle of Schauenstein in the margravate of Bayreuth. I sent +several balls from Antimano to the collection of the king of Spain +at Madrid.) These balls are composed of lamellar feldspar and +hornblende closely commingled. The feldspar approximates sometimes +to vitreous feldspar when disseminated in very thin laminae in a +mass of granular diabasis, decomposed, and emitting a strong +argillaceous smell. The diameter of the spheres is very unequal, +sometimes four or eight inches, sometimes three or four feet; their +nucleus, which is more dense, is without concentric layers, and of +a very dark green hue, inclining to black. I could not perceive any +mica in them; but, what is very remarkable, I found great +quantities of disseminated garnets. These garnets are of a very +fine red, and are found in the grunstein only. They are neither in +the gneiss, which serves as a cement to the balls, nor in the +mica-slate, which the veins traverse. The gneiss, the constituent +parts of which are in a state of considerable disintegration, +contains large crystals of feldspar; and, though it forms the body +of the vein in the mica-slate, it is itself traversed by threads of +quartz two inches thick, and of very recent formation. The aspect +of this phenomenon is very curious: it appears as if cannon-balls +were embedded in a wall of rock. I also thought I recognized in +these same regions, in the Montana de Avila, and at Cabo Blanco, +east of La Guayra, a granular diabasis, mixed with a small quantity +of quartz and pyrites, and destitute of garnets, not in veins, but +in subordinate strata in the mica-slate. This position is +unquestionably to be found in Europe in primitive mountains; but in +general the granular diabasis is more frequently connected with the +system of transition rocks, especially with a schist +(ubergangs-thonschiefer) abounding in beds of Lydian stone strongly +carburetted, of schistose jasper,* (Kieselschiefer.) ampelites,* +(Alaunschiefer.) and black limestone. + +Near Antimano all the orchards were full of peach-trees loaded with +blossom. This village, the Valle, and the banks of the Macarao, +furnish great abundance of peaches, quinces, and other European +fruits for the market of Caracas. Between Antimano and Ajuntas we +crossed the Rio Guayra seventeen times. The road is very fatiguing; +yet, instead of making a new one, it would perhaps be better to +change the bed of the river, which loses a great quantity of water +by the combined effects of filtration and evaporation. Each +sinuosity forms a marsh more or less extensive. This loss of water +is to be regretted in a province, nearly all the cultivated +portions of which are extremely dry. The rains are much less +frequent and less violent in this place than in the interior of New +Andalusia, at Cumanacoa, and on the banks of the Guarapiche. Many +of the mountains of Caracas enter the region of the clouds; but the +strata of primitive rocks dip at an angle of 70 or 80 degrees, and +generally to northwest, so that the waters are either lost in the +interior of the earth, or gush out in copious springs not southward +but northward of the mountains of the coast of Niguatar, Avila, and +Mariara. The rising of the gneiss and mica-slate strata to the +south appears to me to explain in a considerable degree the extreme +humidity of the coast. In the interior of the province we meet with +portions of land, two or three leagues square, in which there are +no springs; consequently sugar-cane, indigo, and coffee, grow only +in places where running waters can be made to supply artificial +irrigation during very dry weather. The early colonists imprudently +destroyed the forests. Evaporation is enormous on a stony soil +surrounded with rocks, which radiate heat on every side. The +mountains of the coast, like a wall, extending east and west from +Cape Codera toward Point Tucacas, prevent the humid air of the +shore (that is to say, those inferior strata of the atmosphere +resting immediately on the sea, and dissolving the largest +proportion of water) from penetrating to the islands. There are few +openings, few ravines, which, like those of Catia or of Tipe, lead +from the coast to the high longitudinal valleys, and there is no +bed of a great river, no gulf allowing the sea to flow inland, +spreading moisture by abundant evaporation. In the eighth and tenth +degrees of latitude, in regions where the clouds do not, as it +were, skim the surface of the soil, many trees are stripped of +their leaves in the months of January and February; not by the +sinking of the temperature as in Europe, but because the air at +this period, the most distant from the rainy season, nearly attains +its maximum of dryness. Only those plants which have very tough and +glossy leaves resist this absence of humidity. Beneath the fine sky +of the tropics the traveller is struck with the almost hibernal +aspect of the country; but the freshest verdure again appears when +he reaches the banks of the Orinoco, where another climate +prevails; and the great forests preserve by their shade a certain +quantity of moisture in the soil, by sheltering it from the +devouring heat of the sun. + +Beyond the small village of Antimano the valley becomes much +narrower. The river is bordered with Lata, a fine gramineous plant +with distich leaves, which sometimes reaches the height of thirty +feet.* (* G. saccharoides.) Every hut is surrounded with enormous +trees of persea,* (* Laurus persea (alligator pear).) at the foot +of which the aristolochiae, paullinia, and other creepers vegetate. +The neighbouring mountains, covered with forests, seem to spread +humidity over the western extremity of the valley of Caracas. We +passed the night before our arrival at Las Ajuntas at a sugar-cane +plantation. A square house (the hacienda or farm of Don Fernando +Key-Munoz) contained nearly eighty negroes; they were lying on +skins of oxen spread upon the ground. In each apartment of the +house were four slaves: it looked like a barrack. A dozen fires +were burning in the farm-yard, where people were employed in +dressing food, and the noisy mirth of the blacks almost prevented +us from sleeping. The clouds hindered me from observing the stars; +the moon appeared only at intervals. The aspect of the landscape +was dull and uniform, and all the surrounding hills were covered +with aloes. Workmen were employed at a small canal, intended for +conveying the waters of the Rio San Pedro to the farm, at a height +of more than seventy feet. According to a barometric calculation, +the site of the hacienda is only fifty toises above the bed of the +Rio Guayra at La Noria, near Caracas. + +The soil of these countries is found to be but little favourable to +the cultivation of the coffee-tree, which in general is less +productive in the valley of Caracas than was imagined when the +first plantations were made near Chacao. The finest +coffee-plantations are now found in the savannah of Ocumare, near +Salamanca, and at Rincon, in the mountainous countries of Los +Mariches, San Antonio Hatillo, and Los Budares. The coffee of the +three last mentioned places, situated eastward of Caracas, is of a +superior quality; but the trees bear a smaller quantity, which is +attributed to the height of the spot and the coolness of the +climate. The greater plantations of the province of Venezuela (as +Aguacates, near Valencia and Rincon) yield in good years a produce +of three thousand quintals. + +The extreme predilection entertained in this province for the +culture of the coffee-tree is partly founded on the circumstance +that the berry can be preserved during a great number of years; +whereas, notwithstanding every possible care, cacao spoils in the +warehouses after ten or twelve months. During the long dissensions +of the European powers, at a time when Spain was too weak to +protect the commerce of her colonies, industry was directed in +preference to productions of which the sale was less urgent, and +could await the chances of political and commercial events. I +remarked that in the coffee-plantations the nurseries are formed +not so much by collecting together young plants, accidentally +rising under trees which have yielded a crop, as by exposing the +seeds of coffee to germination during five days, in heaps, between +plantain leaves. These seeds are taken out of the pulp, but yet +retaining a part of it adherent to them. When the seed has +germinated it is sown, and it produces plants capable of bearing +the heat of the sun better than those which spring up in the shade +in coffee-plantations. In this country five thousand three hundred +coffee-trees are generally planted in a fanega of ground, amounting +to five thousand four hundred and seventy-six square toises. This +land, if it be capable of artificial irrigation, costs five hundred +piastres in the northern part of the province. The coffee-tree +flowers only in the second year, and its flowering lasts only +twenty-four hours. At this time the shrub has a charming +appearance; and, when seen from afar, it appears covered with snow. +The produce of the third year becomes very abundant. In plantations +well weeded and watered, and recently cultivated, trees will bear +sixteen, eighteen, and even twenty pounds of coffee. In general, +however, more than a pound and a half or two pounds cannot be +expected from each plant; and even this is superior to the mean +produce of the West India Islands. The coffee trees suffer much +from rain at the time of flowering, as well as from the want of +water for artificial irrigation, and also from a parasitic plant, a +new species of loranthus, which clings to the branches. When, in +plantations of eighty or a hundred thousand shrubs, we consider the +immense quantity of organic matter contained in the pulpy berry of +the coffee-tree, we may be astonished that no attempts have been +made to extract a spirituous liquor from them.* (* The berries +heaped together produce a vinous fermentation, during which a very +pleasant alcoholic smell is emitted. Placing, at Caracas, the ripe +fruit of the coffee-tree under an inverted jar, quite filled with +water, and exposed to the rays of the sun, I remarked that no +extrication of gas took place in the first twenty-four hours. After +thirty-six hours the berries became brown, and yielded gas. A +thermometer, enclosed in the jar in contact with the fruit, kept at +night 4 or 5 degrees higher than the external air. In the space of +eighty-seven hours, sixty berries, under various jars, yielded me +from thirty-eight to forty cubic inches of a gas, which underwent +no sensible diminution with nitrous gas. Though a great quantity of +carbonic acid had been absorbed by the water as it was produced, I +still found 0.78 in the forty inches. The remainder, or 0.22, was +nitrogen. The carbonic acid had not been formed by the absorption +of the atmospheric oxygen. That which is evolved from the berries +of the coffee-tree slightly moistened, and placed in a phial with a +glass stopple filled with air, contains alcohol in suspension; like +the foul air which is formed in our cellars during the fermentation +of must. On agitating the gas in contact with water, the latter +acquires a decidedly alcoholic flavour. How many substances are +perhaps contained in a state of suspension in those mixtures of +carbonic acid and hydrogen, which are called deleterious miasmata, +and which rise everywhere within the tropics, in marshy grounds, on +the sea-shore, and in forests where the soil is strewed with dead +leaves, rotten fruits, and putrefying insects.) + +If the troubles of St. Domingo, the temporary rise in the price of +colonial produce, and the emigration of French planters, were the +first causes of the establishment of coffee plantations on the +continent of America, in the island of Cuba, and in Jamaica; their +produce has far more than compensated the deficiency of the +exportation from the French West India Islands. This produce has +augmented in proportion to the population, the change of customs, +and the increasing luxury of the nations of Europe. The island of +St. Domingo exported, in 1700, at the time of Necker's +administration, nearly seventy-six million pounds of coffee.* (* +French pounds, containing 9216 grains. 112 English pounds = 105 +French pounds; and 160 Spanish pounds = 93 French pounds. The +island of St. Domingo was at that time, it must be remembered, a +French colony.) + +Tea could be cultivated as well as coffee in the mountainous parts +of the provinces of Caracas and Cumana. Every climate is there +found rising in stages one above another; and this new culture +would succeed there as well as in the southern hemisphere, where +the government of Brazil, protecting at the same time industry and +religious toleration, suffered at once the introduction of Chinese +tea and of the dogmas of Fo. It is not yet a century since the +first coffee-trees were planted at Surinam and in the West India +Islands, and already the produce of America amounts to fifteen +millions of piastres, reckoning the quintal of coffee at fourteen +piastres only. + +On the eighth of February we set out at sunrise, to cross the +Higuerote, a group of lofty mountains, separating the two +longitudinal valleys of Caracas and Aragua. After passing, near Las +Ajuntas, the junction of the two small rivers San Pedro and +Macarao, which form the Rio Guayra, we ascended a steep hill to the +table-land of La Buenavista, where we saw a few lonely houses. The +view extends on the north-west to the city of Caracas, and on the +south to the village of Los Teques. The country has a very wild +aspect, and is thickly wooded. We had now gradually lost the plants +of the valley of Caracas.* (* The Flora of Caracas is characterized +chiefly by the following plants, which grow between the heights of +four hundred and six hundred toises. Cipura martinicensis, Panicum +mieranthum, Parthenium hysterophorus, Vernonia odoratissima, +(Pevetera, with flowers having a delicious odour of heliotropium), +Tagetes caracasana, T. scoparia of Lagasca (introduced by M. +Bonpland into the gardens of Spain), Croton hispidus, Smilax +scabriusculus, Limnocharis Humboldti, Rich., Equisetum +ramosissimum, Heteranthera alismoides, Glycine punctata, Hyptis +Plumeri, Pavonia cancellata, Cav., Spermacoce rigida, Crotalaria +acutifolia, Polygala nemorosa, Stachytarpheta mutabilis, +Cardiospermum ulmaceum, Amaranthus caracasanus, Elephantopus +strigosus, Hydrolea mollis, Alternanthera caracasana, Eupatorium +amydalinum, Elytraria fasciculata, Salvia fimbriata, Angelonia +salicaria, Heliotropium strictum, Convolvulus batarilla, Rubus +jamaicensis, Datura arborea, Dalea enneaphylla, Buchnera rosea, +Salix Humboldtiana, Willd., Theophrasta longifolia, Tournefortia +caracasana, Inga cinerea, I. ligustrina, I. sapindioides, I. +fastuosa, Schwenkia patens, Erythrina mitis. The most agreeable +places for herborizing near Caracas are the ravines of Tacagua, +Tipe, Cotecita, Catoche, Anauco, and Chacaito.) We were eight +hundred and thirty-five toises above the level of the ocean, which +is almost the height of Popayan; but the mean temperature of this +place is probably only 17 or 18 degrees. The road over these +mountains is much frequented; we met continually long files of +mules and oxen; it is the great road leading from the capital to La +Victoria, and the valleys of Aragua. This road is cut out of a +talcose gneiss* in a state of decomposition. (* The direction of +the strata of gneiss varies; it is either hor. 3.4, dipping to the +north-west or hor. 8.2, dipping to the south-east.) A clayey soil +mixed with spangles of mica covered the rock, to the depth of three +feet. Travellers suffer from the dust in winter, while in the rainy +season the place is changed into a slough. On descending the +table-land of Buenavista, about fifty toises to the south-east, an +abundant spring, gushing from the gneiss, forms several cascades +surrounded with thick vegetation. The path leading to the spring is +so steep that we could touch with our hands the tops of the +arborescent ferns, the trunks of which reach a height of more than +twenty-five feet. The surrounding rocks are covered with +jungermannias and hypnoid mosses. The torrent, formed by the +spring, and shaded with heliconias, uncovers, as it falls, the +roots of the plumerias,* (* The red jasmine-tree, frangipanier of +the French West India Islands. The plumeria, so common in the +gardens of the Indians, has been very seldom found in a wild state. +It is mixed here with the Piper flagellare, the spadix of which +sometimes reaches three feet long. With the new kind of fig-tree +(which we have called Ficus gigantea, because it frequently attains +the height of a hundred feet), we find in the mountains of +Buenavista and of Los Teques, the Ficus nymphaeifolia of the garden +of Schonbrunn, introduced into our hot-houses by M. Bredemeyer. I +am certain of the identity of the species found in the same places; +but I doubt really whether it be really the F. nymphaeifolia of +Linnaeus, which is supposed to be a native of the East Indies.) +cupeys,* (* In the experiments I made at Caracas, on the air which +circulates in plants, I was struck with the fine appearance +presented by the petioles and leaves of the Clusia rosea, when cut +open under water, and exposed to the rays of the sun. Each trachea +gives out a current of gas, purer by 0.08 than atmospheric air. The +phenomenon ceases the moment the apparatus is placed in the shade. +There is only a very slight disengagement of air at the two +surfaces of the leaves of the clusia exposed to the sun without +being cut open. The gas enclosed in the capsules of the +Cardiospermum vesicarium appeared to me to contain the same +proportion of oxygen as the atmosphere, while that contained +between the knots, in the hollow of the stalk, is generally less +pure, containing only from 0.12 to 0.15 of oxygen. It is necessary +to distinguish between the air circulating in the tracheae, and +that which is stagnant in the great cavities of the stems and +pericarps.) browneas, and Ficus gigantea. This humid spot, though +infested by serpents, presents a rich harvest to the botanist. The +Brownea, which the inhabitants call rosa del monte, or palo de +cruz, bears four or five hundred purple flowers together in one +thyrsus; each flower has invariably eleven stamina, and this +majestic plant, the trunk of which grows to the height of fifty or +sixty feet, is becoming rare, because its wood yields a highly +valued charcoal. The soil is covered with pines (ananas), +hemimeris, polygala, and melastomas. A climbing gramen* (* Carice. +See Chapter 6.) with its light festoons unites trees, the presence +of which attests the coolness of the climate of these mountains. +Such are the Aralia capitata,* (* Candelero. We found it also at La +Cumbre, at a height of 700 toises.) the Vismia caparosa, and the +Clethra fagifolia. Among these plants, peculiar to the fine region +of the arborescent ferns,* (* Called by the inhabitants of the +country Region de los helechos.) some palm-trees rise in the +openings, and some scattered groups of guarumo, or cecropia with +silvery leaves. The trunks of the latter are not very thick, and +are of a black colour towards the summit, as if burnt by the oxygen +of the atmosphere. We are surprised to find so noble a tree, which +has the port of the theophrasta and the palm-tree, bearing +generally only eight or ten terminal leaves. The ants, which +inhabit the trunk of the guarumo, or jarumo, and destroy its +interior cells, seem to impede its growth. We had already made one +herborization in the temperate mountains of the Higuerote in the +month of December, accompanying the capitan-general, Senor de +Guevara, in an excursion with the intendant of the province to the +Valles de Aragua. M. Bonpland then found in the thickest part of +the forest some plants of aguatire, the wood of which, celebrated +for its fine red colour, will probably one day become an article of +exportation to Europe. It is the Sickingia erythroxylon described +by Bredemeyer and Willdenouw. + +Descending the woody mountain of the Higuerote to the south-west, +we reached the small village of San Pedro, situated in a basin +where several valleys meet, and almost three hundred toises lower +than the table-land of Buenavista. Plantain-trees, potatoes,* (* +Solanum tuberosum.) and coffee are cultivated together on this +spot. The village is very small, and the church not yet finished. +We met at an inn (pulperia) several European Spaniards employed at +the government tobacco farm. Their dissatisfaction formed a strange +contrast to our feelings. They were fatigued with their journey, +and they vented their displeasure in complaints and maledictions on +the wretched country, or to use their own phrase, estas tierras +infelices, in which they were doomed to live. We, on the other +hand, were enchanted with the wild scenery, the fertility of the +soil, and the mildness of the climate. Near San Pedro, the talcose +gneiss of Buenavista passes into a mica-slate filled with garnets, +and containing subordinate beds of serpentine. Something analogous +to this is met with at Zoblitz in Saxony. The serpentine, which is +very pure and of a fine green, varied with spots of a lighter tint, +often appears only superimposed on the mica-slate. I found in it a +few garnets, but no metaloid diallage. + +The valley of San Pedro, through which flows the river of the same +name, separates two great masses of mountains, the Higuerote and +Las Cocuyzas. We ascended westward in the direction of the small +farms of Las Lagunetos and Garavatos. These are solitary houses, +which serve as inns, and where the mule-drivers obtain their +favourite beverage, the guarapo, or fermented juice of the +sugar-cane: intoxication is very common among the Indians who +frequent this road. Near Garavatos there is a mica-slate rock of +singular form; it is a ridge, or steep wall, crowned by a tower. We +opened the barometer at the highest point of the mountain Las +Cocuyzas,* (* Absolute height 845 toises.) and found ourselves +almost at the same elevation as on the table-land of Buenavista, +which is scarcely ten toises higher. + +The prospect at Las Lagunetas is extensive, but rather uniform. +This mountainous and uncultivated tract of ground between the +sources of the Guayra and the Tuy is more than twenty-five square +leagues in extent. We there found only one miserable village, that +of Los Teques, south-east of San Pedro. The soil is as it were +furrowed by a multitude of valleys, the smallest of which, parallel +with each other, terminate at right angles in the largest valleys. +The back of the mountains presents an aspect as monotonous as the +ravines; it has no pyramidal forms, no ridges, no steep +declivities. I am inclined to think that the undulation of this +ground, which is for the most part very gentle, is less owing to +the nature of the rocks, (to the decomposition of the gneiss for +instance), than to the long presence of the water and the action of +currents. The limestone mountains of Cumana present the same +phenomenon north of Tumiriquiri. + +From Las Lagunetas we descended into the valley of the Rio Tuy. +This western slope of the mountains of Los Teques bears the name of +Las Cocuyzas, and it is covered with two plants with agave leaves; +the maguey of Cocuyza, and the maquey of Cocuy. The latter belongs +to the genus Yucca.* (* Yucca acaulis, Humb.) Its sweet and +fermented juice yields a spirit by distillation; and I have seen +the young leaves of this plant eaten. The fibres of the full-grown +leaves furnish cords of extraordinary strength.* (* At the clock of +the cathedral of Caracas, a cord of maguey, half an inch in +diameter, sustained for fifteen years a weight of 350 pounds.) +Leaving the mountains of the Higuerote and Los Teques, we entered a +highly cultivated country, covered with hamlets and villages; +several of which would in Europe be called towns. From east to +west, on a line of twelve leagues in extent, we passed La Victoria, +San Mateo, Turmero, and Maracay, containing together more than 28, +000 inhabitants. The plains of the Tuy may be considered as the +eastern extremity of the valleys of Aragua, extending from Guigne, +on the borders of the lake of Valencia, as far as the foot of Las +Cocuyzas. A barometrical measurement gave me 295 toises for the +absolute height of the Valle del Tuy, near the farm of Manterola, +and 222 toises for that of the surface of the lake. The Rio Tuy, +flowing from the mountains of Las Cocuyzas, runs first towards the +west, then turning to the south and to the east, it takes its +course along the high savannahs of Ocumare, receives the waters of +the valley of Caracas, and reaches the sea near cape Codera. It is +the small portion of its basin in the westward direction which, +geologically speaking, would seem to belong to the valley of +Aragua, if the hills of calcareous tufa, breaking the continuity of +these valleys between Consejo and La Victoria, did not deserve some +consideration. We shall here again remind the reader that the group +of the mountains of Los Teques, eight hundred and fifty toises +high, separates two longitudinal valleys, formed in gneiss, +granite, and mica-slate. The most eastern of these valleys, +containing the capital of Caracas, is 200 toises higher than the +western valley, which may be considered as the centre of +agricultural industry. + +Having been for a long time accustomed to a moderate temperature, +we found the plains of the Tuy extremely hot, although the +thermometer kept, in the day-time, between eleven in the morning +and five in the afternoon, at only 23 or 24 degrees. The nights +were delightfully cool, the temperature falling as low as 17.5 +degrees. As the heat gradually abated, the air became more and more +fragrant with the odour of flowers. We remarked above all the +delicious perfume of the Lirio hermoso,* (* Pancratium undulatum.) +a new species of pancratium, of which the flower, eight or nine +inches long, adorns the banks of the Rio Tuy. We spent two very +agreeable days at the plantation of Don Jose de Manterola, who in +his youth had accompanied the Spanish embassy to Russia. The farm +is a fine plantation of sugar-canes; and the ground is as smooth as +the bottom of a drained lake. The Rio Tuy winds through districts +covered with plantains, and a little wood of Hura crepitans, +Erythrina corallodendron, and fig-trees with nymphaea leaves. The +bed of the river is formed of pebbles of quartz. I never met with +more agreeable bathing than in the Tuy. The water, as clear as +crystal, preserves even during the day a temperature of 18.6 +degrees; a considerable coolness for these climates, and for a +height of three hundred toises; but the sources of the river are in +the surrounding mountains. The house of the proprietor, situated on +a hillock, of fifteen or twenty toises of elevation, is surrounded +by the huts of the negroes. Those who are married provide food for +themselves; and here, as everywhere else in the valleys of Aragua, +a small spot of ground is allotted to them to cultivate. They +labour on that ground on Saturdays and Sundays, the only days in +the week on which they are free. They keep poultry, and sometimes +even a pig. Their masters boast of their happiness, as in the north +of Europe the great landholders love to descant upon the ease +enjoyed by peasants who are attached to the glebe. On the day of +our arrival we saw three fugitive negroes brought back; they were +slaves newly purchased. I dreaded having to witness one of those +punishments which, wherever slavery prevails, destroys all the +charm of a country life. Happily these blacks were treated with +humanity. + +In this plantation, as in all those of the province of Venezuela, +three species of sugar-cane can be distinguished even at a distance +by the colour of their leaves; the old Creole sugar-cane, the +Otaheite cane, and the Batavia cane. The first has a deep-green +leaf, the stem not very thick, and the knots rather near together. +This sugar-cane was the first introduced from India into Sicily, +the Canary Islands, and West Indies. The second is of a lighter +green; and its stem is higher, thicker, and more succulent. The +whole plant exhibits a more luxuriant vegetation. We owe this plant +to the voyages of Bougainville, Cook, and Bligh. Bougainville +carried it to the Mauritius, whence it passed to Cayenne, +Martinique, and, since 1792, to the rest of the West India Islands. +The sugar-cane of Otaheite, called by the people of that island To, +is one of the most important acquisitions for which colonial +agriculture is indebted to the travels of naturalists. It yields +not only one-third more juice than the creolian cane on the same +space of ground; but from the thickness of its stem, and the +tenacity of its ligneous fibres, it furnishes much more fuel. This +last advantage is important in the West Indies, where the +destruction of the forests has long obliged the planters to use +canes deprived of juice, to keep up the fire under the boilers. But +for the knowledge of this new plant, together with the progress of +agriculture on the continent of Spanish America, and the +introduction of the East India and Java sugar, the prices of +colonial produce in Europe would have been much more sensibly +affected by the revolutions of St. Domingo, and the destruction of +the great sugar plantations of that island. The Otaheite sugar-cane +was carried from the island of Trinidad to Caracas, under the name +of Cana solera, and it passed from Caracas to Cucuta and San Gil in +the kingdom of New Grenada. In our days its cultivation during +twenty-five years has almost entirely removed the apprehension at +first entertained, that being transplanted to America, the cane +would by degrees degenerate, and become as slender as the creole +cane. The third species, the violet sugar-cane, called Cana de +Batavia, or de Guinea, is certainly indigenous in the island of +Java, where it is cultivated in preference in the districts of +Japara and Pasuruan.* (* Raffles History of Java tome 1 page 124.) +Its foliage is purple and very broad; and this cane is preferred in +the province of Caracas for rum. The tablones, or grounds planted +with sugar-canes, are divided by hedges of a colossal gramen; the +lata, or gynerium, with distich leaves. At the Tuy, men were +employed in finishing a dyke, to form a canal of irrigation. This +enterprise had cost the proprietor seven thousand piastres for the +expense of labour, and four thousand piastres for the costs of +lawsuits in which he had become engaged with his neighbours. While +the lawyers were disputing about a canal of which only one-half was +finished, Don Jose de Manterola began to doubt even of the +possibility of carrying the plan into execution. I took the level +of the ground with a lunette d'epreuve, on an artificial horizon, +and found, that the dam had been constructed eight feet too low. +What sums of money have I seen expended uselessly in the Spanish +colonies, for undertakings founded on erroneous levelling! + +The valley of the Tuy has its 'gold mine,' like almost every part +of America inhabited by whites, and backed by primitive mountains. +I was assured, that in 1780, foreign gold-gatherers had been +engaged in picking up grains of that metal, and had established a +place for washing the sand in the Quebrada del Oro. An overseer of +a neighbouring plantation had followed these indications; and after +his death, a waistcoat with gold buttons being found among his +clothes, this gold, according to the logic of the people here, +could only have proceeded from a vein, which the falling in of the +earth had rendered invisible. In vain I objected, that I could not, +by the mere view of the soil, without digging a large trench in the +direction of the vein, judge of the existence of the mine; I was +compelled to yield to the desire of my hosts. For twenty years past +the overseer's waistcoat had been the subject of conversation in +the country. Gold extracted from the bosom of the earth is far more +alluring in the eyes of the vulgar, than that which is the produce +of agricultural industry, favoured by the fertility of the soil, +and the mildness of the climate. + +North-west of the Hacienda del Tuy, in the northern range of the +chain of the coast, we find a deep ravine, called the Quebrada +Seca, because the torrent, by which it was formed, loses its waters +through the crevices of the rock, before it reaches the extremity +of the ravine. The whole of this mountainous country is covered +with thick vegetation. We there found the same verdure as had +charmed us by its freshness in the mountains of Buenavista and Las +Lagunetas, wherever the ground rises as high as the region of the +clouds, and where the vapours of the sea have free access. In the +plains, on the contrary, many trees are stripped of a part of their +leaves during the winter; and when we descend into the valley of +the Tuy, we are struck with the almost hibernal aspect of the +country. The dryness of the air is such that the hygrometer of +Deluc keeps day and night between 36 and 40 degrees. At a distance +from the river scarcely any huras or piper-trees extend their +foliage over thickets destitute of verdure. This seems owing to the +dryness of the air, which attains its maximum in the month of +February; and not, as the European planters assert, "to the seasons +of Spain, of which the empire extends as far as the torrid zone." +It is only plants transported from one hemisphere to the other, +which, in their organic functions, in the development of their +leaves and flowers, still retain their affinity to a distant +climate: faithful to their habits, they follow for a long time the +periodical changes of their native hemisphere. In the province of +Venezuela the trees stripped of their foliage begin to renew their +leaves nearly a month before the rainy season. It is probable, that +at this period the electrical equilibrium of the air is already +disturbed, and the atmosphere, although not yet clouded, becomes +gradually more humid. The azure of the sky is paler, and the +elevated regions are loaded with light vapours, uniformly diffused. +This season may be considered as the awakening of nature; it is a +spring which, according to the received language of the Spanish +colonies, proclaims the beginning of winter, and succeeds to the +heats of summer.* (* That part of the year most abundant in rain is +called winter; so that in Terra Firma, the season which begins by +the winter solstice, is designated by the name of summer; and it is +usual to hear, that it is winter on the mountains, at the time when +summer prevails in the neighbouring plains.) + +Indigo was formerly cultivated in the Quebrada Seca; but as the +soil covered with vegetation cannot there concentrate so much heat +as the plains and the bottom of the Tuy valley receive and radiate, +the cultivation of coffee has been substituted in its stead. As we +advanced in the ravine we found the moisture increase. Near the +Hato, at the northern extremity of the Quebrada, a torrent rolls +down over sloping beds of gneiss. An aqueduct was being formed +there to convey the water to the plain. Without irrigation, +agriculture makes no progress in these climates. A tree of +monstrous size fixed our attention.* (* Hura crepitans.) It lay on +the slope of the mountain, above the house of the Hato. On the +least dislodgment of the earth, its fall would have crushed the +habitation which it shaded: it had therefore been burnt near its +foot, and cut down in such a manner, that it fell between some +enormous fig-trees, which prevented it from rolling into the +ravine. We measured the fallen tree; and though its summit had been +burnt, the length of its trunk was still one hundred and fifty-four +feet.* (* French measure, nearly fifty metres.) It was eight feet +in diameter near the roots, and four feet two inches at the upper +extremity. + +Our guides, less anxious than ourselves to measure the bulk of +trees, continually pressed us to proceed onward and seek the 'gold +mine.' This part of the ravine is little frequented, and is not +uninteresting. We made the following observations on the geological +constitution of the soil. At the entrance of the Quebrada Seca we +remarked great masses of primitive saccharoidal limestone, +tolerably fine grained, of a bluish tint, and traversed by veins of +calcareous spar of dazzling whiteness. These calcareous masses must +not be confounded with the very recent depositions of tufa, or +carbonate of lime, which fill the plains of the Tuy; they form beds +of mica-slate, passing into talc-slate.* (* Talkschiefer of Werner, +without garnets or serpentine; not eurite or weisstein. It is in +the mountains of Buenavista that the gneiss manifests a tendency to +pass into eurite.) The primitive limestone often simply covers this +latter rock in concordant stratification. Very near the Hato the +talcose slate becomes entirely white, and contains small layers of +soft and unctuous graphic ampelite.* (* Zeichenschiefer.) Some +pieces, destitute of veins of quartz, are real granular plumbago, +which might be of use in the arts. The aspect of the rock is very +singular in those places where thin plates of black ampelite +alternate with thin, sinuous, and satiny plates of a talcose slate +as white as snow. It would seem as if the carbon and iron, which in +other places colour the primitive rocks, are here concentrated in +the subordinate strata. + +Turning westward we reached at length the ravine of gold (Quebrada +del Oro). On examining the slope of a hill, we could hardly +recognize the vestige of a vein of quartz. The falling of the earth +caused by the rains had changed the surface of the ground, and +rendered it impossible to make any observation. Great trees were +growing in the places where the gold-washers had worked twenty +years before. It is probable that the mica-slate contains here, as +near Goldcronach in Franconia, and in Salzburgh, auriferous veins; +but how is it possible to judge whether they be worth the expense +of being wrought, or whether the ore is only in nodules, and in the +less abundance in proportion as it is rich? We made a long +herborization in a thick forest, extending beyond the Hato, and +abounding in cedrelas, browneas, and fig-trees with nymphaea +leaves. The trunks of these last are covered with very odoriferous +plants of vanilla, which in general flower only in the month of +April. We were here again struck with those ligneous excrescences, +which in the form of ridges, or ribs, augment to the height of +twenty feet above the ground, the thickness of the trunk of the +fig-trees of America. I found trees twenty-two feet and a half in +diameter near the roots. These ligneous ridges sometimes separate +from the trunk at a height of eight feet, and are transformed into +cylindrical roots two feet thick. The tree looks as if it were +supported by buttresses. This scaffolding however does not +penetrate very deep into the earth. The lateral roots wind at the +surface of the ground, and if at twenty feet distance from the +trunk they are cut with a hatchet, we see gushing out the milky +juice of the fig-tree, which, when deprived of the vital influence +of the organs of the tree, is altered and coagulates. What a +wonderful combination of cells and vessels exist in these vegetable +masses, in these gigantic trees of the torrid zone, which without +interruption, perhaps during the space of a thousand years, prepare +nutritious fluids, raise them to the height of one hundred and +eighty feet, convey them down again to the ground, and conceal, +beneath a rough and hard bark, under inanimate layers of ligneous +matter, all the movements of organic life! + +I availed myself of the clearness of the nights, to observe at the +plantation of Tuy two emersions of the first and third satellites +of Jupiter. These two observations gave, according to the tables of +Delambre, longitude 4 hours 39 minutes 14 seconds; and by the +chronometer I found 4 hours 39 minutes 10 seconds. During my stay +in the valleys of the Tuy and Aragua the zodiacal light appeared +almost every night with extraordinary brilliancy. I had perceived +it for the first time between the tropics at Caracas, on the 18th +of January, after seven in the evening. The point of the pyramid +was at the height of 53 degrees. The light totally disappeared at +9 hours 35 minutes (apparent time), nearly 3 hours 50 minutes after +sunset, without any diminution in the serenity of the sky. La Caille, +in his voyage to Rio Janeiro and the Cape, was struck with the +beautiful appearance displayed by the zodiacal light within the +tropics, not so much on account of its less inclined position, +as of the greater transparency of the air.* (* The great serenity +of the air caused this phenomenon to be remarked, in 1668, in the +arid plains of Persia.) It may appear singular, that Childrey and +Dominic Cassini, navigators who were well acquainted with the seas +of the two Indies, did not at a much earlier period direct the +attention of scientific Europe to this light, and its regular form +and progress. Until the middle of the eighteenth century mariners +were little interested by anything not having immediate relation +to the course of a ship, and the demands of navigation. + +However brilliant the zodiacal light in the dry valley of Tuy, I +have observed it more beautiful still at the back of the +Cordilleras of Mexico, on the banks of the lake of Tezcuco, eleven +hundred and sixty toises above the surface of the ocean. In the +month of January, 1804, the light rose sometimes to more than 60 +degrees above the horizon. The Milky Way appeared to grow pale +compared with the brilliancy of the zodiacal light; and if small, +bluish, scattered clouds were accumulated toward the west, it +seemed as if the moon were about to rise. + +I must here relate another very singular fact. On the 18th of +January, and the 15th of February, 1800, the intensity of the +zodiacal light changed in a very perceptible manner, at intervals +of two or three minutes. Sometimes it was very faint, at others it +surpassed the brilliancy of the Milky Way in Sagittarius. The +changes took place in the whole pyramid, especially toward the +interior, far from the edges. During these variations of the +zodiacal light, the hygrometer indicated considerable dryness. The +stars of the fourth and fifth magnitude appeared constantly to the +naked eye with the same degree of light. No stream of vapour was +visible: nothing seemed to alter the transparency of the +atmosphere. In other years I saw the zodiacal light augment in the +southern hemisphere half an hour before its disappearance. Cassini +admitted "that the zodiacal light was feebler in certain years, and +then returned to its former brilliancy." He thought that these slow +changes were connected with "the same emanations which render the +appearance of spots and faculae periodical on the solar disk." But +this excellent observer does not mention those changes of intensity +in the zodiacal light which I have several times remarked within +the tropics, in the space of a few minutes. Mairan asserts, that in +France it is common enough to see the zodiacal light, in the months +of February and March, mingling with a kind of Aurora Borealis, +which he calls 'undecided,' and the nebulous matter of which +spreads itself all around the horizon, or appears toward the west. +I very much doubt, whether, in the observations I have been +describing, there was any mixture of these two species of light. +The variations in intensity took place at considerable altitudes; +the light was white, and not coloured; steady, and not undulating. +Besides, the Aurora Borealis is so seldom visible within the +tropics, that during five years, though almost constantly sleeping +in the open air, and observing the heavens with unremitting +attention, I never perceived the least traces of that phenomenon. + +I am rather inclined to think that the variations of the zodiacal +light are not all appearances dependent on certain modifications in +the state of our atmosphere. Sometimes, during nights equally +clear, I sought in vain for the zodiacal light, when, on the +previous night, it had appeared with the greatest brilliancy. Must +we admit that emanations which reflect white light, and seem to +have some analogy with the tails of comets, are less abundant at +certain periods? Researches on the zodiacal light have acquired a +new degree of interest since geometricians have taught us that we +are ignorant of the real causes of this phenomenon. The illustrious +author of "La Mecanique Celeste" has shown that the solar +atmosphere cannot reach even the planet Mercury; and that it could +not in any case display the lenticular form which has been +attributed to the zodiacal light. We may also entertain the same +doubts respecting the nature of this light, as with regard to that +of the tails of comets. Is it in fact a reflected or a direct +light? + +We left the plantation of Manterola on the 11th of February, at +sunrise. The road runs along the smiling banks of the Tuy; the +morning was cool and humid, and the air seemed embalmed by the +delicious odour of the Pancratium undulatum, and other large +liliaceous plants. In our way to La Victoria, we passed the pretty +village of Mamon or of Consejo, celebrated in the country for a +miraculous image of the Virgin. A little before we reached Mamon, +we stopped at a farm belonging to the family of Monteras. A negress +more than a hundred years old was seated before a small hut built +of earth and reeds. Her age was known because she was a creole +slave. She seemed still to enjoy very good health. "I keep her in +the sun" (la tengo al sol), said her grandson; "the heat keeps her +alive." This appeared to us not a very agreeable mode of prolonging +life, for the sun was darting his rays almost perpendicularly. The +brown-skinned nations, blacks well seasoned, and Indians, +frequently attain a very advanced age in the torrid zone. A native +of Peru named Hilario Pari died at the extraordinary age of one +hundred and forty-three years, after having been ninety years +married. + +Don Francisco Montera and his brother, a well-informed young +priest, accompanied us with the view of conducting us to their +house at La Victoria. Almost all the families with whom we had +lived in friendship at Caracas were assembled in the fine valleys +of Aragua, and they vied with each other in their efforts to render +our stay agreeable. Before we plunged into the forests of the +Orinoco, we enjoyed once more all the advantages which advanced +civilization affords. + +The road from Mamon to La Victoria runs south and south-west. We +soon lost sight of the river Tuy, which, turning eastward, forms an +elbow at the foot of the high mountains of Guayraima. As we drew +nearer to Victoria the ground became smoother; it seemed like the +bottom of a lake, the waters of which had been drained off. We +might have fancied ourselves in the valley of Hasli, in the canton +of Berne. The neighbouring hills, only one hundred and forty toises +in height, are composed of calcareous tufa; but their abrupt +declivities project like promontories on the plain. Their form +indicates the ancient shore of the lake. The eastern extremity of +this valley is parched and uncultivated. No advantage has been +derived from the ravines which water the neighbouring mountains; +but fine cultivation is commencing in the proximity of the town. I +say of the town, though in my time Victoria was considered only as +a village (pueblo). + +The environs of La Victoria present a very remarkable agricultural +aspect. The height of the cultivated ground is from two hundred and +seventy to three hundred toises above the level of the ocean, and +yet we there find fields of corn mingled with plantations of +sugar-cane, coffee, and plantains. Excepting the interior of the +island of Cuba,* (* The district of Quatro Villas.) we scarcely +find elsewhere in the equinoctial regions European corn cultivated +in large quantities in so low a region. The fine fields of wheat in +Mexico are between six hundred and twelve hundred toises of +absolute elevation; and it is rare to see them descend to four +hundred toises. We shall soon perceive that the produce of grain +augments sensibly, from high latitudes towards the equator, with +the mean temperature of the climate, in comparing spots of +different elevations. The success of agriculture depends on the +dryness of the air; on the rains distributed through different +seasons, or accumulated in one season; on winds blowing constantly +from the east; or bringing the cold air of the north into very low +latitudes, as in the gulf of Mexico; on mists, which for whole +months diminish the intensity of the solar rays; in short, on a +thousand local circumstances which have less influence on the mean +temperature of the whole year than on the distribution of the same +quantity of heat through the different parts of the year. It is a +striking spectacle to see the grain of Europe cultivated from the +equator as far as Lapland in the latitude of 69 degrees, in regions +where the mean heat is from 22 to-2 degrees, in every place where +the temperature of summer is above 9 or 10 degrees. We know the +minimum of heat requisite to ripen wheat, barley, and oats; but we +are less certain in respect to the maximum which these species of +grain, accommodating as they are, can support. We are even ignorant +of all the circumstances which favour the culture of corn within +the tropics at very small heights. La Victoria and the neighbouring +village of San Mateo yield an annual produce of four thousand +quintals of wheat. It is sown in the month of December, and the +harvest is reaped on the seventieth or seventy-fifth day. The grain +is large, white, and abounding in gluten; its pellicle is thinner +and not so hard as that of the wheat of the very cold table-lands +of Mexico. An acre* (* An arpent des eaux et forets, or legal acre +of France, of which 1.95 = 1 hectare. It is about 1 1/4 acre +English.) near Victoria generally yields from three thousand to +three thousand two hundred pounds weight of wheat. The average +produce is consequently here, as at Buenos Ayres, three or four +times as much as that of northern countries. Nearly sixteenfold of +the quantity of seed is reaped; while, according to Lavoisier, the +surface of France yields on an average only five or six for one, or +from one thousand to twelve hundred pounds per acre. +Notwithstanding this fecundity of the soil, and this happy +influence of the climate, the culture of the sugar-cane is more +productive in the valleys of Aragua than that of corn. + +La Victoria is traversed by the little river Calanchas, running, +not into the Tuy, but into the Rio Aragua: it thence results that +this fine country, producing at once sugar and corn, belongs to the +basin of the lake of Valencia, to a system of interior rivers not +communicating with the sea. The quarter of the town west of the Rio +Calanchas is called la otra banda; it is the most commercial part; +merchandize is everywhere exhibited, and ranges of shops form the +streets. Two commercial roads pass through La Victoria, that of +Valencia, or of Porto Cabello, and the road of Villa de Cura, or of +the plains, called camino de los Llanos. We here find more whites +in proportion than at Caracas. We visited at sunset the little hill +of Calvary, where the view is extremely fine and extensive. We +discover on the west the lovely valleys of Aragua, a vast space +covered with gardens, cultivated fields, clumps of wild trees, +farms, and hamlets. Turning south and south-east, we see, extending +as far as the eye can reach, the lofty mountains of La Palma, +Guayraima, Tiara, and Guiripa, which conceal the immense plains or +steppes of Calabozo. This interior chain stretches westward along +the lake of Valencia, towards the Villa de Cura, the Cuesta de +Yusma, and the denticulated mountains of Guigne. It is very steep, +and constantly covered with that light vapour which in hot climates +gives a vivid blue tint to distant objects, and, far from +concealing their outlines, marks them the more strongly. It is +believed that among the mountains of the interior chain, that of +Guayraima reaches an elevation of twelve hundred toises. I found in +the night of the eleventh of February the latitude of La Victoria +10 degrees 13 minutes 35 seconds, the magnetic dip 40.8 degrees, the +intensity of the forces equal to 236 oscillations in ten minutes of +time, and the variation of the needle 4.4 degrees north-east. + +We proceeded slowly on our way by the villages of San Mateo, +Turmero, and Maracay, to the Hacienda de Cura, a fine plantation +belonging to Count Tovar, where we arrived on the evening of the +fourteenth of February. The valley, which gradually widens, is +bordered with hills of calcareous tufa, called here tierra blanca. +The scientific men of the country have made several attempts to +calcine this earth, mistaking it for the porcelain earth proceeding +from decomposed strata of feldspar. We stayed some hours with a +very intelligent family, named Ustariz, at Concesion. Their house, +which contains a collection of choice books, stands on an eminence, +and is surrounded by plantations of coffee and sugar-cane. A grove +of balsam-trees (balsamo* (* Amyris elata.)) gives coolness and +shade to this spot. It was gratifying to observe the great number +of scattered houses in the valley inhabited by freedmen. In the +Spanish colonies, the laws, the institutions, and the manners, are +more favourable to the liberty of the negroes than in other +European settlements. + +San Mateo, Turmero, and Maracay, are charming villages, where +everything denotes the comfort of the inhabitants. We seemed to be +transported to the most industrious districts of Catalonia. Near +San Mateo we find the last fields of wheat, and the last mills with +horizontal hydraulic wheels. A harvest of twenty for one was +expected; and, as if that produce were but moderate, I was asked +whether corn yielded more in Prussia and in Poland. By an error +generally prevalent under the tropics, the produce of grain is +supposed to degenerate in advancing towards the equator, and +harvests are believed to be more abundant in northern climates. +Since calculations have been made on the progress of agriculture in +the different zones, and on the temperatures under the influence of +which corn will flourish, it has been found that, beyond the +latitude of 45 degrees, the produce of wheat is nowhere so +considerable as on the northern coasts of Africa, and on the +table-lands of New Grenada, Peru, and Mexico. Without comparing the +mean temperature of the whole year, but only the mean temperature +of the season which embraces the corn cycle of vegetation, we find +for three months of summer,* in the north of Europe, from 15 to 19 +degrees; in Barbary and in Egypt, from 27 to 29 degrees; within the +tropics, between fourteen and three hundred toises of height, from +14 to 25.5 degrees of the centigrade thermometer. (* The mean heat +of the summers of Scotland in the environs of Edinburgh, (latitude +56 degrees), is found again on the table-lands of New Grenada, so +rich in wheat, at 1400 toises of elevation, and at 4 degrees north +latitude. On the other hand, we find the mean temperature of the +valleys of Aragua, latitude 10 degrees 13 minutes, and of all the +plains which are not very elevated in the torrid zone, in the +summer temperature of Naples and Sicily, latitude 39 to 40 degrees. +These figures indicate the situation of the isotheric lines (lines +of the same summer heat), and not that of the isothermal lines +(those of equal annual temperature). Considering the quantity of +heat received on the same spot of the globe during a whole year, +the mean temperatures of the valleys of Aragua, and the table-lands +of New Grenada, at 300 and 1400 toises of elevation, correspond to +the mean temperatures of the coasts at 23 and 45 degrees of +latitude.) + +The fine harvests of Egypt and of Algiers, as well as those of the +valleys of Aragua and the interior of the island of Cuba, +sufficiently prove that the augmentation of heat is not prejudicial +to the harvest of wheat and other alimentary grain, unless it be +attended with an excess of drought or moisture. To this +circumstance no doubt we must attribute the apparent anomalies +sometimes observed within the tropics, in the lower limit of corn. +We are astonished to see, eastward of the Havannah, in the famous +district of Quatro Villas, that this limit descends almost to the +level of the ocean; whilst west of the Havannah, on the slope of +the mountains of Mexico and Xalapa, at six hundred and +seventy-seven toises of height, the luxuriance of vegetation is +such, that wheat does not form ears. At the beginning of the +Spanish conquest, the corn of Europe was cultivated with success in +several regions now supposed to be too hot, or too damp, for this +branch of agriculture. The Spaniards on their first removal to +America were little accustomed to live on maize. They still adhered +to their European habits. They did not calculate whether corn would +be less profitable than coffee or cotton. They tried seeds of every +kind, making experiments the more boldly because their reasonings +were less founded on false theories. The province of Carthagena, +crossed by the chain of the mountains Maria and Guamoco, produced +wheat till the sixteenth century. In the province of Caracas, this +culture is of very ancient date in the mountainous lands of Tocuyo, +Quibor, and Barquisimeto, which connect the littoral chain with the +Sierra Nevada of Merida. Wheat is still successfully cultivated +there, and the environs of the town of Tocuyo alone export annually +more than eight thousand quintals of excellent flour. But, though +the province of Caracas, in its vast extent, includes several spots +very favourable to the cultivation of European corn, I believe that +in general this branch of agriculture will never acquire any great +importance there. The most temperate valleys are not sufficiently +wide; they are not real table-lands; and their mean elevation above +the level of the sea is not so considerable but that the +inhabitants cannot fail to perceive that it is more their interest +to establish plantations of coffee, than to cultivate corn. Flour +now comes to Caracas either from Spain or from the United States. + +The village of Turmero is four leagues distant from San Mateo. The +road leads through plantations of sugar, indigo, cotton, and +coffee. The regularity observable in the construction of the +villages, reminded us that they all owe their origin to monks and +missions. The streets are straight and parallel, crossing each +other at right angles; and the church is invariably erected in the +great square, situated in the centre of the village. The church of +Turmero is a fine edifice, but overloaded with architectural +ornaments. Since the missionaries have been replaced by vicars, the +whites have mingled their habitations with those of the Indians. +The latter are gradually disappearing as a separate race; that is +to say, they are represented in the general statement of the +population by the Mestizoes and the Zamboes, whose numbers daily +increase. I still found, however, four thousand tributary Indians +in the valleys of Aragua. Those of Turmero and Guacara are the most +numerous. They are of small stature, but less squat than the +Chaymas; their eyes denote more vivacity and intelligence, owing +less perhaps to a diversity in the race, than to a superior state +of civilization. They work like freemen by the day. Though active +and laborious during the short time they allot to labour, yet what +they earn in two months is spent in one week, in the purchase of +strong liquors at the small inns, of which unhappily the numbers +daily increase. + +We saw at Turmero the remains of the assembled militia of the +country, and their appearance alone sufficiently indicated that +these valleys had enjoyed for ages undisturbed peace. The +capitan-general, in order to give a new impulse to the military +service, had ordered a grand review; and the battalion of Turmero, +in a mock fight, had fired on that of La Victoria. Our host, a +lieutenant of the militia, was never weary of describing to us the +danger of these manoeuvres, which seemed more burlesque than +imposing. With what rapidity do nations, apparently the most +pacific, acquire military habits! Twelve years afterwards, those +valleys of Aragua, those peaceful plains of La Victoria and +Turmero, the defile of Cabrera, and the fertile banks of the lake +of Valencia, became the scenes of obstinate and sanguinary +conflicts between the natives and the troops of the mother-country. + +South of Turmero, a mass of limestone mountains advances into the +plain, separating two fine sugar-plantations, Guayavita and Paja. +The latter belongs to the family of Count Tovar, who have property +in every part of the province. Near Guayavita, brown iron-ore has +been discovered. To the north of Turmero, a granitic summit (the +Chuao) rises in the Cordillera of the coast, from the top of which +we discern at once the sea and the lake of Valencia. Crossing this +rocky ridge, which runs towards the west farther than the eye can +reach, paths somewhat difficult lead to the rich plantations of +cacao on the coast, to Choroni, Turiamo, and Ocumare, noted alike +for the fertility of the soil and the insalubrity of their climate. +Turmero, Maracay, Cura, Guacara, every point of the valley of +Aragua, has its mountain-road, which terminates at one of the small +ports on the coast. + +On quitting the village of Turmero, we discover, at a league +distant, an object, which appears at the horizon like a round +hillock, or tumulus, covered with vegetation. It is neither a hill, +nor a group of trees close to each other, but one single tree, the +famous zamang del Guayre, known throughout the province for the +enormous extent of its branches, which form a hemispheric head five +hundred and seventy-six feet in circumference. The zamang is a fine +species of mimosa, and its tortuous branches are divided by +bifurcation. Its delicate and tender foliage was agreeably relieved +on the azure of the sky. We stopped a long time under this +vegetable roof. The trunk of the zamang del Guayre,* (* The mimos +of La Guayre; zamang being the Indian name for the genera mimosa, +desmanthus, and acacia. The place where the tree is found is called +El Guayre.) which is found on the road from Turmero to Maracay, is +only sixty feet high, and nine thick; but its real beauty consists +in the form of its head. The branches extend like an immense +umbrella, and bend toward the ground, from which they remain at a +uniform distance of twelve or fifteen feet. The circumference of +this head is so regular, that, having traced different diameters, I +found them one hundred and ninety-two and one hundred and +eighty-six feet. One side of the tree was entirely stripped of its +foliage, owing to the drought; but on the other side there remained +both leaves and flowers. Tillandsias, lorantheae, Cactus Pitahaya, +and other parasite plants, cover its branches, and crack the bark. +The inhabitants of these villages, but particularly the Indians, +hold in veneration the zamang del Guayre, which the first +conquerors found almost in the same state in which it now remains. +Since it has been observed with attention, no change has appeared +in its thickness or height. This zamang must be at least as old as +the Orotava dragon-tree. There is something solemn and majestic in +the aspect of aged trees; and the violation of these monuments of +nature is severely punished in countries destitute of monuments of +art. We heard with satisfaction that the present proprietor of the +zamang had brought an action against a cultivator who had been +guilty of cutting off a branch. The cause was tried, and the +tribunal condemned the offender. We find near Turmero and the +Hacienda de Cura other zamangs, having trunks larger than that of +Guayre, but their hemispherical heads are not of equal extent. + +The culture and population of the plains augment in the direction +of Cura and Guacara, on the northern side of the lake. The valleys +of Aragua contain more than 52,000 inhabitants, on a space thirteen +leagues in length, and two in width. This is a relative population +of two thousand souls on a square league. The village or rather the +small town of Maracay was heretofore the centre of the indigo +plantations, when this branch of colonial industry was in its +greatest prosperity. The houses are all of masonry, and every court +contains cocoa-trees, which rise above the habitations. The aspect +of general wealth is still more striking at Maracay, than at +Turmero. The anil, or indigo, of these provinces has always been +considered in commerce as equal and sometimes superior to that of +Guatemala. The indigo plant impoverishes the soil, where it is +cultivated during a long series of years, more than any other. The +lands of Maracay, Tapatapa, and Turmero, are looked upon as +exhausted; and indeed the produce of indigo has been constantly +decreasing. But in proportion as it has diminished in the valleys +of Aragua, it has increased in the province of Varinas, and in the +burning plains of Cucuta, where, on the banks of the Rio Tachira, +virgin land yields an abundant produce, of the richest colour. + +We arrived very late at Maracay, and the persons to whom we were +recommended were absent. The inhabitants perceiving our +embarrassment, contended with each other in offering to lodge us, +to place our instruments, and take care of our mules. It has been +said a thousand times, but the traveller always feels desirous of +repeating it again, that the Spanish colonies are the land of +hospitality; they are so even in those places where industry and +commerce have diffused wealth and improvement. A family of +Canarians received us with the most amiable cordiality; an +excellent repast was prepared, and everything was carefully avoided +that might act as any restraint on us. The master of the house, Don +Alexandro Gonzales, was travelling on commercial business, and his +young wife had lately had the happiness of becoming a mother. She +was transported with joy when she heard that on our return from the +Rio Negro we should proceed by the banks of the Orinoco to +Angostura, where her husband was. We were to bear to him the +tidings of the birth of his first child. In those countries, as +among the ancients, travellers are regarded as the safest means of +communication. There are indeed posts established, but they make +such great circuits that private persons seldom entrust them with +letters for the llanos or savannahs of the interior. The child was +brought to us at the moment of our departure: we had seen him +asleep at night, but it was deemed indispensable that we should see +him awake in the morning. We promised to describe his features +exactly to his father, but the sight of our books and instruments +somewhat chilled the mother's confidence. She said "that in a long +journey, amidst so many cares of another kind, we might well forget +the colour of her child's eyes." + +On the road from Maracay to the Hacienda de Cura we enjoyed from +time to time the view of the lake of Valencia. An arm of the +granitic chain of the coast stretches southward into the plain. It +is the promontory of Portachuelo which would almost close the +valley, were it not separated by a narrow defile from the rock of +La Cabrera. This place has acquired a sad celebrity in the late +revolutionary wars of Caracas; each party having obstinately +disputed its possession, as opening the way to Valencia, and to the +Llanos. La Cabrera now forms a peninsula: not sixty years ago it +was a rocky island in the lake, the waters of which gradually +diminish. We spent seven very agreeable days at the Hacienda da +Cura, in a small habitation surrounded by thickets. + +We lived after the manner of the rich in this country; we bathed +twice, slept three times, and made three meals in the twenty-four +hours. The temperature of the water of the lake is rather warm, +being from twenty-four to twenty-five degrees; but there is another +cool and delicious bathing-place at Toma, under the shade of ceibas +and large zamangs, in a torrent gushing from the granitic mountains +of the Rincon del Diablo. In entering this bath, we had not to fear +the sting of insects, but to guard against the little brown hairs +which cover the pods of the Dolichos pruriens. When these small +hairs, well characterised by the name of picapica, stick to the +body, they excite a violent irritation on the skin; the dart is +felt, but the cause is unperceived. + +Near Cura we found all the people occupied in clearing the ground +covered with mimosa, sterculia, and Coccoloba excoriata, for the +purpose of extending the cultivation of cotton. This product, which +partly supplies the place of indigo, has succeeded so well during +some years, that the cotton-tree now grows wild on the borders of +the lake of Valencia. We have found shrubs of eight or ten feet +high entwined with bignonia and other ligneous creepers. The +exportation of cotton from Caracas, however, is yet of small +importance. It amounted at an average at La Guayra scarcely to +three or four hundred thousand pounds in a year; but including all +the ports of the Capitania-general, it arose, on account of the +flourishing culture of Cariaco, Nueva Barcelona, and Maracaybo, to +more than 22,000 quintals. The cotton of the valleys of Aragua is +of fine quality, being inferior only to that of Brazil; for it is +preferred to that of Carthagena, St. Domingo, and the Caribbee +Islands. The cultivation of cotton extends on one side of the lake +from Maracay to Valencia; and on the other from Guayca to Guigue. +The large plantations yield from sixty to seventy thousand pounds a +year. + +During our stay at Cura we made numerous excursions to the rocky +islands (which rise in the midst of the lake of Valencia,) to the +warm springs of Mariara, and to the lofty granitic mountain called +El Cucurucho de Coco. A dangerous and narrow path leads to the port +of Turiamo and the celebrated cacao-plantations of the coast. In +all these excursions we were agreeably surprised, not only at the +progress of agriculture, but at the increase of a free laborious +population, accustomed to toil, and too poor to rely on the +assistance of slaves. White and mulatto farmers had everywhere +small separate establishments. Our host, whose father had a revenue +of 40,000 piastres, possessed more lands than he could clear; he +distributed them in the valleys of Aragua among poor families who +chose to apply themselves to the cultivation of cotton. He +endeavoured to surround his ample plantations with freemen, who, +working as they chose, either in their own land or in the +neighbouring plantations, supplied him with day-labourers at the +time of harvest. Nobly occupied on the means best adapted gradually +to extinguish the slavery of the blacks in these provinces, Count +Tovar flattered himself with the double hope of rendering slaves +less necessary to the landholders, and furnishing the freedmen with +opportunities of becoming farmers. On departing for Europe he had +parcelled out and let a part of the lands of Cura, which extend +towards the west at the foot of the rock of Las Viruelas. Four +years after, at his return to America, he found on this spot, +finely cultivated in cotton, a little hamlet of thirty or forty +houses, which is called Punta Zamuro, and which we visited with +him. The inhabitants of this hamlet are almost all mulattos, +Zamboes, or free blacks. This example of letting out land has been +happily followed by several other great proprietors. The rent is +ten piastres for a fanega of ground, and is paid in money or in +cotton. As the small farmers are often in want, they sell their +cotton at a very moderate price. They dispose of it even before the +harvest: and the advances, made by rich neighbours, place the +debtor in a situation of dependence, which frequently obliges him +to offer his services as a labourer. The price of labour is cheaper +here than in France. A freeman, working as a day-labourer (peon), +is paid in the valleys of Aragua and in the llanos four or five +piastres per month, not including food, which is very cheap on +account of the abundance of meat and vegetables. I love to dwell on +these details of colonial industry, because they serve to prove to +the inhabitants of Europe, a fact which to the enlightened +inhabitants of the colonies has long ceased to be doubtful, namely, +that the continent of Spanish America can produce sugar, cotton, +and indigo by free hands, and that the unhappy slaves are capable +of becoming peasants, farmers, and landholders. + +END OF VOLUME 1. + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Equinoctial Regions of America +by Alexander von Humboldt + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EQUINOCTIAL REGIONS *** + +This file should be named qnct110.txt or qnct110.zip +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, qnct111.txt +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, qnct110a.txt + +This Project Gutenberg Etext Prepared Down Under In Australia by: +Sue Asscher <asschers@bigpond.com> +in connivance with her Californian co-conspirator +Robert Prince <rkp277@msn.com> + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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